THE NEW
SCHAFF‑HERZOG
ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF
RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
Editor‑in‑Chirf
SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.
Editor‑in‑Chief
of
Supplementary Volumes
LEFFERTS A. LOETSCHER, Ph.D., D.D.
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF CHURCH HISTORY
PRINCETON THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY
BAKER BOOK HOUSE
GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN

THE NEW
SCHAFF‑HERZOG ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF
RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
EDITED BY
SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.
(Editor‑an‑Chief )
WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF
CHARLES	COLEBROOK SHERMAN
	[VOLUMES I‑VI]

AND
GEORGE WILLIAM GILMORE, M.A.
(Associate Editors)
AND THE FOLLOWING DEPARTMENT EDITORS
CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH, D.D.
(Departmsnt of Systematic Theology)

HENRY KING) CARROLL, LLA
	(Department of Minor Denominations)

JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D.
(Department of Liturgica and Religious Orders)
JAMES FREDERIC McCURDY, PH.D., LL.D.
(Department of the Old Testament)

HENRY SYLVESTER RASH, D.D.
(Department of the Near Testament )

ALBERT HENRY NEWNAN, D.D., LL.D.
(Department of Church History)
FRANK HORACE YIZETELLY, F.S.A.
(Department of Pronunciation and Typography)
VOLUME VIII
MORALITY ‑ PETERSEN
BAKER BOOK HOUSE
GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN
1953

EXCLUSIVE AMERICAN PUBLICATION RIGHTS
SECURED BY BAKER BOOK HOUSE FROM FUNK AND WAGNALLS
PHOTOLITHOPRINTED BY CUSHING ‑ MALLOY, INC.
ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
1953,

EDITORS
SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.
(EDITOR‑IN‑CHIEF.
Professor of Church History, New York University.
GEORGE	WILLIAM GILMORE, M.A.
	(AaBOCIATE EDITOR.)
New York,
Formerly Professor of Biblical History and Lecturer on Comparative Religion,
Bangor Theological Seminary.

DEPARTMENT EDITORS, VOLUME VIII
OLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH, D.D.
(Department of Systematic Theology.)
Professor of Systematic Theology, Chicago Theological
Seminary.
HENRY KING CARROLL, LL.D.
(Department of Minor Denominations.)
Secretary of Executive Committee of the Western Section for the Fourth Ecumenical Methodist Conference.
JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D.
(Department of Liturgics and Religious Orders.)
Rector of St. Ambrose's, New York City.
JAMES FREDERICK MCCURDY, Ph.D.,
LL.D.
(Department of the Old Testament.)
Professor of Oriental Languages, University College,
Toronto.
HENRY SYLVESTER MASH, D.D.
(Department of the New Testament.)
Professor of the Literature and Interpretation of the New
Testament, Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass.
ALBERT HENRY NEW‑MAN, D.D., LL.D.
(Department of Church History.)
Professor of Church History, Southwestern Baptist
Theological Seminary, Waco, Tex.
FRANK HORACE VIZETELLY, F.S.A.
(Department of Pronunciation and Typography.)
Managing Editor of the STANDARD DrcrioNARY, etc.,
New York City.
CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME VIII
ERNST CHRISTIAN ACHELIS, Th.D.,
Professor of Practical Theology, University of Marburg.
HAMS ACHELIS, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Theology, University of Halle.
WILLIAM ADAMSON, D.D.,
Pastor of the Carver Memorial Church, Windermere,
England.
BENJAMIN WISNER BACON, D.D.,
LL.D., Litt.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, Yale Divinity
School.
FERENCZ BALOGH,
Professor of Church History Reformed Theological
Academy, Debreczjn, Hungary.
ANTON CHRISTIAN BANG, Ph.D.,
Bishop in Christiania.
HERMANN GEORG JULIUS BEGS,
Consistorial Councilor and First Preacher, Baireuth.
CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH,
D.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, Chicago Theological
Seminary.
EARL BENRATH, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Ktinigsberg.
IMMANUEL GUSTAV ADOLF
BENZINGER, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
German Orientalist and Vice‑Consul for Holland in
Jerusalem.
CARL ALBRECHT BERNOULLI, Th.Lic.,
Author at Arlesheim, near Basel.
CARL BERTHEAU, Th.D.,
Pastor at St. Michael's, Hamburg.
HEINRICH BOEHMER, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Bonn.
AMY GASTON CHARLES AUGUSTS
BONET‑MAURY, D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Church History, Independent School of
Divinity, Paris.
GOTTLIEB NATHANAEL 80NWETSCH,
Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of GtSttinBen.
GUSTAV BOSSERT, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Retired Pastor, Stuttgart.

CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME VIII
ALBERT BRACSXANN, Ph.D.,
Professor of History, University of Marburg.
CRARLF6 AUGUSTUS BRIGGS, D.D.,
Litt.D.,
Professor of Theological Encyclopeedia and Symbolics.
Union Theological Seminary, New York.
THEODOR PAUL 081WAR ARTHUR
VON BROECHER, Th.D.,
Chief Pastor of Jacobikirche, Hamburg.
KARL BURGER (t), Th.D.,
Late Supreme Consiatorial Councilor, Munich.
HENRY KING CARROLL, LL.D.,
Secretary of Executive Committee of the Western Section
for the Fourth Ecumenical Methodist Conference.
WALTER AUGUST ANTON NATHAN
CASPA RI, Ph.D., Th.D.,
University Preacher and Professor of Practical Theology,
University of Erlangen.
JACQQEB EUG$NE CHOIBY, Th.D.,
Pastor in Geneva.
FRANCIS ALBERT CHRISTIE, D.D.,
Professor of Church History in Meadville Theological
School, Meadville, Pa.
FERDINAND COH8,8, Th.Lic.,
Consistorial Councilor, Weld, Germany.
BAXTEL CRAMER, Th.D.,
Professor of the History of Christianity, University of
Amsterdam, and Professor of Practicl Theology,
Mennonite Theological Seminary, Amsterdam.
FRIEDRICH WILHELM CQNO (t),
Th.Lic.,
Late Pastor at Eddigehausen, Hanover.
GUSTAV ADOLF DEI88IIANN, Th.D.,
D.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of
Berlin.
SAMUEL MARTIN DEUTSCH (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Church History, University of Berlin.
ERNST VON DOBBCHUETZ, Th.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of
Breslau.
ISAAC AUGUST DORMER (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Berlin.
PAUL GOTTFRIED DREWB, Th.D.,
Professor of Practical Theology, University of Halls.
JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D.,
Rector of St. Ambrose's Church, New York City.
WILLL3M EDWARD BURGHARDT
DUBOIS, Ph.D.,
Professor of Economics and History, Atlanta University,
Atlanta, Georgia.
EVIL EGLI (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Churr:h History, University of Zurich.
JOHN OLQF EVJEN, Ph.D.,
Professor of Theology in Augsburg Seminary, Minneapolis.

FRANK HUGH FOSTER, Ph.D., D.D.,
Professor of History, Olivet College, Michigan.
EVIL ALBERT FRIEDBERG,
Th.D., DrJur.,
Professor of EccUnilesiastical, oPub~psi
	ac d German Law,

GUSTAV GIESELBUSCH,
Pastor of the Third Baptist Church, Berlin.
GEORGE WILLIAM GILNORE, N.A.,
Formerly Lecturer on Comparative Religion, Bangor
Theological Seminary, Associate Editor of Tnz
NEw $CBAFhloa ENCYCLOPDDIA.
FRANZ GO 	S, Ph.D.,
	Assistant Librarian, University of Bonn.
	WILH331 M GOETZ, Ph.D.,
	Honorary Professor of Geography, Technical High School,
	and Professor, Military Academy, Munich.
JOHANNEB BB,IEDB,ICH GOTTBCHICK (t),
Th.D.,
Late Professor of New Testament Exegesis, Ethics, and
Practical Theology Evangelical Theological
Faculty, University of Tilbingen.
CASPAR RENA GREGORY, Ph.D.,
Th.D., D.D., LL.D., Dr. Jur.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of
Leipsic.
GEORG GRUETZMACHER, Ph.D., Th. Lic.,
Extraordinary Professor of Church History, University
of Heidelberg.
HERMANN GUTHE, Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of
Leipsic.
KARL HACKENBCHMIDT, Th.D.,
Pastor in Strasburg.
WILHELM HADORN, Th.Lic.,
Pastor in Bern and Lecturer on New Testament Exegesis,
University of Bern.
ARTHUR CRAWSHAY ALLIBTON
HALL, D.D., LL.D.,
Protestant Episcopal Bishop of Vermont.
ADOLF HARNACK, Ph.D., Th.D., Dr.
Jur., N.D.,
General Director of the Royal Library, Berlin.
THOMAS SAMUEL HASTINGS,
D.D., LL.D., L.H.D.,
Emeritus Professor of Pastoral Theology, Union Theolog
ical Seminary.
ALBERT HAUCK, Ph.D., Th.D., Dr. Jur.,
Professor of Church History University of Leipsic,
Editor‑in‑Chief of the Hauek‑trerzog RealencykloWie.
HERMAN HAUPT, Ph.D.,
Professor and Director of the University Library, Giessen.
CARL FRIEDRICH GEORGE HEINRICI,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Leipelc.
WAX HEINZE (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Tae Professor of Philosophy, University of Iaipsic.
LUDWIG THEODOR EDGAR HENNECKE,
Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
Pastor at Betheln, Hanover.
WILHELM HERRB<ANN, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Dr.Jur.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Marburg.
JOHANN JAKOB HERZOG (t),
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Reformed Theology, University of
Erlangen.
JOHANNEB HERZOG,
City Pastor in Esslingen.
OSWALD HOLDER‑EGGER, Ph.D.,
Professor at	Berlin and Director for the Publication of
	the Monuments Germanies Hietarioa.
GEORG HOLZ, Ph.D.,
Professor of German lsnguaseand Literature, University
of Lelp

CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME VIII
ERNST HUEHPEL, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
Pastor at Brametedt, Holstein, Germany.
DAVID HUPFELD, Th.Lic.,
Pastor Emeritus at Halle.
ALFRED JEBEIIIAS, Ph.D., Th.Lio.,
Privat‑docent for Old Testament Exegesis, University of
Leipsic.
ADOLF HERMANN HEINRICH SAHP
HAQSEN (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of
Bonn.
FERDINAND FRIEDRICH NVXL13MX
gATTENBUSCH, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Dogmatics, University of Halle.
EVIL FRIEDRICH 8AUTZSCH,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Halle.
PETER GUSTAV BAWERAU, Th.D.,
Supreme Consistorial Councilor, Provost of St. Peter's,
Berlin and Honorary Professor,
University of Berlin.
	KONRAD	KESSLER (t), Ph.D.,
Late Professor of Semitic Languages, University of
		Greifewald.
GOTTLO33 sIRCHHOFER,
Minister at Schaffhausen. Switzerland.
RUDOLF sITTEL, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Leipsio.
HEINRICH AUGUST sLOSTERXANN,
Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Kiel.
SABL AUGUST BLDEP7KL (t), Th.D.,
Late Librarian in Tffbingen University Library.
JOSEPH KNAPP (t),
Late Dean in Stuttgart.
WALT HER HOEHLER (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Zurich.
HEINRICH ADOLF BORSTLIN (t),
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Privy Councilor in Cannatadt, formerly Professor of
Theology, University of Giessen.
JULIUS 80ESTLIN (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Dr.Jur.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Halls.
THEODOR FRIEDRICH HZR3EANN
HOLDE, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Erlangen.
HERXANN GUSTAV EDUARD BB,UEC+ER,
Ph.D., Th:D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Giessen.

	JACOB	BQENDIG,
President of the Reformed Preachers' Seminary in Basel
		land.
JOHANNES WILHELB; 8UNZE,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Practical Theology, University of Greifswaid.
EUGEN LACHENacANN,
City Pastor, Leonberg, Wilrttemberg.
WILLLAX HENRY r.ARRAEgE, LL.D.,
Plainfield. New Jersey.
GEORG BITTER VON LAUBXANN (t),
Ph.D.,
Late Director of the Royal Library, Munich.
ICARL LUDWIG LEIMBACH (t), Ph.D.,
Late Provincial Councilor. for Schools, Hanover, Germany.
LUDWIG LEMME, Th.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Heidel
berg.
RUDOLF LIECHTENHAN, Th.Lic.,
Pastor at Buch, Canton of Zurich, Switzerland.
FRIEDRICH LIST (t), Ph.D.,
Late Studienrektor, Munich.
FRIEDRICH ARXIN LOOPS, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Halle.

DUNCAN JAMES XcMILLAN, D.D.,
Presbyterian Pastor, New York City.
WILHELM JULIUS DIANN (t), D.D.,
Late Professor of Hebrew, E°Wsis, Homiletics and
Ethics, Lutheran Theological Seminary, Philadelphia.
OTTO MRJER (t), Ph.D., Th‑D.,
Late President of the Consistory, Hanover.
PHILIPP MEYER, Th.D.,
Supreme Consistorial Councilor, Hanover.
GEROLD B;EYER VON SNONAU,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of History, University of Zurich.
CARL THROD03EL MIRBT, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Marburg.
IZAAS XOLENAAR,
Pastor at Zaandam, North Holland.
ERNST FRIEDRICH EARL XUELLER,
Th.D.,
Professor of Reformed Theology, University of Erlangen.
GEORG BIVELLER, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Inspector of Schools, Leipsic.
NIKOLAUS MUELLER, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Extraordinary Professor of Christian Archeology, Univer
sity of Berlin.
HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D.D.,
Professor of the Literature and Interpretation of the New
Testament, Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge,
Mass.
ALBERT HENRY NEWXAN, D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Church History Southwestern Baptist Theo
logical Seminary, fort Worth, Texas.
THEOD03EL JULIUS NEY, Th.D.,
Supreme Consistorial Councilor, Speyer, Bavaria.
FREDERICK KRISTIAN NIELSEN (t),
D.D.,
Late Bishop of Aarhus, Denmark.
FRIEDRICH AUGUST BERTHOLD
NITZSCH (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Kiel.

CARL THEOPHILUS ODHNER,
Professor of Theoloey in the Academy of the New Church,
Bryn Athyn, Pa.
	CONRAD VON ORELLI, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and History of
		Religion, University of Basel.
CARL PPENDER,
Pastor of St. Paul's Evangelical Lutheran Church, Paris.
ROBERT VON POEHLMAN, Ph.D.,
Professor of Ancient History, University of Munich.
ERWIN PREUSCHEN, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Pastor at Hlrechhorn‑on‑the‑Neckar, Germany.

PAUL MARTIN BADE, Th.D.,
Extraordinary Professor of Systematic Theology, Univer
sity of liiarburg.
ERNST RANSE (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology at Marburg.
GE03MG CHRISTIAN RIETSCHEL, Th.D.,
Professor of Practical Theology and University Preacher,
University of Leipsic.
	ARNOLD RUEGG,
Pastor at Birmensdorf and Lecturer at the University
		of Zurich.
REINHOLD SCHMID, Th.Lic.,
Pastor at Oberholzheim, WtlAtemberg.
CARL SCHMTDT (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Strasburg.
CARL WILH.JLM SCHOELL (t),
Ph.D., D.D.,
Late Pastor of the Savoy Church, London.
THEODOR FRIEDRICH SCHOTT (t),
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Librarian and Professor of Theology, University of
Stuttgart.
MAXIMTLIAN VICTOR SCHULTZE,
Th.D.,
Professor of Church History and Christian Archeology,
University of Greifswaid.
A. SCHUMANN (t),
Late Gymnasial Professor in Aarau.
ALEZIS SCHWARZE, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
Pastor at Cunow‑an‑der‑Strasse, Pomerania.
ALEXANDER SCHWEIZER (t),
Late Professor of Theology in Zurich.
REINHOLD SEEBERG, Th.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Berlin.
EMIL SEHLING, DrJur.,
Professor of Ecclesiastical and Commercial Law, Univer
sity of Erlangen.
WILLIAM AMBROBE SHEDD,
Missionary, Urumia, Persia.
FRIEDRICH ANTON EMIL SIEFFERT,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Bonn.
EDUARD SIHIONS, Th.D.,
Extraordinary Professor of Practical Theology, University
of Berlin.
JOSEPH FIELDING SMITH, Jr.,
Assistant Historian of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter
Day Saints.

PHILIPP FRIEDRICH ADOLPH THEO
DOB. SPAETH (t), D.D., LL.D.,
Late Professor in the Lutheran Theological Seminary,
Mt. Airy, Philadelphia.
GEORG STEINDORFF, Ph.D.,
Professor of Egyptology, University of Leipsic.
CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME VIII
EMIL 39LIAS BTEINMEYER, Ph.D.,
Professor of German Language and Literature, University
of Erlangen.
HERNANN LEBERECHT BTRACB, Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Extraordinary Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and
Semitic Languages, University of Bcrlin.
ULRICH STUTZ, DrJur.,
Professor of Ecclesiastical Law, University of Bonn.
ARTHUR 33ENEDIXT TITIUS, Th.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology. in Gottingen.
BENJAMIN FRANKLIN TRUEBLOOD,
Secretary of the American Peace Society, Boston.
PAUL TSCHACSERT, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Gottingen.
P. M. TSCHIRNER (t), Ph.D.,
Late of Leipsic, Germany.
JOHANN GERHARD WILHELE<
UHLHORN (t), Th.D.,
Late Abbot of Lokkum, Germany.
JOHN ROBERT VAN PELT, Ph.D.,
Professor of Phllosophy and Biblical Literature, Cornell
College, Iowa.
BIETBE DOUWES VAN VEEN, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History and Christian Archaeology,
University of Utrecht.
WILHELM VOGT, Ph.D.,
Gymnaaial Rector, Nuremberg.
WILHELM VOLCH (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of
Rostock.
NATHANIEL WEIRS,
Pastor in Paris, France.
FRIEDRICH LUDWIG LEONHARD
WIEGAND, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Grelfswald.
JOHN CAMPBELL] WHITE,
General Secretary of the Laymen's Missionary Movement.
EDWARD ELIHQ WHITFIELD, M.A.,
Retired Public Schoolmaster, London.
MARY ANGELINE WRIGHT,
Formerly Honorary Secretary for the United States of the
Palestine Exploration Fund.
HERBERT ALDEN YOUTZ, Ph.D.,
Richards Professor of Christian Theology, Auburn Theo
logical Seminary, Auburn, New York.
FRANZ THEODOR HITTER VON ZAHN,
Th.D., Litt.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis and Introduction,
University of Erlangen.
RUDOLF ZEHNPFUND, Ph.D.,
Pastor in Oranienbaum, Germany.
OTTO ZOECSLER (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Church History and Apologetics, Univer
sity of Greifswald.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX‑YOLS. I‑V111
The following list of books is supplementary to the bibliographies given at the end of the articles contained in vols. I.‑VIII., and brings the literature down to July, 1910. In this list each title entry is printed in capital letters. It is to be noted that, throughout the work, in the articles as a rule only first editions are given. In the bibliographies the aim is to give either the best or the latest edition, and in case the book is published both in America and in some other country, the American place of issue is usually given the preference.
ArwcA: G. Simon, Islam and Christentum im %ampf um die Eroberung der animistischen Heidenwelt, Berlin, 1910.
AXED, C. F.: The Lord's Prayer; its Meaning and Message for To‑day, New York, 1910.
ALExANDRIA: A. M. de Zogheb, etudes our l'ancienne Alezandrie, Pans, 1909.
ANDREwEs, L.: D. MaeLeane, Lancelot Andrewes and the Reaction, London, 1910.
APOCRYPHA, O. T.: Die Esra‑Apokalypse (IV Ezra),
frt 1, Die Ueberlieferung, ed. B. Violet,
1910.

APOLOGETICS: K. Gutberlet, Gott and die Sch6pJung. Begrxlndung and Apologie der christlithen Weltaufassung, Regensburg, 1910
A. C. Headlam, History, Authority, and Theology, Milwaukee, 1910.
P. M. Muir, Modern Substitutes for Christian' , London, 1910.
F. . Schenck, Christian Evidences and Ethics, New York, 1910.
B. Scott, The Contents and Teachings of the Catacombs at Rome. A Vindication of pure and primitive Christianity and an Ex~ Posure of the Corruptions of Romanism: Derived from the sepulchral Remains of the early Christians, London, 1910.
G. Thomas, Christianity in Christ, vol. iv. of Anglican Church Handbooks, London, 1910.
Note also Ballard, underATHEIsM, below.
ARAM: S. Schiffer, Die Aramder. Historisch~geographisehe Untersuchungen, Leipsie, 1910.
ARISTOTLE: H. Meyer, Der Entwicklungagedanke bei Aristoteles, Bonn, 1909.
C. Werner, Aristote et l'idealisme platonicien, Paris, 1910.
AssYRIA: F. Delitzseh, Asurbanipal and die assyrir ache Kultur seiner Zeit, Leipsie, 1910.
P. Dharme, La Religion assyro‑babylonienne, London, 1910.
L. W. King, History of Babylonia and Assyria from Prehistoric Times to the Persian Con, quest, 3 vols., London, 1909.
V. Scheil and J. E. Gautier, Annalea de Tukultininip 11., roi d'Assyrae 889‑884, Paris, 1910.
W. H. Ward, The Seal Cylinders of Western Asia, Washington, D. C., 1910.
ATHEISM: F. Ballard, The Miracles of Unbelief, Edinburgh, 1910.
N. J. Laforet, Causes and Cure of Unbelief, ed. by Cardinal Gibbons, with a chapteby
r the Rev. P. J. Ryan, Philadelphia, 1910.
ATONEMENT: J. B. Oldroyd, The Doctrine of the Atonement, ch4y as set forth in the Epistle to the Hebrews, London, 1910.
M. Scott, The Atonement, London, 1910.
BABYLONIA: P. Dharme, see above, AssYRIA.
L. W. King, A History of Sumer and Akkad: an Account of the early Races of Babylonia from prehistoric Times to the Poundatwn of the Babylonian Monarchy, London, 1910; see also above, AssYRIA.
BAPTISTS: M. T. Whitley, ed., Minutes of the General Assembly of the General Baptist Churches in England, with kindred Records, London, 1909.
BARDESANES: F. Haase, Zur bardesanischen Gnosis, Potsdam, 1910.
BEET, J. A.: Holiness, Symbolic and Real: a Bible Study, London, 1910.
BELGIuM: T. F. Bumpus, The Cathedrals and Churches of Belgium, New York, 1910.
BIBLE TEXT: E. Konig, Hebrdisches and aramdisches WBrterbuch zum Alten Testament, Leipsic, 1910.
Agnes Smith Lewis, Codex climaci rescriptus. Pragments of sixth Century Palestinian S
Texts of the Gospels, of the Acts of the p flea and of St. Paul's Epistles. Also Fragments of an early Palestinian Lectionary of the Old Testament, etc., Cambridge, 1909.
BIBLE	VERSIONS: O. Procksch, Studien zur Geschwhte der Septuaginta: Die Propheten, Leipsic, 1910.
J. Wright, ht, Grammar of the Gothic Language
	and ~ Gospel of St. Mark. Selections, from
	the other ~spels and Timothy with Notes
	and Glossary, London, 1910.
BIBLICAL CRITICISM: R. Kittel, Die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft in ihren wich~eten Ergebnissen mit Ber"gdehtigung des eligion8unterrichts, Leipsic, 1910.
W. B. Riley, The Pinals of the Higher Cri& cism, or the Theory of Evolution and false Theology, Minneapolis, 1910.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX‑VOLUMES I‑VIII
BIsLIcAL THzOLOOY: J. Adams, Israel's Ideal; or, Studies in Old Testament Theolqpy, New York, 1910.
A. B. D. Alexander, The Ethics of St. Paul, Glasgow, 1910.
G. R. Berry, The Old Testament among the Semitic Religions, Philadelphia, 1910.
C. Clemen, Die Entuheklung der christlichen
Religion innerhalb des Neuen Testaments,
Leipsic, 1908.
P. Fine, Theologie des Neuen Testaments, Leipsic, 1910.
U. Z. Rule, Old Testament Institutions: their Origin and Development, London, 1910.
A. J. Tait, Christ and the Nations. An Examination of Old and New Testament Teaching, London, 1910.
D. Westphal, The Law and the Prophets; or, the Revelation of Jehovah in Hebrew History from the Earliest Times to the Capture of Jerusalem by Titus, New York, 1910.
BRABIuNmM: L. de La Villbe Poussin, Notions sur lei religions de 1'Inde. Le Brahmanisme, Paris, 1910.
S. Tattvabhusan, The Philosophy of Brahmanism, Expounded with Reference to its History, London, 1910
M. Walleser Der dlfere Vedanta Geachichte.
Kritik undr Lehm, Heidelberg, 1910.
BRAZIL: S. R. Gammon, The Evangelical Invasion oj Brazil; or, a half Century of Evangelical issions in the Land of the Southern Cross, Richmond, Va., 1910.
BUDDHISM: Psalms of the Early Buddhists. I. Psalms of the Sisters, by Mrs. R. Davids, London, 1910.
J. W. Sinha, The Singularity of Buddhism, London, 1910.
CANON OF Tim BIBLE: L. Dennerfeld, Der altteatamentliche Kanon der antiochenischen Kirche. Evariatus Radus, Die Menachenopfer der alien Hebrder and der benachbarten Volker, in Biblisehe Studien, Freiburg, 1910.
CARTHAGE, SYNODS OF: On the chronology consult the Fr. transl. of Hefele's Conciliengeschichte, i. 1088‑1124, Paris, 1907.
H. van Soden, Sentential L%%%VII Epiacoporum: Das Protokoll der Synods roan
Karthago am 1. September, 866, Gdtdngen, 1909.
CARTwRIOHT, P.: P. M. Walters, Peter Cartwright, New York, 1910.
CATHARINQs, A.: J. Schweizer, Ambrosius Cathar
	inus Politus (1.48.tf 1668), sin Theolote des
	Reformationszeitalters. Sein Leben and seine
	Schriften, Munster, 1910.
CRLIBAcY: Note should be made of the dissertation on conciliar legislation concerning celibacy in the Fr. transl. of Hefele's Conciliengesehichte, ii. 1320‑48, Paris, 1908.
CRlmc CauRcH: D. Davies, The Ancient Celtic Church of Wales: Where is it F London, 1910.
C86LLONER, R.: E. H. Burton, The Lkfe and Times Bishop Challoner, 1691‑17'81, 2 vols., London, 1910.
CmIVA: W. Grubs, Religion and Kultw der Chinesen, Leipsic, 1910.
CSRmTOLo(i7: W. Sandsy, Chridtologta Ancient and Modern, Oxford, 1910.
G. S. Streatfield, The Incarnation, London, 1910.
CHRONICLES, Boose or: A. A. Madsen and E. L. Curbs, Chronicles, in The International Critical Commentary, New York, 1910.
CHtrsosTom: J. A. Nairn, The De saeerdotia of St. John Chrysostom, London, 1910.
CHURCH: J. C. Barry, Ideals and Principles of
Church Reform, Edinburgh, 1910.
J. Denney, The Church and the Kingdom, London, 1910.
CavxcH HISTORY: E. de Fae, ktude sur lei ori‑
gines des 4glises de lydge apostolique, Paris, 1910.
W. S. Hooton, Turning Points in the Primitive Church, London, 1910.
P. Schaff, History of the Christian Church, vol. v., part 2, The Middle Ages, from Boniface V111., 1894, to the Protestant Reformation,
1617, by D. S. Schaff, New York, 1910.
CLARE, ST.: The Life of St. Clare Ascribed to Fr. Thomas of Celano of the Order of Friars Minor, A.D. 1266‑61; transl. and eel. from the earliest MSS. by Fr. Paschal Robinson of the same Order; with an Appendix con‑
taining the Rule of St. Clare, Philadelphia, 1910.
CLcILENt C. C.: Quellenbuch zur praktischen The‑
otogie, part 1, Quellen zur ehre vom Gottesdienst (Liturgik), part 2 Quallen zur Lehre vom ~eligionaunterrieht, &essen, 1910.
CLEMENT oh ALESAImRL1: Stromata VII., and VIII.‑Excerpts ex Theodoto Eclogue prophetiola‑‑‑Quaa dives salvetur‑Fragments Mit drew Handschriftenproben in Ldchtdruek, eel.
O. StA,hlin, Leipsic, 1910.
Color, T.: F. B. Upham, Thomas Coke, New York, 1910.
COMMON PRAYER, Boog OF: The First and Second Prayer Books of King Edward, London, 1910.
	The Prayer Book of ueen Elizabeth, 1669, to
which are a	some occasional Forms o
	Reign,
her	with an histor‑
'

1910.	ComcmNlsm: G. J. Holyoke, The History of Coop
eration, London, 1910.
COMPARATIVE RELIGION: J. Dechelette, Le Cults du soled aux temps pr4historiques, Paris, 1910.
J. G. Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy ; a Treatise on certain early Forms of Superstition and Society, New York, 1910.
J.~ , The Development of Religion; a Study
	fn	and Social Psychology, New
	York, 1910.
J. C. Lawson, Modern Greek Folklore and Ancient Greek Religion, Cambridge, 1910
J. Warneck, Die Religion der atak, Leipsic, 1909.
CoNcoxneNCEs: S. Herner, Yerbesserungen zu Mandelkerns Grosser Konkordanz, Lund, 1910 (cf. the discussion in vol. iii., p. 208, of this work).
CoNOREOATIONAL UNION LEcraRE: P. T. Forsyth, The Person and Place of Jesus Chrid, Boston, 1910.
CoNaxzoATroNALwTs: W. E. Barton, A Congregational Manual; Theory and Practice, for the Use ?f Ministers, Churches, and deliberative Assemblies evened by Congregational Usage, Oak Park. 1910.
C. S. NaZ, 6ongregational Administration, Boston, 1910.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX‑VOLUMES I‑VIII
CasumoN: M. Sabiston, The Biblical Account of

the Creation;, shown to be in Accordance the Discoveries of Science, New York, 1909.
C. M. Walsh, The Doctrine of Creation, London, 1910.
CON"‑RE, F. C.: The Ring of P e %ystua, together with the Prologue o RuXus, now first rendered into English with an Historical and Critical Commentary, London, 1910.
Cosies: J. Simier, La Curie romaine. Notes historkuea et canoniques, d'apro la con8titution " Sapiend olio," et les autres document" pontificauz, Paris, 1910.
CYPRIAN: H. Koch, C and der r6mische Primal. Eine kir=und dogmengesehichtliche Studie, Leipsic, 1910.
LSrxir, or ALExAND=A: A. Struckmann, Die Ew chariatislehre des heiligen Cyrill won Alexandrien, Paderborn, 1910.
DAN=: W. M. Rossetti, Dance and Lis Conroito. A Study with Translations, London, 1910.
D=Nay, J.: See above, Cuuacs.
DOCmEIE, HISTORY or: C. Guignebert, L'tvolution des dogmea , Paris, 1910.
O. RitschlymengeschicUe des Prote8tantiemus, Leipsic, 1908.
Daums: G. Coffey, Interoourae of Gaut faith Ireland Before the First Century, London, 1910.
EASTFSa: The Book of 'Easter, with an Introduction by W. C. Doane, New York, 1910.
EABT'EBN CHUaCH: Margaret G. Dampier, Organization of the Orthodox Eastern Churches, London, 1910.
Ecmsabr, M.: Moister Eckhardt's Sermons, Eng. trand. by C. Field, London, 1910.
Eayrr: E. A. W. Budge, The Liturgy o~' Funerary O~j'erdngs, London, 1910; idem, 1'he Book of tTie Opening of the Mouth, 2 vols., London, 1910.
V. Ermoni, La Religion de 11gypte ancienne, Paris 1910.
J. LieQeu, Recherche. ay,r L'hiatoire et la civilisation de L'ancienne Esypte Leipsic, 1910; idem, Hieroglyphisches WamenwOrterbuch, Leipsic, 1910.
EGYPTIAN E%PLOEATION FUND: Oxyrhynchoa PaRt", part VIL, ed. A. S. Hunt, with Trans. t ic
ions and Notes, London, 1910.
ELAM: G. Hosing, Die Sprache Elama, Breslau,
1908.
ENGLAND, Csvacs or: C. Bastide, L'Anglimniame,
L'~gliae d'Angleterre, son hiafoire et son o?uurore, la di.~uacon de L'anglicaniame, Saint Blaise, 1909.
N. N. Bond, The Earnest Churchman, being England's Reply. to the Pretensions of Rome and Dissent, London, 1910.
J. H. Burn, The Struggle with Puritanism, London, 1910.
C. S. Carter, The English Church in the $eventeenth Century, London, 1910.
W. L. P. Cox, The Church of England as Catholic and 11elrr»ied: an Exposition and an Eirenicmi, London, 1910.
A. C. Headlam, History, Authority, and Theology, London, 1910
A. Plummer, The Church of England do the
R EG. Usher, hteenth	London 1910.
of the English Church, New York, 1910.
ENwtiHTEmIENT: J. G. Hibben The Philosophy of the Enlightenment, New York, 1910.
Eassmvs: Erasmus Desiderius, Opus epistolarum Desiderii Erasmi Roterdams; denuo reeoqnitum et auctum per P. S. Allen, vol. n., 1614‑17, London and New York, 1910.
Emics: E. Darr, Grrundzitge der Ethik, Heidelberg, 1909.
B. Rand, The Classical Moralists. Selections from the (Treat Authors in the History of Ethics fi*n Socrates to Martineau, London,
1910.
EUCHAmT: M. Goguel, L'Eucharistie des origines
d Justin Martyr, Paris, 1910
A. Struclmoann, Die Eucharistielehre des heili‑
gen Cyrill won Alexandrien, Paderborn, 1910.
EUBEHIUB of CASAIEA. Eptscults. Pars 1., Ep~atulas 1. L%%., ed. L 13ilberg, Vienna and Leipsic, 1910.
EuTrcaros of AL=•rmau: Annals", in CSCO,
vol. vii., part 2, 1909.
EvoruxioN: F. J. Hall, Evolution and the Fall, New York, 1910.
Exaoasm: W. H. K. Soames, Old T	An
	Attempt to Expm~nd some of the	or
	Obscure, or rosunderstood Tents,	assages,
	and Expressions in the New Testament, Lon
	don, 1910.
FtNP.oN: J. Lemaitre, FBruilon, Paris, 1910.
Fowrxa, C. H.: Patriotic Orations, 	'ed for
Publicationb~ his Son C. H.•Fm~o
duction by J. `1 V. Hill, New York, 1910.
F$sNeis, SAm, or Assm: A. Bailly, The Divine Minstrels; a Narrative of the Lqe of St. Francis of Assisi with his Companwna, New York, 1910.
B. Berenson, A Sienese Painter of the Pranciscan Legend, New York, 1910 (the painter is Stefano Sassetta, and his subject was St. Francis).
FaamcssoNs: Fraternalism and the Church: by a
Devotee to both, Dowagiac, Mich., 1910.
FanNcH REVOLUTION: P. Pisani, LIglise de Paris
et la resolution, Paris, 1909.
Fay, E.: Georgina K. Lewis, Elizabeth Fry, Lon‑
don, 1910.
Gaoaaa, ST.: C. S. Hulst, St. George of Cappadocia in Legend and History, London, 1910.
GNosnccism: F. Haase, see above, under BeawxsexNS.
GOSPEL AND GosPELB: B. Bonkamp, Zur Evangelienfrage, Monster, 1910.
V. H. Stanton, The Gospels as Historical Docu‑
ments, part 2, The Synoptic Gospels, London, 1910.
Guaaosy VIL: A. H. Mathew, The Life and Times of Hildebrand, Pope Gregory VII., London, 1910.
HALL, A. C. A.: The Apostolic Ministry; a Charge . with Notes and Appendices, New York, 1910.
HAascoNms: J. M. Thompson, The Synaptic Gospels arranged in Parallel Columns, New York,
1910.
HyADLAm, A. C.: See above, ENGLAND, Cauaas or.
Hmmeaaws, Eruwla To: B. Weiss, Der Hebrderbrief in sedgeschacWieher Beleuchtung, Leip‑
sic, 1910.
E. C. Wiekham, The Epistle to the Hebrews. With Introduction and Notes, London, 1910.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX‑VOLUMES I‑VIII
HEGEL: McTaggart, A Commentary on Hegel's Logic, London, 1910.
HELLENISM: A. Deiasmann, Die Urgeschichte des Christentums im Lichte der Sprachforschung, Tdbingen, 1910.
HENSON, H. H.: Westminster Sermons, London, 1910.
HERBERT, G.: E. S. Buchanan, George Herbert, Melodist (1693‑1633), London, 1910.
HExATEueH: B. D. Erdmana, Oilttestamentliche Studien, III., Das Buch Exodus, Giessen, 1910.
A. F. Puukko, Das Deuteronomium, Leipsic, 1910.
J.	Skinner, Genesis, in the International Crit
	ical Commentary, New York, 1910.
HOLINESS: See above, BEET, J. A.
HOLY SPIRIT: E. B. Spurgin, The Work and Fruits of the Holy Spirit, London, 1910.
HYMNOLOGY: G. M. Drevea, Ein Jahrtausend lateinischer Hymnenbaldung, Eine Bliitenlese aus den Analecta Hymnica, Leipsic, 1910.
IDEALISM: H. Jones, Idealism as a Practical Creed, Glasgow, 1910.
A. Upward, The New World, New York, 1910.
IMMORTALITY: G. Bjdrklund, Death and Resurrection from the Point of View of the Cell Theory, Chicago, 1910.
A. M. Crane, A Search after Ultimate Truth; the divine Perfection inherent in Man and in all Creation, Boston, 1910.
H. Frank, Modern Light on Immortality, London, 1910.
G. Heinzelmann, Der Begrif der Seele and die Idee der Unsterblichkeat bet Wilhelm Wundt, Tiibingen, 1910.
J. B. Hunt, Existence after Death, Applied by Science, London, 1910.
INDIA: H. Oldenburg, Aus dem alien Indien. Drei Aufadtze iiber den Buddhismus Altindisehe Dichtung and Geschichtschreibung, Berlin, 1910.
INDIANS OF NORTH AMERICA, MISSIONS TO THE: T. J. Campbell, Pioneer Priests of North America, 16/,2‑1710, vole., i.‑ii., New York, 1910.
Note also Hughes, un 'er JES I= ITa, below.
INFALLIBILITY: J. A. Beckett, Papal Infallibility in the Light of Holy Scripture and History, London,1910.
INSPIRATION: J. Orr, Revelation and Inspiration, London and New York, 1910.
IRELAND: D. A. Chart, Ireland, from the Union to Catholic Emancipation, 1800‑29, London, 1910.
G. B. O'Connor, Stuart Ireland: Catholic and Puritan, Dublin, 1910.
C. Plummer, Vitte sanetorum Hiberniee partim hactenus ineditcz ad fidem codicum manuscriptorum reeognovit prolegomenis notis indicibus instruxit, 2 vols., New York, 1910.
ISAIAH: Isaiah 1. XXXIX., ed. C. II. Thomson and J. Skinner, London, 1910.
ISRAEL, HISTORY OF: A. T. Abernethy, The Jew a Negro: being a Study g the Jewish Ancestry from an impartial fandpoint, Moravian Falls, N C., 1910.
A. Albrecht , Israel and Aegypten. Die politischen Beziehungen der K6nigevon Israel and Juda zu den Pharaonen, Leipsic, 1910.
ISRAEL, HISTORY OF: M. Harris, Modern Jewish History from the Renaissance to the Russian Exodus, New York, 1910.
C. F. Lehman‑Flaupt, Israel. Seine Geachiehte im Rahmen der Weltgeachichte, Tiiblngen, 1910.
A. Lewin, Geschichte der badiachen Juden seit der Regierung Karl Friedrichs (1738‑1909), Carlsruhe, 1909.
J. B. Shearer, Hebrew Institutions, Social and Civil, Richmond, Va., 1910.
L. Simon, Aspects of the Hebrew Genius. A Volume of Essays on Jewis7e Literature and Thought, London, 1910.
R. We , Le SHrur des Israelites au dksert et le Sinai dons ~ relation primitive, l'ivoluiion du texte biblique et la tradition christianomoderne, Pans, 1910.
IVES, L. S.: M. de L. Haywood, Lives of the Bishops of North Carolina from the Establishment of the Episcopate in that State down to the Division of the Diocese, Raleigh, N. C., 1910.
JESSUP, H. H.: Fifty‑three years in Syria,=2 vole., New York, 1910.
JESUITS: T. A. Hughes, History of the Society of Jesus in North America, Documents: vol. i. pt. 2: nos. 141‑224, 1606‑1838, Cleveland, 1910.
H. Stoeekius, Forsehungen zur Lebensordnung der Gesellschaft Jesu im 16 Jahrhundert, L, Ordensangehdrige and Ezterne, Munich, 1910.
Note also Campbell, under INDIANS OF NORTH AMERICA, above.
JESUS	CHRIST: A. Schweitzer, The Quest for the
Historical Jesus; a critical Study of its Prog tees from Reimarus to Wrede, New York, 1910.
W. B. Selbie, Aspects of Christ, London, 1910.
H. L. Straek, Jesus, die Hiiretiker and die Christen nach den iilteren jiidisehen Angaben, Leipsic, 1910.
JESUS CHRIST, PICTURES AND IMAGES OF: E. von Dobsehiitz, Christusbilder. Untersuchungen zur christlichen Legende, Leipsie, 1910.
JESUS CHRIST, THREEFOLD OFFICE OF: N. D1mOCk,
Our One Priest on High; or the Present Sacerdotal Function of Christ in Heaven what it is not and what it is, New York, 1910.
JOEL:	A. C. Gaebelein, The Prophet Joel; an Ex
	position, New York, 1910.
JOHN THE APOSTLE: J. Culroas, John, Whom Jesus Loved, London, 1910.
M. C=oguel, Les Sources du rich johannique de
la passion, Paris, 1910.
M. Lepin, La Valeur historique du quatrihmme
aangile, 2 vole., Paris, 1910.
JULIUS AFRICANUS, SEXTUa: W. Reichardt, Die Briefe des Sextus Julius Africanus an Aristides and Origines, in T U, xxxiv. 3, Leipaie, 1910.
KINGDOM OF GOD: J. Denney, The Church and the Kingdom, London, 1910.
KITTEL, R.: Geschichte des Vdkes Israel, 2 Band, Daa Volk in Kaman, 2d ed.. Goths, 1909;
idem, Die alttestamentliche li'issenschaft in ihren wichtigsten Ergebnissen mit Beriicksichtigung des Religionsunterrichts dargeatellt, Lelpsic, 1910.
LEWIB, A. H.: Spiritual Sabbathiam, Plainfield, N. J., 1910.
LOMBARDS: C. Blasel, Die Wanderzuge der Largoburden, Breslau, 1909.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX‑VOLUMES I‑VIII
LORD'S PRAYER: See above, ABED, C. F.
LORD'S SUPPER: N. Dimock, The Doctrine of the Lord's Supper; with an Appendix on the Augmentation Theory, New York, 1910.
Los voN Rome: A. Robertson, The Papal Conquest.Italy's Warning " Wake up Joh," London, 1910.
MCCHEYNE, R. M.: J. C. Smith, Robert Murray McCheyne, London, 1910.
MCLAREN, A.: Philippians, Colossians, 1 and 11 Thessalonians, and 1 Timothy, London, 1910.
MAGIC: J. Cumbarieu, La M sIque et la magie. etude sir les origines populaire de fart musical, son influence et sa fonetion daps les sociktiks, Paris, 1909.
MANI, MANICHEANS: A. von Le Cog, Exploration arcUologique d Tourfan, Paris, 1910.
MARCUS AURELIUS: F. W. Bussell, Marcus Aurelius and the Later Stoics, Edinburgh, 1910.
MARY: CSCO, Scriptores cethiopici, series I., vol. VII. Apocrypha de B. Maria virgine, ed. M. Chaine, Leipsic, 1909.
MEDO‑PERSIA: F. H. Weissbach, Die Keilinschriften der Achdmeniden and Seleukiden, Leipsic, 1910.
MELANCHTHON: N. Miiller, Philipp Melanchthons letzte Lebenstage, Heimgang and Bestattung nach den gleichzeitigen Berichten der Wittenr berger Professoren, 1910.
METHODISTS: Wesley's Veterans: Lives of Early Methodist Preachers Told by themselves, 2 vols., London, 1910.
MEYER, F. B.: At the Gates of the Dawn, London, 1910.
MISSIONS To THE HEATHEN: W. E. and M. T. Gardner, Winners of the World during Twenty Centuries. A Story and Study of missionary Efforts from the Time of Paul to the present Day, London, 1910.
S. L. and E. L. Gulick, Outline Studies of the Growth of the Kingdom of God, Boston, 1910.
J. C. Lambert, Missionary Heroes in Oceania, London, 1910.
J. P. Lilley, The Victory of the Gospel. A Survey of world‑wide Evangelism, London, 1910.
R. H. Malden, Foreign Missions: Being a Study of Some Principles and Methods in the Expansion of the Christian Church, London, 1910.
T. Moscrop, The Kingdom without Frontiers: A Missionsry Survey, London, 1910.
J. Richter, A History of Protestant Missions in the Near East, London and New York, 1910.
C. H. Robinson, The Interpretation of the Character of Christ to nonrChristian Races; an Apology for Christian Missions, New York, 1910.
R. E. Speer, Christianity and the Nations, New York and Chicago, 1910.
Mrs. A. C. Wilson, The Expansion of Christianity: a Study in religious History, London, 1910.
MrTHRA, MITHRAIsm: A. Dieterich, Eine MithrasLiturgie, 2d ed., Leipsic, 1910.
MO": G. Robinson Lees, Life and Adventures beyond Jordan, New York, 1909.
MODERNISM: C. Beaurredon, Le Modernisme ou les bases de la foi, Paris, 1910.
T. Engert, Das Alte Testament im Liehte modernistisch‑katholischer Wissenschaft, Munich, 1910.
Letters to his Holiness, Pope Pius X., by a Modernist, Chicago, 1910.
MOHAMMED: Baij Nath Singh, h, Letters from a Sufi
	Teacher Treating of ~ Philosophy of Islam
	and Consisting of English Translation of Ex
	tracts from the Persian Book entitled " Mak
	tubdt‑irSadi," an old Sufistic Work, Benares,
	1909.
T. NBldeke, Geschichte des Qorans, part 1, Ueber den Ursprung des Qorans, Leipsic, 1909.
MOHAMMEDANS, MISSIONS TO: A. Thomson, Crusaders of the Twentieth Century, or the Christian Missionary and the Muslim, ed. W. A. Rice, London, 1910.
MOLINOS, M. DE: Extracts from the Spiritual Guide, ed. and compiled by R. Y. Lynn, London, 1909.
MoNAsTIcIsas: The Life of an Enclosed Nun. By a Mother Superior, London, 1910.
MORMONS: J. H. Evans, One Hundred Years of Mormonism; a History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter‑day Saints from 1806‑1906, Salt Lake City, 1910; idem, Birth of Mormonism in Picture: Scenes and Incidents in early Church History from Photographs, Narratives and Notes, Salt Lake City, 1910.
MOSES: M. Fluegel, Exodus, Moses and the Decalogue Legislation; the central Doctrine and regulative Organum of Mosaism, Baltimore, 1910.
MOULTON, W. F.: See above, FINDLAY.
MYSTICISM: J. Miihlethaler, Die Mystik bei Schopenr, hauer, Berlin, 1910.

MYTHOLOGY: Florence V. Farmer, Nature Myths of Many Lands, New York, 1910.
Symbolism of the Bible and of Ancient Literature Generally. Being a Study in Comparative Mythology. By 84 Expectans, 2 vols., Calcutta, 1910.
NATURALISM: C. R. Chapman, Naturalism and the Church, Boston, 1910.
NEGRO: W. Archer, Through Afro‑America, New York, 1910.
W. E. B. DuBois, Efforts for Social Betterment among Negro Americans; Report of a special Study made at Atlanta University under the Patronqge of the Trustees of the John F. Slater Fund; together with the Proceedings of the 14th annual Conference for the .Study of Negro Problems, held cst Atlanta University on Tuesday, May 24th, 1909, Atlanta, 1910.
OESTERLEY, W. 0. E.: The Jewish Doctrine of Mediation, London, 1910.
ORGANIZATION OF CHRISTIANITY: J. A. Kern, A Stud; of Christianity as Organized, its Ideas and Forma, Nashville, Tenn., 1910.

BIOGRAPHICAL ADDENDA‑VOLUMES I‑VIII
BIOGRAPHICAL ADDENDA
BAwnxazwES, 0.: named by the pope apostolic prothonotary, 1910.
BEER, G.: became ordinary rofessor of Old Testament at Heidelberg, 19M.
BENHAM, W.: d. at London, July 30,1910.
BossE, F.: became first librarian in the Kaiser Wilhelm Library at Posen, 1909.
BowNE, B. P.: d. at Brookline, Mass., Apr. 1, 1910.
BUDDE, K. F. C.: chosen rector of the University of Marburg for 1910‑11.
BUDER, P. vox: retired from active duties, 1910.
CLEMEN, C. C.: became extraordinary professor of comparative religion and philosophy of religion at Bonn, 1910.
COBB, H. N.: d. at East Orange, N. J., Apr. 17, 1910.
CONDER, C. R.: d. at Cheltenham (98 m. w.n.w. of London), England, Feb., 1910.
DAY, C. O.: d. at Andover, Mass., Apr. 5, 1910.
DEuTaca, S. M.: d. at Berlin, Germany, July 3,
1909.
DOwQHUEw E. A. A. O. A. voN: became professor of 'New‑Testament exegesis at Breslau, 1910.
DUBBB, J. H.: d. at Lancaster, Pa., Apr. 1, 1910.
DucevsrtE, L.: Elected a member of the French Academy, 1910
FSenm, P.: became professor of New Testament at Halls, 1910.
GBEWINO, K. M. N. J.: became professor of church history at Monster, 1909.
Gvxxzn, J. F. H.: became professor of Old‑Testament exegesis at Giessen, 1907.
HAIIMOND, E. P.: d. at Hartford, Corm., Aug. 14, 1910.
Heaxscs, K. G. A.: retired from editorial staff of
Theologiache Literalurzeitung, 1910.
Hornzlsexx, H. J.: d. at Baden‑Baden Aug. 4, 1910.
JwME9, W.: d. at Chocorua, N. H., Aug. 28, 1910.
JESaUP, H. H.: d. at Beirut, Syria, Apr. 28, 1910.
JORDAN, H. S. A.: became extraordinary professor of church history and patristics at Erlangen, 1907.
Kwvzzaca, E. F.: d. at Halls May 9, 1910.
KBOPwTaCBEg, F.: became professor of systematic theology at Breslau, 1907.
LOEHR, M.: became professor of the Old Testament at Kiinigaberg, 1909.
Lowy, A. F.: became professor of the history of religions, College of France, Paris, 1909.
MeLwaEN, A.: d. at Edinburgh May 5, 1910 .
...*., S.: d. at Fruitvale, Cal., Jan. 22, 1909.
ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA
Vol. i., . 103, cot. 2, line 1: Read " Concorresani " for " Concorezensea."
Vol. i., p. 248, col. 2, line 19 from bottom: Add " and SQCCESSiox, AP08TOLIC."
Vol. i., p. 278, col. 2, line 9: Add " See Pwur. THE APOSTLE, L, i, 1i."
Vol. ii.~, p. 52, Col. 2: Insert " BExUEL, EBNaT li0'iTLIEB. See TuEBnNoEN SCHOOL, THE OLDER. 11
Vol. ii., p. 57, col. 1, line 28 from bottom: Read 9C 1887"for"1887:'
Vol. ii., ~ 59 , col. 2, line 28: Read " Sevres " for " aria."
Vol. ii., p. 144, col. 1, line 38: Read " NOTBEB 5 " for "NOTBEB 4"
Vol. iii., p. 37, col. 1, line 18 from bottom: Read " Choreuta= " for " Chorentee."
Vol. iii., p. 145, col. 2: Insert " CLERTCI$ Lsicos. See BoxiPecE VIII."
Vol. iv., p. 183, coi. 2, line 34: Bead " 28 " for " 25 "; ib., line 22 from bottom: Read " &, Blsrrcei. RECKONING or " for
" CHRONOLOGY."
Vol. v., p 9, Col. 1, line 23 from bottom: Read " Shedd "‑for " Stead."
Vol. v. p 52, col. 2, line 9 from bottom: Read I` Feb. 10, 1900 "for " May 4, 1896 "; ib.,
line 4 from bottom: Read " 1847‑49 " for " 1847."
Vol. n., p b3, coi. 1, line 9 from bottom: Read " Boston " for " Philadelphia "; ib , line 8 from bottom: Read " Philadelphia " for " 111 the same city.)#
Vol. v.,p 321, col. 2, line 2 from bottom: Read " Limburg " for " Limbursoh."
Vol. v., p. 34b col. 2 lines 29‑30: Read " Lutherans, ~e article LuxHE8sxs, at the end " for " home mission ... MISSION."
Vol. n.; p. 488, col. 2, lines 12‑14: Read "or what may, more correctly, be called their forensic or judicial ' sense, that is putting . . : '
Vol. vi., p. 23, col. 1: Insert " INTE$NATIOxwL APOaTOLIC H01.INE96 Uxiox. See MD1CE1r nsNEOUa RErlaloua BODIEB, 13."
Vol. vi.,p~ 88, Co. 2, line 14: Read " Padeario " for " Palerio.'.
Vol. vi., p 183, col. 2, upper boahead: Read " Luke " for " John."
Vol. vi., p. 485, col. 1: Insert " L1oaT, FxIENDa or. See FREE L'Ox(iREOwTIOxa Dr GEnMwNY, 1.
Vol. viii., p. 91, col. 1: Insert: "NAZwREN&, Cavxca or THE. See PENTECOaTwb Causca or Tan NwzesnxE."

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Abbreviations in common use or self‑evident are not included here. For additional information con.
cerning the works listed, see vol. i., pp. viii.‑az., and the appropriate articles in the body of the work.
	ADS .		~Alne
	Ads .		ads87ws%g. egnins% % 1907
	AJP .		,;Am°^cas Ysrrwl of Ph"opy, "ti
		more, 1880 aqq.
	dJT	..	American Journal q/ TAeolopy, Chicago,
			1897 eqq.
AR	Archiv far ka"whom, KirchenrocK
	R 	Innsbruck, 1867‑81, Mains, 1872 eqq.
		Arrhis f#r Utterotun and ~ird~enaa‑
	dL%O .. 	. 	.	ar~i" du dlittalaltera, Freibarg, 1886
				sqq•
. . .American
	AMA	jAbha"dlu"g‑ der Msndsener Akademie,
		Munich, 1788 eqq
		Ante‑Nicene Paihera, American edition
		F 	by A. Cleveland Cone 8 Vale. and in
	AN		dez, Buffalo, 1887; vol. ix., eel. Allan
			Menzies, New York, 1897
	Apoa .		Apocrypha, apocryphal
Apo' . . . . . . . . . . . .ADolo~ialpoiopy
Arab.:
Aram .. ... . . . ...Aramaic
	art		article
Art. 8ohmsl . . . . .8ohmalksld Articles
dB B .. . . . . . . . . . Aria randorum, eel. J. Bolland and others,
		Antwerp.lti43sq ~
	A$M	Ado xinetorum "AL. $. Ben eel.
		J. Nabillon, 9 vole., Paris, 1888‑1701
. . • :. . . . . ..d~itesy Tomforaent, " Old Testament '•
	Ange.~Con		Augeburg COafelman
A. V . . . . . . . . . . . .Au	need Version (of the Enpiah Bible)
Saldwin,	J. M. Baldwin. Diehonary 	Philwop~y
	Dictionary . 	.	i	~' 8 vole' ‑%N
ew York,
Bardenhewer,	J	O. Basdenhewer, perchiehte der altkirrA‑
peaeAichte . . . . lichen Litteralar, 2 vole., Freiburg, 1902 Bardenhewer, j O. Bardenhewer. Patrolopis, ?d eel., PrefPatrolopia .... burg, 1901
Bayle . . .. The Dictionary Historical ana1Z=d

Dictionary.		MBate 2d ad., 6 vBensinger, L Ben:~nger H&rdiwhe drd8olopis, 2d
drd6olopis. 		eelFreibtirg, 1907
	J. Biagham, Ones sodsniaetieo, 10
Vale, 	don, 708‑22; new eel., Oz‑
I M. Bouquet, Rewei~ dos histsriena des __..~a et de is Prance, continued by various hands. 23 vob, Paris. 1738‑78
Archibald Bower, Hi= of the P
	. to 1768, oontisnned by $ H. r
8 vole., Philadelphia, 1 	7
Baptist Quarterly Review. Philadelphia,
Bouquet, Raeuau
Bower. Popes...
	BRO .		8ee dsH4
	Csat		(;antides, Song of Salomon
	cap .		`.caput, uteara~ chapter
Ceillier. A	B" Ceillieriatoim du aafeura saer& et
	aaaEs .	18 vole. in 17. Paris,
Chron . . .	. . Chroniaon, " Chronicle I Chron .. . . . . . . . .I	"
	Chronicles
II Chrnn . . . . . . . . II Chronicles
	CIO 	C"'ac^pti°num Or		% Berlin,
	CIL	C~ nacvsph°nuns Lalirwrs»t, Berlin,
eqq. cis .. .... . . . . . C~n~ptionuat $smitiatrans, Part,

	cod . .		aodez
	sod. Thsod		codez Tbeodoaiansu
	Col 	. 	...		Epistle to the Colossians
awl.. awls.. . . . . . . . column . columns
Conj... .. . . .. ...ConJeeaionsa, ' Confessions ••
I Cor .. . . . . . .. .. .First Epistle to the Corinthians
	II Car . . . . . . . . .Second Epistle to the Corinthians
	COT .				8ee Schrader
CQR .. . . . . . . . . . The Church Quarterly Reain, London. 1875 eqq.
		C	nformatorum, begun at Sane,
	CR .		Val. lazix, BerVa and Leipsiq
		M 1	A History of fhe Papa~
Crei=htoa.	mm	as Great Schism to the $a~
	Papacy . . . . . .		core, new eel., 8 vole., New York an
		London, 1897
		Corpus saiptorum Chrzeaaswrwrt orisnta‑
	C$CO .		:	lsum, eel. J. B. Chabot, I. Guidi, and
		others, Paris and Leipe<o, 1903 sq~ C$BL .	;C°~° x"~m eedeaiaatimrum Loti
			nxuns, Vienna. 1887 sqq.
	C$HB		. C°~ ~~m Aiatorio Bysantina, 49

Carrier, Religious ~ New Yorly ,=1"qfRUgiou#0rdw*.
C. vole. Bonn, 1828‑78

	Ordera 	W. , dD	Dsuteronomnt
Dan .. . . . . . . . . . . . Daniel
		J. Hastings, Dictionary o1 the Bs31s, d
	DB .	Vale. and extra Vol., burgh and
		New York, 1898‑1904
		W. Smith sad 9 Cheatham, Dictionary
		n Antiquities, 2 vole., Landon.
		W. Smith and H. Wane, Dictionary qt
		Christian Biography, 4 vole., Boston,
		187787
		J. Hastings, J. A. 8elbie, and J. C. Lamar,
	DCO	. . . . . . .	A ~°"°''y °f Christ and the Gospels, ~
			vole., Edinburgh and New York, 1908‑

	Deut .		DeutAmaonny
	Do oir. ia	. .Ds oiria illustribw
	DOQ .		8ee Watteabsch
		L. Stephen and 8. Lee. Dictionary
	DNB 	National Biopraphy. 83 vole. an
		sup lement 3 vola., London 1886‑1901
	Driver, lnbodvo‑ $. IL ~ver. Introduction to tie Litsratsre
	the Old Testament. 10th eel.. New
h°n""""' ork, 1910
	E .		Elohist
		T. K. Chayna and d. 9. Black, 8ncydo
	BB .	a B'sb1 4 vole., London and
		York 11903
8eel .. . . . . . . . . . . .8edesia, Gthuroh "; aedesiaatieua. .. eo,
,Ecale'•
. . . . . . Eooleeiaeticus
Eccles .. .. .
Ecolus . . . .
eel. .. .. . . . . . . . . .edrttoa; edsdst, " edited by"
Eph . . . . . . . . . . . . Epistle to the
8pist . . . . . . . . . . .8piatda, 8piatol	Epistle," •.
Erech and Gru‑ J. 8. Er~eoahp ~adnd 1. G. Gruber, A	ns
b~ 8neyklo‑ ~ RneyastePLei m o~,8 8eqq~ chaften and
	E. V		English versions (of the Blble)
	Ex 	. . . . . . . . . . . . Ezodus
	Etek		Esekiel
	fame 	fascioldus
	Fr .		Frenoh
Friedrich, RD.. d. Friedrich, Hirchenpeschiehts 1>aufads
	lands, 2 vole Bamberg. 1887‑89
Gal . . . . . . . . . . . . . Epistle o the Nations
G$~ 	P. B. Game, Series epiaeoporvm eaienio
~~m .	CsOtdioa,	burg, 1873, and sup
	plement, 1
Gee and Hardy, H.	Docuinents
Goo	of
Documents . . . ad., 1898
	Germ 	German
	OOd . 	. Ga8GdArt° Ans°ige". G6ttingen,

tiibbonk Dadins~ E. Gibbon. History of the Decline and and aR ..... PaU °~ g° Raman Empire, eel. J. B. Bury, voL., London, 1898‑1900

	C. G	The $oarow and Literature of
Gron, 3asen.. 		~ History . . . to 1./86. London,
	Hab		Habakkuk
Raddim ,‑d	~A. aWHaddan and WBtmubber, Councils
	Stubbs Coarr Ecclesiastical Doum 	Relating
				to Grad Britain and Ireland, 3 vole.,
	a7a	...	. .	Oxford, 18‑78

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Heb ......
Hebr.....
Refers to patriatic works on heresies or
heretics, Tertullian a De pr~n ptione,
	IIaT .	the Pros hairsssia of Irens3u0. thm
Panarion of Epiphanius, ate.
Hag .... ... g~ i
Harduin. Cou‑~ J. ~Tstduin, Conciiiorum odlsdio repfa cilia .. . . . . . . . maxima, 12 vole., Paris, 1715
A. Harnack History of Dogma . . from
Harnack, Dogma	the 8d German edition, 7 vole., Boston,
	1895‑1900
	Harneck, Litters‑ A. Harnack, GascAichte der allchtisaidien
.. 	Littsratur bis ~uaebiue, 2 vole. in 3,
	Le,pe~c, 1893‑1904
. • A. 13auek, Kirchengeechichte Deuteeh‑
Hauck, KD .		lands, Vol. i., Leipsic, 1904; Vol. ii.,
			1900; Vol. iii., 1908; Vol. iv., 1903
Hauck‑Her	Realenckylopadis fir protestaThe
	sog,		olopis and Kirche, founded b~ J. J.
	RE	Herzog, 3d eel. by A. Hauck, Lefpaic,
		1898‑1909
		Epistle to the Hebrews
		Hebrew
Hefele,Coucillierr C• J. Von Hefele Conciliengeschidhtei eon
	peachichte ... . .tinned by J. 13ergenr8ther, vole. r.‑vi.,
	viii.‑ix., reiburg. 1883‑93
Heimbucher Or‑I M. Heimbucher Die Orden and Konpre‑
	den and ere	pattonen der katholiachen Kirche, 2d eel.
	yregationen. . .	3 vole., Paderborn, 1907
Helyot, Ordres	P. Helyot, Hiatoire des ordres monas
	Mo,as, _ .	tiques. rdipieux et militairea, 8 vole.,
		Paris, 1714‑19; new eel., 1839‑42
Henderson, Doc. E. F. Henderson, Select Historical Docuumeats . . . . . meats of the Middle Apes, London, 1892
Hist .. . . . . . . . . . . . History, hiatoire, h%sto 'raa
Hint. ecd. . .. . . . I Hiataria esdeeiastica, ecdeaim, .. Church History
Hom . . . . . . . . . . . .Homxlia, homiliai, " homily, homilies "
Hos .. . . . . . . . . . . . Hoses
	Isa		TWah
	Ital 	Italian
	J	Jahvist (Yahwiat)
	JA 
	Jacobus,
Dictionary..,
Jstfg, ERG ....
Jaffo,Repute .
.Journal Aeiatfqus, Paris, 1822 eqq.
A Standard Bible Dictionary, eel. M. W Jacobus, . E. E. Nourae, . . . and A. C. Zenos, New York and London, 1909
P. Jaff6, Bibliotheea renam Germauicarum, 8 vole., Berlin, 1884‑73
P. JaffB, Regeeta pontifieum Romauorum ad annum 1188, Berlin, 1851; 2d eel.. Leipsic, 1881‑88
Journal qf the American Oriental Society. New Haven, 1849 eqq.
Journal of Biblical Literature and Exepeaie, first appeared as Journal of the SoeieEy of Brobl%~l Literature and Exepeaia, Middletown, 1882‑88, then Bos‑

ton 1890eq q. The .j'eu!sah ~nydopedia, 12 vole., New
York, 1901‑08
The combined narrative of the Jahviet (Yshwiet) end Elohiat
.. Jeremiah
Joeephus, Ant.. ~ Flavru° Josaphue, " Antiquities of the Jews "
Joeephus, Ap u . Flaviua Joeephu0. " Against Apion "
Joeephue, hifa. . . Life of Flaviua Josaphus
	Joeephue, War .		Flaviua Joeephue, The Jewish War "
	Josh . 	Joshua
		Johrbtkcher Mr profeatautiache Tluiolopee,
JPT . . . . . . . . . . Leipdo 1 75 eqq.
JQR . . . . . . .. . . ~ The ~ewish Quarterly Review, London,
JRAS . . . . . . . . . ~ J1898
ournal J the Royal Asiatic Society, Lon
	don, 1834 eqq.
JTS . . . . . . . . . . ~ Journal of Theological Studies, London, 1899 eqq.
Julian, Hym‑ J J. Julian, A Dictionary of Hymnology, nology . . . . . . . 1 revised edition, London, 1907
RAT . . . . . . . . . . . See Schrader
	KB .		$ee Schrader
KD . . . . . . . . . . . See Friedrich, Hauck, Rettberg
Wetter uud Wdfs'a Rirdwrdexikou, 2d
	KL . . . 	. . . . . . .	eel., by J. Hergenr8ther and F. Ksulen,
12 vole., Freiburg, 1882‑1903
G. KrUger, History of Early Christian Literature in the First Three Cen6uriu, New York, 1897
j K. Krumbaeher, Gexhichts der byaantiuisehsu Litteratur, 2d eel.. Munich, 1897
P. Labbe,, Sacrorum rnncrZiorum nova et amvl%aatma collectio 31 vole.. Florence an Venice; 1759‑9g
Lam . . . . . . . . • • . . Lamentations
Lanigan, Ecc1. ~ J• Lanigan Ecclesiastical History of Zro
	H%at . . . . . . . .land to tie 18N Century, 4 v o s.. Dub‑
	lin, 1829
Lat . . . . . . . . . . . . . Latin, Latinised
KrVger. History j
Krumbxher,
	Gaschichte . . . .
Lsbbe, Coueilia
Liohtenberger , ‑ . . F. ' Lichtenberger, ErwydoP6die else sciESR . . . . . . . . ences rds, 13 vole.. Paris, 18771882
	. . ~ O.	chla"1" Lorena, DGQ Zen %m Midalter, 3d eel	Berlin,	7
	L7CX 	The Septuagint
I Mace . . . . . . . . . T Maccabees
	11 Mace 	II Maccabees
Mai, Nova eel‑ ) A. Mai, Scriptorum veterum nova odlectao . . . . . . . . Zsctioi 10 vo e., Rome, 182b‑38
Mai . . . . . . . . . . . . . Malachi
Mann, Popes . R• C. Mann, Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages, London, 1902 eqq.
G. D. Manei, Sanctoncm conciliorum
Manes, Coucilia. ~ edlectio nova, 31 vole., Florence and
		Venice, 1728
	Matt 	Matthew
		Monuments Germania kistmtoa, eel. G. H.
		Perta sad others, Hanover and Ber
		lin, 1828 eqq. The following abbrevia
		tions are used for the sections end
		subsections of this work: Ant., Anttqui
		fatea, Antiquities ": Auet. ant., Auo
		toree antiqusssimi, " Oldest Writers ";
		CAron. min., Chronica minors " Lesser
		Chronicles ' : Dip., Diplomats, Di
		plom Documents ; Epurt., Epia
		tolot, ~ Letters : Gem. pout. Ron .,
		Geata Ponti'Jkum Romauorum ' Deeds
		of the Popes of Rome
		Laws • Lib. de lite . Lis d
		inter segwum ct aaoerdotium aeeeudonam
		Xi. at x%i. conscripts, Books concerning
MGH . . . . . . . . .the Strife between the Civil and Ecole‑
eraetical Authorities in the Eleventh
and Twelfth Centuries		Nee., No
crdopia Germanic,	lfeerology of
Germany ~ Poet.	Lat•	2vi Car.,
Poet. Gatini eras Cardini, " Latin
Poets of the Caroline Time "• Poet
Let. mad. emir Poster Latini medii arv%,
	Latin Poets of the Middle Ages ';
.	3crtPt• 6criPtOrsa ' Writers ". 3criPt.
rer. Germ., $eripfores rerum Germani
cans	' Writers on German 8ub
	jeote~; Seri pt. rer. Laupob.. ScriPtorea
rerum Laupo6ardirarum et Italicarum,
	' Writers on Lombsrd and Italian
	Subjects"; Script, rsr. Merov:, ScrfiP
toros rerun Merovinpicarum, ' Writers
on Merovingian Subjects "
	Mic .		Micah
H. H. Milman, History 2.f Latin Chria‑
tiani Inducts that of the ogee to seholaa ~, 8 vole., .ondon,
188o‑81
C. Mi rbt, tZudlsn cur Geschiehte deer Papah
toms and else rOmiachsu Kathdiciamua,
TBbingen, 1901
J. P. Migne, Patrdopiar tarsus completua,
series Ororca 182 vole.. Paris, 1857‑88
J. P. Mign e, Pabrolopioa tarsus comple6ua,
aeries Latiuia, 221 vole, Paris, 1844‑84
	MS	MSS .		Manuecript, Manuscripts
Muratori, Scrip‑~ L. A. Muratori, Reruns ZtaZiearum scrip.
torea. ... . . ... for", 28 vole.. 1723‑b1
Norm Archiro der Geedlachaft far filters
NA .. . . . . . . ... deutsche Gexlaiehtakunde, 	over,
1878 eqq.
Nah . . . . . . . . . . . . Nahum
n.d. . . . . . . . . . . . no date of publication
Neander, ChrisIA, Neander, General History o,/ the Chris‑
	tian Chuch	tiau Religion and ChurcA, 6 Vale., end
		index, Boston, 1872‑$1
	Neh .		Nehemiah
N i c e r o n , ME‑~ R. P. Niceron, MEmoirea pour senrir h
	moues 	. . 	L'hiatoire else hommu rTduatrEa . . . . 43
			vole., Paris. 1729‑45 '
			F. K. Nielsen, History of the Pa %n
Nielsen, Papacy	the Nineteenth Century, 2 volsew
	York, 1908
Nippold, Papacy. ~ F' Nippold, The Papacy in the Nineteenth
Century, New York, 1900
NKZ . . . . . . . . . ~ New kirchliche Zeitachrifd, Leipaic, 1890
eqq~
Nowack, Archer‑ W. Nowack, Lehrbuch der AebrBiachen olopia ... . . . . . Archddopie, 2 vole.. Freiburg, 1894
	n.p. 	no place of publication
The Mans and PoshNiceue Father#, 1st
NPNF . . . . . . . . . series, 14 vole., New York, 1887‑92; 2d
aeries, 14 vole., New York, 1890‑1900 N. T. . . . . . . . . . . ~ New Testament, Noroum Testameutum,
Nouveau Tutament, Neues Testament
Num . . . . . . . . . . . .. Numbers
	Ob 	Obadiah
Milman, Laura
	Christianity . .
Mirbt, QudZeu..
MPG ..........

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
	O. S. B	.......	I 0,"_?:ff, B" Order of St.
	O. T			Old TeatBmeat
	OTJC .			See Smith
	P			Priestly document
			L. Pastor, The Hiatoryas pop" from
Pastor, Pap .. . .	the Close of the M	Apes, 8 vole.,
	London, 1891‑1908
	PEA . . . . . P °u°° Anplica»e, ed. J. A. Giles,
			34 vole. London) 1838‑48
	PEF .			Palestine hxploratron Fund
	I pelt 		First Epistle of Peter
	11 pet .			SecondEpietle of Peter
. . B. Platina,Lives of the P	~1rom . . 
Platina, Popes	Gropory 11. to . . . Pal., 2 vole.,
	London, n.d.
Pliny, Xist. not‑Plin . Historia naturalist
Potthaet, Wey‑~ A' n°tt aet.Bi'robr dtl ch diet	~tei
weiaer .. . . . . . . works, Berlin 1898
	prov 	Proverbs
	Ps .		Psalme
PSBA. . . . . . . . . .)Proceeds	of the Society of Biblical
			1 Archeo~yy, London, 1880 eqq.
	q.v., qq.v	. 	.quod (qua) vide, ' which see
Ranke, POP"... ; I'' von Ranks, History of as Popes,
			3 vole., London, 1908
	RDM .			Revue den deua mondes, Paris. 1831 sqq.
	RE			See Hauck‑Herzog
Reich, Docu‑ ) E. Reich, Sled Documents Musbatdnp Me‑
	rnente . 		. 1 diaroal and Modern History, London, 1905
	REJ .			Revue des Etudes juives. ri 1880 sqq.
Rettberg, KD.. . ? F' ~ 2 v, Gbtti'ngen,schl1~848 4 	‑
	Rev 		Book R Revelation
			Revue de Misfoire des religions, Paris,
	RHR .			~ lggpeqq. d. C. RroS:u~eon, Alphabetical Subject In‑
			dex and Index Errcydopaedia Period
			ical Articles on Religion, 1880‑89, New
			York 1907
			A. L. Richter Lehrbuch des katholiaMsn
			and evanpgiedhen Kirdkenredhta, 8th
			1 ad. by W. Kahl Leipaic, 1888
	Robineoa,		Re‑‑(E. Robineo~ hiblical Researches in
	aearr~ee,		and Palestine Boston, 1841 and Later
	Later		Be‑ Biblical kta&arclus in Palestine, 3d std.
	searches. of the whole, 3 vole., 1887
Robinson, Euro‑ J J. H. Robinson, Reading& in European
RPenn so teed J. H. Mutton, and C Anii~ op‑
Beard~ Modern ment of Modern Europe, 2 vole., Boston.
	Europe		1907
Rom ... . . . .... .. .Epistle to the Romans
RTP . . . . . . . . . . . I Revue de thlolopie et do philosophis,
			Lausanne, 1873
	R. V	....	. . Revised Version (of the English Bible)
	amc .			smculum, ' century "
	I Sam . . . .I Samuel
	II Sam . . . . .II Samuel
	SBA . 		Site"Veb°^cht° der Berliner Ahadsmie,
			Berlin, 1882 sqq.
. . I F. Max Milller and others, The Sacred Books of.. the East, Oxford, 1879 eqq., vol. alvm., 1904
. , Sacred Books of the Old Testament (" Rainbow Bible) Leipsio, London, and Baltimore, 184 eqq
Schaff, Christian P' Schaff, History of Cho Christian CAw* Church . . ... . . v4s• i• iv., vi., vii., New York,1882‑92, vol. v., 2 parts, by D. S. Schaff, 1907‑10
Schaff' Crecda. . . P. 9ahaff The Creeds of Christendom, 3 vole., New York, 1877‑84
Schrader, COT. . E. Soh~rederTeCduanmeeifnorm2Invacrei.p, tiLonondaonnd
E. Schrader, Die Keilinach fen and das Alfe Testament, 2 vole., Berlin, 1902‑03
E. Schrader, Keilinachriftliche Bibliofhek, 8 vols.. Berlin, 1889‑1901
		'E. Seh"r, GaaAichte des ipdiachen
		Volk" im Zeitalter Jesu Christi, 4th std.,
		3 vole. Leipsic.1902eqq.: Eng. trsnel., b
		vole., New York, 1891
	Script .		Seriptorea, writers
Scrivener,	F. H. A. Scrivener, Introduction to New Tea
	Introduction . . { 	tarnent Criticism, 4th std., London, 1894
Seat .. ... .. . . . . ...8ententia, •' Sentences "
8. J. . . . . . ... . . . 3oaietaa Jesu. Society of Jesus "
SMA . .. . . . .. . 1 3i~a ~ cht a Se~ sqq nehener Aka‑

Smith, Kinship.. I Wk rtv Arabia Kinship and0 Marriage in
Richardson En‑ ,
cydopaedia. . .
Richter, Rircken‑
Sohrader, KAT.
Schrader, KB...
Smith, OTJC. . . ~ w' R. Smith, The Old Testament in the Jewish Church, London, 1892
Smith, Prophets.. I f W ~ EitthSmith~ Prophets adoLondon, 	. to
smith, Rel. of ~ W. R. th~i?iou of the Semites,
	$em .		London, 1894
S. P. C. K. . . . . . 1 Society for the Promotion of Christian
I SomeE four the Propagation of the Gospel
S. P. G. . . . . . . . ~ in Foreign Parts
	eqq .		..andfollowt~
	Strom .		3tromata Miscellanies
		,
	e.v		sub vooe, or cub verbo
Swete. Introduo‑ ~ H. B. 8wete. introduction to the Old Tes‑
	tion .		. . lament in Greek, London, X900
	Byr .		8yriao
Tbatcher and 1O. J. Thatcher and E. H. McNeal, A MoNeal,3owoe~ Source Book for Mediarod History.
	Book. . . . . . ( New York, 1906
	I These 	..	.Fitnt Epistle to the Thessalonians
	II These .			8eeond Epistle to the Thessalonians
	ThT 		T~°~°°~° TiidsehrirR Amsterdam and
			Le e°. 1887 eqq.
Tillemont, M6~I':	le Nain de Tillemoat, Mdmoirea
			ecdlsiaatiquea des six premiers
	"'°trea . . " " "	eiZclee,. 18 vole.. Paris, 1893‑1712
I Tim ... .... .. .. .First E stle to Timothy
	II Tim . . .$econd stle to Timothy
		Thalo '~ Jahresbarickt, Leipeic, 1882
	TJB .	. . . . . . . . ~ 188 . Freiburg, 1888, Brunswick, 1889
		1897, Berlin, 1898 sqq.
	Tob		Tobit
	TQ		~Thool°gisch° Quarkdochrift. Tttbingen,
		1819eq q.
	T3		~ J. A. R.obineon Texts and Studies,
		Cambridge, 1891 eqq~
		Transactions °the Society of Biblical
	T3BA .		. ~ Arch.~adoa, 1872eq q.
Thedopische .3tudien and Kri6ikan, Hamburg, 1828 sqq.
Tarts and Unterauchunpen sw Geachiehte
	den altcAriatlichen Litte>.atur, std. O. von
	Gebbardt sad A. Harnsek, Leipai0.
	1882s sqq.
UgoBni, Theaau‑~ B. Ugolinue, Thesaurus antiquitatum
	rue 	aaerarssm. 34 vole., Venice. 1744‑89
V. T. . . . . .. . . . . . . Vetue Tsata»untum, Yieux Testament, "Old Testament
Wattenbach. W. Wattenbach, Dsutooklands Geachichtw
	DGQ . 	5th std., 2 vole., Berlin, 1885;
~, 1893‑94; 7th std.. 1904 sqq.
Wellhausen,	) J.	Wellhaueen, Rests arabiaachen Hsiden
	Heidenturrt ....	I	tams Berlin, 1887
Wellhaueen,	~J. Well~suee°, Prolegomena sun Oeachichte
	Prokpo»una... I°m°~• 8th std., Berlin. 	1905, Eag.
	traml.. Edinburgh, 1886
Zsitachrift Jiir Aeayriolopie, Leipei0.
ZA . . . . . . . . . . . . 188g‑8g. Berlin, 1889 eqq.
~T. Zahn, Einleitunp in clan New Testa‑
	Zahn, Einlei‑	»unt, 3d std	Leipai0.1907; Eng. travel.,
	tu»p . . . 	. . .	Introduction to the New Testament, 8
			vole., Edinburgh, 1909
			T. Zahn. Geaehirhte den nsuteatarnenh
	Zahn, Kanon1 lichen Kamm, 2 vole., Leipeic, 1888‑92
			Zeitschrift Jttr die aftleaiaMUnUiehe Wis‑
	ZATW .	eenadwft, Giessen, 1881 eqq.
		)lefts tJflrdsutacheaAGbrfhurwuaddmrt‑
ZDAL . .. . . . . . . aeha~Literatur, Berlin, 1878 sqq.
ZeitxhriJt der dsutrsbea morpsnl6adischen
	ZDMG .. . . GesdlachnlR LeiPsio. 1847 sqq.
	ZDP	. . . . . . . ~ Z for deutsche Philofapie, Halle,
		~ ZDPV . . . . . . . . . Zeitech t des dcutechen PaLGsdina.Ver
		sins psi0. 1878 eqq.
	Zeeh		Zeeharish
	ZePh .		Zephaniah
		Zeltadv 'ref! filr die hiatorieehe Theolopie,
	ZXT .		publiabed eucaeawely at Leipei0.
		Hamburg and Goths, 1832‑7b
ZKG . . . . . . . . . . ~ LBitachriJt 7tlr Ksrehenpeschiehte. Goths,
			1~8~7~,8?qq.
	ZRR 	. . . . 	I ZeiRarigrc,h~anrarhet, Berlin, Tii
			Zeibta~t 18r kia8~ 'l~hqeolopis, Inns
		...	brook. 1877 egg
			wits tJilr kuchiiche Wissee and
	ZRW .		..	. krrLp0. 1880,8
ZNTW . . . . . . . . .~ ZeitaehrsJt for die neuteatamentliche Wisaenaehatt, Giessen, 1900 sqq.
ZPK. . . . . ... ... . ~ Z°fUdlarner Proteatantiamua and Ruche, Erlea~e 1838‑78
/Zeitechryft~t[r uriaaenarhq/tliche
	Jena' 1868‑80, Halls, 1881‑t17, 	, Leipsic
1888eqq.,

SYSTEM OF TRANSLITERATION
The following system of transliteration has been used for Hebrew:
H = ' or omitted at the
	briginning of a word.
3=b
3=bhorb

,!=ghorg 1=d 1=dhord i1=h 1=w
t=z
n=h
b=
'=y
~=k
2 =khork
5=1
b=m j =n
v=
g=p D=phorp y=,z
a=~
1=r E~!=a td=ah n=t f1=thort
The vowels are transcribed by a, e, i, o, u, without attempt to indicate quantity or quality. Arabic and other Semitic languages are transliterated according to the same system as Hebrew. Greek is written with Roman characters, the common equivalents being used.
KEY TO PRONUNCIATION
When the pronunciation is self‑evident the titles are not respelled; when by mere division and accentuation it can be shown sufficiently clearly the titles have been divided into syllables, and the accented syllables indicated.
a as in sofa d " "arm
a ""dt
rr fare e rr rr pen r
"fate i " "tin f " "machine o " "obey 8 ""no
as in not
nor
u `~ " full'
fi " " rule
Q rr rr but r rr tern
r ..	pine out oil few
iu	as in duration
c = k " " cat
ch	" " church
cw = qu as in queen
(th) rr to the f rr rr fancy
g (hard) " " go
a	'° " loch (Scotch)
hw (wh) " " why
rr It jaw
`In accented syllables only; in unaccented syllables it approximates the sound of a in over. The letter n, with soot beneath it, indicates the sound of n as fn ink. Nasal n (as in French words) Is rendered n. 2 In German and French names it approximates the sound of a in dune.

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
MORALITY, MORAL LAW.
The Kantian Basis (§ 1). His Results (§ 2). Schleiermacher's Basis (§ 3). Relation of Morality to Moral Law (§ 4). Conclusion (§ 5).
To establish a clear distinction between these terms and their relation to one another, it is best to start with the treatment of the subject by Kant and Schleiermacher. According to
x. The Kant's system of critical rationalism,
Kantian to found morals on true principles Basis. morality must be derived from the general conception of a reasonable being. It must then be developed as a pure philosophy or metaphysics to be applied to man. Previous attempts to establish the principles of morality failed either because they were purely empirical or, when rational, lacked the critical element. Kant's Grundlegung zur Metaplaysik der Sitten (Riga, 1785) and Kritik der praktisehen Vernunft (1788) contain his contribution to the subject. Naturally there were systems of moral law before Kant's time and moral legislators of all kinds, but the content of moral prescriptions had been derived from nature, custom, or arbitrary will. Man had indeed established himself as deciding moral questions on the basis of the individual conscience, but Kant in his critical analysis of the power of reason first recognized the secret of morality. The essence of moral legislation which he discovered was legislation by self. An act is moral which the will imposes upon itself in the consciousness that the maxim which it is following in any particular case can be erected into a universal law. Such acts are recognized as duty and done as duty. Man in giving moral commands to himself plays the role of both ruler and subject. The law once accepted must be followed even against man's will, neither threats nor flattery can be brought into relation with it. That will is good which fulfils duty on account of duty's sake, recognizing it as a principle of application. Universal and necessary elements condition morality, so the moral law is like the law of nature, but it expresses a necessity without force. It is an imperative act of will, not hypothetical but categorical, valid under all conditions. But, applicable only, to a reasonable being, it is not possible without freedom. This character of freedom established a place for morality in a world difVIII.‑1
ferent from that occupied by the phenomenal world
with its subjection of things to causal relations.
As autonomous morality is a fact, so freedom is a
fact. Man has an empirical character as a natural
being subject to the causal system of nature, but
he is also an intelligent being belonging to a moral
supersensible world that proves its existence in no
way more clearly than by the fact of man's freedom.
	But this reality can not be established by psy
chological analysis or historical investigation. The
moral law and all that it involves must be deter
		mined by the method of tranacen
	z. His dental criticism. The world of phe
	Results. nomena must be critically penetrated
		until the a priori element of reason is
sought and found; this is the element that makes
the objects of the phenomenal world moral. But
the principle of morality is a formal one as it ap
pears in the categorical imperative. It must be
applied to persons, wills, and aims, and takes the
practical form of acts done in such a way that the
individual uses humanity in his own person, as in
the person of every other individual, always as an
end, never simply as a means. As to the relation
established by Kant between morality and religion,
he rejects all eudemonistic elements, such as those
which regard happiness as a motive for action.
But a moral final end must be accepted, so the
postulates of the practical reason for the existence
of God and the immortality of the soul are intro
duced. By immortality and God, he establishes
an effect adequate to the general exercise of the
moral law. It becomes a necessity of reason to as
sume a power, the supreme cause of nature and
the moral creator of the world. In this way man's
duties are recognized as divine commands. With
out God as the moral creator and law‑giver, knowl
edge and action, even that willed freely by man,
remains aimless and incomplete. This was Kant's
reply to the riddle‑man autonomous in the midst
of the world with the duty of making out of it his
moral world. The recognition of the categorical
imperative, or moral law, makes man a moral
being. The accommodation of his character to
the law is virtue. Evil is the constant tendency
to transgress the law, but there is hope for an un
ending progress. Kant considered that his system
was essentially Christian, since the precepts of the
Gospel recognize a perfection not to be reached by
any creature, yet offering a model to which man

Morality
Moran	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
could approximate. Even the most difficult parts of his teaching, that dealing with the intelligible world, intelligible character, and freedom have a remarkable relationship to the morality of the Gospels. His system approached also German popular morality through its rational character, its dualistic basis, and its attention to practical problems.
Schleiermacher moves in a thoroughly different world. He deals with moral being, moral impulse, moral feeling, moral activity, and, above all, moral process. Nature becomes reason and reason, nature. The highest good is the unity of reason and nature,
so there exists no specific difference 3. Schleier‑ between natural law and moral law. macher's Over against natural law stands not
	Basis.	the moral law but the law of reason,
		but a distinction is not made between
what happens and what ought to happen. The
moral law is the law given by reason itself, respect
for the law determines it to be the law. This in
ternal recognition is of more importance than the
external act; it is the real element of moral being,
in which the phenomenal act may share more or
less completely. The moral law is a law then that
determines being, not simple obligation; morality is
the being or becoming demanded by this law. The
first stage has been entered upon, but the transforma
tion of reason into nature is not yet completed. The
question arises whether the subject of this being or
becoming is man alone. Schleiermacher is not an
individualist. The morality of the individual man is
only a part of the morality of the collective per
son, the family, the State, the Church. It is wrong,
he says, to make the individual the subject and the
substratum of moral life. Man's acts can not be
isolated; individuals are to be regarded as organs
and symbols of reason which really deal with the
whole of nature. It is not easy to see why God,
who is the cause of the opposition between reason
and nature, is not himself the subject of the moral
process. It will be seen that Schleiermacher's dis
cussion of morality takes up exactly that sphere
and occupies those interests which were entirely
neglected by Kant. The field of history is made
the field of ethical investigation. Schleiermacher's
ethics, therefore, must be regarded as being a re
ligious philosophy, a discussion of civilization, a
view of the world and its progress, as much as a
system of morality. He treats the subject as an
organic whole. Moral predicates are associated
with the phenomenal world, with its things and its
processes. Anything which can serve its special end
can be called good, can have a value. This exten
sion of the application of the term morality to
finite being under the power of reason leads really
to Hegel's position by which all being is found to
ire reasonable, in whose system ethics l.as properly
no place. The highest good is, according to Schleier
macher, the unity of the being of reason in nature.
It comes into consciousness only through the mu
tual relations of all examples of good. He shows
remarkable power in bringing together for this pur
pose the whole of life in its various concrete forms.
Elementary moral conceptions are prior to the
conception of morality. The activity of the form‑
ative functions, as in friendship, hospitality, community of class interest, produces an identity of type seen in all. He gave a wider significance to Christian ethics than was accorded to it in philosophic systems. For him it meant the orderly arrangement of rules by which the member of the Christian Church directs his life. Without experience no moral rule is possible. In regard to religion, he insisted on the full independence of religion from morality. As distinguished from Kant, his view of the ethical element in facts had a broader horizon, but the obligatory element in morality seems to be dissolved in the study of its static relations.
It is plain, therefore, that Kant supplies a more important and purer type of ethical knowledge. Kant is normative where Schleiermacher is descriptive. Apart from Kant's formulation of the
categorical imperative, ethical inter. Relation est finds itself without a guiding prin‑
of Morality ciple in the wide survey of moral
to Moral values, powers, and aims. The con‑
	Law.	ception of duty is all‑important, and
		without moral autonomy duty is im
possible. Moreover, the character of duty can not
be decided by investigating its origin, its necessary
character is not related with its historical mani
festations. History has established the right of this
autonomous treatment, but it does not explain the
secret. After all biological, psychological, and so
ciological methods of investigation have been drawn
upon, that very factor without which the whole
moral world can not be grasped at all is still left
in obscurity. The problem of freedom can not be
solved in this way, for in the sphere of natural law
there is no freedom. Nobody has brought out this
contrast better than Kant, who insisted upon the
natural capacity of the human will to lay down
moral laws for itself. On the basis of these laws
freely given there arises a realm of good persons,
voluntarily true to duty, setting no other law for
themselves than what can be a maxim for their
neighbors also. Kant's moral man is not the indi
vidual man, but the universal man. This capacity
of laying down the moral law in universal terms
can not be drawn out by some mysterious power
from within; it depends on education, on instruc
tion of every kind. Philosophy and history must
contribute their share, especially history. But a
clear idea of what morality is must exist before the
matter supplied by history can be justly discrim
inated. Is there not in this a danger of simple rela
tivism? Is not to comprehend everything to par
don everything? So one sees in monism how‑the
distinction between good and evil is faint or passes
away altogether. The only solution is in practise.
The constant exercise of the feeling of duty with
its practical discrimination leads to virtue. Chris
tian morality is, in the first place, autonomous, de
pendent on nothing outside of it. The morality of
Jesus and of Paul is concerned with the inner man,
is deep, pure, and true. Its expression is conditioned
by the prevalent ideas of the time as is seen in the
eschatological expectations of the early Christians.
The characteristics of Roman Catholic morality are
its dependence on authority and its casuistic develolr

S
ment. It is obvious that in the absence of independence man ceases to be a moral being. So the surrender of one's moral freedom from pious motives is evil. The same criticism must be based on the absolute dependence of Protestants on the actual letter of the Bible. In the scientific sense this is immoral, it violates the freedom of the Christian man.
The English word morality is connected with the Latin mos, " custom." The German Sitte contains the same idea, since it means " man‑
	g. Con‑	ner of life," " usage " in a general ex
	clusion.	ternal sense, or refers to an internal
		characteristic. Thus it appears that
in wide circles the customary is regarded as the
good and the proper, morality therefore meaning
what is accepted through the force of custom,
hardly to be differentiated from habit. Naturally
these traditional customs can be good or bad, but
in their origin they are natural; without the force
of custom social institutions, such as the family
and the State, are incomprehensible. In these
forms, of course, morality is at work, but custom
does not make morality. Through processes of
change the old and the new custom contend for the
mastery. Forms of morality or immorality come
into question in these processes only from the fact
that the persons who take part in them are by na
ture moral beings. It is through morality that the
individual man emancipates himself from custom,
establishes his freedom, and creates a place where
he can legislate by himself for himself so far as his
conduct is concerned. In the ethics of the New
Testament the word " old " is almost always used
interchangeably with bad and new is equivalent to
good; in dogma, with its acknowledgment of orig
inal sin, bad is anterior to good. Both Jesus and
Paul, in their contests with old traditions and old
customs, were contending for the sphere of free
dom. Yet a revolutionary attitude against custom
such as is found in Rousseau and in the whole ro
mantic school up to Nietzsche has no absolute
moral worth in itself. The question is complicated,
old customs give way, but custom itself does not
disappear, novel teachings and novel practises be
come themselves customs, as is seen in the case of
the Social Democratic party in Germany with its
claim not only to erect a political program but to
control the details of the life of its individual mem
bers. Advocates of the new may, besides, easily
confuse ethical with esthetic interests. It must be
remembered, too, that traditions which at one
time possess a moral value may lose that character
if they are not sincerely appropriated by those who
maintain them. Custom is not the source of mo
rality, but it is the ground on which morality can
work. The Church above all is an institution which
creates custom; but in its reformed Evangelical
type it is bound to adhere to its original claim and
purpose of giving the freest play in custom to mo
rality. In popular usage, the word morality has
come to have a restricted sense. Associations for
improving morality have brought up practical prob
lems and numerous proposals for solving them.
There is only one morality, the self‑legislation of a
personality under the control of the categorical
imperative. Practical questions, no matter how
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	Xor=ty
novel they may be, can be answered only under the
influence of the old ethics. For each person moral
freedom is decisive; and similarly for the entire
social whole and its conduct as a whole, which is
nothing but the working together of moral in
dividual decisions. See ETHICS; and MORALISTS,
BRITISH.	(MARTIN RADE.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The principal works of Schleiermacher bearing upon the subjeetare: GrundlinieneinerKrUikderbisherigen Sittanlehre, Berlin, 1803; Entwurf tines Systems der Sittendehre, ed. A. Schweizer, Gotha, 1835; Grundrise der philosophiechen Ethik, ed. D. A. Twesten, Berlin, 1841; Philosophische Sittenlehre ed. J. H. von Kirehmann, ib. 1870; Chriatliche Sittenlehre, ed. L. Jonas, Gotha, 1891. Discussions of the ethics of Kant and Schleiermacher are named under the articles on these philosophers. A considerable list of works germane to the subject will be found under ETHIcs. Consult further: R. Rothe, Theolopische Ethik, 4 vols., Wittenberg, 1868‑71; G. Rilmelin, Ueber den Begrdf tines sozialen Gesetzes, Freibv_‑g. 1875; idem, Ueber daa Wesen der Gewohnheit, ib., 1881; L. Wiese Ueber den aittlichen Wert gegebener Formen, Berlin, 1878; T. Hoppe, Christliche Sitte, Hanover, 1883; D. Frisk, Ueber doe Wesen der Sitte, Heilbronn, 1884; R. von Meting, Der Zweck im Recht, 2 vols., Leipsie, 1898; C. Stange, Einleitung der Ethik, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1900‑01; M. W entscher, Ethik, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1902‑05; B. Bauch, Luther and Kant, Berlin, 1904; H. Cohen, Ethik des reinen Willem, Berlin, 1904; W. Heremann, Ethik, Tiibingen, 1904; W. Koppelman, Kritik des sittlichen Bewusatwins, Berlin, 1904; F. Troeltsch, Politische Ethik and Chriatentum, Gottingen, 1904.
MORAN, mo‑ran', PATRICK FRANCIS: Roman Catholic archbishop of Sydney, Australia, and cardinal‑priest of Santa Susanna; b. at Leighlinbridge (71 m. s.w. of Carlow), County Carlow, Ireland, Sept. 16, 1830. He was educated at the Irish College of St. Agatha at Rome from 1842 to 1856, and in 1856 was appointed professor of Hebrew in the College of the Propaganda, as well as vice‑president of the Irish College. From 1866 to 1872 he was private secretary to Cardinal Cullen, besides being a professor in the seminary at Dublin. In 1871 he was consecrated titular bishop of Olba to be coadjutor to the bishop of Ossory, whom he succeeded in the full administration of the diocese in the following year. In 1884 he was elevated to the archdiocese of Sydney, and within a year was created cardinal. He is a member of the Congregations of the Consistory, Bishops and Regulars, the Propaganda, and Indulgences. He has written, among other works, Memoirs of the Most Reverend 0. Plunket, Archbishop of Armagh (Dublin, 1861); Historical Sketch of the Persecutions suffered by the Catholics of Ireland under the Rule of Cromwell and the Puritans (1862); Essays on the Origin, Doctrines, and Discipline of the Early Irish Church (1864); History of the Catholic Archbishops of Dublin since the Reformation, i (1864); Spicilegium Ossoriense: being a Collection of original Letters and Papers illustrative of the History of the Irish Church from the Reformation. to 1800 (3 series, 1874,84) ; Irish Saints in Great Britain (1879); Catholic Prayer Book and Manual of Meditations (1883); Occasional Papers (1890); History of the Catholic Church in Australasia (Sydney, 1897); The Catholics of Ireland under the Penal Laws in the Eighteenth Century (London, 1899); The Three Patrons of Ireland (1905); and The Priests and People of Ireland (1905). He has also edited M. Archdall's 11Toraastieon Htbernirum: or, A History of the Ab‑

More
Norsts	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	4
bies, Priories, and other Religious Houses in Ireland (Dublin, 1871‑73) and Acta Sancti Brendani (1872).
MORATA, OLIMPIA: Italian Protestant; b. at Ferrara 1526; d. at Heidelberg Oct. 26, 1555. She received a thorough education in Latin under the direction of her father, the Humanist Fulvio Pellegrini, who lived at the court of Ferrara as teacher of the Princes Ippolito and Alfonso, and in Greek under the Protestant Kilian Sinapi (Senf). In 1540 Olimpia was drawn to the court as companion and fellow pupil of Princess Anna of Este; and " soon shone as a star in the choir of the Duchess Renata." She likewise took part in producing, before Paul 111., 1543, the Adelphi of Terence; the leading rbles falling to the ducal princes and princesses. Her life in court came to an end in 1548 by reason of the marriage of the princesses. Soon after she was stricken by the sudden death of her father, and her return to court did not eventuate, possibly because of her Lutheran bent and the duke's opposition to that tendency. She married, in 1550, the physician Grundler of Schweinfurt. In spring the young couple journeyed across the Alps, taking with them Olimpia's brother, a lad of eight years, with a view to fixing their home at Schweinfurt, in the following October. Olimpia's letters testify to the happiness of her marriage, and to her deep Evangelical piety. In 1553 the so‑called " wild Margrave " Albrecht of Brandenburg‑Ansbach captured the town of Schweinfurt, after the mercenaries of the bishop had camped about the town and introduced the plague. The capture of the city was attended with murder and plundering, from which Grundler barely saved his life, and fled with Olimpia through the Spessart and Odenwald, finding shelter finally in the castle of the count of Erbach. He contrived to obtain a medical professorship at Heidelberg in 1554; ‑ but afflictions and hardships had undermined his wife's health, and she died in the very next year. A‑ contagious disease soon carried off her husband and her brother, and all were laid to rest in the cemetery of St. Peter's Church, where their resting‑place is marked by a gravestone with a touching inscription. The town of Schweinfurt has also marked the house in which Olimpia dwelt, with a tablet inscribed:
	Vilis et exilis domus hoc quamvis, habitatrix
	Clara tamen claram sat facit et celebrem.
" A famous woman dwelling in this house,
		Though cheap and poor it be,
	Has by her simple dwelling there
		Made its celebrity."
		K. BENRATH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Her Opera., including her letters, were edited by C. 3. ‑Curione, Basel, 1558, 1562, 1570, 1580. Biographies are by G. A. Nolten, Frankfort, 1775; R. Turnbull, Boston, 1846; and (best) by J. Bonnet, Paris, 1850. Consult also B. Fontana, Renata di Franeia, ii. 283 aqq., Rome, 1893; E. Rodocanachi, Une protectrice de la reforms en Italie et en France. Renke de France, duchesse de Ferrare, Paris, 1896.
MORAVIANS. See UNITY OF THE BRETHREN.
MORE, HANNAH: English authoress and philanthropist; b. at Stapleton (3 m. n. of Bristol) Feb. 2,1745; d. at Clifton (a suburb of Bristol) Sept. 7, 1833. She was educated at Bristol by her father, who was the village schoolmaster. At the age of
sixteen she produced a pastoral drama, entitled The Search after Happiness (not published until 1773), and in 1774 the tragedy The Inflexible Captive, and several poems; in 1777 a tragedy, Percy (brought out by Garrick, and played for fourteen nights); and in 1779 her last tragedy, The Fatal Falsehood. But, her views having changed, after Garrick's death in 1779, she declared that she did not " consider the stage, in its present state, as becoming the appearance or countenance of a Christian; on which account she thought proper to renounce her dramatic productions in any other light than as mere poems." Henceforth she turned her attention to religious themes and non‑dramatic poetry, and wrote very many pieces, long and short. Of these the most famous are the popular tales in the monthly publication entitled The Cheap Repository, begun in Bristol, 1795. Such stories as Parley the Porter, Black Giles the Poacher, and above all, The Shepherd of Salisbury Plains, have not only been very widely circulated, but have endeared their author to many households. Not read much to‑day, but once very popular, are: Thoughts on the Manners of the Great (1788); Religion of the Fashionable World (1791); Strictures on the Modern System of Female Education (London, 1799); Hints toward Forming the Character of a Young Princess (1805; she had been recommended by Bishop Porteus for governess to the little Princess Charlotte, daughter of George III., but court‑etiquette required a lady of rank for this position); Cwlebs in Search of a Wife (1809; her most popular work, ten editions having been.sold in first year); Practical Piety (1811); Christian Morals (1813); Essay on the Character and Writings of St. Paul (1815); Modern Sketches (1819); Spirit of Prayer (1825). Her collected works were published 8 vols., London, 1801; 19 vols., 1818, in 11 vols.,, 1830. Her poems were collected in 1816 and 1829.
When she gave up writing for the stage, she also turned her back upon the fashionable and brilliant society in London, in which she had lived as a favorite for five years, and retired to Bristol, and then, in 1786, to her " little thatched hermitage " at Cowslip Green, at Wrington, ten miles from Bristol. There, in 1790, she was joined by her sisters, who had long kept school at Bristol; and together, upon the suggestion of Wilberforce, they began to establish Sunday‑schools and other religious and philanthropic meetings at Cheddar and a number of other places. In these, Hannah taught the Bible and catechism. In 1802 they all moved to Barley Wood. In 1828 Hannah, who survived her sisters, removed to Clifton, where she died. Hannah More was in every way a remarkable woman. She was considered one of the great reformers of contemporary manners and morals. Her philanthropic labors were abundant and successful. She received, it is said, upward of thirty thousand pounds sterling for her writings, and bequeathed ten thousand pounds sterling for pious and charitable purposes.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Her life has been written by H. Thompson,
	London 1838 (best); W. Roberts, 4 vols. ib. 1835, abridged
	ed., 1872; C. L. Balfour, ib. 1854; A. J. Buckland, ib. 1882;
	and C. L. Yonge, ib. 1888. Consult: L. B. Walford, Twelve
	English Authoresses, London, 1892; A. Birrell, Essays about
	Men, Women and Books, ib. 1894; DNB, xxxviii. 414‑420.

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Xor°ta
	More
MORE, HENRY: One of the most distinguished members of the school of Cambridge Platonists (q.v.); b. at Grantham (23 m. s.s.w. of Lincoln), Lincolnshire, 1614; d. at Cambridge Sept. 1, 1687. He was educated at Eton and Christ's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1635; M.A., 1639) and was elected to a fellowship, being ordained about the same time. He passed practically the entire remainder of his life within the walls of his college, refusing all preferment except a prebend at Gloucester, which he held for a short time in 1676, though three collegiate headships, the deanery of St. Patrick's, Dublin, and two bishoprics were offered to him. He was strongly attached to the cause of Church and king, even in the period of parliamentary supremacy, and was an indefatigable and voluminous author. His works, by their mystical character, did not commend themselves to the practical and skeptical eighteenth century; but John Wesley praised them highly, and Coleridge declared that they contained more original, enlarged, and elevating views of the Christian dispensation than he had met with in any other single volume. His best‑known book is the Divine Dialogues, 1668, in which various speakers discuss the attributes and providence of God. This book contains in a condensed form most of his characteristic views in philosophy and religion. In his method and the basis of his thought he occupies the common ground of the Cambridge school. He was a vigorous advocate of the rights of reason, and the main scope of his studies was to demonstrate the rationality of the Christian religion. But while reason was to him the only sure foundation of divine truth, he advocated strongly the recognition of a higher principle " more noble and inward than reason itself," to which he gives the name of " divine sagacity." The emphasis laid by him upon the fact that in order to apprehend higher divine truth it must be approached with a right disposition as well as a free and unprejudiced intellect became the key‑note of his whole system. With such a rational basis for his thought, it is surprising that he developed so strong an element of mysticism and even of credulity. He was a firm believer in the current tales of witchcraft and recounts at great length stories of ghosts and apparitions, setting them forth as attestations of the supernatural. In his Antidote against Atheism, 1652, the first and second books present the theistic argument in an acute and logical manner, while the third is entirely devoted to tales of this kind. His tendency to mystical extravagance partially explains why, after being at first an ardent admirer of Descartes, he came later to oppose him even with bitterness, and the Manual of Metaphysics, 1671, was expressly designed to refute Cartesianism. His aim, and that of the Cambridge philosophy in general, was the vindication of a true sphere of spiritual being; the proof and definition of incorporeal substances seems to him the sole object of metaphysics. His Manual of Ethics, 1666, is the clearest and most compact of his works. In it he defines morality as " the art of living well and happily "; goodness and happiness are to him merely different aspects of the highest law of our being, or what the older moralists spoke of as the summum
bonum (see Goon, THE HIGHEST). Moral goodness is simple and absolute; right reason is the judge of its nature, essence, and truth, but its attractiveness and beauty are felt by a certain capacity, the " boniform faculty," not unlike the " moral sense " of later writers.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. Ward, The Life of . . . Dr. H. More, London, 1710; J. Tulloch, Rational Theology . . . in
England in the 17th Century, ii. 303 109, Edinburgh, 1872;
DNB. wlxviii. 421‑423.

MORE, SIR THOMAS: Lord chancellor of England, the foremost English representative of the learning and aspirations of the earlier Renaissance, was born in Milk Street, Cheapside, London, Feb. 7, 1478; he was executed on Tower Hill, London, July 6, 1535. His father, Sir John More, a lawyer, was a judge, and his maternal grand‑
	Life.	father, Thomas Graunger, was sheriff
		of London. More attended St. An
thony's School in Threadneedle Street and in 1491
became a member of the household of John Mor
ton (q.v.), archbishop of Canterbury and chancel
lor, on whose recommendation he was sent to Ox
ford, entering Canterbury Hall (afterward absorbed
in Christ Church) about 1492. He was not a plod
ding scholar, but he learned to read Greek readily
and to write good Latin; he also studied French,
mathematics, and history and mastered the viol
and the flute. After about two years, however, he
was back in London studying law in accordance
with his father's wish. He was speedily called to
the bar, became a highly esteemed lecturer on law
at Furnival's Inn, and later ranked among the first
lawyers of England. Between 1499 and 1503 he
passed through a period of strong religious emotion
and contemplated becoming a priest. He adopted
a severely ascetic life and even thought of joining
the Franciscans. At this time he gave lectures on
Augustine's " City of God " in the church of St.
Lawrence Jewry, of which his former Oxford tutor,
William Grocyn, was rector.
Ever afterward More remained abstemious in life and wore sackcloth next to his skin. In 1503, however, he returned with ardor to his profession and entered the field of politics. He became member of parliament (1504), undersheriff of London (1510), envoy to Flanders to negotiate in favor of English commerce (1515) and to Calais to arrange disputes with France (1516), master of requests (i.e., examiner of petitions presented to the king on his progresses through the country) and privy councilor (1518), subtreasurer to the king (1521), speaker of the house of commons (1523), high steward of Cambridge University and chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster (1525), and succeeded Wolsey as lord chancellor in 1529. He was knighted in 1521. Not favoring the divorce of Catharine of Aragon and disapproving of ecclesiastical changes desired by the king, he resigned as chancellor in May, 1532. For a year and a half he lived in retirement mainly engaged in religious controversy with Tyndale and Frith. But he was too notable a man to be suffered to maintain even a tacit opposition to the royal wishes and policy. He barely escaped conviction in connection with the proceedings against the Holy Maid of Kent (see BAR‑

Xore
Morgan
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
8
TON, ELIZABETH) and in April, 1534, was, committed to the Tower for refusing to take an oath impugning the pope's authority. In spite of entreaties and‑threats he steadfastly refused to soknowledge the king as head of the Church and July 1, 1535, was indicted of high treason. On his trial he declared that he had made a seven years' study of the history of the papacy and was convinced that it rested on divine law and prescription; he admitted that he had never consented to the king's marriage with Anne Boleyn. He was found guilty and sentenced to be hanged, but wag ultimately beheaded by royal commutation of the sentence.
To continue faithful to principle no matter what it cost, to be honest, kindly, ever active in some good and useful work, were the guiding motives of More's life. When he first entered parliament he successfully opposed extortionate demands of Henry
VIL, who, so it is said, imprisoned More as and fined his father in consequence.
a Man. His brilliant success in public life later
was won by no compromising selfseeking, and he dared antagonize the powerful Wolsey and his master when duty demanded. In the practise of his profession he gave clients disinterested service and strove to prevent unjust and frivolous suits. As chancellor he despatched the business of his court with an unprecedented rapidity and often settled disputes without trial; he listened to the poor as readily as to the rich and was deaf to pleas of kindred and friends. He advised all judges to temper the rigor of the law with equity. He had invincible courage, an active mind, and ready wit, and was an inveterate jester, and with an element of whimsicality in his character. In 1505 he married Jane Colte of Newhall, near Chehnesford, Essex, who died about 1511. More then married a widow, seven years older than himself, described as " neither beautiful nor well educated, but a good housekeeper." His devotion to duty and strong command over himself made More a good husband and both marriages were happy. Indeed, it is in his family and private life perhaps that he is most winsome. In 1523 he bought land in Chelsea and built there a famous house (demolished in 1740; its site is marked by the present Beaufort Street). More's hospitality was boundless and of the finest and best. He sought eagerly the company of the men of the new learningLinacre and Grocyn after they came from Oxford to London, John Colet and William Latimer, the grammarian William Lily, and others like them in England. He met Erasmus when the latter first visited England in 1497; thereafter they corresponded regularly. Erasmus was one of the first to be entertained by More in his house after his marriage and he finished his Marie encomium (i.e., " Praise of Folly ") under the same hospitable roof ,on another visit in 1508; the book is dedicated to More and the title is a play upon his name. At Antwerp in 1515 More met Peter Giles (lEgidius), and he added Buddeeus to the circle of his friends at the field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520. Holbein, the painter, introduced by Erasmus, came to the Chelsea house in 1526 and is said to have stayed three years. He painted pictures of More and his
family. More's interest in art was strong and he filled his house with the curious things dear to the collector.
He was scrupulously exact in all religious observances, yet encouraged simplicity in the church service; but he was not insensible to ecclesiastical abuses. He wished, however, for‑ reform of the Church from within, orderly, and guided by the regular and competent authorities. Furthermore, he saw beneath the surface and deprecated removal of. one evil by setting up another: As chancellor he pronounced severe judgments in religious cases and has been sharply criticized therefor. But his course herein was consistent with his character and his life, and his motives were correct. He hated heretics, he wrote to Erasmus‑their vices, not their persons, he explained in the Apology (chap. xlix.; the work was published in 1533; in it More defends his course in controversy and advocates severe treatment of heretics). More was beatified by Pope Leo XIII. in 1886.
While a law student More wrote verses and comedies " for his pastime." He entered the field of religious controversy in 1523. Henry VIII. (perhaps with More's help) issued an Aaser6o septem sacra mentorum (1521) in answer to Luther's " Babylonish Captivity." Luther replied
His vehemently and More then took up the Writings. dispute in an Opus quo refellit Lutherii calumniaa (London, 1523) under the pseudonym of William Ross. His first controversial book in English was A Dialogue . . . wherein be Treated Divers Matters . . . Touching the Pe8tilent Sect of Luther and Tyndale (London, 1529). It was written chiefly against Tyndale and was followed by a series of similar writings which was interrupted only by More's death. His manner in controversy was in no better taste than that of others of the time. His translation (from the Latin) of the life of Pico della Mirandola by the latter's nephew is significant (printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1510) as the Italian philosopher was in a certain sense the model of More's life. An incomplete History of Richard 111. was printed in an incorrect version in 1543 and then from an authentic copy in More's Works (1557); there is a Latin version, which differs somewhat from the English and is thought by some to have been written by cardinal Morton and served as the basis of the English, in the 1566 edition of More's Latin works. More's famous book, the Utopia, consists of two parts, the second written while he was in the Netherlands in 1515, the first in London the next year. Erasmus arranged for its publication (Louvain, Dec., 1516; 2d ed., Paris, 1517; 3d ed., illustrated by Holbein, Basel, 1518). More relates that in Antwerp he was introduced by Peter Giles to one Raphael Hythloday, a Portuguese, who had just returned from extensive travels in the New World. At the mention of England in the conversation which followed Hytbloday criticized its social condition and laws, especially in relation to theft. The land, he said, was overrun by discharged soldiers after the frequent and fruitless wars; an idle gentry maintained idle servants who were liable to lose their places by the death of their masters; and the new

7	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
		Xoram
landlords were raising rents, establishing sheep
farms, and evicting husbandmen. The sufferers
must steal to live;. and then the law hanged them.
All this was to make thieves first and then punish
them with a penalty too severe for the offense.
More advised Hythloday to enter the service of
some prince. But the latter replied that it would
be futile; princes were too bent on enlarging their
dominions and governed for their own ambition,
not the good of their subjects; moreover, they would
not listen to his remedy, which was community of
goods. More expressed doubts of the remedy, and
Hythloday replied that it worked in Utopia, an
island which he had visited in his travels. Then
follows the description of Utopia (equivalent to
"Nowhere"; from Gk. ou, "not," and topoa,
" place ") in the second book. It is an ideal com
monwealth (in Hythloday's estimation) where vices
do not flourish and poverty is unknown because
there is no private property and no money. Agri
culture is the chief industry and all persons work.
Sanitary conditions are carefully looked after in the
cities. Magistrates are elected. Meals are enjoyed
at a table common to thirty families. Travel is not
permitted without leave of the magistrate. War is
considered inglorious, but is waged in self‑defense,
and then they think it more creditable to conquer
by guile than by prowess. Ptisoners of war and
those guilty of moral offenses are made slaves.
There is religious toleration with slight restriction.
The book is a keen satire on social and economic
conditions. Certain it is that judged by his other
writings and his practise More's political philoso
phy was not that of Utopia. In the book itself he
counsels Hythloday so to order " that which you
can not turn to good that it be not very bad. For
it were not possible for all things to be well unless
all men were good. Which I think will no t be yet
this good many years." The Utopia was written
in Latin; translations were issued as follows: French,
Paris, 1550, 2d ed., Lyons, 1559; others, Amster
dam, 1643 and 1715, Paris, 1780; EngWh, by Ralph
Robinson, London, 1551; by Gilbert Burnet, 1684;
by Arthur Cayley, London, 1808; and by V. Paget,
New York, 1909; German, Basel, 1524; Leipsic,
1753, 1846; Italian, Venice, 1548; Dutch, Antwerp,
1553, 1562; Spanish, Madrid, 1790.
More's nephew, William Raatell, published a collected edition of his English writings at London, 1557. His Latin works were collected at Basel, 1563, more fully, Louvain, 1565, and most complete collection of all at Frankfort and Leipsic, 1689.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The original Life was by William Roper (More'. son‑in‑law), The Life, Arraipnement, and Death of . . . Sir Thomas More, Paris, 1626, later editions, London, 1716, 1729, 1886 (in the Camelot Claaaiea, prefixed to the Utopia); another was by C. More (the scholar's great‑grandson), London, 1626; T. Stapleton's Tres Thomm, Douay, 1588, is valuable. Original and valuable material is found in the Epistles of Erasmus. The best modern account is by T. E. Bridgett, London, 1891. Other lives or sketches are: J. Hoddesdon, London, 1652; G. T. von Rudhart, Nuremberg, 1829; W. J. Walter, London, 1840; J. Mackintosh, ib. 1844; C. Wordsworth, in Christian Ecclesiastical Biography, 4 vols., ib. 1853; F. Seebohm in Oxford Reformers of 1488, ib., 1867, new ed., 1896; D. Nisard, in htudea sir le renaissance, Paris, 1877; J. H. Marsden, Philomorus, London, 1878; R. Baumatark, Freiburg,1879; A. M. Stewart, London,1887; T. Ziegler, T. Morua and wine Schryft von den heal Utopia, Stras‑
burg, 1889; W. H. Hutton, London, I895; Story of Blessed TMnwe More, by a Nun of Tyburn Couvsni, ib. 1908; DNB, xaaviii. r28‑449.
MORELAND, WILLIAM HALL: Protestant Episcopal bishop of Sacramento; b. at Charleston, S. C., Apr. 9, 1861. He was graduated from the University of the South, Sewanee, Tenn. (1881), and at Berkeley Divinity School, Middletown, Conn. (1884). He was ordered deacon in the same year and was advanced to the priesthood in 1885. After being curate of Christ Church, Hartford, Conn. (1884‑55), he was rector of the Church of the Good Shepherd, Nashua, Vt. (1885‑93) and of St. Luke's, San Francisco, Cal. (1893‑98). In 1898 he was consecrated first bishop of Sacramento. He has written What is Christianity f (Milwaukee, 1887), and The Church or the Churches, Which t (1894).

MORELSCHISI, mo"‑rel‑tshi'ki (" Immolators "): A fanatical dissenting asst of Siberia and other parts of Russia, so celled from their practise of voluntary suicide in a pit filled with combustibles on fire. Such a death is believed to insure a happy immortality. The ceremony of self‑immolation takes place once a year in a retired spot.

MORGAN, GEORGE CAMPBELL: English Congregationalist; b. at Tetbury (22 m. n.e. of Bristol), Gloucestershire, Dec. 9, 1883. He was educated at the Douglas School, Cheltenham, from which he was graduated in 1881, and after teaching in the Islington Wesleyan day schools in Birmingham in 1882, and being master in the Jewish Collegiate School, Birmingham (1883,86), was a mission preacher (1886‑88). In 1889 he was ordained to the ministry of his denomination, and held pastorates at Stone, Staffordshire (1889‑91), Rugeley, Staffordshire (1891‑93), Westminster Road, Birmingham (1893‑97), and New Court, Tollington Park, London (1897‑1901). He was then Northfield Bible Conference Extension lecturer from 1901 to 1904, and since 1904 has been pastor of the Westminster Congregational Chapel, Buckingham Gate, London. He has written: Diaeipleahip (London, 1897); The Hidden Year. at Nazareth (1898); God's Methods with Man (1898); Whereinf (1898); Life's Problems (1899); The Spirit of God (1900); The Ten Commandments (1901); God's Perfect Will (1901); A Firs Century Message to Twentieth Century Christians (1902); True Estimate of Life and How to Live (1903); Evangelism (1904); Crises of the Christ (1905); To Die is Gain (1905); The Fulfillment of Life (1905); The Practice of Prayer (1906); The Parables of the Kingdom (1907); The Simple Things of the Christian Life (1907); Christian Principles (1908); The hlisaionary Manifesto (1909); and The Teaching of the Lesson; Commentary on the International Sunday School Lessons for . . . 1910 (1909).

MORGAN, THOMAS: English Deist; d. 1713. He was of Welsh descent and was educated at the expense of his friends. In 1716 he became pastor of a Presbyterian church at Marlborough, Wiltshire. Though very orthodox at the time, he soon after adopted Arian views, and was dismissed. He then took up the study of medicine, practised in Bristol,

Xorgaaatio marriage
Tgormone	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
and then went to London to take up literary work. He was known as a free‑thinker and styled himself " Christian Deist." He left numerous writings, the principal of which was the theological work, The Moral Philosopher, in a Dialogue between Philalethes, a Christian Deist, and Theirphanes, a Christian Jew (London, 1737‑40). See DEISM, I., § 7.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The literature under DEISM, and DNB,
	xxxix: 35‑38.
MORGANATIC MARRIAGE. See MARRIAGE, L, § 10.

MORIAH (°° appearance of Jehovah "): The hill upon which Abraham was to offer Isaac, according to divine direction (G en. xxii. 2), and on which, later, the temple was built (II Chron. iii. 1). By "the land of Moriah," in the first passage, is meant the " land in which Mount Moriah was " (cf. "the land of Jazer," Num. xxxii. 1). Moriah was probably not the usual designation of the temple hill, because it does not occur in the pre‑exilian books. See TEMPLE.

MO RIGIA, GIACOMO ANTONIO. See BARNAIiITEa.

MORISON, JAMES: Scotch Secession Church, theologian and founder of the Evangelical Union; b. at Bathgate (17 m. w. of Edinburgh) Feb. 14, 1816; d. at Glasgow Nov. 13, 1893. He was the son of Robert Morison, minister of the Secession Church of Bathgate; received his early education at the parish school and the academy of the town; entered the University of Edinburgh in 1830, proving an excellent student and a prizeman in many of his studies; studied theology in the Theological Hall of the United Session Church, and while there was especially influenced by Prof. John Brown, then occupying the chair of exegetical theology, though his independent and liberal habit of thought brought him into conflict with the teaching of other professors. He was licensed as a probationer May 7, 1839, and his first appointment was to the pariah of Cabrach, west of Aberdeen, the congregation of which was composed of agriculturists. To meet their needs he adopted a simple and direct dealing with the hearers of his sermons. In his studies of the Scriptures for practical purposes he discovered that he could preach that Christ died for all men, and that each was authorized to say "Christ loved me and gave himself for me:' A wide‑spread revival of religion was the result. Morison became an evangelist and his service was sought in many parts of the north of Scotland. To meet the demand made upon him by letters and otherwise for instruction he published a short tract entitled The Question, "What must 1 do to be saved 1"' Answered (1840), in which he advocated the doctrine of a universal atonement, and this was regarded as a departure from the creed of his Church. On Apr. 14, 1840, he received a call from Clerks Lane Secession Church, Kilmarnock, which he accepted. On Oct. 1, 1840, the presbytery met to ordain him, when he was severely taken to task for the publication referred to. Some of the members refused to go on with the ordination, until he promised to suppress the offending tract. Their scruples were overcome by his promise to withdraw the publica‑
tion from sale, and the service was carried through. Under his ministry the church became crowded and the center of a religious movement, the influence of which was felt widely. By his labors with voice and pen the thoughts of thousands were turned to consider specially the doctrines of the third chapter of the Westminster Confession of Faith. Some of the older ministers became alarmed and steps were taken to silence the young man who preached that Christ died for all men, and that through faith in him the worst sinner might have eternal life. He was arraigned before the presbytery on Mar. 2, 1841, on two charges: first, for teaching, among other doctrines, a universal atonement; and, second, for not havIng legally prevented a gentleman in London from publishing his tract. He was admonished and suspended from the exercise of his ministry until he should retract his errors, upon which he protested and appealed to the synod, the highest court of the Secession Church. This enabled him to continue his work, and in this he was supported by his whole congregation. The synod met in Glasgow on June 8, 1841, and the issue was that he was expelled from the United Secession Church. The controversy produced by the trial affected the whole of Scotland, and the conduct of the synod in condemning the doctrine of a universal atonement led many to consider other doctrines of the Westminster Confession as well. Morison continued to minister to his flock with renewed energy and increased success. His own doctrinal views became more liberal. The conclusion he came to shortly afterward was that God, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, desired and provided the means for the salvation of all men, and if any were not saved it was because they resisted the Holy Spirit and refused to believe the Gospel. In 1843 Morison, with a few other ministers, originated the Evangelical Union (q.v.) for the purpose of combining the churches which had been formed to preach and defend his views of divine truth. A theological hall was instituted for the training of young men for the ministry, of which he was the principal and professor of New‑Testament exegesis from 1843 till his death in 1893. He became also the pastor of North Dundas Street Evangelical Union Church, Glasgow, 1851, and retained the pastorate till his death.
	Dr. Morison was an extensive author. His early
writings were largely practical and controversial.
Besides a number of pamphlets, he published: The
Nature of the Atonement (Glasgow, 1841); The Ex
tent of the Atoms (1841); Saving Faith (1842);
Lectures on the Ninth Chapter of . . Romans
(Kilmarnock, 1849); A Critical Exposition of the
Third Chapter of . . . Romans (London, 1866);
a commentary on Matthew (1870) and one on Mark
(1873); St. Paul's Teaching on Sanctification (1886);
Sheaves of Ministry (1890). The Evangelical Re
pository; A Quarterly Magazine of Theological Lit
erature was edited and in great part written by Dr.
Morison (1854‑67). 	WILLIAM ADAwsoN.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Biographies have been written by w:
	Adameon, London, 1898; and O. Smeaton, Edinburgh,
1901. Consult further: F. Ferguson, HiBE. of the Evangelical Union, Glasgow, 1876; Memorial Volume of the Ministerial Jubilee of Principal Morison, 1889: DNB, xxxix.b7‑58.

9	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Morganatic Marriage
		Mormons
		MORMONS.
I. Official (Mormon) Statement.	Summary of the Book of Mormon (§ 3).
	Joseph Smith; Early Life and Vis‑	Its Literary Character (§ 4).
		ions (¢ 1).	Theories of its Source (§ 5).
Founding of the Church; First The Founder's Character; Opportunism
	Period (§ 2).		(¢ 6)•
Movement to Utah (§ 3).	The New Church; Various Centers
The " Utah war " (§ 4).	(¢ 7).
	Doctrines and Organization (§ 5).	Industrial Development; Opposition
	Polygamy; Conflicts with the Gov‑		(§ 8)'
			Developing Organization; Missionary
		erament (§ 6).		Operations (§ 9).
II. Critical (Non‑Mormon) Statement.	History, 1836‑38 (§ 10).
The Founder's Family; Environ‑	Nauvoo Period; Polygamy; Smith's
	ment in Youth (§ 1).		Death (§ 11).
Translation of the Book of Mormon	Brigham Young;
	(§ 2).		(§ 12).
I. Official (Mormon) Statement:The Church
of Jesus Christ of Latter‑day Saints, commonly
called the " Mormon " Church, was organized Apr.
6, 1830, at Fayette, Seneca County, N. Y. Joseph
		Smith, its founder, was born at Sharon,
	z. Joseph Windsor County, Vt., Dec. 23, 1805,
	Smithy and moved with his parents in 1815
	Early to Palmyra, Wayne County, N. Y.,
	Life and and in 1819 to Manchester, N. Y. In
	Visions. the year 1820 a number of protracted
		revival meetings were held at that
place among the various sects, which resulted in
contention among the preachers who sought to in
fluence the new converts to join their respective
churches. Some of the members of the Smith fam
ily had joined the Presbyterian church, but Joseph,
then fourteen years of age, being unable to decide
which of these sects was right, held aloof from all,
but pondered upon the matter, knowing that all
could not be right. One day, while thus reflecting,
he opened the Bible at the epistle of James and
was deeply impressed with the promise in i. 5: " If
any of you lack wisdom, let him ask of God, that
giveth to all men liberally, and upbraideth not;
and it shall be given him." This passage aroused
his earnest attention and deep reflection, until he
decided to take it literally. Accordingly he re
tired to the woods near his father's house and
called upon the Lord in fervent prayer; while thus
engaged he beheld two glorious personages wrapped
in a brilliant light, standing near, but above him
in the air. One of them spoke to him, calling him
by name, and, pointing to the other, said, " This is
my beloved son, hear him." As soon as he was
able to speak, Joseph asked this personage which
of all the sects of Christendom he should join, and
was told to join none of them, for they were all
wrong; that the people drew near to the Lord with
their lips, but their hearts were far from him.
Among other things he was taught that the Gospel
of Christ in its power and simplicity was not among
men; but that shortly it should be restored again.
The vision closed and the youth was left to ponder
over the things he had both seen and heard. Three
years passed and on the evening of Sept. 21, 1823,
after he had retired for the night, he engaged in
prayer; while thus calling upon the Lord, the room
was filled with light and suddenly a messenger ap
peared at his bedside clothed in glory beyond de
scription, who called him by name and said he had
been sent from the presence of God, that his name
	Defiance of the United States
	Suppression of Polygamy; State
		hood (¢ 14).
	Late History; Present Status
		Q 15).
	Doctrinal System (§ 18).
	Ordinances in Theory and Practise
	Priesthqod and Government (¢ IS).
III. The Reorganized Church of Jesus
		Christ of Latter‑day Saints.
IV. Anti‑Mormon Movements.
Removal to Utah	To 1869 (¢ 1).
	From 1889 to the Present (§ 2).
I	was Moroni, that God had a work for Joseph to do, and that his name should be had for good and evil among all nations, kindred, and tongues. The
I,	angel declared that the Gospel in all its fulness was
	about to be restored, preparatory to the second
I	advent of Messiah, which was near at hand, and that this young man had been chosen as an instrument in the hands of the Lord in bringing about his purposes in the latter days. He was also informed that there was a record written on gold plates giving an account of the former inhabitants of the American continent, and the source from whence they sprang. These plates contained the fulness of the everlasting Gospel as delivered by the Savior to the inhabitants of this continent whom he visited after his resurrection; also there were two stones in silver bows deposited with the record, constituting what is called the Urim and Thummim which God had prepared for the purpose of translating the characters on the record. These stones were fastened to a breastplate. He was permitted to see these things in vision, also the place of deposit in the hill Cumorah, near Palmyra, N. Y. After receiving many visits from the angel, who unfolded to him many of the events about to take place, he received the plates on Sept. 22, 1827. These he subsequently translated through the medium of the Urim and Thummim and " the gift and power of God," which translation was published in 1830 as the Book of Mormon.
In 1829 Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery received the priesthood, which is divine authority, under the hands of Peter, James, and John, and by command of God, on Apr. 6, 1830, they
z. Found‑ organized the Church of Jesus Christ ing of the of Latter‑day Saints with six souls. Church; The next year the church numbered First several hundred members and moved
	Period.	to Kirtland, O., and also began to set
		tle in Jackson County, Mo., where, so
cording to their belief, the city Zion was to be built,
a holy city with a temple of surpassing splendor,
erected for the salvation of the souls of men. In
1833 the Saints who had located in Missouri were
driven from Jackson County; they had incurred
the ill‑will of the original settlers, partly on ac
count of their religion and partly because they were
abolitionists from the eastern states. They sought
refuge in Clay County, where they were permitted
to remain for a short time, but the opposition in
creased and they were forced to seek a home in the

Sormona	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	10
more thinly settled counties of Daviess and Caldwell, also in that state. In 1839 Gov. Lilburn W. Boggs issued an exterminating order against the Latter‑day Saints. Their prophet (Joseph Smith) and leading men were cast in prison and the people, after being forced to deed away their property, were driven from the state. In this destitute condition‑having been robbed and plundered of all they possessed‑they went to Illinois, where in 1839‑40, on the site of a previous settlement called Commerce, in Hancock County, they established the city of Nauvoo. The legislature granted them a liberal charter and the city grew rapidly, soon numbering several thousand inhabitants with over 2,000 comfortable homes. A temple was built according to plans their prophet claimed were revealed to him, and the work of salvation for the dead commenced. It is a teaching of the Saints that the Savior visited the spirits in prison, while his body was in the tomb, and taught them the Gospel. For this reason the Latter‑day Saints, in their temples, perform by proxy the rites of salvation, such as baptism, in behalf of the dead who die without a knowledge of the Gospel.
In 1844 a number of discontented parties, who had left the church, issued a paper at Nauvoo called the Expositor, in which the prophet, Joseph Smith, was bitterly assailed. The city council passed an ordinance declaring the printing‑office,
3. Move‑ where this paper was published, a
meat to nuisance, and it was destroyed by offi‑
	Utah.	tiers of the law. Joseph Smith was
		blamed for maintaining this nuisance,
and a warrant was issued for his arrest. He de
clared that if he were taken he would be killed,
and therefore, with his elder brother Hyrum and
a few faithful friends, crossed the Mississippi River
for the purpose of going to the Rocky Mountains.
This action created much excitement among some
of his followers who declared that in time of danger
he was fleeing from the flock. His reply to these
was, " If my life is of no value to my friends, it is
of none to myself." Returning to Nauvoo he sub
mitted to arrest, and with his brother Hyrum was
taken to Carthage, the county seat of Hancock.
There they were imprisoned. While .thus confined
and under pledge of protection by the governor, a
mob surrounded the jail on June 27, 1844, over
powered the guard and shot to death Joseph and
Hyrum Smith and severely wounded John Taylor.
After the assassination the twelve apostles, under
the leadership of Brigham Young, became the pre
siding quorum of the church, and by right of their
authority assumed control and were sustained by
the people. Instead of putting an end to " Mor
monism "the assassination of the leaders only in
creased its membership, and it began to spread
with renewed vigor. This caused the enemies of
the Latter‑day Saints to rage so fiercely that the
Saints were again driven from their homes in 1846.
Crossing the Mississippi River they made tempo
rary settlements in the territory of Iowa and in the
spring of 1847 the advance company of pioneers,
under the leadership of Brigham Young, left Win
ter Quarters on the west side of the Missouri River
near the present site of Omaha, for the Salt Lake
Valley in search of a new home. They arrived at
their destination Saturday, July 24, 1847, and de
cided to make it their permanent place of settle
ment. This little band remained in the valley for
some time, planting, building, surveying, and pre
paring the foundation of a city. Tf~e soil they found
parched and barren, save for the salt grass and
sage‑brush that abounded everywhere; there were
no trees excepting the scattering cotton‑woods that
lined the streams; but here they decided to re
main and trust in Providence. The soil was hard
and dry, so the pioneers diverted the water of City
Creek that it might moisten the ground which had
for unknown ages remained in its primitive state.
Before the summer was past most of the pioneers
left the valley and returned to Winter Quarters to
assist the Saints to gather to the Rocky Mountains.
That autumn other companies arrived, Salt Lake
City grew rapidly, and other settlements were
formed until they were scattered over the face of
the entire arid region. For a number of years the
Saints suffered extremely, being forced to boil raw
hides and dig sego and thistle roots for subsistence.
	Shortly after the settlement of Salt Lake Valley,
the " Mormons " set up the " provisional govern
ment of the State of Deseret," and petitioned Con
gress for admission into the Union. In 1850 the
		territory of Utah was created and
	4. The Brigham Young appointed governor.
	" Utah Four years later Col. E. J. Steptoe, of
	War." the United States Army, was ap
		pointed to succeed him but declined,
and Brigham Young was reappointed for a second
term. Most of the territorial officers were non‑resi
dents and were unfriendly to the " Mormons,"
which caused considerable friction. Reports were
carried to Washington to the effect that the people
in the territory were in rebellion, had no respect for
law, and had burned the public court records. In
fluenced by these false reports, and without an in
vestigation, the president of the United States
ordered an army to Utah to suppress the " rebel
lion." This is known in history as " The Utah
War," or " Buchanan's blunder." Alfred Cum
mings, who had been appointed governor to suc
ceed Brigham Young, came with the army. When
the Latter‑day Saints learned that the army was
on the way to suppress a supposed rebellion, their
indignation knew no bounds; they were filled with
alarm and forebodings of evil. The reports carried
to the president they knew to be false and his ac
tion unjustifiable. Many times they had been
driven and plundered by mobs under the guise of
law, therefore they resolved that they would resist
what they felt to be an unlawful invasion by a
hostile force. When the army approached the
borders the " Mormons " harassed it and burned
some of the supplies and in this way prevented it
from entering the territory before winter set in. The
Saints were determined, if forced to flee again, to
leave their lands as barren as they had found them,
not permitting their oppressors to reap the fruits
of their labors. As the army neared the valley, the
people moved southward, taking with them a few
necessary articles and provisions, leaving guards
behind with instructions to burn all dwellings and

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Mormons
destructible property and lay the country waste, should the army enter the valley with hostile intentions. By the interference of friends, however, the difficulties were adjusted. Governor Cummings entered the valley in advance of the army and was received with due respect and consideration. A few days later, after investigating matters, he sent a truthful report to the president in relation to affairs in Utah. A peace commission was sent and met with President Young and others in June, 1858, and peacefully concluded the unfortunate and unhappy difficulties. The army, under command of Gen. Albert Sidney Johnston, entered Salt Lake Valley June 26, 1858, and camped on the west side of the Jordan River; subsequently it marched to Cedar Valley, about forty miles south of Salt Lake City, and there located Camp Floyd. It remained in Utah until the breaking out of the Civil War.
In 1877 Brigham Young died and was succeeded in the presidency of the church by John Taylor, who was severely wounded at Carthage when Joseph and Hyrum Smith were killed. President Taylor died in 1887 and was succeeded by Wilford Woodruff, who, in 1890, issued the manifesto prohibiting plural marriages in the church. He died in 1898 and was succeeded by Lorenzo Snow, who died Oct. 10, 1901. Joseph F. Smith, nephew of the prophet Joseph Smith, is the present presiding officer. The membership of the church is about 400; 000 and the headquarters are in Salt Lake City.
The " Mormons " believe in the Trinity, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, as three separate personages, infinite and eternal; that men will be punished for their own sins and not suffer the penalty of Adam's
transgression; that Christ atoned for
g. Doc‑ original sin and that all mankind,
trines and through the atonement of Christ, may
Orgaaiza‑ be saved by obedience to the princition. ples of his Gospel, of which faith in
God, repentance from sin, baptism by immersion for the remission of sin, and the laying on of hands for the reception of the Holy Spirit, are essential. They believe that little children who die are redeemed without baptism through the blood of Christ which was shed for them, and that men must be called of God and ordained by those who hold authority to officiate in order to preach the Gospel and administer acceptably in its ordinances. The church organization comprises the officers found in the primitive Church, and they believe in the gifts of tongues, prophecy, revelation, visions, the divine power of healing, and all the gifts and blessings exercised by the Svior and his apostles. They accept the Bible as the word of God, and the Book of Mormon also as the word of God given to the ancient inhabitants of the American continent. They believe that God does now reveal to his peoplc many things as in days of old; that the heavens are not sealed, but that many important things are yet to be revealed pertaining to the kingdom of God; in the literal gathering of Israel; in the restoration of the ten tribes; that Jerusalem will be rebuilt; that Zion shall be established on the American continent, and that the Savior, in the millennium, will reign personally on the earth, which
shall eventually become a celestial sphere and the eternal abode of the righteous. The president of the church is the supreme authority in all church matters and acts in concert with two counselors, or advisors, forming the presiding quorum of the church. Next to them stand the twelve apostles, then patriarchs, high priests, seventies, elders, bishops, priests, teachers, and deacons, all of whom have specific duties to perform and work in harmony with the whole.
At one time the " Mormons " taught and praotised the doctrine of plural marriage, holding the doctrine to be entirely Biblical and that the revelation concerning the same was received
6. Polyg‑ by Joseph Smith, but was withheld amy; Con‑ from the body of the church in general
	flicts with	and from the world till they were settled
	the Gov‑	in Utah. After 1852 plural marriage
	arnment.	was preached and practised openly
		and most of the leading men were
polygamists. In 1862. a law was enacted by Con
gress against the practise, but little attention was
paid to it for many years. In 1884 the supreme
court of the United States declared the law against
plural marriage constitutional, and more than 1,000
" Mormon " men were convicted and sent to the
penitentiary, while others fled or went into hiding.
In 1887 Congress disincorporated the church, con
fiscated its property, with the exception of $50,000,
and, finally, in Sept., 1890, after the vast property
holdings of the church had been lost, Pres. Wilford
Woodruff issued his manifesto against plural mar
riages and since that time they have not been per
mitted by the church, though many of the men who
entered into these relations before that time have
continued to support and care for their families,
feeling that these obligations could not be dis
carded. Statehood was granted to Utah in 1896
and plural marriage was prohibited forever by law
in the state. The " Mormons " have four temples
erected at a cost of over six millions of dollars. The
Salt Lake Tabernacle is 250 feet long, 150 feet wide,
80 feet high, with a wooden roof without any sup
porting pillars. Its great organ and choral services
are among the remarkable features; services are
held each sabbath day, and the building will seat
comfortably 7,000 souls. JosEPH F. SMITH, JR.
II. Critical (Non‑Mormon) Statement: The early history of Mormonism has its center in the person of its founder. Joseph Smith was the fourth among ten children. His father was a man
i. The of unstable, restless disposition. He
Founder's had no settled occupation, but tried Family; his fortune‑always without successEnviron‑ at various pursuits, and was a believer ment in in witchcraft. Occasionally he gained Youth. money by fortune‑telling and selling, blessings. The prophet's mother was superior to the father in intelligence and force of will, but not less ignorant, and a firm believer in supernatural visions, apparitions, and dreams, also in cures by faith. Moreover, both the grandfathers of the prophet were much given to religious superstition. These facts are not without significance for the understanding of Smith's personality and activity. After many changes of residence in Ver‑

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
mont and New Hampshire his father removed with the family in 1815 to Palmyra, in Wayne (then a part of Ontario) County, N. Y., and after about four years to a farm near Manchester. Here their reputation was no better. They were considered deficient in honor and veracity, though not as positively malicious. The boys were lazy and roving, several of them could not read. Joseph was unkempt and immoderately lazy. He could read, though not without difficulty, wrote a very imperfect hand, and had a limited understanding of elementary arithmetic. The evolution of such a boy into the prophet and founder of a new religion is a highly interesting psychological problem, which can not be solved without a knowledge of his ancestry, of his mental peculiarities, and of his early environment. Four years after the vision of the plates (see L, § 1 above) he claimed to have been led to the spot and to have received from the angel the golden plates. They were covered with small and beautifully engraved characters in " reformed Egyptian." Joseph received besides a pair of crystals set in silver rings, a sort of supernatural spectacles, the veritable Urim and Thummim of the Old Testament, without which the mysterious writing could not be translated.
The first person to take an active interest in the Golden Bible was a farmer, Martin Harris, who had been in turn Quaker, Universalist, Baptist, and
Presbyterian, but always a dreamer 2. Transla‑ and fanatic, and affirmed that he had tion of the visited the moon. Smith needed finan‑
Book of cial help in order to publish his book,
Mormon. which Harris was ready to grant, if
only he could be fully convinced that the book was from God. He wished to see the golden plates; but Smith, with the help of a special revelation, was able to make him content to believe without seeing. The prophet, however, made a copy of some of the letters found on the plates. These "caractors"Harris showed to Prof. Charles Anthon in New York, whose warnings were unable to shake the new disciple's confidence. Harris now became Smith's first amanuensis in the translation of the Golden Bible. When he had written 116 pages, Harris' unbelieving wife destroyed them. Smith doubted whether the sheets had been actually destroyed, and was therefore for some time in embarrassment, until he was instructed by revelation that the translation had fallen into the hands of godless persons, whom Satan had inspired to alter the words. He was therefore directed not to translate again what was lost; he should instead translate from the plates of Nephi, which contained a more detailed account than the book of Lehi, the source of the first translation. Smith now made his wife his amanuensis until the appearance of Oliver Cowdery, who became his first secretary. Cowdery had been a blacksmith, but had acquired a measure of knowledge sufficient to enable him to become a schoolmaster. The work of translating proceeded in the following manner: A curtain was drawn across the room in order to shield the holy document from profane eyes; seated behind the curtain, Smith, with the help of the Urim and Thummim, read from the golden plates to Cowdery, who
wrote down the translation sentence for sentence. The translation of this, the " Book of Mormon," was begun at Manchester soon after the alleged discovery of the golden plates, continued at Harmony, Pa., and finished at Fayette, N. Y., June, 1829. Before the work was finished, Smith and Cowdery were ordained by heavenly messengers to the Aaronic and Melclusedec priesthood; to the first by John the Baptist, to the latter by the apostles Peter, James, and John. The Aaronic priesthood gave them the authority to preach repentance and faith and to baptize by immersion for the remission of sins. The Melchisedec priesthood gave them the power to impart the Holy Ghost to the baptized through the laying on of hands. This power, the Mormon§ say, could at that time be imparted only by heavenly messengers; the true Church had utterly ceased to exist upon earth; there was no one who had the Holy Spirit. With Harris' help Smith had the book printed in the year 1830 in an edition of 5,000 copies. As the sale was slow at first, Harris forfeited his property; though within ten years two more editions were published. Prefixed to the book is the sworn statement of Cowdery, Whitmer, and Harris that they had seen the plates; moreover, the testimony of eight other men that they had both seen and handled them. The Rev. John Alonzo Clark once put the question to Harris: "Did you see the plates with your natural eyes just as you see the penholder in my hand? " Harris replied: " Well, I did not see them just as I see the penholder, but I saw them with the eye of faith. I saw them as plainly as I see anything whatever about me, although at the time it was covered with a cloth " (Gleanings by the Way, Philadelphia, 1842). A few years later all of the " three " witnesses fell away from Mormonism and declared their previous testimony to be false.
The book of Mormon contains about one‑half as much matter as the Old Testament, and in respect of style is a crude imitation of the his‑
3. Sum‑ torical and prophetic books. About mary of the one‑eighteenth of the book is taken
Book of directly from the Bible, about 300
	Mormon.	passages, namely, large portions of
		Isaiah, the entire Sermon on the Mount
(according to Matthew), and a few verses from Paul.
There are passages also which betray a dependence
upon other books, such as the Westminster Confes
sion of Faith and the Methodist Discipline. The
work is divided into fifteen books, which purport to
have been written by as many different hands, con
taining a " Sacred History of Ancient America
from the Earliest Ages after the Flood to the Be
ginning of the Fifth Century of the Christian Era."
Smith himself has summarized its contents as fol
lows:
" The history of America is unfolded from its first settlement by a colony that came from the Tower of Babel to the beginning of the fifth century of the Christian era. We are informed by these records that America, in ancient times, has been inhabited by two distinct races of people. The first were called Jaredites, and came directly from the Tower of Babel. The second race came directly from the city of Jerusalem, about 600 before Christ. The Jaredites were destroyed about the time that the Israelites came from Jerusalem. The principal nation of the second race fell in battle toward the close of the fourth century. The remnant are

13	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Xormone
the Indians. This book also tells us that our Savior made his appearance upon this continent after his resurrection; that he planted the Gospel here in all its fulness and richness and power and blessing, that the inhabitants had apostles, prophets, pastors, teachers, and evangelists; the same order, the same priesthood, the same ordinances, gifts, powers, and blessing as was enjoyed on the Eastern continent; that the people were cut off in conaequeqoe of their transgressions; that the last of their prophets [Mormon] who existed among them was commanded to write an abridgment of their prophecies, history, etc., and to hide it in the earth."

In the last days the Book of Mormon was to come to light, and, being joined with the Bible, was to serve the fulfilment of the thoughts of God. Mormon was accordingly the collector and reviser of the books; his son, Moroni, brought the work to its completion and about the year 420 A.D. hid the plates under the stone on the hill Cumorah.
Judged as a literary work the Book of Mormon is tedious, utterly devoid of taste, poetic grace, and
depth of thought, exhibiting no red. Its ligious inspiration or moral earnest‑
Literary ness. It is full of grammatical bhn‑
	Character.	ders and teems with anachronisms.
		In the matter of doctrine the book
compared with the later revelations called forth by
the exigencies that arose in the course of the sys
tem's development‑contains little that is markedly
characteristic. It foretells the call of Joseph Smith
to be the prophet of the latter day; it is strictly
chiliastic, and declares that all gifts, powers, and
offices of the apostolic Church are to be found in
the true church; it acknowledges the doctrine of
the Trinity, rejects infant baptism, and commands
baptism by immersion for the remission of sins; it
asserts that the Bible is from God, but also that this
fact does not exclude further revelations; finally, it
contains three passages which, naturally interpreted,
must be understood as condemning polygamy.
The question of the source of the Book of Mormon is important. For Mormon believers there is,
of course, no problem here. The ma‑
y. Theories jority of anti‑Mormon critics have acof Its cepted the so‑called Spaulding‑Rigdon
Source. theory of the origin. Much of the
more recent criticism, however, tends to establish the theory of Smith's authorship. The Spaulding‑Rigdon theory is, in brief, as follows: About the year 1809 there lived in Conneaut, O., a man named Solomon Spaulding. He had studied at Dartmouth College and had served some years as a Presbyterian minister. Later be took up a secular calling and devoted a part of his time to literary pursuits. Becoming interested in the Indian antiquities in the neighborhood of Conneaut he conceived the idea of a romance about the Indians before the discovery of America, by Columbus. The work which he composed was finished about 1812, and bore the title; " The Manuscript Found." Spaulding availed himself of the well‑known fable that the American Indians are the descendants of the lost tribes of Israel. To make his narrative more piquant he gave it the form of a translation of a manuscript composed by a member of an ancient tribe and recently discovered in an Indian mound. Spaulding took his manuscript to Pittsburg, intending to have it printed there. It lay a
considerable time in a printing‑office, but was never printed. At last it was returned to the author, who at the time was living at Amity, Pa., where in 1816 he died. When the Book of Mormon appeared, Spaulding's widow and others, who had heard him read from his manuscript, declared that the book must have been taken in large part from the unpublished romance, with many theological interpolations. As, however, Spaulding's manuscript could never be found, a direct comparison with the Book of Mormon was impossible. (A manuscript discovered in Honolulu in 1885, which purported to be Spaulding's Indian romance and bears no resemblance to the Book of Mormon, is generally believed to be a forgery.) Beyond these well‑established facts the claim is that Sidney Rigdon, who from 1829 on stood in close relation to Smith, may have had access to the Spaulding manuscript when he was employed as a printer in Pittsburg about 1812 and later, and may have made a copy of it and have placed the copy at Smith's disposal. This theory has been rendered fairly plausible by various external and internal evidences; yet the evidences fall far short of proof. Against the theory of Smith's authorship it has been urged that so ignorant a man could not have produced the work. But it may be replied that only an ignorant man could have produced it. In intellectual grasp and force Smith's later (well authenticated) utterances surpass it, but they resemble it in style. The style and contents of the Book of Mormon are such as one might expect from a man of Smith's peculiar nature and surroundings. He possessed a powerful, though prosaic, imagination, and a retentive memory; but his knowledge was slight and his judgment weak. From beginning to end the book exhibits these traits. The author‑perhaps unconsciously‑derived what he said from various and in part mutually opposed sources. Hence the confusion in his theology, which is wanting in consistency. Doctrines of the most various origin are illogically thrown together. Calvinism, Universalism, Methodism, chiliasm, Catholicism, deism, and freemasonry are discussed‑though not by nameand this in a manner that strikingly corresponds to Smith's relations to these systems. The book is in a measure a mirror of the time, but in a still greater measure a sort of (unconscious) autobiography. At the same time there is no necessity to disallow evidence that the general idea‑‑and even the framework‑of the book was derived from an external source. The main contention is that what is really characteristic and personal in the book is from Smith himself.
Was Joseph Smith a deliberate falsifier and conscious impostor? Most non‑Mormon writers answer this question with an emphatic affirms. The ative. Some of the most careful in‑
Founder's vestigators, however (especially Sten‑
Character; house and Riley), believe that he was Oppor‑ in a large measure the victim of his tunism. own hallucinations‑that he really believed himself an inspired prophet. That he also practised wilful deception in order to carry out his purposes can hardly be questioned. Had he been a mere impostor, he must have broken

Xormons	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	14
down under the storm of persecution that came upon him. Smith had success as a prophet and as the founder of a new religion because the soil was prepared for it. From the beginning the drawing power of Mormonism lay in its claim to possess the gift of prophecy. And as the burden of the prophecy is the promise of material advantage and sensuous enjoyment and glory in the " latter day " and eternally‑and withal offered easy conditions as to repentance and inward renewal‑it is not hard to see how the enthusiasm that first drew followers to Joseph Smith has continued to be the great animating force of Mormonism. Smith began his career as " Peep‑stone Joe " and developed into the " prophet, seer, and revealer" of the Latter‑day Saints. After attaining to this dignity he was ever ready with a fresh revelation to meet each new emergency. Smith and his successors have been the ideal opportunists. In his prophesyings, however, Smith practised self‑restraint: " We never inquire at the hand of God for special revelation only in case of there being no previous revelation to suit the case " (Times and Seasons, V., 753). Revelations were uttered pertaining to almost every conceivable concern except, perhaps, religion proper.
The formal founding of the new sect took place Apr. 6, 1830, in Fayette, N. Y. At that time it numbered some seventy adherents.
y. The Its official name was fixed somewhat New later. By revelation Smith took the Church; title of " seer, translator, prophet,
Various apostle of Jesus Christ, and elder of the
Centers.church." He began a vigorous propa‑
	ganda. Every convert was baptized
	no previous baptism was recognized. Among the
	first notable converts were Pratt (author of The
	Voice of Warning) and Sidney Rigdon, the chief
	figure in early Mormon history after Smith him
	self. As he found too little faith in the neighbdr
	hood of his home, Smith in 1831 removed with
	many of the " Saints " to Kirtland, O., whither
	Rigdon had already preceded him. The object in
	view was to find the land of promise, to establish
	therein a theocracy with the prophet as God's
	mouthpiece and vicegerent, and to build up a new
	city of Zion in preparation for the glory of the latter
	day. To realize this object four successive attempts
	were made in as many places: at Kirtland, O.;
	Far West (now Independence), Mo.; Nauvoo, Ill.,
	and finally in Utah. In the first three places ex
	traordinary temporary success was followed by so
	fierce and detbrmined opposition on the part of the
	surrounding " Gentiles " that the saints could
make no	‑resistance. That in Utah they
	have beeln able not only to hold their ground, but
	also to prosper greatly is to be ascribed to prior
	possession and isolation, together with an improved
	organization and a saner leadership. The succes
	elve settlements of the Mormons represent, in gen
	eral; stages not only of outward progress but also
	dinner development. At Kirtland the new sect
	met with immediate and striking success: its mis
	sionaries displayed immense zeal and churches were
	founded in Ohio, PennAylvania, New York, Indi
ana, and Illinois. Wig 	a few months after the
removal to Kirtland the number of the Mormons grew to at least 1,200 souls. Here Sidney Rigdon became prominent. He had assimilated some of the ideas of Fourier, the French collectivist. Following a special revelation of February, in 1831, the Kirtland saints began to organise communal business ventures, in which, for a time, they‑met‑with success.
The opposition, however, of the‑' unbelievers " about them caused Smith to turn his eyes toward the Western bounds of civilization, in
8. Indus‑ order to find there a place where he
trial Devel‑ might without hindrance fully carry
opment; out his views. In the autumn of 1831
Opposition. he founded a colony in Jackson County, Mo. A revelation had declared that here was the promised land and the place for the city of Zion. Large tracts of land were bought; the town of Far West, or Zion, was founded, where the city of Independence now lies; a monthly and a weekly paper for the propagation of the new faith were established; and all the affairs of the colony were carried on with admirable zeal and vigor. Nevertheless, although continuing to regard Far West as the destined site for the city of Zion, Smith made Kirtland for an indefinite time the chief seat of the saints. Thither he returned in 1832. He now thrust the communion into various perilous business ventures, all under the control of the church and without adequate financial foundation. In the summer of 1833 a temple was built at the cost of :40,000, and although most of the Saints gave one‑seventh of their time to its construction, a debt of from $15,000 to $20,000 was left upon it. Very early the non‑Mormons in the region about Kirtland began to show a bitter hostility toward the new sect. Their opposition had its root partly in religious differences and partly in their indignation at Smith's domination in financial affairs that concerned the public at large. In May, 1832, a mob broke into the prophet's house, brought him into a neighboring field and tarred and feathered him. Rigdon suffered the same disgrace. Nothing daunted, however, Smith on the following day preached and baptized three converts, and afterward continued to prosecute his various undertakings with energy.
In 1834 Smith organized the first high council of the church with himself, Rigdon, and Williams as the first presidency. In associating 9. Develop‑ these men with himself in the highest
ing Organ‑ office Smith did not make them in any
ization; sense equal with himself. They were
Missionary his counselors, but both in prophesy‑
Operations. ing and in ruling he was to be unconditionally supreme. In 1835 a further step in the development of the hierarchy was taken in the founding of the body of the twelve apostles. One of the twelve was Brigham Young, who became Smith's successor in the presidency. Young had become a Mormon about the end of 1832 and had already rendered important service in the church by suppressing dissensions due to the prophet's growing profligacy. In 1836 the constitution was further developed by the establishment of a more general council for each district of the church

1 °5	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Xormons
(at that time Kirtland and Zion), called the " quorum of seventy." The various councils came to be called " quorums "‑the first presidency, the twelve, the seventy. In 1837 the apostles Hyde and Kimball were sent as missionaries to England and South Wales, where they worked with remarkable suecess, especially among the laboring classes. After three years' labor they could count 4,019 Mormons in England alone. The report for June, 1851, gave a total of 30,747 adherents in the United Kingdom and further declared: " Within the last fourteen years more than 50,000 have been baptized in England, of whom nearly 17,000 have emigrated to Zion."
The year 1836 was marked by the apostasy of some of the pillars of the church at Kirtland. The "three witnesses" (Cowdery, Whitio. History, mer, and Harris) to the Book of
	2836‑38.	Mormon were excommunicated along
		with other " dissenters." There is
evidence that while the Saints were yet in Kirt
land polygamy began to be practised by some
of the leaders. Whether Smith privately sanc
tioned or condoned these practises is not quite
certain. His ostensible efforts at their suppression
lacked the vigor that generally characterized his
actions. In the Book of Doctrine and Covenants
(1835) he declared: " Inasmuch as this Church of
Christ has been reproached with the crime of for
nication, and polygamy: we declare that we be
lieve that one man should have one wife; and one
woman but one husband." In obedience to a rev
elation Smith in 1836 established a bank at Kirt
land, which about the beginning of 1838 became
insolvent. Judicial procedure against the prophet
and others was begun. At this moment, however,
Smith and Rigdon in obedience to a revelation
went to Missouri. The colony there had been hav
ing troublous times since 1834, when the prophet
had removed various difficulties. Now, however,
internal dissensions became serious, while the Gen
tiles' opposition grew increasingly fierce. From the
beginning the people of Missouri had resented the
attitude of the Mormons as expressed (for example)
in a passage in the Book of Commandments (1833)
calling that state the " land of your inheritance,
which is now the land of your enemies." Already
border‑ruffianism had been manifested against the
Mormons. A popular demand for the removal of
the Mormons was met with temporizing on their
part, and, as the governor's attempt to call out the
militia to protect them was futile, a mob drove at
least 1,500 of them northward across the Missouri
River. These settled chiefly in Clay, Caldwell, and
Daviess counties. Negotiations for pecuniary re
dress proved fruitless; for conviction for violence
committed against a Mormon could not be had in
Jackson county. While the Mormons had been
guilty of various offenses, non‑Mormons were dis
posed to lay upon them the blame for any depre
dations when the authors were unknown, and so
the Mormons suffered beyond their deserts. Not
withstanding, the town of Far West itself was, until
1838, materially prosperous and on fairly good
terms with the neighboring Gentiles. About this
time, however, the presidency was charged with
misappropriating trust funds, and several prominent leaders forsook the church. About the same time there was formed an organization later called the Danite Band or the "Avenging Angels." Its members were bound by blood oaths to obey any behest of the church against property or life. In the same year also the tithing system was established, which ever since has been so important for Mormonism.
	The climax of the civil strife in Missouri seems
to have been occasioned largely by a sermon of
		Rigdon's on July 4, 1838, which pre
i r. Nauvoo dicted a war of extermination between
Period; Saints and Gentiles. Upon complaint Polygamy; to the governor that the Mormons in
Smith's	Caldwell and Daviess counties resisted
	Death.	the execution of justice, a regiment of
		militia was called out; but the soldiery
for the most part disbanded. Nevertheless there
were serious conflicts between the Mormons and
the Gentiles, which culminated in the massacre of
twenty Mormons at Hawn's Mill. In the autumn
the state authorities demanded the expulsion of
the Mormons, except the leaders, who were to be
held for trial. Joseph Smith and his brother Hyrum
were imprisoned at Liberty, but on the way to trial
effected their escape, probably by bribery. The
two brothers rode to Quincy, Ill. To this state
most of the Mormons, to the number of about
15,000, had already fled. The prophet bought
large tracts of land in Hancock County and beyonc'
the Mississippi in Iowa. On the eastern bank of
the river the Mormons began to build a city to
which by revelation the name Nauvoo was given.
The Mormon propaganda was meanwhile vigor
ously at work in the United States and abroad, and
(1840‑43) converts flocked to Nauvoo to the esti
mated number of 3,758. Smith procured from the
state legislature a charter for the city which made it
almost independent of state control. The prophet
now organized a military body under the name of
the Nauvoo legion, himself assuming the command
with the title of general. In Apr., 1841, the foun
dation of a new temple was laid; it was dedicated
May 1, 1846. Smith began now to take interest in
state and national politics. He appealed to Presi
dent Van Buren for help to recover losses of prop
erty in Missouri; but as neither the president nor
Congress would take action, and as Clay and Cal
houn, presidential aspirants, gave non‑committal
answers to his inquiries concerning their attitude
toward the Mormons' claims, he announced him
self in the organ of the church a candidate for the
presidency of the United States. As Smith's power
increased, his profligacy also grew. In order to
quiet the indignation of his wife the prophet in
1843 imparted to a select few a revelation which
permitted himself and (with his sanction) others
to have more than one wife. This revelation was
openly promulgated first in 1852 by Brigham Young.
In Nauvoo the polygamous practises occasioned
serious dissensions. A Dr. Foster and two others
started an independent newspaper, called the Ex
positor. Its first‑and only‑number condemned va
rious church practises and doctrines including that
of the plurality of wives. At Smith's behest the

Xormone	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	18
press and property of the Expositor were destroyed and Foster was expelled from the city. Aroused to indignation . by the revelation of the state of things in Nauvoo and perhaps no less by various mysterious depredations in the surrounding country, the people of bordering counties raised forces for a proposed war against the Mormons. The prophet with several others planned to flee, but upon Governor Ford's promise of protection he surrendered himself at Carthage June 24, 1844, but on the night of June 27 a band of disguised ruffians broke into the jail and shot to death the prophet and his brother Hyrum.
The tragic end of the prophet turned to the advantage of the Mormons. It placed on him the halo of martyrdom, while the leadership rs. Brigham fell into the hands of a man who was
	Young;	his superior as an organizer and ruler,
	Removal	though inferior to him as prophet and
	to Utah.	religious enthusiast. There were sev
		eral rival candidates for the office of
first prophet and president. Rigdon was easily
disposed of and even excommunicated. Other
candidates, besides Young, were Strang and the
prophet's son, Joseph Smith, 3d. Strang loudly
proclaimed that he had received a revelation that he
should be Smith's successor. Upon Young's elec
tion he withdrew with his followers and settled in
Wisconsin, where in 1856 he was shot as the result
of a quarrel with two members of his sect. The
" Young Josephites," largely holding aloof from
Brigham Young, founded in 1852‑in a more defi
nite way in 1860‑the Reorganized Church of Jesus
Christ of Latter‑day Saints with Joseph Smith, 3d,
at the head (see below, III.). Brigham Young (b.
in Whitingham, Vt., June 1, 1801; d. in Salt Lake
City Aug. 29, 1877) was the logical successor of
Smith. Although originally only an ordinary car
penter he proved himself to be a man of very ex
traordinary talents. His leadership was cordially
accepted by the great majority of the Saints. In
1845 the legislature of Illinois found it necessary to
withdraw the charter of the city of Nauvoo. This
condition, coupled with the unabated hostility of
the surrounding non‑Mormons, led the Saints to
the determination to emigrate far beyond the bor
ders of civilization. The Valley of the Great Salt
Lake was finally fixed upon. The exodus began in
1846 and before the close of 1848 the whole body
of Young's adherents had crossed the plains except
a few left at the Missouri as forwarding agents for
Mormon emigrants. In Sept., 1846, the Mormons
that had not already departed were forcibly
expelled from Illinois by a general uprising. The
migration to Utah was a stupendous undertaking,
affording Young a supreme opportunity for the de
velopment and display of his talents as organizer
and leader, so that he entered upon his adminis
tration in Utah with the prestige of a signal tri
umph. He reached his destination July 24, 1847.
Immediately the founding of Salt Lake City was
begun. A fund was established for the assistance
of Mormon emigrants, who, coming from Great
Britain, Sweden, and Norway, and in less num
bers from Germany, Switzerland, and France, in
the years 1848‑51 reached the number of 6,331,
and in the years 1852‑55 from Great Britain alone 9,925.
The design of Brigham Young was to build up a state which, both economically and politically,
should be as nearly independent as i3. Defiance possible. The eoonomic success of the of the Mormon community was due in part United to his skilful, though despotic, manStates. agement, but also in no small measure
to the inflow of money brought by the California gold‑seekers and, at a later period, to the construction of the Union Pacific Railroad. In their political designs the Mormons were less fortunate. When, in 1848, the region within which their settlements lay became United States territory, Young quickly decided that he wanted statehood for his colony, not territorial rule by the federal authorities. A " provisional " government was set up for the " State of Deseret," whose boundaries were set so wide as to include most of the territory acquired by the United States from Mexico. In 1849 a constitution was prepared and a delegate sent to Washington with a petition for admission into the Union. Congress, however, refused to recognize the new state and ignored the name Deseret. In 1850 it organized a territorial government for the smaller region occupied by the Mormon settlements and gave the new territory the name Utah. The president appointed Brigham Young governor; also district judges were appointed by the federal government. But Young's tactics were so aggressive that the federal officers were soon compelled to withdraw. As Young's term of office drew to a close President Pierce purposed to appoint a non‑Mormon in his stead. He offered the place to Lieutenant‑Colonel Steptoe,' then in Utah with a small military force. But Young's attitude was so threatening that Steptoe dared not accept the office. In a message to Congress in 1857 Buchanan declared that " there no longer remained any government in Utah but the despotism of Brigham Young." " To restore the supremacy of the constitution and laws within its limits " the president appointed a new governor (Alfred Cumming) and other federal officers, and sent them to their posts accompanied by a military force of 2,500 men " for their protection and to aid as a posse comitatus in case of need in the execution of the laws." That a collision was imminent between Mormondom and the federal government was clear to all who understood the state of affairs in Utah and the principles and policy of Young. Polygamy flourished as an avowed doctrine of the church. Young had acquired an almost incredible power as dictator. He was a mighty force for order according to his system, but the means which he employed were often atrocious. In order to accomplish a much‑needed " reformation " he instituted a veritable reign of terror, and there were not a few " church‑inspired murders." It was natural, therefore, that when Young heard of the coming of the federal officers and troops, his attitude should be boldly defiant. He publicly announced the news of the coming " invasion," and declared he would " ask no odds of Uncle Sam or the devil." He called the Saints to arms. They harassed the federal

17	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Xormona
troops in various ways, and by cutting off their base of supplies effectually crippled them, compelling them to retire into winter quarters. The year 1857 witnessed the most frightful act of violence in the history of the Mormons‑the massacre of 150 non‑Mormon emigrants at Mountain Meadows by a band of Mormons and Indians under the lead of Bishop John D. Lee. Not until twenty years later could Lee be seized for his crime, tried, condemned, and executed. Early in 1858 Young procured from President Buchanan a free pardon for all the Mormon leaders, and peace was declared. The last of the federal troops were withdrawn in 1860. It is certain, however, that Young never intended real submission to the federal government. The more or less open Mormon defiance continued until in 1890 the church reluctantly " traded polygamy for Statehood."
The fight of the United States government against polygamy in the territories began with the Morrill bill of 1860 (enacted 1862). The
14‑ Sup‑ measure was ineffective because the pression of conviction of a polygamist could not Polygamy; be had from Mormon juries. The Statehood. Cullom bill of 1869 (which failed of passage in the Senate) was opposed by Delegate Hooper of Utah on the ground that the Mormons' doctrine of marriage, being an essential part of their religious faith, was entitled to full protection under the constitution. Presidents, one after another, recommended to Congress a more vigorous procedure against the Mormons. In a message in 1880 President Hayes declared: " Polygamy can only be suppressed by taking away the political power of the sect which encourages and sustains it." Recommendations of Garfield and of Arthur in 1881 led to the enactment in 1882 of the " Edmunds Law," improved 1887 (" EdmundsTucker Law "), which provided that no polygamist might vote in any territory or hold office under the United States. The attitude of the Mormon church toward the law is manifest from An Epistle of the First Presidency to the ofcers and members of the church, Oct. 6, 1885:
"The war is openly and [undisguisedly made upon our religion. To induce men to repudiate that, to violate its precepts, and break its solemn covenants, every inducement is given .... We did not reveal celestial marriage. We can not withdraw or renounce it. God revealed it, and he has promised to maintain it and to bless those who obey it."
	Prosecutions under the Edmunds Law began in
1884; convictions for polygamy or unlawful co
habitation (mostly the latter) numbered 3 in 1884,
39 in 1885, 112 in 1886, 214 in 1887, and 100 in
1888. Among the provisions of the act of 1887
was one that dissolved the corporation of the Mor
mon church. In 1890 the United States supreme
court affirmed a decision of a lower court confis
cating the property of the Mormon church, and de
claring that church to be an organized rebellion.
In the same year Congress passed an act disposing
of the church lands for the benefit of the school
fund. After the admission of Utah as a state Con
gress restored the property. Perceiving the futility
of further resistance President Woodruff, Sept. 25,
1890, issued a proclamation (not a revelation n in
which he declared that his " advice to the Latter
		Vlll =2
Day Saints is to refrain from contracting any marriage forbidden by the law of the land." It was no recession from the principle of polygamy, only a necessary concession to the force of public law. By the concession in the matter of polygamy the chief obstacle to statehood for Utah was removed. Its admission finally took place in Jan., 1906. The political difficulties of the Mormons have led the church so far to modify its political creed as to declare that the Saints " form not a rival power as against the Union, but an apostolic ministry to it, and their political gospel is state rights and self‑government."
Brigham Young died leaving an estate of 62; 000,000 to be divided among his seventeen wives ‑he had had twenty‑five wives all
i5. Late told‑‑and fifty‑six children. After his
History;	death'the twelve apostles with John
Present	Taylor at their head exercised the
	Status.	chief authority until Taylor's election
		to the presidency in 1880 with George
Q. Cannon and Joseph F. Smith as counselors. In
like manner after Taylor's death in 1887 the twelve
agairl6 ruled until the election of Wilford Woodruff
to the presidency in 1889. Upon his death in 1898
Lorenzo Snow was made president. All of these
were acknowledged polygamists. As successor to
Snow (d. 1901) Joseph F. Smith, son of the martyr
patriarch, Hyrum Smith, was chosen president.
Though these were all able men, no one of his suc
cessors has been comparable to Brigham Young.
Although rough and uncultured, he possessed enor
mous physical and mental energy and all the quali
fications of a great popular leader. To him even
more than to Joseph Smith Mormondom owes its
coherence and persistence. He received revela
tions when he needed them‑‑and many of the most
offensive doctrines of Mormonism were Promul
gated by him‑yet he was far more an organizer
than a prophet. The " Utah " Mormons numbered
in 1909 about 350,000 members (baptized believers)
in the United States. Considerably more than one
half of these are found in Utah, though there is
probably not a state or territory in the Union with
out some of them, while in all the states and terri
tories bordering on Utah, especially in Idaho and
Arizona, they have gained a firm foothold and
make themselves felt politically. There are at
least 15,000 Mormons in Europe (chiefly in Great
Britain, Sweden, Norway, Germany, Switzerland,
Holland, and Belgium). A considerable number is
in Canada and a few are to be found in each of a
score of other countries in various quarters of the
globe. Their propaganda, which suffered a check
by the promulgation of the doctrine of polygamy
in 1852, has been vigorous and fairly successful
since Woodruff's manifesto advising the Saints to
contract no marriage forbidden by law.
The first principle of Mormonism is belief in a present and progressive revelation. According to their official statement, their religion
:6. Doc‑ " consists of doctrines, commandtrinal ments, ordinances, and rites revealed
	System.	from God to the present age." The
		conception of revelation is apocalyp
tic. From time to time noteworthy changes have
taken place in their doctrine, and others can come

Xormoae	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	18
at any time. It is true only in the vaguest sense that the church's creed, belief, aims, and purposes have remained the same. The Mormons, acknowledge as the word of God the Bible " in so far as it is correctly translated," the Book of Mormon; and the revelations contained in Doctrine aced Covenants and in later publications. So far as the Bible is concerned, Joseph Smith and his successors have taken such liberties with its meaning, and even with its text, that it can not be said to have any authority for a Mormon. The Book of Mormon, so important historically, is not comparable, in doctrinal significance, with the Book of Doctrine and Covenants and the Pearl of Great Price. In the year 1842 Joseph Smith published a short outline of Mormon belief. In it the doctrine of the Trinity was acknowledged, while punishment of the race for Adam's fall was denied. Through Christ's propitiatory sacrifice salvation is possible for all men, on condition of obedience to the ordinances of the Gospel. These are: faith, repentance, baptism for the remission of sins; the laying on of hands for the receiving of the Holy Ghost. The true church must have the same institutions and the same spiritual gifts as the Apostolic Church. There is taught further the gathering together of Israel and the restoration of the ten tribes. Zion will be built somewhere on the American continent and Christ will rule in person upon the earth, which will be renewed to paradisiacal glory. All men should be in possession of religious liberty. Obedience and reverence should be accorded to kings and all in authority. A pure, honest, chaste, and beneficent life is a holy duty. This, however, affords only a faint notion of what Mormonism was then, to say nothing of its later manifestations. Its doctrine of God, for example, is widely different from that of the Christian Church. The Mormon conception of deity rather resembles that of Buddhism. From it a system of anthropomorphisms has been developed, which far exceeds that of any Christian sect in any age. The Mormons teach that nothing is created, everything is begotten. The supreme God (himself brought forth in some way by eternal, selfmoving, and intelligent matter) begot other gods. All have bodies, parts, and passions, for " man is made in the image of God." A chief occupation of these gods is to produce souls for the bodies begotten in this and other worlds. The sex idea runs through the whole Mormon conception of the universe. Each world has its own god; ours is none other than Adam‑who gradually attained his present glory. " He is the only God with whom we have to do." All gods are in a progressive development, and all Saints will advance to the dignity of gods. Justification by faith as taught by Evangelical churches is a " destructive doctrine." Submission and obedience to the commandments of the church is the essential thing in faith. Baptism, through which sins are washed away, is unconditionally necessary to salvation. Infant baptism is a " solemn mockery," for little children have no sins to repent of and are not under the curse of Adam. An essential feature of the Mormon system is the doctrine and practise of baptism for the dead. As the true Church was extinct upon earth since
shortly after the days of the apostles until Joseph Smith, no baptism in all that time was valid. Saints, however, may be baptized for the dead and thus insure the salvation of the latter. The most notorious of the Mormon doctrines is that of celestial marriage, or marriage unto eternity. All marriages entered into without divine sanction, such as is given only to the Saints, are dissolved by death. Those, on the other hand, who wed in accordance with the true Gospel are married for eternity. If a wife thus sealed precedes her husband in death, he may in like manner marry another, and, if the second should die, a third, and so on. In the resurrection all are to be his. Moreover, inasmuch as in eternity a man may have many wives, so may he even in this world, and at one time, if God and his Church sanction it. As many women as God thus gives a man are his and his alone, and cohabitation with them is right and holy. In its behalf the Mormons claim that this doctrine strongly tends to exclude adultery and prostitution.
In close relation to the doctrinal system stand the church commandments, ordinances, and public worship. Only believers are baptized, and that by immersion, and it is followed immedi‑
iq. Ordi‑ ately by the laying‑on of hands. The
nances is celebration of the Lord's Supper takes Theory and place every Sunday. By special reve‑
	Practise.	lation the use of fermented wine was
		forbidden; now even the unfermented
juice of the grape gives place to water. The Saints
have certain secret rites or mysteries, the most im
portant of which are those connected with the mar
riage ceremony, known as going through the En
dowment House. In Salt Lake City all secret rites
are now performed in the temple. No non‑Mormon
may enter the temple, whereas access to the great
tabernacle is free to all. Public worship consists of
song, prayer, sermon, celebration of the Lord's
Supper, and sometimes the dispensing of blessings
by a patriarch. In the tabernacle at Salt Lake the
music is excellent and impressive. Generally two
persons preach in a single service. The sermons are
for the most part mere harangues, usually without
a text, and a mixture of the religious and the secu
lar. Everything, however, is manifestly adapted
to the end in view. Regarded as an organism Mor
monism strives to realize the ideal of a pure the
ocracy based on prophetism and mediated by a
hierarchy. In its beginnings a free prophetism
ruled; but as it was perceived what confusion must
arise if every man were his own prophet, there early
developed a great hierarchical system. While every
member of the church may enjoy the blessings of
divine communion and revelations for his own com
fort and guidance, revelations affecting the whole
church are given only through the president, al
though his counselors may share illumination with
him. The priesthood is of two orders: the Aaronic
(charged with secular affairs) and the Melchisedec
(charged with spiritual affairs). The latter is the
higher and may overrule the former. Every worthy
adult male member has a place in one or the other
of these orders. There is no salaried preaching
class. It is expected of each member that he will
serve in any work to which he may be assigned, at

19	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Mormons
home or abroad. About 2,000 missionaries are constantly at work, the personnel being largely changed every two or four years. Each mission is under the presidency of an elder and has the necessary minor officers. The missionaries travel and labor by twos or in larger groups. In the making of proselytes the more offensive (esoteric) doctrines of Mormonism are passed over without mention; stress is laid on the doctrine of a progressive, present‑day revelation and the (materialistic) glories promised to the Saints.
The ranks of the Melchisedec priesthood are the following: (1) The council of the first presidency,
consisting of three men, in office and i8. Priest‑ dignity equal to Peter, James, and John. hood and One of these is church president, Govern‑ chosen in a general assembly, and the meat. others are his counselors. These may be against him in counsels but never in final decisions. For the whole church the president is prophet, seer, and revelator, and his authority is absolute. (2) The twelve apostles, or extraordinary witnesses of the name of Christ in the whole world. In the interval between the death of a president and the election of his successor the twelve exercise the highest authority in the church. (3) Presidents of the quorums of seventy; (4) patriarchs; (5) high priests. The Aaronic priesthood includes: (1) bishops, who have charge of the gathering of the tithes and the care of the poor; (2) priests; (3) teachers; (4) deacons. Territorially the church is divided into " stakes of Zion " and the stakes again into wards. The stakes of Zion are so called in distinction from Zion proper, which is in Jackson County, Mo., whither also the Saints are to assemble themselves at last to receive the returning Christ. In North America there are some fifty of these stakes, twenty‑one of them in Utah. Each stake has an organization which copies that of the entire church. For each stake also there is a presiding bishop and for each ward a bishop. The bishops are assisted by under officers. By means of this elaborate yet well‑balanced system the church maintains a most effective oversight of its affairs. The social and economic aspects of Mormonism have ever been interesting and are in part worthy of praise. The rigorous system has been successful in restraining many vices and in producing a high general state of material wellbeing, while the lawless subjectivism of its prophetism, which opened the gate to polygamy and other vicious doctrines and practises, has wrought untold harm to its people. Separating itself from the Christian Church and (as far as practicable) from the larger civil and social community, Mormonism is necessarily deficient in many of the best elements of modern culture. It has, however, combined into one the religious and the social element more successfully than any other movement of modern times.
J. R. VAN PELT.
III. The Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter‑Day Saints: This body claims to be the church of that name that was organized by Joseph Smith in Fayette, N. Y., Apr. 6, 1830, and subsequently located at Kirtland, O. This contention is disputed by the Utah body of Latter‑day Saints.
The disruption occurred in 1844, the main body having meantime removed from Kirtland to Missouri, thence to Nauvoo, 111. (see I.‑II., above); the smaller body was reorganized near Beloit, Wis. At the first conference of the latter, in 1852, the leadership of Brigham Young was disowned. The Reorganized Church has never favored polygamy, but has borne testimony against it. It accepts three books as of divine origin: the Bible, the Book of Mormon, and the Book of Covenants‑the last as a guide in church government, the Book of Mormon as a history of the inhabitants of America, for 2,400 years, closing 400 A.D., and the Bible as the word of God, so far as it is translated correctly. The faith of the church is that of the epitome, made by Joseph Smith in 1842 (ut sup.) and enlarged somewhat since. Articles were inserted after polygamy became a tenet of the faith of the Utah branch, declaring for monogamy and against the doctrine of plural wives.
The system of polity is similar to that of the Utah branch, consisting of the presidency, embracing when full, three men, the apostolate, the quorums of seventy, and priests or pastors, teachers, deacons, and bishops the last‑named conducting the business affairs of the church.
The headquarters of the church, which were in Plano, Ill., for nearly twenty years, were removed in 1881 to Lamoni, Ia., where they now are. There are in Lamoni a publishing house, a college, and two homes for the aged. The church carries on missionary work in the United States, Canada, Australia., Great Britain, Germany, Scandinavia, Mexico, and the Sandwich and Society Islands. It reports in the United States alone 49,500 members, 560 churches, and 1,200 ministers. It is slowly increasing in membership.
The president of the church is Joseph Smith, son of the first president. He has held this office since 1860. He lives in Independence, Mo.; his associates are Frederick M. Smith, Independence, Mo., and Richard Evans, Toronto, Canada. The president of the quorum of the twelve apostles is William H. Kelley, Lamoni, Ia.; and Heman C. Smith, of the same place, is second in order of appointment, and is also historian of the church.
H. K. CARROLL.
	IV. Anti‑Mormon Movements: Joseph Smith
once said with emphasis and apparent pride: " Mor
monism is at war with every craft and creed of
Christendom." That statement has had abundant
verification in every period of Mormon history.
But in Nauvoo and afterward in Utah there were
		many but futile attempts to reform
r. To 1869. Mormonism from within. The advent of the United States army into Utah, the opening of mines, and the inflow of " Gentiles " afforded protection and gave promise of help from without. Three powerful forces of Christian civilization were invoked: the press, the pulpit, and the school. The first paper published was The Valley Tan, issued in 1858 from the camp. The Salt Lake Vedette followed, then The Utah Magazine, afterward The Tribune, and others in subsequent years. Some young men of literary tastes organized a " literary and musical society," which maintained

Xoraanns
Morris	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	20
a struggling existence. In 1865 they invited the Rev. Norman McLeod, an army chaplain and Congregational minister, to the city. He instituted services in a hall in Main Street. A Sunday‑school was organized in the city and another at the camp, and Dr. John King Robinson, surgeon in the army, became superintendent. The literary society, with help,from California, erected Independence Hall, a commodious adobe building for religious and literary purposes. The next year McLeod went east to solicit funds. In his absence Dr. Robinson was treacherously murdered. McLeod was advised by friends not to return to Utah, as his life was in danger. But Major Charles H. Hempsted, United States district attorney, maintained the Sunday‑school. Early in 1867 Warren Hussey and two Episcopalian ladies, Mrs. Dr. Hamilton and Mrs. Oliver Durant, requested Bishop Tuttle of Montana to send a clergyman. He sent Rev. Messrs. Thomas W. Haskins and George W. Foote. In May they instituted the first permanent Christian service in Salt Lake City. Major Hempsted gave into their hands the Sunday‑school with an enrolment of fifty. Responding to a crying need for school facilities, they, in July, opened St. Mark's grammar‑school. An Episcopal church of fifteen communicants was constituted that summer. A much‑needed hospital was provided, the first in Utah. In years following this, denomination established churches and schools in five other towns, and a second church, St. Paul's, in Salt Lake City. On the removal of Bishop Tuttle to Salt Lake City in 1869, St. Mark's became the cathedral. Subsequently Rowland Hall, a boarding and day‑school for girls, was opened. The Episcopalians now have property in Utah worth about $400,000.
	In 1869	two Presbyterian ministers, Sheldon
Jackson (q.v.) and Melanchthon Hughes, held the
first religious service in Corinne and instituted reg
ular work. A church of nine members was organ
		ized July 14, 1870. In 1864 the Rev.
2. From Henry Kendall, secretary of the Presi86g to the byterian Board of Home Missions,
	Present.	while en route to California, preached
		in the Mormon Tabernacle in Salt
Lake City. He found in the city Presbyterians
eager for church privileges, but not until 1871 was
their request granted. Rev. Josiah Welch arrived
in Judy of that year, and instituted regular services
in a room above a livery stable. Out of this be
ginning grew the First Presbyterian Church of Salt
Lake City. In 1875 Rev. D. J. McMillan arrived
and instituted an aggressive policy. Within six
years he established 40 missions and schools, from
St. George in the extreme south of Utah, to Malad,
Idaho, the northern part of the Mormon realm. At
present the Presbyterians have 27 ministers, 27
churches, 1,819 communicants, 1 college, 4 acad
emies (boarding and day‑schools), 13 day‑schools,
1,402 scholars, and property amounting to 16650,000.
Since the establishment of a publio‑school system
in Utah the denominations have discontinued many
of their parochial and mission schools. In 1870 the
Rev. G. M. Peirce, a Methodist minister, arrived
in Salt Lake City, at once began work, and soon
established a church. In 1876 he launched The
Rocky Mountain Chri fian Advocate, the first Protestant religious paper in Utah. This denomination extended its church and school work into many parts of Utah. It now has 23 ministers in charge of 27 churches, with 1,550 members, 35 Sundayschools with 2,530 scholars, and church and manse property worth $222,100.
In 1873 Rev. Father Scanlan of the Roman Catholic Church was sent to Salt Lake City. Three years previously Rev. Father Kelley from Nevada visited the city and purchased a plot of land for church purposes, but held no service. Father Scanlan established St. Mary's Church, and in course of time twelve other parishes and forty missions, in 1875 St. Mary's Academy, in 1881 Holy Cross Hospital, in 1886 All Hallows College, and later Kearns St. Ann's Orphanage. Schools were opened in five other towns. Father Scanlan is now bishop, and St. Mary's is his cathedral, with a new building costing $350,000. In 1874 the Congregationalists returned and organized a church in Independence Hall, with Rev. Walter M. Barrows as pastor. In 1878 Hammond Hall and later two other academies and five mission schools in other parts were opened. At present the Congregationalists have 10 churches with 1,327 members and 10 Sunday‑schools with an enrolment of 1,260.
	In 1881 Rev. Dwight Spencer, superintendent of
Baptist missions, reached Salt Lake City, and or
ganized a church which has grown and multiplied.
That denomination has now 10 ministers and 10
churches, with 1,000 members. In 1882 the Lu
theran Church entered Utah. They have pursued
a conservative policy and accomplished substantial
results. The Josephites (non‑polygamous Mor
mons) established several churches and have quietly
served those Mormons who repudiate polygamy and
the divine right of Brigham Young and his follow
ers. The Jews from the first have done their part
well. They have helped all the Christian churches
and maintained several synagogues. The Y. M. C. A.
has acquired property worth $240,000; it has 1,365
members, 1,013 of whom are members of Protestant
churches; 585 are in educational classes, and 311 in
Bible classes. 	D. J. MCMILLAN.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: From the Mormon standpoint: Book of Mormon, 1st ed., Palmyra, N. Y., 1839, current publication in revised form at Salt Lake City; Joseph Smith, Book of Doctrine and Covenants, Kirtland, Ohio, 1835; The Pearl of Great Price, Salt Lake City, 1891 and current (selections from Joseph Smith's writings); various works of B. H. Roberts, currently published at Salt Lake City, e. g., The Gospel, Outlines of Ecclesiastical History, New Witness for God, Defence of the Faith and of the Saints; P. P. Pratt, A Voice of Warning to All Nations, Kirtland, 1838; Thompson, Evidences in Proof of the " Book of Mormon," Batavia, 1841; Lucy Smith, Biographical Sketches of Joseph Smith and his Progenitors, Liverpool 1853, Plano, Ill., 1880 (by the prophet's mother); E. W. Tullidge, Life of Joseph the Prophet, Plano, 1880; idem, Hist. of Salt Lake City, Salt Lake City, 1886; J. E. Talmage, Articles of Faith, ib. 1899; Joseph Smith 3d, and H. C. Smith. Hilt. of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter‑Day Saints, Lamont In., 1901;_ B. H. Roberts, Mormon Doctrine of Deity, Salt Lake City, 1903; L. A. Wilson, Outlines of Mormon Philosophy, ib. 1905; J. H. Evans, One Hundred Years of Mormonism, 1806‑1906, ib. 1906.
From the historical, critical, or anti‑Mormon point of view: W. A. Linn, Stmt' of the Mormons, from the Date of their Origin to . . 1901, New York, 1902 (detailed); H. H. Bancroft, Hist. of the Pacific States, vol

21	RELIGIOUS ‑ENCYCLOPEDIA	Xormons
		Morris
	xxi., Utah, San Francisco, 1889; E. D. Howe, Mor
	monism Unveiled, Painesville, Ohio, 1834; D. P. Kidder,
	Mormonism and Mormons; historical View of the Rise
	and Progress of the . . . Latter‑Day Saints, New York,
	1853; B. G. Ferris, Utah and the Mormons, ib. 1854; J.
W. Gunnison, The	ormons, Philadelphia, 1856; J. Hyde,
	Jr., Mormonism; its Leaders and Designs, New York,
	1857 (by an ex‑Mormon); P. Tucker, Origin, Rise, and
	Progress of Mormonism, ib. 1867; J. H. Beadle, Life in
	Utah; or, the Mysteries and Crimes of Mormoniam, Phila
	delphia, 1870; idem, Polygamy; or, the Mysteries . . . of
	Mormonism, Fulton, Ky., 1904; M. Busch, GeschirAte der
	Mormonen nebet Darstellung ihres Glaubens, Leipsic, 1870;
	F. H. Ludlow, Heart of the Continent; with an Examina
	tion of the Mormon Principle, New York, 1870; T. B. H.
	Stenhouse, The Rocky Mountain Saints, ib. 1873; R. von
	Sehlagintweit, Die Mormonen . . . von ihrer Entetehunp
	biz auf die Gegenwart, Cologne, 1878; J. H. Kennedy, Early
	Days of Mormonism, New York, 1888; T. Gregg, The
	Prophet of Palmyra, Mormonism; together with a complete
	Hist. of the Mormon Era, ib. 1890; W. H. Thomas, Mor
	mon Saints, London, 1890; M. T. Lamb, The Mormons
	and their Bible, Philadelphia, 1901; 7. W. Riley, The
	Founder of Mprmonism, New York, 1902; N. L. Nelson,
	Scientific Aspects of Mormonism, ib. 1904; Mrs. J. F. Wil
	ling, On American Soil; or, Mormonism the Mohammedan
	ism of the West, Louisville, 1906; E. V. Fohlin, Salt Lake
	City, Past and Present. A Narrative of its History and Ro
	mance, its People and Cultures, its Industry and Commerce,
	Salt Lake City, 1909. A considerable body of magazine
	literature is indicated in Richardson, Encyclopaedia, pp.
748‑749.
MORNING LECTURES:	The name usually
	given to a series of sermons published under the
	title Morning Exercises at Cniipplegate, St.‑Giles‑in
	the‑Fields sand in Southwark, being divers Sermons
	preached A.D. 1669‑1689, by several Ministers of
	the Gospel in or new London, 8 vols., London; re
	published, ed. J. Nichols, 6 vols., London, 1844.
	The occasion is thus given by D. Neal (Hiss. of the
	Puritans, i. 424, New York, 1863) : " The opening
	of the war [between parliament and King Charles
	I.] gave rise to an exercise of prayer, and exhorta
	tion to repentance, for an hour every morning in
	the week. Most of the citizens of London having
	some near relation or friend in the army of the
	Earl of Essex, so many bills were sent up to the
	pulpit every Lord's Day for their preservation,
	that the minister had neither time to read them,
	nor to recommend their cases to God in prayer: it
	was therefore agreed, by some London divines, to
	separate an hour for this purpose every morning,
	one‑half to be‑ spent in prayer, and the other in a
	suitable exhortation to the people." These serv
	ices were held in various churches consecutively,
	and, after the end of the war, were continued, until
	the Revolution, in a modified form, the sermons
	taking up points of practical divinity. The collec
	tion of sermons is regarded as " one of the best
compends of theology in the English language."
	MORONE, m6ro'n@, GIOVANNI DE: Italian
	cardinal; b. at Milan Jan. 25, 1509; d. in Rome
	Dec. 1, 1580. He studied law at Padua, but entered
	the ecclesiastical life, and as early as 1529, for
	services rendered by his father, he was appointed
by Clement VII. to the bishopric of Modem.. Paul
III., on ascending the papal throne in 1535, des
patched the young bishop as nuncio to the duke of
Milan, then to Germany, whence Vergerio bad just
returned. His chief task and commission was to
promote, both with King Ferdinand and also in
Hungary and elsewhere, the cause of the proposed
council at Mantua; to dissipate the opposition that had been roused against the choice of that place; and to inform the Curia concerning everything that bore upon ecclesiastical questions (the records of this nunciature were published with annotations by W. Friedensburg, Gotha, 1892). Morone was once more sent across the Alps (1540), this time to the conference in session at Spires. Though he was likewise present at Regensburg in 1541, yet the controlling part there fell to Cardinal Gasparo Contarini (q.v.). Morons, who in the mean time had become a cardinal, returned to Modena in 1542, where he now found serious heresies at work, especially among the members of the local Academy of the Grillenzoni. It had become habitual to read Sommario delta Sacra Scrittura (" Summary of Sacred Scripture "), while Protestant views obtained on various doctrines. After somewhat protracted proceedings, those under examination signed certain articles whereby they signified their orthodoxy. Morone himself belonged to the circle of people who valued highly the little book, " Of the Benefit of Christ's Death " (see ITALY, THE REFORMATION IN, § 7), a point subsequently brought forward in the trial that was instituted against him on the charge of heresy. For neither the important services which Morone had rendered the Curia during his nunciatures nor those which he had rendered as one of the legates at the Council of Trent could shield him from the mistrust of the fanatical Paul IV. (q.v.). The pope included Morons, along with two other bishops and Cardinal Pole (q.v.), under a writ of indictment (June, 1557); and, once committed to prison in the Castle of San Angelo, Morone was obliged to linger there till after the pope's death (1559). Pius IV., in whose election the cardinal, liberated after the pope's death, had taken part, declared him innocent and quashed the trial, and when the Council of Trent reopened, the pope designated Cardinal Morone as one of its presidents. This experienced diplomat was employed also by Gregory XIII., who despatched him to Genoa, and in 1576 to Regensburg as envoy to Maximilian II. Morone spent his closing years at Rome, where he had been appointed dean of the College of Cardinals. He rests in the Church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva. K. BENRATH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Vita by N. Bernabei, Modena, 1885; C. Cant, in Atti dell' 1atituto Lombardo, 1866; F. Selopis, in S6nnees et travaux de 1'acad6mie des sciences moral" et politiques, compto‑rendu, xc. 29‑48, 321‑359, xci. 49‑82, Paris, 1869‑70; Ranks, Pop", i. 106, 122, 256‑265, iii., nos. 22, 23, 39; KL, viii. 1929‑30; and J. G. Schellhorn, Amamilates literartm, xii. 537‑586, 14 vols., Leipsic, 17251731.
MORONITES. See CELEsTINES.
MORRIS, EDWARD DAFYDD: Presbyterian; b. at Utica, N. Y., Oct. 31, 1825. He was graduated from Yale College (A.B., 1849) and Auburn Theological Seminary (1852). He was pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church, Auburn, N. Y. (1852‑55), and of the Second Presbyterian Church, Columbus, O. (1855‑67); professor of church history in Lane Theological Seminary, Cincinnati (1867‑74), and of theology in the same institution (1874‑97). He was moderator of the Presbyterian General Assembly at Cleveland, O., in 1875, and in

Morris
Morton
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
theology is "evangelistic, in a broad sense Calvinistic, but catholic and irenic." He has written: Outlines of Christian Doctrines (Cincinnati, 1880) ; Ecclesiology (New York, 1885); Is there Salvation after Death? (New York, 1887); Thirty Years in Lane (Cincinnati, 1897); Theology of the Westminster Symbols (Philadelphia, 1900); and The Presbyterian Church, New School (1904).
MORRIS, JOHN GOTTLIEB: Lutheran; b. at York, Pa., Nov. 14, 1803; d. at Lutherville, Md., Oct. 10, 1895. He graduated from Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa., 1823; studied at Princeton, N. J., Theological Seminary, 1826, then at Gettysburg Theological Seminary; was the founder of the First English Lutheran (Trinity) Church, Baltimore, Md., and its pastor, 1827‑60; became librarian of the Peabody Institute, Baltimore, 1860‑64; was stated supply of the Third Lutheran Church of the same city, 1861‑67; from 1834 he was lecturer on biology in Pennsylvania College; from 1874 he was pastor at Lutherville, Md.; and also lecturer on pulpit elocution and Biblical science in the Theological Seminary, Gettysburg, Pa. With his brother he founded Lutherville Ladies' Seminary, and in 1846 he aided in establishing the Evangelical Alliance (q.v.). He distinguished himself in natural history, and belonged to numerous American and European scientific societies. He was the founder of the Lutheran Observer in 1831, editor till 1833, then a contributor. He was the author of Catharine De Bora (Philadelphia, 1856); Catalogue of the Described Lepidoptera of North America, and Synopsis of the Described Lepidoptera of North America, part I. (both Washington, Smithsonian Institution, 1860‑62); The Lords Baltimore (Baltimore, 1874); Fifty Years in. the Lutheran Ministry (1874); Quaint Sayings and Doings of Martin Luther (Philadelphia, 1876); Bibliotheca Lutherans: List of Publications of Lutheran Ministers in the United States (1876); Journeys of Luther: their Relation to the Work of the Reformation (1880); Luther at Wartburg and Coburg (1882); Lutheran Doctrine of the Lord's Supper (1884); Life Reminiscences of an Old Lutheran Minister (1896; pp. 355 sqq., contains a list of his writings). He edited a translation of Kostlin's " Life of Martin Luther " (1883); and assisted in editing the Evangelical Review (Gettysburg, 1849‑62).
BIBLIo4RAPHY: Besides the Life Reminiscences (ut sup.), consult: H. E. Jacobs, in American Church History Series, iv. 389‑390 et passim, New York, 1893; H. E. Jacobs and J. A. W. Haas, Lutheran Cyclopedia, p. 329, ib. 1899.
MORRISON, HENRY CLAY: Methodist Episcopal (South) bishop; b. near Clarksville, Tenn., May 30, 1842. He was educated in the public schools, and received his classical and Hebrew training privately. After teaching school from 1860 to 1863, he was licensed to preach, and in 1864 was chaplain of the Eighth Kentucky Mounted Infantry, C. S. A. In 1865 he was appointed to the Middletown Circuit, and later held pastorates at Bardstown, Ky. (1866‑68), Elizabethtown, Ky. (1868‑69), Middletown, Ky. (1869‑72); Shelby Street, Louisville, Ky. (1872‑76); Broadway Church, Louisville (1876‑80); Chestnut Street, Louisville
(1880‑84); Russelville, Ky. (1884‑86), and the
22
First Methodist Church, Atlanta, Ga. (1886‑90). From 1890 to 1898 he was a missionary secretary of his denomination, and in this capacity raised large funds and paid off the debt of the Board of Missions. In 1898 he was elected bishop with headquarters at New Orleans.
MORRISON, JAMES DOW: Protestant Episcopal missionary bishop of Duluth; b. at Waddington, N. Y., Oct. 16, 1844. He was educated at McGill University, Montreal (A.B., 1865), and after studying under the canons of Christ Church Cathedral, Montreal, was ordered deacon in 1869, and ordained priest in the following year, after which he held parishes at Hemmingford, P. Q. (1869‑71), Herkimer, N. Y. (1871‑75), and Ogdensburg, N. Y. (1875‑97), being also archdeacon of Ogdensburg from 1881 to 1897. In 1897 he was consecrated first missionary bishop of Duluth. In 1898 he was Paddock lecturer at the General Theological Seminary, New York City. He has written Fundamental Church Principles (Milwaukee, 1898).

MORRISON, ROBERT: The father of Protestant missions in China; b. at Buller's Green, Morpeth (15 m. n.n.w. of Newcastle), England, Jan. 5, 1782; d. at Canton, China, Aug. 1, 1834. He had a decided inclination for study, took up Latin, Hebrew, and theology under Rev. W. Laidler, and afterward attended Hoxton Academy in England, 1803‑‑04. In 1804 he offered himself to the London Missionary Society, and was appointed the first missionary to China; entering their training institute at Gosport, he took up the study of Chinese under a Chinaman resident there; was ordained Jan., 1807, and then sailed for Canton. He became interpreter for the East India Company (see CHINA, II., 3, § 1) and assiduously engaged in the translation of the Bible into Chinese, and in the preparation of Chinese tracts and a dictionary. He revised and published a Chinese version of the Acts in 1811; issued an original Chinese catechism, and in 181.5 a Chinese grammar which was printed by the Serampore press in India. In 1813 he completed, with the assistance of William Milne (q.v.), the translation of the entire New Testament, the Gospels, the closing epistles from Hebrews and Revelation being the work of Morrison. He and Milne also made a version of the Old Testament, so that the entire Bible was printed in 1819. He also made a translation of the morning and evening prayers of the Church of England. His most laborious literary work was his Chinese Dictionary, published by the East India Company at an expense of £12,000 (3 parts, Macao, 1815‑23), a work of remarkable industry and scholarship. He also founded the Anglo‑Chinese College at Malacca, which, however, was never very successful, and was removed in 1845 to Hongkong. In 1824 he paid a visit to England, returning to China in 1826. His interest in educational work is shown by his gift of a large Chinese library to University College, London, England, and he had a share in the establishment of the Bartlett's Buildings Language Institution, at London. After his death The Morrison Education Society was founded in his honor by merchants interested in the

28
RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Xorrie
Morton
Chinese for supporting a school for Chinese youth. The school was located at Macao, 1838, and removed to Hongkong in 1842 (see BROWN, SAMUEL ROBBINS). He was also the author of Hot&, Sinicw: Translations from the Popular Literature of the Chic new (London, 1812); A View of China for Philological Purposes, Containing d Sketch of Chinese Chronology, Geography, Government and Customs (1817); Vocabulary of the Cantors Dialect (3 parts, Macao, 1828); Memoirs of Rev. William Milne, D.D., Late Missionary to China . . . Compiled from Documents Written by the Deceased; to which are added Occasional Remarks (Malacca, 1824). Mr. Morrison added to his literary and civil labors private efforts to spread the Gospel, the public proclamation of the Gospel being forbidden. After his death his remains were taken to Macao, where they still rest, the site being marked by an appropriate inscription testifying to his devotion as a missionary and his eminence as a Chinese scholar. Although his dictionary has been superseded by that of Samuel Wells Williams, his name will always have an honorable place beside the names of Martyn, Judson, Carey, Williams, and other workers in the heroic age of modern missions.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lives are by Mrs. E. Morrison, 2 vols., London, 1839 (by his widow); S. W. Williams, in F. Piper, Lives of Leaders of the Church Universal, ed. H. M. MaCracken, pp. 819‑837, Philadelphia, 1879; W. J. Towneend, London, 1888. Consult also W. W. Moseley, The Origin of the First Mission to China, London, 1842; and the literature on missions to China.
MORRISON, THEODORE NEVIN: Protestant Episcopal bishop of Iowa; b. at Ottawa, Ill., Feb. 18, 1850. He was graduated from Illinois College, Jacksonville, Ill. (A.B., 1870), and the General Theological Seminary (1873). He was ordered deacon in 1873 and was advanced to the priesthood in the following year. He was then rector of St. Paul's, Pekin, Ill. (1874‑76) and of the Church of the Epiphany, Chicago (1876‑99), and in 1899 was consecrated bishop of Iowa.

MORSE, RICHARD CARY: Presbyterian; b. at Hudson, N. Y., Sept. 19, 1841. He was educated at Yale (A.B., 1862), Union Theological Seminary (1865‑66; graduated, 1867), and Princeton Theological Seminary (1866‑67). After being assistant editor of the New York Observer from 1867 to 1869, he was ordained to the ministry in 1869, and since that year has been general secretary of the international committee of the Y. M. C. A. He has taken an active part in the extension of that organization both in the United States and Canada, and in other parts of the world, and is honorary American secretary of the World's Committee of the Y. M. C. A. He has written Robert M. McBurney, a Memorial (New York, 1899); Polity of Young Men's Christian Associations (1904); and Fifty Years of Federation (1905).
MORTMAIR, m6rt'mAn": In law, the state of lands and tenements held by perpetual tenure. Since the alienation of church property is forbidden by ecclesiastical canons, and members of ecclesiastical bodies were reckoned as dead persons in law, the phrase mortua manes, " the dead hand," was used to express this aspect of the church as a holder
of property, and the term statutes of mortmain came to signify the secular laws which attempted to impose limitations upon the church's power of acquiring property. Such laws are found as early as the Carolingian period, and numerous civil enactments of the Middle Ages limit the amount of real property which may be held by churches or monasteries, largely for the reason that such property was exempted from feudal dues and services. The indifferent success of such legislation may be seen from various statements of the very large proportion of the land which was in ecclesiastical possession. In England the Magna Charts, as revised and confirmed by Henry III. forbade the transfer of land to church corporations by a tenant without the consent of his lord. The statute de religiosia of Edward I., enacted in 1279, forbade the acquisition of land by clerics or others in such wise that it should come into mortmain. The aim of this and subsequent laws of the same king was to prevent the impoverishment of the nation by endowments which deprived the State of its due services under the feudal system, and were based on the theory that the national church should share in the nation's burdens. The laws of mortmain were retained in the United States only in Pennsylvania, owing to the fact that there were no great religious corporations, and because the feudal system never ‑existed here. The growing desire to limit the rights and privileges of corporations has led to the enactment of laws in the United States and in other countries which more or less directly affect ecclesiastical bodies. A treatment of them, however, belongs rather to works on law and jurisprudence than to one devoted to religion or theology.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: 0. D. Tudor, Law of Charities and Mortmain, London, 1889; J. Rawlinson, Notes on the Mort. main Acts, ib. 1877. The statute of 1279 is in Henderson, Documents, pp. 148‑149.

MORTON, NATHANIEL: Colonial historian; b. in Leyden, Holland, 1612; d. in Plymouth, Mass., June 28, 1685. He came to America in 1623; became Governor Bradford's assistant at Plymouth in the management of public affairs, and in 1645 was appointed secretary of the Plymouth Colony. He was well read, and noted carefully the facts and events of the early days of the colony; nearly all its records were written by him. He wrote the valued New‑England's Memoriall: or a Brief Relation of the most Memorable and Remarkable Passages of the Providence of God, Manifested to the Planters of New‑England in America; with Special Reference to the First Colony thereof, Called New‑Plymouth, as also a Nomination. of Divers of the most Eminent instruments Deceased, both of Church and Commonwealth, Improved in the First Beginning and Afterprogress of Sundry of the Respective Jurisdictions in those Parts; in Reference unto Sundry Exemplary Passages of their Lives, and the Time of their Death. Published for the Use and Benefit of Present and Future Generations (Cambridge, 1669; 2d ed., Boa. ton, 1721; 6th ed., Boston, 1855). He wrote also in 1680 a Synopsis of the Church History of Plymouth, which appeared in Ebenezer Hazard's Historical Collections and in Alexander Young's Chrron‑

Morns	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	24
Biosee
ides of the Pilgrim Settlers of Massachusetts (2 vols.,
Boston, 1841‑16).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. B. Felt, Ecclesiastical Htet. o' New Eng
	land, 2 vole., Boston, 18&5‑82; Appleton's Cydopadin of
	American Biography, iv. 429‑430, New York, 1898; W.
	Walker, Ten New England Leaders, pp. 17, 38, 38, 44, ib.
	1901.
	MORUS, SAMUEL FRrEDRICH AATHANAAEL:
German Protestant exegete; b. at Lauban (75 m.
e. of Breslau) Nov. 30, 1736; d. at Leipsic Nov. 11,
1792. He received his primary education at home,
his father being an instructor in the Lauban Latin
school. At the University of Leipsic he came under
the influence of J. A. Ernesti (q.v.), and was re
garded as that teacher's best pupil. Some years
were spent in private tutoring, during which at the
house of Professor Ludwig, one of his patrons, he
met Goethe. In 1761 he began giving lectures on
Greek and Latin writers at Leipsic. He became
professor extraordinary in 1768 and full professor
in 1771. After 1780 he lectured on New‑Testament
exegesis, and on the death of Ernesti was trans
ferred to the theological faculty. He afterward be
came rector and was four times dean between 1774
and 1785. In 1787 he became a member of the
consistory of Meissen.
	In his exegetical work Morns developed the
methods of his teacher Ernesti. His De descrimine
senses et significationis in interpretando, De caums,
quibxs nititur interpretatio allegoriarum, and his
De nexu significationum eiusdem verbi (in his Dis
sertationes theologicce et philologicoe, vol. i., Leipsie,
1787, vol. ii., ed. C. A. T. Keil, Leipsic, 1794) are of
lasting worth.
	The Prolmtianes (2 vols., 1794‑1810), collected
from his students' notebooks, has historical value
only. His Epitome theologim Christianee (1789) is
unsystematic, but free from the dogmatism of the
period. A collection of his sermons was published
at Leipsic, 1786. Morus also edited a number. of
Greek and Latin texts. He was of frail physique,
unostentatious in his piety, modest, and a lover of
peace.	(G. MfLEB.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The autobiography of Morus appeared in
	Magazin fiir Prediper, vol. v., 12 vols., ZOllichau, 1781
	1791. Studies of his life and services are by D. Beck,
	Leipsic, 1792; Voigt, ib. 1792; J. G. C. HSpfner, ib. 1793;
	and ADB, xxii. 342‑344.
	MOSCHUS, mes'evs: Greek theologian of the 6th
century; d. at Rome about 619. The place and date
of his birth are unknown and the details of his life
are scanty. His name, according to the manuscripts,
was Johannes, son of Moschus, but he is also known
as "The Continent" or "The Monk." Photius
records that he entered the monastery of St. Theo
dosius in Jerusalem, that he then dwelt for a time
among the hermits of the Jordan valley,' after which
he joined the monks in the new monastery of Great
Sabas, near the Dead Sea. He journeyed to Egypt
and the Great Oasis, accompanied by Sophronius,
in the reign of Tiberius lI. (578‑587). Later still
he went to Cyprus and thence to Rome where he
died.
	The fame of Moschus Rests upon his " Meadow,"
written at Rome and dedicated to Sophronius,
probably his companion and later patriarch of Je
rusalem (d. 638; see SOPH&ON1u8, 2.), who has in‑
deed been declared (as by Nicephorus, John of Damascus, and the second Nicene Council) to be the author of the "Meadow." This work, in its present form, is a mass of disconnected stories, based on older sources, including a " Paradise," perhaps identical with the " Old Folks' Book," doubtless a collection of apothegms. In its original form, however, the " Meadow" seems to have been somewhat on the plan of the Collaliones of Cassian or of the Historic monaeharum of Timotheus, recounting Moschus' personal experience with famous ascetics or giving edifying stories told by them. The numerous tract‑like stories are probably interpolations. The object of the work was a contribution to ascetic life, but its style, as compared with older writings of similar character, is vulgar and uncouth, though the chaotic condition of the manuscripts render even the original extent of the work uncertain. Nevertheless the " Meadow " is a work of distinct importance, containing valuable information on monastic life both in Palestine and in the other countries visited by the author, and also describing the liturgy, the political relations of the day as disturbed by the invasions of Persians and Arabs, and giving hints of such phases of culture history as the development of the cult of Mary. The work long remained popular in the monasteries and exercised an influence on later literature of similar character, filled as it was with the marvelous and assailing heresy in a manner which renders it not without importance for the history of dogma. (E. PREUt3CHEN.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A good edition of the work of Moschus is
still a desideratum; it is printed with Latin tranel. in MPG, lxxxvii., reproduced from F. du Duc, in Bibliotheca GrracoLatina, pp. 1057‑1159, preceded by a life, pp. 1054‑57, Paris, 1624. Consult further: Fabricius‑Harles, Bibliotheca Circa, x. 124 sqq., Hamburg, 1807; Krumbaeher, soschichte, pp. 187‑188, et passim.

MOSES.
Name, Birth, and Childhood	From Sinai to Kadesh (§ 6).
	(§ 1).	From Kadesh to Nebo (¢ 7).
Youth and Early Manhood;	Character (¢ 8).
	the Divine Call (§ 2).	Moses as Lawgiver (¢ 9).
The Plagues of Egypt (¢ 3).	Ae Historian and Religious
The Exodus ($ 4).		Founder ($ 10).
The March to Sinai ($ 5).
	The liberator of Israel from the Egyptian bond
age, to whom tradition unanimously refers the es
tablishment of Israel's nationality, bears in the
Bible the name Mosheh, which Ex. ii. 10 explains
		as a memento of his wonderful preser‑
	:. Name,	vation in earliest childhood. The name
	Birth, and	is probably of Egyptian origin, not
	Childhood.	from the Egyptian‑Coptic mo, "water "
		and eye, " saved," or mou, " water,"
and chi, " take," the latter accepted by the Sep
tuagint which has Mous1s, but rather from mea,
mesu, " child," often used in proper names, as, e.g.,
Tautmea, Thothmes. In Ex. vi. 20 and Num.
xxvi. 59, Amram and Jochebed, both of the tribe
of Levi, are called the parents of Moses. Jochebed
is mentioned as a daughter of Levi (Ex. ii. 1; Num.
xxvi. 59) and Amram as a grandson; this neither
accords with the Mosaic marriage‑laws (Lev. xvii.
12) nor with the duration of the stay in Egypt.
Indeed, according to Num. iii. 27 sqq., Amram can
scarcely have been Moses' father. Ex. vii. 7 states

25	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Morus
		Moses
that Aaron was older than Moses, as was also a
sister (Ex. ii. 4), perhaps Miriam. The future lib
erator was born at the time of the severest oppres
sion of his people. The Pharaoh, apprehensive be
cause of the spread of the Semitic population in the
northeast of the kingdom, had just commanded
that the newly born male children of the Israelites
should be cast into the Nile. Disregarding this
stern command, the mother of Moses dared to keep
her child, who was " exceeding fair " (Acts vii. 20),
for three months; then she entrusted him to the
care of the Almighty (Heb. xi. 23). The child,
placed in an ark of bulrushes and watched by his
sister, was discovered by the Pharaoh's daughter
who wished to bathe in the river. It therefore
seems that Moses saw the light in a royal capital
on the lower Nile. Some think of Tanis (the Zoan
of Num. xiii. 22, etc.), but Bubastis is more prob
able, as the Hyksos rulers often resided there. The
Pharaoh in question is not Rameses II., but a ruler
of the eighteenth dynasty. A tradition (Eusebius,
Pra'pamtio evdngelica, ix. 27; Eng. transl., i. 462
sqq., Oxford, 1903) names the savior of Moses
Merris; the Rabbis give Bityah, derived from the
Bithiah of I Chron. iv. 18;‑Josephus, however (Ant.
II., ix. 5) calls her Thermuthis. The adoption of
foreign children was not unusual at the royal court.
Similar legends regarding the preservation of cele
brated men in their childhood prove nothing against
the historical character of this event, only the un
doubtedly older recital concerning Sargon I. could
be considered a prototype (see BABYLoNrA, VI., 3,
§ 1).
	At the Egyptian court Moses was instructed in
" all the wisdom of the Egyptians," and it is quite
probable that he came into close touch with the
Egyptian priesthood, who were the guardians of
			wisdom and culture. Manetho (Jo
a. Youth sephus, Apion, i. 26, 28) even asserts
	and Early that he was a priest of Osiris in Heli
	Manhood; opolis and bore the name of Osarsiph,
	the Divine which he later changed to Moses. The
		Call.	Bible relates only one event of Moses'
			youth, the slaying of an Egyptian
slave‑driver (Ex. ii. 11 sqq.). He was obliged to
flee from Pharaoh's wrath to the land of Midian,
in the southeastern part of the Sinaitic peninsula.
A courteous service rendered at a well, recalling
Jacob's adventure, brought him into the house of
the priest of Midian, who took him into his service
and gave him his daughter Zipporah in marriage.
This priest of Midian is called Reuel in Ex. ii. 18 (J),
but Jethro in Ex. iii. 1 (E), etc.; the name Jethro
may be an appellative (yithro‑yithron, " superior
ity," " excellency "). Zipporah is hardly identical
with the Ethiopian woman of Num. xii. 1, this text
seeming to refer to a later event. Two sons, Ger
shom and Eliezer, were born to Moses during his
exile in Midian (Ex. ii. 22, xviii. 4). Tradition (Acts
vii. 30) marks an interval of forty years between
the flight to Midian and the revelation from God;
according to P (Ex. vii. 7), Moses was eighty years
old when he appeared before Pharaoh. The vision
at which he was entrusted with his office was
vouchsafed him at Mt. Horeb or Sinai (see SINAx).
Here the angel of the Lord, or, according to the
further recital, the Lord himself appeared to him unexpectedly. This appearance was not in human form but elemental, a flame of fire rising from a bush. Its supernatural quality was shown by the bush remaining unconsumed. The divine voice heard by Moses announced itself to be that of the God of the covenant with the fathers, and commanded Moses to free his people and lead them, in the name of Yahweh, from the Egyptian bondage to Canaan (cf. Ex. iii. 14 with vi. 3). Moses was to demand of Pharaoh that the Israelites should be allowed to go three days' journey into the desert to sacrifice to their God, whom they could not serve in Egypt. In spite of his hesitation, Moses was forced to accept, and his power consisted in the fact that not his own will but that of God prevailed. Moses feared that he did not possess the requisite eloquence for his task and was told that Aaron should speak for him. He was therefore forced to conform to the will of God and depart for Egypt. On his way back, during a halt, an incident occurred, the account of which is obscure (Ex. iv. 24‑26). He had failed to circumcise his son (the narrator seems to know of only one), although this usage had been made a law for Abraham and his descendants, and the text says that Yahweh attacked him, probably by an illness which roused his conscience. As the father was incapacitated by illness, Zip. porah cut off her son's foreskin and, casting it at Moses' feet, exclaimed: " A bloody husband art thou to me." These enigmatical words may Signify that by her act she had saved her husband's life. Another king now sat on the Egyptian throne, but the position of the Israelites was not improved. Moses was coldly received by his people, and found little appreciation for his mission. At first, indeed, they were grateful for the prospect of liberation, but when the Pharaoh received ungraciously the demand for the festival in the desert and redoubled his exactions, the Israelites reproached Moses and Aaron with being mischief‑makers.
Before the plagues fell upon Egypt, Pharaoh was shown the change of the rod into a serpent, which was merely a symbol of what was to follow; it accorded with Egyptian usage, just as the plagues conformed to the natural conditions
	3. The	of the land. Egyptian magic was td be
	Plagues	conquered in the domain of its national
	of Egypt. gods, so that all might see that Yah
		weh was the real Lord of the land (Ex.
viii. 19). On the traditional names of the Egyp
tian magicians, see JANNEB AND JAMBREB. At the
present day Egyptian snake‑charmers are able to
reduce these creatures to complete insensibility, so
that they appear like rods. Since Pharaoh paid no
heed to this sign, it was followed by the plagues,
ten in number, which gradually forced the Egyp
tians to recognize the full power of the Lord. They
are principally related by JE, partly by P or by
both sources in combination. The plagues suc
ceeded one another in the course of '4L few months,
with short intervals to give the Pharaoh time for
reflection. Firstly, at the command of the prophet,
the Nile water was turned to blood; this signifies
a reddish hue of the water, accompanying its cor
ruption, the latter a fearful blow for the Egyptian•

zones	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	26
as this element was for them so invaluable. The water sometimes becomes corrupt when the Nile is low, but the fact that it now grew exceptionally foul at the command of Moses was evident proof of Yahweh's agency. Seven days after the first (combine Ex. vii. 25 and viii. 1) followed the second plague, an invasion of frogs, especially favored by the stagnant water. These were the small rang Nilotica and Mosaics, indigenous in Egypt; by their unusual number and obtrusiveness they became a national calamity. The magicians also succeeded in producing both these plagues but could not remove them, and the king had to seek help from Moses. As, however, the king relented only for the moment, the third plague ensued, that of gnats. These insects are always annoying in Egypt, but perhaps through the drying‑up of the stagnant water, they now became a veritable scourge. Here the power of the magicians failed and they were obliged to acknowledge a divine agency. Since the ruler was still obdurate, the fourth, the plague of lice (Septuagint, kunomuia, " dog‑flies ") followed. This infliction was so severe that Pharaoh was moved to consent that the Israelites should sacrifice to God in Egypt; Moses wisely refused. The promise then given by Pharaoh in his extremity, that the Israelites should be permitted to make the three days' journey into the desert, was not kept when this plague was removed and so a fifth was sent, a terrible murrain. The plague of boils was the sixth and this afflicted even the magicians. All these visitations were on a gradually ascending scale; three others were of exceptional severity. Firstly, as the seventh plague, a destructive and even deadly hailstorm which, according to Ex. ix. 31, took place at the end of January or the beginning of February. The plague of grasshoppers, the eighth, completed the misfortune, since they appeared in unprecedented numbers (Ex. x. 14). The king now consented to the departure of the adults, provided the children and the cattle remained, but no compromise was accepted and the ninth plague, of three days' darkness, ensued. This may be connected with the khamsin, which sometimes, usually in March, brings clouds of dust and obscures the sun. Pharaoh was now ready to let the children go also, only wishing to keep the cattle as a pledge. When this was refused, he again opposed his will to that of God and the tenth plague was inflicted, destined to break down his obstinate resistance. As the Egyptians would not recognize Yahweh's paternal authority over Israel, his first‑born, he avenged himself by taking away the cherished firstborn of the land. Preparations were made to protect Israel from the plague and also for a speedy departure. The visitation fell upon the homes of the Egyptians, and while the sound of mourning was heard in every house, the Israelites marched forth, urged thereto by the terrified Egyptians, who showered gifts upon them so as to be rid of them the sooner.
The feast of the Passover was from this time a memorial of the preservation from the destroying angel and of the hasty departure. The sanctification of the first‑born is referred to the sparing of the first‑born of Israel in Egypt (Ex. xiii. 2, 11‑16).
The Exodus took place (P) on the fifteenth of the month Abib which from that time was to be counted the first month (Num. xxxiii. 3; Ex.
4. The xii. 2). The city of Raamses is men‑
	Exodus.	tioned as the point of departure,
		doubtless the city which the Israelites
were forced to build (Ex. i. 11). The site is not de
termined; from Ex. xii. 31, it seems that the Pharaoh
resided there. It was probably in Goshen, a little
to the west or north of the first station Succoth,
Egyptian Thuket or Thuku, originally the name of
a district and then of its chief city, Pithom‑Hier
opolis, the Tell Mashuta of to‑day (cf. E. Naville,
The Store City, in the. Memoirs of the Egypt Explo
ration Fund; q.v.). The present Wadi Tumilat was
traversed, where the mass of the Israelites joined
the march. Etham was the second station (Egyp
tian, Khetem, " fortification "), a bulwark for pro
tection against attacks from the east; it was at
" the edge of the desert." Here the route was de
flected from the natural course in a southerly and
then in a northeasterly direction, so that the gulf
lay between the Israelites and the desert. This
gulf, which was afterward traversed, the " Reedy
Sea," is the Gulf of Suez, an arm of the Red Sea
(q.v.). Its characteristics corroborate the state
ments of the narrative, especially its sudden and
strong tides, particularly when favored by the wind
during the vernal equinox. If, as assumed above,
the march was through the Wadi Tumilat, the pas
sage was probably by the Bitter Lakes, south of the
present Ismailiya. Led by God's Pillar of Fire and
Cloud (q.v.), the Israelites had moved southward
from Etham. When the Pharaoh was informed of
this, he realized from the continuance of their march
that there was no hope of their return; at the same
time, the direction taken led him to think that the
leaders had no certain plan and that, hemmed in
by the trackless desert, the throng could be easily
overtaken and brought back. Already repenting
of his consent, he started in pursuit with his char
iots. He encountered the Israelites encamped on
the seashore to the west of the gulf; their position
seemed hopeless. At the prayer of Moses, however,
God showed a miraculous way of escape through
the sea, the waters of which divided, allowing the
Israelites to pass dry‑shod. Eager to secure their
Prey, the Egyptians hastened after them the same
night; in their passage, a panic arose among their
chariots, caused by the fiery reflection from the
pillar, and, to complete the catastrophe, the waters
returned and overwhelmed the Egyptians. As a
natural cause, a strong northeast wind maybe con
jectured which left the ford dry at ebb‑tide while
a shift of the wind to the contrary direction swelled
the returning flood‑tide. The sublimest monument
to this event was raised by Moses, in his magnifi
cent song (Ex. xv. 1 sqq.), the authenticity of which
can not rightly be disputed, although some addi
tions may have been made to it. The rescue of the
Israelites at the Red Sea marks the birth‑hour of
the people of Yahweh; the later prophetic and
poetic literature looked back to this event as the
climax of the deliverance and it became a type of
salvation (Isa. xi. 15, lxiii. 11 sqq.; Ps. lxxviii., cv.,
cvi.).

27	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
The " mount of God " formed the goal of Israel's further journey. This mountain has been found in the land of Edom, or on the western coast of Arabia. It is, however, more probable
g. The that the traditional view which. places
March	it in the southern part of the Sinaitic
	to Sinai.	peninsula is correct; in this case, the
		Israelites went eastward towards the
Gulf of Akaba. Between the passage of the Red
Sea and Sinai, a number of stations are men
tioned where a halt was possibly made for a longer
or shorter period. Tradition places the scene of the
triumph over Pharaoh at Ayun Musa, whence the
journey may have been pursued for three days
through the desert of Shur until Mara was reached
(perhaps Hawara, sixteen hours south of Ayun
Musa). According to the ancient list of stations
(Num. xxxiii.) the Israelites encamped again at the
Red Sea between Elim and the desert of Sin, per
haps in the beautiful Wadi Tayibe; Rephidim is
generally thought to be the fruitful Wadi Feiran,
at the foot of Mount Serbal. The desert was a fit
place for Israel's education, since the people was
here dependent upon its God for guidance and
nourishment. Nevertheless, suspicion and want of
faith prevailed, held in check only by overpower
ing signs of God's fatherly care; the pillar of cloud;
the gift of manna, of water from the rock and of
quails; the victory over the Amalekites through
the prayers of Moses; and finally the sublime mani
festation of God on Sinai. As with the wonders
performed in Egypt and in the passage of the Red
Sea, a connection with local phenomena can be
found for these happenings. Manna is a common
vegetable product on the western side of the Sina
itic peninsula, and flocks of quails frequently alight
here in the spring; both Jebel Musa and Serbal
tower in imposing majesty, especially during a
storm. All this, the well‑authenticated battle with
the Amalekites, and allusions in early lyrics serve
to confirm belief in the historical quality of these
narratives.
On Sinai, where the Lord permitted the people to gaze upon his glory and hear his voice, the Law was given through the mediation of Moses. After
nearly a year's sojourn at this place
6. From (cf. Num. x. 11 with Ex. xix. 1), the
Sinai to Israelites resumed their march, led by
Kadesh. Hobab, the brother‑in‑law of Moses
(Num. x. 29 sqq.), and moved northward into the desert of Paran. On this long journey the people often murmured and were sternly punished; when, finally, they refused to advance toward Canaan, intimidated by the reports of spies sent thither, not even the appeals of Moses to God's mercy could shield them from the judgment that that generation should not see the land of promise. A wilful attempt to invade Canaan failed, and the Israelites were forced to turn back to the Red Sea. Much obscurity covers the forty years' wanderings in the desert; naturally, the people were not continually changing their abode. A longer residence in Kadesh (see NEQEB, TnE) is shown by Deut. i. 46; Judges xi. 17; cf. Num. xx. 1, 14; this place may have been the religious and civil center, while the people wandered in the neighboring regions.
Among the events of these years was the rebellion of Korah (Num. xvi.).
In the first month of the fortieth year, the Israelites were still in Kadesh. Although the time had come for entrance into the promised land, because of the opposition of the Edomites and Amalekitea they did not follow the most direct course thither but made a wide d6tour and proceeded
7. From by Mt. Seir to the country west of the
Kadesh	Jordan. As at this time even Moses
	to Nebo.	and Aaron lost faith (Num. xx. 2‑12),
		they were not permitted to live to see
the realization of their hopes. On one occasion, the
murmurings of the people were punished by veno
mous serpents; Moses then saved the Israelites by
setting up a brazen serpent on a pole (see SER
PENT, BRAZEN). This image was later used as an
idol (II Kings xviii. 4). Arrived at the Arnon, the
Israelites encountered the Amorites, led by Sihon
and Og, and defeated them twice; by these victories
the country west of the Jordan was won. Though
the Moabites were well pleased with the downfall of
their enemies the Amorites, they sought to thwart
the plans of the Israelites without risking open op
position, and called the famous magician Balaam
(q.v.) to their aid, but his magic was unavailing.
They and the Midianites had better success with
the sensual temptations of their Baal‑worship, and
Israel's licentiousness was punished by a pestilence.
Moses died at the end of the forty years, after re
signing his command to Joshua and dividing the
conquered territory among the tribes of Reuben,
Gad, and half Manasseh on the condition that they
should aid their brethren in the conquest of the land
beyond the Jordan. In a prophetic song, he fore
told the future of his people (Deut. xxxii.) and
blessed the different tribes as Jacob had done (Deut.
xxxiii.); he was permitted to gaze from Mt. Nebo
over the promised land and then died, at the age of
120 (Deut. xxxiv. 7; P), and the children of Israel
mourned for him thirty days.
The character of Moses, as presented by the Bible, shows that from his youth he was endowed with a high sense of righteousness and with a warm love for his people. The fact that he was
8. Chas‑ able, without material power, to lead
	acter.	his people for forty years, proves not
		only his mental vigor, but also his pa
tience and kindness; and yet he earned but little
gratitude. Even his brother proved untrustworthy
(Ex. xxxii.) and, with Miriam, intrigued against
him (Num. xii.); but he was never embittered and
is rightly called " meek above all men which were
upon the face of the earth" (Num. xii. 3). This
did not, however, imply any weakness, for he could
be stern and inflexible where the honor of his God
was at stake (Ex. xxxii. 27). He was a prophet
great alike in word and deed (Hos. xii. 13), one
who saw God not merely in dreams and visions
but " face to face " (Num. xii. 6 sqq.). The glory of
God was reflected on his countenance so that he was s
forced to veil it (Ex. xxxiv. 29 sqq.; Keren, " horn,
ray," cf. R. V. margin, is incorrectly rendered cor..
nuts fades, "horned appearance," in the Vulgate,
hence the pictorial representations of Moses with
horns). Ilia historical importance cau not be too

Moses
Mosque
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
highly estimated; not only did he liberate Israel and thus help it to a national existence, but he was, according to a unanimous tradition which no criticism can overthrow, the human author of theocracy in its national form.
To what extent the law as existent in the Pentateuch is of Mosaic origin can not be satisfactorily determined, but Moses may safely be regarded as
the originator of the divine ordinances g. Moses contained therein. It is certain that
as Law‑ he was better qualified for this work,
	giver.	both by education and by divine guid
		ance, than any other Israelite. As
a legislator educated in Egypt, it may be assumed
that he wrote down the divinely inspired laws from
the very beginning, or at least the essential por
tions. Reminiscences of Egypt abound in the law
(Ex. xx. 2; Lev. xix. 34; Num. xv. 41; Dent. v.
15). The legislation does not imply a complex
civilization, but is adapted to a people devoted to
agriculture and cattle‑raising (cf. Ex. xxi., xxii.)
and so rude as to require the sternest repressive
laws (cf. Ex. xxi. 24‑25); at the same time it
breathes a simple and childlike faith. Nevertheless,
the law, in its present form, was as little written
at one time as were the historical parts of the Pen
tateuch. There were additions and supplementary
laws which may belong to post‑Mosaic times (see
HEXATEUCH). For example, it is clear that the
royal laws did not exist in Samuel's time (I Sam.
viii.), indeed, they seem to have been composed by
him (cf. P. Kleinert, Das Deuteronomium uncl der
Deuteronomiker, Bielefeld, 1872). The conclusion
is legitimate that not only was the oral tradition
from Moses' time written down and edited later,
but that prophets who proclaimed laws in the spirit
of God incorporated these in the code of Moses.
Still the foundation of the Torah is Mosaic, above
all, its simplest form, the Decalogue (q.v.); this,
however, heads the Book of the Covenant (Ex. xx.
xxiii.), which is especially archaic and is arranged
on the same numerical scheme. This section is now
generally regarded as the oldest part of the Penta
teuch. Deuteronomy is in clearer accord with it
than are the remaining laws in Exodus, Leviticus,
and Numbers, and although in its present form it
must be assigned to a later period, we do not doubt
that Mosaic tradition told of a parenetic repetition
of the law in the fields of Moab; in thought and
spirit this body of laws is thoroughly Mosaic. The
remaining Elohistic legislation, more priestly than
prophetic in its character, may have been edited,
as the modern theory assumes, at a late period.
Moses may also be regarded as the first Hebrew historian. Naturally, the story of his life and work as given in the Pentateuch can not be by him, but the recital of the battle with the Amalekites (cf.
		Ex. xvii. 14) and the list of stations
	io. As	(Num. xxxiii. 2 aqq.) are stated to be
	Historian	from his hand. These ancient texts
	and 	make it probable that Moses recorded
Religious historical events, more especially since,
Founder. besides Moses' song, there are three
songs in Num. xxi. unquestionably belonging to this time. The tablets of Tell Amarna (see AMAHNA TABLETS) prove that such notices
28
were written down in the outlying provinces of Egypt in this period. The blessing of Moses (Dent. xxxiii.), despite critical attacks, is probably authentic (verses 1‑5 show a later hand) and the Song of Moses seems to be by him and is unmistakably related to Ps. xc. As the mediator of the Old Covenant, Moses occupies an exceptional place in the New Testament also, not simply as the highest authority for the Jews (e.g., John v. 45, viii. 5, etc.), but also for Christ and the apostles. The essential fact was not his authorship of the Pentateuch (Luke xxiv. 44; Mark xii. 26), but his theological significance as the founder of the divine rule under the law of which he was the mediator. The Old Testament is personified in Moses in its positive and prophetic significance (John. v. 45‑46) and in its temporary and incomplete quality (cf. Matt. xix. 8; II Cor. iii. 7; Gal. iii. 19). " The law was given by Moses, but grace and truth came by Jesus Christ " (John i. 17). C. VON ORELLI.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The subject is, of course, treated in the works on the history of Israel named under AHAB; and ISRAEL, HISTORY or. Further discussion will be found in the commentaries on Exodus to Deuteronomy, and in the works on O. T. theology; and his relation to the laws and narrative of the Hexateuch is met forth in the works on Biblical Introduction (q.v.) and on the Hexateuch (q.v.). Further light may be gained in this connection from the literature given under HAMMURABI AND His CODE. Consult further: J. Reiner, Moses and sein Werk, Berlin, 1907; B. Beer, Leben Moses nach Aufassung der jiidischen Sage, Leipsie, 1863; A. P. Stanley, Jewish Church, i. 86‑173, London, 1863; G. Rawlinson, Moses, his Life and Times, ib. 1887; F. Vigouroux, La Bible et d1couvertes modernea, ii. 280‑592, Paris, 1896; K. Budde, Religion of Israel to the Exile, New York, 1899; D. G. Hogarth, Authority and Archmlogy, pp. 54‑79, London, 1899; J. W. Rothstein, Moses ala Mensch and Prophet, Erlangen, 1901; H. P. Smith, O. T. History, pp. 55‑65, New York 1903; E. 8tueken, Astralmythen der Hebraer, part v., Moss, Leipsic, 1907; C. F. Kent, Student's O. T., vol. i., iv. 1‑48, New York, 1907; P. Vola, Moss. Bin Beitrap zur Untersuchuno Oer die Urapritn pe der i8raeliliachen Religion, Tiibingen,1907. For Mohammedan views: G. Weil, The Bible, Koran and the Talmud, London 1846. For the Assumption of Moses see PBEUDEPIGRAPHA, III., 6, and cf. Charles' ed. of that work, pp. xiv.‑xvii., London, 1897. Consult further: DB, iii. 438‑448; EB, iii. 3203‑19; JE, ix. 44‑57; F. Vigouroux, Dictionnaire de la Bible, xxvii. 1190‑1215, Paris, 1906.
MOSES OF CHORENE (MOSES CHORENENSIS). See ARMENIA, II., § 3.

MOSHEIM, mes'haim, JOHANN LORENTZ VON: German Lutheran church historian; b. at Lijbeck Oct. 9, 1694 or 1695; d. at GAtingen Sept. 9, 1755. He attended the gymnasium at Liibeck 1707‑12, where ihterest in his mother tongue and a fondness for poetry seems to .have been awakened, and in 1716 he entered the University of Kiel, and as a student attracted the attention not only of his professors, but also of men like Leibnitz, Buddeus, and Lacroze. In 1719 he became a member of the faculty of philosophy, and in 1723 accepted a call as professor to Helmstddt. In 1726 he became abbot of Marienthal, 1727 of Michaelstein. In 1729 he was entrusted with the leadership of all school affairs and obtained a decisive influence over the whole church. In 1726 he was induced to promise not to leave Helmstadt without the consent of the government. He became more and more the main support and pillar of this university, the influence

89	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Xoses
		Xosque
of which was rapidly waning before the newly es
tablished institution at Gbttingen. Although he
could not go to Gottingen, he was very active in
the organization of the theological faculty there,
drew up its statutes and assisted in the appoint
ment of its professors. It was only in 1747 that he
was enabled to accept a call to the new university
as its first and only chancellor. But in spite of his
high position, he did not enjoy the same authority
and freedom at Gbttingen as at HelmstAdt.
	Mosheim was not only the most learned theo
logian in the Lutheran Church of his day, he was
also one of the first German authors and scholars
of his age. His style was pure, elegant, fluent, and
felicitous, whether in German or Latin. This Ba
thetic quality was fostered by his early acquaint
ance with the literature of England, France, and
Italy, to which was chiefly due the breadth of view
which enabled him so to further the theological sci
ence of his day, especially in church history. As a
theologian, he occupied an intermediate position
between the extremes of pietism and deism. He
was opposed to the confessional orthodoxy on the
ground that theology was thus excluded from sci
entific culture. But on the other hand, he was one
of the first in Germany to attack the deists and the
authority of the reason. Although Mosheim's im
portance lies largely in his many‑sidedness by which
he fructified the whole field of theology, his his
torical works display best the range of his learning
and his large horizon, as well as the minuteness of
his observation and his attention to detail, his terse
delineation, and his faithful representation of lights
and shadows. He collected his earlier treatises on
church history such as Vindiciae antiqum Chris
tianorum disciplinte (Kiel, 1720) in his Observth
tiones sacrce et historico‑critics: (Amsterdam, 1721),
and in his Dissertationes ad historiam ecclesiasticam
pertinentes (1732‑43). Tae investigated compre
hensively the history of religion and of the Church
in his Latin translation (with notes, Jena, 1733) of
Cudworth's Intellectual System. He treated ques
tions of the history of the early Church such as the
date of the apologies of Tertullian and Athenagoras,
and the influence of Platonism upon the Church,
and touched other spheres of church history as may
be seen from Historic Tartarorum ecclesiastics
(Helmstadt, 1741) and Erzdhlung der neuesten
chinesischen Kirchengesehiehte (Rostock, 1748).
He sought to popularize church history by his trans
lation of the eight books of Origen against Celsus
(Hamburg, 1745). He wrote also histories of hbre
sies, under the titles, Versuch einer unparteiischen
Ketzergeschichte (Helmstadt, 1746); and Auder
weitiger Versuch einer vollstlindigen and unpartei
ischen Ketzergeschichte (ib. 1748). As early as 1726
he had written a comprehensive exposition of church
history under the title, Institutiones historite ecclesi
asticce Novi Testamenti. The edition of 1737 was in
1741 enlarged by the remaining portion of the his
tory of the later Church. His Institutiones historite
Christiance maiores (Helmstadt, 1739) was intended
to be more detailed, but Mosheim finished only the
first cenLury. The want was supplied to a certain
extent by his Commentarii de rebus Christianorum
ante Constantinum Magnum (Helmstadt, 1753;
Eng. transl. by R. S. Vidal, Commentaries on the Afairs of the Chridiana before . . . Constantine the Great, 3 vols., London, 1813‑15) which is his most mature accomplishment in church history. Almost immediately before his death there appeared his Inetitulionea historim ewlmiasticoe antitluw et recentioris (ib. 1755; Eng. trand. by A. Maclaine, Arc Ecclesiastical History, 2 vols., London, 1765, 2d ed., 5 vols., 1768; and by J. Murdoch, Institutes of Ecclesiastical History, 3 vols.,1832, ed. by W. Stubbs, 3 vols., London, 1863). Mosheim's importance as a church historian rests upon the fact that he set a higher mark for the church historian and tried to reach it.
	Mosheim made contributions to nearly every
branch of theological science.	He left commen
taries on the New Testament and works on theo
logical encyclopedia, dogmatics, polemics, church
polity, and homiletics. His most important work
in the department of systematic theology was his
Sittenlehre der heiligen Schrift (5 vols., Helmatadt,
1735‑53; vols. vi. ix. added by J. P. Miller). As
a preacher he was much admired, and his sermons,
published in 7 vols. (1725 and often) were esteemed
as models. 	(N. BowwETsca.)
BIRLIOGRAPRy: A list of his writings w88 left by himself in his Notitia ecriplorum . . . a Moshemio, Helmetadt, 1731, cf. the preface to the Helmstridt, 1764, ed. of his Inatitutionee, and to the Eng. ed. of his Institutes by Stubbs, London, 1863. Accounts of his life and writings are in J. M. Gesner, Biographic academics Gottingensis, ed. J. N. Eyring, vol. i., Halle, 1868; J. G. Meusel, Lexicon der vom 1760 bia 1800 verstorbenen teutschen Schriftateller, ix. 348‑364, 15 vols., Leipsic, 1802‑1e; E. RBesler, Die Grandunp der Univerwitat Gntinpen, G6ttingen, 1855; ADB, xxii. 395 aqq.; F. A. E. Ehrenfeuchter, in Gottinger Professoren Gotha, 1872; K. Heumi, Die Kirchenge• schichtsaehrea3ung J. L. von Mosheam, Gotha, 1904; idem, J. L. Mosheim, TObingen, 1906.
MOSQUE (Arab. masjid, "a house of prayer"): A Mohammedan place of worship. The first one was built by Mohammed at Medina, in a graveyard opposite the spot where his camel knelt on his public entrance into that city. The most famous mosques are Masjid al Nebi (" Mosque of the Prophet ") at Medina, replacing the original one; Al‑Hamram at Mecca, enclosing the Kaaba (q.v.); Santa Sophia in Constantinople, originally a Greek basilica; the Mosque of Achmed, in the same city; that of Omar, in the Haram enclosure at Jerusalem; the Great Mosque, at Damascus; the mosque at Hebron; and the alabaster mosque of Mehemet Ali, at Cairo; the most elaborate is the Great Mosque at Delhi, built by Shah Jehan (1631‑37). Mosques are found in every Mohammedan settlement, and vary in cost and beauty as do churches; but in general features they are alike, and consist of a domed building, a court with a fountain, in which ablutions hre performed prior to entering, a minaret or tower, from which the muezzin calls the faithful to prayer. Inside they are open spaces, devoid of pictorial ornamentation, except by quotations from the Koran, often beautifully done, upon the walls. They contain the mihrab (a niche surmounted by a vaulted arch), placed in the direction of Mecca; and the minbar, or platform pulpit, upon which the ministers stand during service. The mosque is a composite building, in that its dome is Byzantine, its

Motet	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	$O
Xourning Customs
minaret is the Christian campanile, without its bell,
	while the court is like a khann. In connection with
mosques are schools where the Koran is taught.
	In the Mosque Al‑Azhar at Cairo is the great uni
	versity of the Mohammedans, whither students
come from all parts of their world, and whence they
are sent to propagate their faith. Other establish
ments, benevolent in character, are also connected
	with mosques.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the general works given under
		ARCHrTECrUSE, consult: J. Fergusson, Indian and East
		ern Architecture, London, 1876; idem, Hist. of Architec
		ture, it‑. 1893; G. de Prengly, L'Architecture des Arabes,
		Paris, 1842; Franc‑Pasha, Die Baukunst des Islam, Darm
		atadt, 1896; R. Borrmann, Die Baukunst des Altertums
		and des Islams im Mittelalter, Leipsic, 1904; R. P. Spiers,
		Architecture East and West, London, 1904.
		MOTET. See SACRED MUSIC, IL, 2, § 3.
		MOTT, JOHN RALEIGH: Methodist layman,
	leader in the Young Men's Christian Association
	movement; b. at Livingstone Manor, N. Y., May
	25, 1865. He studied at Upper Iowa University,
	but was graduated from Cornell University, 1888;
	the same year he became student secretary of the
	international committee of the Y. M. C. A. and
	chairman of the executive committee of the Stu
	dent Volunteer Movement; since 1895 he has also
	been general secretary of the World's . Christian
	Federation, since 1898 secretary of the foreign de
	partment of the international committee of the
	Y. M. C. A., and since 1901 associate general sec
	retary of the same. He has been most efficient in
	promoting the foreign mission enthusiasm among
	young people, and organizes missionary conferences
	in all parts of the world with marked skill. He en
	joys a commanding position among the leaders of
	modern evangelization. He has written: Strategic
	Points in. the World's Conquest (New York, 1897) ;
	The Evangelization of the World in this Generation
	(1900); Christians of Reality (Shanghai, 1902);
	The Pastor and Modern Missions (New York, 1904) ;
	and The Future Leadership of the Church (1909).
		MOULE, GEORGE EVANS: Anglican bishop in
	Central China; b. at Gillingham (24 m. n.e. of
	Dorchester), Dorsetshire, England, Jan. 28, 1828.
	He was educated at Corpus Christi College (B.A.,
	1850), and was ordered deacon in 1851 and ordained
	priest in the following year. He was curate at
	Fordington, Dorset (1851‑55); chaplain of the Dor
	set County Hospital (1855‑57); a missionary, under
	the auspices of the Church Missionary Society, at
	Ning‑po and Hangchow, China, from 1857 to 1878;
	and curate of West Stafford (1878‑80). In 1880 he
	was consecrated missionary bishop in Central China,
	his diocese covering the provinces of Keang‑su, Cheh
	kiang, An‑hwi, Huipeh, and parts of Keang‑si and
	Hunan, holding this position till 1907, when he be
	came missionary for the Church Missionary Society
	at Hangchow, China. He has published Faith and
	Duty (sermons; Shanghai, 1902).
		MOULE, HANDLEY CARR GLYN: Church of
	England, bishop of Durham; b. at Dorchester, Dor
	setshire, Dec. 23, 1841. He was educated at Trin
	ity College, Cambridge (B.A., 1864), where he was
	fellow from 1865 to 1881. He was assistant master
	at Marlborough College (1865‑67), assistant curate
of Fordington, Dorset (1867‑73, 1877‑80), dean of Trinity College (1873‑77), first principal of Ridley Hall, Cambridge (1881‑99), and Norrisian professor of divinity at Cambridge (1899‑1901). In 1901 he was consecrated bishop of Durham. He was also select preacher at Cambridge in 1880, 1882, 1891, 1894, 1896, 1899, and 1900, and at Oxford in 1895, as well as honorary chaplain to the queen in 18981901 and to the king since the latter year. In theology he is " deeply attached to the main positions and traditions of the English Reformation, a humble believer in the divine authority of the Holy Scriptures, and in later years greatly influenced by the Keswick movement."
Among his numerous works are: Apollo at Pherte (Cambridge, 1865); Poems from Subjects Connected with the Acts of the Apostles (London, 1869); Fordington Sermons (1882); Chriatianus, a Story of Antioch, and Other Poems (1883); Justifying Righteousness (1885); Thoughts on Union with Christ (1885); Thoughts on the Spiritual Life (1887); The Christian's Victory over Sin (1887); The New Birth (1888); Outlines of Christian Doctrine (1889); Secret Prayer (1889); The Net and the Deliverance (1889); Veni Creator (1890); The Cup of the Covenant (1890); Daniel: or, the Secret of Continuance (1890); Life in Christ and for Christ (1890); The Oak of Ephrah (1891); At the Holy Communion (1892); Jesus and the Resurrection (1893); Charles Simeon (1895); Grace and Godliness (1895); In the House of the Pilgrimage (1896); The Sacrament of Baptism (1896); Prayers and Promises (1896); Philippian Studies (1897); Colossian Studies (1898); Our Prayer‑Book (1898); Confession (1899); On the Holy Communion (1899); Our Great High Priest, (1899); Ephesian Studies (1900); The Secret of the Presence, and other Sermons (1900); The Evangelical School in the Church of England (1901); From Sunday to Sunday (1903); Justification by Faith (1903); Temptation and Escape (1903); Imitations and Translations (1904); The School of Suffering (1905); My Brethren and Companions, and other Sermons (1905); Second Epistle to Timothy (1905); Holiness by Faith (1906); Scenes in the Life of our Lord (1907); The High Priestly Prayer: a devotional Commentary on the 17th Chapter of St. John (1907); Christ's Witness to the Life to Come, and Other Sermons (1908); Faith, its Nature and Work (1909); and Messages from the Epistle to the Hebrews (1909). He likewise prepared for The Cambridge Bible the volumes on Romans (Cambridge, 1879), Ephesians (1886), Philippians (1889), and Colossians and Philemon (1893); for The Expositor's Bible the volume on Romans (London, 1894); and for the Cambridge Greek Testament the volume on Philippians (Cambridge, 1897).
MOULTON, WILLIAM FIDDIAN: Wesleyan; b. at Leek (42 m. n. of Birmingham, Eng.) Mar. 14, 1835; d. at Cambridge Feb. 5, 1898: The son and grandson of Wesleyan preachers, he was educated at Wesleyan schools, at Woodhouse Grove School, near Leeds, until he was fifteen, when he entered Wesley College, Sheffield. In 1851 he matriculated in London University. In 1853 he became a master in a private school in Davonport; he graduated with honors in London University (B.A., 1854; M. A., 1856). From 1854 till 1858 he was mathematical master at Queen's College, Taunton. In 1858 he entered the Wesleyan ministry, but, as in the judgment of the Conference he was better fitted for teaching than for preaching, he became at once assistant tutor at Richmond College, Surrey, and so remained for ten years, when he became classical tutor in the same institution. In 1898 he was called to be headmaster and organizer of The Leys School, Cambridge, which he made a great school and remained with it till his death.
Although he seldom preached and his reputation was in the fields of scholarship, he enjoyed the

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
franchises of his ministerial brethren to a high degree. He was elected into the Legal Hundred in 1872, which was a singular honor for so comparatively young a man, and in 1890 he was elected president of the Wesleyan Conference. His scholarly labors were incessant and well diracted. Mathematics had been his early choice, but it was as the best Greek scholar among English Wesleyans of his day that he will be remembered. He was not prolific as an author mainly for the reason that he had always so much teaching to do and because he took infinite pains with his literary work, and by preference did work requiring infinite pains if it were to be well done. He made his mark first by a fine translation of Winer's Grammar of New Testament Greek (Edinburgh, 1870) which superseded that by Edward Masson (1859). In 1870 he was selected as representative of the Wesleyans on the Bible Revision Committee and served very zealously in the New Testament Company. His interest in the general subject of Bible revision led to his preparing a brief but excellent *History of the English Bible (London, 1878). His critical and exegetical studies were also well displayed in the commentary on Hebrews which he contributed to Bishop Ellicott's New Testament Commentary for English Readers (1879), and that on John, in cooperation with William Milligan, in Philip Schaffs Popular Illustrated Commentary on the New Testament (Edinburgh, 1880). Shortly before his death he appeared as editor with Alfred S. Geden of A Concordance to the Greek Testament according to the Texts of Westeott and Hort, Tiachendorf and the English Revisers (1897), but in his prefatory note he disclaimed more than a consultative position. So, though his separate publications were few, their quality was high and he will not quickly be forgotten. His versatility, his accomplishments, and his spirituality endeared him to his contemporaries.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. F. Moulton, William F. Moulton: a Memoir, urith a Chapter on (his) Biblical Work and Opinions by James Hope Moulton, New York, 1899.
MOUNT OF OLIVES. See JERUSALEM, I.
MOURNING CUSTOMS, HEBREW.
Signs of Mourning (§ 1).
Explanations of Schwally,
Prey, and Lagrange (§ 2). Grimeisen's Views (§ 3). Views of Baentsch (§ 4).
Expressions of grief among the Hebrews varied with the occasion. Childless Rachel grieved through envy (Gen. xxx. 1). Examples appear of the grief of the vanquished (I Kings xx. 31; r. Signs of Jer. xlix. 3) ; of the destitute (Jer. Mourning. xvi. 5); of those under the wrath of God (Amos viii. 8); of those in trouble (Isa. lxi. 3); of those who receive evil tidings (Num. xiv. 39). Such grief shows itself by outward manifestations, the most striking of which are seen in the case of death and bereavement. Grief makes a man fall to the ground (II Sam. xif. 20); cover his face (II Sam. xix. 4); neglect his person (II Sam. xii. 20); seek solitude in the upper chamber (II Sam. xviii. 33) or on the very roof (Isa. xv. 3); while the weeping mourners assemble in the street
Motet
1110 Cuetomo
(Isa. xv. 3) or in the house of mourning (Matt. ix. 23). They have their heads shorn to baldness (Jer. x1viii. 37). The law, however, forbade this practise as heathenish (Deut. xiv. 1), but the Moabites observed it (Isa. xv. 2). Mourners even tore out their hair by the roots (Ezra ix. 3), sat in ashes (Jonah iii. 6), and put earth on their heads (I Sam. iv. 12). The wringing of the hands (Lam. i. 17) and the beating of the breast (Isa. xxxii. 12) are also signs of grief. The signs of mourning were carried also in the clothing. The mourner put off his adornment (Ex. xxxiii. 4), went barefoot (II Sam. xv. 30), rent his clothing (not so the high priest, however, Lev. xxi. 10), and assumed special signs of mourning such as sackcloth (Heb. sak, cf. DRESS AND ORNAMENT, HEBREW, § 1; and II Sam. mi. 10; Isa. 1. 3 ; Joel i. 8), or raiment of dark color (Mal. iii. 14, A. V. margin). He also fasted (Dan. x. 3) even for seven days (I Sam. xxxi. 13). The neighbors would offer food to the mourner (II Sam. xii. 16‑17), which may have been a specific " bread of mourners," baked of coarse meal (Hos. ix. 4). An important part was played in the mourning for the dead by the dirge or elegy, the most notable instances of which are David's lament over Jonathan (II Sam. i. 17 sqq.), and Jeremiah's over Josiah (II Chron. xxxv. 25). This was later socompanied with musical instruments (Matt. ix. 23). While such lamentations, like the fast mentioned (I Sam. xxxi. 13), usually lasted for seven days, Aaron and Moses were mourned for thirty days (Num. xx. 29). The anniversary of a death was also celebrated (Judges xi. 40) for four days. The Law forbade mourning celebrations over the criminal, the suicide, or the outlaw.
Modern critics have sometimes traced the mourning customs of the Hebrews to a natural religion which existed previously to the Mosaic
2. Explana‑ dispensation and an animistic belief
tions of which was independent of the divine Schwally, revelation of the Hebrew Bible (cf. F. Frey, and Sehwally, Das Leben naeh dem Tode, Lagrange. Giessen, 1892). Tonsure of the head and cutting off of the beard were by Schwally considered to be offerings of the hair; tearing or gashing of the flesh was a blood offering for the dead. Sackcloth was originally the clothing of slaves, and the wearing of it was a token of submission to the dead, who still had power to help or hurt the living. To win the favor of the dead the mourner ate with him the bread of mourning, and drank with him the cup of sorrow. The treasures laid in the graves of‑kings, as Josephus relates, were so many offerings to the dead. On the contrary J. Frey and Lagrange rightly maintain that all these mourning rites are celebrated as under the eye of Yahweh, who is, as it were, brought nearer to the mourners by the death of those they love or honor. Sackcloth is the religious material indicative of humiliation. The veiling of the head, or the hiding of the face with the hands is a sign of shrinking a*e in the presence of Yahweh (Ex. iii. 6; I Kings xix. 13). The wearing of mourning garments was intended to call down the. mercy and tenderness of God. The bread of mourning and the cup of sorrow were not meant to propitiate the

Mourning Customs
Movement, Laymen's
dead. For whatever elements of religious observance the Israelites derived from the non‑Hebraic nations they at once incorporated in their worship of Yahweh, at least up to the times of Amos, Hosea, and Jeroboam II. This is apparent from Jer. xli. 5. Later legislation did not forbid such mourning observances except so far as they were heathenish and ignored Yahweh. That the cutting of the hair was not a substitute for a human sacrifice but was merely intended to be a disfigurement of the mourner is proved by the fact that the Egyptians usually had their heads shaven, but in time of sorrow allowed their hair to grow. Frey looks upon all these mourning customs as so many signs of self‑humiliation before the sender of so great a calamity, and of a desire to form some sort of connection or relation with the soul who has vanished into the land of shadows.
Griineisen rightly takes the position that Frey's interpretation is one‑sided. In the time of afiction men are suddenly made conscious, he
	3. Grdnei‑	says, of the nearness of God, who has
son's Views. in his hand the power of death. They
		seem to be brought in peril of death.
They disguise themselves in sackcloth and disfigure
themselves in various ways so as to conceal their
identity from God and escape this peril. They
would also conceal themselves from the spirit of
the dead, for the dread of ghosts is universal. The
spirit of the dead is looked upon by them as no su
perhuman being, worthy of worship, but as a gloomy
specter less than human. The disfigurement is in
tended to make the living unrecognizable by the
spirits of the dead, and the dirge or elegy is merely
a means of driving them away. Lagrange, on the
contrary, thinks that there is nothing mysterious
or animistic to be found in most of these mourning
customs. To weep, to cry aloud, to sigh, to kiss
the dead are merely signs of natural sorrow. La
grange also gives a plausible explanation of the cus
tom of sitting in ashes. Ashes are a sign of deso
lation. When a city has been sacked, ruined, and
burnt, the hillocks and mounds that remain are the
sole refuge of the inhabitants. They sit in the dust
(Isa. xlvii. 1) or in the ashes (Jonah iii. 6), wallow
in ashes (Jer. vi. 26; Mic. i. 10), and cast up dust
on their heads (Ezek. xxvii. 30). In all these usages
are symbolized the ashes of the tomb or of the
corpse consumed on a funeral pyre.
All these expositions seem to fail in breadth and comprehensiveness. Baentsch, however, seems to have pointed out the only way to a profitable handling of such questions. From a wide acquaintance with ancient oriental thought he has
	4. Views	come to the conclusion that the He
of Baentsch.brew Scriptures are to be accepted as
		authentic, but with due regard to the
results of modern criticism. They are to be inter
preted on a broader basis. Accordingly all the
mourning customs of the Hebrews are to be taken
as part and parcel of the universal tradition of the
ancient oriental peoples. It is evident that all
Semitic peoples, whether Babylonian, Arabian,
Syrian, or Canaanite, had similar conceptions of the
soul of the dead wandering about as a shade. Death
was a misfortune which men sought to avoid. These
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
two ideas took various forms. Some peoples thought that the soul could be conjured back to earth; others that it wandered without rest in the under world until it obtained relief. It was in man's power to protect himself from the spirit and to procure rest for.it. But such beliefs by no means imply worship of the dead. It is now known from many sources that these ancient oriental ideas were deeply rooted in the mind of Israel, though opposed to the religion of Yahweh. This religion was forced to apply in a new sense the words expressive of the old terms of ancient astral religion which alone were intelligible to the people. Thus there flowed an upper and an under current of religious life in Israel. The greater number of the mourning customs originated in the under stream, therefore the people tenaciously adhered to them. There are scholars who maintain that the under stream is the direct outcome of the religion of Yahweh, except in cases where they find a Semitic parallel usage of higher antiquity. But the main object of this religion was to teach the people monotheism, though it made itself felt in every department of human life. But there did not cease to be some subjects on which the religion of Israel never mounted much above the level of the ancient oriental speculations, and these subjects were death, the grave, the soul, mourning, and Sheol. But to declare that every detail in the beliefs held on such subjects continued to conform to ancient oriental systems would not express the truth, for such ideas in many instances had become completely transformed by the influence of the religion of Yahweh. See BURIAL; CEMETERIES. (R. ZEHNPFUND.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Early investigations which have still very considerable value are collected in Ugolini, Thesaurus, vol. xxxiii. Recent discussions, besides the book of Schwally mentioned in the text, are: J. Frey, Die altiaraelitische Totenerauer, Dorpat, 1894; idem, Tod, Seelenglaube and Seelenkult im alien Israel, Leipsie, 1898; Jastrow, in JAOS, xx (1899), 130‑150; idem, in ZATW, xxii (1902), 117‑120; C. Gruneisen, Der Ahnenkultus and die Urreligion Iaraels, Halle, 1900; Bdehler, in ZATW, xxi (1901), 81‑92; M. Klotz, Krankenbesuch and Trauerbrauch nach Bibel and Talmud, Frankfort, 1901; M. J. Lagrange, Rtudea our lea religions eemitiques, Paris, 1903; B. Baentsch, Altorientalischer and israelitischer Monotheismus, Tabingen, 1906; Wellhausen, Heidentum, pp. 177 sqq.; Benzinger, Archdologie, pp. 163 sqq.; Nowack Archdologie, i. 193 eqq.; DB, iii. 453‑455; EB, iii. 32203222; DCO, ii. 208‑2(19, 496; JE, ix. 101‑102.
Illustrative matter is found in: I. Goldziher, Le Sacrifice de la chevelure, Paris, 1881; J. Lippert, Der Seelenkuu in seinen Beziehungen zur althebraischen Religion, Berlin 1881; A. Jeremias, Holle and Paradies bei den Babyloniern, Leipsic, 1903; idem, Das alto Testament im Lichte des alien Orient, ib. 1907; A. Bertholet, Die israelitische Vorstellungen vom Zuatand nach dem Tode, Tfibingen, 1899; S. I. Curtiss, Primitive Semitic Religion Today, New York, 1902; P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Religionsgeschichte, i. 328 sqq., Tdbingen, 1905.

MOUSE, THE: An animal mentioned in Scripture only in Lev. xi. 29; I Sam. vi. 4, 5, 11, 18; and Isa. lxvi. 17. The Hebrew is `akhbar, a word which probably covers not only the several species of mice found in Palestine, but also rats and the jerboa or leaping mouse, a marsupial. H. B. Tristram (Fauna and Flora of Palestine, pp. 122 aqq., London, 1884) suspects that the word does duty for twenty‑three kinds of small rodents. Though this extended use can not be absolutely proved for

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the Old Testament, it is rendered nearly certain by the usage of the Talmud and that in cognate languages.
While the mention in Scripture is rare, in two cases the circumstances are of unusual interest. The passage in Leviticus is of less importance, as it simply registers the mouse among the animals over which a food taboo extends. The chapter in I Samuel deals with the plague on the Philistines (q.v.) attending the presence among them of the ark, and a significant part of the history is existence among the propitiatory offerings of golden mice (rats 7) which the sufferers evidently associated with the pestilence. The connection of the rat with the bubonic plague so recently discovered illumines this narrative (see DISEASES AND THE HEALING ART, § 4). Indirectly confirmatory of this is the disaster referred to in II Kings ix. 35, by which the great army of Sennacherib was almost wholly destroyed on the borders of Egypt. The Egyptian account introduces the mouse, though in a different way (see ASSYRIA, VI., 3, 12), and the real cause of the catastrophe to the Assyrians may well have been the bubonic plague.
The passage in Isa. Ixvi. 17 is even more striking, referring as it does to the eating of the mouse in connection with the eating of the swine " and the abomination." The explanation here is doubtless to be found in the mystic sacrificial eating of a totem animal (see COMPARATIVE RELIGION, VI., 1, d. § 1). The evidence that the mouse was once a totem animal is quite convincing. This animal was in the Troad held sacred to Apollo, was fed in his temple, and images of it were also kept there (Aelian, Historia, xii. 5), sometimes appearing beside the deity's tripod and sometimes beneath his feet. In the region the name for the mouse was sminthos, and one of the epithets of Apollo was Smintheus (e.g., Iliad, i. 39), the phrase " Sminthean Apollo " was equivalent to " Apollo of the mouse " (cf. Strabo, Geographiea, xiii. 604), and Sminthiae feasts were celebrated at Rhodes, Gela, Lesbos, and in Crete. In the Troad a number of places were named from the mouse, in Ceos and Tenedos there were Sminthean temples, and the animal appears on coins and heraldic designs (Strabo, x. 486). The connection of the deity with the animal is explained in a twofold manner quite in accordance with the method accompanying the vestiges of totemistic practises‑Apollo was the protector and also the destroyer of the mouse. Both explanations may have a historical basis. The immunity offered a totem animal sometimes results in the animal becoming a pest; the removal of the nuisance by any means is then ascribed to the god who formerly protected it and his relation to it is reversed in the myth. It is known also that in Egypt the rat was a totem animal sacred to Ra (J. G. Wilkinson, Manners and Customs, new ed., London, 1883), while the inhabitants of Crocodi1opolis worshiped the shrewmouse, which was sacred to Horns, and examples of porcelain models of the animal are extant. In India the mouse was sacred to Rudra and to Ganesha, and the image of the latter often has a mouse under its foot. If Isa. lxvi. be as late as the moderate critics place it (in the Greek period), it was com‑
Mourning Customs
Movement, Laymen's
posed in a time when religious syncretism was entering Palestine in force, and with the evidences of mouse worship about‑in the Mediterranean basin, in Egypt, and in Crete‑the reference is best explained as a totemistic observance adopted by renegade Jews and denounced by the prophet. A like reference is probably to be seen in Ezek. viii. 10.
GEo. W. GILMORE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the commentaries on the passages,
consult: Smith, Semites, 2d ed., p. 293; A. Lang, Custom and Myth, pp. 103‑120, London, 1885; idem, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, p. 201, ib. 1887; idem, Modern Mythology, pp. 80‑82, ib. 1897; J. G. Frazer, Golden Bough, ii. 129‑132, London, 1890. Material illustrative but not closely pertinent may be found in J. Hastings, Encyclopcedia o1 Religion and Ethics, i. 523, Edinburgh and New York, 1908.
MOVEMENT, LAYMEN'S MISSIONARY: A movement organized in the chapel of the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church, New York City, Nov. 15, 1906, at a layman's meeting held in connection with the celebration of the one hundredth anniversary of the " Haystack prayer‑meeting " (see MILLS, SAMUEL JOHN) out of which grew the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (see CONGREGATIONALISTS, L, 4, § 11).. Only about seventy‑five laymen were present at the initial meeting. From three to six in the afternoon, a large part of the time was spent in prayer. During the evening session, one address was given, followed by discussion concerning the necessity of enlisting the laymen of all the churches more fully in the work of foreign missions. A series of resolutions was passed, calling into existence a committee of twenty‑five or more representative laymen, to consult with the secretaries of the various foreign missionary boards, with reference, first, to the conduct of a campaign of education among laymen, to interest them more largely in missions; second, to the devising of a comprehensive plan for the evangelization of the world in this generation; third, to endeavor to send a commission of fifty or more laymen to visit the mission fields and report their findings to the Church at home. The chairman of this committee, Samuel B. Capen of Boston, presented these proposals on behalf of the committee to the annual conference of foreign mission boards of the United States and Canada at Philadelphia, Jan. 9, 1907. The movement was heartily and unanimously, endorsed by this conference, including all Protestant churches in North America. In the formal resolutions of the conference these paragraphs occur: " We recognize this movement as providential, having been born of prayer and of the Spirit. In its spontaneity and timeliness it gives evidence of the hand of God, and we are profoundly convinced that this is but another step in advance toward the completion of his great purpose in the redemption of mankind . . . . We recognize the imperative necessity for this new movement, in view of the tremendous demands of a world field white for the harvest, which requires that the churches of Christendom should lay plans and put forth effort adequate to meet the demands that are upon us."
The plan of the movement is not to send out missionaries nor to administer missionary funds, but

Xovement, Laymen's
Mozly
only to cooperate in the enlargement of the foreign missionary work carried on by the various churches through their own regular agencies.
In the summer of 1907, at the invitation of leaders of missionary work in Great Britain, a commission of six laymen from the United States and Canada visited London, Edinburgh, Liverpool, and other cities in England and Scotland, presenting the methods and plans of the Laymen's Missionary Movement. Committees were appointed both in England and Scotland to extend the work. The Scottish national committee employs a secretary to devote his time to the movement. In 1907‑08, over sixty laymen visited various mission fields to investigate religious conditions, needs, and results. Since their return, many of them have been engaged largely in giving their testimony to the churches and have been successful in stimulating greatly increased interest in missionary work. During the winter of 1908‑09 a national missionary campaign was conducted by the Laymen's Missionary Movement in Canada, conventions being held in a large number of the leading cities of the Dominion. On Mar. 31 to Apr. 4, 1909, there was held in Toronto a Canadian missionary congress, attended by over 4,000 commissioners, representing all Protestant churches. This congress adopted a notable national missionary policy, the first of its kind ever adopted by the representatives of all the churches of a nation. It has since been ratified by all the church courts of the various communions in Canada. The complete proceedings of the congress have been published in Canada's Missionary Congress (Toronto, 1909). A Canadian council has direct supervision of the work in Canada.
A similar national missionary campaign was conducted throughout the United States during the winter of 1909‑10, including conventions at seventyfive of the leading cities, culminating in a national missionary congress at Chicago, May 3‑6, 1910. Twelve of the denominations in the United States and Canada have organized their own denominational committees of the Laymen's Missionary Movement, to promote its spirit and methods more thoroughly in their own communions. About twenty secretaries are now employed by different committees to give their whole time to the supervision and extension of the movement. It is worthy of note that the offerings to foreign missions by the churches of the United States and Canada increased during the fiscal year 1907‑08 by $602,000 over the contributions of the previous year. The gain in the fiscal year 1908‑09 over the previous year was $1,256,000.
The Laymen's Missionary Movement has no membership and no organization, apart from a series of committees. There is a general committee of over 100 laymen, which meets semiannually, giving general direction to the movement. There is an executive committee of twenty‑one members, which meets each month in New York City, giving closer supervision to the work. The chief executive officer is the general secretary, J. Campbell White, who was called to this office soon after the movement began and has continued in this position ever since. The offices are in the Metropolitan Building, l Mad‑
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
ison Avenue, New York City. The chief features of a standard missionary church, as emphasized by the Laymen's Missionary Movement, are as follows:
(1) a missionary pastor;
(2) a missionary committee;
(3) systematic missionary education, through regular meetings, literature, and mission study;
(4) canvass of entire membership for subscription;
(5) a weekly missionary offering;
(6) all plans, prayers, efforts, and offerings are related to the world as a field.
By these methods whole cities have more than
doubled their entire previous missionary offerings
and at least one whole denomination has experi
enced a similar result. It is the hope and purpose
of the movement to enlist the men of all churches
in the steady support of a missionary policy, ade
quate to the presentation of the Gospel of Christ to
every creature. 	J. CAMPBELL WHITE.
MO%OM, PHILIP STAFFORD: Congregationalist; b. at Markham, Ontario, Aug. 10, 1848. After serving in the northern army throughout the Civil War, he was educated at Kalamazoo College, Mich. (1866‑68), Shurtleff College, Ill. (1868‑70), the University of Rochester (A.B., 1879), and Rochester Theological Seminary (1878). He was ordained to the Baptist ministry in 1871 and from 1872 to 1875 was pastor of the Baptist church at Albion, Mich. He was then pastor at Mt. Morris, N. Y., and at the same time pursued his theological studies at Rochester, until 1878, after which he held successive pastorates at the First Baptist Church, Cleveland, O. (1879‑85), and the First Baptist Church, Boston (1885‑93), and since 1894 has been pastor of the South Congregational Church, Springfield, Mass. He was university preacher at Harvard in 1894‑97 and Lowell lecturer in 1895. He has written The Aim of Life (Boston, 1894); From. Jerusalem to Nicwa: The Church in the First Three Centuries (1895); and The Religion of Hope (1896).
MOYER LECTURE: A lectureship founded by Lady Rebecca Moyer (widow of Sir Samuel Moyer; d. in London about 1722). The amount left was twenty pounds annually, chargeable against her house in Bedford Row, London; the sermons, eight in number, were to be delivered annually in St. Paul's, London, if permitted, on the first Thursday of each month from November to June, and were to defend the divinity of Christ and the doctrine of the Trinity. The lectureship terminated about 1774 by reason of expiration of the lease of the house. A list of the lectures is given in J. Darling, Cyclopwdia Bibdiographica, cols. 2129‑2130, London, 1854.
MOZARABIC LITURGY: An ancient Spanish liturgy, called also Gothic because it developed during the Gothic dominion in Spain. The name " Mozarabic," from a participial foim of the Arabic verb `Arabs and signifying "arabized," came into use in the eighth century as a general designation for the Christians who remained in Spain after

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Movement, Laymen's Xozley
the Mohammedan conquest. Opinions have differed as to the origin of the Spanish liturgy. In view of its marked divergence from the Roman ritual and its great resemblance to the Gallican, some have thought that the Spanish and Gallican liturgies both developed from the Asiatic (Lesley, Mabillon, Bickell, and others) and that the former was substantially the same as that brought into the country by the Goths. Others (Gams, Probst, Pinius) maintain that the oldest Spanish liturgy was the Roman and that the Gothic importation was influenced by it and worked over especially by Bishops Leander and Isidore of Seville. The question is solved if it be admitted that originally Rome had the same liturgy as the East (see MASS, II, 2, § 1). In the latter half of the eleventh century under Popes Alexander II. and Gregory VII. efforts were made to introduce the Roman ritual. In 1088 a synodal decree ordered the suppression of the Mozarabic Liturgy in Toledo, and when opposition arose the decision, according to the custom of the time, was left to the ordeal (the two liturgies being exposed to fire); the Mozarabic rite coming through unscathed was regarded as having vindicated its right to exist. King Alfonso VI. determined to allow both liturgies side by side. At the end of the sixteenth century the Mozarabic rite had been supplanted everywhere except in six churches in Toledo. Cardinal Ximenes exerted himself to preserve it and had prepared new and careful editions of both the missal and breviary (published at Toledo 1500 and 1502); he also obtained papal permission for the six churches in Toledo to use the liturgy and built a chapel which he provided with a foundation for thirteen chaplains who should perform the office and mass daily according to the liturgy. Similar foundations were made in Salamanca and Valladolid (see MASS, II, 3, § 1, and cf. J. Pinius in ASS, July, vi., 66‑67; C. J. Hefele„ Cardinal Xirnenes, Tiibingen, 1844, pp. 161 sqq.).
The order of festivals in the Mozarabic liturgy differs somewhat from that in the Roman; e.g., there are six Sundays in Advent and two festivals of the Annunciation (Mar. 24 and Dec. 18). The three lections (prophecy, epistle, gospel) are retained, and prominence is given to homiletical matter. After each of the readings there is a short discourse to the people, in which the hortatory element predominates. Certain usages, as the breaking of the host into nine parts, each of which has a special name and meaning, are reminiscent of the Greek Church. The chant is more melodious than the Gregorian; it is named "Eugenian" from a certain Eugenius, archbishop of Toledo.

The Mozarabic mass begins with the prayer of the priest as he ascends the altar‑steps. Then follow the introit, the Gloria in excelsis (but not always), the prayer of the day, the prophecy, the psallendum (gradual), the epistle, and the gospel. After this comes the preparation and presentation of the offerings, which are not yet regarded as a proper sacrifice and which the catechumens were allowed to see. The order of the mass of the faithful is as follows: a prayer called missa, which varies according to time and festival; another prayer, the commemoration of saints and the dead; the oralio post nomina the oratio ad pacem, with the kiss of peace; the preface under the name illatio,ending with the Trisagion; the prayer post sanctus; the consecration and
elevation and, during the latter, the post pridie, a prayer not unlike the final prayer of the Roman canon: the creed, the breaking of the bread into nine parts, of which each receives the name of a mystery of the faith; memento of the living, especially of those present; the Lord's prayer; mixing of the nine fragments with the holy blood; blessing of the people; communion, with music and prayer, thanksgiving; dismissal and solemn blessing with the words in unitate Sancti Spiritus benedicat vos Pater.et Filius, amen.
BIRLroaRAPHY: Editions are: by A. Ortiz at the instance of Cardinal Ximenes, missal, Toledo, 1500, breviary, 1502; in H. Florez, Espafa sagrada, vol. iii., Madrid, 1748; by A. Lesley, Rome, 1755; the missal by F. A. Lorenzana and F. Fabian y Fuero, Angelopolis, 1770, and the breviary by Lorenzana, Madrid, 1775; by F. Arevalus, Rome, 1804; Lesley's ed. of the missal with his preface and Lorenzana's, in MPL, Lxxxv., and Lorenzana's ed. of the breviary, ib. lxxxvi.; another ed., Toledo, 1873; Liber eomicus, ed. G. Morin, in Anecdota Meredsolana, i (1893), 1‑388.
Consult.: F. Probst, in ZHT, 1888, pp. 1 sqq.; idem, Die abendldndische Messe vom 6‑8 Jahrhunderte, pp. 367 sqq., Munster, 1898; J. Pinius, in ASS, July, vi. 1‑112, idem, Liturgia Mozarabica, Rome, 1740; J. 11f. Neale; Tetralagia liturgica, London, 1849; idem, Essays in Litur giology and Church Hist., ib. 1863; C. R. Hale, The Mozarabic Liturgy and the Mexican Branch of the Catholic Church, New York, 1876; idem, Mozarabic Collects, ib. 1881; G. Rietschel, Liturpik, i. 316 sqq., Berlin, 1900; E. J. y Moraleda, El Rito Moedrabe, Toledo, 1904.
MOZARABIC PERICOPES. See PERICOPES.
MOZETTA. See VESTMENTS AND INSIGNIA, ECCLESIASTICAL.
MOZLEY, JAMES BOWLING: Church of England theologian; b. at Gainsborough (15 m. n.w. of Lincoln), England, Sept. 15, 1813; d. at Oxford Jan. 4, 1878. He studied at Grantham, and subsequently at Oriel College, Oxford (A.B., 1834; M.A., 1838; B.D., 1846; D.D., 1871); was elected to a fellowship at Magdalen College in 1840, where he resided until 1856, when he accepted the living of Old Shoreham, Sussex. Through Mr. Gladstone he was made canon of Worcester in 1869; and, in 1871, regius professor of divinity, an office which he held, in conjunction with his vicarage, until his death. He was appointed Bampton lecturer for 1865, and select university preacher in 1869. While Mozley was a student at Oxford, the influence of Newman and Pusey was strong, and he was an enthusiastic though independent follower of those early leaders in the Tractarian movement. Yet when Newman entered the Church of Rome, Mozley kept firm in his allegiance to the Anglican Church. Thus he found himself separated from the party with which he had been originally identified. Agreeing with the predestinarianism of St. Augustine, and at odds with the doctrine of his party, he labored to reconcile the Christian tradition about baptism with the theology of Calvinism. Accordingly he stood almost quite alone as a theologian; he never quite sympathized with the Evangelicals in their general spirit and tone, and he never ceased to be a Churchman, and in, fact a High‑churchman; but the developments of that party were not to his taste and he found no other that he could join. Mozley was at his best in argument, and may indeed be called the "Butler of his generation." He was also recognized as one of the best theological thinkers of his day, and his sermons were of a superior quality. For a long period he was known only as a contributor

Nnehlsu
Mnehlenberg	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	38
to The Critic and The Christian Remembrancer, while his writings in general covered subjects critical, dogmatic, and apologetic. His productions embrace: The Influence of Ancient Oracles in Public and Private Life (vol. v. of Oxford English Prize Essays, Oxford, 1836); A Treatise on the Augustinian Doctrine of Predestination (London, 1855); The Primitive Doctrine of Baptismal Regeneration (1856); , A Review of the Baptismal Controversy (1862); Eight Lectures on Miracles Preached before the University of Oxford in . . . . 1866 (Bampton lectures, 1865; latest ed., 1895); Sermons Preached before the University of Oxford, and on Various Occasions (Oxford and Cambridge, ‑1876; latest ed., 1895); Ruling Ideas in Early Ages and their Relation. to Old Testament Faith; Lectures (London, 1877; latest ed., New York, 1908) ; Essays, Historical and Theological (2 vola., 1878); The Theory of Development. A Criticism of Dr. Newman's Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine (1878); Sermons, Parochial and Occasional (1879); and Lectures and Other Theological Papers (1883; reissue, 1907).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Letters of J. B. Mozley, . . Edited by his Sister [Anne Mozley], London, 1884; the Introduction to the Essays, ut sup., by his sister, and a biographical notice by R. W. Church, in the same; R. W. Church, The. Oxford Movement, London, 1891; DNB, xxxix. 249‑251.
MIrEHLAU, mii'lau, HEINRICH FERDINAND: German Lutheran; b. at Dresden June 20, 1839. He was educated at the universities of Leipsic and Erlangen from 1857 to 1862 (Ph.D., Leipsic, 1861), and in 1869 became privat‑docent for OldTestament exegesis at the former university. In the following year he was called to Dorpat as professor of the same subject, remaining there until 1895, when he became professor of New‑Testament exegesis at the University of Kiel, resigning in 1909. He has edited J. F. Bottcher's Neue exegetisch‑kritische Aehrenlese zum Alter Testament (3 vols., Leipsic, 1863‑65) and Ausfiihrliches Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Sprache (2 vols., 1866‑68); Liber Genesis sine punctis excriptus (in collaboration with E. F. Kautzsch; 1868); and the eighth to the eleventh editions of W. Gesenius'a Hebrdisches and chaldaisches Handw6rterbuch (in collaboration with W. Volck, 1878‑90); and has written De proverbiorum qute dicuntur Aguri et Lemuelis origine et indole (Leipaic, 1869) ; Die biblische Lehre vom Gewissen (Dorpat, 1889); Zur paulinischen Ethik (Kiel, 1898); Martinus Seusenius' Reise ins heilige Land (1902); and Die 0stseeprovinzen Russlands and ihre deutsche Kultur (1906).
MUEHLENBERG, mii'len‑berg, HENRY MELCHIOR: The patriarch of the Lutheran Church in North America; b. at Eimbeck (39 m. s.e. of Hanover, Germany) Sept. 6, 1711; d. at New Providence (Trappe), Pa., Oct. 7, 1787. In the Latin school of his native town the foundation was laid for his excellent classical training. From. 1735 to 1738 he studied theology at GSttingen, and then served as teacher in the Francke institutions at Halle. Having been ordained at Leipaic in 1739 he was called to Groasbennersdorf through the influence of Baroness von Geradorf, the patroness of that charge. In the year 1741 August Hermann
Franeke (q.v.) urged him to accept a call from the three Lutheran congregations in Pennsylvania (New Providence, New Hanover, and Philadelphia), which had been transmitted by the Rev. Fiedriech Michael Ziegenhagen in London. In April, 1742, he arrived in London and in June of the same year embarked for Georgia, where he was to visit the Salzburg colonists under pastors Bolzius and Gronau, near Savannah. He arrived in Philadelphia, Nov. 25, 1742.
At the time of his entrance into the new world Muehlenberg was in the prime of his young manhood. Having enjoyed a fine classical education he spoke Latin fluently. He was also able to use the Dutch and English tongues in preaching, besides his native German. He was a scholarly theologian, firmly rooted in the Lutheran Confession. The alight touch of Halle Pietism which he had received proved a wholesome feature in his pastoral dealings with individuals. He was dignified and magnetic in his personal appearance, well balanced in his judgment of men and affairs, pleasant and cordial in his intercourse with men of high or low degree, and gifted with remarkable powers of organization and administration. Thus he was particularly well equipped for bringing order into the chaotic condition of the scattered Lutherans in America, and for laying the foundation for a solid organization. Among the German emigrants in the Province of Pennsylvania up to the middle of the eighteenth century the Mennonites, Schwenckfelders, and other sects were strongly represented. The German Reformed were also quite numerous. But the majority belonged to the Lutheran confession. Yet there was hardly any provision made for their spiritual needs. Men who had never been called to the ministry, or who had been disciplined and deposed as unworthy of the office in the old country, like Valentin Kraft, pressed into the folds which were without shepherds and assumed the pastoral office. Nearly ten years before Muehlenberg's arrival the above‑mentioned Pennsylvania congregations had applied to Drs. Ziegenhagen in London and Francke in Halle for worthy Lutheran pastors. Their patience had been severely tried by tiresome negotiations. Just one year before Muehlenberg's arrival Nicholas Ludwig Zinzendorf (q.v.) appeared in Pennsylvania under the name of Count von Thuernatein and sought to gather around his person a sort of union of the best elements of German Christians. He proved to be particularly aggressive toward the Lutherans. In Philadelphia Zinzendorf subjected Muehlenberg to an Examen rigorosum, which he endured in a dignified manner. Having been required by the mayor of the city to give up the church records of the Lutherans, Zinzendorf left the city Jan. 1, 1743, and returned to Europe.
Now the field was clear for Muehlenberg to take up the work of organizing the Lutheran Church in this western continent, and this proved to be his life‑work. The service of the three congregations which had called him, was very exacting, as they were 36 miles distant from each other, without roads to connect them. He devoted himself to the instruction of the young, insisted on scrip‑

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
37
tural discipline for the communicants, installed elders and deacons, and built school‑houses and churches. Other congregations also asked for his advice and services; for example, the Lutherans on the Raritan River, New Jersey; in southwestern Pennsylvania (Frederick); and even the churches on the upper Hudson, founded by the Palatinate immigrants, and the Dutch Lutherans in New York whom he served as pastor for two successive summers. Thus his influence gradually extended over all the Lutherans in the provinces of North America.
At his urgent request the fathers in Halle sent additional laborers into the American field, Peter Brunnholz, Nicolas Kurtz, Johann Helfrich Schaum, Johann Friedrich Handschuh, Johann Friedrich Schmidt, Justus Heinrich Christian Helmuth, and Johann Christopher Kunze, the most prominent and scholarly among them, who afterward became Muehlenberg's son‑in‑law. In 1748, on the occasion of the dedication of St. Michael's Church in Philadelphia, Muehlenberg organized the first Lutheran synod on this western continent, the ministerium of Pennsylvania. The Swedish Lutherans in Pennsylvania and Delaware were in full sympathy with him in his labors, Provost Johann Sandin taking part in the opening of the synod and Provost Magnus Wrangel de Saga being his intimate friend and safe counselor in all important church questions. In 1761 Muehlenberg took up his residence in Philadelphia and prepared the first draft of a constitution for the congregation, which was at once signed by 500 heads of families and became the model for many Lutheran churches in Pennsylvania. In 1766 he undertook the erection of the large Zion's Church, at the corner of Fourth and Cherry streets, Philadelphia, which could accommodate 2,000 ,persons and was long considered the largest and most beautiful church edifice in North America. In this church congress held the memorial service for Washington in 1799. In 1776 Muehlenberg returned again to Providence, but his resignation from the Philadelphia congregation was accepted only in 1779. From Aug., 1774, to Feb., 1775, he had undertaken another journey to the South, in order to settle certain difficulties which had arisen among the Salzburg colonists in Georgia. There he succeeded in establishing peace between the contending parties and prevailed on the congregation to adopt a constitution prepared by himself. The last decade of his life was spent among his country congregations, which he continued to serve with the Word and sacraments as far as his failing strength would allow. In those years he prepared the draft of the first Pennsylvania hymn‑book (1786) which to this day is known as the "Muehlenberg Hymn Book." While it showed here and there the influences of the Halle Pietism, it was the best Lutheran hymn‑book in eastern North America until it was replaced by the church‑book of the General Council in 1877.
Muehlenberg borc the full burden of "a church in the planting" under the most difficult and distressing circumstances. He found among his people a state of utter disintegration and demoralization. The various elements, coming from different re‑
Muehlau
Muehlenberg
gions of the fatherland and inclined to abuse their unaccustomed liberty, were hard to unite under a sound church discipline. And even the opposition of worldly‑minded pastors, who resisted his work of organization at every step, had to be met and overcome in all patience and wisdom. His own coworkers in the synod not infrequently annoyed him by their lack of tact and of pastoral wisdom.
He died with the closing stanza of Paul Gerhardt's hymn "Commit thou all thy griefs" on his lips. The Philadelphia congregation desired to have him buried under the pulpit of Zion's Church, but the family decided in favor of the churchyard of the Augustus‑Church in New Providence (Trappe) as the place of his interment. His tombstone bears the prophetical inscription (which may be translated; "Had he no monument, future ages still would know how great a man he was ")
Qualis et quantus fuerit,
Non ignorabunt sine lapule
Futura ewcula.
Dr. Muehlenberg was married to Anna Weiser, the daughter of the famous Conrad Weiser, Jr., who, as an Indian commissioner and interpreter, held a very prominent position in the provincial government. Three of his sons who were educated at Halle and were destined to enter the service of the Lutheran Church as ministers became quite illustrious in American history. John Peter Gabriel, born at Trappe, Pa., Oct. 1, 1746, ordained in 1768, was pastor in New Jersey and afterward in Woodstock, Va. In Jan., 1776, he exchanged the ministerial gown for a colonel's uniform, and, at the head of his regiment, took part in the war against England. He became a general in the American army and enjoyed the intimate friendship of Washington. After the war he was vice‑governor of Pennsylvania, member of congress, and senator. He died in Philadelphia Oct. 1, 1807. The second son, Frederik August Conrad, b. at Trappe, Pa., Jan. 1, 1750, ordained 1770, was pastor of Christ Church, New York City, and founded the New York ministerium of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. Afterward he followed a political career, becoming a member of congress, speaker of the legislature of Pennsylvania, and president of the convention which ratified the constitution of the United States. He also presided over the first and tile third congress
as speaker. He died in Lancaster June 4, 1801. The youngest son, Gotthilf Heinrich Ernst, born at Trappe, Pa., Nov. 17, 1753, is the only one who continued in the runistry. He was ordained in 1770, assisted his father in the ministry, and became third pastor of the Philadelphia congregation. From
1780 to 1815 he served the Evangelical Lutheran
Trinity Church in Lancaster, Pa., and died there
May 23, 1815. He achieved a reputation as a
scholarly botanist. 	ADOLPH SPAETH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are the Haueache Nachriehte„, 2 vols., Halle, 175087, republished with notes by W. J. Mann, B. M. Schmycker, and W. Germann, Allentown,

Mme lei&euseer	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	gg
Pa., Vol. i., 1886, Eng. trans]., begun by C. W. Schaeffer, part i., Reading, Pa., 1882; the Selbatbiographie, going as far as 1743, ed. W. Vermann, Allentown, Pa., 1881; and J. W. Richard's translation of Muehlenberg's diary, in Evangelical Review, vols. i.‑iv. Lives are by J. G. C. Helmuth, Philadelphia, 1788; M. L. Stoever, ib. 1856; W. J. Mann, in English, ib. 1887, in German, 1891; W. K. Frick, ib., 1902. Consult further: W. B. Sprague, Annals of the American Lutheran Pulpit, New York, 1869; H. E. Jacobs, in American Church Watorv Serie.., vol. iv., chaps. xii~xviii., ib. 1893; T. E. Sehmauk, Hixt. of the Lutheran Church in Pennsylvania (1888‑18.200), vol. i., Philadelphia, 1903; and in general literature under LOTHERAN9.
	MUEHLHAEUSSER, mul‑hei'ser, KARL AU
GUST: German theologian; b. at Kleinkems
(28 m. s.w. of Freiburg), Baden, Feb. 26, 1825; d.
at Wilferdingen (8 m. s.e. of Carlsruhe) Jan. 21,
1881. He was educated at Heidelberg; became
vicar at Eppelheim (1847), afterward vicar in
Carlsruhe, and minister at Sulzfeld (1854). At
the suggestion of Ullmann, who esteemed him
highly, he was called to Carlsruhe in 1857 as asses
sor of the high consistory. When Ullmann resigned
in 1860 on account of the controversy over the lit
urgy, Mahlhausser, who became a regular member
of the high consistory, remained in that body, but
openly expressed his divergence from its views.
In 1864 he frankly opposed it in favor of the pro
test signed by 119 clergymen of Baden against
Schenkei's Charakterbild Jesu. By degrees his posi
tion became untenable, and in this same year he
accepted a call to the country parish of Wilferdingen.
There he developed an extensive activity relating to
ecclesiastical policy. As an acknowledged leader of
the " positive " party, he assembled his friends in
the " Evangelical Conference," and represented
the conservative minority with ability and success
in many general synods of Baden. As a member of
the Baden diet he proved an experienced and ready
parliamentarian. By word and pen he advocated
the principles of the German Conservatives. After
1876 he collaborated with Geffken in the publica
tion of the Zeitfragen des chri8tlichen Volkslebens,
the first part of which, Christentum and Presse, was
prepared by Mahlhausser himself, and emphasized
the necessity of defending the Christian view of
life by means of the press. He was an enthusiastic
advocate of home missions in south Germany, and
was for many years the president of the south
western conference which he had attended since its
establishment in 1864. 	JULIUs NEY.
BIB1dOORAPHY: J. Reinmuth, Karl August Milh1hausaer, Heilbronn, 1882.
MUELLENSIEFEN, mii"len‑si'fen, JULIUS: German Lutheran preacher; b. at Iserlohn (45 m. n.e. of Cologne), Apr. 28, 1811; d. at Wernigerode (22 m. s.s.e. of Brunswick) Apr. 28, 1893. After studying at Halle and Berlin, he became private tutor in the home of General von Diest; pastor in Cothen, Brandenburg, 1836, and in 1852 chief pastor of the Marienkirche in Berlin, in which position he was active for thirty‑three years, being made pastor emeritus in 1890. Miillensiefen's especial gift was the care of souls; he had a peculiarly clear insight into the most complicated conditions of the inner and outer life and a great faculty of discerning the possible solution of the problems presented. His high ethical standard and the uncompromising
sternness of his moral judgment were united with a paternal sympathy for the needs of a burdened or troubled conscience. It was for this reason that he exerted a more wide‑spread pastoral influence than almost any other clergyman in Berlin, as well by personal communication as through correspondence. His pastoral and pedagogical gift was unfolded more especially in catechetical instruction, to which he usually devoted sixteen hours each week during the entire year. His sermons also, of which three major collections have appeared (Der Weg des Friedens, Berlin, 1871; Zeugniaee von Christo, 4 vols., 15th ed., Halle, 1894; Das Wort des Lebens, 4 vols., 8th ed., 1888) bear the same pastoral character. The mast widely read are TBgliche Andachten zur h4ualichen Erbauung (19th ed., 1905).
G. RIETBCHEL.
BIBLXOGBAPBY: P. Mallensiefen, in Deutsche evangelische Bltltter, xix (1894), 158 aqq.
MUELLER, miil'er, DAVID HEINRICH: Austrian Jewish Orientalist; b. at Buczacz (85 m. s.e. of Lemberg), Galicia, July 6, 1846. He was educated at the universities of Vienna, Leipsic, Strasburg, and Berlin, and in 1875 became privat‑docent at the first‑named institution, becoming associate professor of Oriental languages in 1881 and full professor in 1885. He is also professor of Hebrew and the philosophy of religion at the Vienna Israelitischtheologische Lehranstalt. He is noted for his services in developing knowledge of the strophical structure of poetry in the Old Testament, and this ^riterion of structure he has begun to apply to the New Testament. He has been since 1887 one of the editorial board of the Wiener Zeitschrift fur die Kunde des Morgenlande8, and besides his work as editor of al‑SammaTs Kitab‑al‑Farq (Vienna, 1876); al‑Hamadani's " Geography of the Arabian Peninsula" (2 vols., Leyden, 1884‑91); and a portion of the " Annals " of al‑Tabari (1888‑89), has written Himjariache Inachraften (Vienna, 1875); Himjari.sche Studien (1876); Sildarabische Studien (1877); Bericht fiber eine Rel8e nach Konstantinople (1878); Burgen and Schl6sser Siidarabiens (2 parts, 18791881); Sabdische Denkmdler (in collaboration with J. H. Mordtmann; 1883); Siegfried Langer's Reiseberichte au8 Syrien and Arabien and die von ihm entdeckten and ge8ammelten Inschriften (Leipsie; 1883); Epigraphische Denkmdler au8 Arabien nach Abklatachen and Copien des Herrn J. Euting (1889); Rezensionen and Versionen des Eldad ha‑Dani (1892) ; Die allsemitischen Inachriften von Sendachirli in den k6niglichen Muaeen zu Berlin (1893); Epigraphic fiche Denkmdrler au8 Abesainien nach Abklat8chen von J. Theodore Bent (1894); Ezechiel‑Studien (Berlin, 1895); Die Propheten in ihrer urspriinglichen Form (2 vols., Vienna, 1895); Die Haggadah van Sarajevo (in collaboration with J. von Schlosser; 1898); Sudarabi8ehe Altertfimer in kunsthiatorischen Hofmuaeum (1899); Die Mehri‑ urld Soqofrir Sprache (2 vols., 1902‑05); Die Gesetze Hammurabi's and ihr Verhdltnis zur mosaischen Gesetzgebung sowie zu den Zwolf Tafeln (1903); Daa syrischromi8che Rechtsbuch and Hammurabi (1905); Semitica, contributed to the Silzungaberichte of the Vienna Academy (1906); a series of Biblische Studien, reproduced from various periodicals (5 parts,

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
1904‑08); and Das Johannesevangelium im Lichte der . Serophentheorie, in the Sitzungsberichte of the Vienna Academy (1909).
MUELLER, ERNST FRIEDRICH KARL: German Reformed; b. at Mohlstadt, Anhalt, July 27, 1863. He was educated at the universities of Tobingen and Halle; was assistant pastor at Ballenstedt, Anhalt (1886‑88), inspector of the Silesian Konvikt at Halle (1888‑91). In 1891 he became privat‑docent at the university of Halle; was appointed associate professor of New‑Testament exegesis at the University of Erlangen (1892), professor of Reformed theology (1896), and minister of the Reformed congregation (1898). He has written Die g6ttliehe Zuvorersehung and Erwdhlung each Paulus (Halls, 1892); Altgldubige ured moderne Gldubige (Leipsie, 1894); Noeh einmal Altgldubige and moderns Gldubige (1895); Symbolik (1896); Zur christlichen Erkenntnis (1898); Die Bekenntnisschriften der reformierten Kirche (1903); and Neutestamentliche Theologie (Erlangen, 1907); and Johannes Calvin's Unterrwcht in der christlichen Religion ins Deutsche ubersetzt (1909). He is likewise engaged in the preparation of Johannes Calvina Au$legung der heiligen Schrift in deutacher Ueberaetzung, to be complete in fourteen volumes (Neukirch, 1902 sqq.).
MUELLER, EUGEN: German Roman Catholic; b. at Ranspach (a village near Sankt Amarin, 17 m. n.w. of Mohlhausen), Upper Alsace, Aug. 31, 1861. . He was educated at the seminary for priests at Strasburg (1879‑$4) and at the universities of Monster (1884‑85) and Wfrzburg (18851888; D.D., 1888). From 1888 to 1903 he was professor of church history, the history of dogma, patristics, and archeology, as well as librarian, at the seminary for priests at Strasburg, and since 1903 has been professor of dogmatics and Christian archeology at the university of the same city. He has been an honorary canon of Strasburg since 1898. He edited the seventh, eighth, and ninth editions of F. Hettinger's Apologie des Christentums (5 vols., Freiburg, 1895‑98, 1899‑1900, 1906‑08), has been one of the editors of the Strasburger theologiache Studien since 1892, and has written Natur unit Wunder, ihr Gegensatz and ihre Harmonie (Freiburg, 1892).
MUELLER, GEORG FRIEDRICH: Plymouth Brother, founder of the Bristol Orphanages; b. at Kroppenatedt (20 m. s.w. of Magdeburg), Prussia, Sept. 27, 1805; d. at Bristol, England, Mar. 10, 1898. After preliminary training at the cathedral classical school at Halberstadt, at Heimersleben under a classical tutor, and at the Nordhausen gymnasium, he entered the University of Halle, 1825. Though his early life had been careless and even reckless, shortly after entering the university he was converted, and entered upon that life of faith which became so remarkable. He determined to become a missionary, and meanwhile manifested his Christian zeal in visiting the sick and in like labors. In Aug., 1826, he began to preach, living for two months in Franke's Orphan House at Halle, in the free lodgings provided for poor divinity students. In Mar., 1829, he went to London, and,
Muehlhaeusser Mueller
after receiving an appointment from the London Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews, he began preparing himself for that mission. But after some months of the prescribed study of Hebrew, Aramaic, and German Jewish, he left the society in Jan., 1830, joined the Plymouth Brethren, and became minister at Teignmouth. Of his own accord he declined to receive any stated salary, abolished pew‑rents, and from Oct., 1830, lived upon voluntary offerings, though this often reduced himself and wife to great straits. In 1832 he became pastor of Gideon Chapel, Bristol. Impressed by the number of destitute children he found in Bristol, and feeling that he was called to help them, he established in 1834 The Scriptural Knowledge Institution for Home and Abroad, which was designed to assist day‑schools, Sunday‑schools, and adult‑schools; to circulate the Holy Scriptures; to aid missionary work; to board, clothe, and educate Scripturally orphan children. The institution, he decided, should have no patron but the Lord, no workers but believers, and no debts. Provided with assistants and money, he hired a house on Wilson Street, Bristol, and opened his orphanage on Apr. 11, 1836, and by Mar., 1844, he had opened his fourth house. He then bought a site on Ashley Down, near Bristol, and put up the first building, 1846; by 1869 he opened his fifth house. The orphanage, however, had no endowment, and none of the usual machinery of support. Mr. Moller looked to God to supply the daily food of the thousands of children therein gathered, and to pay all the expenses of their care. Besides managing his orphanages and the institution, and preaching to his congregation, he also took missionary tours through the British Isles, the United States, and Canada (1877). In 1881 he visited the East, and in 1882 India. He did not in the ordinary way advertise any of his enterprises, but the attention and aid of the public was secured through books and pamphlets published with his sanction, and by the circulation of his Life of Trust: Narratii~e of the Lord's Dealings with George Maller (first issued, 2 parts, London, 1837, and continued in 1841, 1844, and 1856; reprinted in repeated editions in New York; translated into German, Stuttgart, 1844, and into French, Paris, 1848). Besides the Narrative above referred to, Mr. Moller published, The New Orphan School (London, 1855); The Secret of Effectual Service to God (1865); Love One An, other (two addresses; 1865); Jehovah Afagnified: Addresses (1876); George Midler arid the Orphan
Homes of Ashley Down (1878); and Preaching Tours (1883).
B1nLI0aRAPHr: The beat source is probably the AutobiograPhy. Compiled by G. P. Burgin, Preface and Concluding Chapter by A. T. Pierson, London, 1905. Consult further: W. E. Tayler, Mighty through God, London, 1881; idem, Ashley noun; or, living Paia in a living God, ib. 1861; G. von Polena, Georg Mul(er, Halls, 1865 R. Morris,
Faith, Prayer and Work, London, 1866; J. Weir, The Bristol Orphan Homes and their pounder, ib. 1866; T. Sthhelin, Georg Mttller in Bristol, Basel, 1874• Mrs. E. R. Pitman, George Maller and Andrew Reid, London, 1885; A. T. Pierson, George Matter of Bristd, ib. 1902; F. G. Warne, George M7iller, the Modern Apostle of Paith, ib. 1907. new ed., 1909; Ten Years After; a Sequel to the Autobiography of George Miiller, being an Account of the Work at Ashley Doom fharutpc for the Ten years fulloro‑

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
ing the Death of Mr. Miller, ib. 1909. For minute and
detailed accounts of the institution consult the Annual Reports.
MUELLER, HEINRICH:German Lutheran;
b. at Lubeck Oct. 18, 1631; d. at Rostock (44 m.
n.e. of Schwerin) Sept. 17, 1675. He studied at
Greifswald and Rostock; entered the ministry at
Rostock, 1652; became archidiakonus there, 1653;
professor of Greek in the university, 1659, and of
theology, 1662. Doctrinally, Moller occupied a
middle ground in Lutheran theology, and his or
thodoxy was pervaded with the warm glow of an
intimate personal faith, so that he stood out as one
of the most eminent figures in the era preceding
Pietism. And as such he was called to cooperate
in the renewal of ecclesiastical life in the Evangel
ical church of Germany. In his sermons and de
votional writings, Maller often reveals a masterful
and " popular " eloquence. As a devotional writer,
Miiller was exceedingly prolific. Among his work
are: Der himmlische Liebeskuss (1659; new ed. by
Fiedler, 1831, Hamburg, 1848); Kreuz Buss and
Betschule (1661); Betrachtungen ilber den 1.43.
Psalm (new ed., Hamburg, 1853; Leipsic, 1872);
" collected Sermons " (2 vols., 1663‑72); Schlusa
kette and Kraftkern (1663; reissue, Halle, 1853,
1855); Evangelische Schlusskette (1672; ‑reissued,
Halle, 1855); Festevangelische Schlusskette (1673;
new ed., Halls, 1855); Die geistlichen Erquick
stunden (1664; later editions, Leipsic, 1872; Ham
burg, 1889; Eng. transl., Hours of Spiritual Re
freshment, London, 1840); Der geistliche Dankaltar
(1668); Die ungeratene Ehe (1668); Thrdyten‑ uttd
Trostquelle oder der Heiland and der Sunder (Frank
fort, 1676; new ed., Halls, 1855). After Miiller's
death there appeared Der evangelische Herzens
apiegel (1679), briefer homilies on the Evangelical
pericopes (new edition, 2 vols., Hamburg, 1882,
1884); Das evangelische Prwservativ wider den
Schaden Josephs in allen dreien Stknden (1681); and
his funeral discourses, Grdber der Heiligen (1685).
Muller also composed a number of spiritual hymns,
of which several have been adopted in the Church
hymnals. 	HERMANN BECK.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Biographies have been written by C. O. F. Aichel, Hamburg, 1854, and by 0. C. Krabbe, Rmtock, 1806. Consult further: E. E. Hoch, Geschichle deer Kirehenliedes, iv. 67 eqq., Stuttgart, 1868; C. G. Schmidt, Geschichte der Predigt, pp. 106‑110, Goths, 1872; K. Palmer, Lebeiisbilder van Erbauungsschriftsteller, vol. i., Stuttgart, 1870, A. F. W. Fischer, Ksrchenlieder L exikon, p. 158, Gotha, 1878; H. Beck, Die religitise Volkslitteratur der euangelischen Kirche Deutachlands, Gotha, 1891.

MUELLER, JOHANN GEORG: The name of two theologians.
1. Swiss Reformed teacher and educator; b. at Schaffhausen (23 m. n.n.e. of Zurich, Switzerland), Sept. 3, 1759; d. there Sept. 20, 1819. Being of a religious turn of mind and under the influence of Lavater's " Glimpses into Eternity" and Young's Night Thoughts, he determined to study theology, which he did first at Zurich and later in Dessau, Bremen, and Bernburg. But Miiller had not yet begun to build on a sure basis, and while in G6ttingen his religious perplexities so increased that he turned to Herder for assistance. On going to Weimar, he was taken by Herder into his own house
40
for six months, and the attachment thus formed was a lasting one. Under Herder's influence Muller became freer, more full of life, and was spurred on to further research. On his return home, Muller found his foundation alarmingly weak in spite of the many theologies with which his head was filled. He became bewildered in endeavoring to read the Bible with understanding; accordingly he concluded to put aside all theological books, even the Bible, and to devote himself for two years to classical literature. On resuming his Bible study he attained the conviction he sought, based on the eternal truth of divine revelation. Not being able to fill a pastorate because of ill health, he accepted a professorship in the College of Humanity, Schaffhausen, and devoted his time to science and writing. His works were addressed in particular to the young, his endeavor being to make the Bible in its magnificence and humanity once more of practical value. He agreed fully with the Augsburg and Helvetian Confessions and his theology differed rather in form, than materially, from the older system. He sought to simplify theology, to banish scholasticism, to free the religion of Jesus from its Jewish garb, to present it pure tend practicable, in short, to humanize theology; although its first principle‑positive revelation‑would have to remain the same. At first lecturer, in 1794 he became professor of Greek and Hebrew, and later of encyclopedia and methodology in the College of H»mA.nity. He was thrown out of his clerical position by the Revolution, and cheerfully accepted the situation, believing that he could in that way best serve his city. Through the confidence of his fellow citizens he was appointed first representative of the people, then a member of the city council, and last deputy mayor.
Muller's chief works are Philoaophiache Aufalttze (Breslau, 1789); Unxerhaltungen mit Serener (2 parts, Wintherthur, 1793‑1802; 3d ed., 8 parts, part iii. ed. Kirchhofer, 1834‑35); Bekenntniase Merkwurdiger Mdnner ion sick aelbat (16 vole., 1792‑1809); Briefs caber das Studiutn der Wissenschaften, besortdens der Geschichte (Fiiasli, 1798); Ueber efin Wort, das Franz 1. ion den Folgen der Reformation 9eaa9t habtrn Boll (1800); Reliquien alter Zeiten, Sitters and Meinungen (4 parts, Leipaie, 1803‑06) ; Von Glauben der Christen. Vorlesungen (2d ed., 2 vole., Winterthur, 1823); and Ueber christlichen Religionsurttetricht (1809)• (G. KIRCI3HOFER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: The autobiography, produced in Proteatantischa Monatsblllttcm, xviii (1881). 35 eqq.; the BneJwechael between himself and his brother, the historian Johann ion Miiller, ed. E. Haug, Frauenfeld, 1893. Consult further: The biography by K. Stoker, Basel, 1885; three lectures by J. Kirohhofer, in Unoth, Zaitachrift far Geachichte and Altertum des Standee Schaffhausen, i. 85 sqq., Schaffhausen, 1884; and Aufzeichnungen ion Johann Georg MUller, ed. J. BSchtold. Berlin, 1881.
2. German Reformed teacher and comparative religionist; b. in Basel, Switzerland, May 8, 1800; d. there Aug. 31, 1875. From 1818 to 1825 he studied philosophy and theology at the Hochschule of Basel, having De Wette as his teacher in theology, and in his last terms attending lectures by Hagenbach and Stuhelin, passing his examinations and receiving ordination in 1825. He became to ether

41	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Mueller
of Latin in the Padagogium in Basel, 1828; in 1831, after taking his degree of licentiate, was appointed assistant teacher in the theological faculty; and in 1835 became professor.
He studied the works of Philo, of Josephus, and of the apostolic Fathers, as auxiliaries for his specialty, New‑Testament exegesis and introduction; he published an edition of Philo's " Creation " (Berlin, 1841), and later Brklarunug des Barnabasbriefes (Leipsic, 1869). In 1870 appeared a Program on Philo's messianic prophesies. His edition of Josephus' Apion was published by two of his colleagues, Riggenbach and Orelli (Basel, 1877). His most valued labor was done in his lectures on introduction to the New Testament. His other field was comparative religion. In his early study of the philosophy of religion, he was strongly opposed to a priori reasoning, sought solid historical foundation for his belief, and studied carefully the ethnic religions. Although there was no chair of comparative religion, Mdller continued to give lectures on the history of polytheistic religions, of which little was known at that time. His Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen (Basel, 1855) is a product of this period. He also studied the ethnographical problem of the relation between the Semites and Hamites, and published a program in 1860, in which he asks: " Who are the Semites, and on what authority do we say, `Semitic languages'? "; a second program, of 1864, treats of the nationality of the Hyksos and the Philistines; and in another at Gotha in 1872, Die Semiten in ihrem Verhkhnws zu Chamiten and Japhetiten 'Ie tried to prove that " Semite " was the designation of a group of related peoples, and not a proper name for a class of languages, and that the so‑called " Semitic " languages should be called " Hamitic." Muller published an autobiographical sketch before
his death. 	(JACOB KIJNDIG.)
MUELLER, JULIUS: German Lutheran theologian; b. at Brieg (28 m. s.e. of Breslau) Apr. 10, 1801; d. at Halle Sept. 27, 1878. He studied jurisprudence and theology at the universities of Breslau (1819‑20), Gottingen (1822‑23), and Berlin (1823‑24), gradually coming to feel more and more that his interests lay in theology rather than in law. In 1825 he was called to the pastorate of Sch6nbrunn. Here, however, he became involved in controversy, denying the right of the government to interfere in church affairs and refusing to use either the agenda or the union ritual. He was saved from deposition by a call to become university preacher at Gottingen in 1830. In the following year he became privat‑docent, and in 1834 was appointed associate professor, and in the same year he was called to Marburg as professor of dogmatics. Here he was called to defend the point of view of a truly scientific and believing theology against the everincreasing onslaught of the anti‑Christian philosophy of the times; and here, too, he wrote his chief theological work, his Christliche Lehre von der Sfnde (2 vols., Breslau, 1839‑44; Eng. trans]., 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1877). The point of view is the Protestant tenet of unrestricted scientific investigation which recognizes no other authority than
the immutable basis of the Bible. At the same time Muller sought to avoid all conflict between scientific thought and Christian feeling, insisting especially that reflection on sin must not lead to the annihilation of " religious awe." According to Miiller not only did the doctrine of sin hitherto in vogue rest on an antiquated metaphysics, but sin was neither adequately expressed nor sufficiently explained; nor could the antinomy, resulting from the view that sin could be committed only by free will, while no factor in the empirical development of the individual could bear the weight of such voluntary decision, be solved by the ecclesiastical doctrine of original sin. His solution was the assumption of an intelligible self‑decision. But if the resolve to maintain the deepest truths justified seeking a better scientific foundation, nevertheless a theology truly revised on the basis of belief could be established only on a purer and profounder concept and foundation of Christian truth than was afforded by the teachings of the Church. In so far as a theology thus established on the great principles of general Protestant belief thrust into the background denominational differences, it necessarily implied the tendency to union which is clearly evident as a fundamental tenet of Muffler's system of thought.
' MWler's doctrine of sin not only conditioned his entire attitude toward theology and the Church, but also determined his subsequent career. His importance became ever more evident, and in 1839 he was called from Marburg to Halle. Seven years later he was a deputy of the faculty of Halle to the General Synod, where he earnestly advocated union, his early opposition to this movement being removed by the change in the policy of church government. Entirely disapproving the course hitherto taken for union of the Lutheran and Reformed, Muffler held that if uniformity in worship and in church government were to have any value, both must rest on uniformity of belief and an adequate. expression of this consensus he held was expressed in the new formula of ordination proposed by Nitzsch. Here his idea was to preserve the denominational characteristics of each congregation, for if ordination thus became the expression of the unionistic standpoint of the entire church, nevertheless denominational rights were expressly recognized in the calling of pastors. It is easy to see that Miiller's peculiar attitude was not understood, even though he defended it in Die er8te Generalsynode der evangelischen Landeskirche Preussem and die 'eirchlichen Bekenntnisse (Breslau, 1847). The confirmation and execution of the decisions of the synod dragged on until ended by the revolution of 1848; but the ensuing reaction in Church and State compelled him to resume the struggle. He now felt that he must defend the actual existence of the union, and besides a series of papers bearing on the problem he published an irenic statement of his views, designed to reconcile the moderate Lutherans, in Die evangelische Union, Mr Wesen and ihr gofliches Recht (Berlin, 1854). While the results of Miiller's struggle for the union was successful in so far as the Reformed were placed on an equal footing with the
Lutherans in Prussia (and more he had not hoped

Mueller
Muenster	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	42
for), he was deeply pained by having to combat those with whom he felt himself one in faith. Loneliness and illness now beset him, and in 1856 he suffered a stroke of apoplexy. A year later, however, he was able to resume his lectures, which he continued for twenty‑two years. But further extensive literary work was impossible, though he collected his Gesammelte Dognwtische Abhandlungen (Bremen, 1870), originally published in the Deutsche Zedschrift fur christliche Wisaenschaft unl chriatliches Leben, which he had founded in 1850 with Neander and Nitzsch. In 1878, a few months before his death, he retired from active life.
(DAVID HUPFELD.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. Kahler, Dr. Julius MWLr, der hallische Dogmahker, Halle, 1898; L. Schultze, Dr. Julius Muter, Miltheilungen aua seinem Leben, Bremen, 1879.
MUELLER, KARL FERDINAND FRIEDRICH:
German Protestant; b. at Langenburg (46 m. n.e. of Stuttgart) Sept. 3, 1852. He was educated at the universities of TiIbingen (1870‑74; Ph.D., 1876; lie. theol., 1878) and Gtittingen (1876‑77), interrupting his studies in 1875‑76 to serve as curate at Ludwigsburg. He was a lecturer at the Tilbingen theological seminary (1878,80), became privatdocent for theology at Berlin (1880), and associate professor (1882). In 1884 he went in a similar capacity to Halle; to Giessen as full professor (1886); to Breslau, as professor of church history (1891); and to the University of Tubingen (1903). He has written: Der Kampf Lvdwigs des Bayern mit derromischen. Kirche (2 vols., Tubingen, 157980); Die Anhinge des Minoritenordens and der Bussbruderschaften (Freiburg, 1885); Die Waldenaer and ihre einzelnen Gruppen bis zum Anfang des vierzehnten Jahrhunderts (Goths, 1886) ; Kirchengeschichte (2 parts, Freiburg, 1892‑1902); Luther and Karlstadt (TUbingen, 1907) ; and Die Esslinger Pfarrkirche im Mittelalter, in Wurttembergische Vierteljahrshefte fur Landesgeschichte, xvi (1907).
MUELLER, WILHELM MAX: Lutheran; b. at Gleissenberg (a village near Waldmunchen (38 m. n.e. of Regensburg), Bavaria, May 15, 1862. He was educated at the universities of Erlangen, Leipsic (Ph.D., 1893), Berlin, and Munich. In 1888 he left Germany for the United States, and after two years' residence in New York City was appointed in 1890 to his present position of professor of Oldand New‑Testament exegesis at the Reformed Episcopal Seminary, Philadelphia. He has written Asien and Europa nach altdgyptischen Denkmdlern (Leipsic, 1893); Die Liebespoesie der alien Aegypter (1899); and Egyptological Researches (Washington, 1906).
MUEMPELGART, mum'p61'gMt, COLLOQUY OF: A disputation between Lutherans and Reformed at the castle of Mumpelgart (a town better known to English readers under its French name Montb6liard, near the French border, 37 m. w. of Basel), Mar. 21‑26, 1586. This was occasioned by the incorporation of the county of Miimpelgart into the duchy of W urttemberg by inheritance. As early as 1526 Farel had preached the Gospel in Mumpelgart, but soon had to flee. In 1535, however, a Calvinistic type of the Reformation was established
by Towanus, a Reformed Frenchman; then the duke of W urttemberg attempted to reorganize the church on the Lutheran model. Many Calvinists had found a refuge in Mitmpelgart from French persecution, but were not easily admitted to the Lord's Supper. In order to create more friendly relations with the Lutherans, the disputation was arranged. On the Lutheran side, Jacob Andreas and Lucas Osiander of Tubingen were commissioned, together with two political councilors, Hans Wolf von Anweil and Friedrich Schfitz. On the Reformed side there were present Beza, Abraham Musculus, preacher at Bern; Anton Fajus, deacon at Geneva; Peter Hybner, professor of Greek in Bern; Claudius Alberius, professor of philosophy in Lausanne, and the two councilors, Samuel Meyer of Bern and Anion Marisius of Geneva. The points of controversy were (1) the Lord's Supper, (2) the person of Christ, (3) pictures and ceremonies, (4) baptism, and (5) election. The proceedings were not taken down in writing, but both parties in the beginning handed in written copies of their theses. Both parties claimed the victory. Against the agreement there was later published a protocol in the interest of the Lutherans. Beza disputed the correctness of the Actor of Tubingen and defended himself in Latin and German. A deputation from Wurttemberg requested at Bern satisfaction for the allegation of forgery which had been repeated by Musculus, but the deputation made no impression upon the Reformed. The only result of the disputation was a deepening of the differences between the two parties. (A. SCHWEIZERt.)
BIRLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: Ada coUoqu%i Montis Bdligardenais, Tabingen, 1594; Ad acts colloquii Montiabeligardensis, T. Beza responsio, Geneva, 158788. Consult: H. J. J. Heppe, T. Beza, Leben and ausgewdhlte Schrtlten, pp. 267 sqq., Elberfeld, 1861.
	MUENCCHMEYER, muna'mai‑er, A U G U S T
FRIEDRICH OTTO: German divine; b. at Han
over Dec. 8, 1807; d. at Buer (10 m. n. of Essen),
district of Munster, Nov. 7, 1882; studied at Liine
burg, Holzminden, G6ttingen, Berlin, and at the
preachers' seminary at Hanover. In 1840 he was
appointed pastor at Lamspringe, near Hildesheim;
in 1851, superintendent at Catlenburg; and in 1855,
consistorial councilor and superintendent at Buer,
and member of the ecclesiastical court of Osna
briick. He was a zealous advocate of the complete
separation of State and Church, which he sup
ported in the Zeitschrift fur Protestantismus and
Kirche, and in the G6ttinger Monataschrift (1846
1847). He engaged in a controversy with 116fiing
over the latter's Grundsdtze evangelisch‑lutherischer
Kirchenverfassung, to refute which he published
Das Amt des Neuen Testaments nach Lehre der
Schrift ured der lutherischen Bekenutnisse (Osterode,
n.d.). He was the author also of Das Dogma von
der sichtbaren utul unaichtbaren Kirche (Gottingen,
1854). 	(J. G. W. UHLHoRrrt.)
MUENSCHER, WILHELM: German theologian; b. at Hersfeld (32 m. s.s.e. of Cassel) Mar. 15, 1766; d. at Marburg July 28, 1814. He studied at the gymnasium of his native town and at the University of Marburg; officiated for some time as assistant to his father, pastor at Hersfeld; became

RELIGIOUS
in 1789 pastor of the collegiate church there; was three years later called to the chair of theology at the University of Marburg. Although his activity embraced all branches of theology except OldTestament exegesis, he is known chiefly through his writings on doctrinal theology and church history. His theological standpoint was that of a moderate rationalist, and for him the mission of doctrinal theology was to answer the question " How and why has the doctrine of Christianity gradually assumed its present form? " This question he endeavored to answer in a series of essays in various periodicals. He was the author also of Handbuch der christliehen Dogmengesehiehte (4 vols., Marburg, 1797); Lehrbuch der chriadichen Kirchenr geschichte (Marburg, 1804); and a Lehrbuch der christlichen Dogmengeschichte (Marburg, 1811).
(A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIo(IBAPBY: His life and writings were edited by L. wachler, Frankfort, 1817. Consult also the Versuch einer
Oeuhichte der hessisch‑reformimen Kirche by his son, w.
Milnscher, Cassel, 1850.
MUENSTER, ANABAPTISTS IN.
Humanistic, Social, and Religious Ferment (§ 1). Bernhard Rothmann; the Sixteen Articles (§ 2). Entrance of Radical Elements (§ 3).
Anabaptist Radicalism in Control (§ 4).
Anabaptist Theocracy Siege of the City (§ 5).
Capture of the City; Punishment of the Leaders (§ 6).
The Anabaptist movement in Munster grew out
of the Reformation in that city, and this again
stood in closest relation to revolutionary tendencies
within the city. The opposing parties were the
town as represented by the council and the bishop
or cathedral chapter, as well as the patricians, as
opposed to the gilds and common people. It was
		during the struggle among these dif
x. Humanis‑ ferent parties for leadership that the
	tic, Social, spark of the Reformation was kindled
	and in Munster. Merchants, especially
	Religious from Frankfurt, seem to have brought
	Ferment. the first message; Evangelical influ
		ences proceeding mostly from Augus
tine friars in neighboring cities had their effect,
while Humanism prepared the way. At the insti
gation of Rudolph von Langen, the cathedral school
in Munster had since 1500 through the instruction
it furnished in Latin and Greek extended widely
its influence. Among the first who began in Mons
ter to confess deviating religious opinions were the
Humanists Johann Glandorp and Adolf Clarenbach,
teacher at the school of St. Martin. Peter Gym
nich of Aix‑la‑Chapelle, a distinguished scholar and
canon of St. Martin's, had been on terms of friend
ship with Luther since 1520; Arnold Bellholt, a
patrician, had similar relations with Carlstadt. In
1524 the Reformation seems to have been publicly
proclaimed and advocated by the preachers of the
different churches in Munster. In 1525 occurred
the first outbreak of the suppressed ferment, a sig
nificant element of which was the union between
social and religious interests. The impetus was
given by the revolt of the peasants which moved
down the Rhine into the neighborhood of Monster.
At the instigation of the gilds the populace on
May 22, 1525, attacked unsuccessfully the rich
monastery of Niesing; in spite of this failure the
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Xueller
Xueaster
gilds demanded the abolition of the economical competition of the monastery. The movement spread further, the gilds and common people adopted and presented to the council the so‑called Articles of Frankfurt which expressed their demands for far‑reaching social and religious reforms, such as the abolition of spiritual jurisdiction over citizens and of the immunity of the clergy. Under pressure from the council, the chapter signed some articles, but immediately left the city and presented to the bishop a writ of complaint, while the council abolished the economical competition between the gilds and the monastery of Niesing by confiscating the looms and withdrawing the annuities.
A reaction occurred, however, after the insurrection of the peasants had been suppressed. Under the pressure of the archbishop of Cologne the council felt itself compelled to sacrifice the articles of 1525 and to restore to the monasteries their former privileges. After the restoration of the stator quo ante, the cathedral chapter returned to the city and the Evangelical preachers were banished. But with these repressive measures the
z. Bernhard anti‑clerical movement was in no way Rothmans; conquered; discord between Bishop the Sixteen Friedrich von Wied and the cathedral Articles. chapter gave occasion to a new Evangelical movement under the leadership of Bernhard Rothmann, not in Munster itself but before the gates of the city, on the territory of the bishop, at St. Mauritz (1531). Rothmann was born about 1495 at Stadtlohn in the bishopric of Munster, educated in his native city, in Munster and Deventer, was for a time a teacher and then studied at the University of Mainz. In 1529 he became preacher of St. Mauritz, but he soon joined the Evangelical party and became its leader. He increased the excitement among the people when the character of his sermons became known throughout the city; on the night of Good Friday, 1531, a mob went into his church, defiled the altars, and erected in the churchyard a pulpit for Rothmann, who defied all prohibitory injunctions of the chapter. !1s the movement spread further, the Protestant party endeavored to unite with the Evangelicals throughout the empire. For this purpose j Rothmann visited Wittenberg (where he became acquainted with Melanchthon), Speier, Strasburg j (where he met Capito and Schwenckfeld), perhaps also Marburg. After his return he preached openly the Lutheran doctrine. Disagreements between the cathedral chapter and the bishop were favorable to Rothmann's actions, but in 1532 he was compelled to flee. The confession of Rothmann, which
was printed and everywhere distributed, betrays in form and contents the influence of Melanchthon, of the Augsburg Confession, but also of Zwingli and not less of the Anabaptists. In Feb ., 1532, the adherents of Rothmann stormed the church of St. Lambert, and an Evangelical congregation was constituted. The Opposing Roman party, unable to take any effective measures against the gilds and common people, felt greatly relieved at the resignation of Friedrich von Wied as bishop on
Mar. 24, 1532. His successor, Duke Erich of Braunschweig‑Grubenhagen, bishop of Paderborn and

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
Muenster
Osnabruek, had sharply suppressed the Evangelical movement in his territories, but his sudden death on May 14 frustrated all hopes of the Catholics and furnished the occasion for a new Evangelical advance. The newly elected Bishop Franz of Waldeck, at the same time bishop of Minden and Osnar briick, demanded the removal of the Evangelical preachers and the restoration of Roman Catholic worship (June 28), but the citizens formed a league for the protection of Rothmann and elected a committee of thirty‑six men for the purpose of obtaining not only permission to preach the Gospel freely, but also its sole recognition in the city. In a formal agreement the council pledged itself to protect the Gospel and requested the Roman clergy to refute Rothmann from Scripture. As these refused a disputation, the offices of all churches in the city, with the exception of the cathedral, were filled with Evangelical preachers (Aug. 10) while the populace destroyed pictures and altars. The Evangelicals had already'sought the protection of Landgrave Philip of Hesse (q.v.), who, in the neighborhood of Munster, had asserted his influence in favor of the Gospel: In two letters of July 30, addressed to the council and the bishop, Philip had endeavored to reconcile the opponents by permitting Evangelical preaching, at the same time continuing the revenues of the Roman clergy. At a request of Rothmann, dating from July 16, two Evangelical preachers, Gottfried Stralen and Peter Wertheim, had been sent to Munster. Nevertheless, the bishop required the return of the city to Catholicism, appealing to the edict of Worms and the result of the Augsburg diet, while the Evangelicals relied upon the Interim of the Diet of Nuremberg (1532) and the imperial mandate of Regensburg (Aug. 3, 1532). An attempt of the city to induce the interference of the Schmalkald league failed. On Aug. 16 Rothmann and the other Evangelical preachers presented sixteen articles on the " abuses " of the Roman Church, and these showed an inclination toward Zwinglianism, especially in the conception of the Lord's Supper. In spite of the warnings of Luther and Melanchthon, Rothmann administered the Lord's Supper with wine and wheat bread which was to be broken by the communicants. There was noting left to the council but to yield and to request Roman Catholics not to officiate in the cathedral at Christmas and not to administer baptism. A successful attack of the neighboring town Telgt in the night of the twenty‑sixth of December delivered almost the entire episcopal aristocracy and some patricians of Munster into the hands of the Evangelicals. Owing to the intervention of Landgrave Philip, a treaty of peace between the town and the bishop was obtained on Feb. 14, 1533. Until the decision of a general free Christian council the six churches of Munster with their revenues and the right of filling vacancies were given over to the citizens for Evangelical church service while the bishop, the cathedral chapter, and the other colleges were allowed to adhere unconditionally to their religion. But at the very time when the Evangelicals had obtained sufficient concessions upon which to build up their work of reform on a solid basis, discord arose with‑
44
in their own ranks. Radical elements, hitherto in the background, gained control and won over even the influential personality of Rotbmann.
The beginnings of radicalism in Munster are veiled in obscurity. Undoubtedly the movement: of the enthusiasts in the neighborhood wielded some influence, but the decisive moment arrived at the end of 1532 when in consequence of measures taken
by the government of Julich the sob. Entrance called Wassenberg preachers went over of Radical to M (aster, men who, like Heinrich
Elements. Roll, Dionysius Vinne, and others who
were influenced more or less by Melchior Hoffmann (q.v.), held a spiritualistic conception of the Lord's Supper and had a low estimate of infant baptism. [Par greater than that of Hoffmann was the influence of Erasmus, Carlstadt, and Gerhard Westerburg on the Wassenberg preachers. There is evidence that Hfillmaier's writings were also known in these circles. There is no evidence that any of the Wassenberg preachers had adopted distinctively Hoffmannite views until after the arrival in Munster of the emissaries of Matthys. The views and methods of Matthys should be distinguished from those of Hoffmann. While Hoffmann was chiliastic and predicted the setting up of the kingdom of Christ in Strasburg, he did not reach the point of declaring that the time had actually come for the forcible setting up of the kingdom and the slaughter of the ungodly. For much valuable information about the Wassenberg preachers cf. Karl Rembert's Die " Wiedermufer " in Herzogtum Julich, Berlin, 1899. A. A. N.] They found support among the gilds, and Rothmann, although in the beginning an opponent of the enthusiasts, had met their views in the sixteen articles. Thus there was on the one side a conservative Lutheran party, relying upon the council as the Evangelical authority, led by Johann von der Wieck, and striving after a union with the Schmalkald league, on the other side the enthusiasts, relying upon the democracy and led by Rothmann. Philip of Hesse acted as mediator, at the same time being the go‑between of town and bishop. Under the influence of Roll, Rothmann began to preach against the Lord's Supper and baptism, while Hermann Staprade, one of the Wassenberg preachers, became second preacher of the church of St. Lambert, and under their influence the people were carried away to iconoclasm. A disputation was held on Aug. 7 and 8, 1533, in order to settle the differences among the Evangelicals. The conservative side was represented by Professor Hermann von dem Busche of Marburg, while Rothmann, Vinne, Klopriss, and others represented the enthusiasts. The result was unfavorable to the conservatives; Rothmann defended his view that the baptism of children is unscriptural, Busch desisted from a reply, and the doctrine of the Lord's Supper was not discussed at all. Consequently the ordinance of the council against innovations remained without effect since Rothmann and his adherents openly defied it (Sept. 17). Thereupon the council closed the churches and deposed Rothmann from his ministerial office, but the gilds and commoners gained for him liberty to preach. In this distress the Lutherans united with the Roman

45	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Xuenrter
Catholics and the bishop; in consequence Roll, Staprade, Vinne, and Stralen were banished, while Rothmann was forbidden to preach. Thus the situation which obtained after the conclusion of peace in Feb., 1533, seemed to be restored, and the council concluded to establish Evangelical church institutions with the aid of preachers sent by the Landgrave of Hesse. A church order was called into life, and the pulpits were occupied by Evangelical preachers.
In Jan., 1534, there followed a change by reason of the adoption in Munster of the ideas of Melchior Hoffmann (q.v.). Hitherto the Wassenberg tendency, mitigated by Evangelical' conservative prece‑
dents, had dominated the adherents 4. Anabaptist of Rothmann, i.e., the Lord's Supper
Radicalism had been celebrated as a Passover is Control meal and the necessity of the baptism of children energetically refuted, without, however, drawing any antitrinitarian or Anabaptist inferences. But after the summer of 1533 Melchiorites flocked into the city and amalgamated with the Wassenberg people. In Dec., 1533, the banished preachers returned to the city, and the appearance of two disciples of Jan Matthys in Jan., 1534, gained the victory for Melchioritism. Jan Matthys, a baker of Haarlem, who regarded himself as the promised Enoch, was penetrated by Hoffmann's idea of the expansion of the Gospel of the covenant. Rothmann, Klopriss, Vinne, Roll, Stralen, and Staprade were baptized, while within eight days the number of baptized persons increased to 1,400. An attempt of the council to expel the preachers again failed. A covenant of the baptized was formed after the arrival of Johann Bockhold or Jan Bockelson (generally known by his assumed name John of Leyden, q.v.) and Gert tom Kloster at the invitation of Matthys (Jan. 13). The Dutchmen found the ready support of the democracy, especially of Knipperdolling, the fanatical champion of government by the people, and gained the support also of the preachers. Their adherents were pledged to certain articles of faith, the socalled Articles of Munster, which in the refusal of obedience to "pagan" authority followed the Dutch type, and in Feb., 1534, John of Leyden and Knipperdolling began to proclaim the segregation of the communion of the just before the divine judgment of wrath. On Feb. 11 they obtained by force the guaranty of entire freedom of faith, completing thereby the victory of Anabaptism over the party of order. The adherents of the latter left the city, while the Anabaptists in unbridled fanaticism successfully carried on a most active propaganda. Jan Matthys now entered Monster; Knipperdolling became burgermaster; the populace spoiled and devastated the monasteries and the cathedral; while all the " godless " were expelled. Appealing to Acts ii., Jan Matthys began with the introduction of the community of goods, for the administration of which seven " deacons " were installed. On Mar. 15, all books in the city were burnt, with the exception of the Bible which became the law book of the " New Jerusalem." A bloody defeat subdued the opposition of the citizens.
In the mean time the bishop had prepared a reg‑
ular siege which was strengthened by the aid of Cleve, Cologne, and Hesse. The radicalism and fatalism which characterized Hoffmann's principles induced the besieged for the time being to desist from attempts at organization, and the same
5. Anabap‑ defects led Jan Matthys on Apr. 5, tist Theoc‑ on the basis of a supposed revelation, racy; Siege to make a sally in which he found his of the City. death. John of Leyden became his successor. He completed the organization of the " New Jerusalem" by overthrowing the old municipal constitution and replacing it with a divinely revealed constitution of Israel. " Twelve elders of the twelve tribes of Israel " assumed all worldly and spiritual power in Monster. John of Leyden was appointed speaker of the elders and at the same time had charge of the military forces. These were now organized so excellently that the besieged gained continual victories over the besieging forces of the bishop. Following the example of the patriarchs, on the basis of Gen. i. 28 and an inference from I Tim. iii. 2 to the effect that the common man had more than one wife, induced also by the social anomaly of a great surplus of women, John of Leyden introduced polygamy; Rothmann even took nine wives. These conditions led the more considerate citizens to a final attempt to overcome the movement. With about two hundred adherents Heinrich Mollenhecke, a blacksmith, succeeded in capturing John of Leyden, Knipperdolling, Rothmann, and other leaders, but the energy of the Anabaptists prevented the opening of the gates and surrender of the town into the hands of the bishop, released the captured leaders, and took bloody vengeance on the opponents so that the control of the prophets became absolute. On Aug. 31 John of Leyden was proclaimed king over the chosen people and ruler of the world (Jer. xxiii. 2‑6; Ezek. xxxvii. 21 sqq.). The new king immediately constructed his court; Knipperdolling became viceroy, Rothmann court preacher, and other officers such as chancellor, butler, court tailor, were added, in spite of the community of goods. Divara, the beautiful widow of Matthys, became queen. Special coins were struck with the inscription John i. 14, iii. 5. In accordance with Matt. x. the mission of twenty‑seven apostles was proclaimed, but they were soon captured and put to death. To further the cause, Rothmann published about this time his book, Restitution rechter and gesunder christlicher Lehre, according to which the restoration began with Luther, but was completed by Melchior HOffmann, Matthys and John of Leyden. The Scriptures of the Old and New Testament are the only authority, the incarnation of Christ is to be conceived in a Melchioritic sense, free will plays a part
in the work of redemption of Christ, baptism is of instructed adults only, the communion of persons
baptized in this way forms the church, Christ's kingdom is earthly. Another work, Bachlein von der Rache, called forth by the fate of the Anabap‑
tist apostles, attempted to prove from passages of the Bible that the day of the destruction of the godless as the harbinger of the kingdom of peace Per. xxxi.) had arrived. But owing to the vigilance of the besieging forces, the invasion of outside con‑

Muenster
Muenzer
verts was inconsiderable, the sectarians could neither break the siege nor avoid a famine, while the bishop continually received reinforcements on terms agreed upon in Coblenz on Dec. 13, 1534, to the effect that after the capture of the city a new government should be instituted only with the consent of the princes. Prophecies of the king, awakened by repeated expectations of reinforcement from Holland, did not confirm the wavering trust of the citizens in their ruler. Increasingly the citizens responded to the promises of the bishop by deserting, and attempts at mediation failed. Rothmann's publication, Von Verborgenheit der Schrift do Reiches Christi and dem Tage des Hemp, could not conceal the fact that the " day of the Lord " was not imminent. At a diet in Worms (Apr. 4, 1535) the bishop succeeded in winning the imperial cities to the aid of the besieging army so that now almost the entire empire was represented before Munster, while John of Leyden was compelled to dismiss the old men, women, and children from the city on account of the famine; about 1,600 armed men were left.
By the aid of treason, about 400 of the besiegers succeeded in entering the city on the night of June 24‑25, 1535, and on the following day it was captured. The soldiers were merciless. The‑king and queen, Knipperdolling and Krechting 6. Capture of were captured, while Rothmann seems
the City; to have sought and met death. On
Punishment June 29, the bishop himself entered of the the town and the dream of the " New Leaders. Jerusalem " was at an end. The possessions of the Anabaptists were offered for sale; half the spoil and all munitions were left to the bishop. On July 13 a solemn service of thanksgiving was held in the cathedral. But the most difficult problem now arose of regulating religious affairs in Munster, because of the opposition between Roman Catholics and Protestants. The Protestant party under the leadership of Philip of Hem demanded the restoration of the treaty of Feb. 14, 1533, while the Roman Catholics with the cathedral chapter, the nobility, and the cities of the bishopric agreed upon the form of religion "which was approved by the emperor and the empire," with the removal of some abuses (July 19). A diet of Worms on Nov. 1 decreed the restoration of Catholicism and of the old municipal constitution. The bishop, however, resented these decrees as forced upon him against his will, and set up a new "order" which brought the rule of the city almost entirely under his influence, thus depriving the Protestants of all opportunity to regain their former privileges. John of Leyden, Knipperdolling, and Krechting were imprisoned. A final offer of the king to give him his life on condition that the Anabaptists keep silence was refused. The captives were led to Munster, tried, and cruelly tortured to death at the early dawn of Jan. 22,1536; their corpses were hung up in iron baskets on the tower of the church of St. Lambert. The fall of Munster was catastrophic for the entire Anabaptist movement. Theologians like Luther, Melanchthon, Menius, Corvinus, and Cochheus vied with each other in attacking the writings of Rothmann and
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
48
of Anabaptists in general. Hand in hand with the fall of Anabaptism went the destruction of democratic tendencies, and the fall of Munster confirmed the power of the sovereign. Even in Moravia and Hesse toleration of Anabaptism ceased. On the other hand, the doctrine itself underwent a process of purification, in so far as Menno Simons (see SIMONS, MEN.•ro), its regenerator, began with combating the idea of the earthly kingdom of John of Leyden. [It should be borne in mind that only a fraction of the so‑called " Anabaptists " were involved in this effort to set up the kingdom of Christ by force, acting under the influence of chiliastic and theocratic ideas induced largely by terrible persecution and despair. A. a. rl.] For the general background of the movement, see ANeserrlsxXs, IT.
(W. KS1fLEn.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: U. Rhegius, Widderlegung der mflnaterischen nemen Valentinianer and Donatisten Bekentnus, Wittenberg, 1535; C. Erhard, Griindlich Hsatoria der mfinateriachen W%ederlguJer, Munich, 1589; H. Dorpius. Warhafflipe H%atoria uric das Evanpelium zu Miinater anpeJmngen, and darnach durch d%e Widerttiuffer veral6rh wider au,$gehtirt, ed. Merschmann, Magdeburg, 1847; H. Von Kersaeabroch, Geachichte der WsederESuJer zu Miinater, ed. H. Detmer, 2 vole., Monster, 1899‑1900 (Kessenbroch'a Le6en and SchriJten, critically edited with indexes, containing much important information concerning religious social, and literary conditions m Monster). For the English reader two discussions from different points of view are accessible in A. H. Newman, Hint. of Ant%Pedobaptiam, chaps. axi., axii., Philadelphia. 1897: and J. Janssen, Hiat. of the German People, Vol. v., chap. vii., 3t. Louis. 1903. Consult further: C. A. Cornelius, D%e milnsteriacheHumaniaten,MOnater,1851; idem,Beracleleder Aupenzeupen ilLer das milnateriache W%edertduJerreich, n.p., 1853; idem, Geachichte des milnaterischen AuJruhra, Leipsic, 1855‑80; idem, Die nederlundiachen Wiedertt6uJer taUhrend der Belaperung Milnatera, Munster, 1889; H. W. Erbknm, Geach%chte der Protestant%achen Sekten, Goths, 1848; T. de Buasitre, Des Anabaptiatea . . . el du repne de Jean Bockeleohn h Mtinater, Paris. 1853; K. Hale, Daa Reich der W%edertttufer, Leipsie, 1880; idem, Neue Propheten, 3d ed., ib. 1893; K. W. Bouterwek, Zur Literatur and Geachichte der WiedertauJer, Bonn, 1884; L. Keller, Geachichte der WiedertU.ufer and ihrea Reicha zu Miinater, Monster, 1880; K. Pearson, in the Modern Review, Jan.‑Apr., 1884; T. Kielatra, Doopapezinde B%jdrapen, Leyden, 1888; L. 8ehauenberg, Die TbuJerberoegung %n . . . Olden6erp‑Delmenhorat, Oldenberg, 1888; K. Kautsky, Communism in Central Europe %n the Time of the Reformation, London, 1897 (pp. 218‑293 contain the moat favorable account yet given of the Monster kingdom); E. Tumbolt, Die WiederttluJer. Bielefeld, 1899; B. Bas, Rise and Fall of the Anabaptists, London. 1903; H. Detmer, Bilder aua den religitiaen and aocialen Unruhen in MilnaEer, i.‑iii:, monster, 1903‑04; idem and R. Krumbholta, B. Rothmann, Die milnaterachen WiederWufera, 2 SchriJten, Dortmund, 1904. On the individual leaders so far as not treated in this work, consult ADB under their names.
MUENSTER, BISHOPRIC OF; An ancient bishopric in Westphalia, originally comprising the Saxon territory between the Lippe and the Ems, bounded on the south by the diocese of Cologne and on the west by that of Utrecht. It is probable that the first missionary work here was done by clerics from the latter diocese, for when it was organized as a separate bishopric Charlemagne appointed a Frisian priest, Liudger (q.v.), as its first bishop. The exact date can not be determined; Liudger (q.v.) was still an abbot on Jan. 13, 802, and is designated as a bishop on Apr. 23, 805. The fact of his Frisian origin brought about the inclusion in his jurisdiction of five Frisian districts

47
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
to the north of the Lippe, extending down to the
mouth of the Ems. 	(A. HAUCR.)
For the first two centuries after the foundation of the see, the population of Westphalia was scanty and exclusively agricultural. Towns grew up first around the monasteries which Liudger founded in connection with the episcopal sees, as is witnessed by the name of Munster, which supplanted the old name Mimigernxford, Mimigardevord. The high position assigned by Charlemagne to the Saxon bishoprics placed temporal jurisdiction in the bishops' hands from the beginning. In the twelfth century this was increased by rich donations, and after the death of Duke Henry the Lion in 1180 Bishop Hermann II., Count of Katzenelnbogen (1174‑1203), assumed the ducal powers in his diocese. His successors exercised similar rights, recognizing only the emperor as their overlord in temporal matters. These rights were stubbornly contested in the Frisian part of the diocese, and not fully acknowledged until 1276. In the thirteenth century the chapter held the position of first estate of the diocese, the nobility taking the second, and the towns, under the leadership of Munster, the third. But the two latter strove incessantly to increase their power, even by force of arms. Otto IV., Count of Hoya (1392‑1404), established firmly the power which the bishopric long enjoyed in Westphalia. The introduction of the Reformation teachings in 1524 was supported by the independent spirit of the populace, and the town became a center of Anabaptist disturbances (see MiiNSTER, ANABAPTISTS IN). But with the election of Ernest, elector of Bavaria and archbishop of Cologne (1585r1612), the conflict was decided in favor of the predominance of the Roman Catholic religion, although the extent of the diocese was notably diminished during the sixteenth century. The ecclesiastical boundaries of the diocese were enlarged by the bull De salute animarum in 1821, and it now consists of 366 parishes, with a Roman Catholic population of nearly a million. For a list of the bishops 8091522 cf. Hauck‑Herzog, RE, xiii. 538‑539.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: sources are: R. W ilmans and F. Pbilippi,
	Kaiserurkunden der . . . Wevtfatvn, 2 vole., Munster,
	1867‑81; Repesta histori‑ Westfalils, ed. H. A. Erhard,
	2 vole., ib. 1847‑51; WestAlisches Urkundenbueh, vol.
	iii., ed. R. Wilmans ib. 1871; Die Geschichtsqudlen des
	Bistuma miinater, ib. 1851 sqq., Rettberg, KD, ii. 424;
	A. Tibus. Grtiruluugs9eschichte der Softer . . . des altrn
	Bistums Maznster, ib. 1867; A. Calmet, Hist. de t'abbaye
	de Munster, Colimar, 1882• Hauck, KD ii. 406‑407;
	R. Stapfer, Die alteste Apende des Bistums miinater, Mun
	ster, 1905.
MUENTER, miin'ter, FRIEDRICH CHRISTIAN KARL HEINRICH: Danish bishop; b. at Goths, Saxe‑Coburg, Germany, Oct. 14,‑1761; d. at Copenhagen Apr. 9, 1830. He studied philology and theology at the University of Copenhagen, and church history at Gottingen. He was appointed professor of theology at the University of Copenhagen, 1787, in 1808 succeeding to the bishopric of Zealand. Miinter was a prolific writer, and several of his works pertaining to church history are still of value. His principal works are a handbook on the history of the doctrinal theology of the oldest Christian church (2 vols., Copenhagen,
Muenster Xuenzer
	1801‑4); a history of the Danish Reformation
	(2 vols., 1802); an exposition of the religion
of the Carthaginians (1816; 2d ed., 1821); and
a church history of Denmark and Norway (3 vols.,
	1823‑33). Of great importance were also his
" Symbols and Art‑Notions of the Ancient Chris
	tians " (2 vols., 1825); and Primordia ecclesioe
	Africanw (1829), which for a long time was the
	principal guide for students of the oldest history
	of the African church. As a theologian Munter was
	distinctly a historian, not a systematist. He had
	no firm theological or philosophical standpoint,
	but was always an ardent advocate of peace. He
	believed in the "divinity of Christianity," but his
	theology was leavened with rationalism. As a
	teacher he was successful only with those who shared
	his interest for archeology. 	(F. NIEhsENt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. P. Mynater, in TSK, vi (1833); B. Ma‑
ter, Familien Munters Stamtavte, Copenhagen, 1901.
MUENZER, mfint'ser, THOMAS.
His Youth (§ 1).
Activities at Zwickau (§ 2).
In Bohemia. Works upon the Liturgy (§ 3).
Revolutionary Teaching in Alstedt (§ 4).
Expulsion from Alstedt and Miihlhausen (§ 5).
Events Leading to the Peasants' War (§ 6).
Thomas Muenzer, a prominent enthusiast of the time of the Reformation and a leader in the Peasants' War (q.v.), was born at Stolberg in the Harz Mountains (50 m. s.e. of Brunswick), before 1490; beheaded at Miihlhausen in Saxony (29 m. n.w. of Erfurt) May 27, 1525. Of his youth only a few incidents are known. In 1506 he entered the
University of Leipsic, and in 1512 he
I. His was a student in the University of Youth. Frankfort. In the first half of 1513 he was engaged in Halle in a league against Archbishop Ernst of Magdeburg; in 1515 he was provost in Frohse near Aschersleben, after which he seems to have led a wandering life for several years. In the beginning of 1519 he was at Leipsic, where he still lived at the time of the disputation. He seems to have made a good impression upon Luther, as the latter recommended him to Johann Silvanus of Eger (Egranus), at that time preacher in Zwickau. At the end of 1519 he was confessor of the Bernardine nuns in the monastery of Beutitz near Weissenfels. But he found it impossible to stay in one place for any length of time, and at Beutitz was soon involved in difficulties. He evidently had no serious conception of his duties, as appears from a statement of Luther to the effect that he often omitted the formula for the transformation of the elements in the administration of the Lord's Supper. It is hardly to be assumed that he ever acknowledged the authority of the Wittenberg circle, considering his independent nature; but the new movement had seized ]lien, as appears from his study of Eusebius, Jerome, Augustine, and of the acts of the Councils of Constance and Basel. The study of the Theologid Ger_ mantca (q.v.) recommended by Luther, and of the works of Tattler and other mystics exercised a not inconsiderable influence upon him. 9
With the approval of Luther he followed in 1520 a call to Zwickau where Egranus had introduced

gnenser
the Reformation and had become involved in disputes with the monks. During a temporary absence of Egranus, Manzer became his substitute as first preacher of the principal church
s. Activities in Zwickau. His first sermons beat Zwickau. trayed his radical tendencies through his vehement attacks on the pastoral activity of the monks, whom he accused of avarice and deceitfulness, securing thereby the favor of the citizens who disliked the mendicant friars because of their wealth. The town council did not listen to the complaints of the Roman Catholics, but requested Duke John to prohibit any molestation of the preachers of the Gospel. Manzer became more and more aggressive especially after his removal to the church of St. Catharine, on the return of Egranus. He reviled all who contradicted him, and caused them to be suspected as opponents of the Gospel. Two principles from this time directed his actions; first, the appeal to the immediate inspiration of the Spirit as guiding speech and action; secondly, the tendency to organize a communion of saints filled with the spirit. He aroused the laymen against his spiritual colleagues, gathered the elect into conventicles, and asked them to appoint twelve apostles and seventy‑two disciples out of their number. " The laymen must become our prelates and pastors," he announced, and it was especially Nikolaus Storch, a cloth‑weaver, whom he praised as one versed in the Bible, to whom he gave the testimony of possessing the spirit. In this way he naturally came into difficulties with his colleagues in the city, especially with Egranus, and he incited the people to their removal by force. On Apr. 16 he was deposed, and with Marcus Thomae turned to Prague in order to establish his spiritual church among the Utraquists.
Here he preached in different churches in German and Latin and found adherents among the nobility, but his wild invectives against the clergy made it impossible for him to stay.
3. In He wandered from place to place, al‑
	Bohemia.	ways announcing his spiritual gospel
Works upon by pointing to the near advent of the
the Liturgy. Antichrist. In spite of his later de
		nial, he must have had in 1522 a con
versation with Luther in which vehement words
were exchanged. From Nordhausen, where he so
joumed at least at the end of that year, he came
immediately before Easter, 1523, to Alstedt and
was accepted by the council on trial as preacher of
the Church of St. John. Here he began immedi
ately those reforms of the church service known
chiefly from his three liturgical works: Deutsch
kirchen ampt. Vorordnet, aufzuheben den hinterlis
tigen Deckel, unter welchem das liecht der Welt
vorhalten war . . . (Alstedt, n.d.); Deutsch euan
gelisch Messe, etwann durch die bepatiachen pfafen
im latein zu grossem nashteil des chrestenglaubena
vor sin opfer gehandelt (Alstedt, 1524); Ordnung
and bereehnunge des teutschen ampta zu Alatadt
durch Tomam Muntzer, seelwarters in vorgangen
osteren aufgericht (Alstedt, 1524). Although in com
parison with other utterances these works show
a certain moderation, they nevertheless betray his
characteristic tendency. In the first two works
THE NEW SCHAFF‑IiERZOG
48
he laid especial stress upon the song service; the
whole liturgy, with the exception of the collects
and lessons, according to him, should be sung. His
third work gives an account of the arrangement of
the church service as it still existed in 1523 and
explains in an interesting and original manner the
individual parts of the church service. All three
works reveal his artistic sense, ecclesiastical taste,
high endowments, and comprehensive knowledge,
and they possess a high degree of originality; they
reveal also the purpose to build up and not to tear
down. Nevertheless the increasing disfavor of
Luther may be easily explained. He was offended
by the strong emphasis laid upon the Spirit, still
more by the low estimate placed on the sermon and
by the polemical attitude against the Wittenberg
circle and the formality of the church service.
Miinzer's inflammatory speeches induced Count
Ernst of Mansfeld to prohibit attendance upon
Miinzer's services. Miinzer violently attacked and
reviled the count, and in a letter addressed to the
elector on Oct. 4, 1523, he offered himself to be
tried according to divine right, but the elector was
satisfied with the promise of Mouser to desist in
the future from utterances in the pulpit which were
not profitable for the instruction of the people.
Thus Milnzer had gained his point, and without
hindrance continued his insurrectionary sermons.
	In the beginning of 1524 he issued Protestation
oder emPidung Tome Mgntzers ‑von Stolberg an
Hartza aeelwartera zu Alatedt seine leren bdre, fends
vend tzum anfang von dem rechten Christen glawben,
vend der Tawfe, which was soon followed by
		Von dem getichten glawben auff nechat
	4. Revolu‑ Proteatatibn ausagangen Tome Munt
	tionary xera Setwertera zu Alatedt. The former
	Teaching publication, in which he assumed the
	in Alstedt. manner of an apostle or prophet, was
		an attack on the doctrine of the Wit
tenberg theologians, although Luther himself is not
mentioned. It aims to refute the doctrine of in
fant baptism on the ground that Christ did not
baptize children, and that there is no evidence of
the baptism of Mary or of the disciples. He con
cludes that baptism is not properly understood,
and that its use in Christianity has become a
" bestial apish play." The principal point, ac
cording to him, centers in immediate inspiration by
the Spirit of God. He declares also against the
authority of the Scripture. The doctors of the
Bible, he says, have no other faith or spirit than
that which they have stolen from Scripture; but
that is not the right kind of faith; this must be
taught immediately by God, man moat wait until
he attains it by the work of God, otherwise it is
worth nothing. In spite of its obscurity, Miinzer's
doctrine found great acclamation. From all sides
people flocked to hear the sermons of the great
prophet. He gathered his " elect " into leagues,
appealing to II Chron. xxiii. 16; strangers were
also welcomed, and in one day he received about 300
converts. His evident purpose was the violent sup
pression of everything that according to his opin
ion contradicted the Gospel. In the spring of 1524
citizens of Alatedt stormed the near‑by chapel of
Mallerbach to which pilgrims used to resort, and

49
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
carried away its treasures, since Manzer preached open rebellion against the princes. It is evident that M tmzer had been seized by the idea, then dominating wide circles, of a great revolution to come in the year 1524, and he felt himself called upon to assist in its fulfilment. When a member of the council was arrested on account of his participation in the attack at the chapel, he ordered the alarimbell to be rung, and immediately an armed mob arose; even women seized pitchforks in order to protect their council and preachers against possible attack. Nevertheless, the princes found no way to intervene. At the same time Miinzer's invectives against the Wittenberg Reformers became more violent, especially against Luther's doctrine of Scripture. When the people of Sangerhausen were forbidden by the authorities to attend his sermons, he preached rebellion against the tyrants, and in fearful threatenings denounced the princes. On July 13, 1524, Elector Friedrich and Duke Johann came to Alatedt and permitted Manzer to deliver before them a sermon in which in vehement terms he demanded the use of force against the godless and those that practised idolatry: " The vicious lazy Christiana must be eradicated if the princes are not willing to do it " (Awslegung des andern ronterschyds Danidis, etc., Alatedt, 1524). Duke Johann on this occasion pledged him to subject his writings to the censor, but the other proposal to be tried before the Wittenberg circle Munzer indignantly rejected and yet remained unmolested. The excitement increased on hearing that people who had fled from Sangerhausen for the sake of the Gospel and others who had attended the sermons of Mtinzer and were captured were to be delivered to the authorities. Thereupon Mflnzer preached on July 24 that sword mustn.be met by sword, and his following was convinced that no harm could come to them if a struggle should result.
In the mean time Luther had seen the sermon preached before the princes and at the end of July wrote his famous Sendbrief an den Fursten zu Sachsen vom aufruhrerisc~ Geist in which he instructed the authorities in their duties in regard to the rebellion. Consequently Munzer was tried on Aug, 1 before Duke Johann and his councilors at
Weimar‑ Although he denied many S. Expulsion things, he was convicted of rebellious from Alstedt actions and dismissed until the elector and should dispose of him further. Miinzer Miihlhausen.then offered himself to be tried for the
purpose of defending his doctrine against the " mendacious Luther " before the Chris. tianity of all nations. He did not wait for the eleotor's answer, but after his return to Alstedt the council opposed him, and he secretly left the city on Aug. 7. Shortly before that he had written a new work, Aussgetruckte emplassung des falachen Glaubens der vngetrrewen weUP durchs gezeWnia des Euangelums Luce, etc., which offers the best insight into his doctrine. From Alatedt Miinzer went to Miihlhausen. In this small but industrious imperial city Evangelical preachers had been active for some time, among them Heinrich Pfeiffer, a native of ~iihVausen and formerly a monk in the monasVIIL‑‑4
Muenzer
tery of Reiffenstein in the Eichafeld, a man gifted with great energy and stirring eloquence. His sermons and those of his associates, being directed more aainst the hated priests and monks than toward the preaching of the Gospel, fell upon fertile soil, since the people were dissatisfied with the avaricious and immoral life of the clergy and the autocratic and arbitrary rule of the council. The priests'. houses were despoiled, and after an iusurrection the council was compelled to admit participation in the government by the citizens. Nevertheless, toward the end of Aug., 1523, Pfeiffer and his associates were banished from the city. Toward the end of the year Pfeiffer was again in Muhlhausen and found many adherents, and although these entered the church about Easter, 1524, and broke the images, the council did not dare to interfere and was satisfied with the prohibition to shelter the preacher. In this town Munzer expected to find what he sought. A warning letter from Luther, dated Aug. 21, 1524, and addressed to the council, arrived too late. At first people hesitated to allow Manzer to preach, but finally they consented. He entered into the closest connection with Pfeiffer, and more and more the opponents of the old government of the city united with the religious innovators. Churches and monasteries were ravaged, pictures removed, relics torn out and disfigured. The preachers surrounded themselves with armed mobs. Munzer instructed the people that they were not obliged to obey the authorities and without compromise announced the duty to persecute and expel all not following the spiritual life. The tumult increased in such a way that a number of councilors escaped their responsibility by flight. For the radicals the time seemed to have arrived to obtain their demands. Miinzer and Pfeiffer issued twelve articles in which was urged the deposition of the old council and the installation of a new council that Should order and judge according to the Word of God. The articles were distributed in the neighboring villages, but did not find a favorable reception, and the council once more succeeded in gaining the upper hand, whereupon Manzer and Pfeiffer were expelled on Sept. 28, 1524.
Both turned to the South and reappeared in Nuremberg, where Munzer found a printer for his lampoon on Luther with which he intended to avenge himself for his expulsion from Saxony, Hoch
verursachte Schutzrede and Antwort wider das geidlose, sanftlebende Feisch Zu y
6. Events berg welches mit verkehrter Weize lurch
Leading to den Diebgtahl der heiligen Schrift die the Peasants' erbdrmliche Christenheit also ganz jdm. merlich beaudedt hat. Before the council of Nuremberg was aware, he had disappeared. He traveled south, and his works on baptism and faith as well as his inimical attitude to Luther had directed the attention to him even in Zurich in the circle of the Anabaptists. In Griea‑
aen, a little village between Waldshut and Schaff_ hausen, 'he became personally acquainted with the Zurich Friends; and their communistic tendencies
have not without reason been traced to Miinzer's influence. In places like Klettgau and Hegau,

Muenzer Mulberg
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
where all was already in a state of ferment, he de
livered inflammatory speeches, and by them as
well as by his writings he unsettled the conditions
more and more. Munzer longed to be back at
Mahlhausen, where his wife had remained, but did
not return at the earliest before the beginning of
1525. Pfeiffer had meanwhile returned and had
renewed his inflammatory course of action. They
both preached openly on the necessity of rebellion,
Pfeiffer taking the leading part, since he was the
very man to transform Mdnzer's theories into actu
ality. The communistic element became more
prominent and the number of radicals increased.
At the same time warlike preparations were made
and men were drilled as soldiers. On Afar. 16 the
council was deposed under the leadership of Pfeiffer,
and a new council was instituted upon the princi
ples established by the preachers. Miinzer held the
great mass of the people, but his influence was still
greater in Thuringia and in the Harz Mountains,
where he incited the people by letters and by the
formation of leagues. The inevitable consequences
of Miinzer's agitation now appeared. From the
South the peasants' movement approached and
spread over the whole of Thuringia, the Eichsfeld
and the Harz regions. The spiritual center was
Mahlhausen with its preachers, though Miinzer
did not appear as the real leader. People were not
willing to follow him blindly, and there were also
disagreements with Pfeiffer which hindered a uni
form advance. While Pfeiffer's marauding expe
ditions into the Eichsfeld occupied a part of the
insurgent forces and carried everywhere devasta
tion and destruction, Philipp of Hesse approached
after defeating the peasants around Hersfeld and
Fulda, and at the same time the peasants who had
gathered in the neighborhood of Frankenhausen
were threatened by Duke Georg and especially by
Count Ernst of Mansfeld. On May 10 Manzer came
to their assistance, and immediately broke off the
negotiations that had been entered upon with
Count Albrecht of Mansfeld. In the face of the
superior power of the princes the peasants again
entered upon new negotiations, but by false news
of victories from outside, by his eloquence and
trust in victory, and by his reference to signs sup
posed to be given him by God, the prophet once
more succeeded in deluding the hesitating people.
The bloody battle of Frankenhausen on May 15
decided the issue. On the following day Miinzer
was captured and delivered into the hands of Count
Ernst of Mansfeld at Heldrungen, was placed under
torture, and Georg of Saxony and Philipp of Hesse
took pains to convert him. After the surrender of
Miihlhausen Mtinzer was led there and put to death
together with Pfeiffer. 	(T. KoLDE.)

BmIJOGRAPHY: A " History of Miinzer " printed at Hagenau, 1525, and reproduced in Walch's ed. of Luther's Works, avi. 159 aqq., is ascribed to Melanchthon. Consult: G. T. Strobel, Leben, Schriften and Lehren Thoma Muntzers, Nuremberg, 1791; J. K. Seidemann, Thomas Manzer, Dresden, 1842; K. E. FSrstemann, Neues Urkundenbuch zur Gesehichle der evangelischen Kirchenreformation, i. 228, Hamburg, 1$42: G. Merx, Thomos Miinzer and Heinrich Pfeiffer 1523‑.25, GSttingen, 1889; A. H. Newman, Hist. of Anti‑Pedobartism, pp. 87‑88, Philadelphia, 1897; K. Kautsky, Communism in Central Europe in the Time of the Reformation, pp. 90‑154, London, 1897
(sympathetic and apologetic): H. E. Jacobs, Martin Luther, pp. 253 aqq. et passim, New York, 1898: R. Jordan, Chronik der Stadt Miilhausen, vol. i., Mtihlhausen, 1900; idem, Zur Geachichte der Stadt Muhlhauaen, parts i.‑ii., ib. 1901‑02; E. Sehling, Die evangelischen Kirchenordnungen des 16. Jahrhunderts, i. 470 aqq., Leipsie, 1902; H. C. Vedder, Balthazar Hiibmaier, pp. 97, 105‑107, 160, 182. New York, 1905; H. Barge, Andrews Bodenatein von Karlstadt, 2 vole., Leipaic, 1905; Moeller, Christian Church, iii. 36, 62, 88, 93.

MUEZZIN, mn‑ez'zin (MUEDDIN): The official attached to a Mohammedan mosque, whose business it is to chant the azan (from which the word muezzin is formed with the aid of the preformative), or call of the faithful to prayer, five times each day. The call is sounded from the minaret, if the mosque has one, otherwise from the side of the mosque. The words of the call are: " Allah is most great (four times); I testify that there is no God but Allah (twice); I testify that Mohammed is the apostle of Allah (twice); come to prayer (twice); come to salvation (twice); Allah is most great
(twice); there is no god but Allah." In the early morning call, after the words " Come to salvation," the Muezzin adds " Prayer is better than sleep " (twice).
MUFTI: The title of an official in Mohammedan, particularly Turkish, countries, whose duty it is to assist the judge or cadi by expounding the law. He must be familiar with the Koran, with
the body of Mohammedan tradition as well as with the works on law, as it is part of his work to cite decisions already made in similar cases.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. B. Macdonald, Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence, and Constitutional Theory, pp. 115, 184, 278, 277, New York, 1903.
MUGGLETON, LODOWICS, MUGGLETONIANS: English see
$arian and the followers of him and John Reeve (1608‑58); b. in Walnut Tree Yard, off Bishopsgate Street Without, London, July, 1609; d. at London Mar. 14, 1698. Apprenticed as a tailor, he went as a journeyman to his cousin John Reeve (1608‑58) in 1631, who converted him to Puritanism, and in 1647 he withdrew from all worship, adopting an agnostic position. In 1650 he was attracted by the declaration of the two so‑called prophets, John Robins, a " ranter," and Thomas Tansy, a predecessor of the Anglo‑Israelites, whose crude pantheism took hold of him; at the same time he read Jacob Boehme (q.v.). He drew also Reeve to his views. The latter in 1652 professed personal communications, appointing him messenger and Muggleton mouthpiece of a new dispensation; and as the two witnesses (Rev. xi. 3) they set forth as prophets of a new system of faith. They gathered a large following and the sect continued till the last century, Joseph Gauder (d. 1868) being reported as the last adherent.
The element of spirituality was contributed by Reeve. He distinguished between faith and reason as respectively the divine and demoniac elements in man (the doctrine of two‑seeds), and shared with the Socinians a frank anthropomorphism and a belief that the mortality of the soul is to be remedied by a physical resurrection. The harder outlines, including the rejection of prayer, came from Muggleton. His philosophy is epicurean, holding that

61	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Xuenzer
		Mulberg
after the divine being had fixed the machinery of
the world and placed a conscience in man, he took
no further notice of the world until the revelation
to Reeve. The devil is a human being, narratives
of miracles are mostly parables, the sun travels
around the earth, and heaven is calculated to be
six miles off. " Earth and water were not created,
but self‑originated; the evil one became incarnate
in Eve; the Father was the sufferer on the cross,
having left Elijah to govern heaven while he came
on earth to die " (J. H. Blunt, Dictionary of Sects,
Heresies, p. 355, Philadelphia, 1874). In 1853‑54
Muggleton and Reeve were tried and imprisoned
for denying the Trinity.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Consult the Works of Reeve and Muggle
	ton, ed. J. and 1. Frost, London, 1832; item, A List of
	Books and General Index to Reeve and Muggleton's Works,
	ib. 1846; A Modest Account of the Wicked Life of . . .
	L. M., in Harleian Miscellany, vols. i., viii., London,
	1808‑13; Transactions of the Liverpool Literary and Phil
	osophical Society, 1868‑70. Muggleton's autobiography is
	prefixed to his own Acts of the Witnesses, 1699.
	MUHLENBERG, WILLIAM AUGUST: Protes
tant Episcopalian clergyman, poet, and philan
thropist; b. in Philadelphia Sept. 16, 1796; d. in
New York Apr. 8, 1877. His great‑grandfather was
Henry Melchior Muhlenberg, his grandfather Fred
erick Augustus Muhlenberg, and his father Henry
William Muhlenberg, and he was baptized in the
Lutheran communion, but while a little boy made
choice of the Episcopal Church. He graduated
from the University of Pennsylvania in 1814,
and at once entered on his theological studies
under Bishop White, by whom he was ordained
deacon in 1817, and whose assistant he became in
Christ Church. On his ordination as priest, 1820,
he accepted a call to the rectorship of St. James',
Lancaster, Pa., where he remained six years, and
where he did much toward the advancement of
public education. He occupied himself also at this
time in church hymnody; wrote a Plea for Chris
tian Hymns, that was circulated at the special Gen
eral Convention of 1821, and which, with other
measures, resulted in 1826 in the adoption of a
collection of hymns prepared by a committee of
which he was the chief worker. His own well‑known
hymn, " I would not live alway," was written in
Lancaster in 1824, and first printed in the Philar
delphia Episcopal Recorder, in 1826. He declared
that a myth had grown up about his famous hymn
and that it was not written under the depression
of a ruptured engagement of marriage. But, con
vinced that it was too gloomy, he worked it over
and thus enlarged and " evangelized " it (cf. the
publication mentioned below).
	He championed the Christianizing of education,
the union, in some practical form, of the Evangel
ical bodies of Christendom, and Christian brother
hood as exemplifying itself in institutions of charity
and beneficence for the poor and oppressed. On
leaving Lancaster in 1826, he became rector of St.
George's, Flushing, L. I., N. Y., and there opened
a school in 1828, when he relinquished his charge.
In 1838 he joined the school to St. Paul's College, of
which he was rector till 1846, when he entered on
the pastorate of the Free Church of the Holy Com
munion, New York, the building of which was
erected by his sister, Mrs. Mary A. Rogers. He was the originator of numerous important movements in the Episcopal Church (see DEACONESS, III., 2, d. §2), and the methods he employed in his schools became most popular, being widely applied in other institutions. It was during his ministry in this church that he enunciated most emphatically those " Evangelical Catholic " principles which he believed to be the true theory of the Christian Church, and which are signally expressed in The Muhlenberg Memorial (cf. Evangelical Catholic Papers, New York, 1875). His grandest exemplifications of Christian brotherhood are the institutions of St. Luke's IIospital, New York, opened in 1859, with himself as its first pastor and superintendent; and the Church Village of St. Johnland on Long Island, incorporated in 1870. " The incarnation was the central idea of his theology and the inspiration of his Christian life ‑brotherhood in Christ, brotherhood through Christ." He never married, and, though born to affluence, did not leave money enough for his funeral. He died in St. Luke's Hospital, and was buried at St. Johnland. His works embrace 1 would not live alway, and Other Pieces (New York, 1859; reissued with The Story of the Hymn, and a Brief Account of St. Johnland, 1871); Evangelical Sisterhoods; ire Two Letters to a Friend (1867); Christ and the Bible; not the Bible and Christ (1869); and his Evangelical Catholic Papers; Compiled by Anne Ayres (1875).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Biographies have been written by E. Harwood and G. D. Wildes, New York, 1877; A. Ayres, ib. 1880, new ed., 1884 (the standard); and W. W. Newton, Boston, 1890. Consult also E. A. Washburn, Sermons in Memorial of W. A. Muhlenberg, New York, 1877.
MUIR, PEARSON MADAM: Church of Scotland; b. at Creetown (32 m. s.w. of Dumfries), Kirkcudbrightshire, Jan. 26, 1846. He was educated at the University of Glasgow, after which he was minister at Catrine, Ayrshire (1870‑72), Polmont, Stirlingshire (1872‑80), Morningside, Edinburgh (1880‑96), and Glasgow Cathedral (since 1896); also secretary of the Church Service Society (1888‑1907). By appointment of the General Assembly he was lecturer on pastoral theology in the universities of St. Andrews, Aberdeen, Glasgow, and Edinburgh in 1895‑97 and 1902‑06. He has written Samuel Rutherford (St. Giles Lectures on Scottish Divines; Edinburgh, 1882); The Church of Scotland: A Sketch of its History (1890); Religious Writers of England (1901); and Modern Substitutes for Christianity (Baird lecture; 1909); and contributed the section on the monuments and inscriptions in Glasgow Cathedral to G. E. Todd's Book of Glasgow Cathedral, 1898).

MULBERG, JOHANNES: Dominican monk and anticipator of the Reformation; b. at Klein‑Basel in the middle of the fourteenth century; d. in Maulbronn in 1414. He was the son of a cobbler and devoted himself up to his twentieth year to his father's handicraft. He then fiist attended school and soon afterward entered the Dominican order. With fervent zeal he participated in the efforts for the reformation of his order and won many cloisters for the reform movement, especially in South Cermany. He soon became one of the most successful and esteemed public speakers. From 1400 he began,

Xu stories	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	52
in Basel, the struggle against the Beghards and
Beguines (q.v.), who found earnest defenders in the
Franciscans. From 1405 to 1411, he sojourned in
Italy, and remained, after the Council of Pisa, under
the obedience of Gregory XII. When he returned
to Basel in 1411, he sharply assailed the moral
shortcomings of the clergy in his sermons and, in
a prophetic vein, announced to them a great judg
ment. Driven from Basel as a schismatic and here
tic, he died, widely revered as a god‑sent prophet.
Among his works, the controversial writings against
the Beguines are noteworthy; these have been pub
lished in part by Haupt (ZKG, x. 511 sqq., 1896;
cf. J. L. von Mosheim, De Beghardia, pp. 554 aqq.,
Leipsic, 1790). 	H. HAUPT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Wurstisen, Baaeler Chronick, pp. 201220, Basel. 1580: P. Ochs, Geaehichte der Stadt . . . Basel, iii. 26‑35, ib. 1819; J. F. Haute, Geachichte der UniversiOtt Heidelberg, i. 240‑241, ii. 384 eqq., Mannheim, 18621804; K. $chieler, Mapiater Johannes Nider, pp. 13, 164 ‑qq., Mains, 1885; Reichert, in RBmiache Quartalxhrsft Air Altertumakunde, xiv (1900), 84, 95, xv (1901), 128129, 139, 148.

	MULE: The hybrid of the ass and the mare,
in contrast with the hinny, the offspring of the
stallion and the she‑ass. The mule, on account of
its sure‑footedness, is more serviceable than the
horse in mountainous regions, though inferior both
in size and strength. Mules are mentioned in the
Egyptian and Assyrian records, as well as in Homer.
According to the latter, they were derived prMci
pally from Mysia and Paphlagonia (Iliad, xxiv.).
The Hebrews obtained these animals from Togar
mah (Armenia), which was rich in horses, through
the Phenicians (Ezek. xxvii. 14). They were also
imported into Assyria. Among the Hebrews they
are first named in David's time as saddle animals
of the kings and princes (II Sam. xiii. 29; T Kings
i. 33), and as beasts of burden (I Chron. xii. 40).
It is evident that at this period they were some
what rare; only later did their use become more
general (I Kings xviii. 5; Zech. xiv. 15). They were
sent to Solomon as tribute from conquered peoples
(I Kings x. 25; II Chron. ix. 24). Whether the
Hebrews themselves raised these animals in ancient
times is not known; in the later legislation (Lev.
xix. 19) this is forbidden. The law was, however,
evaded by breeding the animals outside the land.
Sennacherib carried off a great number of mules,
asses, and horses as booty (according to the inscrip
tion on the famous cylinder of this king, iii. 18 sqq.) ;
the returning exiles brought back a considerable
number of mules with them, although the number
of horses was three times as great (Ezra ii. 66; Neh.
vii. 68)• 	I. BENZINGER.
BrurooRAPa:: V. Hehn, Kulturpfaneen and Hauathiere, ed. O. Schrader, Berlin, 1902; F. Vigouroux, Dictionnaire de la Bible, fasc. xxviii., cots. 1336‑1338, Paris, 1906; DB, iii. 456; EB, iii. 3224‑25; JE, ix. 105.

MULFORD, ELISHA: Episcopalian; b. at Montrose, Susquehanna County, Pa., Nov. 19, 1833; d. at Cambridge, Mass., Dec. 9, 1885. He graduated from Yale College 1855; studied theology at Union Theological Seminary, New York, at Andover, Mass., and in Halle and Heidelberg, Germany; was ordained deacon 1859, and priest 1862; had charges at Darien, Conn., 1861; South Orange,
N. J., 1861‑64; Friendsville, Penn., 1877,81. From 1864 to 1877 he resided without charge at Montrose, Pa.; after 1881 he lived at Cambridge, where he lectured on apologetics in the Episcopal Divinity School. Dr. Mulford was in sympathy with the theological sentiments expressed by the school of Coleridge and Frederick Denison Maurice, and stood for the union of the utmost liberty of philosophic thought in the treatment of Christian dogmas. He was also under the influence of Richard Rothe, and was in accord with the realism of Hegel. He wrote The Nation, the Foundation of Civil Order and Political Life in the United States (New York, 1870, and often); and The Republic of God, an Institute of Theology (Boston, 1881, and often).

MULLENS, JOSEPH: English Congregational. ist missionary; b. in London Sept. 2, 1820; d. at Chacombe, near Mpwapwa (200 m. w. of Zanzibar), German East Africa, July 10, 1879. He graduated from London University in 1841; in 1842 he offered himself to the London Missionary Society, and, after being ordained, sailed for India, where he began wcrx at Bhowanipore, and was pastor of the native church there, 1846‑58. While there he gathered statistics of the missions in India and Ceylon. Returning to England in 1858, he was prominent as secretary of the Liverpool Missionary Conference in 1860; in 1865 he became joint foreign secretary, and in 1868 sole foreign secretary of the London Missionary Society; in 1870 he was present at the annual meeting of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions; and he spent the year of 1873 in a visit to Madagascar in the interest of missionary work. He was active in securing the convention of the Mildmay Conference, London, 1878. His last great desire was to establish on a permanent basis the missions of the London Society in Ujiji, Africa, and in this interest he accompanied several missionaries to Africa. Starting from Zanzibar he got no farther than Mpwapwa. His statesmanlike and administrative abilities enabled him to perform wonders for the efficiency of the London Missionary Society. His writings embrace Vedanti8m, Brahminism, and Christianity Examined and Compared. A Prize Essay (Calcutta, 1852); Misaion8 in South India Visited and Described (London, 1854); The Religious Aspects of Hindu Philosophy Stated and Discussed. A Prize Essay (1860); A Brief Review of Ten Years' Missionary Labor in India between 186.0 and 1861. Prepared from Local Reports and Original Letters (1863); London and Calcutta Compared in their Heathenism, their Primr leges and their Prospects (1868); and Twelve Months in Madagascar (1875).
BIBLtOORAPHY: DNB, xxxix. 276‑277; London Missionary Society Chronicle, Oct., 1879.

MULLINS, EDGAR YOUNG: Baptist; b. in Franklin Co., Miss., Jan. 5, 1860. He received his education at the Agricultural and Mechanical Col‑
lege of Texas (1876‑79), the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary (graduated 1885), and at Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.; was pastor at Harrodsburg, Ky. (1885,88), of the Lee Street Baptist Church, Baltimore (1888‑95); corresponding secretary of the Foreign Mission Board of the South‑

53	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Xu atoriaa
ern Baptist Convention (1895‑96); pastor of the First Church, Newton, Mass. (1896‑99); has been president of the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary and professor of theology since 1899; and is president of the Baptist Young People's Union of America. He is the author of Why is Christianity True f (Chicago, 1905); and Axioms of Religion.: a New Interpretation of the Baptist Faith (Philadelphia, 1908).
MULOT, mii"lo', RENE, MULOTISTS. See HOLY GHOST, ORDERS AND CONGREGATIONS OF THE, II, 2.

MUNGER, THEODORE THORNTON: Congregationalist; b. at Bainbridge, N. Y., Mar. 5, 1830; d. at New Haven Jan. 11, 1910. He was graduated from Yale College (A.B., 1851) and Yale Divinity School (1855), after which he held pastorates at Dorchester, Mass. (1856‑0), Haverhill, Mass. (1862‑70), Lawrence, Mass. (1870‑75), San Jos€, Cal. (1875‑76), North Adams, Maw. (18761885), and the United Church, New Haven, Conn. (after 1885; after 1891 pastor emeritus). He wrote: On the Threshold (Boston, 1881); The Freedom of Faith (1883); Lamps and Paths (1885); The Appeal to Life (1887); Character through Inspiration (New York, 1897); Horace Bushnell, Preacher and Theologian (Boston, 1899); and Essays for the Day (1904).
MUNGO, SAINT. See KENTIOERN, SAINT.
1HUNNU, SAINT. See FINTAN, SAINT.
MURATORI, mu"r8"M'ri, LUDOVICO ANTONIO: Italian Roman Catholic historian; b. at Vignola (50 m. n.n.w. of Florence) Oct. 21, 1672; d. at Modena Jan. 23, 1750. He studied theology, philosophy, and law at Modena, and in 1695 was attached to the Ambrosian Library at Milan. In 1700 he was recalled to Modena as archivist and librarian, where he spent the remainder of his life, being also provost of Santa Maria della Pomposa. The results of his activity at Milan were his Anecdota ex Ambrosiano: bibliotheco codieabus (4 vols., Milan and Padua, 1697‑1713) and Anecdota Groca (Padua, 1709). Here he discovered the famous Muratorian Canon (q.v.). The controversy which broke out in 1708 between the emperor and the pope over the state and territory of Comacchio, in which Muratori was called to defend the house of Fate against the papal claims, led to his first great historical work, the Autichitd Estensi ed Italians (2 vols., Modena, 1717‑10). He then proceeded to an exhaustive collection of material for a history of Italy from the fifth to the sixteenth century. The results were his Rerum Italiearum wriptores ab anno 600‑1600 (28 vols., Milan, 1723‑51), supplemented by his Antiquitates Italico medii o:vi (6 vols., 1738‑X12; Italian trand. by the author, Dissertazioni sopra le antichitd italiane, 3 vols., 1751) and his Novas thesaurus veterum inseriptionum (4 vols., 1739‑43). The material thus obtained was summarized in a simple description of facts in rigid chronological order from the beginning of the Christian era to 1749, the work being entitled Annali d'Italia (12 vols., 1744‑49). Here, too, belongs his Llturgia Romans vetus trio eacramentaria complectens (1748).
The remaining works of Muratori, many of them under pseudonyms, were devoted either to literature,
philosophy, jurisprudence, or theology. To the first class belong his Della perfetta poesia italiana (2 vols., 1706) and Reflessioni sopra il buon gusto intorno le scienze a le arti (1708); to the second his Della Caritd cristiana (1723), Filosofia morale espo8ta (1735), Delle forze dell'intendimento umano (1745), and Della forza della fantasia (1745); and to the third his Governo della peste politico, medico ed ecclesiastico (1714), Defetti della giurisprudenza (1741), and Dells pubbliea felicitd (1749). His theological writings roused much controversy, especially by his attacks on the Jesuit favoring of vows in Sicily to defend the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception even at the risk of life, and by his criticisms of certain ecclesiastical proceedings, particularly the excessive honor of the saints and the great number of holidays. To this class belong his De ingeniorum moderatione in rdigionis negotio (Paris, 1714; under the pseudonym of Lamindo Pritanio); De superstitions vitanda sive censura voti sanguinarii (1740; under the pseudonym of Antonius Lampridius); the pseudonymous Ferdinandi Yaldesii epistolce (1743), and Dells regolata divoziane de' cristiani (1747; under the pseudonym of Lamindo Pritanio). The latter class of writings exposed Muratori to the attacks of his enemies and rivals. Muratori's voluminous correspondence, hitherto either scattered in various publications or still only in manuscript, was edited by M. Campori in his Epistolario di L. A. Muratori (Modena 1901
sqq.).
(G. LAUSnssNrtt.)
Bxsuoasurnr: Accounts of his life were written by o. F. Soli Muratori, Naples. 1758; and by A. Fabronius, in Vito ltatorum, a. 8991, 18 vole., Plea, 1778‑99. Consult further: A. von Reumont, Beitrdpe sw itatieniachen l3eachichte, iii. 215‑270, 8 vole., Berlin. lSb3‑b7; M. Landau. (>`eaehichte der italieniachen Litteratur. Berlin. 1899.

MURATORIAN, ma'rd'to'rf‑an, CANON.
	I. Description.		Gospels and Acts (§ 1).
	II. Place. Date. and Author‑		Pauline Epistles (§ 2).
		ship.		Other Writing (§ 3).
III. Contents. 	IV. Ruling Ideas.
L Description: The Muratorian Canon is an early manuscript fragment of importance for the history of the New‑Testament canon. The manuscript upon which until lately knowledge of the contents of this canon rested entirely and still rests almost wholly is a miscellany carelessly put together, beginning with an excerpt from Eucherius. [This was discovered by Muratori in the Ambroaian Library at Milan, and published by him in Antiquitates Italicol, Milan, 1740.] What immediately preceded the Canon is unknown, as. seven quaterniona just before its abrupt opening are lost. After it comes, on the same leaf, a part of Ambrose on Abraham, which is immediately repeated. This proceeding, together with the notable variations between the two copies, sufficiently indicates the carelessness of the copyist, and shows that the frequent orthographical mistakes ass his and not those of the original author. This is shown even more clearly by the recent discovery of some bits of the Muratorian Canon in four eleventh‑ or twelfth‑century Latin manuscripts of Paul's epistles at Monte Casaino. The compiler of the prologue in which these occur can not have used the Milan manuscript, as is

Mnratorian	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	54
shown by many details; and the fact that he worked from an independent source not only demonstrates that the poor Latin of the Milan text is not that of the original author, but increases confidence in the substantial fidelity of the text as we have it. But even after a collation of the newly found extracts, there are still questions which can be solved only by conjecture. The most important of the hypotheses naturally formed is that the fragment is a translation of a Greek original. This was early suggested by Muratori and S. de Magistris, both of whom assigned its original composition to a Greekwriting author‑the former to Caius of Rome and the latter to Papias; and the theory, supported in recent days by Hofmann, Tregelles, Westcott, Salmon, and Kuhn, is now the prevalent though not the universal one.
II. Place, Date, and Authorship: The designation of Rome not only as urbs Roma in 1. 76 but as urba alone in 1. 38 indicates a western origin; and so (assuming the substantial completeness of the text) does the fact that James and Hebrews are not even mentioned. The circumstantial solemnity with which the position of Pius at the time of the writing of the Shepherd of Hermas is described is intelligible only if the author was writing, not indeed in Rome for Romans, but in or for a western church in some way connected with Rome. The date rests largely on the sentence already referred to (73 aqq.): "The Pastor [i.e. Shepherd], moreover, did Hermas write very recently in our times in the city of Rome, while his brother bishop Pius sat in the chair of the church of Rome " (ANF, v. 604). If the words " very recently," by contrast with the epoch of the prophets and apostles, would allow the lapse of a considerable time between the writing of the Shepherd and that of this document, "in our times" is conclusive for the birth of the author before the death of Pius (not later than Easterf 154). The author took a lively personal interest in the position of the Shepherd in public worship; and this was not a question of the fourth and fifth centuries, but one vigorously discussed in the west about 200. The earlier date assigned by some, about 170 or 180, is improbable, if only because the writer speaks as a member of the Catholic Church which has definitely cast out not merely the parties of Valentinus, Basilides, and Marcion, but Montanism as well; and this was first true in Rome about 195, in Carthage not till after 203. The apologetic tone in which he speaks of John's Gospel and epistles implies that he was aware of the attacks made upon the Johannine writings by the Alogi, while he seems to know nothing of that of Caius, directed against the Apocalypse alone. This question and that of the relation of the Shepherd of Hermas to the canon were closely connected with the Montanist movement and the discussion stirred up by it in regard to discipline and to the place of prophecy in the Church. If the document was written within the region of Roman influence, it can scarcely have been written before 200‑210. This excludes seeveral suggested names for the author, such as Papias and Hegesippus. Caius is excluded by the fact that he was a bitter opponent of the Apoca‑
lypse, which is mentioned with reverence in the Fragment as a work of the apostle. More plausible than this is Lightfoot's suggestion of Hippolytus; but against it are (1) the author's total silence as to Hebrews, in which Hippolytus was much interested; (2) the opinion that the Apocalypse was written before the Pauline epistles, while Hippolytus apparently held, as did Irenwus, that it was written under Domitian; and (3) the education possessed by the author, which is not that of Hippolytus. For the present, then, all that can be said is that a member of the Roman church, or of some Catholic community not far from Rome, wrote in Greek about 200‑210 a synopsis of the writings recognized as belonging to the New Testament in his part of the Church. As the beginning of the Milan manuscript is missing, it is not known what sort of a work that was from which the compiler took what exists, or whether a similar survey of the Old Testament preceded it. To judge from internal evidence, the Latin version can hardly have been made before 350, possibly not till the fourth century.
III. Contents: This document is not a canon in the original sense of the word, a mere catalogue of titles, but is a survey of the entire New Testament, with historical information and theological reflections appended.
AItL,)ugh the description of only the third and fourth Gospels is complete and only a line of what
went before has been preserved, it is r. Gospels generally admitted that Matthew and
and Acts. Mark had been discussed. Of uncanoni‑
cal gospels, such as were mentioned by Irena?us and Origen in similar contexts, nothing is heard. The exclusive validity of our four Gospels for the author and his environment is perfectly apparent. The apologetic way, however, in which he speaks of the agreement of these four in all essentials, and the fact that this comes immediately after the account of the origin of the fourth and is followed at once by a defense of John's assertion of his own credibility in I John i. 1‑4, show that this whole passage is a reply to the position of the Alogi toward the Johannine writings. Both here and in what is said about Mark and Luke, the relation of the evangelist to the facts he relates is emphasized. If the word beginning the first line is completed in the most probable way, the author says that Mark was not an eye‑witness of all to which he testifies, but wrote his Gospel on the testimony of one or mole who were, though some of the facts had come within his own experience. Of Luke it is said without qualification that be was not an eye‑witness but dependent like any other historical writer on his investigations. Outside of his designation as a physician from Col. iv. 14, all that is said of him seems to be taken from the introduction to his Gospel. A brief but graphic description of the origin of the Fourth Gospel is given in lines 9‑16, intelligible only as an excerpt from a longer account, and probably to be traced back to the Gnostic Leucius. In lines 34‑39 the author goes on to the Acts, mentioning for the first time the address to Theophilus, but quoting it from Luke, not from Acts. The inference that Luke meant

55	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Xuratorian
to assert his own personal knowledge of the facts recalls that the version of the Acts prevalent in the west until the time of Jerome had the first personal pronoun from xi. 27 on, instead of from xvi. 10; this favored the exaggerated idea, met in Ireneeus and elsewhere, that Luke narrated in the Acts only what he had himself been concerned in. This would explain the now generally accepted reading of lines 37, 38, according to which Luke accounts for closing his narrative before the martyrdom of Peter and the departure of Paul from Rome on his Spanish journey, both of which events occurred, according to the author, before the writing of the Acts.
The Pauline epistles are treated (lines 39‑68) in the following order of those addressed to churches: I and II Con, Eph., Phil., Col., Gal.,
2. Pauline I and II Thess., Rom. This order
	Epistles.	the author considers to represent that
		of their composition; its beginning
and end are nearly those of Tertullian's list, and
there may be indications of the same order both
in Clement of Rome and in the East. After dis
cussing these epistles, addressed (like John's ad
monitions in Revelation) to seven churches, as
typifying or symbolizing the universal Church, he
proceeds to the letters addressed to individuals,
asserting their reception by the Catholic Church.
Then he mentions two epistles written in the name
of Paul after the rise of the heresy of Marcion, those
to the Laodiceans and the Alexandrians. The exist
ence of the former, which is found in many Latin
scriptural manuscripts, is attested by Priscillian,
Philaster, and Jerome, by a Liber de divinis scrip.
turis, wrongly ascribed to Augustine, yet of the
fourth century, and by some ancient prologues to the
Pauline epistles; in the East the evidence for it
runs from 370 to 800. That its composition can not
be dated as late as the period covered by these
authors and dates is clear enough; it is out of the
question that about 380, when the proceeedings for
a definite settlement of the canon had gone far both
in East and West, a new Pauline epistle should
have found its way into the Bible. At this very
time Jerome says it was " rejected by all "; and
that this is not hyperbole is shown by the fact that
in his discussion of the canon Eusebius never once
mentions it. Its inclusion in some western Bibles
of the end of the fourth century can only be the
belated influence of a far‑distant past; and to
such a past belongs the protest of the Fragment.
It is also now generally believed that an apocry
phal epistle of John which is first cited about 370
by Optatus was included in the " Acts of John " of
Leucius, written 160‑70. It is quite possible that
like this and III Cor. the epistle to the Laodiceans
and that to the Alexandrians (not now extant)
formed part of widely circulated legends of the
apostles in the second century.
Under the head of other writings recognized in the Catholic Church (lines 68‑73) there is first an assertion of the canonicity of Jude and two epistles of John. There has been much discussion as to whether this means the first and second or the second and third. It is probable, according to the modern reading of the text, that the author men‑
tions two letters designated as those of John in their traditional titles, without deciding the question whether John really wrote them.
3. Other These can only be the second and
	Writings.	third, whose writer calls himself
		merely " the elder." Having already
treated the first, though only incidentally, in
connection with the Fourth Gospel, and there
declared his unquestioning belief in its Johannine
origin (lines 26‑34), the author felt able here to
confine himself to the two smaller letters. Next
follows a remarkable mention of the " Wisdom
written by the friends of Solomon in his honor,"
which is rendered more intelligible by the conjec
ture of Tregelles that the translator had before him
a Greek phrase which attributed the book of Wis
dom to Philo, according to a wide‑spread western
tradition, and made hypo phiion out of hypo Phil
&nos. The book was naturally mentioned next to
the epistles of John, because like them it was read
in the Church in spite of the incorrectness or doubt
fulness of its usual title. The words which close
this section are not susceptible of a rational
explanation as they stand, " We receive also the
Apocalypse of John and that of Peter only, although
some of us will not have [them, or, the latter] read
in church " [ANF. v. 604]. Even the mention
and still more the recognition of an Apocalypse
of Peter in the West is inconceivable in the light
of the fact that not a single quotation from the
oldest western writers can be adduced to show their
knowledge of it; and it is equally difficult to account
for the failure to mention at least T Peter in a work
of this kind. The most probable hypothesis is that
of the loss of a few words, perhaps of a line, in which
I Peter and the Apocalypse of John were named as
received, and IT Peter as objected to by some
members of the church. The Shepherd of Hernias
is discussed in lines 73‑80, with the assertion that
it should never be read in divine service on a foot
ing with the prophets and apostles, while the duty
of reading it elsewhere (presumably in small, in
formal gatherings or in catechetical instruction)
is insisted on. The subsequent history of the
Shepherd corresponds to the position of compro
mise here adopted. The Fragment closes with the
rejection of certain writings which are in use among
heretical parties (lines 81‑85). In these lines the
corruption of the text and perhaps the defects of
the translation reach their height, so that the es
tablishment of a satisfactory text is almost hopeless.
The mention of Yalentinus is intelligible, for his
school had a special " True Gospel " besides the
canonical ones; Basilides also gave out a gospel of
his own, and used all sorts of Apocryphal writings.
The most obscure point is the connection of the
name of Marcion with " a new book of psalms."
IV. Ruling Ideas: The tone of the whole treatise is not that of legislation but of explanatory statement of an established condition of things, with only a single instance of difference of opinion among members of the Catholic Church. There is no difference in authority between the Old Testament ( " the prophets") and the New ( " the apostles " ). The only distinction is that the number of the former class is fixed, while that of the latter

Murphy	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	58
is still to some extent open. II Peter is still discussed; there are apparently some in the church who regarded the epistles to the Laodiceans and Alexandrians as on a footing with the others; and the proceedings in regard to the Shepherd had shown that some had been inclined shortly before to admit it into the category of Scripture. Apart from these points, however, the New Testament is regarded as definitely made up of the four Gospels, the Acts, thirteen epistles of Paul, the Apocalypse of John, probably three epistles of his, Jude, and probably I Peter, while the opposition to another of Peter's writings was not yet silenced. The decision in regard to the Shepherd is the first clearly proved step in the differentiation between the Holy Scriptures and a class of books which did not stand on the same plane, though they were commended as edifying. When, how, and by whom the canon as he received it was established the author does not say, nor does he display any historical knowledge of the process and the grounds on which the decision was made. (T. ZAIq.)

THANsLATION OP' THE MOHAToSIAN FRAGMENT.
. at which nevertheless he was present, and so he placed it [in his narrative]. The third book of the Gospel is that according to Luke. Luke, the well‑known physician, wrote it in his own name, according to [the general] belief, after the ascension of Christ, when Paul had associated him [with himself?] as one zealous for eorrectnees [i.e., one who took pains to find out the facts]. It is true that he had not seen the Lord in the flesh, yet having ascertained the facts he was able to begin his narrative with the nativity of John. The fourth book of the Gospel is that of John, one of the disciples. In response to the exhortation of his fellow disciples and bishops he said: " fast ye with me for three days, and then let us tell each other whatever shall be revealed to each one." The same night it was revealed to Andrew (who was one of the apostles) that John it was who should relate in his own name what they collectively remembered [or, that John was to relate in his own name, they all acting as correctors]. And so to the faith of believers there is no discord, even although different selections are given from the facts in the individual books of the Gospels, because in all [of them] under the one guiding Spirit all the things relative to his nativity, passion, resurrection, conversation with his disciples, and his twofold advent, the first in the humiliation arising from contempt, which took place, and the second in the glory of kingly power, which is yet to come, have been declared. What marvel is it, then, if John adduces so consistently in his epistles these several things, saying in person: " what we have seen with our eyes, and heard with our ears, and our hands have handled, those things we have written." For thus he Professes to be not only an eyewitness but also a hearer and narrator of all the wonderful things of the Lord, in their order.
Moreover, the acts of all the apostles are written in one book. Luke [so] comprised them for the moat excellent Theophilus, because the individual events took place in his presence‑as he cl‑arly shows [by] omitting the passion of Peter as well as the departure of Paul when the latter went from the city [of Rome] to Spain.
Now the epistles of Paul, what they are, whence or for what reason they were sent, they themselves make clear to him who will understand. First of all he wrote at length to the Corinthians to prohibit the schism of heresy, then to the Galatians [against] circumcision, and to the Romans on the order of the Scriptures, intimting also that Christ is the chief matter in them‑‑‑each of which it is necessary for us to discuss, seeing that the blessed Apostle Paul himself, following the example of his predecessor John, writes to no more than seven churches by name in the following order: to the Corinthians (first), to the Ephesians (second), to the Philipplans (third), to the Coloseiims (fourth), to the Galatians (fifth), to the Thessalonians (sixth), to the Romans (seventh). But though he writes twice for the sake of correction to the Corinthians and the Thessalonians. that there is one church
diffused throughout the whole earth in shown (? i.e., by this sevenfold writing]; and John also in the Apocalypse, though he writes to seven churches, yet speaks to all. But [he wrote] out of affection and love one to Philemon, and one to Titus, and two to Timothy; [and these] are held sacred in the honorable esteem of the Church catholic in the regulation of ecclesiastical discipline. There are adduced also (one) to the Laodioeane, another to the Alexandrians, forged in the name of Paul for (i.e., against) the heresy of Marcion, and many others which can not be received into the Church catholic for it is not fitting that gall be mingled with honey.
Further, an epistle of Jude and two bearing the name of John are counted among the Catholic [Epistles] *; and Wisdom, written by the friends of Solomon in his honor.
We receive the apocalypses of John and Peter only, which [latter] some of us do not wish to be read in church. But Hernias wrote the Shepherd in the city of Rome most recently in our own times while his brother bishop. Pius, was occupying the chair of the church of Rome; and so indeed it ought to be read; but that it be made public to the people in the church or [placed] among the prophets (whose number is complete) or among the apostles is not possible to the end of time.
Of Arsinous (or Valentinus) or Miltiadee we receive nothing at all. Those also who wrote the new book of psalms for Marcion, together with Basilidee who founded the Asian Cataphrygims (?) . . .
Brsuoaawrax: Besides the edition of Muratori named in the text, eoUations are to be found in: M. J. Routh, Reliquias sacrar, i. 389134, Oxford, 1848; in TSK, 1847, pp. 818‑829; C. K. Bunsen, Analeda antenicana, i. 137141, London, 1854; S. B. Tregelles, Canon Muratorianus, London, 1868; A. Reifferacheid, in Sitsunpaberichte der Wiener Akademie, hiscorisch‑phi7osophiache Klasee, lzvii (1871), 496 sqq.; B. F. Westoott, General Survey of the Hiat. of the Canon, pp. 521 aqq., London, 1889; A. Harnaek, in ZKG, iii. 595‑599; T. Zahn, Geschichte des neute8tamentlichen Kanons, ii. 1007, Leipsic, 1891; E. Preusehen, Analeda, pp. ix., 129‑137, Freiburg, 1893. An Eng. tranal. is given in ANF, v. 603104. The subject is treated in all the most important treatises on the canon of the New Testament, in the works on N. T. introduction (G. Salmon gives also the text, pp. 4314 of 6th ed. of his Historical lahvduct%on to . . . the N. T., London, 1892), and in many of the treatises on the early Church. Specially worthy of mention are: C. A. Credner, Geschichte des neuteatamentlichea Kanona, ed. Volkmar, pp. 141‑170, 341‑363, Berlin, 1860; F. H. Hems, Das muratoriache Fragment, Giessen, 1873; Hilgenfeld in ZWT, 1872, pp. 580‑582, 1874, pp. 214‑231, 1880, pp. 114‑121, 1881 pp 129‑170; Har naek, in Zeitachrift far lulherieche TAeologle and Kirche, 1874. pp. 274‑288, 445‑464, idem in ZKG, iii (1879), 358108; idem, L%tteratur, i. 646147, ii. 1, pp. 330‑333 et passim; T. Zahn. ut sup., ii. 1, pp. 1‑156; G. Kuhn, Die rnuratorische Fragment, Zurich, 1892; H. Lietsmann, Das murotoriache Fragment and die monarchianiechen Prologe Fit den Eroanpelien, Bonn, 1908.

MURDOCK, JAMES: American scholar; b. in Westbrook, Conn., Feb. 16,1776; d. in Columbus, Miss., Aug. 10, 1856. He was graduated from Yale College, 1797; entered the Congregational ministry; was pastor in Princeton, Mass., 1802‑15; professor of ancient languages in the University of Vermont, 1815‑19; professor of sacred rhetoric and ecclesiastical history in ,Andover Theological Seminary, 1819‑28; retired to New Haven, and from then till his death devoted himself exclusively to the study of church history, orientalia, and philosophy. The principal fruits of this learned leisure are a translation from the German of Monscher's Elements of Dogmatic History (New Haven, 1830); a translation from the Latin of Mosheim's Institutes of Bcde8ia8tical History (New Haven, 1832); a translation of Mosheim's Commentaries on

The Latinity of this sentence makes it untranslatable; the translation given is an approximation only.

67	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Mnratorian
Xnrphy
the Affairs of the Christians before the Time of Conatantine the Great (2 vols., New York, 1851‑52); The New Testament: a literal Translation from the Syriac Peshito Version (1852). He also edited, with preface and notes, Milman's History of Christianity (1841), and wrote The Nature of the Atonement (Andover, 1823); and Sketches of Modern Philosophy, especially among the Germans (Hartford, 1842).

MURNEER, THOMAS: German Catholic priest and poet; b. at Oberehnheim (15 m. s.w. of Strasburg) probably Dec. 24, 1475; d. there Aug. 23, 1537. He entered the Franciscan order at Strasburg 1490; was ordained priest in 1494; studied theology at Paris, law at Freiburg, and philosophy, philology, and mathematics at Cracow, 1495‑1500, taking his doctorate some time before 1509. About 1500 or 1501 Murner is said to have lived at Solothurn in order to become familiar with the Swiss monasteries. In 1502 he returned to Strasburg. He attempted at Cracow and other places to teach logic and even jurisprudence by means of charts, Chartiludium Logico; (Cracow, 1507) and Chartiludium Institute Summarie (1518). In 1508 he was at Strasburg, where he was attacked by Ulrich Zasius on account of his humanistic leanings. Murner, on the other hand, maintained that the study of ancient literature was not incompatible with a pious and chaste life and that contact with the world necessitated classical education even for clergymen. In his Ludus Studentum Freiburgenslum (Frankfort, 1511) he taught even prosody in a figurative manner. His greatest renown was won by his satires, in which he was thoroughly at home. In 1512 appeared his Narrenbeschwarung and Schelmenzunft, the former at Strasburg, `he iatter at Frankfort. The Narrenbeschworung was influenced by the Narrenachif of Sebastian Brant, but its originality has not suffered from that fact. The Schelmenzunft is the Narrenbeschw6rung abbreviated. In both poems Murner attacked the deficiencies and frailties of all classes, the gluttony and rebellious turn of the peasants, the arrogance, egoism, and niggardliness of citizens, the vanity of women, the rapacity, debauchery, and brutality of the nobility, the insubordination and egoism of the imperial princes, but especially the ignorance, levity, unchastity, avarice, and unscrupulousness of the clergy. But in criticism of the Church, Murner never went beyond abuses in the Church; its constitution and doctrines he did not assail. He attacked not personalities but principles, or rather, the lack of them. In 1514 appeared his poem, Bin andechtig geistliche Badenfahrt and in 1515 Die Mitlle von Schwyndelssheym and Gredt Miellerin Jahrzeit. Dih geuchmat zu Straf allen wybschen mannen (Basel, 1519) is directed against foolish lovers and ladies' men and forms a rich source for the history of manners, customs, and fashions. In 1519 appeared his translation of the Institutionen which in 1521 was renewed under the title, Der keyserlichen Statrechten ein Ingang and wares Fundament. The popularizing of legal science was a need of the time. But, though Murner discerned the corruption of the Roman Catholic Church, he was decidedly hostile to the Reforma‑
tion. Against Luther Murner wrote no less than
thirty‑two pamphlets of which only five or six have
been printed: Ein christliche and briederliche Er
manung zu dem hochgelerten Doctor Martino T uler
(1520); Von Doctor Martinus Luters leren and
predigen, das sie arg wenig seint (1520); Von dem
babstenthum . . . wyder Doctor Martinum Luther
(1520); Ain new lied von dem undergang des Chri8t
lichen Glaubens in Bruder Veiten thon (1521); Ob
der Kunig uss engelland ein lugner sey oder der
Luther (1522). But in spite of his zeal, he gained
little acknowledgment even among Roman Catholics,
and his attacks had not the'least effect upon his
opponents. His satires lacked religious enthu
siasm and sincerity. His best satire is Von dem
gromen lutherischen Narren wie fn Doctor Murner
beschworen hat (1522). But the poem was imme
diately suppressed by the council of Strasburg, and
Murner was forbidden to print anything else. In
1523 Murner visited in England with Henry VIII.,
whose treatise on the seven sacraments against
Luther he had translated in the preceding year.
After his return the Reformation had victoriously
entered Strasburg, and Murner removed to Ober
ehnheim, but driven away by the Peasants' War,
he fled to Switzerland. Having settled at Lucerne,
he became the head of the Roman party, and one of
the most energetic opponents of Zwingli. But in
1529, after Lucerne was defeated in the first war
of Kappel, Murner had to flee once more. He
escaped to Wallis and then took refuge with
Elector Frederic II. in the Palatinate. In 1530
he returned to Oberehnheim where he spent the
rest of his life. 	(F. LisTt.)
BIRLIOORAPRY: G. E. Waldau, Nachrichten von Thomas Murners Leben and Schriften, Nuremberg 1775; J. Scheible, Das Kloster, vol. iv., Stuttgart, 1846; J. Hub, Die komiache and humoristische Literatur . . . des IB. Jahrhunderts, Nuremberg, 18,56; W. Kawerau, Thomas Murner and die Kirche des Mittelalters, Halle, 1890; idem, Thomas Murner and die deutsche Reformation, ib. 1891; K. Ott, in Alamannia, xxiii. 144‑188, 231‑288.
MURPHY, FRANCIS: Apostle of total abstinence and evangelist; b. at Wexford (64 m: s.w. of Dublin), Ireland, Apr. 24, 1836; d. at Los Angeles, Cal., June 30, 1907. He emigrated to the United States while a young man; served as a private during the Civil War; began work in Portland, Me., as an advocate of total abstinence in 1870, and led the campaign in that state for several years; his success there led to the extension of the movement over the entire country, until it was estimated that over 10,000,000 had signed the pledge, which involved not only abstinence from intoxicating drinks but earnest effort to induce others to the same. The great results of his work in the United States led, in 1881, to his being called to England and the continent, where his successes were continued for four years. On his return he made his home for some years in Pittsburg, Pa., but continued his work on the platform. In 1900 he went to Hawaii to present his cause, then to Australia, returning in 1901 and making his home in Los Angeles, Cal., but continuing his work till failing eyesight compelled his retirement in 1906.
MURPHY, JAMES GRACEY: Irish Presbyterian, exegete; b. at Ballyaltikflikan in the parish of

Xurphy	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	68
XusculuB
Comber (8 m. s.e. of Belfast), Ireland, Jan. 12, 1808; d. at Belfast Apr. 19, 1896. He graduated from Trinity College, Dublin (A.B., 1833); became minister at Ballyshannon, 1836; classical head master at the Royal Belfast Academical Institution, 1841; and professor of Hebrew, Presbyterian College, Belfast, 1847. He was the author of A Latin Grammar (London, 1847) ; A Hebrew Grammar (1857); Nineteen. Impossibilities of Part First of Colenso on the Pentateuch Shown to be Possible; with a Critique on Part Two (Belfast, 1863); The Human Mind; A System of Human Philosophy (London, 1873); the volume on Chronicles in Handbooks for Bible Classes (Edinburgh, 1879); Sacrifice as set forth in. Scripture; The Carey Lectures for 1888 (London, 1889). He was also the author of commentaries on Genesis (Edinburgh, 1864); Exodus (1866); Leviticus (1872); Psalms (1875); Revelation (London, 1882); and Daniel (1884); he translated C. F. Keil's commentary on Kings (Edinburgh, 1857); and assisted in the translation of E. W. Hengstenberg's commentary on Ezekiel (1869); he also translated, enlarged, and edited O. Zockler's commentary on Chronicles (1880).
MURRAY, JOHN: Founder of the Universalist denomination in America; b. in Alton (15 m. n.e. of Winchester), Hampshire, Eng., Dec. 10, 1741; d. in Boston, Mass., Sept. 3, 1815. His father was an Anglican and his mother a Presbyterian, both strict Calvinists, and his home life was attended by religious severity. In 1751 the family settled near Cork, Ireland. In 1760 Murray returned to England and joined Whitefield's congregation; but embracing, somewhat later, the Universalistic teachings of James Relly (q.v.) he was excommunicated. In 1770 he emigrated to America, and preached, as a Universalist minister, his first sermon in Good Luck, N. J., Sept. 30, 1770, which place he made his home till 1774, itinerating from Virginia to New Hampshire. In 1774 he settled at Gloucester, Mass., and established a congregation there. He was suspected of being a British spy, but in 1775 was chaplain of the Rhode Island Brigade before Boston. He participated in the first general Universalist Convention at Oxford, Mass., September, 1785. On Oct. 23, 1793, he became pastor of the Universalist society of Boston, and faithfully served it until Oct. 19, 1809, when paralysis compelled him to give up preaching. He was a man of great courage and eloquence, and in the defense of his views endured much detestation and abuse. In regard to Christ, he taught that in him God became the Son; for " God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost, are no more than different exhibitions of the selfsame existent, omnipresent Being." He taught that all men would ultimately be saved through the sacrifice of Christ, the basis for this being the union of all men in Christ, just as they were united with Adam, and therefore partaking of the benefits of his sacrifice. He was also a writer of hymns and a compiler of hymnals.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are his own Letters and Sketches of
	Sermons, 3 vole., Boston, 1812; Autobiography, continued
1>y his wife, ib. 1816, centenary ad., 1870. Consult: R.
Eddy, in American Church History .Series, x. 388 sqq., New York, 1894.
MURRAY, NICHOLAS: Presbyterian controversialist; b. at Ballynaskeagh (26 m. s.w. of Belfast), Ireland, Dec. 25, 1803; d. at Elizabethtown, N. J., Feb. 4, 1861. He emigrated to America 1818; was employed as printer by Harper & Brothers. Brought up a Roman Catholic, he was in 1820 converted to Protestantism, and, after graduation at Williams College (1826) and at Princeton Theological Seminary (1829) became a Presbyterian pastor, first at Wilkesbarre, Pa., 1829, and from 1834 till his death at Elizabethtown, N. J. In 1849 he. was moderator of the (Old School) General Assembly. His fame rests upon his able and witty Letters to the Right Rev. John Hughes, Roman‑Catholic Bishop of New York (3 series, New York, 18471$, revised ed., 1855), a keen exposure of certain abuses in the Church of Rome abroad. These letters appeared in the NewYork Observer, over the signature of " Kirwan," since he, like Kirwan (q.v.) was a convert. They attracted wide notice at the time, and made his name a household word. They have been translated into several languages. He addressed another series to Chief Justice Taney, published in 1852 under the title Romanism at Home (1852). He also wrote Notes, Historical and Biographical, concerning Elizabethtown (Elizabethtown, 1844); Men and Things as 1 saw them in Europe (1853); Parish and Other Pencillings (1854); Preachers arid Preaching (1860); and a volume of sermons, A Dying Legacy to the People of my Beloved Charge (1861).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. I. Prime, Memoirs of the Rev. Nicholas Murray, New York, 1862.
MURRHONITES. See CELESTINEB.

MUSAEUS, mu‑s6'us, JOHANN: Lutheran theologian and controversialist; b. at Langewiesen (27 m. s.e. of Gotha), Thuringia, Feb. 7, 1613; d. at Jena May 4, 1681. He studied philosophy and the humanities at Erfurt and Jena, but afterward devoted himself to theology at the latter university, where he became professor of history in 1643 and of theology in 1646. Equipped with a thorough philosophical training, he speedily vindicated the application of philosophy to theology against the disciples of rigid Lutheran orthodoxy and advocated a careful distinction between creed and theology, maintaining that theological investigation should be unrestricted. His philosophical training and energy enabled him to enter into disputes with opponents not only of Lutheranism, but also of Christianity and religion. Thus he wrote against Lord Herbert of Cherbury his De luminis natures insufwientia ad salutem (Jena, 1668), based upon the thesis that natural theology is insufficient for the sinner because it knows, nothing of atonement for sins; and attacked Matthias Knutzen in his Ablehnung der ausgesprengten abscheulichen Verleumdung, ob ware in . . . Jena eine neue Secte der sogenannten Gewissener entstanden (1674). He also polemized against the Jesuits, first against Veit Erbermann concerning the Bible of Duke Ernest the Pious in his Biblia Lutheri auspiciis Ernesti duds . . . glossis ac interpretationibus illustrata‑

a Viti Erbermanni, iterata maledicentia vindieata (1663) and concerning the Church in his Tractatus de ecclesia (1671); then against Jodocus Kedde in his Verteidigung des unbeweglichen Grundes, dessen der Augsburgischen Konfession verwandte Lehrer zum Beweis ihrer Kirchen sich gebrauchen (1654), and finally against Jakob Masenius in two theological disputations, of which the more important is entitled De ecclesia. Another treatise of the same category is his Tractatus theologicus de conversione hominis peccatoris ad Deum (1661). He likewise entered into a controversy with the Arminians regarding the salvation of the heathen, opposed the Socinians, and also devoted much labor to the critique of Reformed doctrines and traditions. In his De usu principiorum rationis et philosophice in controversiis theologicis (1644) he attacked the excessive use of philosophy in theology among the Reformed theologians, and opposed M. F. Wendelin and the doctrine of predestination in his De ceterno electionis decreto an ejus aliqua extra Deum causa impulsiva detur necne (1668) and his De sacra ecena sintne corpus et sanguis Christi in ea realiter prcesentia ? (1664). After various doubts and struggles he publicly attacked the syncretism of Calixtus in his Qucestiones theologicte inter nostrates hactenus agitator de Syneretismo et Scriptura sacra (1679). His conception of theology as an object of heart as well as of head led him to emphasize the importance of good works and of the sanctity of the will to such a degree that he has been characterized as a precursor of Spener, and these same convictions obliged him to oppose the rigid definitions then prevalent in orthodox Lutheran dogmatics. Like the other theologians of Jena, Musaeus refused to sign the Consensus repetitus ftdei vere Lutherancv, drawn up by Calovius (q.v.) in 1655, remaining true to this decision even after Duke Ernest the Pious tried to negotiate peace (1670‑72). Along and bitter controversy ensued. After the death of the duke in 1675 Johan Reinhard published in Wittenberg his Theologorum Jenensium errores, in which he listed no less than ninety‑three heresies, chiefly from the lectures of Musaeus. In accordance with the unanimous resolution of the faculty of Jena, Musaeus, then their dean, replied in his Der jenischen Theologen ausfuhrliche Erkldrung fiber 93 vermeinte Religionsfragen oder Kontroversien (1677), whereupon Calovius attacked him in the continuation of his Systema locorum. In 1679, however, a formal visitation of the university of Jena was instituted, and all the professors, nineteen in number, were forced to subscribe to a new formula and to renounce their syncretism. The Prmlectiones in epitomen Formulte Concordice (1701) and the Compendium theologice positivce appeared posthumously. One of the chief merits of Musaeus was his completion of the system of natural theology by giving due consideration to the religious and .ethical capacity of the natural man, thus seeking to determine the process of conversion. He taught that the natural will could turn effectually to righteousness, though only in an obscure way (Rom. ix. 30 seq., x. 2.). Despite the attacks of his opponents, Musaeus was orthodox, although he was less easily satisfied with the various statements
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Murph.~
11~1180U1Ut
of the orthodox system than the Wittenberg theologians, his scientific conscience compelling him to search for proofs and to base his doctrines upon safe principles. The most important service, however, which Musaeus rendered the Lutheran Church was his check to the exclusive rule of the Wittenberg orthodoxy without denying or perverting the true tenets of Lutheranism. (JOHANNEs KUNZE.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: For early sources consult: Hauck‑Herzog, RE, ziii. 572. Consult: F. W. Buck, De Joanne Mustzo, Jena, 1862; A. Calovius, Hiqtaria syncretistica, 1682; J. G. Waleh, Religionsstreitigkeiten van der Reformation an, parts i. iii., Jena, 1733 sqq.; idem, Religionsstreitigkeiten der evangelisch‑lutheraschen Kirche, parts iv.‑v., ib. 1739; H. Schmid, Geschichte der synkretistischen Streitigkeiten, pp. 400‑420, Erlangen, 1846; E. L. T. Henke, Georg Calixtus and seine Zeit, vol. ii., Halle, 1860; G. Frank, Die jenaische Theologie, Leipsie, 1856; A. Tholuek, Vorgeschichte des Rationalismus, vols. i.‑ii., Halle, 18531862; W. Gass, Geschichte der protestantischen Dogmatik, ii. 202‑212, Berlin, 1857.
MUSAEUS, PETER: Lutheran theologianbrother of Johann Musaeus; b. at Langewiesen (27 m. s.e. of Gotha), Thuringia, Feb. 7, 1620; d. at Kiel Dec. 20, 1674. He obtained his education at Jena and Helmstedt; through the influence of Georg Calixtus, he received a position at Rinteln, first as professor of philosophy in 1648 and five years later as professor of theology. In the latter capacity he took part in the colloquy of Cassel (1661), but incurred the displeasure of the orthodox by the concessions which he favored. Musaeus himself is said to have been offended later by the encroachments of the Reformed and to lave left Rinteln. From 1663 to 1665 he was professor in Helmstedt, and in 1665 was called to the new university of Kiel, where he opposed syncretism and union, especially in his Liber de fugiendo syncretismo jussu Christiani Alberti Ducis Holsatim scrip. tus (Kiel, 1670), but satisfied neither the Lutherans nor the Reformed. His versatile training in philosophy and his scholarship were considered even superior to his brother's, but their theological tendencies were the same. (JOHANNEs KUNZE.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. M511er, Cimbria literata, ii. 565‑573, Copenhagen, 1744; C. A. Dolls, Lebensbeschreibunp aller Professorum Theologim zu Rinteln, i. 275‑296, Hanover, 1752; F. W. Strieder, Hessische Gelehrtengewhichte, ix. 321‑328, Cassel, 1794.
MUSCULUS (MEUSEL), ANDREAS: Lutheran theologian; b. at Schneeberg (21 m. s.w. of Chemnitz), Saxony, 1514; d. at Frankfort‑on‑the‑Oder Sept. 29, 1581. He was educated at the Latin school of his native city, and at the University of Leipsic. In 1538, after acting as a tutor for several years, he resumed his studies, this time at Wittenberg, where he became an enthusiastic disciple of Luther. At the instance of Johann Agricola, whose brother‑in‑law he seems to have been, he was appointed to a position at the University of Frankfort and also as preacher of the Franciscan Church in 1541. As an orthodox Lutheran, however, he became involved in disputes with his colleague Ludecus, whom he attacked in several theses (directed at the same time against Melanchthon and the entire Wittenberg school). Melanchthon was much displeased at the attitude of his former pupil, and in a letter of 1546 endeavored to instruct and appease him. Musculus

Mnstulns
)gnston	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	80
succeeded Ludecus, on the latter's removal to Stendal, both as pastor and professor, was also made rector, and was for $ long time the only theological teacher of the institution. After the death of Agricola he became general superintendent of the entire March of Brandenburg.
The life of Musculus was a continual battle, especially as he was polemic by nature. At first he assailed the Interim, then Osiander's doctrine of justification, and when Stancari (q.v.) came to Frankfort, the pair speedily became involved in controversy. In 1552 Elector Joachim ordered both to discuss at Berlin the mediatorial office of Christ, and Agricola, as arbitrator, decided in favor of Musculus. In 1558 Friedrich Staphylus, a Roman Catholic convert, who had studied with Musculus at Wittenberg, published his Theologise M. Lutheri trimembria epitome (Cologne, 1558), in which he accused Musculus of teaching that Christ suffered according, to his divine as well as according to his human nature. Musculus immediately replied in his Reaponsio ad virolentum et maledicum scriptum Frider" Staphyli (1558), which was answered, in its turn, by Staphylus in his Defenaio pro tramembri theologia M. Lutheri (Dillingen, 1559), in which he clearly proved the truth of his charge. Musculus was accordingly defeated, and retained his position only on account of the general resentment against Staphylus.
As Melanchthon had only half approved the position of Musculus in his dispute with Stancari, and had declined the office of arbitrator in their controversy, he had rendered himself unpopular in the March, and thus helped to prepare the way for the long struggle of Agricola and Musculus against Philippism (see PsllarrlsTs) in that territory. Agricola attacked his colleague, Provost Buchholzer of Berlin, and Musculus assailed Abdias Preetorius, the enthusiastic Philippist in Frankfort who injoyed the favor of Elector Joachim. The moot point was the formula of the Frankfort convention concerning the necessity of good works, and in 1558 Musculus began the controversy from his pulpit. The mandate of peace issued by the elector in 1560 had little effect, but in Feb., 1562, Prsetorius considered his cause lost and fled from the country. Buchholzer, however, opposed Agricola so successfully that Philippism was victorious, and Pra;torius was able to return two months later. In the following year the elector entirely changed his mind and Philippism was definitely defeated. After the death of Agricola in 1566, Musculus bore the responsibility of sole leadership in the defense of a pronounced anti‑Melanchthonian and anti‑Calvinistic Lutheranism, and in 1574‑75 he published three treatises on the Lord's Supper to controvert the Crypto‑Calvinists, while in 1577 his Widerlegung der Csdviniaten appeared. Musculus increased the bitterness of the controversies in which he was involved by his vehemence and his habit of making his accusations in the presence of his congregation. He availed himself of the confidence of his sovereign to erect charitable institutions and to found scholarships and other aids for students, while he gave generous assistance to the poor. He performed
faithfully the duties of his office, preached twice a week, and undertook frequent tours of inspection. In his sermons he criticized the fads and abuses of his time, and in this spirit published pamphlets such as Wider den Hosenteufel (Frankfort‑on‑the‑Oder, 1555); Vom Gottesldstern (1556), Wider den Eheteufel (1556); Vom jiingsten Tage (1557); Vom Himmel and der Hellen (1559); Von des Teufels Tyrannei in den leaden Tagen (Worms, 1561); Vom itzt regierenden Epicuro (1569); Bedenke daa Ende (1572); and Vom Wucher and Geiz (1579). He also wrote a Latin book of prayers (Frankfort‑on‑the‑Oder, 1553), which included meditations on the passion and on the proper use of the Lord's Supper, etc. Among his doctrinal works mention may be made of his Enchiridion sententiarum ac dictorum (1552), citations from the works of the ancients in defense of the Lutheran doctrine; and Catechism= . . . der heiligen alien Lehrer each Orduung der Hauptatucke des Katechismus (1555), in which he tried to prove that Luther's doctrine was older than Roman Catholic teaching. Joachim II. commissioned him to compile a doctrinal confession from Luther's works for a Brandenburg Corpus doctrinw. This work appeared in 1572, containing the doctrinal system of Musculus, in addition to the Augsburg Confession and the Smaller Catechism. Musculus also published an epitome from Luther's writings, entitled Thesaurus; Hochnrtzlicher fewer Schatz and gtllden Kleinod .
aua lien. Balchern . . Luther?, zusammengebracht
(1577). In 1576 he helped frame the Book of
Torgau (see FORMULA OF CONCORD, § 3), and in
1577 aided in the final redaction of the Formula
of Concord. 	(G. KAwERAU.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. W. Spieker, Lebensgnchichte des Andreas
Muwulus, Frankfort, 1858; L. Grote, in 7HT, 1869, pp.
377 sqq.; G. Kawerau, J. Agricola, Berlin, 1881; M.
Osborn, Die Tsufelelitleralur des 16. rahrhunderb, ib. 1893.

	MUSCULUS, mus'lau‑lvs (MUESSLIft, MEUS
SLIP), WOLFGANG: Reformed theologian; b.
at Dienze (9 m. e. of Salzburg), Lorraine, Sept. 8,
1497; d. at Bern Aug. 30, 1563. He received a
		thorough education in his native
	Early Life town and in the best schools of the
	and neighborhood. He remained for a
	Education. time in Rappoltsweiler, Colmar, and
		Schlettstadt, being powerfully in
fluenced by German humanism in the latter city.
At the age of fifteen he entered the Benedictine
monastery near Lixheim, and there found an op
portunity to plunge into the classics, especially
Ovid. At the age of twenty he began to study
theology, and as he showed a talent for eloquence,
he was entrusted with preaching in the monastery
and in its parochial churches. In 1518 he became
acquainted with Luther's works, and immediately
became a decided advocate of the new doctrine,
so that he fled from the monastery nine years later
and married the niece of his former prior. He
was then compelled to struggle for existence by
working as a weaver, but at last secured a position
as assistant preacher in the village of Dorlitzheim,
and in 1529 became deacon in the cathedral church
of Strasburg. There he learned Hebrew and com
pleted his theological education by attending lec‑

81	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	x~°s
tures at the university, forming the acquaintance of Capito and Butzer.
In 1531, through the mediation of the council of Strasburg, Musculus was appointed preacher of the Church of the Holy Cross in Augsburg, and such was his activity there that after six years the cathedral church was transferred to the Protestants, and he himself was made first preacher. Exceed‑
ingIy important was his participation Work as a in the efforts for union and his share
Reformer. in the negotiations between the theo‑
logians of Wittenberg and Upper Germany. Butzer had been the most zealous advocate of a reconciliation between the factions, but had been unable to secure any permanent results, while Luther's distrust of Zwingli led him to suspect everything that proceeded from this direction. Despite these obstacles, Butzer and Capito continued their efforts for union. On the basis of the Helvetic Confession of 1536, Butzer proposed that a convention be held at Eisenach for the discussion of the controverted points, but the cities of Switzerland declined at the last moment, although the towns of Upper Germany sent their delegates, Musculus being present as the representative of Augsburg. Instead of Eisenach, Wittenberg was chosen as the place of meeting, and the result of the conference was the Wittenberg Concordia. Musculus avoided everything which might impede harmony, and for the sake of peace retracted his Tetrapolitan views concerning the Lord's Supper. After his return to Augsburg he easily succeeded in bringing about the acceptation of the Concordia, but the compromise satisfied no one. Zwingli's adherents would not accept it, and when Musculus saw it rejected by all, he returned to his former position, which he later expounded in his Confessio de sacramento corporis et sanguinu dominiei. Equally fruitless was his participation in the religious conference of Evangelical and Roman theologians begun at Worms in 1541 and continued at Regensburg in the following year. In 1544 he introduced the Reformation in Donauw6rth and wrote a Latin catechism in connection with it. He found time to study Greek and Arabic and to publish translations of the Greek patristic works, thus unconsciously laying the foundation for his later versatility. His successful activity at Augsburg was unexpectedly ended by the Augsburg Interim of 1548, which was forced upon the town by the emperor. The opposition of the council was soon broken, and Musculus was compelled to leave the city, and to seek refuge among strangers. He turned to Switzerland where he was kindly received by Bullinger and Johann Haller, and at last in 1549 he received a position as professor of theology in Bern.
Musculus may be reckoned among the number of those who aided in the reconciliation of the two hostile, factions then existing at Bern. Although
he could not be compared with the Activities older Reformers in creative originality,
at Bern. his extensive linguistic and theological
knowledge, as well as his clear and thorough exegesis, made him an admirable teacher, while through his numerous commentaries he
exerted a lasting influence upon his contempo
raries. He was by no means a partizan, and was
inclined to regard the differences between the
Reformers as unessential. As he had once con
sented to the Wittenberg Concordia in his love of
peace, so he mediated successfully between the
extreme tendencies in Bern.	His theological
standpoint was always that of the Reformed Church,
as may be seen in his chief dogmatical work, the
Loci communes (Basel, 1554; Eng. transl. by J.
Man, London, 1563). His works attracted the
attention of the isolated Protestants in Poland
and Hungary, and the correspondence which en
sued occasioned his Vom Aufgang des Worts Gottes
unter den Christen in Ungarn, die den T1rcken
uruerworfen. 	(W. HADoRN.)
Bxswoaawrnr: His diary, with other documents, is printed in T. Kolde, Analecta Lutherana, Gotha, 1883. His life by his son A. Musoulus was edited by the latter's son in Synopsis festalium concionum. Basel, 1595. Later treatments are to be found in P. Bayle, Dictionary Historical and Critical, iv. 285‑288, London, 1737; in the lives by L. Grate, Hamburg, 1858; and W. T. Streuber, in Berner Taschenbuch for 1880; also in ADB, aciii. 95‑98; and in Besa's 1cones. Contemporary Portraits of Reformers . .
with Introduction by C. G. McCrie, pp. 90‑‑94, London, 1908. Further information is given in S. Fischer Geaehichde der Reformation and Disputation in Bern, Bern, 1828; S. Hess. Lebenapeschichte M. H. Bullinaer. 2 vols., Zurich, 1828‑29; C. B. Bundeshsgen, %onfikte des Zurinplianiamue, Luthertum and Calvinism= in doer Berner Landeskirche 1532‑88. Bern, 1842; Fluri, in Berner Taschenbuch for 1897, pp. 239 aqq.

MUSIC, SACRED. SEE SACRED MU61C.
MUSIL, mQ'sfl, ALOIS: Austrian Roman Catholic; b. at Rycht6lilov (a village near Wischau, 22 m. nee. of Brtinn), Moravia, June 30, 1868. He studied at the universities of Berlin and Vienna, at Olmiltz, Moravia (D.D., 1895), in Palestine (especially at the tools biblique, Jerusalem), Egypt, Syria (particularly at St. Joseph's College, Beirut), in Arabia during 1895‑98, and at the British Museum, Cambridge, Constantinople, and Arabia in 1899‑1902. From 1891 to 1895 he was instructor in religion in MAhrisch‑Ostrau and in 1898‑99 held a similar position in O1matz. Since 1902 he has been professor of Old‑Testament exegesis and Semitic languages in the theological faculty at Olmiitz. He has written: Die syrischen Kirchen (Briinn, 1899); Bibel oder Babel (1903); Von der Erachafung Us zur Sindflut (Prague, 1905); Topographisches zur alttestamentlichen Geachichte (Ivantsehitz, 1906); ,Kuleir 'Amra (2 vols., Vienna, 1906); Karte von Arabia Petrcea (1906); and Arabia Petrcea (3 vols., 1907‑08).
MUSTOft, ALEXIS: Reformed Church of France; b. at La Tour de Peiltz (12 m. e.s.e. of Lausanne), Switzerland, Feb. 11, 1810; d. at Bordeaux, France, Apr. 6, 1888. He studied at Lausanne, and at Strasburg (B.D., Lie. Theol., and D.D., 1834); was ordained, 1833; exiled from Piedmont, 1835; went to Nimes, France, where he was naturalized; lived at Bordeaux first as assistant pastor, 1836‑40, then as pastor. His productions of interest and importance are: Histoire des Vaudois des values du Piemont et de leurs colonies depuis leur origins jusqu'd nos fours (vole i., Paris, 1834; put by the Roman Catholic hierarchy upon the Index); Les Martyrs

Mutilations and Marks Myconius
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
vaudois ou les confesseurs de la verite dans les vallUes du Pierreont . . . (1849); L'Israel des Alpes. Premiere histoire complete des Vaudois du Pi6mont et de leers colonies (1851; Eng. transl., The Israel of the Alps: a Complete History of the Vaudois of Piedmont and their Colonies, Edinburgh, 1857); Les Vaudois des Alpes italiennes, de 1685 d 1694, poeme. Les Premiers Chants (Paris, 1855); Les Nghfites, ou l'expulsion, l'exil et le retour des Vaudois dans leur patrie, de 1686 d 1690 (1850); La Gossen opprim6e:, histoire iusqu'ici ineonnue des figlises Vaudoises . . . (1850); Histoire populaire des Vaudois, enrichie des documents iWdits (1862); Valdesie, poeme (1863); Le Prehistorique dans les pays de Montbeliard et les contrees circonvoisines (Montb6liard, 1887). He contributed papers on archeological subjects to the journal of the Soci6tk Scientifique et M6dicale of Montbdliard.

MUTILATIONS AND MARKS, CEREMONIAL:
In Deut. xiv. 1 the Hebrews are prohibited from practising two customs, cutting the person and " shaving between the eyes " for the dead; the
reason assigned for the prohibition in The Legal verse 2 is that they are a people holy Status. to Yahweh. Ezekiel, in his legislation
for the Hebrew Utopia (xliv._20), forbids the priests to indulge in either of two extremes, shaving the head and wearing the hair long. The priestly law in Lev. xix. 27‑28 goes still further, verse 27 forbidding the rounding of the " corners of the head " and " marring the corners of the beard." An illuminative translation of verse 28 (in SBOT) reads: " You (i.e., the Hebrew people) shall not make incisions in your skin for the dead; nor shall you tattoo any marks upon you." Lev. xxi. 5 forbids the priests to shave the head or to shave off the corner of the beard or to make cuttings in the flesh; and the connection (verses 1‑5) implies that the practise prohibited is connected with mourning. The passages from Leviticus are from the " Holiness Code," and the reason assigned is the same as in Deuteronomy; the basis of the proscription is religious, which implies that the practises forbidden were also connected with religion.
Other passages, some of earlier date, which either refer to customs similar to those proscribed or use the customs rhetorically, imply that in these so in
other items the legislation cited is corBiblical recting practises (mostly connected Passages with mourning) which had hitherto Showing been observed but were at the time of Customs. the enactments deemed objectionable. The earliest in time of these passages is Hos. vii. 14 (R. V. margin), and apparently the ceremony referred to is one of prayer and petition to deities for the gift of crops. In Amos viii. 10; Isa. iii. 24, xxii.12; Micah i. 16; Ezek. vii. 18; and Job i. 20 the shaving of the head is either noted without disapproval, or commanded as from Yahweh, or predicted as signs of mourning which will result from certain calamities which are to occur by way of punishment for sin. Jeremiah makes frequent reference to such customs: xvi. 6 declares that the coming affliction will be so severe that the
rites of mourning, among them those of mutilation of the person by incisions and shaving of the head, will not be observed; xli. 5 records the fact of certain men coming with offerings from Samaria " to the house of the Lord " with beards shaven and garments rent‑both of these customs usual in times of mourning; in the rhetorical passage x1vii. 5 baldness (when artificial, a sign of mourning) is predicted for Gaza (this passage does not involve that the habit was current among Philistines, against DB, i. 538); probably a similar explanation holds for xlviii. 37 (cf. Isa. xv. 2), where the same mark is to indicate that Moab will experience calamity (the rhetorical character of these passages prevents their use to prove the existence of the habit among Philistines and Moabites). Ex. xiii. 9, 16 (JE) seems to imply a (former?) custom of tattooing on forehead and hand which had religious significance, with which reference such a tender passage as Isa. xlix. 16 is to be compared. Contrast with this Deut. vi. 8, xi. 18, which represents a later stage when the symbols of religious faith were to be bound upon (not tattooed into) hand and forehead. It is difficult to decide whether the Exodus passage is purely figurative; at any rate it seems to know the custom of tattooing. Ezek. ix. 4‑6 is expressive and characteristic, the literal rendering being " carve a Taw (i.e., the Hebrew letter T) upon the foreheads," etc. Some rabbinic commentators, probably erroneously, explain this by the ankh, the Egyptian sign of life, which, however, is quite different in form from the letter Taw. The habit of inscribing a sign of religious affiliation on the hand is referred to in the Old Testament as late as the exile, since the Deutero‑Isaiah says (xliv. 5) " Another shall write on his hand `Yahweh's' " (cf. R. V. margin), the purpose being to designate a man as a servant or worshiper of Yahweh. I Kings xviii. 28 is not to be brought into connection with the phenomena under discussion, but is to be related with those treated under Ecstasy (q.v.). Also of slightly different character is the " mark " of Cain (Gen. iv. 15), which is most probably to be brought into connection with the clan mark common under totemism. The mark of Cain was to serve as a deterrent from murderous assault upon him, which is the way in which the clan mark operates, since the killing of a clansman is likely to cause a blood feud (cf. COMPARATIvE RELIGION, VI., 1, c. § 3). The references to the custom of mutilation or tattooing reappear in the Book of Revelation; thus in xiii. 16, 17, xiv. 9, 11, xix. 20, and xx. 4, those who belong to the beast and worship him are said to bear his mark in hand and forehead; while in vii. 3‑I the servants of God are said to be " sealed in their foreheads."
The cases cited in the preceding from the Bible fall under two categories, those which arise under
	circumstances of mourning, and those
As	which presuppose immediate connec‑
Connected tion with deity. The former class is with by an increasing number of commen‑
Mourning. tators related to the cult of the dead.
The cutting or tearing of the hair and gashing of the flesh are customs common among diverse peoples of the past and present. He‑

63	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Xatilations and Xarks
		Myconius
rodotus (ii. 40) speaks of Egyptians beating them
selves at the celebration in honor of Isis; in ii. 60
he relates that Carian residents of Egypt cut them
selves with knives at the same celebration; accord
ing to iv. 71 the Scythian mourner cuts bits from
his ear, shaves his head, cuts his arm, his forehead,
and his nose, and thrusts an arrow through his left
hand. Xenophon (Cyropadia, III., i. 13) reports
practically the same customs among the Armenians.
The Arabs had the custom of scratching the face
and shaving the head during the period of mourn
ing (Wellhausen, Heiderdum, pp. 123‑124, 182,
198‑199). The legislation of Solon and the Twelve
Tables forbade the women of Athens to bring blood
by self‑flagellation (for the legislation of Solon con
sult G. Grote, Hist. of Greece, vol. iii., new ed., Lon
don, 1872; for that of the Twelve Tables, M. Voigt,
Die X11. Tefeln. Gesehichte and System dew Civil
und Criminal‑Rechtes, wie Processes der X11. Tafeln,
2 vols., Leipsic, 1883‑84). The sacrifice of the hair
and of blood in honor of the manes of the departed
is well attested for the Greeks (cf. Iliad, xxiii. 141
151, 135‑136); while among primitive peoples it is
still believed that the ghost receives strength and
new vigor from the blood shed by mourners. The
indications of an ancestor cult among the Hebrews
are being studied anew, and it is a possibility that
the mourning customs indicated or forbidden in
the passages cited from the Old Testament are con
nected by derivation from this (cf. C. Graneisen,
Der Ahnenkulbus and die Urreligion Israel, Halle,
1900; JE, i. 569‑571).
	The second class of cases noted in the Bible are
those in which the mutilations serve to indicate the
connection of the worshiper with a deity. Light
		on this is thrown by ethnic usages.
	As Signs Herodotus (ii. 13) relates of a temple
of Worship. near the Canopic mouth of the Nile
		that slaves might find sanctuary there
by devoting themselves to the god and receiving
upon their bodies sacred stigmata as signs of serv
ice; and in iii. 8 he notes that the Arabs used the
tonsure in ring shape, leaving the hair on the crown
of the head, in honor of their god Orotal. The
many varieties of tonsure‑a practise which ranges
from India to Central America‑all connected with
religion, will at once occur to the reader. Lucian
(De dew Syria) shows that Syrian priests were tat
tooed on neck and wrist, while at Byblus the peo
ple shaved their heads at the annual mourning
for Adonis, while women had the alternative of
sacred prostitution. Philo (De monarchia, i.) re
marks that idol worshipers were branded. In III
Mace. ii. 29 it is stated that Ptolemy IV. Philo
pator branded Jews with the ivy leaf, the symbol
of Dionysus. In Asia Minor the worshipers of
Cybele and other deities received a mark in their
flesh. For the significance of circumcision see that
article. Among the races which are most addicted
to tattooing‑as Maoris and East Polynesians‑the
ceremony is often connected with the initiation at
puberty into the mysteries, or with marriage, both
being related to religion. The same is true of the
totem mark, which is produced by scarification, tat
tooing, or painting. It is incorrect to assume, how
ever, that all tattooing is religious. Much is purely
decorative, and other purposes are also served, such as to indicate membership with societies not religious in character. GEo. W. GILMOHE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The commentaries on the passages cited are often illuminative, especially those which tike into account the ethnic customs. Consult further: T. Waits; Anthropolopie der Naturvolker, passim, 6 parts, Leipeie, 1859‑72; A. Laeassagne, Les Tatouages, Paris, 1881; Goldziher, in Revue de l'hist. des religions, xiv (1886), 4951; G. A. Wilken, Revue coloniale internationale, iii (1886). 225‑279, iv (1887), 345 126; W. Joeat, Totovrieren, Narbenzeichen and %orperbemalen, Berlin, 1887; R. Pietechmann, Geschiehte der Phonizier, i. 389‑390, Berlin, 1889; J. Batchelor, Ainu, pp. 131‑132, London, 1892; F. aehwally, Das Leben noch dem Tode, pp. 16‑18, Giessen, 1892; Stade, in ZATW, xiv (11494), 250‑251; H. G. Robley, Moko: Maori Tattooing, London, 1896; Von Luschau, in Zeitschrift Ar Bthnolopie, xxviii. 1896; J. Frey, Tod, Sedenglaube and Seelenkult im allen Israel, pp. 127‑173, Leipsic, 1898; A. Sergent, Les Tatouages dans Us pays chauds, Montpellier, 1901; E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, London, 1903 (especially valuable for citations of ethnic practises); W. R. Smith, Kinship, pp. 212 eqq.; idem, Rel. of Sem., chap. ix.; Nowack, Arclullolopie, i. 194‑195, Bensinger, Archdologie, p. 219; DB, i. 537‑539, ii. 283285; BB, i. 971‑975.
MYCONIIUS, mi‑k6'nf‑us (MECUM), FRIEDRICH: German Reformer; b. at Lichtenfels in Upper Franconia (20 m. n.n.e. of Bamberg) Dec. 26, 1490; d. at Gotha Apr. 7, 1546. After graduating from the school of his native city, he was sent in 1504 to the Latin school in Annaberg, where he met Tetzel (1510) who was traveling over Germany as commissary of indulgences. As he was greatly troubled by his spiritual condition he was persuaded in 1510 to enter the Franciscan monastery. From Annaberg he went to the monastery in Leipsic and in 1512 to that in Weimar. He there studied diligently Peter Lombard, Alexander of Hales, Bonaventura, Gabriel Biel, and especially Augustine, whose works made a deep impression upon him. In 1516 he was ordained priest in Weimar and soon received a position as preacher there. With great satisfaction he listened to Luther when he began his fight against indulgences, and Myconius was among the first who followed the new paths. But as the authorities of Weimar maintained a reserved attitude toward the Reformation, it became more and more difficult for him to hold his office. His intercourse and correspondence were closely watched, and he was threatened with life‑long confinement in a monastery, being sent to the monasteries of Leipsic and Annaberg. But in 1524 he succeeded in escaping, arid received at Zwickau a position as preacher in a hospital. At the instance of Wenzeslaus Link and Gabriel Didymus he was called to the congregation in the small town of Buchholz. In the same year (1524) Duke John called him to Gotha, at the request of the council and the congregation. Though the ground there had been cleared for the Reformar tion, ecclesiastical affairs as well as secular were still in a hopeless condition. The higher and lower clergy had degenerated and a dead ecclesiastical mechanicalism was all that showed. School affairs were in the hands of ignorant and indolent monks, and in the government of the city and among the members of the council avarice and disorder reigned. Myconius mastered the situation by his wisdom and energy. About 1525 Luther entered into cor‑

Myc ins Myrtle
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
84
reapondence with him, and encouraged him not to be frightened off by the rebellious peasants, while Melanchthon, who began to correspond with him in 1527, warned him against imprudent interference in non‑religious affairs. Myconius reformed the schools of the city and awakened the interest of the citizens in them. In the Augustinian monastery he erected a school whose first rector from 1524 to 1535 was Basilius Monner of Weimar. Myconius exerted great influence both by his sermons and in his practical pastorate and by his exemplary conduct. His influe ice, moreover, was not confined to Gotha. He accompanied as preacher Prince John Frederick three times to the Lower Rhine, to Cologne, Jfilich and Cleves, and in 1534, after the latter had become elector, to Diisseldorf, Brunswick, and Celle. On these journeys, Myconius preached to large concourses. With Melanchthon, Menius, and others he took part in the church visitations of Thuringia in 1527 and 1533, also in many important conventions of the Reformation, in the religious colloquy of Marburg 1529, the Wittenberg Assembly of 1536, the convention of Schmalkald 1537, the negotiations in Frankfort and Nuremberg 1539, and the convention of Hagenau 1540. In 1538 he went to England with Franz Burkhardt and Georg von Boyneburg in order to discuss the articles of the Augsburg Confession with the theologians of Henry VIII. He was successful in introducing the Reformation in Saxony after the death of Duke George in 1539, at first in his beloved Annaberg, then in Leipaic, where he preached the first Evangelical sermon in the Church of St. Nicolai. The princes left him there that he might carry through the work of the Reformation; he remained nine months, meeting an obstinate and violent opposition, but finally mastered the situation. He won the affection of the citizens to such a degree that Elector John Frederick was asked to leave him there two years, but in 1540 he returned to his congregation. His health had always been very delicate and unequal to his arduous tasks. Owing to overexertion on the occasion of the Thuringian visitations, he was compelled after the year 1539 to interrupt his labors from time to time, especially as he developed bronchial troubles.
Few characters of the Reformation appeal to the sympathy as strongly as does Myconius. Like Luther, he had attained the light and truth of the Gospel by personal experience. His character had been firmly fixed early in life and could not be unsettled by the theological disputes and opinions of the time. In Luther he recognized with gladness from the beginning " the chosen man of God and the last Elijah," and his devotion to Melanchthon was not less sincere. The purity of his character was undisputed and secured him the respect of friend and foe. In spite of his efficiency in the Latin and German tongues and his popular gifts, he did not aspire to the fame of a writer or scholar, but exerted his activity in the practical work of the church. Nevertheless, he has left some treatises which are still valuable, as, for instance, Wie man die einfeltigen and sonderlich die krancken, im Christenthumb vnterrichten solt (Wittenberg, 1539; new cd., Frankfort, 1598, enlarged by the treatise Wie
man mit den besessenen Leuten umgehen sodl).
Whenever the condition of his throat prevented him from preaching, he busied himself with searching the archives of the church, of monasteries, and the hospital, and published extracts of them under the title Neues Erbbuch and Kopey der Mini8tratur 15.4.2 and wrote his Historic Reformutimcis 1517‑42, both extant in manuscript in the archducal library at Gotha. This history reflects his experiences and impressions in an unpretentious, but fresh and plastic manner, and is the valuable contribution of a contemporary of the events.
(G. KAwERAu.)
BmLJOGRAYH7: His Hiatoria Reformationia contains many
biographical details. Biographies were written by A. Probus, Schmalkalden, 1597; M. Adam, Frankfort, 1705; Juneker, Waltersbausen, 1730; J. G. Bosseck, Leipsic, 1739; C. K. G. Lommatzsch, Annaberg, 1825; K. F. Ledderhose, Goths, 1854; M. Meurer, Leipsic, 1884 (contains an excellent list of literature); G. Kreyenberg, is Grenzboten, 1892, i. pp. 114 sqq,; and P. Scherff<g, Leipsic. 1909. Consult also: H. E. Jambs, Martin Luther, pp 6566, 79, 117, 287, New York, 1898; J. W. Richard, Philip Melanchthon, pp. 159, 254, 280, ib. 1898.
MYCONIUS, OSWALD: Swiss reformer; b. at Lucerne 1488; d. at Basel Oct. 14, 1552. His original name was Geissh0sler. After completing his education at Basel, where he became acquainted with Zwingli, Holbein, and Erasmus, he became a teacher at the canons' school at Zurich in 1516. Here he published two pamphlets in one of which (1518) he held that the pope must be obeyed only so long as he required nothing contrary to Christianity. He took a decisive part in the calling of Zwingli to Zurich. Shortly afterward Myconiua was called to teach in his native city, but he continued to correspond with his lifelong friend Zwingli. In 1522 his views forced him to retire from his position. After teaching for a time at Einsiedeln he returned to Zurich, primarily as teacher at the school attached to the Fraumiinster. Here he held German lectures on the New Testament, besides taking a silent though active part in all the measures of Zwingli. To this period belongs his Ad sacerdotes Helvetice qui Tigurinis male 'oquuntur suasoria ut male loqui desinaant (1524). In 1531 Myconius was called to the church of St. Albans at Basel and in 1532 he was appointed the successor of (Ecolampadiua (q.v.). Though he accepted this only on condition that he might resign as soon as one more worthy could be found, he continued to discharge the double office of head of the Basel church and professor of theology until his death. He was involved in many difficulties, however, by Carlstadt (q.v.), who formed a faction in the faculty to subordinate the church to the university, only to be defeated by Myconius; and when the latter sought to carry out the reformatory measures of G;colampadius, Carlstadt declared to the council that his rival wished to make the civil authorities slaves of the priests, and told the people that Myconiua disapproved all their pleasure. Despite this the prestige of Myconius increased everywhere.
In the eucharistic question, while remaining generally in accord with the Zwinglian position, as is clear from his letters and from his commentary on j Mark (Basel, 1538), Myconius approximated Luther

85	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Xy°°nius
		1yztle
in certain regards. In the first Helvetic Confession,
drawn up in 1536, he accordingly termed the Lord's
Supper a mystic meal, and spoke of eating the flesh
and drinking the blood of Christ not as perishable
physical food but as nourishing eternal life. He
sought, moreover, to reconcile Luther and Zwingli
in their eucharistic views, and pursued a similar
course in the Osiandrian controversies. The most
distinguished pupil of Myconius was Theodor Bib
liander (q.v.), to whose edition	of the letters of
CF,eolampadius and Zwingli (Basel, 1536) Myconius
contributed a first brief life of Zwingli (printed in
the Vito quatuor reformatorum, ed. Neander, Ber
in, 1841).	(EMIL EGLIt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: His correspondence with Zwingli is printed
	in the Opera of the latter, vols. vii.‑viii. Biographies are
	by M. Kirchofer, Zurich, 1813; and K. R. Hagenbach,
	Elberfeld, 1859 (contains also the principal minor writings
	of Myconius). Further notices will be found in the litera
	ture dealing with the Reformation in Switzerland, also in
	the biographies of Bullinger, tEcolampadius, and Zwingli.
	Consult: Schaff, Christian Church, vii. 215 aqq.; T. and
	F. Platter, Sittengeachichte lea IB. Jahrhunderts, ed. H.
	Boos, Leipsic, 1878; S. M. Jackson, $uldreich Zwinpli,
	passim, New York, 1903.
	MYNSTER, min'ater, JAKOB PETER: Danish
bishop; b. at Copenhagen Nov. 8, 1775; d. there
Jan. 30, 1854. He studied theology at the univer
sity of his native city, and became pastor at Spjel
lerup, on the island of Zealand, in 1802; first
chaplain at the Church of Our Lady in Copenhagen
in 1812; privatdocent in psychology in the theo
logical seminary at Copenhagen in 1813, and court
preacher in 1826. During his career in the Danish
metropolis he published a volume of Kleine Theo
logische Schriften (in German, Copenhagen, 1825),
which gives evidence of his knowledge of esthetic
and philosophical literature, as well as of church
history. In 1834 he was appointed bishop of Zea
land, in which capacity he officiated until his death.
During his incumbency of the bishopric the relig
ious movement caused by the appearance of Grundt
vig (q.v.) agitated the Danish Church, and Myn
ster, who had no sympathy with the former's ideas
of religious liberty, became one of his most ardent
opponents. Grundtvig, however, succeeded in
preventing the introduction of	a revised ritual
proposed by Mynster, and as the teachings promul
gated by the former found more and more adher
ents the old bishop found it impossible to stem the
tide of liberalism, and he gradually gave up the
struggle, devoting himself to literary pursuits. He
published numerous collections of sermons, and a
work entitled " Thoughts on Christian Dogmas "
(2 vols., Germ. trend., Hamburg,	1840), which for
a	long time remained popular both in Denmark
and Germany. A collection of his writings in 6
vols. appeared at Copenhagen in 1852‑57; collec
tions of his letters in 1860‑66; an autobiography
in 1854 (2d ed., 1898); and a volume of sermons,
1875.		(F. NIELSENt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the autobiography and lettem
	named above, consult: C. L. N. Mynater, " Reminis
	cences; ' Copenhagen, 1877. Further literature in Danish
	is given in Hauck‑Herzog, RE, riii. 609.
	MYRBERG, OTTO FERDINAND: Swedish theo
logian; b. in Gothenburg Apr. 26, 1824; d. at Upsals.
Mar. 22, 1899. He received his education at the
		VIII.‑5
University of Upsala (B.A., 1841; Ph.D. and candidate in theology, 1851); was appointed professor of exegesis there 1866, and resigned 1892. He was an able and independent exegete of the Biblical‑theological school, being influenced by J. T. Beck and by S6ren Kierkegaard (qq.v.). For him faith received its justifying power as the most profound ethical act; justification is gained not by imputation but by man's appropriating it; and he stressed not Christ's suffering and death but his personality, which was perfected through suffering and death. He assailed the Lutheran doctrine of atonement and justification, and took part in the controversy called out by the teaching of Waldenatr6m (q.v.) on the atonement which was diffused throughout Sweden and entered the United States. Among his works are Den ignellaka theologian (1862); Bidrag tit en bibelsk theologi (1863); Inledning til Romarebrefvet (1868); Om aposteln Petrus och den 6ldsta kyrkans falska gnosis (1865); Pauli bref til Romarena (1871); Den hel. Skrifts lara om forsoningen (1874); Salomos Ordsprak (1875); De paulinaka brefven (2d ed., 1883); De apoatoliska breften of Jakob, Pettus, Judas oeh Johannes (1883); during 1864‑69 he edited the periodical Vittnet, and after 1884 Bibelforskaren, which among other things contains his admirable translation of Isaiah, and his interesting commentary on Revelation.
JOHN O. EVJEN.
MYRRH: The fragrant gum of Balsamodendrort myrrha, a tree or shrub growing chiefly in Arabia and Ethiopia, but not in Palestine, where its use was a luxury (cf. Matt. u. 11). The gum, at first oily and then fluid, is primarily a yellowish white; but it hardens into reddish drops or kernels with a peculiar balsam smell and bitter taste. The best kind flows partly of itself. Generally the bark of the tree was incised to obtain the myrrh, which was exported from Arabia to the West especially by Nabataeans and Phenicians, who frequently adulterated it and doubtless sometimes substituted similar gums from other trees. Myrrh was used as incense (Cant. iii. 6), to perfume clothing and beds (Pa. xlv. 8; Prov. vii. 17; Cant. i. 13), as an unguent (Ex. xxx. 23; Esther ii. 12; Cant. v. 5), and in pulverized form for embalming (John xix. 39), whence most of the Church Fathers interpreted the myrrh of Matt. ii. 11 as a symbol of the suffering and death of Christ. Myrrh was also mingled with wine to impart to it an aromatic flavor and to render it less intoxicating; but the " wine mingled with myrrh " of Mark xv. 23 was probably the sour wine of the Roman soldiers mingled with some bitter ingredient to produce stupefaction (cf. Matt.
xxvii. 34).
BInLIoaRAPRT: See under MYRTLE.
MYRTLE: A tree about ten feet high, growing in the valleys and on the shores, as well as on heights not altogether devoid of moisture (cf. Neh. viii. 15), in Asia, whence it was transplanted to Greece and Italy. Its perfume and beauty, enhanced by its smooth, evergreen leaves and white flowers, made it a favorite adornment of gardens (cf. Isa. xli. 19, Iv. 13), though it also grew wild in Palestine (Neh., ut sup.). Oil and a sort of wine
(R. K1amEL.)

gystagofloal Theology	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	88
were prepared from its black berries (Vergil, Georgica, i. 106; Pliny, Hilt. naturalis, xv. 35‑38, xxiii. 44); and its branches formed decorations of houses and rooms on festal occasions, as at the Feast of Tabernacles (Neh., ut sup.). The classics also show that myrtle branches were strewn in the way, and garlands of myrtle were worn at feasts, especially at marriage feasts since the myrtle was sacred to Aphrodite and the symbol of conjugal love. The name Hadassah, " Myrtle," was thus appropriate as the name of a beautiful girl, and was the original appellation of Esther (Esther ii. 7).
(R. Krrmr;L.)
BataoanAra:: C. Hart, Fauna and Flora of Sinai, Petrae, etc., London, 1901‑05; M. Calleott„ Scripture Herbal, ib. 1842; H. S. Osborn, Plants of the Holy Land, Philadelpbia, 1860; H. B. Tristram, Fauna and Flora of Palestine, London, 1884; G. E. Poet, Flora of Syria, Palestine, and Syria, Beirut, 1896; C. Joret, in L'Orient elasaique, 1897, p. 355; G. Henslow, Plants of the Bible, ib. 1906; Vigouroux, Dictionnaire, fase. uvii., ools. 1363‑67.

MYSTAGOGICAL THEOLOGY.
.. Mystagogia.„, Cyril of Jerusalem (§ 1). Dionysius the Areopagite (§ 2). Works Antedating Theodore of Andida (§ 3). Theodore of Andida and Others (§ 4). Later Eastern and Western Treatises (§ 5).
	A term " Mystagogicad Theology " was used to
denote a form of disciplinary theology that was
cultivated principally in the Eastern Church in the
early Byzantine age, but also in the Middle Ages,
and later in Russia. It conveys the sense of the
		church ceremonial not in the light of
i. " Mysta‑ historic science but as having a " secret
	gogia." meaning." As used in ancient Greek,
	Cyril of mystagogia signifies the sacred initia
	Jerusalem. tion into the " mysteries," either by
		actual admission to the sacred so
lemnities or by theoretical admission through in
struction. Whatever introduces to a mystery is a
mystagogia; the priest who performs or conducts
the process is a " mystagogue," as is the theologian
who correctly expounds it and embodies its true
sense (which is primarily a secret) in the form of
" doctrine." The sacred process is itself a mysta
gogia, since it initiates into the region of divine
wonders. Above every other ecclesiastical solem
nity, the Eucharist is accounted a mydagogia, in
deed it is termed expressly " the mystagogia." In
general, however, mystagogieal theology has ex
amined everything pertaining to the divine offices,
and has discovered a secret meaning in every part
of them. The earliest mystagogical work known is
the " Mystagogical Catechetics " by Cyril of Jeru
salem (q.v‑), dating from about the middle of the
fourth century. This is in five sermons, wherein
Cyril further explains to the neophytes, to whom
he has already delivered the creed in the course of
eighteen sermons, who have also been baptized
accordingly, the additional sacred operations which
they have undergone, together with the holy cere
monies in which they have now shared for the first
time. It is presupposed that the catechumens were
as yet not rightly aware of what was to come about
in them when they received baptism, nor how the
Eucharist, to which they were to be admitted for
the first time after baptism, was celebrated, nor
what this celebration altogether signified. Cyril elucidates only a few details in a really mystagogical sense and in the simplest terms of statement. " Symbolic " and " dogmatic " explanations occur interchangeably. That is to say, Cyril felt no less obliged to set clearly before the newly baptized members the matter in question, the renewal they have undergone, especially to render them conscious of the fact that the bread and wine were the body and the blood of the Lord, than to exhibit the rites and the forms, which they have seen and shared, in their intrinsic significance; in other words, he aimed to present those rites on their objective side, yet as themselves conveying the sense of their process. The main outline of presentation is the idea that the " renewal " involved a gradual progress, and that this was discernible in the rites themselves.
The proper founder of mystagogical theology, broadly considered, was Dionysius the Areopagite (q.v.), a man of whom little is known, save that he probably belonged to the close of the fifth century
and was active in Syria. The work of 2. Dionysius special interest here is " Concerning the the Ecclesiastical Hierarchy " (MPG,
Areopagite. iii. 369 sqq.; Eng. trend. by John Parker, London, 1894). What in this is significant in respect to the expository feeling of the early Church is that the whole visible entity and activity of the " hierarchy," that is, the Church in its vital agency, is represented as being filled with mysteries and wonders; and if one be but correctly initiated, these, perchance, can be everywhere seen " shining through." Dionysius made it clear that " dogma ' is possessed of a mirrored counterpart in ceremonial worship. In later times, the ceremonial was not infrequently treated as a criterion for a " new " doctrine; the same being discarded unless there appeared to be something congruent in the rites. Conversely, it is a special question just how far the rites and sacramentals became gradually adapted to the dogma already current, with symbols to fit the occasion. As Dionysius will have it, the terrestrial hierarchy is a copy of the celestial. Just as the angels, in graduated circles, throng round about the one only God, even so the clergy on earth encompass the one bishop. The latter is quite peculiarly " a divine and godly man." From him do the priestly persons receive their divine consecrations, whereby they become qualified to " divinify " men. Dionysius treats of the principal ecclesiastical mysteries. A brief description of the given transaction is invariably followed by a survey of the emblematical character of its rites in detail. The object is to elucidate the intrinsic nature of the clergy, to explain its direct significance in connection with the transaction concerned; again, the same as touching the " faithful." For instance, in his " Priestly Ordinances " or acts of consecration for clerical offices, Dionysius shows that both the " unity " of the hierarchy is represented, and the gradation between bishop, priest, and liturgist (deacon). In the case of baptism one may discern illumination for its emblematic import, as one perceives how the candidate, first by turning westward and being dis‑

87	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	Nystsgoaical Theology
robed for the act of renunciation, then by facing eastward and steadfastly gazing in this direction while confessing the faith, is led over from the sphere of the lightless to that of the light.
The next important mystagogue was Maximus Confessor (q.v.), whose interpretation of the Eucharist, found in MPG, xci. 657 sqq., supplies what Dionysius omitted, a mystagogical elucidation of the Church as congregation. In so far as the Church embraces all " sorts and conditions of men," it is fairly a " type and image " of God, a copy of his fulness and diversity, though in unity inherent. Maximus furthermore contemplates the Church as a structure; for if one surveys its typical compartments aright, the Church is at once a mysterious depiction of the universe, and an image of man and his constituent parts. In chap. viii. Maxima reaches his distinctive theme, the Eucharist. He reviews the entire course thereof; the priest's entrance into the Church represents Christ's appearing in the flesh, the entrance of the people indicates the separation of the faithful from the unbelieving, the closing of the doors points to the end of the world and the judgment, which only those worthily transformed into the world of divine reason can enter securely.
Next to be considered are the writings which deal particularly with a historical and symbolical construction of the Eucharist; that is, those the rational continuity of which has evolved the theory as to the so‑called dramatic character of the liturgy.
But here many literary questions re3. Works main to be settled before the develop‑
Antedating ment becomes thoroughly clear. It
Theodore was long believed that Sophronius of
of Andida. Jerusalem was the founder of this the‑
ory. But the Russian scholar Krasnoseljcev has shown this to be an error. It is owing to him, again, and to F. E. Brightman, that an important man in the history of mystagogical theology has of late been to some extent newly recovered to knowledge, namely, Theodore of Andida. But in order to keep the literary sequence firmly in mind, one must pause at this point to consider a work entitled " Mystagogical Church Lore." This has been ascribed to many authors, and a really critical edition on the basis of the many manuscripts available is still lacking. Pitra communicated a fragment of a Latin translation prepared by Anastasius Bibliothecarius (q.v.); while from the letter to Emperor Charles the Bald, appended by Anastasius to this document, it appears that in Constantinople at that time, the Patriarch Germanus I. (d. 730) was deemed the author. It is entirely possible that this tradition is correct. The work itself underwent many reconstructions. Whether the shortest form, published by Miller after a Codex Bodlejanus et Magdalenettsis (in his edition of the works of Cyril of Jerusalem, pp. 325332, Oxford, 1703), is the earliest, is undecided. The one in MPG, xcviii. 384‑453, is certainly late and greatly enlarged. In the explanation of the liturgy which this work presents, the thought is dominant that the celebration of the Eucharist reveals the entire life of the Lord. The priest represents Christ himself; indeed his very vestments are
so fashioned that Christ is to be discerned therein.
Originally the design appears to have been limited
to the priestly symbolizing (in visible ritual acts)
of Christ in his passion, death, and resurrection.
But ultimately the conception so far expands that
practically the whole history of Jesus Christ be
comes illustrated in the acts and actors of the lit
urgy. Even the manner in which the priest holds
his fingers, while blessing the people at the close,
has its symbolism, and announces the event of
Christ's coming again, and of the end of the world.
	It is Theodore of Andida who turns the construc
tion so as to cover the whole history of Christ. Who
Theodore was, is totally uncertain; Andida the
place is supposed to be situated in Asia Minor.
		Theodore may belong to the twelfth,
4. Theodore if not to the eleventh, century. He is
	of Andida acquainted with the work just noted,
and Others. and holds it to be a work of Basil of
		Caesarea. His own treatise is entitled
" Summary Review of the Symbols and Mysteries
Occurrent in the Divine Liturgy " (cf. A. Mai, Nova
patrum bibliotheca, vi. 2, pp. 547‑584, 8 vols., Rome,
1852‑71; and MPG, cxl. 417‑468). Theodore (some
codices call him " Nicholas ") is a learned man.
He remarks that " many priests were aware that
the various acts in the liturgy aimed to set forth
the Lord's passion, etc., not only according to its
effects, but also to depict, as in a figure, the very
manner thereof; save that there was no doubt but
that those liturgical acts exhibited likewise the
entire earthly career of Jesus." The holy table,
whereon the sacrifice is prepared, can certainly be
regarded as the " grave," but is also expected to re
call the " manger." The bread is naturally a "type
of the body of Christ, but also of Mary, in so far as
she conceives the Word by power of the Holy Ghost,"
whereas the deacon also " salutes " the bread, even
as the angel greeted Mary. Where the deacon with
draws from the " table of preparation " the Lord
abides there in the stillness of retirement and se
clusion; these being the thirty years of Christ's
" obscurity." Then the priest comes actively for
ward: his first " ingress " into the Church repre
sents the preaching Christ; his second entrance,
with the bread and wine, exhibits Jesus on his way
to death. The vestments have manifold significance
(See VESTMENTS,., AND INSIGNIA, ECCLESIASTICAL).
Theodore's entire treatise is full of subtle, often
brilliant, phantasy. Its manner of interpretation
dominated all the succeeding era; and its theory
has come to be officially binding. A treatise to be
correctly appraised only upon due acquaintance is
the one associated with Sophronius of Jerusalem
(d. 638), and formerly held to be genuine: " Ac
count Comprising the Entire Ecclesiastical His
tory" (MPG, ixxxvii., pp. iii., 3981 sqq.). This
work is a combination of the primitive " Mystagog
ical Church Lore " and of Theodore's " Summary
Review." The various mystagogical writings men
tioned above are of moment in that they reveal
the development of the liturgy in general. Yet
they have not been adequately valued by liturgical
scholars either as sources to determine the gradu
ating distinctions or different successive phases in
the history of liturgy, or as governing the relative

Mystagomcal Theology
Mysticism	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	68
status of the traditional liturgical forms. In fact, the mystagogical theory often affords the possibility of ascertaining what is old and what is new material. Especially are the many quotations from prayers, lections, etc., of value for critically collating the manifold liturgical texts.
The most renowned mystagogues of the Middle Ages were the two metropolitans of Thessalonica,
Nikolaos Kabasilas (q.v.) and Simg. Later eon (q.v.). The former is the more Eastern and ingenious, being comparable for acumen
Western to Theodore of Andida, whose mode of
Treatises. contemplation he specifically contin‑
ued, particularly the thought that the liturgy visibly presents the entire incarnation of the Logos. But it were leading us too far afield to examine his work in detail. His " Interpretation of the Divine Liturgy " is found in MPG, cl. 368 sqq. Simeon is of much slighter compass; for him the external is everywhere the most engaging, the separate pieces of clerical vestments, their form, color, etc. The line of " Dionysius the Areopagite," Maximus Confessor, Theodore of Andida, Nicholas Kabasilas, is the line par excellence, that of the real thinkers; the second rank, to which Simeon belongs, is that of the dilettanti. Howbeit, Simeon suited the taste of his time, and owes it to this circumstance that he came to be the most popular mystagogue, the one whose name continues thoroughly current. In‑the form of a dialogue he discussed both dogmas and rites, besides composing tracts of a mystagogical nature (cf. MPG, clv. 61536). In his case, the drama of the liturgy comes to be a mere spectacular exhibition, " performed," in a sense, by puppets. The more modern era has also produced its mystagogues. In the second half of the sixteenth century flourished Johannes Nathanael (in Venice and Constantinople); later, Nicholas Bulgaris (close of the seventeenth century; not to be confused with Eugenius Bulgaris, q.v.), though he published simply what his brother Christodulos (a priest on the island of Corfu) had written. But the Russian literature is more important in this direction than the modern Greek. Among works that have become very well known may be mentioned the " Letters on the Divine Offices of the Eastern Church " by Ludovicus of Muralt (1838) ; the " Elucidation of the Divine Offices of the Eastern Church in the Light of their Symbolical Meaning," by Philaretus (archbishop of Tchernigov, in his " History of the Church of Russia "; Germ. transl. by Blumenthal, i. 369 sqq., Frankfort, 1872); the " Meditations on the Divine Liturgy," by the illustrious poet Gogol (Germ. transl. in A. V. Maltzew, Liturgikon, Berlin,, 1902). An inexhaustible wealth of imagination has been educed among the Russians by the liturgy, and the entire round of the Church solemnities. In the Western Church certain attempts are not wanting in the way of construing ceremonial worship in a mystagogical or symbolic sense. Only in the West this matter is hardly taken so seriously as in the East. There is much freer play in the East in this connection than in the West, where the great mystagogues are but paired with the great dogmatists.
F. KATTENBUSCH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the literature under the special articles in this work on the individuals named in the text, consult: w. Gees, Die Mystik dee Nikolaus Cabaailas, pp. 155 aqq., Greifswald, 1849; idem, Symbolik der grsechiechen Kirche, pp. 298 sqq., Berlin, 1872; Steitz, in Jahr‑
bficher fair deutsche Theologie, vols. ix.‑xiii (1864‑68); E. Le Grand, Blbliopraphie hell6nique, Paris, 1885 sqq.; F. Kattenbusch, Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Konfesaionskuude, i. 335 sqq., 350 sqq., 393 sqq., 491 sqq., Freiburg, 1892; F. E. Brightman, Liturgies Eastern and Western, pp. xciii.‑xev., London, 1896; P. Meyer, Die theologiache Litteratur der grierhischen Kirrhe, Leipsic, 1899; Drews, in TSK, lxxiii (1900), 480‑488; Krumbacher, Geachichte, consult index under the names of the individuals named in the text.
MYSTERIES, TRIBAL. See TRIBAL MYST39RM9; and ComaARATIvE RELIGION, VI., 1, b, ¢ 5.

MYSTICISM. I. Definition and Description.
Essential Character (¢ 1). Relation to Religion (f 2). Attainment of Mystical Conditions (§ 3). II. History.
In the East (¢ 1).
Scholastic and Monastic Mysticism (§ 2). Early Protestant Mysticism (§ 3).
Post‑Reformation Roman Catholic Mysticism (1 4). Late Protestant Mysticism ($ 5).
Mysticism in England (§ 6).
In America (¢ 7).
L Definition and Description: Like many other psychological concepts, mysticism scarcely admits of rigid definition, since its elements, though rooted in the individual soul, so cross with other elements
in the course of the development of r. Essential each person, and give rise to such comCharacter. plex phenomena, that exact delimita‑
tion becomes impossible. To gain even an approximate notion of mysticism, a distinction must first be drawn, a number of elements must be eliminated, particularly all that results from senseperception, and all that may be deduced from such perception by dialectics in the widest sense of the term. When, on the other hand, from external perceptions feelings arise which can not logically be deduced from such perceptions, but can arise only through the cooperation of the peculiar spiritual organism of man, such feelings may be termed mystical. Mysticism has its real beginning, therefore, when the mystical element becomes ascendant over man in connection with the world that surrounds him, and when his soul seeks to be in harmony with the universe that encompasses it, or, more accurately, with the Supreme, however this Supreme be conceived. The way in which the ends of mysticism are acquired is primarily self‑introspection. It is true that there is here an element of human cooperation and will, but since the will is unable of itself to produce the inner experience which it desires, but needs to be met by a divine grace which both purifies and illumines the soul, mysticism involves the concept of revelation, and thus comes into relation with religion.
All religion depends on revelation of some sort, real or assumed, and this revelation, independent of human will yet authoritative for future generations, is transmitted by tradition. When, however, religion depends only on historicity and tradition, it becomes barren, legalistic, and lifeless. It accordingly needs a third element if it is to be‑

come a living thing to the individual. This is found in personal, inward experience, which is itself a secondary form of revelation, yet is
a. Relation accessible to all who believe the authorto Religion. itative revelation. This element of personal experience, which is essential to mysticism and without which religion can scarcely exist, forms the bond between mysticism and religion. This union is the closest in Christianity, which from the first has contained a strongly mystical element. From religion mysticism.may receive tendencies at variance with its real nature, as the desire of persecution; but, on the other hand, mysticism may oppose aberrations in religion. The latter case is, however, comparatively rare. Mysticism may indeed oppose a purely external religion, yet it seldom attacks vitally what is definitely established by the religious body to which a given mystic belongs. Before such definite principles mysticism bows, in conformity with its individual character as contrasted with the social character of religion. The mystic is essentially concerned with God and his own soul, and if he be undisturbed, he readily conforms to external ordinances.
Mystical conditions may be induced by certain agencies. In the lowest stages certain narcotics may be employed, though these are utterly rejected by higher mysticism. Again, bodily
	3. Attain‑	movements and postures may be as
	ment of	sumed, as the whirling of dervishes or
	Mystical	the immobility of Hesychasts (q.v.:
Conditions.		and see EcsTAsY). The common agen
		cies, however, are solitude, silence,
asceticism, and concentration of thought on the di
vine. Among the agencies shared by both religion
and mysticism, prayer is preeminent. In the case
of mysticism, such prayer is strictly inward, going
so far as to hold prayer expressed in words as of
inferior worth, and to maintain that the only prayer
which really pleases God and helps man is " men
tal prayer," which utters no word, but .expresses
the inmost longing for God; so that later, especially
in post‑Reformation Roman Catholic mysticism,
" prayer " came to connote the mystic state in gen
eral. Certain phenomena highly valued by many
are mistrusted and deemed of secondary worth by
some of the greatest mystics, this category including
visions, the hearing of voices, bilocation, levita
tion, etc., the reality of which can not be affirmed.
That on which the great mystics lay stress is far
different; it is the release of the soul from finite
bonds and its conduct to inward communion with
God. This communion may be construed as one of
essence, the result being pantheistic mysticism; or
it may be regarded as absolute surrender to God;
and so slight is the distinction between the two
views that it is often impossible to distinguish out
wardly whether a given mystic is a pantheist or
not. While human will and human endeavor pre
pare the way for the highest flights of mysticism,
man can not of himself produce them. They are a
divine gift, which God grants to whom, when, and
where he will, nor may all gain them who devote
themselves to the mystic life. Nevertheless, they
form the goal of the mystic way. The stages in this
way are mainly described either as " purgative,"
RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA
M
Myo
yetagogieal Theology
	tioism
" illuminative," and. " unitative," or as " meditation," " contemplation," and " mystic union." The former classification requires first the purifying of the soul from sinful wishes and acts; then, when a certain degree of perfection has been gained, illumination from God; and finally, ecstatic and complete union with God. In the second classification " meditation " is regarded as natural and humanly controlled reflection which is already directed toward the supreme goal; " contemplation " bears man beyond the natural sphere through grace to higher and higher perfections, above which lies nothing but "mystic union." A distinct form of mysticism is often thought to be found in quietism, but this, strictly speaking, means simply the complete and permanent negation of the will, as in primitive Buddhism; and it requires a degree of submission which has conquered every impulse of the individual will, whereas true mysticism, despite its submission, by no means excludes struggle against individual nature and against individual will.
B. History: Since Christian mysticism has rereceived from the Christian religion many impressions and influences, as well as influences from other sources which have affected it and,
z. In the through it, the mystical element of
	East.	the Christian religion, and even the
		history of that religion, a full history of
Christian mysticism would require constant refer
ence to the development of the Church in general,
as well as detailed discussion of the origin of each
of the various mystical phenomena. Here only a
survey of the main elements can be given. It is
frequently denied that mysticism was present at
the very beginning of Christianity, but such a view
is erroneous. Mysticism is present in Paul (cf.
Gal. ii. 20; Rom. viii. 22) as well as in John, and
is also revealed in such early productions as the
epistles of Ignatius of Antioch and in the " Shep
herd " of Hermas. Meanwhile mysticism had re
ceived, a peculiar development from without which,
in itself alien to Christianity, nevertheless exer
cised a strong influence upon it. An important
factor here was Philo of Alexandria, (q.v.), whose
teachings included unity with the Godhead (though
man may gain it only temporarily and through
ecstasy) and the Logos (q.v.); Philo not only
modified early Christianity, but also influenced, or
at least was nearly akin to, Neo‑Platonism (q.v.).
These theories deeply impressed not only Origen
and his school, but even his opponent, Methodius
(q.v.). The fourth century, with its rise of monas
ticism, was highly important for mysticism, which
was fostered by the solitude and meditation on the
inner life practised by the higher class of monks, a
remnant of this mystic contemplation being con
tained in the fifty homilies of Macarius (q.v.). All
this was further aided by the growth of Symbolism
(q.v.) in the liturgy, admirably illustrated by the
" Catechetical Lectures " of Cyril of Jerusalem
(q.v.); while, on the other hand, individual mys
ticism finds its influential representative in the
" Ladder of Paradise " of Johannes Climacus (q.v.;
see also MYSTAOOGICAL THEOLOGY). The period
of conflict that racked the Church after the Council
of Chalcpdon witnessed one of the most remarkable

xystioism	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	70
phenomena in the realm of mysticism‑the pseudoDionysian writings (see DioNysius mm. AREOrAarrE), which represent Neo‑Platonism in Christian guise. The type of thought here set forth found its full development in the strictly orthodox Maximus Confessor (q.v.), who taught symbolic meaning for the entire liturgy and gave the pseudo‑Dionysian writings their authorized position in the Eastern Church. In the eleventh century a new element was first clearly introduced by Simeon the New Theologian (q.v.), whose teachings of a mystic light may well have given rise, despite many differences, to the peculiar doctrines of the Hesychaste (q.v.), themselves defended in one of the most important productions of the mysticism of the Eastern Church, the " Discourses of the Life in Christ " of Nikolaos Kabasilas (see KAaASirm).
In the West, except for the mystical element present in occidental as well as in oriental Christianity from the first, illustrated by passages in Tertullian and Cyprian, it was Augustine who laid the foundations for the mysticism of s. Scholastic later ages; although for a time he here and lacked followers, so that a long time
Monastic	elapsed before mysticism became an
	Mysticism.	independent phenomenon in the the
		ological literature of the western
Church. [Anticipations of the coming intensity of
interest in the inner life are frequently to be dis
covered before the time of full bloom, as in the case
of Ekkehard (known also as Eckhart the Younger),
a monk of St. Gall (c. 9801036), who left a treatise
on parts of the church service, benediction prayers,
and also on the chronicle of St. Gall (in MGH,
Script., ii. 75‑147).] It was not until the twelfth
century that mysticism became a real factor in the
western Church. Here, as in the East, mysticism and
monasticism were closely related, not only in Anselm
and Peter Damian (qq.v.), but preeminently in Ber
nard of Clairvaux and Hugo of St. Victor (qq.v.).
The characteristic element, new to a certain extent,
in the mysticism of Bernard was the love of Jesus,
particularly as the bridegroom of the soul, set forth
in his homilies on Canticles. The position of Hugo
of St. Victor, while in great measure the same as
that of Bernard, was more scholastic and dialectic;
and his positing of a fixed way by which the soul is
to gain ultimate union with God forms the basis
of that scholastic mysticism which mainly dom
inated the Middle Ages and was continued in the
post‑Tridentine Church of Rome. Victor's first
distinguished successor was Richard of St. Victor
(q.v.), and mention must also be made of Saint
Hildegard of Bingen and Elizabeth of Schonau
(qq.v.). It is not true, as is often stated, that there
was a sharp cleavage between mysticism and scho
lasticiam. Not only were such men as Hugo of St.
Victor and Bonaventura equally distinguished in
both fields, but even Thomas Aquinas had a strongly
mystical vein in his theology. At the same time,
a distinction was drawn between mysticism and
scholasticism as two branches of theology‑the
latter essentially intellectual, formal, and philo
sophical; the former pietistic and teaching how to
attain union with the divine, both often treating
the same themes. The divergence of their methods
and aims, however, rendered it possible for some, like Bernard, to be mystics only, others, like Hugo of St. Victor and Bonaventura, to work both in scholastic and in mystical theology, others, like Abelard and Duns Scotus, to be scholastics only, and yet others, like Thomas Aquinas, to modify scholasticism with mysticism. From the twelfth century to the present day mysticism has retained a formal place in Roman Catholicism, which draws, nevertheless, a sharp distinction between " false " and " true " mysticism, honoring the latter and condemning the former. The mendicant orders essentially furthered mysticism. On the other hand, the Dominicans extruded a type of mysticism which was essentially German in representatives and characteristics, though finding at least a partial analogue in the teachings of the Dutch Jan van Ruysbroeck (q.v.) and his school. Among these men the best‑known is Eckhart (q.v.), whose chief scholars and successors were Heinrich Amandue Suso and Johann Tauler (qq.v.), and to this same school belonged the Theologia Germanica (q.v.). Unlike the school of Eckhart, the Brethren of the Common Life (see CoMMoN Lmm, BRETHmEN or THE) not only maintained orthodoxy, but also stressed the practical ends of mysticism, this school producing the famous " Imitation of Christ," usually ascribed to Thomas b, Kempis (q.v.). See also FRIENDS OF GOD. To the scholastic mystics of the fifteenth century belonged Dionysius the Carthusinn and Nicholas of Strasburg (qq.v.), while a theosophical and humanistic tendency was manifested by Nicholas of Cuss (see CusA, NICHOLAS OF), Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (see Pico Dxwe MIRANDOLA, GiovANNi), Rauehlin (q.v.), and the fantastic Theophrastus Paraceleus and Agrippa von Nettesheim (q.v.).
The Reformation gave to mysticism a new status, varying according to the different communions then formed. Of the Reformers Luther most occupied himself with it, and in his earlier career
3. Early was most sympathetic with it. He beProtestant came more and more averse to the Mysticism. pseudo‑Dionysius, but throughout his life he highly esteemed Tauler and the Theologia Germanica (q.v.), while in his Eucharistic doctrine he preserved a portion of Roman Catholic mysticism, this partially explaining the bitter spirit of his defenders, who felt, half‑consciously, that they must defend this fragment of mysticism at any cost. Yet mysticism failed to maintain the recognized position that it had formerly held, and attempts were made to ignore, explain away, or excuse Luther's attitude. Dogmatism gained the supremacy, and although there were occasional manifestations of a mysticism that clung to orthodoxy, Lutheranism gave but scant protection to the movement, which is most obvious in Lutheran hymnody. Neither Valentin Weigel nor Jakob Bdhme (qq.v.) can be considered Lutheran mystics, though both maintained a Lutheran position. The former was rather inclined to pantheism, and his writings, posthumously published, were regarded as a type of fanatical heresy and did much to discredit mysticism in the Lutheran Church. B6lune, who exercised considerable Muence in England,

71	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Systioism
was a theosophist rather than a mystic, and his concepts were developed on a non‑Lutheran foundation. The Reformed Church was far less favorable to mysticism than was Lutheranism; Zwingli had no interest in it, Calvin hated it, and Reformed dogma and forms of worship were alike unfavorable to it. In 1671 Gisbertus Voetius (q.v.) could declare that there was no mysticism in the Reformed Church, yet he himself sought, in his Exercitia pietatis, to give a quasi‑vindication of mysticism, only to advance no further than the lowest grade of the older system, and to make sound mysticism end where the true mystics made it begin. Nevertheless; a series of Dutch theologians, partly his contemporaries and partly belonging to the following generation, gave increased scope to mysticism, this number including Jan and Willem Teellinck, Jodocus van Lodenateyn, and Willem Schortinghuis (qq.v.), in whom certain basal concepts of Romance mysticism have been traced. Similar ideas may also be found in the writings of the English Puritan Francis Rous (q.v.). In England, moreover, the writings of Bahme inspired a system of theosophy strongly mingled with visionary elements, represented by John Pordage and Jane Lead (qq.v.), as well as by the latter's son‑in‑law Francis Lee, all of whom inspired the Philadelphian Society which found adherents in many places on the continent. And these writings even influenced the dry School of the Cambridge Platonists (q.v.).
While mysticism thus found but scant recognition in Protestantism, its position was far different in the Roman Catholic communion. In Spain just before the Reformation, mysticism had
;. Post‑ received a fresh impulse, expressed in Reformationthe Abecedario eapiritual of the Minorite
Roman Francisco de Osuna, and shared by his
Catholic brother Minorite, Pedro de Alcantara.
	Mysticism.	At the same time, however, there arose
		the quietistic and antinomian Alom
brados (q.v.). While Juan d'Avila and Ignatius
Loyola were acquitted, after trial by the Inquisition,
of affiliation w,th this sect, the Jesuit founder was
strongly influenced by the new mysticism, which,
duly regulated and conformed to doctrine and or
dinance, he determined to press into the service of
the Church. Nevertheless, he forbade the devotion
of the whole life to mysticism, which was restricted
to certain times. The masterpiece here is his Ez
ercitia spiritualia (q.v.); and mysticism gave the
Counterreformation some of its strongest sinews,
and has exercised on the development of Romanism
a force which is yet scarcely valued as it Should be.
About this same period there arose, through Fran
ciscan and Jesuit influence, a spirit of mysticism in
the new congregation of Discalced Carmelites, the
great names here being Theresa (q.v.) and John of
the Cross (see CARMEwTEs); and from Spain, espe
cially from the Carmelites, the new mysticism spread
to France. Francis of Sales (q.v.) and Mme. de
Chantal also belong here, despite the quietism of
the latter. Decision concerning Miguel de Molinos
(q.v.) is difficult, the problem being whether he
valued mystical experiences so highly as to despise
the sacraments of the Church, his condemnation, if
such was his attitude, being justifiable from the
Roman Catholic point of view. The question of disinterested love of God gave rise in France to the persecution of Mme. de Guyon (q.v.), who exercised an influence over German Protestants, and even over some in Switzerland.
In a certain sense, Pietism (q.v.), the most important movement in the German Church since the Reformation, furthered mysticism. Spener, while
not himself a mystic, was not unfavor5. Late able to the system, which he aided by
Protestant commencing to break down dogmatic
Mysticism. barriers. Both Johann Wilhelm Peter‑
son and Gottfried Arnold (qq.v.) were closely associated with Pietism, and the latter did valuable service for the history of mysticism in the concluding portions of his great church history. To this same period belongs the Berleburg Bible (see BIBLES, ANNOTATED, I., 1 3), and in the second decade of the century there arose, in distant connection with emigrants from the Cevennes, inspiration communities in the Wetterau (see INSPIRED, THE). Mention should also be made, in this connection, of Gerhard Tersteegen (q.v.), who occupies an important position in the mysticism of all ages. The second half of the eighteenth century, with its prevailing Enlightenment (q.v.), which was fanatically hostile to all that was not obvious at first sight, was moat unfavorable to mysticism. Nevertheless, even this period had such representatives as Samuel Collenbusch, Jung Stilling, Johann Caspar Lavater (qq.v.). Friedri6h Christoph Oetinger and Emanuel Swedenborg (qq.v.) were theosophists rather than mystics, while Philipp Matthhus Hahn and Johann Michael Hahn (qq.v.) occupied a middle ground. On the Roman Catholic side the chief place is due Johann Michael Sailer (q.v.).
It might have been expected that the revolution in thought in the nineteenth century would have given a new impulse to mysticism, especially in view of the romantic movement. It is true that the name of mysticism was again honored; that the memory of such mystics as Eckhart and Jakob B6hme was revived; and that a Superstitious and credulous Romish history of mysticism was written by Johann Joseph Ggrres (q.v.). Both Romaniats and Protestants did much for the history of mysticism in this period, and in the former communion the theory of mysticism was still studied in traditional fashion. All this, however, was the history and theory of mysticism, not mysticism itself. A real mystic, i.e., one who devotes himself to the mystic life and influences others mystically, can scarcely be found in the nineteenth century. The mystical spirit has not vanished, it is true, but the mystical life has disappeared. The reason probably lies in the ever‑increasing unrest of the time, which, though a consequence of the inevitable progress of development, renders impossible that quietude and unworldly meditation which mysticism demands; yet it is not impossible that the time will come when, perhaps under new forms, mysticism will again arise and assert its rights.
(S. M. DEBTBCHt.)
English mysticism may be traced from Sir Thomas Browne (q.v.; Religio Medici) and Thomas Jack‑

Mysticism	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	72
Nabateeane
son (q.v. 1; Being and Attributes of God), who had
been steeped in Plato and the Alexandrian Neopla
tonism of Plotinus and Origen. The Cambridge
Platonists (q.v.) Ralph Cudworth (q.v.; True In
		tellectual System of the Universe), Henry
	6. Mysti‑ More (q.v.; Simple Sayings), and John
	cism in	Smith (q.v.; " The Way or Method of
	England. Attaining Divine Knowledge," and
		" On the Existence and Nature of
God " in Select Discourses of John Smith, 4th ed.,
Cambridge, 1859), especially Smith, owed their
mysticism more to Plotinus than to Plato. Along
side of this movement arose another under George
Fox (q.v.), subject of many mystical experiences
and founder of the Society of Friends (see FRIENDS).
In the eighteenth century the questions thrown up
by the deistic controversy (see DEISM) laid bare the
essential opposition of two modes of thought‑one
basing religion ultimately on reason, in which the
endeavor was made to come to an understanding
with the Scriptures, authority, and the rational
nature of Christianity, the other allying itself with
the Quietists, Fdnelon, and Madame Guyon, the
Moravians, and the German mystics. The chief rep
resentative of the latter was William Law (q.v.;
The Way to Divine Knowledge) who kindled his
torch at the flame of Jacob Boehme (q.v.). In the
nineteenth century were Samuel Taylor Coleridge
(q.v.) who was saturated with Plato, Schelling, and
Jacobi, John Frederick Denison Maurice (q.v.), and
among poets, William Wordsworth (q.v.; cf. Lines
Composed a Few Miles above Tintern Abbey), and
Arthur Tennyson (d. 1892; cf. The Higher Panthe
ism and The Ancient Sage).
	In America mysticism has appeared in Jonathan
Edwards the Elder (q.v.). It was induced by his
monistic metaphysics‑God the only real Being, by
		his rare sense of the presence and
	7. In	agency of God, by his intuitive esthetic
	America. appreciation of the divine excellehcy
		and beauty, by his prolonged and ex
haustive contemplation on the utter insignificance
of man and his absolute dependence upon God, and
by an emotional nature of surpassing richness for
the most part held in check or suppressed by rigor
ous self‑discipline (cf. " Diary," Works, i. 60‑62,
New York, 1829; sermon entitled " A Divine and
Supernatural Light," etc., ib., vi. 171 sqq.; and A
Treatise concerning Religious Affections, ib., vol. v.).
In the last century mysticism was associated with
the " Transcendental " movement in New England
(see TRANSCENDENTALISM; and cf., e.g., R. W. Emer
son, The Over‑Soul and The Method of Nature), due
in great measure to the noetic or rational quality
involved in it. More recently the psychological
phenomena of mysticism are receiving attention,
and experiments with various kinds of intoxicants
have been made with a view to ascertaining how
far these are similar to true mystical states. The
suggestion made by Prof. William James that mys
tical states may be " only sudden and great ex
tensions of the ordinary field of consciousness,"
where the question is raised whether in this expe
rience tracts of consciousness are actually uncov
ered or there is a true revelation of reality, is
destined to stimulate to more painstaking and
exhaustive inquiry on this obscure subject (cf. Jour
nal of Philosophy, Psychology, arid Scientific Meth
ods, " A Suggestion About Mysticism," vol. vii.,
no. 4, pp. 85 sqq.). 	C. A. BECKWITH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: An introduction to eastern mysticism is furnished by: E. H. Palmer, Oriental Mysticism. A Treatise on the Sufstic and Unitarian Theosophy of the Persians, London, 1867; W. S. Lilly, in Religious Systems of the World, London, 1893; C. H. A. Bjerregaard, Sufi Interpretations of . . Omar Khayyam and Fitzgerald, New York, 1902; F. Hadland Davis, The Persian Mystics, London, 1907. Besides the literature under the articles on the mystics named in the text, on western mysticism consult: W. R. Inge, Christian Mysticism, London, 1899; idem, Studies of English Mystics, ib. 1907; idem, Personal Idealism and Mysticism, ib. 1907 (by a specialist); R. A. Vaughan, Hours with the mystics, New York, 1893 (a classic); J. D. Dalgaims, The German Mystics of the Fourteenth Century, London, 1850; I. A. Domer, History of Protestant Theology, particularly in Germany, Edinburgh, 1871; J. Tulloch, Rational Theology anal Christian Philosophy in England in the Seventeenth Century, London, 1874; H. L. J. Heppe, Geschichte den quietistischen Mystik in den katholischen Kirche, Berlin, 1875; idem, Geschichte des Pietiamua and den Mystik in den reformierten Kirche, Leyden, 1879; G. Matheson, Aids to the Study of German Theology, Edinburgh, 1876; W. Preger, Geachichte des deutschen Mystic im Mittelalter, Leipaic,1881; J. Bigelow, Molinos the Quietist, New York, 1882; W. Binder, J. K. Dippel, Der Freigeist aus den Pietismus, Bonn, 1882; M. Ebner, M. Ebner and Heinrich von Ndrdlingen, Freiburg, 1882; S. E. Herrick, Some Heretics of Yesterday, London, 1984; J. Hunt, History of Religious Thought in England, 3 vols., ib. 1884; F. Splittgerber, Aua den innern Leben. Ein Beitrag zur christlichen Mystik, Leipsic, 1884; G. d'Alviella, Contemporary Evolution of Religious Thought in England, America and India, London, 1886; T. M., Spanish Mystics, ib. 1886; E. Renan, Studies of Religious History, ib. 1886; C. du Prel, Die Philosophie den Mystik, Leipsic, 1885, Eng. tmnal., The Philosophy of Mysticism, London, 1888; J. Walker, Theology and Theologians of Scotland, Edinburgh, 1888; G. Visser, Hendrik Mande. Broydrage tot de kennis den Noord‑Nederlandsche mystiek, The Hague, 1880; Thomas h Vallgornera, Mystics theologia divi Thomm, August, 1890; F. Paulhan, Le Nouveau Mysticisms, Paris, 1891; A. Auger, 9tude our lee mystiques des PaysBas au moyen dye, Brussels, 1892; J. L. Adam, Le Mysticisme h la Renaissance, Paris, 1893; E. O. A. Merx, Idee and Grundlinien einer Geschichte den Mystik, Heidelberg, 1893; H. Schauerte, Mystik, Paderhorn, 1894; A. Lillie, Modern Mystics and Modern Magic, New York, 1894; C. H. A. Bjerregaard, Lectures on Mysticism and Talks on Kindred Subjects, ib., 1896; idem, Lectures on Mysticism and Nature Worship, Chicago 1897; V. Charbonnel, Les Mystiques dons la liWrature pr6aente, Paris, 1898; C. Seltmann, Angelus Silesius and seine Mystik, Breslau, 1890; (cf. Angelus Silesius; Selection from the Rhymes of a German Mystic; Tranal. in the original Meter by Paul Carus, Chicago, 1909); J. F. Grierson, Modern Mysticism and Other Essays, London, 1899; A. Peltzer, Deutsche Mystik and deutsche Kunst, Strasburg, 1899; A. L. Thorold, An Essay in Aid of the Better Appreciation of Catholic Mysticism, London, 1900; E. C. Gregory. An Introduction to Christian Mysticism, ib. 1901; idem. A Little Book of Heavenly Wisdom; Selections from English Prose Mystics, ib. 1904; C. Harrison, Notes on the Margins. An Enquiry into Mysticism, ib. 1901; R. Steiner, Die Mystik im Aufgange den neuzeitlichen Geisteslebens, Berlin, 1901; W. James, Varieties of Religious Experience, chap. x., London, 1902 (valuable); R. Langenberg, Quelleri and Forachungen zur Geschichte den deutschen Mydik, Bonn, 1902; Juliana, an Anchorite of Norwich; %VI Revelations of divine Love chewed to Mother Juliana of Norwich, 1373, London, 1902; J. Batteiger, Der Pietiamua in Bayreuth, Berlin, 1903; E. A. Kernwart, Bxbliothek berahmter Mystiker, Leipsic, 1903 sqq.; W. P. Swainson, Christian Mystics, London 1903; W. R. Inge, Light Life, and Love; Selections from German mystics of the Middle Ages, ib. 1904; A. H. Bradford, The Inward Light, New York, 1905; W. R. Nicoll, The Garden of Nuts. With an Essay on Christian Mysticism, London, 1905; S. H. Gem, Law and Christian Practice and Christian Mysticism, Oxford, 1905;

"l3	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	itylstbieiteesne
	un
Naa
J. B. Shearer, Modern Mysticism, New York, 1905; A. Hegler, Beitrdge zur Geschichte der Mystik in der Reformalionszeit, Berlin, 1908; A. E. Waite, Studies in Mysticism, London, 1906; F. Pfeiffer, Deutsche Mystiker, Gottingen, 1907 sqq.; E. Receiac, Essay on the Basis of Mystic Knowledge, London, 1907; W. M. Scott, Aspeds of Christian Mysticism, ib. 1907; H. Delacroix, nudes d histoire et de psychologie du mysticisms, Paris, 1908; F. Gieseeke, Die Mystik Jo. Baptist van Helmonts (1677'‑1 Bl,4), B3hmen, 1908; F. von Hiigel, The Mystical Element of Re‑
NAASENES. See OPHrrEs.
NAASENIAN HYMN. See OPHrrm, § 2. NABATjEANS.
I. Early History. Documentary Testimony (§ 1). Racial Affinity (§ 2).
11. History from 312 B.C. Till the Roman Period (§ 1). Under the Romans (§ 2). Significance, Language, Religion (§ 3).
I. Early History: The Nabatmans were a Semitic people known at least as early as 312 B.C., inhabiting the region so long identified with the
Edomites between the Dead Sea and I. Docu‑ the eastern arm of the Red Sea. mentary Whether they can be traced to a still Testimony. earlier time depends upon the inter‑
pretation of certain passages which are by most scholars taken as referring to this peoplc. The passages in question are, first, those in the Old Testament which mention Nebajoth (firstborn of Ishmael; Gen. xxv. 13, xxviii. 9, xxxvi. 3; I Chron. i. 29; cf. Isa. Ix. 7, where the connection is with Kedar, both peoples being pastoral, while the relationship is wholly congruent with the implications in the Genesis passages). It is to be noted that if the Nabatmans are meant in these passages, Arabic affinity is implied. The second class of passages are from the cuneiform inscriptions. Under the form Na‑ba‑ai‑te is mentioned a pastoral people, associated with Kedar, on a cylinder inscription of Asshurbanipal; their " king " Natnu had taken part in an Arabic revolt against Assyrian overlordship, and they had been punished by the Assyrian monarch. The inscription describes them as living in a remote region. Other notices of them appear from the same general period in inscriptions made under Tiglath‑Pileser, Sargon, and Sennacherib; but in these cases they are assigned to the Aramean stock. After these references the NabatTans (if they are the people meant) are lost to sight, so far as reference to them goes, until 312 B.C., after which notices become frequent. Thus Diodorus Siculus (Bibliotheca, xix. 94‑100, cf. ii. 48‑50, iii. 41‑43) speaks of them as mostly nomadic Arabs, well‑to‑do through their command of commerce in myrrh and incense. It is significant that Diodorus, though he calls them Arabs, notes that they use Syriac (Aramaic) characters in writing, and this undoubtedly explains the classification made in the Assyrian inscriptions referred to above. By Strabo (" Geography," xvi. 18‑26) Nabatea is described as a populous country not far from the
ligion as Studied in.Saint Catherine of Genoa and her Friends, GSttingen, 1908; A. W. Hopkinson, The Mystery of Mysticism, London, 1909; R. M. Jones, Studies in myaticat Religion, ib. 1909; J. Paehen, Paycholopie des mystiques ehraiens, Paris, 1909; Meister Bckhart's Sermons, Eng. transl. by C. Field, London, 1910; Schaff, Christian Church, v. 1, pp. 636 sqq.
MYTHOLOGY. See COMPARATIVE RELIGION, V., 3, VI., §§ 7‑8.
Elamitic Gulf, rich in pasturage. There seems to be a probability, however, that Strabo did not distinguish clearly between Nabatmans and Idumeans. Pliny (" Natural History," v. 12, xii. 17) calls the Nabatmans Arabian neighbors of the Syrians, and connects them with Kedar (cf. Isa. Ix. 7). I Mace. v. 25 reports that Judas the Maccabee on a transJordanic expedition when three days beyond the Jordan met the Nabatmans, who were friendly and gave information concerning the situation of the Jews who were in Gilead. According to I Mace. ix. 35, Jonathan, when in flight from Bacchides, left his baggage with the Nabatmans so as not to be encumbered with it, and those Nabataeans were not far from Medeba (q.v.). Josephus (Ant., XIII., i. 2) retells the story of I Mace. ix. 35 in a slightly variant form, and (I., xii. 4) makes the name Nabatene cover the region between the Euphrates and the Red Sea (cf. Strabo, above). Further frequent references are made by Josephus to incidents in their history, as in Amt., XIII., xiii. 5, XIV. v. 1, XX., iv. 1, etc. In Ant., I., xii. 4, Josephus evidently means to connect the Nabatwans with the Nebajoth of Genesis, and so to make the people Arabs.
There are two apparent difficulties in this identification. The first is philological, Nebajoth being spelt with a tau (t), while in the inscriptions and on
the coins the word is written with teth . Racial (t). On this ground Glaser (see BibAffinity. liography) refuses the identification.
While such a transmutation is rare, it is not without parallel, especially under the influence of Hellenism. The second difficulty is the matter of race affiliation. By Nebajoth in Genesis Arabic connections are clearly implied, and with this agree Diodorus, Strabo, Pliny, and Josephus (inferentially). But the fact that in their writing the Nabatmans used Aramaic seems at first sight to justify those Assyrian inscriptions which speak of them as Arameans. The reconciliation is not difficult, however, since Aramaic was the language of commerce and intercourse in quite early times (cf. II Kings, xviii. 26); the Nabataeans were carriers of commerce and therefore employed that language. It is corroborative of this conclusion that the names in the Nabatman inscriptions are clearly Arabic, though the language is Aramaic. Still further, while the identification of this people with the Nebajoth of the Old Testament can not be a matter of demonstration, there is justification for the identification. One ground is the well‑known tenacity of existence of tribal names in the Arabic sphere. A second

Nabstmans	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	74
Nahum
	ground is that if, as some hold, the Nabatteans rep
	resent one of the migrations from Arabia (q.v.), the
	earlier mention in the Old Testament and the As
	syrian monuments would be of the " advance guard "
	of the migration. The advance of the Edomites
	into Judea (cf. Mal. i. 1‑5) in the early part of the
	sixth century is explained by the pressure upon
	them from the rear by the Nabataean hosts, espe
	cially as three centuries later the Nabateeans were
in possession of the Edomitic region.
	II. History from 312 B.C.: What is practically
	consecutive history begins with the account by
	Diodorus Siculus (ut sup.) of the expedition sent
	against the Nabatmans in 312 B.C. by Antigonus
	under Athenseus after the former had driven Ptolemy
Lagus from Co91e‑Syria.	This force of 4,000 foot
	and 600 horse arrived at Petra, then
	:. Till the and for centuries the chief city and
Roman	stronghold, while the males were away,
Period.	captured and looted it. But on the re
	turn march due precautions were not
	taken and in a night attack the Nabatfeans almost an
	nihilated the force. A punitive expedition sent out
	under Demetrius invested Petra, but had to return
	content with pledges for good behavior on the part
	of the inhabitants. The account makes of them a
	pastoral people engaged also in commerce, and liv
	ing under tribal or patriarchal government. From
	this time on information comes in general only
	through mention of the rulers of the people. The
	next notice in order of time is in I Mace. v. 8, at
which time the ruler was a prince (Gk. tyrannos;
not a king) known to history as Aretas I., with
whom Jason the high priest took refuge. A little
later than this (164‑160 B.C.; cf. I Mace. v. 25, ix.
	35) Nabat&ans and leaders of the Maccabean party
were friends. A notice by Agatharchides (a Greek
historian who flourished c. 140 B.C.) reports that
the Nabateans held the Gulf of Akaba and the port
of Elath (cf. C. Mtiller, Geographia Greed minores, i.
178, Paris, 1855). The declension of the Ptolemaic
and Seleucidan kingdoms c. 100 B.C. was this peo
	ple's opportunity, which they improved under a
	King Aretas II. (possibly 110‑96 B.C.; this king is
called Erotimus by Justin the historian, Liber his
toriarum Philippicarum, XXXIX., v. 5‑6) by greatly
	extending the area which they controlled. Through
this they came into conflict with the ambitious
schemes for conquest of Alexander Jannieus, whom
under a King Obedas they severely defeated (Jo
	sephus, Ant., XIII., xiii. 5), and a little later de
feated and killed Antiochus XII. of Syria (Jo
	sephus, War, I., iv. 7). Josephus (Ant., XIII., xv.
	2; War, I., iv. 8) reports that the Nabataeans took
	possession of Caele‑Syria under Aretas III. (85‑60
B.C.; probably the Aretas known as Philhetlenos,
and on his coins as " Harbath king of the Naba
teans "), and again defeated Alexander Jannaeus,
this time near Adida, and for a time at least con
trolled Damascus.	They also later supported
	Hyrcanus in his conflict with Aristobulus (see HAS
MONEANB, 1 4; cf. Josephus, Ant., XIV., i. 4‑ii. 3).
This brought them into touch with the Romans,
and Scaurus made an expedition against Petra,
	ravaged the country, but found the capital diffi
	cult of access, and was glad to compound for a
sum of 300 talents (Josephus, Ant., XIV., v. 1; War,'T., viii. 1).
In 55 B.C. Gabinius conducted a successful campaign against them (.Tosephus, Ant., XIV., vi. 4; War, T., viii. 7). Between 50 and 28 B.C. a Kin; Malchus (Malichos I.) is known, who in 47 B.C. furnished mounted soldiery for the Romans, and this indicates the practical absorption of
a. Under Nabatea into the Roman Empire.
the During the Parthian invasion of PalesRomsns. tine (c. 40 B.C.) Malchus clearly favored the, Parthians, declined to support Herod, and later was fined by the Romans for his course in the affair. In 32 B.C. Malchus furnished soldiery to Antony, but later, defaulting in payment of tribute, was defeated. Two important inscriptions relate to this king (CIS, i. 2, nos. 158, 174). Under Obodas IT. (28‑29 ‑B.C.) the Nabataeans furnished soldiery to the Romans in the latter's campaign in South Arabia, 25‑24 B.C. He also left his mark on the coinage. Aretas IV. (9 B.c.‑40 A.D.) was confirmed in his kingdom by Augustus, though the latter had intended to add the Nabataean realm to Herod's dominions (Josephus, Ant., XVT., x. 9). it was doubtless this king who assumed the title rahem‑ammah, " friend of (his) people," probably as an indication of his patriotic intentions and feeling. He furnished auxiliary troops to Varus for use against the Jews (Josephus, Ant., XVIL, x. 9; War, IT., v. 1), and came into conflict with Herod Antipas, who had married his daughter and then put her away that he might marry Herodias (see HEROD AND His FAMILY, TI., § 2). He escaped a Roman punitive expedition, the result of this quarrel, only by reason of the death of Tiberius. It was this Aretas whose governor was in control of Damascus when Paul was there (IT Cor. xi. 32; cf. Acts ix. 23‑25; Josephus, Ant., XX., iv. 1; also see ARETAs, where the related questions are discussed); the fact shows a great though short‑lived expansion of Nabatman power, and is negatively corroborated by the non‑existence of Damascene coins of the period from Roman mints. A very, considerable mass of original material is known from this reign in the shape of numerous coins and twenty inscriptions. It is somewhat doubtful whether the Abias of Josephus (Ant., XX., iv. 1) was a Nabateean king; if he was, there was probably a change in dynasty. Malchus TT. (48‑71) furnished troops for the Romans in the Jewish War, is known through a number of inscriptions, and in his time Damascus was lost to the Nabataeans. Rabel (71‑106) left a considerable number of coins and inscriptions covering a large area extending from between Damascus and Palmyra to a distance south of Petra. Apparently in the early years of his reign he was a minor under the regency of his mother Sekilath, sister of Malchus. He was the last independent ruler of his people, for in 106 A.D. Arabia Petraea was made a Roman province by Cornelius Palma, governor of Syria, the province including the two most noted cities of the Nabataeans, Bostra in the north and Petra in the south. Of the Nabateean people as a nation nothing more is heard, and they are merged in " the Arabians."
The Nabataeans are of especial interest histor‑

75	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Nabatsaans
Nahum
ically from their relations to commerce, the mer
chandise from the East and Southeast having for at
			least four centuries and perhaps for a
	3. Signifi‑ longer period to pass through their ter
		cance,	ritory and to pay them tribute. They
	Language, have, moreover, left very interesting
	Religion. cultural remains, especially at Petra
			(see SELAH), at El‑Hejr, and other
places. They should be noted also for their patriot
ism, which enabled them at times to defeat and at
other times to compete on even terms with the
Syrian and Roman powers. Their position on the
border of the desert and partly in it is registered in
the remains of their language, in which a number
of Arabisms are taken up, these increasing in num
ber toward the south. In the inscriptions the let
ters are grouped in words, and the letters axe often
connected in a way which suggests the Arabic and
Syriac as opposed to the ordinary individualism of
Hebrew and Aramaic writing. Of their religion
little is known; the chief deity seems to have been
Dusara (Gk. Duaares), according to Arabic etymol
ogy meaning " god of (the mountain district of)
Sara," i.e., the mountain region between the Dead
Sea and the Gulf of Akaba. He is sometimes iden
tified with Tammuz (q.v.), and appears to have
been born of the virgin goddess Allat. He was rep
resented under the form of an oblong stone twice as
high as it was broad and erected upon a pedestal.
He seems to have been worshiped under a number of
names into most of which El, " God," enters as an
element. Allat, a goddess widely known in Arabia,
was also worshiped, and her name enters frequently
into the composition of proper names. Two deities
known as Manutu and ?~aishah were adored at
Hegra. The monuments indicate that some at least
of the kings were deified, possibly not till after
death. 		GEo. W. GILMORE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. M. Quatrimbre, Melangis d'hia"re et de philolopie orientate, pp. 58‑159, Paris, n.d.; idem, in Nouveau Journal aaiatique, xv (1835), 5‑55, 97‑137, 209‑240; J. G. Droyeen, Gesehichle des Hellenismus, ii. 2, pp. 5559, 2d ed., Hamburg, 1838‑43; JBL, 1882, pp. 103‑115; E. Kuhn, Die dadtiache and burperliche Verj~ssunp des romischen Reicha, ii. 185‑189, Leipsie, 1885; M. de Vogad, Syrie centrale, pp. 100‑124, Paris, 1809; Schrader, KAT, pp. 147 152‑152 et passim; idem, Keilinachriften and Gewhichtaforachunp, pp. 99‑118, Giessen, 1878; F. Delitzsch, Wo lap daa Parodies, pp. 298‑301, Leipeic, 1881; C. Huber, Journal d'un voyage en Arabie, Paris, 1881; P. Berger, L'Arabie avant Mahomet d'aprh lea inscriptions, Paris, 1885; G. Perrot, Hist. de Tart dans 1'antiquitE, iv. 344‑348, 389‑394, Paris, 1887; F. Lenormant, Hiat. ancienne de l'orient, vi. 480‑470, Paris, 1888; . F. Vigouroux, M6lanpea bibliquea, pp. 308‑321, Paris, 1889; idem, Dictionnaire, face. xxvii., 1444‑1455; E. Glaser, Skizze den Gewhichte and Geopraphie Arabiens, vol. ii. passim, Berlin, 1890; P. Berger, Hid. de l'Mriture, p. 277, Paris, 1891; B. Miese, Geschichte den priechischen and makedonischen Staaten, i. 300 sqq., Goths, 1893; C. Clermont‑Gannesu, Recuea d'archiolopie orientate, i. 39‑74, ii. 185‑234, 388‑377, iv. 191, Paris, 1898‑1902; M. J. Lagrange. in Revue bablique, 1897, pp. 223‑224; idem, 9trudes sun lea religions almitiques, pp. 7083, 501‑504, Paris, 1905; F. H. Vincent, in Revue biblique, 1898, pp. 587‑588; R. Dussaud and F. Maelere, Voyage arch6olopiqueau Safa et done is Djebel ad‑Drdz, Paris, 1901; idem, Missions done lea regions ddsertiques de to Syrie moyenne. ib. 1903; H. Hilprecht, Explorations in Bible Lands, Philadelphia, 1903; R. E. Br3nnow and A. Domassewski, Die Provineia Arabia, Strasburg, 1904; R. Duasaud, in JA, 1904, pp. 189‑238; SchUrer, Geschichte, i. 726‑744 (contains matter not in the Eng. tranel., I., i. 345‑362);
JE, ix. 139; and the literature under HmwoNSANs and SELEUCIDAfl.
On the coins consult: Revue numismatique, 1858, pp. 292‑316, 382‑385 (by Due de Luynes), 1888, pp. 153188 (by M. de VogiiQ; III., v (1887), 369‑377 (by SorlinDorigny and Babelon); Levy, Numismatiache Zeitachrift, iii (1871), 445‑448; De saulcy, in Annuaire de to sociltb franvaiae de numismatique, iv. 1 (1873, 1‑35; idem, in M6lanpes de numismatique, iii (1882), 193‑197.
On the inscriptions consult: CIS, II., i (1893‑1902), 181 189; J. Euting, Nabatdiwhe InachriJten aua Arabien, Berlin, 1885; D'useaud et Maeler, in Voyage, ut sup., pp. 108, 187; ZDMG, 1809, pp. 150‑154, 652‑654, 1884, 144, 854; E. Renan in JA, VIL, ii (1873), 388‑382; idem, Documents recueillis done Is nord de CArabie, Paris, 1884; Hal6vy, in REJ, is (1884), 8‑18; P. Berger, in Comptea rendua de racad6mie des inscriptions, IV., xii (1884), 377393; C. Doughty, Documents 6pigraphiquea recueillis dana Is nord de 1'Arabie, Paris, 1884; A. Neubauer, in Studia Biblica, pp. 209‑232, Oxford, 1885; JA, I%., xiii (1898), 304‑318, 485197, x (1897), 197‑207, 214‑217, xi (1898), 129‑148 (by M. de Vogitl;), x (1897), 518‑535, xi (1898), 523‑533 (by C. Clermont‑Ganneau); G. A. Cooke, TextBook of North Semitic Inscriptions, pp. 214‑282, London, 1903.
NABONIDUS, nab"a‑nai' [or nf] dos. See BABYLONIA, VI., 1, and VI., 7, § 3.
NADAB: Second king of Israel, son and successor of Jeroboam I. His dates according to the old chronology are 954‑952, according to Kamphausen and the modern school 915‑914. The Biblical source is I Kings xiv. 20, xv. 25‑30. He was evidently aggressive in character and aimed to carry out the policy of his father in the relations with Judah, for his death occurred while he was besieging Gibbethon, a town of the Philistines and therefore appertaining to Judah. He was assassinated by Baasha (q,v.), who exterminated the family of Jeroboam and seized the throne, thus establishing a new dynasty.
NAHUM, n@'hom: One of the minor prophets. The name means "comforter." In i. 1 the prophet is called " the Elkoshite " which, according to Jerome, ad loc., refers to a village in Galilee, probably represented by the modern al‑Kauzah in Naphtali; while Epiphanius seeks the site near Bet‑Jibrin in the vicinity of Eleutheropolis. Others, without sufficient reason, have seen Elkosh in Capernaum, explained as " village of Nahum "; and the modern Orientals regard the village of al‑gush near Mosul as the birthplace of the prophet on the basis of a sixteenth‑century tradition. The view of either Jerome or Epiphanius is preferable (of. Nah. i. 9, 12, 13, ii. 1). The supposition that Nahum wrote in Assyria is purely subjective, for his acquaintance with Assyrian matters is merely what any inhabitant of Palestine could have had from the Assyrian invasion. The Assyrian loan words minzar, " prince," and tifsar, " captain " (iii. 17), may, in like manner, be derived from the sojourn of the Assyrians in Palestine (cf. Jer. li. 27). It is generally held that the book, which was indeed " comforting " to Israel in its prophecy of divine vengeance on Assyria, was written in the reign of Hezekiah. Others make Nahum a contemporary of Manasseh, while Ewald dates him in the reign of Josiah, and Hitzig still later; Cocceius places him in the period of Jehoiachim and Clemens of Alexandria in that of Zedekiah; while Bochart makes him later than Jeremiah and Ezekiel. It is thus evident that the text gives no certain evidence of its date of composition. Such

Nairne	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	"P8
Names
	passages as i. 11‑12, ii. 3 show that Sennacherib's
	expedition against Jerusalem was a thing of the
	past, nor is there any reason to suppose that i. 14
	is a prophecy of the assassination of this Assyrian
	monarch. The most important passage in this con
	nection is iii. 8 aqq., which refers to the destruction
	of No Amon (Thebes) by Assurbanipal shortly after
	664 (see ASSYRIA, VI., 3, § 14). It is accordingly
	probable that the prophecy of Nahum is to be dated
	about 660, in the reign of Manasseh. The book is
	an organic whole, its three chapters corresponding
to its three chief themes.	The first chapter con
	tains the introduction and subject of the prophecy;
	the second a description of the judgment of Nineveh
	by an army sent by Yahweh; and the third the
	blood‑guiltiness of Nineveh which brought destruc
	tion on her. [The date of the book is more prob
	ably not long after the death of the last great king
	of Assyria, Asshurbanipal, 626 B.C., when the de
cay of the empire began. a.F.M.]	(W. VOLCgt.)
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: The best commentary is in G. A. Smith's
	Book of the Twelve, vol. ii., London, 1898. Among the
	many other commentaries may be named: H. A. Grimm,
	Dusseldorf, 1790; E. J. Greve, Amsterdam, 1793; M.
	Neumann, Breslau, 1808; H. Ewald, Propheten, ii. 349
	360, Stuttgart, 1840; O. Stmuss, Berlin, 1853; M. Brei
	teneicher, Munich, 1861; L. Reinke, Munster, 1867;
	P. Meinert, Bielefeld, 1868; C. F. Keil, Eng. transl.,
	Edinburgh, 1868; J. A. Lindgren, Stockholm, 1872; R.
	Gandell, in Bible Commentary, vol. vi., London, 1876;
	F. Hitzig, 4th ed., Leipsic, 1881; E. B. Pusey, in his Minor
	Prophets, new ed., vol. v., London, 1907; C. von Orelli,
	in his Minor Prophets, Edinburgh, 1893; A. B. David
	son, Cambridge, 1896; W. Nowack, Die kleinen Propheten,
	pp. 226‑246, GSttingen, 1897; O. Happel, Wiiraburg,
	1902; C. Marti, Dodekaprophdon, pp. 303‑325, Tdbingen,
	1904. Consult further the works on O. T. introduction:
	H. Gunkel, in ZATW, xiii. (1893), 233‑244; A. Billerbeck
	and A. Jeremias, in Beitrage zur semitiachen Sprachwisaen
	achaft, iii. (1895), 1 sqq.; P. Haupt, in JBL, xxvi. 1 (1907);
	idem, The Book of Nahum: a new metrical Translation,
	Baltimore, 1908; Vigourous, Dictionnaire, fase. asvii.,
cols. 1462‑69.
	NAIRNE, nArn, ALEXANDER: Church of Eng
	land; b. at Hunsdon, Hertfordshire, Jan. 17, 1863.
	He was educated at Jesus College, Cambridge (B.A.,
	1884; M.A., 1887; fellow, 1887‑92), and was ordered
deacon in 1887 and ordained priest in 1888.	He
	was curate of Great St. Mary's, Cambridge (1887
	1889), vice‑principal of the Cambridge Clergy Train
	ing School (1887‑91), assistant master of Harrow
	School (1891‑92), and curate of Hadleigh (1892
1894).	He has been rector of Tewin since 1894,
	examining chaplain to the bishop of St. Albans
	since 1899, and professor of Hebrew and Old‑Testa
	ment exegesis in King's College, London, since 1900.
	He collaborated with H. C. Beaching in The Bible
	Doctrine of the Atonement (London, 1907); and con
tributed to The One Volume Commentary (1909).
NAMES.
	I. Primitive and Ethnic	Names as Significant (§ I).
	Names.	Religious Influence upon
	Significance and Power of		Names (§ 2).
		the Name (§ 1).	Personality Expressed (§ 3).
	Use in Taboo and Magic	The Divine Name (§ 4).
		(§ 2).	The Name Jesus Christ
II. Hebrew Names.		(§ 5).
	I. Primitive and Ethnic Names: Among primi
tive peoples and in the ethnic religions the functions
and ideas attached to the name are exceedingly
important. It often represents and stands for the
sum total and potency of the owner. " No being could exist without a name " (Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, p. 294). Thus r. Signifi‑ " the name of a god was the god himcance and self " (Budge, Egyptian Magic, p. 162); Power of hence utterance of it was among many the Name. peoples avoided, since merely pronouncing it might summon its possessor who would take summary vengeance on discovering that he had been lightly invoked. Hindus believe that when Kali calls a person by name, that person dies. To know the secret name of a deity or a devil was, in the eyes of the Egyptians, equivalent to such control over that being as to compel him to do man's will. In the Mandaean system it is taught that Hibil Ziwa descended to the lowest hell, wrested from its king the secret name of darkness, and so gained power over all hells (see MANDYANB). The legend of Mar Ebedishu states that an evil female spirit sought to seduce him from the path of rectitude, but that he bound her and compelled her to reveal her twelve names, by which her power for evil was nullified for those who knew them (Folklore, xi., 1900, pp. 151‑152). Similarly, according to Egyptian belief, the name of a human being was as much a part of him as his ka or his body. Indeed, a man's totality of being is in the books and in the inscriptions often summed up by the mention of these constituents. Man's perpetuity is dependent upon that of his name, and the blotting‑out of the latter is equivalent to his destruction (cf. Ps. cix. 13; and especially Rev. iii. 5). Creation, according to the same people, was accomplished by the creator's utterance of his own potent name. The power given by the name led to the conception of the secret name (cf. Rev. xix. 12). It was particularly knowledge of this which gave power to him possessing the secret. Thus Isis gained control over the great god Ra by making a serpent bite him and inducing him in his agony to divulge his secret name (Budge, ut sup., p. 137). Yet when the name was engraved on a sacred object, as a scarab, the sanctity of the object protected it from misuse (Wiedemann, ut sup., p. 294). Out of the conception of the power of the name grew the bravado of the Egyptians in which they pretended to know the secret names of their deities and attempted to browbeat the gods into doing the will of man. The deceased, entering the hall of judgment, could pass the ordeal only by knowing the secret names of the judges, of the parts of the hall, even of his own members. Part of the catechism which was supposed to pass him through the trial consisted of these secret designations.
In taboo and magic (see COMPARATIVE RELIGION, VI., 1, b, c) the name comes much into consideration. Since the name is a part of the person, it can be used as can the hair or clothing or any other of a man's belongings to work him ill. Here again enters a motive to keep the name secret. a. Use in Christian mothers of Abyssinia often Taboo and keep a child's baptismal name secret,
	Magic.	the object being to protect the child
		from witchcraft, since a wizard or
witch can not act against a person whose name is
not known. With this idea a Malay of Borneo

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
77
changes his name after a serious illness so that the spirit which caused the attack may not find him to afflict him a second time. Names are changed under other circumstances also, as at the crises of life, at puberty, at initiation into the secrets or tribal mysteries. Occasionally the ultimate proof of friendship is exchange of names‑each of the friends is thus thoroughly in the power of the other, or, according to another interpretation, each protects the other by assuming his , name. Some Polynesian parents change their names at the birth of the first child, others at each addition to the family, all of this to avoid recognition by the spirits and the use of the name to do harm to them or their progeny. Malays of some tribes will not utter their own names aloud, and the same is true of the Banks Islanders; yet to them a nameless person is unthinkable, a nonentity. Similarly Australian blacks believe that their lives may be taken by the use of their name, and with other peoples to write a name is to use sorcery. Among many tribes of India, of Mongolia, and of Africa, the wife never utters the husband's name, while the males of the Solomon and Pelew Islands will not pronounce the women's names, and the husbands in some Indian tribes of California never call their wives by name or divulge their own names. Australians never impart to others the name given an initiate in the tribal mysteries. Indeed, the taboos of the name are almost numberless. The case of the divine name Yahweh, which later Jews came to avoid in the reading of the Old Testament (see JEHOVAH; YAHWEH), is a case of reentrance of the idea of taboo. Among some Australian tribes the name of Damaralun, a chief deity, is either utterly avoided or spoken only in a whisper, is often a secret known only to initiates in the mysteries. On the other hand, many peoples regarded the name of a god, used as an element in a man's name, in the light of a blessing. So the Hebrews sometimes employed the name of God (see below), and other Semites did the same. In particular Phenician names were compounded with the names of deities ‑Abibaal, Baaleazer, Abdastart, Deleastart, Methusastart, Ithobaal (cf. Hebr. Ishbaal), Baalezor, Baalator, Merbaal are a few examples (Menander of Ephesus, in Josephus, Apion, i. 18, 21), with which may be compared Adoni‑bezek (Judges i. 47), Adonizedek (Josh. x. 1 sqq.), compounded with Adon, cf. Adonai, one of the titles by which God was addressed. With something of the same thought, still reminiscent of the fact that the name is also an expression of the power of the person, the divine name was variously used on seals, charms, and rings (see ABRASAx, and cf. the medieval legend of Solomon's ring which bore the divine name Yahweh). The power of deity was thus magically employed and the results desired were confidently expected.
GEO. W. GILMORE.
1!I. Hebrew Names: The early Hebrews were not wont to name a child without considering the significance of the name; even when this was a family possession, its meaning did not escape the attention. But new names were continually formed to express special characteristics of the person, and the formation of the language owes much to the creation of personal names. Indeed, in the giving of the name,
Nairn e Names
one of the aims was to express some outstanding and particularly marked individuality. This prin‑
ciple was extended even to the naming i. Names as of places, the nomenclature often carrySignificant. ing with it the reminiscence of some oc‑
currence (cf. Mizpeh, Ramah, Shechem, and note Gen. xxvi. 20, 33, and many passages). Many places bore a name derived either from the pre‑Hebraic deity worshiped there or from some appearance of the God of Israel (Beth‑shemesh, Beth Dagon, Bethel, Penuel). Personal names sometimes expressed the circumstances of the family when the child was born (Ex. xviii. 3 sqq.). Prophets gave to their children names which were living testimonies to the content of their utterances (Isa. vii. 3, viii. 3). But the general principle was to characterize the child's own individuality by the name bestowed. So in earliest times and among the neighbors of Israel the names of animals were given, as Jael, " mountain goat," Shaphan, " coney," Rachel, " ewe," Deborah, " bee," Huldah, " weasel." The explanation of such names on the basis of totemism (see COMPARATIVE RELIGION, VI., 1 b) is not satisfactory; it is better to think of them as indicating a detection of the characteristic quality of the animal in the person‑cf. the animal symbolism in the blessing of Jacob, Gen. xlix. Oreb (" raven ") and Zeeb (" wolf ") resembled in characteristics the bird and beast of prey the names of which they bore. Names of the exilic period like Parosh, " flea," are easily understood if passages like I Sawn. xxiv. 1415 are recalled, while such a name as Tolah (" worm ") may have had its origin in actual events. The names of plants were given also, such as Tamar (" date palm "), Eshcol (" cluster "), and Coz " thorn "). Still other suggestive appellations are Barak (" lightning "), David (" darling ").
But among the Hebrews religious affairs and circumstances influenced much the formation of names, though the creation of names having as an element a divine name is by no means confined to them, such formations being common among Arabs, and sim‑
ilar early Canaanitic and Hebrew names a. Religious are found, such as Abimelech, Abiezer.
Influence Such formations may throw light upon upon religious conditions and conceptions,
	Names.	as when the names given by Ahab to
		Ahaziah and Joram show that Ahab did
not purpose to renounce Yahweh. In the numerous
cases in which a definite attribute of deity or some
close relationship is expressed in the name, the idea
intended is that of invocation of a blessing, and it is
generally found that the mother has the most in
fluence in the choice of the name (Gen. xxix.‑xxx.).
These theophoric personal names are of high value
in the history of religion. They indicate what deity
was especially honored at a given period, what di
vine names were in most. common use, and not sel
dom they show what were the relations between a
deity and his people. In the earliest period the
divine name in most common use was the simple
Elf. Israel, Ishmael‑and this is true as well of
the Arabs as of the Hebrews. Frequently the idea
expressed is that of relationship, as when words in
dicating fatherhood, brotherhood, and the like are
employed‑the Semitic ab, " father," ahi, " brother,"

Names	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	78
Naas
ammi, " uncle," and the like. From the time of
Moses with increasing frequency names were com
pounded with forms derived from the divine name
Yahweh. The formation of new names continued
until postexilic times‑‑a proof that the significance
of these names remained a living factor in their ap
plication, though it is a fact that family names
were often chosen which carried with them historic
reminiscences. Among the later Jews choice was
often made of forms which had come down from
earliest times, such as Jacob, Joseph, Mary, and the
like; alongside these were others which came
from Aramaic sources, such as Martha, Tabitha,
Caiaphas, and also those which had Greek or
Roman origin, such as Alexander, Andrew, Mark,
and those which embodied the names of heathen
deities, such as Bacchides. This last tendency
is shown in another direction, namely, the Gre•
cizing of Hebrew names, as Jason from Joshua,
as well as in making translations of Hebrew
names, such as Dositheus and Theodotus for
Nathanael and Elnathan. Many Jews added to
their Hebrew names others from a Greek or Ro
man source.
	Among the Hebrews then was especially true the
maxim nomina aunt omina, since to the Israelite the
				name was the expression of personal
		3. Person‑ ity; were there disagreement between
			allay	name and character, it was fitting to
	Expressed. change the former (Ruth i. 20‑21).
				Indeed a change of name under new
circumstances was no novelty (lien. x1i. 45; II Kings
xxiii. 34). Sometimes teachers gave to their dis
ciples appellations which expressed the latters' spir
itual peculiarities (II Sam. xii. 25; Mark iii. 17).
Inasmuch as between the person and the name a
living connection existed, it was regarded as of
great importance that the name be transmitted to
posterity (lien. xlviii. 16; Deut. xxv. 6‑7). With
a purpose similar to this, yet at the same time mark
ing distinctions, was the practise of adding the
father's name to the child's, connecting the two
with the words " son of." Later such names were
formed simply from the father's, preceded by the
word for son, e.g., Bartholomew, from Bar Talmay,
Barabbas from Bar Abba. A related custom is that
of Arabs, who sometimes take the name of the son
with the prefix " father of." Going back to the
fact that the name expressed the individuality is
the frequent statement that God calls men by name
	(Ex. xxxi. 2, xxxiii. 12; Isa. xlv. 3‑4); while some
times " name " stands for " person " (Rev. iii. 4,
xi. 13 margin).
		From the foregoing it would be expected that the
name of deity would be of especially high signifi
cance. This is brought out in the urgent request of
Moses that he be told the name of God in order that
with authority he might appear before the people
				with the message he was charged to
	4. The	deliver. It is not to be inferred from
	Divine	this that every new name meant a
	Name.	new deity; but just as a new dame
		for a man might imply new environ
ment or new relationships, a new phase of knowl
edge of deity may be marked by a new form of ad
dress. While it is true that the name of God was
sacred, this sanctity did not take the form of taboo
of pronunciation in the early Hebrew religion; such
ideas came only in late Judaism. It is true that there
were appearances of heavenly beings at times whose
names it was forbidden to know, but this was that
their essential nature should remain hidden (lien.
xxxii. 30; Judges xiii. 18). But the most holy
name of the covenant God was in most constant
use, not only in prayer but even in oaths. On the
other hand, grave indeed was his sin who used the
name lightly or in a false oath. And the divine
name was employed not only in prayer but in giv
ing a blessing. When this name was spoken over
a land, it indicated that the land had become his,
had come into close intimate relations with him
(Dent. xxviii. 10; Amos ix. 12); it is equivalent
to the human proclamation of a proprietor or re
gent. It follows that such a relation is not of hu
man but of divine initiative, and this is especially
true when the spot is a sanctuary (cf. Ex. xx. 24).
So the ark bore Yahweh's name, and his name abode
in the temple (II Sam. vi. 2; I Kings ix. 3); indeed
the significance of a sanctuary was that it was built
in his name, which name was a revelation of him
self. Hence the altars built to mark some special
manifestation of deity bore an appellation which
carried with it the memory of the fact. It was be
cause of the special presence of Yahweh's name at
Jerusalem that at the temple was concentrated wor
ship of him, and Levi became the holy tribe for a
like reason. The name of God is not a thing arbi
trarily thought out, it is of the essence of deity, a
revelation of himself and so self‑expressive; it im
parts knowledge of him and guides in the way of
his service (Mic. iv. 5). Abuse of it or of his rights
or disregard of the holiness of his belongings is a sin
against the name which partakes of his own attri
butes as being " glorious and fearful " (Dent. xxviii.
58). Israel's greatest guilt was that it forgot his
name. Regard for his name was one of the motives
God had in protecting his people (Ezek. xx. 9, 14).
His name is said to dwell in the angel of the pres
ence sent to guide Israel, who became therefore a
manifestation of the divine self. Hence the face of
God and his name are applied to manifestations of
his presence even in heathen religions, as when in
a Sidonian temple Astarte is called " the name of
Baal," by which was meant that the goddess
was a manifestation of the Bast himself, and simi
laxly in Carthage Taanit was called the " face of
Baal."
The New Testament shows the same emphasis upon and usage of the word name. The name Jesus Christ embodies the whole content of his person and sums up the knowledge of him and 5. The Name his work. The apostles spread this
of Jesus name throughout the earth; believers
	Christ:	rely upon it (John i. 12) and in it are
		blessed (Acts iv. 12); by it miracles
were wrought (Acts xvi. 18), though not as by a
formula of magic (cf. John xiv. 13); but in order to
accomplish this an inner connection with him is
needful (Acts xix. 13). Baptism is in his name or
in the triune name (Matt. xxviii. 19; Acts ii. 38)
‑a usage, however, which goes back to Jewish
custom of baptizing " in the name." All of these

79	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Names
Nana
customs bespeak an inner community with Christ of which baptism is but the external expression.
(C. VON ORELLI.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: For the use of the name among primitive peoples consult: J. G. Frazer, Golden Bough, vol. i., London, 1900; R. H. Codrington, Melanesian Studies, pp. 43 sqq., ib. 1891; F. F. yon Andrian, Ueber Wortaberglauben, Munich, 1898; A. Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, pp. 155‑158, 241, 294‑295, New York, 1897; E. A. W. Budge, Egyptian Magic, pp. 157 sqq, London, 1899; J. Batchelor, The Ainu, pp. 142, ib. 1901; W. H. Furness, Borneo Headhunters, pp. I6‑17, ib. 1902; E. Crawley, Mystic Rose, passim, ib. 1902 (very full); idem, Tree of Life, pp. 56‑57, 75, 162, 177, 213, 221, ib. 1905; and the journal Folk‑Lore is particularly rich in material.
For the Biblical facts two excellent and, in the latter case, elaborate articles are to be noted in DB, iii. 478185, and EB, iii. 3291‑3331. Consult further: L. Law, Beitrage zur iitdischen Alterthumakunde, iii. 92‑110, Leipsic, 1871; E. Nestle, Die israelitischen Eigennamen each ihrer religionageschichtlichen Bedeutung, Haarlem, 1876; E. Renan, in REJ, 1882, pp. 161‑177; J. Jacobs, Studies in Biblical Archaology, London, 1894; M. Jastrow in JBL, 1894, pp. 19 aqq., 101‑127; M. Grundwald, Die Eigennamen des A. T.s in ihrer Bedeutung fur die %enntnis des hobraischen Volkaglaubens, Breslau, 1895; G. B. Gray, Studies an Hebrew Proper Names, London, 1896; idem, in Expositor, 1897, pp. 173‑190; idem, in Expository Times, Sept., 1897, pp. 555‑558, 1899, pp. 232‑234; G. Herber, Die religionsgeachichtliche Bedeutung der hebraischen Eigennamen, Tubingen, 1897; J. BShmer, Das biblisehe " Im Namen," Giessen, 1898; A. Deissmann, Bibelstudien, pp. 181‑186, Marburg, 1895, Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1901; F. Giesebrecht, Die alltestamentliche Schatzung des Gollesnames, KSnigeberg, 1891; F. Ulmer, Die semitischen Eigennamen im A. T., Leipsic, 1901; R. P. Lagrange, Etudes, sur lea religions s&mitiques, passim, Paris, 1905; A. R. Habershon, The New Testament Names and Titles of the Lord of Glory, London, 1910; F. C. Conybeare, in JQR, viii. 576‑608, ix. 59‑114, 447 170, 481‑03; Vigouroux, Dictionnaire, fasc. xxviii. 1669‑77; and works on O. T. theology, e.g., Schultz, chap. xxviii.
NAMING: A means of discipline formerly in tree' in the German Lutheran churches. It took place publicly before the congregation, at the close of the sermon, and consisted in a personal address to the offending member. Several Lutheran directories contain a provision for its application, as a stage of discipline intermediate between the ordinary private pastoral admonition and entire excommunication. It was ordered to be applied only in case of open and notorious sin, and after the fact of notoriety had been established in the consistory. Apart from this process, the preacher was directed to abstain from any naming or identification of individual sinners. With the rest of the provisions for public penance it gradually disappeared, and is now nowhere used. See CHURCH DIBcIPLjNE,
III., 1. 	(O. MEJERt.)
NANA, NANEA.
Documentary Basis (§ 1). Nana of Erech (§ 2). Elam, Armenia, and India (§ 3). Syria, Phrygia, and Greece (§ 4).
Nanaea is the name of a goddess mentioned in II Mace. i. 13, 15. The mention occurs in what purports to be a letter dated 125‑124 B.c. from Jews of Palestine to Jews in Egypt commending to the latter the feast of dedication of the Temple. According to the context Antjochus (by whom Antjochus Epjphanes is almost certainly meant) when in Persia entered the temple of Naniea with the purpose of marrying the goddess and taking a great
part of the treasures of the temple as dowry, this being a device sometimes employed by conquerors,
thus to obtain control of the wealth
:. Docu‑ in the temples and yet avoid the charge mentary of sacrilege. The priests of the temple, Basis. however, trapped him and his company
in the temple, stoned them and cut them to pieces. The parallel passage, I Mace. vi. 1‑4, does not name the goddess, but locates the temple in a city in Elymais in Persia (Elymais was a province in Susiana, north of the Zagros, therefore " in Persia "); nor does it place his death there but simply records his repulse. II Mace. ix. records that Antiochus essayed to rob a temple in Persepolis (whose is not reported), and was beaten back and died after his return from Persia. According to Appian (Historic, xi. 66) there was a temple of Aphrodite in Elymais, while Polybius (Historic, xxxi. 11) tells of a temple of Artemis in the same region. Greek and Roman writers were in the habit of identifying foreign deities with their own, and not in all cases is it possible to make out the exact god to which reference is made by them. In the present case the reference to Aphrodite and Artemis may shed light. On the other hand, II Mace. i. and ix. are irreconcilable, since Persepolis was not in Elymais.
The identification of the deity mentioned in I Mace. i. 13, 15, leads back with considerable assurance to the very early Sumerian war goddess Nana, patroness of Erech, enshrined in the temple E‑ana (see BABYLONIA, IV., § 5, VII., 2, § 7; and cf. Schrader, KAT, p. 422), named in the Babylonian litanies and elsewhere in the inscriptions.
Her image was carried away to Elam
	a. Nana	c. 2280 R.c. by Kudur‑nan‑>?undi,
	of Erech.	where it remained till Aashurbanipal
		recovered it about sixteen hundred
years later (see BABYLONIA, VI., 1, § 1); meanwhile
the deity's place in the city seems to have been as
sumed by Ishtar in her own temple in Erech known
as E‑ulmash. Coalescing at times with Ishtar (an
illustration of the confusion that resulted from
this is furnished by the fact that Ashtar in Mandaean
and Nani in modern Syriac denote the planet Venus),
at other times recognized as an independent deity,
she remained in one form or the other one of the
great deities of Babylonia, and Tiglath‑Pileser III.
sacrificed to her as " Lady of Babylonia," and at
one time she appears in connection with Nebo.
She seems to have been adopted in various regions,
and her history is instructive as an illustration of
the very common process in the history of religion
of coalescence of the form of one deity with those
of others (see COMPARATIVE RELIGION, VI., 2, d).
In that way she seems to have borne many names
and to have been known as Nani, Nanai, Nanaya,
Anxa, Anitis, Anaitis, Tanata, Tanath, Tanais, and
Ants.
The existence of the cult of Nana‑Nana'a in Elam is not proved. Apart from the passages cited above (§ 1), the evidence is somewhat elusive, the moat weighty being the inference that her cult is likely to have developed there owing to the long residence of her image in the region. Moreover, that the deity referred to by Appian and Polybius as Aphrodite

Nana
Nantes
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
or Artemis was Nanaea is made exceedingly probable by the fact that Nanwa's attributes and cults were appropriated by, assimilated to,
3. Elam, or identified with those of Aphrodite in
Armenia,	Asia Minor and Greece, as also in part
	and India	by those of Artemis. This evi
		dence is not made more weighty by
the testimony of the Pseudo‑Melito, sometimes
cited, who reports that Nanai was worshiped in
Elam, her worship having been instituted by her
royal father after she had been captured by the
enemy (in Corpus apologetarum, ed. J. C. T. de
Otto, ix. 426, 476‑477, 505, Jena, 1872). Pseudo
Melito is simply a composite dependent upon the
sources already noted. For Armenia it is reported
by Agathangelos (supposed to have been a secre
tary of Tiridates II. of Armenia in the fourth Chris
tian century, to whom is attributed a life of Greg
ory the Illuminator) in the Armenian text that his
people destroyed a temple of " Nanea, daughter of
Ormuzd " in Thil (ed. of Venice, 1835, pp. 108,
587); the Greek text declares that they destroyed
the " altar of Athena, daughter of Zeus " (it is to
be noted that Athena's attributes repeat some of
Nana's). This follows a statement to the effect
that the golden image of Anahita had been des
troyed. The importance of these two statements
does not rest alone in the mention of Nanea, but
in the fact that the two deities are discriminated.
This discrimination does not always occur, since it
is quite clear that Anahita and Nanwa were amal
gamated or identified in many places, just as were
Nana and Ishtar in Assyria‑Babylonia. Mihr and
Nauss, occur in Armenia as names of the deities of
sun and moon. In Afghanistan many places still
bear the name Bibi Nani, "the Lady Nana"
(Venus). Indo‑Scythian coins of the first and sec
ond centuries A.D. bear the name of Nana with the
epithet queen, also the forms Nanwa and Nanaia,
the figure of the goddess sometimes having a cres
cent on the head, which shows that the deity bore
there the same general characteristics she had
further west in her relations with Ishtar and Aphro
dice (cf. P. Gardiner, Coins of the Greek arid Scythic
Kings of Bactria arid India, London, 1884). Apart
from these cases, India does not know a deity Nana
or Nanwa, which speaks strongly for the importa
tion from the west. The connection was probably
established through the Syrian Nanai, but may
have come by way of Elam and Armenia. The fact
that Nanwa in Indo‑Scythic environment repre
sents the moon, while the earlier affiliations of Nana
of Erech and Syria were with Venus is offset by the
later affiliations which in the West connect Ishtar
with the moon. Parallel influences are at work. A
possible way of transit for the goddess was through
the Parthians and Seythians from the second cen
tury B.c. to the first Christian century. There is no
difficulty in accounting for the spread of the cult
eastward.
Isho bar‑Bahlul, one of the most important of Syrian lexicographers, living in the tenth century, gives Nanai as the name of the planet Venus (which again agrees with the coalescence of Nana in Aphrodite in the West). Isho reports that the inhabitants of the region between Nisibis and the Tigris
80
worshiped this deity (P. de Lagarde, Gesammelte Abhandlungen, p. 16, Leipsic, 1866). Granius Licinianus,(Annales, p. 9, Leipsic, 1858)
4. Syria, asserts that Antiochus Epiphanes went Phrygia, to Hierapolis (in Syria) to marry Diana and Greece. (‑Artemis) and received the temple treasure as dowry, just as I Mace. states that he intended to marry Nanw.a. While it is known that Nanaea was worshiped in Syria, the possibility is not excluded that by Diana Licinianus means Anahita. The known deity of Hierapolis, however, was Atargatis (q.v.), whom Lucian describes (De tied Syria, xxxii.). Reports of the origin of Attis in Phrygia ascribes his birth to Nana, a virgin, who was impregnated by putting a pomegranate (or almond) in her bosom (Pausanius, VII., xvii. 11; Arnobius, Adv. nationes, v. 6, in ANF, vi. 491). A connection here with Ishtar and the East is found in the fact that the pomegranate was sacred to Ishtar, and was, from the complexity of its fruit, a symbol of fertility. It was in Phrygia, probably, that the transition was made by which Artemis and Nana, as also Aphrodite and Nana, were conjoined, a proof of the former conjunction being found in an inscription from the Pirmuq, probably dating from the third century B.c., on a tablet which " Axios and Cleo" devoted to " Artemis Nana " (Corpus inscriptionum Atticarum, iii. 131). While the cult of Nana was at times distinguished (as by Arnobius, ut sup.) from that of Cybele, there was confusion between these two cults also, and it is noteworthy that a cult of "the mother of the gods " (Cybele) existed at the Pirxus. The association of Artemis with the moon is another connecting link which aids in the assurance that Nana traveled as far west as the Piraeus, the Syrian Nana being also connected with the moon. Jerome and Pliny call the goddess of Elam Diana.
	Thus the worship of the Sumerian goddess Nana
of Erech is traced with probability in Elam, with
certainty in Syria, Bactrian‑India, Asia Minor, and
Greece. She had affiliations with Ishtar in Assyria
Babylonia, with Anahita in Persia, Armenia, and
possibly in Bactria, with Ashtoreth (Astarte) in
Phenicia, and went to the making of Artemis or
Diana, of Aphrodite or Venus, and of Athena in the
Greek world. 	GEo. W. GmMORE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, iii (1834), 172 (by C. Marion), 449‑451 (by J. Prinsep), v (1836), 266‑268 (by J. Avdall; ell on Indo‑Scythic coins bearing the name of Names); H. H. Wilson, Ariana antiqua, pp. 362‑363, London, 1841 (also on the coins); Bernstein, in ZDMG, x (1856), 549; Windischmann, in AMA, viii (1858), 87 aqq.; J. B. Emim, in Revue del orient de l'Alpgrie, 1864, pp. 198 sqq.; Rawlinson's Herodotua, i. 624 sqq., 658 sqq., New York, 1875; F. Lenormant, in Gazette arch&lopique, ii (1876), 10‑18, 58‑8; P. Scholz, Gazendienst and Zaubermesen, pp 355‑364, Regensburg, 1877; E. Schrader, Keilinschriften and Geschichtsforschunp, pp. 107‑109, Giessen, 1878; idem, KAT, passim; A. Stein, in Indian Antiquary, xvii (1888), 89 aqq.; J. Darmesteter, Le Zend‑Avesta, ii. 363‑366, Paris, 1892; L. R. Farnell, cults of the Greek Stales, ii. 484 aqq., 590, 627 aqq., Oxford, 1896; H. Gelzer, in the Berichte of the Royal Saxon Academy of Sciences, xlviii (1896), 99 aqq.; R. P. Lagrange, nudes sur lea religions sEmitiques, PP. 138, 454, Paris, 1905; J. G. Frazer, Adonis, Attis, Osiris, pp. 163‑164, 178‑179, London, 1906; Vigouroux, Dictionnaire, fasc. xxviii. 1473‑74; W. von Baudissin, in Hauck‑Herzog, RE, xiii. 631‑645; and the commentaries on 11 Maccabees.

81	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	man
IYAIYA$, n8'nak, SHAH: Indian religious founder. See Lmlw, 1., 3, § 3; Smas, SISHIBY.
MANTES, pants or pant, EDICT OF: One to rer‑u'latethe relations between the Reformed Church in
ce and the State, issued b HftIV. ' 15 and revoked by‑,LouisXIV. in 1685. The Reformed Church of France. formed in 1559, found it difficult to maintain its rights against the Roman Catholic majority. At last, in 1589, when Henry of Navarre became king of France, all difficulties seemed to have been overcome. In 1593, however, Henry adopted the Roman Catholic faith, and the existence of the Protestant Church seemed to be again in danger. But Henry's apostasy from the Reformed faith was prompted exclusively by political motives, and the fears of the Huguenots were without basis in fact; the king was still inclined to secure for the Reformed Church a stable existence in his country. The deputies of the Reformed churches met in Sept., 1593, at Nantes and in the next year at Montauban to guard their interests. There also met at Sainte‑Foy in 1594 a political convention of members from all provinces, wherh the Reformed effected an organization to defend their rights. A general council was constituted upon which was conferred all authority in religious matters, and under its jurisdiction all provinces were to be placed. It consisted of ten members, one for each province, four from the nobility, four from the third estate, and two from the clergy. Provincial councilors were also chosen, consisting of five to seven members, of whom at least one was to be a clergyman. This organization rendered great service and showed the power of the Huguenots against their enemies. The next convention took place in 1595 at Saumur. It requested in vain freedom of religious worship in the kingdom. The following year, at the convention of Loudun, the Protestant cause met with greater success. Du Plessis‑Mornay (q.v.) rendered great services by his negotiations between the king and the Protestants. The meeting aimed at nothing more than freedom of conscience; it did not represent a party, but a church. Toward the end of 1597 both parties agreed upon the principal articles, and on Apr. 13, 1598, the king signed the Edict of Nantes. On Apr. 30 and then, on May 2. he signed secret supplements articles.
	The rights granted to the Reformed by this edict
did not differ materially from those of former edicts;
the osltion of the Protestants was still very differ
ent from o~t~Cgji6s. the edict
did not permit freedom of worship; the Reformed
were satisfied with " a certain freedom of religion
and some justice in the. courts." The frreWom_, of
conscience rran	was not of great import while
the civil and political rights were not the same for
all and while there existed no freedom of worship.
The Roman Catholic service was reinstituted in the
whole kingdom; churches and ecclesiastical posses
sions were returned to the clergy; the Reformed
wee bty thes tgthe priests to observe
the feasts and fasts of the Roman Catholic Church
and conform to Its marriage laves; . they were allowed
to celebrate divine service only in certain places
VIII.‑6
under restrictions. But they gained admission to the universities, schools, and hospitals; and the king made all offices of the State accessible to them. Mixed courts were established for cases in which the litigants were of different denominations. The edict nullified the authority of the provincial and general councilors instituted by the convention of Sainte‑Foy. It forbade political meetings without the consent of the king and to take up arms. The children of refugees were acknowledged as Frenchmen. All families were reinstituted in their rights, honors, and possessions. The Reformed had the right to hold consistories, colloquies, provincial and general synods, to open schools in the towns where freedom of worship was granted to them, and to impose taxes for the support of their clergy, the expenses of their synods, and the like.
	The ratification of the edict by the parliaments
presented many difficulties. The clergy objected
to each one of the articles. The parliaments op
posed especially the establishment of the mixed
courts and the admission to public offices, and they
succeeded in making a number of important modi
fications. The ratification took place only under
compulsion by the king. The execution of the edict
was even more difficult than its ratification. The
Reformed were not satisfied with it in its modified
form. They appealed to former promises and con
cessions of the king, but he paid little heed to the
complaints although he made some secret promises
in regard to a few articles. In the mean time, the
edict had been introduced in some territories by
commissaries appointed by the king. The deputies
of the Reformed were assembled to watch and
hasten the execution of the edict. In order to
avoid trouble, the king ordered them to disperse
and to call no new conventions. The Reformed
resisted as long as possible and succeeded in ob
taining permission to reassemble in Sainte‑Foy in
Oct., 1601, to appoint general deputies who were
to reside at the royal court and to hear the griev
ances of the provinces and present them before the
king. 	(C. SCHMIDTt.)
	The Huguenots were not satisfied with the Edict
of Names llecause .it_gave.,tJTIem misaan
they, thought‑they were entitled„> while the Ro
man Catholics were furious because it gave the
Huguenots so much. But the Edict is a mile‑stone
in the pathway to the ideal‑a free Church in a
free State. The Huguenots got much more than
the most liberal Roman Catholic sovereign could
or would have given them; and Henry evinced a
courage and broad‑mindedness which place him
among the great rulers of history. For many years
the1iuru=jeq__had little to om 'n of respecting
the way the Edict was enforced. Tt threw around
them many safeguards and they prospered so greatly,
esRe_cially in the guietyeara between 1629 and 1665.
that to be as rich as a Huguenot became a proverb
in France. But such religious liberty and material
praaperity were hard for the Roman Catholic clergy
to endure and they complained to the king. Louis
XIV__who in 1665 assumed an unfrien ~v a thud
toward‑ the Hug‑,uep9ts. He issued then the first
of nearly two hundred orders and laws which tWL
awa~vestlge of protection ‑afforded by the

Nantes
Natural Law	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
82
Edict to the Huguenots. Fgr_,tWeuty4zWm_he~.zQlL_
	stinued this gradually encroaching _legislation. To
mention a few of these orders: on June 20,1665, he
prescribed penalties to those who once having been
" converted " to Roman Catholicism should relapse;
on Oct. 24, 1665, he declared that little children who
were claimed by. the.priests to‑ ,.have been " convert
eaZ that is, had used words which were 1 e preted
as implying a preference for the Roman Catholic
faith, although owing to the tender years of these
children it was doubtful if they knew what they were
saying, that such ghildren,were to be forcibly taken
from their parents and brought upin Me‑ alre e& re
ferred faith; in dug., 1669,_ he.forba a t
nots_to. leave France; on July 31, 1679, he forbade
the Huguenots to hold any service while the place
was being visited by the archbishop or bishop; on
Oct. 10, 1679,_he,forbade_ the Huguenots to hold
synods without his permissions and without the pres
ence of a royal commissioner; on Feb. 20, ,1680. he
forbade Huguenot women tp act as midwives: on
June, 1680, he forbade marriages between Roman
Catholics and Huguenots. So it went. The Hugue
nots saw the walls slowly closing in on them and
knew that it was only a question of time when they
would be crushed. Meanwhile eve inducement
was held out to them to a andon their faith. On do
ing so their temporal fortunes immediately changed
and employment of a lucrative character came to
them, from which their faith had excluded them.
One of the active acencies in effecting the " conver
sign " of those who were indifferent to worldly ad
vantages was the drag‑onnades, those incursions of
lbMtaLaO 'gay, Ajwell by their offinara to nra is .
,P.VPTp outrage‑ a.n 'ncnlt,,y~.d eg,Qry cruelty. shor , of
t. kin if .upon those on whom they were billetted
until the unhappy victims were almost, and some
times quite, willing to yield up their faith and so
escape their tormentors. [It was from the ranks of
the forcibly converted and their descendants that
the rationalistic movement (represented by Voltaire,
Rousseau, Diderot, and others) proceeded, which
had much to do with precipitating the French Revo
lution (q.v.). A. a. rr.)
	By this combination of persecution and depriva
tion many of the HI1gugnQ .t‑t were drivgn out of
EMnce and many others into the Roman Catholic
Church. The kin supposed that the ‑Huyuenot
church had been destroyed, and as the Edict
	an had become a_rmry he revoked it on
Oct. 17. 1685. Then followed a treat exodus of
		,g
Huglumot . With broken hearts, at the risk of their lives, for the exodus was forbidden, with the loss of their property; they turned their backs upon the land they loved so well, and in strange lands with dignity, patience, and success began life afresh. They greatly enriched the lands to which they came, for they brought with them the manufactures and the culture in which France was then preeminent.
But what of those who did not leave? Deprived of all legal standing, proscribed by the State, spoken of as dangerous to the body politic, with a sentence of death hanging over them if they dared to meet for religious worship (and many a minister was put to death and many a layman died in the galleys
for this monstrous "crime "), these men and women, and even the children, showed the finest qualities of character. (In spite of persecution they prese,~ved their faith, both in its private and public exercises, and so when after a century a better day dawned for them their numbers showed that Protestantism had never ceased to be a faith in France. The pages of Huguenot history during this period are lighted by many a persecutor's fire, and across them move as heroic figures as history can show.
BIBLIoaRAPHY: The text of the edict and of that of revocation are in Reich, Documents, pp. 349‑353, 381‑386, and in Aguesse, below; translations of the edict and revocation and of related documents are in the important Tercentenary Celebration of the Promulgation of the Edict of Nantes . . by the Huguenot Society of America, New York, 1900, and in J. Fontaine, Memoirs of a Huguenot Family, New York, 1907. Besides the literature given under DU PLEBBIB‑MORNAY; HUGUENoTa; and FRANCE, consult: E. Benoit, Hist. de l'idit de Nantes, 5 vols., Delft, 1693‑95; MLmoires of correspondance de Duplessis‑Mornay, vols. vi. sqq. Paris, 1824; E. Bonnemere, Les Dragonnades. Hist. des Camisards sous Louis XIV., Paris, 1882; LEdits, d6clarations et arrests concernans la religion . r6form&, 186.2‑1761, ib. 1885; F. Puaux and A. Sabatier, Audea sur la r6vocation, ib. 1885; T. Schott, Die Aufhebung des Edikta yon Nantes, Halle, 1885; L. Aguesse, Hist. de fWablissement du protestantisme en France, iv. 557 sqq., Paris, 1886; O. Douen, La Rhvocation de 1'6dit de Nantes, 3 vols., ib. 1894; J. Faurey, Henri IV. et Z'Mit de Nantes, Bordeaux, 1903; P. Bert, Hist. de la r6vocation de l'Mit de Nantes h Bordeaux, Paris, 1908; Abb6 Rouquette, nudes our la rivocation de l'Fdit de Nantes en Languedoc: les Jugitifs (1886‑1716), ib. 1908; Robinson, European History, ii. 183 sqq., 287 aqq., 316 sqq.

	HARD (SPIKENARD): A plant (Valeraana
jatamaresi or Nardostaehys jotamansi) growing on
heights and in plains of northern and eastern India,
and in southern Arabia and Gedrosia, from which
a	favorite and costly perfume was obtained (cf.
Cant. i. 12, iv. 13‑14; Mark xiv. 3‑5). It was
brought into the trade of the West, including Pales
tine, by the Phenicians. The common nard unguent
consisted of a mixture of oils of several aromatic
plants belonging to the genus Valeriana, and was
usually placed in small alabaster boxes (cf. Mark
xiv. 3) or in scent bottles. Nard was used not only
as an unguent but also to flavor wine, and the oil
was even drunk. With such costly nard Mary an
ointed Christ at Bethany six days before the Pass
over (John xii. 1 aqq.), typifying his approaching
burial, since this oil was also used to preserve the
corpse from decay (Arabic Gospel of the Infancy,
v.). 	(R. KITTEL.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Theophrastus, Hist. planitarum, IX., vii. 2; Pliny, Nat. hist., xii. 26‑27, xiii. 2; O. Celsius, Hierobotanicum, ii. 1‑11, Amsterdam, 1748; Asiatic Researches, ii. 405‑417, Calcutta, 1876; W. Dymock, Pharmacographia Indica, ii. 233‑238, London, 1891; DB, iv. 611; EB, iv. 4749‑51; DCB, ii. 227, 671; JE, ix. 170; Vigouroux, Dictionnaire, fasc. xxviii. 1478,80.

RASH, HENRY SYLVESTER: Protestant Episcopalian; b. at Newark, O., Dec. 22, 1854. He was
educated at Harvard (A.B., 1878) and at the Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass., from
which he was graduated in 1881. In 1882 he was appointed to his present position of professor of the literature and interpretation of the New Testa‑
ment in the latter institution. He was also rector of the Church of the Redeemer, Chestnut Hill, Mass.,

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
from 1888 to 1903. He has written: The Genesis of the Social Conscience (New York, 1897); Ethics and Revelation (1899); History of the Higher Criticism of the New Testament (1900); and Atoning Life (1908).
NASMITH, n&smith, DAVID: Scotch philanthropist; b. at Glasgow Mar. 21, 1799; d. at Guildford (30 m. s.w. of London) Nov. 17, 1839. He was the originator of city missions, having established the first one, in Glasgow, 1826. From 1821 to 1828 he was secretary to the united benevolent societies of Glasgow, but spent the remainder of his life in propagating his benevolent schemes. With this in view he visited the United States and Canada in 1830, establishing there many missions and associations; and France, in 1832. He founded the London City Mission in 1835, and was its secretary till 1837; in 1837 he formed the British and Foreign Mission for the purpose of unifying and propagating the work of city missions.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Campbell, Memoirs of David Nasmith, London, 1844; DNB, xl. 111‑112.
	NATALIS, na‑td'lis, ALEXANDER (Alexandre
Noel): French Dominican; b. at Rouen Jan. 19, 1639;
d. at Paris Aug. 21, 1724. He entered the Dominican
order in 1655, became teacher of philosophy and
theology in the convent of St. Jacques at Paris, and
in 1706 provincial. At the instance of Colbert he
wrote his Selecta historim eeclesiasticte capita (24
vols., Paris, 1677‑86), to which he later appended
the history of the Old Testament in six volumes.
The work is practically a series of monographs of the
most important points of church history, and the
treatment is polemic and dogmatic rather than his
toric, the more modern opponents of Roman Cath
olicism, especially the Reformed, being attacked.
The first volumes won the author high praise at
Rome, but so strong was the anti‑papal tendency
of the later volumes that Innocent XI., by a decree
of July 13, 1684, forbade his writings to be read
under pain of excommunication. Natalis refused
to submit and published a defense in 1699. His
history was edited with emendations and disserta
tions directed against himself by Roncaglia at
Lucca in 1734, and was then removed from the In
dex by Benedict XIII. Other editions appeared at
Lucca in 1749 sqq., Venice in 1778 sqq., and Bingen
in 1784. Another important work of Natalis is the
Theologies dogmatica et moralis (10 vols., Paris, 1693,
and often). 	(G. UHLHORNt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. QuAtif and J. Pchard, Script. ordinis pr(pdicatorum, ii. 810 sqq., Paris, 1721; A. Touron, Hist. des hommes itdustres de l'ordre de S. Dominique, v. 805, e vols., ib. 1743‑19; Niceron, Mt;moires, xxw.
NATHAN: An important prophet of the reign of David whose history is given in II Sam. vii. 1 sqq., xii. 1 sqq.; and I Kings i. In the passage last named, Nathan, the former tutor of the prince (II Sam. xii. 25), joined Bathsheba, the mother of Solomon, in influencing David to make Solomon his successor, both by recalling David's promise to Bathsheba to this effect and by informing David of Adonijah's premature assumption of royal power. The other occasion (II Sam. xii. 1 sqq.) in which Nathan appeared most prominently was after the death of David's son by Bathsheba. In this narra‑
Nantes
Natural Law
tive appears the well‑known parable told by the
prophet to David, who, after pronouncing judgment,
received the application of the parable to himself
in the words " thou art the man " (II Sam. xii. 7).
The parable is apparently an independent account
woven into the main story, and there are, accord
ingly, two accounts, one prophetic and the other
more secular. There is, however, no real reason
to doubt the historicity of either. The third record
concerning Nathan (II Sam. vii.), though showing
in its present form traces of Deuteronomic redaction,
stands on the same basis of probability as II. Sam.
xii. 1 sqq. From these accounts it appears that
Nathan was one of the most influential persons at
the court of David. 	(R. KITTEL.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The commentaries on the passages cited; the pertinent sections in the works on Hebrew history given under AHAB; and ISRAEL, HISTORY OF; Vigouroux, Dictionnaire, part xxviii. 1482; DB, iii. 488; EB, iii. 33373338; JE, ix. 176.
NATHANAEL. See BARTHoLoMEw.
NATHUSIUS, na‑tu'si‑us, MARTIN VON: German Lutheran; b. at Althaldensleben (13 m. n.w. of Magdeburg), Saxony, Sept. 24, 1843; d. at Greifswald Mar. 9, 1906. He studied at the universities of Heidelberg, Halle, Tiibingen, and Berlin from 1862 to 1867, and was successively assistant preacher at Wernigerode (1869‑73), pastor at Quedlinburg (1873‑85) and Barmen (1885‑88), and professor of practical theology at the University of Greifswald (1888‑1906). His principal works are: Timotheus, ein Ratgeber fur junge Theologen in Bildern aus dem Leben (Leipsie, 1881); Naturwissenschaft and Philosophie (Heilbronn, 1883); Katechismus‑Predigten (2 vols., Leipsie, 1883‑84); Das Wesen der Wissenschaft and ihre Wendung auf die Religion (1885); Die Verfassung der evangelischen Kirche and die neuesten Vemuche zu ihrer Verbesserung in Preussen (1888); Mitarbeit der Kirche an der Ldsung der sozia.len Frage (2 vols., 1893‑94); Die Kernfrage im Streit fitr das Apostolikum (Heilbronn, 1893); Die Inspiration der heiligen Schrift and die historische Kritik (1895); Die ehristlich‑soziale Idee der Reformation‑Zeit and ihre Vorgeschiehte (Giitersloh, 1897); Ueber die wissenschaftliche and religiose Gewissheit (Heilbronn, 1902); and Handbuch des kirchlichen Unterrichts nach Ziel, Inhalt and Form (3 vols., Leipsic, 1903‑04).
NATIONAL CATHOLIC CHURCH. See OLD CATHOLICS, III., § 2.
NATIONAL COVENANT (1638). See CovENAwTERs, § 3.
NATIVITY OF JESUS CHRIST. See CHRISTMAS.
	NATURAL LAW: In an ethical sense (for
another sense, see NATURE, LAws OF), those abso
lute and universally valid imperatives that are in
		nate in the reason of every individual
	Stoic and necessarily come into conscious
	Origin. ness with the development of the
		mind. This thought originated with
the Stoics (see STOICISM). They wished to show
that " the good " is not binding because of arbitrary
human statute, but because of inner necessity, and
to establish, in contrast to the former ethical par‑

Natural Law Nature
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
ticularism, a system of morals binding on everyone. The thought was plausible by reason of the fact that among the peoples of the earth a far‑reaching unanimity in moral judgment actually prevailed. This agreement seemed merely to have been brought to light by social intercourse, though in reality it had been, for the most part, created by such intercourse. The vehicle for the development of the thought was metaphysics and the psychology of the idealistic philosophy. By converting Plato's archetypal " ideas " into immanent, active " logoi " and combining these into a single " logos," which they identified with the Godhead, the Stoics reached the conception of a divine world‑reason, of which the reason of the individual is a part. It manifests itself in the dictates of finite reason as the imperative law of the Godhead. Knowledge of this natural moral law is instinctive and a priori, it being perceived by means of intuitively evident " common notions " (Gk. koinai ennoiai). Although these ideas were designated as " innate " (emphytoi) before Cicero's time, he was really the first so to regard this original outfit of the practical reason, and, too, not only in embryo but also in general outline, inasmuch as the germs of moral laws are found in the animal impulses to procreation and care for the young, and since the four cardinal virtues are already pre‑formed in the sense of perception for truth, social order, size and independence, and fitness and harmony. Under the emperors this thought was taken up in Roman jurisprudence, when Roman society had exchanged its national for a cosmopolitan character. To the arbitrary laws of man, changing with time and place, conditioned by practical considerations, and not always perfect, it opposes the natural law, sanctioned by God, universally valid and unchangeable‑the perfect law, and the standard for all statute‑law.
This Stoic conception was brought into Chris£ian theology by the apologists to establish the truth of revelation and fix a boundary between
	in	Christianity and Judaism. Their argu
Christian ment was, that the eternal, universal,
	Theology.	natural law, because it had been ob
		scured by sin, was publicly promul
gated by Moses and afterward confirmed by Christ,
with the repeal of the ceremonial and political ad
juncts. At first the natural moral law, this funda
mental postulate of Christianity, which was in
tended to explain, establish, and put into effect the
ethical knowledge already at hand, was conceived
as an original endowment of the reason. Then the
natural moral law, together with the conception of
natural right, became in the church system the
foundation of the new law revealed in Christ, which
takes into account the supernatural purpose of man.
This new law transcends both the natural and the
Mosaic law, in that it applies to intention as well
as to overt act, demands spiritual acts that culti
vate grace, and finally gives the Evangelical
Counsels (see CONSILIA EVANOELICA). The fact
that the natural law was regarded as obscured
gave to the Church, as the custodian of revealed
law, the control and administration of the laws of
the land.
In contrast to the Roman Catholic conception of Christianity as nova lex, the Reformation recognizes
Jesus as Redeemer only, and not as In the law‑giver. It sees in the natural law Refor‑ the recognition of man's supernatural mation. destiny, which is imparted to him with
the creation of the reasoning faculty; and, consequently, it includes in natural law, and the Mosaic law confirming the same, the highest demands of Christianity; viz., humility, dependence, humble trust in God, etc. Since, however, as regards its content, the natural law is obscured and requires the grace of God to make it appear in all its splendor, the assertion that it is innate is nothing but an expression of the feeling of obligation to meet the Christian demand. If this is to move conscience, then the soul must be formed in accordance with it. Further, the conception of natural law served in the conflict with the visionaries to separate the parts of the Mosaic law that were universally binding from those that were binding on the Jews alone. Finally, it established the independence of the temporal authorities as opposed to the Church, since the external acts it regulates are discovered by the reason. With Melanchthon comes the title under which this humane basis of Greco‑Roman ethics was used to teach the Gospel and prove its truth. In the sequel natural right and natural moral law became the means of emancipation from the continued activity of Roman Catholic motives in Protestantism.
The theocratic conception of the State as the guardian of both tables made the State responsible
for the true worship of God and the Further salvation of its subjects. Now, through
Develop‑ the further development of the idea of
	meat.	natural law, a new conception gains
		the ascendency, which regards the
State as a human institution having as its object
temporal peace. Revelation had always shown
itself as a source of freedom of personality, and, at
the same time, as the tyrannizing domination of a
foreign will. As a means of emancipation from this
supernatural authority of revelation representatives
of Deism and the Enlightenment (qq.v.) made use
of the traditional innate moral law. In philosoph
ical ethics rationalism and empiricism are here op
posed to each other. According to the rationalistic
view, either the truth of absolute ethical impera
tives, like that of mathematical and logical axioms,
brings its evidence to conscience intuitively, or else,
as Kant maintains, the moral law followed from
the formal power of the reason to apprehend the
unconditioned or posit unity. On the other hand,
the empiricists hold that the moral law is only the
sum total of those rules of life, learned by experi
ence, which, if followed, will bring the greatest
possible amount of satisfaction to a pre‑moral in
stinct, either the egoistic, the altruistic, or both.
The fact that among different peoples, and in differ
ent ages, the moral law has not always bad the
same content, has made it evident that the moral
consciousness has had a history, that it is the re
sult of a gradual development. With this new view
point the old antagonism between rationalism and
empiricism becomes absorbed in that between ideal‑

85	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	NaturaNaturel Law
ism and evolutionism. While idealism conceives of the mind as the immanent cause of this development, evolutionism deduces these changes from external factors, after the analogy of the methods of natural science (see EvoiuTiox). Recognizing that it is not the origin of the moral law that gives to it its validity, but rather its power to lift the personality to a higher plane, even Christian theology has now abandoned the fundamental part of the doctrine of an innate moral law. The supposed innate moral law is completely subject to the changes of history, in which Christian revelation proves itself by its fruits. See ETHIcs. J. GoTrseHicxt.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. Voigt, Die Lehre room jus naturale, vol. i., Leipsic, 1859; R. Hildenbrand, Gesehichte and System der Rechts‑ and Staatephilosophie, vol. i., ib. 1880; E. Zeller, Die Philowphie der Grieehen, vol. HL, part 1, ib. 1880, Eng. trawl., London, 1880‑81; H. Drummond, Natural Law in the Spiritual World, London, 1883, and often; F. Jodl, Geschichte der Ethik, Stuttgart, 1889; H. Weiss, Einleitunp in die ehriaaichen Ethik, Leipsic, 1890; E. Trblteoh, Vernunft and Offenbarunp bei J. Gerhard and Melanchthon, 05ttingen, 1891; T. Elaenhaw, Wesen and Entetehunp ales Gewieeene, vol. i., Leipsie, 1894.
NATURAL THEOLOGY: The favorite term in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries designating the knowledge of God drawn from nature in distinction from the knowledge of God contained in revelation. This division of theology into natural and revealed h$d its roots in the scholastic distinction between the two truths, one derived from nature by the use of the Aristotelian logic, subject to the authority of the Church, the other, truth above reason, revealed by God but formulated and taught solely by authority of the Church (see Air BERTUS MAGNUS; SCHOLASTICiSM). The deists relied exclusively on natural theology, on the ground that the being and attributes of God could be exhaustively ascertained from the constitution and course of the world, thus superseding the necessity of supernatural revelation (see DEisM). David Hume, by his theory of knowledge, proved that even this knowledge was too precarious for rational certitude. On the other hand, Bishop Butler (Analogy of Religion, London, 1736 and often) maintained that natural and revealed religion were so far one that the truths of natural theology provided a basis for the characteristic truths of the Christian faith, such as miracles, the incarnation, and redemption. Later, the wisdom, power, and even the goodness of God were held to be demonstrable by the processes of natural theology (S. Clarke, A Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God, London, 1705; Win. Paley, Natural Theology, ib. 1802; Bridgewater Treatises', q.v.). The function and name of natural theology continued in vogue until the latter portion of the last century (see GOD, IV.; and consult T. Chalmers, Natural Theology, Edinburgh, 1849; A. P. Chadbourne, Lectures on Natural Theology, New York, 1867; E. H. Gillett, God in Human Thought, or Natural Theology, ib. 1874; W. Jackson, Philosophy of Natural Theology, London, 1874; J. H. Kennedy, Natural Theology and Modern Thought, ib. 1891; G. C. Stokes, Natural Theology, ib. 1891; G. P. Fisher, Manual of Natural Theology, New York, 1893). This habit of thought has, however, been strongly opposed by Ritachl and his school. Relying on Kant's distinc‑
tion between the pure and the practical reason, they seek the source of the knowledge of God not through the theoretic judgments of science or philosophy, but only through value‑judgments to which revelation is addressed. Nature being impersonal can neither receive nor communicate the personal redemptive disclosure of God which man needs for reconciliation with him; this is to be sought ultimately only in Christ and the Christian community. Recent thought tends to yet another mode of viewing the whole subject. The distinction between natural and supernatural, in which natural theology arose and flourished, is effaced. Ruling ideas are: philosophical monism; psycho‑physics tending to the personal interpretation of reality; evolution involving and revealing the unity of the world; the divine immanence as a postulate of religious thought. Moreover, the material included in natural theology is treated from a different point of view, as, e.g., the science of religion (C. P. Tiele, Elements of the Science of Religion, New York, 1897; J. Caird, Philosophy of Religion, Edinburgh, 1880; O. Pfleiderer, Philosophy of Religion, London, 1886; G. T. Ladd, Philosophy of Religion, New York, 1905; H. HSffding, Philosophy of Religion, London, 1906); apologetics (A. B. Bruce, Apologetics, New York, 1892; G. B. Foster, The Finality of the Christian Religion, Chicago, 1906); theism (Samuel Harris, Philosophical Basis of Theism, New York, 1886; B. P. Bowne, Theism, ib. 1902); or individual aspects of fundamental religious questions are discussed with reference, e. g., to psychology (E. D. Starbuek, Psychology of Religion, London, 1899; G. A. Coe, The Spiritual Life, New York, 1900; W. James, Varieties of Religious Experience, ib. 1902); religion (L. H. Jordan, Comparative Religion, Its Genesis and Growth, Edinburgh, 1905; A. Sabatier, Religions of Authority and Religions of the Spirit, New York, 1906); Christianity (A. Harnack, What is Christianityt London, 1901); metaphysics (J. Royce, The World and the Individual, New York, 1900‑01); science (J. LeConte, Evolution and Its Relation to Religious Thought, New York, 1894; E. Caird, The Evolution of Religion, London, 1893); history (A. Menzies, History of Religion, London, 1895; W. Bousset, Das Wesen der Religion, dargestellt in ihrer Geschichle, Halle, 1904).
C. A. BECKWITH.
BIBLTOGBA.PHT: Besides the works mentioned in the text, the reader may coneult: J. A. Thomas, The Bible of Nature, London, 1908; and R. Otto, Naturalism and Religion, ib. 1909.

NATURE, LAWS OF: In general a law is a statement of the rule according to which something either necessarily takes place, as in external nature, or ought to take place, as in the normative sciences. While the laws of logic or ethics are often violated, no exception to the law of gravitation has ever been observed. Indeed, it is this assumed element of necessity that distinguishes the laws of nature from the recognized rules of thought, conduct, etc.
However, it is by no means certain to what extent laws of nature, e.g., that of mechanical causation, find application; and it is still a mooted question whether they control psychical life and the progress of history, as well as physical happenings, or

Nature
Naumburg
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
whether a teleological element must be reckoned with. Further, since such laws are derived largely from experience, which is highly diversified and seemingly endless, it is impossible to fix upon a limited number of laws of nature and say that they are all. Attempts to set up a single law, upon which all natural processes depend, have proved as ineffectual as similar attempts of metaphysicians to reduce all ontology to some one formal proposition. In both cases the unifying principle is empty and abstract, and its truth is denied by the very multiplicity of existence. The law of causation has been taken as such a general formula; but it is seen at once that this transcends mere natural events. Evolution, as the single law to which all natural events are to be subordinated, is likewise unsatisfactory. It would also control all psychical life, individual and social, as well as natural phenomena. Merely with such general formulas very little would have been accomplished by science; for they really give no explanation of phenomena. In the very conception of event and phenomenon, evolution and causation are already assumed. Even from the law of the conservation of energy, which seems to have more content than the two just mentioned, it is impossible to deduce the single laws that actually govern natural events.
Attempts to formulate the laws of nature reach far back into antiquity. In the philosophy of Anaximander and Heraclitus the eternal flux of things expresses the most general law; and similarly Anaximenes. Plato and Aristotle speak of laws of nature, but do not formulate them. As to the origin of these laws, there are two familiar views. According to the first, which originated with Anaxagoras, they were given to the world by the Godhead. Thus hold both deists and theists. According to the second, or naturalistic, view, which originated with Democritus, these laws are eternal and immanent in the world. Thus held Spinoza. Kant opposed both these views. He taught that man is not only his own law‑giver in the practical field, but that he is even the law‑giver of nature, since all the concepts, axioms, and laws which make possible a synthesis of perceptions, or experience, or science based upon experience, are immanent in his understanding. While there may be an a priori element in the laws of nature, the fact remains that such laws, even the most universal, are discovered only on the basis of experience. With the laws of nature must not be confused Natural Law (q.v.). (M. HEINZEt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. D. Campbell (the duke of Argyll), The Reign of Law, new ed., New York, 1885; F. Schultze, Philoaophie der Naturtuissenschaft, 2 parts, Leipsic, 1881; H.
Drummond, Natural Law in the Spiritual World, London, 1883 and often; G. D. Campbell, The Unity of Nature, ib. 1884; idem, The Reign of Law, ib. 1867 and often; N. S. Shaler, The Interpretation of Nature, Boston, 1893; G. C. Zimmer, Ueber das Weaen der Naturgeaetze, Giessen, 1893; R. R6hrieh, Rdtselhafte Dinge. Einftihrung in die G,rundgeaetze der Natur, Leipsie, 1897; C. H. Crawford, Natural Laws Governing the Mortal and Immortal Worlds, Chicago, 1904; E. Dennert, Naturgeaetz, Zufall, Vorsehung! Hamburg, 1906; E. Boutroux, Ueber den Begri$ des Naturgeaetzee . . in der Philoaophie der Gegenwart, Jena, 1907.
NAUDE, n8"d6', PHILIPPE: Franco‑German Reformed; b. at Metz Dec. 28, 1654; d. at Berlin Mar. 7, 1729. As a boy he spent four years as page to the count of Weimar at Marksuhl. Attempts
made here to convert him from the Reformed to the Lutheran faith led him to devote himself to theological studies, which he continued on his return to Metz. On the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) he fled to Germany. In 1687 he settled at Berlin as a teacher of mathematics, becoming professor of mathematics at the Academy of Sciences in 1704. His mathematical works are overshadowed by his numerous theological writings. These are all devoted to defending the sovereign grace of God on a supralapsarian basis. In his Morale evang&que (2 vols., Berlin, 1699), he attacked naturalistic ethics, divorced from revealed religion, which denied the origin of evil in the world. His La Sottveraine Perfection de Dieu dans ses divers attributs (2 vols., Amsterdam, 1708) was directed primarily against the philosopher Pierre Bayle and the French preacher at Berlin, Isaac Jaquelot, the former doubting Christianity, the latter being universalistic in tendency. The Recueil des objections (1709) sought to show that infralapsarians differ from supralapsarians only in phraseology. He renewed his attack on Bayle in Refutation du " Commentaire philosophique " (Berlin, 1718). His Examen de deux traits (2 vols., Amsterdam, 1713) was directed against the non‑traditional theology of the Copenhagen preacher La Placette and the Swiss theologian Ost^rwald. He assailed the mysticism of Pierre Poiret in his Griindliche Untersuchung der mystischen Theologie (Zerbst, 1713) and polennized against the universalistic tendency of the theological faculty of Frankfort in his Theologische Gedanken caber den Entwurf der Lehre von der Besehafenheit and Ordnung der g6ttliehen Ratschliisse (1714).
(F. W. CuNot.)
BIBCCOGRAPRY: D. H. Hering, Beitrage zur Geschichte der reformierten %irche in den preusaisch‑brandenburgiachen
Ldndern, vol. ii., Breslau, 1785; Niceron, M.4moires, vol. xli.
	NAUMBURG, naum'burg, BISHOPRIC OF: An
ancient bishopric in what is now Prussian Saxony,
founded at the same time and under the same cir
cumstances as those of Merseburg and Meissen
(qq.v.). The original seat of the bishopric was at
Zeitz. It included the Wendish districts on the
right bank of the upper Saale. The conversion of
the inhabitants was a slow process, and had not
been completed by the beginning of the twelfth
century. This accounts for the transference of the
see from Zeitz to Naumburg, on the borders of the
German‑speaking territory, at the instance of Con
rad IL, which was confirmed by John XIX. in 1028.
		(A. HAUCK.)
The town of Naumburg was presented to the bishop at the time of the transfer; but the margraves of Meissen, nominally protectors of the see, kept the secular authority in their own hands until Bishop Meinher (d. 1280) established the sovereignty of the bishop. In the time of Philip, palsgrave of the Rhine and duke of Bavaria (1517‑11), a usually non‑resident bishop, the Reformation made great progress in the district. At his death the canons elected Julius von Pflug, the last Roman Catholic bishop (1541‑64), whose place was contested by Nicholas von Amsdorf, on the strength of consecration at the hands of Luther.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. P. Lepsius, Geschichte der Bisch4fe des Hochatifta Naumburg, part i., Naumburg, 1846; S. Braun,

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RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Naumburger Annalen . . . 799‑1815, ib. 1892; E. Hoff
man, Naumburg . . . im Zeitalter der Reformation, Leip‑
sic, 1901.
NAUMBURG, nauln'burg, CONVENTION: An assembly held at Naumburg from Jan. 20 to Feb. 8, 1561, to unite the Protestant estates by the subscription of the Augsburg Confession, and to discuss common measures against the Council of Trent, which was soon to be reopened. Since the second colloquy of Worms (q.v.) in 1557 various attempts had been made to unite the Protestants (see FRANKFORT RF)CEsB). The adherents of Flacius (q.v.) requested a general synod; but the Philippists (q.v.) opposed this plan. During the Diet of Augsburg (Mar., 1559), Duke Christoph of Wiirttemberg proposed a new convention of the Evangelical princes, and at a meeting of Duke Christopher, Elector Frederick III. of the Palatinate, and his son‑in‑law, Duke John Frederick of Saxony, at Hilsbach, it was decided that the convention should be held at Naumburg. Landgrave Philip, Count‑Palatinate Wolfgang of Zweibracken, and Elector August were also won for the plan. The rulers of Wuxttemberg and the Palatinate invited the princes of Upper Germany, while Elector August and John Frederick of Saxony invited those of North Germany.
Several princes were represented in the convention by their councilors. From Jan. 20 to Feb. 8 there were held twenty‑one sittings. In accordance with a preliminary agreement that nothing else was to be discussed but the subscription of the Augsburg Confession, Frederick III. of the Palatinate proposed the following points: (1) Comparison of all editions of the Augsburg Confession in order to decide which copy should be subscribed; (2) the drawing up of a preface stating the occasion and purpose of the meeting; (3) an explanation to the emperor concerning the purpose of the meeting; (4) discussion on the question whether and how the uninvited counts, lords, and cities were to be persuaded to subscribe. Immediately difference of opinion arose as to what edition should be subscribed; and some demanded also the subscription of the Scbmalkald Articles. Frederick III. demanded the subscription of the Latin confession of 1530, since the corresponding German text contained the offensive words, unter Gestalt des Brotes and Weines, which admitted transubstantiation. The subscription of the Latin text was in Frederick's eye equal to an implicit acknowledgment of art. x. Of the Variata, regarding the Lord's Supper. ,The work of collating the different editions occupied two full days. Various points of dispute now arose, on the question whether the edition of 1531 or 1540 or 1542 should be subscribed, and whether the German text in art. x. of the Invariata seemed to confirm transubstantiation. In the mean time orthodox theologians had not missed the opportunity to influence the princes. David Chytrmus of Rostock pointed out the Melanchthonian heresies in the Variata and advocated the subscription of the Invariata, together with the Schmalkald Articles; and the adherents of Flacius sent an epistle warning against any subscription of the Augsburg Confession, unless the subscription of the Apology and the Schmalkald articles were included. The
Nature
Naumbur8
assembled princes finally agreed upon the edition of 1531, and a preface was drawn up to be sent to the emperor. John Frederick and Ulrich of Mecklenburg refused to sign the preface on the ground that the obnoxious heresies, especially those of the Sacramentarians, were not specially mentioned and condemned, and that no direct explanation of the disputed articles had been given. The sudden and secret departure of John Frederick from Naumburg caused great alarm among the princes. The preface was signed by the two electors, Landgrave Philip of Hesse, Duke Christopher, and the margrave of Baden. Neither Duke Ulrich signed, nor the councilors of the other absent princes, as most of them had already departed.
More harmony prevailed in the negotiations regarding the Council of Trent. Two papal legates and an imperial embassy arrived at Naumburg. When it was discovered that the papal briefs inviting the Protestant princes to participate in the Council of Trent began with the words Dileclo Rio (" [to my] beloved son "), they were sent back unopened, with the remark that the Protestant princes were not, and would never be, the sons of the pope. The convention finally answered the emperor and the pope to the effect that none of its number would participate in the Council of Trent, that they wanted a national German council in which they could not only be heard, but also have a vote.
At the entreaty of the persecuted French Huguenots, the assembled princes sent letters of intercession to King Charles IX. and King Anthony of Navarre. There appeared an ambassador from Queen Elizabeth of England, who, in consideration of the coalition of the Roman Catholic powers, urged the necessity of a closer union of the Evangelicals and proposed steps to be taken for the purpose of a mutual agreement in regard to the Council of Trent. The princes promised to comply with her wishes, and also notified the king of Denmark of their attitude toward a council. The princes pledged themselves to induce each one of their counts, lords, and cities to subscribe the Augsburg Confession together with the preface. For the preservation of peace they resolved upon a careful censorship of new writings and the suppression of all libelous literature. Thus the convention came to an end; but the work of peace was soon destroyed by the opposition of John Frederick of Saxony and by the zealous labors of the anti‑Philippist theologians. At the Convention of Liineburg in July of the same year the leading theologians of Liibeck, Bremen, Hamburg, Rostock, Magdeburg, and Brunswick unanimously rejected the Naumburg preface and asked for a. severe condemnation of the heresies. The princes of Lower Saxony likewise rejected the preface. The only palpable result of the Naumburg Convention was a common protest against pope and council. (G. KAwERAu.)
BIBLTOGRAFHY: There are three monographs on the sub
	ject: G. P. Hann, Historia des von denen euanpelisehen
	3tnnden 1681 zu Naumburg gehauenen Convents, Fran1dort,
	1704; J. H. Gelbke, Der Naumburger Farstentag, Leipsic,
	1793; R. Calinieh, Der NaumbuMer Fizrstentap, Gotha,
	1870. Consult further: H. Heppe, Ceschichte der deutachen
	Proteatantismus 1666‑81, i. 384 sqq., Marburg, 1852; A.
	Kluekhohn, Briefe Friedrichs des Frommen, i. 154 aqq.,

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Navigation
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
as
Brunswick, 1868; idem, Priedrich der Promme, pp. 79 aqq., NSrdlingen, 1879; O. 7.5ekler, Die Aupaburper KonJeesion, pp. 48 sqq., Frankfort, 1870; B. Kugler, Christoph Herzog zu Wiirttemberg, ii. 183 sqq., Stuttgart, 1872; M. Ritter, Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Gegenrejormation, i. 153‑154, 209 sqq., ib. 1889; A. Heidenhaim, Die Unionapolitik LandgraJ Philippe von Hessen, 16571682, pp. 185‑286, Halle, 1890.

NAUSEA (G R AU), FRIEDRICH: German Roman Catholic; b. at Waischenfeld, Upper Franconia, Bavaria, 1480; d. at Trent Feb. 6, 1552. He seems to have taught for a time at Nuremberg, and was then a private tutor of a son of Schwartzenberg, first at Leipsic, and then at Pavia and Padua, where he received his doctorate in law in 1523. In 1524 he went to Germany as secretary to Cardinal Lorenzo Campeggio (q.v.). The same year, besides being commissioned to restore Melanchthon and Erasmus to the Roman Catholic Church, he was made papal notary and count of the Lateran. In 1525 he was given the parish of St. Bartholomew, Frankfort, which, however, on account of Lutheran opposition, he exchanged for the post of cathedral preacher in Mainz. Here he became one of the chief Roman Catholic preachers and apologists of the Reformation period. As preacher and counselor he was active at the Diet of Speyer in 1529. After a year in Italy, where he received the theological doctorate at Sienna, he went to Vienna as court chaplain and councilor to the Emperor Ferdinand. In 1538 he was made bishop coadjutor of Vienna, but still preached regularly before the court. In 1539 he published at Leipsic brief postilla of the Gospels to replace those of Luther. At the emperor's request, Nausea took part in the Hagenau conference in 1540, and in the same year delivered at Worms his Hortatio ad ineundam in Christians religions concordiam (Mainz, 1540), in which he urged the acceptance of the tradition of the Fathers. In 1541 he succeeded to the episcopal see of Vienna. His attempts at reform within his diocese failed to'secure imperial support; but in 1551 he attended the Council of Trent as Ferdinand's orator, taking an active part in the debates on the Eucharist, penance, and extreme unction, and on Jan. 7, 1552, preaching on the mass and the priesthood. His works include, besides many sermons: Responsa
	. ad aliquot Germaniea natiAnia gravamina
(1538); Catechismua catholieua (1543; 2d ed., Ant
werp, 1551); Pastoralium inquisitionum elenehi tres
(Vienna, 1547); and Isayogicon de elerieia ordinandis
(1548). 	(G. KAwERAU.)
BIBI.IOORAPHT: A volume of Npistoim misceuanea to him
was published Basel, 1551. Consult: the biograpkv by J. Metzner, Regensburg, 1884; T. Wiedemann, Gesehichte der Reformation and Gegenreformation im Lands unter der Enne, i. 227 .qq., ii. 27 sqq., Prague, 1878‑80; W. Friedensburg, in ZKG, xx (18991, 500 sqq., xxi (1900), 537 eqq.; ADB, xldii. 321 sqq.; KL, ix. 50 sqq.
NAVIGATION.

Hebrew Names for Ships (¢ 1). Form, Construction, and Tackle (§ 2). Early Hebrew Navigation. Tarshish (1 3). Later Hebrew Navigation (§ 4).
The most frequent name for ship in the Old Testament is 'oni, a collective, 'onigyah being a noun of individuality. It is applied to vessels of the most various sizes. In Job ix. 26 the expression " swift
ships " is probably identical in meaning with the " vessels of bulrushes " of Isa. xviii. 2, and recalls the boats known, e.g., to Pliny (Hilt.
r. Hebrew naturalis, xiii. 21 sqq.), and still used in
Names the Sudan, made out of papyrus reeds. for Ships. They are practically rafts of no great size, made of bundles of reeds tied together and kept in motion with poles or short oars. But the word 'oni is used with qualifying words ("ships of the sea," Ezek. xxvii. 9; " ships of Tarshish," Ezek. xxvii. 25) to denote vessels which sail the open seas. A rarer word is zi (Num. xxiv. 24; Isa. xxxiii. 21; Ezek. xxx. 29; Dan. xi. 30), which in Daniel and Numbers implies ships of war, probably also in Isaiah, but the passage in Ezekiel is better represented by " swift ships." The word sephinah is found only in Jonah i. 5.
	Exceedingly instructive is the passage Ezek.
xxvii. 1‑9a, 25‑36, in the matter of construction,
equipment, and manning of vessels. Tyre is pic
		tured as a splendid ship of commerce.
	s. Form,	The double planks are of cypress
Construction, brought from Senir (Hermon); the
tend Tackle. mast is of cedar of Lebanon, while the
		oars are of oak brought from Bashan;
the deck (or cabin?) is of " te'a8shur " wood inlaid
with ivory, brought from " the isles of Cbittim "
(a name derived originally from Cition in Cyprus,
and then applied generally to the islands and coasts
of the Mediterranean). The sail is of some valuable
material wrought in Egypt and decorated with
figures which had some connection with the busi
ness or the importance of the ship. The awning is
of blue and purple. The word which is rendered
" mariners " in verse 27 (mallah) is not to be con
nected with the word for salt (melah), but with the
Babylonian malahu, " sailors." A part of the ship's
company consisted of "pilots" (i.e., the sailors
who managed the tackle); and a part, of rowers.
There can be no doubt that the prophet who penned
this picture drew upon his knowledge of Phenician
shipping, and the account is the more valuable
since no other reports are known of the material and
equipment of a Phenician vessel. There are, how
ever, pictured on a relief from Sennacherib's palace
at Nineveh vessels which tire probably of Phenician
origin. Two kinds of ships appear, one of which is
a war vessel, equipped with a ram. They have two
banks of oars, four in each bank, and each has two
steering oars or rudders toward the stern, one on
each side. Each ship has one mast and carries a
yard, the ends of which are connected with the
mast by ropes. The sail is apparently four‑cornered,
and from it one rope is carried to the bow and two
to the stern. The other kind of ship is without the
ram, is somewhat shorter and decidedly rounded in
shape. This has no mast or tackle; three men on
board are equipped with two spears each; and
other general characteristics indicate that this is a
second and smaller variety of war vessel. The mer
chant vessels were probably of this latter type,
shorter and rounder, equipped with mast, stays,
yard, sail, and steering oars, sometimes also oars
for propulsion, though these could hardly be used
for heavy ships of burden. It is likely that the bow

89
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
was decorated with some device which served also as a mark of identification; Greek and Roman writers say that Phenician ships carried the head of a horse at the bow, as did an Assyrian ship figured in the palace of Sargon at Khorsabad.
The Hebrews of the highlands of Palestine had necessarily nothing to do with seafaring matters.
Whether the smaller tribes which for
3. Early a time or always had their homes by
Hebrew the sea engaged in marine business the Navigation. notices in Gen. xlix. 13 and Judges v.
Tarshish. 17 do not make sufficiently clear. Out‑
side of these, the reigns of David and Solomon seem to have been the first period when Hebrews used the sea, being then in close connection with the Phenicians. The embassies between Jerusalem and Tyre and the exchange of commodities imply sea traffic (II Sam. v. 11; I Kings v. 15 sqq., ix. 11, 14). Hiram sent the timbers needed by Solomon in rafts (I Kings v. 9), and the Chronicler asserts that these came to Joppa (II Chron. ii. 16); possibly Solomon had control of the trade routes and so of the road to Joppa, though it is more likely that Dor (see PHILISTINES) was the port used, since this is known to have been in the region already subject to Solomon. From Elath or from Eziongeber traffic was carried on with Ophir (q.v.). Tarshish was also a port to which ships sailed. The Old Testament does not make clear where Tarshish lay, except that it was somewhere in the West, either on the Mediterranean or still farther west. It is mentioned as belonging to the islands or coast lands of the Mediterranean, known as of importance and celebrated by Sidonian seafarers, as belonging to the Greeks (Isa. xxiii. 1, lx. 9; Ezek. xxvii. 12, 25; Gen. x. 4), and as reached by sailing from Joppa (Jonah i. 3); Isa. lxvi. 19 implies that its distance was great. Eusebius and Jerome did not know where it was, but. thought of Tarsus, and it was also located at Carthage and in India. The identification which has the best authority is Tartessus in Spain, on the river Guadalquivir, on which was the Phenician colony of Gadir (Gadeira, Gades, Cadiz), founded according to the Romans about 1100 B.C. Greeks from Phoeaea settled at Tarshish c. 600 B.C., since the control of the region by the Phenicians ceased about 700 B.C. because of their wars with the Assyrians. But between 500 and 300 the Carthaginians held Gades. The earlier passages in the Old Testament assign Tarshish to the Phenicians, while later passages (P in Gen. x. 4) reckon it to the Greeks, and this is significant. It is noteworthy that the wares said to be from Tarshish were those of Tarteasus. It is reported of Solomon in I Kings x. 22 that he had " ships of Tarshish " which made a trip every three years, and the passage gives the lading; the parallel text (II Chron. ix. 21) affirms that the ships sailed to Tarahish. It has been supposed that the expression " ships of Tarshish " merely means " great seagoing vessels," which is indeed the case in, e.g., Isa. ii. 16; Ps. xlviii. 7. But the passage in Kings is to be taken as expressing ships which sailed to Tarshish in company with the ships of Hiram on the Mediterranean, and Dor must have been the home port. The time consumed indicates a great distance. But
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Navigation
in the Greco‑Roman times the passage from Tyre to Tarshish consumed about twenty‑four days, therefore it took perhaps thirty days in Solomon's time. Probably the meaning is that during the first summer the outward voyage was made, the lading was secured during the second summer, and the return journey was made in the third, since during the stormy season the sea was not traversed, and stops were probably made at many ports on the way. Closer conclusions as to the merchandise can not be reached from the passage under discussion, since it is not said that these came only from Tarahish, and possibly Northern Africa was a second source whence the wares were derived. From I Kings xxii. 4849 and II Chron. xx. 35‑37 other conclusions follow. The first of these passages clearly means by " ships of Tarshish " vessels like those which sailed to that port, and the Chronicler again affirms that they sailed from Eziongeber to Tarahish. This was indeed not impossible if the route by way of the Nile and a canal to the Red Sea be thought of. But it is probable that the thought of the earlier passage (I Kings xxii. 48) ruled the statement of the supposed facts.
Of Azariah it is reported in II Kings xiv. 21‑22 that be regained Elath, though it was soon recovered from the Jews (II Kings xvi. 6); but the Jews who were there may have engaged in navigation. Nothing is said of participation by the northern kingdom
in the commerce of the Phenicians
4. Later during the alliance between the dy‑
Hebrew nasty of Omri with that of Tyre. The
	Navigation.	oracle on Issachar and Zebulun in
		Deut. xxxiii. 18‑19 necessitates par
ticipation in sea traffic on the part of the latter at
least, with the Bay of Accho as the point of de
parture. Similarly Hos. xii. 7‑,8, implying that
Hebrews had learned the ways of the Canaanites,
involves the interpretation that the former partici
pated in commerce by sea, though of course only a
part of the population was so engaged. For post
exilic times there are indications such as Ps. cvii.
23‑30. Jonah i. gives a fair idea of the ideas of
mariners of antiquity concerning the causes of
storms; Prov. xxxi. 14 compares the prudence of
the good housewife with the management of a ship;
Eccles. xi. 1 may refer to traffic by sea; Ecclus.
xxxiv. 9‑16 hints at a sea voyage; the late passage
Isa. xxxiii. 23 takes its figures from the tackle of a
ship. Simon the Maccabee made Joppa a Hebrew
port in 145 B.C. (see PHILISTINES); Josephus (Ant.,
XIV., x.) reports decrees of the Romans which im
ply that the Jews had dealings on the sea, and Hyr
canus charged his brother Aristobulus before
Pompey with permitting sea‑robbery to exist, and in
War, II., xxi.8 mentions 330 (230?) boats on the Sea
of Tiberias, while the Gospels speak frequently of the
fisheries there. The account in Acts xxvii.‑xxviii.
Of Paul's journey is valuable for the new light it
affords on sea travel. Ships had by this time
reached a considerable size, the Isis of Alexandria
being 180 feet long, forty‑five feet beam, and
forty‑three and a half feet deep, giving a tonnage
of about 2,700. Such ships carried a foremast,
used also probably as a crane; besides the mainsail
and the foresail, a topsail was sometimes carried.

Naa areenes	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	go
At the stern was the flagstaff from which the pennant flew. The rudder could be unshipped either when in harbor or during severe storms. Some ships carried several anchors (,Acts xxvii. 29), though sometimes heavy stones were used. Exactness in direction was unattainable in early navigation, the course being laid by the stars, and only dead reckoning of a sort was available, though a certain facility in calculating the ship's position was gained by practise, and charts were in the possession of sailors. On account of the necessity of sailing under clear skies, navigation was as a rule suspended between October and the spring. The "undergirding " of the ship (Acts xxvii. 17) is understood in two ways; one is the stretching of a strong rope around the ship just above the water line, the other places the rope amidship, passing under the keel and over the bulwarks and deck. The latter method was especially adapted to a ship of burden which carried its freight chiefly in the waist. (H. GuTHE).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: On the names consult: S. FrInkel, Die aramdischen Fremdworter im Arabischen, pp. 209 sqq., Leyden, 1886; E. Kautzsch, Die Aramaismen im A. T., part i., Halle, 1902. On form and construction: C. Torr, Ancient Ships, Cambridge, 1894; A. Jai, AfUologie navale, Paris, 1840; A. Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt, London, 1894. On Tarshish: F. C. Movers, Die Ph6nicier, ii. 2, pp. 588 sqq., 3, pp. 35 sqq., 92 sqq., Berlin, 1850‑56; G. Oppert, in Zeitschrift fair Ethnologie, xxxv (1903), 50‑72, 212‑265. Light on the naval affairs of Greek and Roman times may be found in: J. Smith. Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul, London, 1880• A. Bbekh, Urkunden fiber das Seewesen des allischen Staates, Berlin, 1840; A. Breusing, Die Nautik den Alter, Bremen, 1886; J. Vans, L'Art nautique dans 1'antiquiU, d'apr9s A. Breusing, Paris, 1887; H. Balmer, Die Romfahrt des Apostate Paulus and die Seefahrtskunde im rdmischen %aiserzeitalter, Bern‑Mtjnchenbuchsee, 1905. In general: F. Vigouroux, Le Nouveau Testament et les dcouvertes archiologiques modernes, pp. 321‑350, Paris. 1896; idem, Dictionnaire de la BZle, fase. xxviii., cols. 1494‑1515 (two excellent articles, with reproductions of Assyrian, Egyptian, and Roman monuments); DB, ii. 105, iv. 505‑506, 683‑685; EB, iv. 4477‑4484; JE, ix. 193‑194.

NAVILLE, EDOUARD HENRI: Swiss Egyptologist; b. at Geneva June 14, 1844. He studied in Geneva, London, and Paris, and being interested in Egyptology sat under Lepsius at Berlin. In 1869 he made his first visit in Egypt. Since 1882 he has been connected with the Egypt Exploration Fund (q.v.) and has published many remarkable papers through it (see the list of publications in the article EGYPT ExPLORATION FUND). His first contribution (1885) attracted wide attention since in it he detailed his investigation of the store cities of Pithom and the route of the Exodus, which he thought he had determined. In 1874 he was entrusted by the Congress of Orientalists in London with a new edition of the text of the Book of the Dead and published the same, Das dgyptische Todtenbuch den 18. bis °20. Dynastie (Berlin, 1886). In 1891 he became professor of Egyptology in the University of Geneva. He is the author also of The Old Egyptian Faith (London, 1910).

NAVILLE, JULES ERNEST: Swiss philosopher and theologian; b. at Chancy in the canton of Geneva Dec. 13, 1816; d. in Geneva May 27, 1909. He was educated in Geneva and in Germany, was professor of philosophy in the University of
Geneva from 1840 till 1846, when he lost his place in consequence of the Revolution, but was from 1860 till 1890 professor of apologetics and then till death honorary professor. His writings on religious and philosophical subjects embrace Maine de Biran, sa vie et ses penMes (Paris, 1857, 3d ed. 1874); La vie Iternelle (1861, 2d ed. 1862; German transl. Leipsic, 1863; Eng. transl., Life Eternal, London, 1863); Madame Swetchine (a Russian convert to Protestantism; 1863, 2d ed. 1864); Le Pbre aleste (1865, 3d ed. 1880; German transl., Leipsic, 1865; Eng. transl., The Heavenly Father, Lectures on Modern Atheism, London, 1865; Greek transl., Cyprus, 1893); Le Devoir (Lausanne, 1868; German transl., 1869); Le Problem du mar (1868, 2d ed. 1869; German transl., Jena, 1871; Eng. trand., The Problem of Evil, Edinburgh, 1871); L'_Oglise romaine et la liberte des cultes (Geneva, 1878); Le Christ (1878, 2d ed. 1880; German transl., 1880; Eng. transl., The Christ, Edinburgh, 1880); La Logique de l'hypothbse (Paris, 1880); La Physique moderne (1883, 2d ed. 1890); Le Libra arbitre (1890, 2d ed. 1898); La Science et matfrialisme (1891); La Condition soeiale des femmes (Lausanne, 1891); Le T6moignage du Christ et l'unitk du monde ehr6tien (Geneva, 1893); La Dgftnition de la philosophic (1894); Les Philosophies negatives (1899); Le Credo des chrEtiers (1901).

NAYLER, JAMES: English Friend; b. at Ardsley (5 m. s. of Leeds), Yorkshire, about 1617; d. at Holme (near King's Ripton, 16 m. n.w. of Cambridge) Oct., 1660 (buried Oct. 21). He was the son of a well‑to‑do farmer, and received an excellent education; on the outbreak of the civil war in 1642 he joined the parliamentary army, and became quartermaster; while in the army he became a preacher, but was taken ill, returned home, and took up farming in 1650. In 1651 he was converted under the preaching of George Fox, and became a preacher among the Friends, suffering imprisonment on the charge of unsound doctrine. His success as a preacher disordered his mind; he allowed himself to be treated in such a quasi‑reverential way, that in 1651 he was tried by parliament for blasphemy, and condemned to be whipped twice, to be branded, to have his tongue bored with a hot iron, and to be imprisoned during pleasure, with hard labor. After two years in jail he recovered and was released and received into the confidence of the Friends. He was a collaborator with George Fox (q.v.) in the production of Quaker tracts, and his Writings were published in a collected edition (London, 1716).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Deacon, The Grand Impostor Examined; or the Life, Tryal, and Examination of J. Nagler, London, 1656; idem, An Exact Hist. of the Life of J. Naylor, ib. 1657; A True Narrative of the Examination, Tryall, and Sufferings of J. Nayler, London, 1657; A True Relation of the Life, Conversation, Examination, Confession and just Deserved Sentence of J. Naylor, London, 1657; Memoirs of the Life. Ministry. Tryal, and Sufferings of . . . James Nailer, London, 1719; J. G. Bevan, A Refutation of Some of the more Modern Misrepresentations of the Society of Friends, with a Life of J. Nayler, London, 1800; DNB, xl. 130‑133.
NAZARENE, CHURCH OF THE. See PFNTH.. COSTAL CHURCH OF THE NAZARENE.

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
NAZARENES: The name given to two modern religious sects. For Nazarene as applied to Jesus Christ and his disciples see NAZARETH.
	1. Adherents of Jacob Wirz, a silk‑weaver of
Basel (b. 1778; d. 1858). This little sect owes its
origin to the most various spritual elements. Its
doctrines are based upon medieval Catholic ideas
and the mystical conceptions of Jakob Bohme,
Michael Hahn, and Friedrich Christoph Oetinger
	qq.v.). Among its beliefs were the following:
Jesus wished to be thoroughly and perfectly engen
dered in Wirz, who was to become by grace what
Jesus is by nature; Jesus Jehovah, one being with
	the Father and the Holy Ghost, is the basis of man's
	life and action, whom we embrace in connection
	with the holy mother community in.heaven, and its
	true members on earth, so that we may together
	grow into a perfect temple of the divine wisdom in
	Christ. The following elements are prominent: (1)
	the Catholic element, as expressed in the supplica
	tions to Mary and the saints, in the practise of
	making the sign of the cross, and in the high esti
	mation of celibacy; (2) the theosophical element,
	from which source the adherents draw their higher
	wisdom. Regarding the objective facts of salvation
	as well as the subjective process of salvation, the
	crudeness of the conceptions is striking, as, for in
	stance, in the explanation of the birth, death, and
	resurrection of Christ. If "the blood of Jesus" is
	the material for the rebirth of the whole universe
	" then the man who wishes to be blessed must en
	tirely absorb this human and divine substance by
	faith, which possesses a magnetic power." There
	fore, justification is imputed only in the beginning;
	it must rise to the grade of a sanctifying and unifying
	justification, which brings with it a transformation
	into the divine being of light. The firm faith in this
	supposedly higher knowledge produced a certain
	self‑consciousness which not only turned against
	ecclesiastical Christianity, but also, and more espec
	ially, assumed an attitude of opposition to theolo
	gians and set its face against all scientific investiga
	tion as a falling away from Christ. The vitality and
	growth of this sect is very limited; it exists only in
	a few scattered places, such as Barmen and Elber
	feld, and in a few districts in the hill‑country of
	W tlrttemberg, and does not appear to have any
future. 	J. HERZOG.
2. Hungarian Anabaptists. They originated about 1845 and number at present about 15,000. They have an active propaganda, are growing in importance, and have reproduced the quieter and purer type of Anabaptism of the middle of the sixteenth century. Little is known of them because they are inactive in the work of publication, and are averse to everything not strictly religious. Their hymn‑book is their only official publication (Zurich, 5th ed., 1889). There is an excellent article concerning them by G. Schwalm (JPT, xvi. 484‑545, 1890).
The name "Nazarene" has long been officially used. Probably the brothers Hemsey, who labored about 1840 as artizans in Switzerland and came into contact with Frohlich and his adherents in Thurgau or near Strasburg, brought this type of Christianity to their native land. After 1848 a
Neville
Nazarenes
large number of Nazarenes were found in Hungary, whose most zealous apostle was Stephen Kaimdr (d. 1863). They have since spread through southern Hungary. They have only one article of faith: the Bible gives God's commandments; to keep them conscientiously is " the way " to salvation. They admit that in the other churches children of God are found, but claim that they should join the Nazarenes. They lay stress upon the doing of God's will, and upon suffering. Complete passivity and patient bearing of insults and ill‑treatment characterize them. They do not complain of severe oppression, to which they were formerly especially exposed. This is the lot, they say, of the children of God. They firmly refuse to take an oath and decline military service. It is not the bearing of arms in itself to which they object, but the purpose of killing the enemy which they regard as antichristian. In their religious phraseology they agree with other pietists and prefer to use Biblical language. They are noted for their beautiful singing. They kneel at prayer, sometimes observing silence. Baptism is of adults and by immersion, followed by prayer and imposition of hands by the elders. They are sought as laborers because of their diligence, sobriety, honesty, and thrift, and are not opposed to amassing wealth. The persecutions through which they passed often produced in them a certain fanaticism, characteristically Anabaptist, evinced by their hatred of the church, of priests, and of the educated ministry. To these they apply all words spoken by Jesus against the Pharisees and scribes. From their pietistic standpoint, every external formality of worship appears to belong to the kingdom of apostasy. They therefore form no church organization; they do not even record their baptized members. All who become "converted" and "have the testimony of the congregation " may receive immersion. These join thereby not an organized " church " but the " Christ‑believing congregation." But almost all Nazarenes know each other personally, however dispersed they may be. Their elders enjoy an almost unrestricted influence, they advise in all possible concerns, even in matrimonial affairs. Their position is not fixed by rule; there is no formal control over financial administration and relief; everything is a matter of confidence. The Nazarenes have personal and epistolary intercourse with the Frohlichians in Zurich and Strasburg, with some neo‑Baptists in W iirttemberg, with Lothringians, and with the Amish Mennonites in America, whom they call cOreligionists. But their relation to the Baptists, otherwise nearest to them, is by no means friendly. The Baptist congregations they put on the same basis as the " church." Baptists who join them they baptize again. Their following is from the lower classes. Their future, when their virtues, their growing wealth, and their industry procure for them greater importance and when their narrow vision gives place to needed scientific education, can not be foreseen. Political changes in Hungary have greatly ameliorated their condition. The period 1848‑1868 was their time of struggle. Their children were forcibly removed and baptized in the churches; and they themselves suffered long terms of imprisonment for refusing military service.

Nazareth Neale
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
Many died in prison, some were even sentenced to death in the war of 1866 on account of this refusal. Since 1868 the constitution has granted liberty of conscience, but this has not always been observed. As late as 1902 many, otherwise blameless, were in prison for refusing military service. Even their marriage customs brought them into conflict with the authorities. With the new Hungarian legislation of 1894 and 1895 some relief has come; they are no more obliged to belong to any of the acknowledged confessions. The State recognizes them as undenominational citizens when they apply as such, and they show respect for the " authority appointed by God." They are not molested because their children take no part in the religious instruction of the church and disregard obligatory attendance at church. In their propaganda they are also unmolested. They do not believe in universal salvation. Hence in their propaganda they aim to save from the world only the " susceptible souls."
S. CRAMER.
BIBLIOGRAPHT: On 1 consult: The founder's Biopraphie; sin Zeugniss der Nazarenerpemeinde van der Bntfoicklunp des Reiches Gottes auf Erden, Barmen, 1862; his Zeupniaae and Erbfnungen des Geistes durch J. J. Wire heilipe Urkunden der Nazarenerpemeinde, 2 vols., ib. 1863‑64; and C. von Palmer, Die Gemeinabhaften and Sekten WArttemberga, pp. 143 sqq., TObingen, 1877.
NAZARETH: The native city of Jesus (Matt. xii. 54; Mark vi. 1; Luke iv. 23). There his parents lived (Matt. ii. 23; Luke i. 26, ii. 4, 39) and his brothers and sisters (Mark vi. 3); and there he grew up (Luke ii. 51, iv. 16). As the name of the place does not occur in the Old Testament and is not authentically certified in later Jewish literature, its Hebrew form can be inferred only from the Greek form in the New Testament, Nazareth, Nazaret, or Nazara. The meaning of the mule is uncertain. Jerome thought of nezer, " flower " (Epist. xlvi., Ad MarceUam). In the Talmud Jesus is called " the Nazarene " and his disciples " Nazarenes " from a Greek form Nazarenos (cf. Mark i. 24, x. 47), though another form is Nazaraios (Matt. xxvi. 71; Luke xviii. 37). In Eusebius' Onomasticon the form is interpreted either as " holy, pure," or it is brought into connection with the Hebrew for " twig, flower," ut sup. Hitzig proposed to derive the word from the Hebr. rtzyry in the unpointed text of Isa. xlix. 6 and to interpret the plural Acts xxiv. 5, " saved ones," in contrast with the " perishing " of I Cor. i. 18, 21; 11 Cor. ii. 15. At a later time, according to Hitzig, the same word, as singular, was referred to Jesus himself, in the sense of " saved one " as well as in allusion to Nazareth (Matt. ii. 23).
Little is known of the early history of Nazareth. It was situated in Galilee (Matt. xxi. 11; Mark i. 9), on the slope of a hill (Luke iv. 29), and had a synagogue in which Jesus taught, though without success (Matt. xiii. 53‑58; Mark vi. 1‑6). According to Epiphanius (Hmr. i. 136) the town had only Jewish inhabitants until the time of Constantine, and even then only a few Christians settled there. Nazareth was evidently only at a comparatively late period received into the number of holy places of pilgrimage. Hence the authenticity of the holy places now revered in Nazareth is doubtful. Under the dominion of the crusaders Nazareth was apparently
a purely Christian place, the seat of a bishop, later of an archbishop. It suffered severely from the victories of Saladin 1187 and of Sultan Bibars 1263, also from the Turkish conquest in 1517. It flourished for a time under the dominion of Fabr elDin, prince of the Druses (1620‑1634), but soon declined owing to discords among the inhabitants and attacks from outside.
	Nazareth rests concealed in a hollow surrounded
by hills as if in the cavity of a shell. The slopes are
well cultivated toward the south and east, corn
fields alternating with vineyards and fig‑trees. The
present population is estimated at 11,000, of whom
the orthodox Greeks and Mohammedans form each
a third, while the Latins number 1,500, the United
Greeks 1,000, the Protestants 250, the Maronites
200; Jews are not tolerated there. Nazareth is
the capital of a district and an important market
towel. Of the holy places in Nazareth the orthodox
Greek Church of St. Gabriel or the Church of the
Annunciation is especially attractive, being built
beside the spring of St. Mary in the northeast of the
town. It was mentioned as early as 670, but the
present structure was erected in 1780. The Roman
Catholic church was built in 1730. Nazareth is
now the seat of an orthodox Greek bishop and has
a Greek monastery with a school for boys and girls;
the Russians support several schools there. The
Roman Catholic Church is represented by the Fran
ciscans and by several orders of women. The Mar
onites also have. a church. In 1851 the English
Church Mission founded a Protestant congregation,
and the Female Education Society in London
erected in 1872‑75 a stately orphans' home for girls.
		(H GUTHE.)
BIRLIOGRAPHY: An excellent treatment is to be found in F. Vigouroux, Dictionnaire de la Bible, fase. xxviii. 15211542, Paris, 1906. Consult further: Hitzig, in Tiibinper theologische Zeitschrift, i (1842), 410‑413; T. Tobler, Nazareth in Pala:stina, Berlin, 1868; V. Guhrin, Description de la Palestine, iii., Galilee, i. 83‑102, Paris, 1880; Survey of Western Palestine. Memoirs, i. 275‑279. London, 1881; 1V. M. Thomson, The Land and the Book, Central Palestine, pp. 310‑322, New York, 1882; G. Ebers and H. Guthe, Palastina in Bild and Wort, i. 302 sqq., Stuttgart, 1883; G. Schumacher, in ZDPV, xiii (1890), 235 sqq.; G. A. Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, pp. 432‑435, London, 1894; F. Buhl, Geopraphie des alien Palaatina, pp. 215 sqq., Tiibingen, 1896; Robinson, Researches, iii. 183 eqq.; DB, iii. 496‑497; EB. iii. 3358‑62; JE, ix. 195; DCG, ii. 235‑237. The recent monograph is G. Le Hardy, Hist. de Nazareth d de ass sanctuaires, Paris, 1905. The subject is treated also in many of the works on the life. of Jesus Christ.
BAZIRITES: The name given to Hebrews who assumed certain vows or upon whom these vows were imposed by their parents. The naziritic institution (Hebr. nazir, " separate," Gk. naziraios, nazaraios) included both sexes, involved abstinence from intoxicating drinks, avoidance of contact with the dead, and the unchecked growth of the hair. It was a distinctly religious institution, and the resolution to assume the obligations which it imposed was regarded as inspired by Yahweh (Amos ii. 11), to whom the nazirite was consecrated (Num. vi. 2). This consecration might be for a lifetime (Samson, Samuel, John the Baptist), or for a shorter period, and it might be assumed by the parents for a child even before his birth. The law of the nazirite is given Lev. vi. 1‑21. In the required abstinence from

		Nazareth
93	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Neale
wine there is discerned the survival of a prehistoric puritanic conception of the Semites which held the enjoyment of wine and like luxuries to be hindrances in the way of perfect service of the deity. The abstinences of the Rechabites (Jer. xxxv.), of the Nabateans (Diodorus Siculus, xix. 94), and of Mohammedans are examples of the survival of this conception. In the case of the nazirite there is a connection with the priesthood found in the prohibition of contact with the dead, even of participation in the mourning ceremonies for his own kin, showing the sanctity of the nazirite; this is illustrated by the fact that the Talmudic tract Nazir (vii. 1) places the nazirite and the high priest on the same footing. But the naziritic vow did not necessarily involve special service at the sanctuary. The prohibition to cut the hair arises from the fact that the hair is sacred to Yahweh. Many peoples regarded the growth of the hair as a divine energy which was not to be assailed or weakened by contact with a tool of man's workmanship; the full growth of hair exhibited by a nazirite was, therefore, a sign of consecration, and with Samson was a condition of his divine power. Illustrative of this is the fact that the term nazir was applied to the untrimmed vine of the Sabbatical and Jubilee years. If during the period of ' his consecration the nazirite incurred pollution, his hair was shorn, the term of consecration was begun anew, and certain expiatory offerings were made (Num. vi. 9 sqq.). The Talmudic tract Temurah (vi. 4) prescribes that the hair of the polluted nazirite be not burned but buried; the implication is therefore that when the hair was burned in the sanctuary, the ceremony was constructively a sacrifice, and this is illustrated by ethnic usage like that of Mohammedan pilgrims who leave their hair unshorn from the time of taking th6 vow of pilgrimage until they reach Mecca and then cut the hair and burn it on holy ground. In the case of the naairite who assumed the vows for a period only and not for life, the end of the term was marked by several kinds of sacrifices‑burnt offering, sin‑offering, peace‑offering, with their accessories (Num. vi. 13 sqq.). Not to be overlooked is the difference in spirit between this institution and similar observances among Hindus and even Christians; in the latter case the object is suppression of sensual inclinations, in the Hebrew institution the purpose was to conserve the full vigor of the body for the service of God.
Postexilic Judaism employed the naziritic vow in case of illness or misfortune (Josephus, War, IL, xv.), when undertaking a journey (Nazir, i. 6), and on like occasions; it even furnished a form of oath which gave rise to Pharisaic casuistry and brought naziritism into disrepute. Paul seems to have a casual relationship to naziritism in the incident mentioned Acts xviii. 18, though there is doubt whether the vow referred to Paul or Aquila, and indeed whether the vow was actually naziritic. On the other hand, Paul assumed the not inconsiderable expenses attending the completion of the vows of four indigent Jews (Acts xxi. 23 sqq.). This was a friendly service often rendered by the wealthy (cf. Josephus, Ant. XIX., vi. 1; Mishna,
Nazir, ii. 6).	C. voN ORELLI.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Consult: the commentaries on the passages
cited; H. Vilmar; in TSK, xxxvii (1864), 438 eqq.; H. Ewald, Antiquities of Israel, pp. 84‑88, Boston, 1878; J. Grill, in JPT, vi (1880), 645 sqq.; J. B. Gray, in Journal of Theological Studies, i (1900), 201 sqq.; C. Grilneisen, Der Ahnencultus, pp. 46, 71, 92, 112 Rqq., Halls, 1900; Bensinger. AmUiolopie, pp. 361‑362; Nowack, Archa6Wie, ii. 134‑138; Vigouroux, Dietionnaire, xxviii. 1515‑20; DB, iii. 497‑501; EB, iii. 3362‑64; DCG, ii. 237‑238; JE, ix. 195‑198.
NEAL, DANIEL: Historian of the Puritans; b. in London Dec. 14, 1678; d. at Bath Apr. 4, 1743. He studied first at Merchant Taylors' School, .London, then (1696‑99) in Rev. Thomas Rowe's academy in Little Britain, and then for three years at Utrecht and Leyden. Returning to London in 1703, the next year he was chosen assistant pastor, and in 1706 full pastor, of the Independent Congregation in Aldersgate Street, and faithfully served it, until, a few months prior to his death, he was compelled by ill‑health to resign. He was the author of two works which have given him lasting fame: The History of Neto England, Containing an Impartial Account of the Civil and Ecclesiastical Affairs of the Country to the Year of Our Lord 1700 (2 vols., London, 1720) and the standard History of the Puritans, or Protestant Nonrconform%sts, from the Reformation in 1617, to the Revolution in 1688 (4 vols., 1732‑38; 2d. ed., 2 vols., 1754; ed. J. Toulmin, with Life, 5 vols., Bath, 1793‑97; ed. J. 0. Choules, 2 vols., New York, 1844).
BIRLIOORAPR7: Besides the Life by Toulmin, ut sup., consult: Walter Wilson, Hid. and Antiquities of Dissenting Churches in London, iii. 90‑102, London, 1810; DNB, xl. 134‑136.
NEALE, JOHN MASON: Ecclesiastical historian and hymnologist; b. at London Jan. 24, 1818; d. at East Grinstead (23 m. s. of London) Aug. 6, 1866. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge (A.B., 1840). While a student he developed an extraordinary interest in church archeology, especially in architecture, and wi,.h a few others organized in 1839 the Cambridge Camden Society, which lasted till 1845. He was ordained deacon in 1841, and priest in 1842; was for a few months of 1842 incumbent of Crawley in Sussex, but ill‑health compelled him to resign. He then married and the next winter went to live in Madeira. There he found facilities and strength to continue his literary work, which had already brought him considerable reputation. He returned to England finally in 1845, and from 1846 till his death was warden of Sackville College, East Grinstead. The " college " really was an almshouse for a few old people of both sexes, and the salary was only some E24 a year! But the duties were light and congenial and his opportunities for remunerative literary work were unimpaired. Still the position meant that in all likelihood he was out of the line of preferment.
He belonged to the most advanced section of High‑churchmen; and his outspoken and consistent championship of Puseyism (see PUSSY, EDWARD BoovERn) won him not only suspicion, but obloquy. He was under the inhibition of his bishop (Chichester) from 1846 to 1863 but his zeal and industry matched his great and varied talents. " His life was divided," says Josiah Miller, " between excessive literary toil and exhausting labors of piety

Neale
Neander
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
and benevolence." He founded, in 1856, the Sisterhood of St. Margaret. Desperately unpopular for a time, the order was before his death in demand everywhere, as furnishing the best nurses in England.
As an author his productiveness has few parallels, and he was more appreciated for his writings abroad than at home. His most important writings are his History of the Holy Eastern Church with The Patriarchate of Alexandria and The Patriarchate of Antioch in the appendix (5 vols., London, 1850‑73); and Commentary on the Psalms from Primitive and Mediteval Writers (4 vols., 1874; in association with R. F. Littledale). Mention may be made also of Hierologus, or the Church Tourists (1843); Ecclesiological Notes on the Isle of Man (1848); Readings for the Aged (4 series, 1850‑58); History of the So‑Called Jansenist Church of Holland (1858); Voices from the East (1859); and Sermons for Children (1867). Yet almost everything which he wrote provoked controversy. He had strong convictions, and the full courage of them: in his own view he was a witness of a system of absolute truth. On almost every page of his writings, whether prose or verse, learned or popular, his point of view and his resolute purpose are apparent: they are books of faith and of intention. To him " religion was the solidest of all realities," and religion and the Church were inseparably one. Nowhere is this more marked than in his wonderful stories for children and young people. Most of these have a historical foundation; many of them recite real or supposed facts, dealing with ancient or obscure trials and martyrdoms. His sympathies seem rather Roman than Protestant, and dubious legends are accepted with unquestioning belief; but the charm of style, the minute knowledge of distant times and places, the vivid realization, the subdued feeling, at once profoundly devout and intensely human, form a combination which few English popularizers of Christian history have approached. The Farm of Aptonga (1856); The Egyptian Wanderers (1854); The Followers of the Lord (1851); Lent Legends (1855); Tales of Christian Heroism and Endurance (in the Juvenile Englishman's Library, vi., 1846), and some others, are as much prized by adult as by juvenile readers.
As a poet, Neale eleven times gained the Seatonian prize. An edition of his Seatonian Poems (Cambridge, 1864) was dedicated, by permission, to his bishop, after their reconciliation. His Songs and Ballads for the People (London, 1843) and Songs and Ballads for Manufacturers (1850) are secular only in name. But his greatest services have been rendered, and his widest fame won, through his hymns. Here he worked in a field entirely congenial. His twenty Hymns for the Sick (1843), and eighty‑six Hymns for Children (1843) include some gems and much useful matter. The Hymnal Noted (1851‑54) is chiefly given to long metres, which seem somewhat dry and formal. Mediceval Hymns and Sequences (1851; 2d ed., enlarged, 1863) afford more variety and many valuable notes. Among the most precious of these is Neale's first selection from the famous Rhythm of Bernard de Morlaix, completed in 1858, beginning with the line, " Jerusalem, the golden." After the Rhythm of Bernard his
94
noblest work is Hymns of the Eastern, Church (1862). There he was on ground familiar to him, and to him alone, and the mine he opened yielded treasures indeed. Almost unknown to the English Church were original sacred lyrics of such beauty as " Art thou weary," "The Day is past and over," and "Safe home." Within twenty years, many of these Greek hymns have made their way almost everywhere.
Neale was a singular compound of medieval (he would have called it primitive) doctrine and devotion with modern culture and English manliness. He was the sworn foe of breadth or liberalism; but his large gifts and nature transcended his self‑imposed (or, as he thought, God‑imposed) limits, and made much of his work catholic in the sense which he repudiated. Those who most disliked his Romanizing tendencies have been forced to admire his vast industry, his rigid consistency, his patience under long adversity, injustice, and neglect, his superiority to all questions of self‑interest, and his heroic and unflinching faith.
BIHwoGHAPHY: Letters of John Mason Neale, Selected and ed. by his Daughter, London and New York, 1910; Eleanor A. Towle, John Mason Neale, A Memoir, London, 1906; W. Jowett, Memoir of the Rev. Cornelius Neale (his father), ib. 1834; G. Huntington, Random Recollections, pp. 198223, ib. 1893; S. W. Duffield, English Hymns, pp. 271273 et passim, New York, 1886; S. M. Jackson, Sources of " Jerusalem the Golden," passim, Chicago, 1910; Julian. Hymnology, pp. 785‑790; DNB, xl. 143‑146.
MEANDER, JOACHIM: Principal poet of the Reformed Church; b. at Bremen 1650; d. there May 31, 1680. He was educated at the Latin school of Bremen and in 1666 entered the Gymnasium illustre. After a carelessly spent youth he was converted by a sermon of Theodor Undereick, pastor of St. Martini in Bremen, by whom he was led into the path of Reformed pietism. As the tutor of the sons of distinguished Frankfort merchants, and also to continue his studies, Neander went to Heidelberg. In 1674 the Reformed congregation of Dusseldorf called him as rector to their Latin school, but private religious meetings instituted by him in 1676 and some arbitrary rules in the administration of the school, brought him into conflict with the preacher and consistory. He was deposed in 1677, but before the notification reached him he signed a declaration in which among other things he condemned separation from the external church community as practised by Labadie and his people. He also renounced secret meetings and the " detention of members from the Lord's Supper." Neander was in consequence merely suspended. In 1679 he was called to Bremen as third preacher of the church of St. Martin, but died in the following year. The first edition of his songs appeared under the title, A & St Joachimi Neandri Glaub‑ and Liebes‑Uebung: Au, fgemuntert durch einfaltige Bundes Lieder and Danck‑Psalmen . . . (Bremen, 1680), contained fifty‑seven songs, of which about twenty editions appeared before 1730. Although not suitable for church hymns because of their marked subjectivity, and though they contained reminiscences of Labadie and of Cocceius, the songs were taken into the hymnals. In the second part of the hymn‑book for Cleve, Jiilich, Berg, and Mark of 1738, Neander's name stands beside that of Luther on the title page.

98
RELIGIOUS
While some of Neander's productions are awkward
and lack polish, others are so powerful and impress
ive, so devout and sincere, and so highly imagina
tive that they secured an honorable place among
spiritual songs. Neander proved himself also a true
musician, for of the melodies to his hymns nineteen
originated with him. 	(E. SimoNs.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. H. Reitz, Hiatorie der Wiederpeborenen, iv. 44‑57, Itzetein, 1717; M. G5be1, Geachichte des chriatlichen Lebena in der rheiniach‑weatfdliachen Kirche, ii. 322358, Coblenz, 1849; C. Winkworth, The Christian Singers of Germany, London, 1889; W. Nelle, Joachim Neander, der Dichter der Bundealieder and Dankpaalmen, Hamburg, 1903; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 790‑792; ADB, vol. viii.
MEANDER, JOHANN AUGUST WILHELM.
Career (§ 1). Works (§ 2).
Conception of Church History and Methods (§ 4).
Place in Church History Defect as a Historian (§ 5).
Personal Characteristics (§ 6).
Johann August Wilhelm Meander was born at Giittingen Jan. 17, 1789; d. at Berlin July 14, 1850. He was of Hebrew descent, bearing the name of David Mendel before his conversion to Christianity; and through his mother he was related to the phi‑
losopher Mendelssohn. Soon after his :.Career. birth he was taken by his mother, who had been separated from her husband, to Hamburg, which in subsequent years he regarded as his home. He was educated by the help of friends, especially the councilor Stieglitz. At the gymnasium at Hamburg he was especially interested in the study of Plato, which prepared him for the acceptance of Christianity. But that which determined him moat strongly in its favor was Schleiermacher's Reden icberdie Religion. On Feb. 15, 1506, David Mendel was baptized, in the Church of St. Catherine at Hamburg, under the name of Meander (New‑man). The state of his mind was pictured in an essay he wrote before his baptism, which was an attempt to describe the various stages of religious development; and it was apparent that he regarded Christianity from an ideal standpoint, rather than as the absolute truth. Until the spring of 1806 he had been intending to study law, and left Hamburg with this in view. He went to the University of Halls, where he came especially under the influence of Schleiermacher (q.v.); but he was compelled, by the commotions of war, to exchange for Gottingen, where Gottlieb Jacob Planck (q.v.) was then teaching. On his return to the university from a visit to Hamburg, in the fall of 1507, he substituted for Schleiermacher, Friedrich Schelling and Johann Fichte (qq.v.)the New Testament and the Church Fathers. A few months afterward: he laid a confession before his friends, binding himself to the study of church history, and praying the Lord to preserve him from errors. In the spring of 1809 he returned to Hamburg, where he taught for eighteen months, preached from time to time, and continued with great zeal the study of church history. In 1811 he habilitated at Heidelberg with the dissertation, De Eider gnoseoaque Christian&, idea et ea, qua ad se inuicem algae ad philoaophitrm referontur, rations seeurulum mentem Clementia Alexandrine. In 1812 he was made professor extraordinary at the university, and the same year issued the first of his monographs, Ueber den Kaiser Julianua
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Nesle
Nesader
and sera Zeitalter (Hamburg, 1812; Eng. transl., Julian the Apostate, New York, 1850). In 1813 he was called to Berlin to labor at the aide of Schleiermacher, Wilhelm De Wette, and Philip Marheineke (qq.v.) where he lectured on church history and the exegesis of the New Testament with great success and continued his literary labors.
Neander published: Der heilige Bernhard and sera Zeitalter (Berlin, 1813); Die genetiache Entwickelung der twrnehmstera gnoatiachen systems (1818>; Dar heilige Johann Chryeoatomus and die Kirche Wonders
des Orients in desaen Zeitalter (1821‑22); z. Works. Denkwurdigkeiten Gus der Geachichte des
Chrastenthttma and des chriatlichen Lebena (1822‑24); and Antignosticua, Geist des Tertullianua and Einleilung in desasn Schriften (1828). All these monographs were a preparation for the main work of his life, Allgemeinx Geschichte der chriatlichen Religion and Kirche (6 vols. in 11, Hamburg, 1825‑‑52; 4th ed., Goths, 1863‑65; Eng. transl., J. Torrey, General History of the Christian Religion and Church, 5 vole., and Index [by Mary Cutler Torrey], new ed., New York, 1882). This work comes down to the martyrdom of Jerome of Prag. Die Geschichte der Pflanzung and Leitung der chriatlichen Kirche durch die Apoatel (1832; Eng. transl., J. E. Ryland, History of the Planting and Training of the Christian Church by the Apostles, Edinburgh, 1842; revised by E. G. Robinson, New York, 1865) is an independent introduction to the history. The controversy evoked by the Life of Jesus Christ by Strauss led him to write Daa Leben Jesu Christi in seinem geschichtlichen Zuaammenhang (1837; 7th ed., Goths, 1873; Eng. transl., J. McClintock and C. E. Blumenthal, The Life of Jesus Christ, New York, 1848), pronounced the best answer offered to Strauss' work. He also wrote commentaries on Philippians (Berlin, 1849; Eng, transl., New York, 1851), James (1850; Eng. transl., 1859), and I John (1851; Fag. transl., 1852). Other
I	activities were his lectures on systematic theology
	and, after Schleiermacher's death, on ethics which
I	appeared after his death in Dogmengeachichte (Ber
	lin, 1857), Katholiziamua and Protestantiamus (1863),
i	and Geschichte der christlichen Ethik (1864).
In order to appreciate the position of Meander as a church historian it is necessary to take into consideration the views which had, up to this time, prevailed among church historians. The most im‑
portant church historian of that time 3. Place is was Planck, and he belonged to the
Church so‑called pragmatic school. It moat
History. not be forgotten, however, that higher
conceptions of church history had begun to be expressed by Schelling, Marheineke, and Johann Gieseler (q.v.). The pragmatic school only looked at Christianity as a system of doctrine and not a.9 a historical development. In its interest in individuals and their thinking and plans as the only causes of changes, it lost eight of objective forces. Of higher causes it knew nothing. It substituted for the fulness of a living development, its poor shallow conception of Christianity. Instead of dealing with events or a revelation of the fulness of Christ's life, church history was turned into a picture gallery representing human follies and errors,

Neantier
Nectarine
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
which the historians felt free to condemn or to ridicule.
Neander broke through the rules of the pragmatic school in his very first work, Julian, at the beginning of which he affirms eternal Providence to be the molding spirit of history rather than human creation. He substituted for psychological arts the rich results of a study of the historical sources. The general principle of Neander's method is seen to even better advantage in his monograph on Bernhard. Author and subject were kindred spirits; and, in the treatment of Bernhard's career, Neander lays bare the innermost principle of his life, and derives his activity from it. In his Chrysostom, the most elaborate of his biographies, Neander displays the same method.
	Neander's	conception of church history is set
forth in the Introduction to his great work in these
words: " We look upon Christianity, not as a system
born in the hidden depths of man's nature, but as
		a power which has come down from
4. Concep‑ heaven, in that heaven has opened ittion of self to a hostile world‑a power which
Church	in its essence, as well as in its origin,
History is exalted high above all that man can and create with his own powers, and which
	Methods.	was designed to impart to him new
		life, and transform him in his inner
most nature." He regards Christianity as also a
force, a life, and not alone as a dogma, or a divine
power which has come down from heaven. In his
view, therefore, the history of the church is the his
tory of the process of the interpenetration of man's
life with the divine life; or the history of the divine
life of Christ pervading humanity. This new life
was perfectly manifested in Christ, the second Adam,
and becomes concrete in the lives of individuals
whose peculiarities are not destroyed, but trans
formed and glorified. Every Christian, therefore,
repeats the life of Christ in his own characteristic
way. In no one is that life repeated in its compre
hensive fulness. Each only presents a single aspect
of it. Neander is constantly representing the one
life of Christ in its conflict with sin, and in its adop
tion and rejection of worldly principles and forces
in the various phases of rationalism and supernat
uralism, scholasticism, and mysticism, and in specu
lative and practical effort. To this general con
ception is due the edificatory character of Nean
der's History. One of Neander's characteristics as
a historian is his talent for portraying individual
traits of character and life. He honored the indi
vidual as no other historian before him, and brought
out the objective features of his subject, without
intruding his own subjective thoughts and opinions.
Closely connected with this talent is his ability,
which has already been referred to, of understand
ing and sympathizing with the experiences of
others, and unveiling the Christian element in
their lives.
The objectivity of Neander's portrayal of events and persons is the most important feature of his work; but also its weakest point, for the concrete and individual are relatively far more prominent than the universal. Neander's defect was failure to appreciate the Church and allow it due promi‑
nence. Instead of the Church there is a collection of single portraits of individuals animated with the life of Christ. The biographical element predominates. Neander loves to dwell upon
g. Defect the spiritual life of his characters, and
as a has depicted with a master's hand the Historian. hidden life of the Church; but in doing so he has neglected to portray its allconquering power over the world. The influence of the Church upon the formation of dogmatic beliefs, upon civil law, social customs, art, and architecture, he does not sufficiently bring out. In spite of the variety o£ individual character and experience, the history of the Church in his hands does not present a harmonious and progressive development. Neander has given a commentary of the parable of the leaven, but fails to render justice to the parable of the mustard‑seed.
Neander's division of church history is extremely simple. So far as the spiritual life of the Church is concerned, it falls into three periods. The boundary between the first and the second is the growth of a priesthood‑a fact to which be can not call attention too often; for his history is a history of the universal priesthood. The first period is a period of pure spiritual religion; the second is characterized by a reinswathement of Christianity in habiliments like those of the Old Testament; the third is marked by a reaction and an effort of Christian liberty to reassert itself.
Neander's personal influence in the classroom was little less important than his literary activity. He labored in Berlin for thirty‑eight years. In his exegetical lectures and commentaries he pursued a practical method.
His personal influence upon his students was also very great. He presents the figure of a man of simple and childlike spirit, helpless 6. Personal in the practical affairs of life, faithful Character‑ to his calling, severe toward himself,
	iatics.	and temperate, full of love and gentle
		ness toward others, and wholly and
unreservedly devoted to the Lord. But he could
be severe; he entered a protest against the Ezdn
gelische Kirchenzeitung, and opposed, not only with
great firmness, but often with heat, both panthe
istic and spiritualistic speculations, and the more
rigid wing in the Church which insisted upon a strict
system of doctrine. Among those who contributed
to the revival of faith and theology in the first half
of this century be has, beyond dispute, one of the
most prominent places, perhaps the most prominent
if practical results be considered.
Throughout the whole of his life he had to contend against a feeble constitution. In 1847 he began to suffer with his eyesight, and was prevented from continuing his " History." Attacked with a stroke of apoplexy, he lingered only a few days before he passed away.
BIHLInaaAPHY: O. Krabbe. August Neander, Hamburg, 1852; P. Schaff, Germany; its Universities, Theology, and
Retipeon, chap. xxv., Philadelphia, 1857; idem, Saint
Auguetin. Mela.nehthon, Nearuler, New York, 1886; J. 1..
Jacobi, Erinnerungen an August Neander, Halle., 1882;
1.. Schulze, August Neander, Ixipaic, 1890; A. Wigand,
August A•eanders Lehvn, Erfurt, 1390; K. T. Schneider,
August Neander, Schleswig, 1895.

97
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
NEBO: The deity of the Babylonian city of Borsippa, mentioned in Isa. xlvi. 1 together with Bel (Marduk‑Merodach), the patron god of Babylon. His name is cognate with the Hebrew nabhi, " prophet." Previous to the reign of Hammurabi (c. 2200 B.c.; see HAMMURABI AND HIS CODE), Nebo of Borsippa seems to have been more prominent than Marduk of Babylon. Primarily he determined destiny at the Babylonian new‑year festival, and when Babylon became the metropolis Nebo was made a scribe in the chamber of fate, being at the same time regarded as the son of Marduk. In the prehistoric period, however, Nebo was superior to Marduk, for in the accounts of the wars with the Elamites, dating (though preserved only in NeoBabylonian recensions) from the time of Hammurabi, Nebo is " the guardian of the world," and the archaistic inscriptions of the Neo‑Babylonian kingdom mention Nebo before Marduk. Nebo is preeminently " the scribe," writing on his tablets the fate of mankind; since writing was essentially in the hands of the priests, Nebo was the patron deity of the priesthood. The planet Mercury was sacred to him, and the extension of his cult to Arabia is shown by an inscription found on the island of Bahrein, dating from the early Babylonian period (cf. F. Hommel, Aufsatze and Abhandlungen, pp. 150, 156, Munich, 1900). Further evidence of the latter fact is afforded by the name of the Arab tribe Nabayoth (see NABATIEANB) and by the god Anbai in South Arabia. The Mandaean list of planets mentions N'bu, "learned in writing and wise," while in the anti‑Christian polemics of the Mandseans Enbu, or Nebo‑Mercury, is the false Messiah, Jesus. As the planet Mercury Nebo was likewise a chthonic deity; the procreation and life of new‑born children were under his protection. The Greeks identified him with Hermes or Apollo as a god of oracles and wisdom.
Besides the mention of Nebo in Isaiah already noted, he is implied by " the man clothed in linen, which had the inkhorn by his side " of Ezekiel (ix. 2 sqq.); and he appears as the archangel of the Book of Enoch who " writeth all the works of the Lord." The name Nebo was borne by the mountain whence Moses beheld the future fortune of Israel (Deut. xxxii. 49 sqq., xxxiv. 1 sqq.), and the cities of Nebo and Nob show that a knowledge of Nebo had early penetrated west of the Jordan. The following theophoric names of the Old Testament have Nebo as a component: Nebuchadnezzar (" Nebo, protect my boundaries "), Nebuzar‑adan (" Nebo hath given Posterity)')) Nebushasban (" Nebo, save me "), and Abednego (for Abedneb0, " servant of Nebo "). Nebo is like‑vizse frequent in names on post‑Christian Aramean and Palmyrene inscriptions, as Nabu‑duri (" Nebo my fortress "), Nabu‑sar‑iddin (" Nebo hath given the king "), Nabu‑sar‑uZZ ur (" Nebo, protect the king "), and 'Abad‑nabu ("servant of Nebo"). See Babylonia, VII., 2, § 11. (ALFRED JEREMIAS.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Jeretnias, in W. H. Roscher, Lexikon der griechischen and rsmischen Mythologic, iii 45‑68, Leipsic,
1898; Schrader KAT. PP. 399‑408; F. Vigouroux Dictionnaire de la Bible, xxvii., eols. 1434‑36; EB, iii. 33663389; and particularly the works on the religion named under ASSYRIA; BABYLONIA.
VIII‑7
Neander
Nectarius
NEBUCHADNEZZAR, neb"yu‑cad‑nez'zar: The Biblical form of the name of two Babylonian kings (see BABYLONIA, VI., 6, § 1, 7, § 2.) The Babylonian form (Nabu‑kudurriruzzur, " Nebo, protect my boundary ") suggests the form Nebuchadrezzar, which most scholars now prefer. It is used mostly by Jeremiah and always by Ezekiel.
NECHO, ni'co : King of Egypt 609‑593(7). He was a son of Psamtik I., the founder of the twenty‑sixth dynasty, whose ambitious designs he attempted to carry out. He took advantage of the decay of Assyrian power (see ASSYRIA, VI. 3, § 15) to recover Syria for Egypt, on the way defeating Josiah (q.v.) at Megiddo, 608 B.c. On his return from the Euphrates he dethroned Jehoahaz (q.v.) as king of Judah and set up Jehoiakim (q.v.) in his place. But he was defeated in turn by Nebuchadrezzar at Carchemish, 605 B.c. (see BABYLONIA ,VI., 7, § 2), and in 597 B.c. the Egyptians were again completely driven out of Asia (see EGYPT, I., 4, § 4).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The literature under EGYPT, particularly
the works of Petrie and Breasted. Consult especially the latter's History of the Ancient Egyptians, pp. 404‑407, New York, 1908.
NECSAM (NECHAM), ALEXANDER: English Augustinian monk and Latin poet, foster brother of Richard I. of England; b. at St. Albans Sept. 8, 1157; d. at Kempsey (3 m. s. of Worcester), Worcesshire, 1217. He was educated at St. Albans; became master of the Dunstable school, a dependency of the abbey of St. Albans; went to the University of Paris for study and by 1180 was a famous teacher there; in 1213 he became abbot at Cirencester, Gloucestershire. He was a man of wide learning, one of the best Latin poets of his age, and wrote among many other things two curious productions, De naturis rerum (of no scientific value, but interesting for the information it conveys), and De laudibus divinm sapientite (both ed. T. Wright, in Rolls Series, No. 34, 1863); also De vita monacho‑m (ed. T. Wright, ib., No. 59, ii. 175‑200, 1872). He wrote also on grammar and lexicography, commentaries on parts of Scripture, on Aristotle, and on Ovid.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bides the preface to Wright's ed. of the
	De naturis, ut sup., consult: T. Wright, Biographia Britan
	nica lit‑aria, ii. 449‑459. London, 1842‑46; DNB, xl.
154‑155 (where other scattered notices are recorded).
NECTARIUS: Patriarch of Constantinople; b. in the first half of the fourth century; d. at ConstantinopIe Sept. 27, 397. He was elected to the patri. archate by the council held at Constantinople in 381, but the precise reason for his selection is doubtful. According to Socrates (Hiat. eccl., V., viii. 12), Nectarius was of senatorial rank and a praetor, a layman, and the candidate of the people. Sozomen (Hist. eccl., VIL, viii.) states that he was a native of Tarsus, and also gives a number of less credible details, such as that Nectarius was still an unbaptized neophyte and that, recommended by Diodorus of Tarsus to the bishop of Antioch as a suitable candidate for the episcopate, he had been placed last on the list, but was chosen by the Emperor Theodosius and made bishop while still in his baptismal robes. He was not a man of great importance. It is possible that he was the Nee tarius t0

Nectariue	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	98
Negeb
whom Basil addressed a letter of consolation on the
death of his son. Nor was the earlier career of
Nectarius particularly honorable, if the allusion of
Sozomen (Hilt. eccl., VIL, x. 2) may be accepted.
His episcopate was equally inglorious. In the con
duct of his office he was dependent upon the guidance
of others, the funeral eulogies at court which were
part of his duties were actually delivered by Gregory
of Nyssa, and he unwisely abrogated the office of
penitential priests. He is occasionally regarded as
a saint in the East. Numerous manuscripts ascribe
to him a eulogy of the martyr Theodore (MPG.,
xxxix., 1821‑10), a production of little note except
for its archeological allusions.	(F. Loons.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: DCB, iv. 11‑14 (takes a view of Nectarius
	opposite from that in the text); G. Rauschen, Jahrbt)cher
	der christlichen Kirche inter dem Kaiser Theodosius, Frei
	burg, 1897; J. Kunze, Dos nictinisch‑konstantinopolitani
	sche Symbol, Leipsic, 1898; Ceilher, Auteurs sacr6s, v. 18,
	280‑282. The sources are sufficiently indicated in the text.
	NECTARIUS: Patriarch of Jerusalem; b. in
Crete 1605; d. about 1680. He was educated by
the monks of Sinai where he himself became a monk;
but when thirty‑five years of age he studied at
Athens with the Neo‑Aristotelian Theophilus Cory
dalleus. About 1660 he was in Constantinople on
business connected with his monastery, and on his
return to Sinai was chosen abbot.	But on his way
to Jerusalem to be consecrated he was informed
that he had been chosen patriarch of the Holy City,
and was consecrated in April, 1661. As early as
1666 he sought to be relieved of his duties and by
1669 Dositheus had become his successor. He re
mained in Jerusalem, however, except when driven
by the Latin monks for a short time to Sinai. He
took part in the Synod of Jerusalem in 1672.
Among the writings of Nectarius the most impor
tant is his refutation of the theses of a certain Peter
regarding the papal supremacy (ed. Dositheus,
with a life of Nectarius, Jassy, 1682). He is still
better known by his recommendation of the Con
fessio orthodoxa of Mogilas (latest ed., A. Legrand,
Bibliographie hellMique, ii. 208 sqq., 4 vols., Paris,
1894‑96). A letter to the monks of Sinai is also
contained in E. Renaudot's Genadii patriarchm
Constuntinopolitani homilite de sacramento eucharis
tite, etc. (Paris, 1709, pp. 171‑183).	In his doctrine
of the Eucharist Nectarius was strictly orthodox, and
a zealous opponent of Cyril Lucar (q.v.) and the
" Calvinistic " movement. (F. KATTLNIBUSCH.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the biography noted in the text
	and the work of Legrand, vols. ii.‑v. passim, consult:
	M. Le Quien, Oriens Christianus, iii. 520‑522, Paris, 1740;
	A. Pichler, Geschichte der kirchlichen Trennunp zfoisrhen
	dem Orient and Occident, i. 474‑481, Munich, 1804 (deals
	with the tract against Peter).
	NEES13U: Founder of Doshisha University,
Kyoto, Japan; b. at Yedo (Tokyo), Japan, Jan.
(or in Christian reckoning Feb.) 14, 1843; d. at
Oiso (40 m. s.w. of Tokyo) Jan. 23, 1890. In Japan
he was called Neesima Shimeta, on the ship coming
to America the captain dubbed him " Joe," when
he was baptized he added the name of his benefac
tor, and so he is now commonly called Joseph Hardy
Neesima. His father was of the Samurai class, a
.~eachcr of penmanship and secretary to his prince,
and he was born in the palace. He received an ex‑
cellent education according to Japanese standards at the time. When Commodore Perry came to Yedo on July 7, 1853, his curiosity in the western world was awakened, and when later he came in contact with Dutch traders and learned their language, and especially when he read in Chinese Elijah Coleman Bridgman's " Church History," and William Alexander Parsons Martin's " Evidences of Christianity " he determined to visit the lands whence these persons (qq.v.) had come and learn the way of truth more perfectly. By the connivance of friends he was smuggled into an American brig lying in the harbor of Hakodate in July, 1864, and reached Boston in August, 1865. There he was befriended by the prominent merchant, Alphaeus Hardy, who sent him to Phillips Academy, Andover, to the scientific department of Amherst College, where he was graduated B.S. in 1870, and to Andover Theological Seminary, where he took a special course with the class of 1874. He was the interpreter of the Japanese embassy in 1871, although his knowledge of the English language was always defective, and as a partial reward for his services in this matter he received pardon for his capital crime in leaving his country without permission. He made no disguise of his absorbing desire to promote Christian education in Japan, even when with non‑Christian Japanese. In 1874 he was appointed a corresponding member of the Japanese Mission of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, and was ordained in Mount Vernon Church, Boston, Sept. 24, 1874. Before he sailed he made a plea for his project of a Christian college at the meeting of the American Board at Rutland, Vt., and thus secured $4,000. He opened it at Kyoto, Nov. 29, 1875, with eight pupils. The enterprise quickly became a success. In 1884 he made his first appeal for funds to enlarge the college into a university. In 1885 he returned to America and pleaded so successfully that he made the enlargement in 1886. In 1888 and again in 1889 he obtained large sums, not only from Americans, but from natives, even from non‑Christians. In 1888 Amherst gave him the honorary doctorate of laws. The name Doshisha given to the university means " one counsel." On Jan. 3, 1876, he married a Japanese woman. Ill‑health, especially in the later years of his life, compelled him to remit his efforts, but he lived for the institution which he had founded and which flourished so greatly under him. It has since been carried on, and in 1905 reported 5,000 students, and 1,000 graduates, but only eighty had become preachers.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. S. Hardy, Life and Letters of Joseph Hardy Neesima, Boston, 1891; J. D. Davis, Sketch of the Life of Joseph Hardy Neesima, LL.D., New York, 1890, 3d ed., 1905.
NEFF, FELIX: Swiss Evangelist; b. at Geneva Oct. 8, 1798; d. there Apr. 12, 1829. He entered, when he was seventeen years old, upon a military career in the garrison of his native city, but was afterward reached by the religious revival which at that time took place in the city, and became a revival preacher among his comrades. In 1819 he resigned his position in the army; and May 19, 1823, he was ordained in Mr. Clayton's chapel, in the Poultry, London. After laboring for some time at

99	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Neotarins
		Negeb
Mens, he settled in the lonely valleys of the Qu4ras
and Freissiniere in the Hautes‑Alps. Some rem
nants of the Waldenses had at one time sought
refuge there, but they had utterly degenerated.
Not only had fights and drunkenness taken the
place of the piety of their ancestors, but they had
even forgotten the commonest arts, and stink into
barbarism. The work which lay before Neff in
that place was almost overwhelming. He per
formed it, however, though it cost him his
life. When in 1827, he returned, dying, to Ge
neva, the settlements in the valleys which had
been the scene of his labors were converted and
flourishing.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lettres de Flux Neff, ed. A. Boat, 2 vols.,
	Geneva, 1842, Eng. tranal., Letters aced Biography of Felix
	Neff, London, 1843; T. S. Elleray, Memorials of Felix
	Neff, London, 1833; Vie de Felix Neff, Pasteur dans les
	Hautes Alpes, in French and English, London, 1836; W. S.
	Gilly, Memoir of Felix Neff, London, 1855; A. Christ,
	Felix Neff, Basel, 1873; Lichtenberger, ESR, ix. 588
	570.
		NEGEB, THE.
Character, Location and Extent (§ 1). Subdivisions and History (§ 2). Cities of Simeonitic Negeb (§ 3). Cities of Judaic Negeb and the Border (¢ 4).
[The Negeb is a term which covers the stretch of country by which the descent is made from the hill country of Judah just south of Hebron to the arid desert on the south. This descent is made by a series of great terraces with rolling i. Character, hills, cut by a number of wadies run‑
	Location,	ning east and west. It forms a natural
and Extent. barrier on the south of Judah, by its
		broken surface and comparatively in
fertile soil so completely protecting Judah that the
latter has seldom been invaded from the south.
The geology of the region differs from that farther
south, the crystalline rocks of the desert being
covered in the Negeb by soft limestone. Possi
bilities of fertility are there, dependent, however,
upon continual irrigation. There are signs that at
one time a considerable population maintained
itself in the region.] Although no precise bound
aries are indicated in the Old Testament, the general
situation is given by the geography of Judah (Josh.
xv. 21‑32), the account of the spies (Num. xiii. 17,
21‑26), and the wanderings of Abraham (Gen.
xx.1). The Negeb is often mentioned in connection
with the other southern parts of the land of Israel
and with the hill country and the lowland (Judges
i. 9; Dent. i. 7; Josh. x. 40; Jer. xvii. 26). Rim
mon was on the northern boundary (Zech. xiv. 10),
and the boundaries given for Judah (Josh. xv. 1
sqq.) and for Canaan (Ezek. xlvii. 18‑19; Num.
xxxiv. 3 sqq.) essentially coincide with those of the
Negeb. Since the eastern boundary varied at dif
ferent times, its exact merging with the southern
boundary of Judah (Josh. xv. 1 sqq.) can not be
given. On the southern boundary, however, may
be placed Gerar (cf. Gen. x. 19, xx.1; II Chron. xiv.
13), especially as the modern Wadi Jerur empties
westward, through the Wadi al‑Sheraif into the
Wadi al‑`Arish or "brook of Egypt," which formed
the southern boundary of Israel to the sea (Josh. xv.
3 sqq.; Ezek. xlvii. 19; Num. xxxiv. 4‑5), though
it is not probable that the Negeb extended as far as the coast. The Western boundary seems to have been still more indistinct than the Eastern. The Negeb, therefore, apparently designated in general the level slope of the land to the west of the watershed; and as this merged into the plain without marked interruption, the region was without fixed boundaries.
Originally Negeb was not a proper name, but merely denoted " the dry, parched country." It played a small part in history, for it was a region of pasturage rather than of settled civilization (cf. Josh. xix. 8; Gen. xxv. I6), and remained a
mere appanage of the settled district,
2. Subdivi‑ sometimes abandoned to the Bedouin
sions and and at other times won for trade and
History. cultivation by centers of population.
In the Old Testament the district is named in five (or six) ways, according to the tribes which controlled it. The Negeb of the Jerahmeelites has been identified with the Jebel and Wadi Rs4ameh about eighteen miles south of Tell a1‑Mind. The Negeb of the Kenites may be sought in the southeast, possibly near Kedesh; but if the preferable reading of the Septuagint, " Kenesites," be adopted, this part of the Negeb would abut on the Negeb of the Calebites (cf. Judges i. 15; Josh. xv. 19). But if (Judges i. 16; cf. I Sam. xv. 6) the Kenites lived in the vicinity of Arad and were neighbors of the Amalekites, the Negeb of the Kenites would then be on the watershed some nine miles south of Carmel and Maon (cf. Num. xxi. 1). The Negeb of the Cherethites lay to the west of Beersheba (cf. I Sam. xxx. 14, 16). The Negeb of Judah was doubtless a later designation, arising after the establishment of the kingdom of Judah, and is synonymous with the Negeb of Caleb. Besides these tribes mention is also made in the Old Testament of the Negeb of the Amalekites (Num. xiii. 29) and of the Geshurites (I Sam. xxvii. 8). So long as the Davidic kings were important rulers, the trade routes, especially those to Egypt and to Elath on the Red Sea, were under their protection. The first of these routes soon lost its importance; and the second was lost in the reign of Joram (II Kings viii. 20), regained by Azariah (II Kings xiv. 19‑22), and finally lost to the Judeans with Elath and its tributary commerce in the reign of Ahaz (II Kings xvi. 6). In the course of the seventh century the Negeb seems to have come progressively under the away of the Edomites and other tribes from Arabia. In postexilic writings, therefore, the Negeb was no longer regarded as Jewish (Obadiah 19‑20; cf. Jer. xiii. 19). The Hasmonean dynasty‑ and Herod troubled themselves little about the Negeb. The Romans were the first, by their roads, cities, and castles, to reduce this district of Canaan. Ptolemy reckoned the Negeb partly to Idumxa and partly to Arabia Petra a, and in the fifth and sixth centuries the Negeb formed part of Palestina Tertia or Salutaris. After the Arab conquest in the seventh century and particularly after the crusades the Roman structures fell into decay and the Bedouin became the lords of the district.
The cities of the Negeb are given partly to Judah

Negeb
Negro Education
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
100
(Josh. xv. 21‑32) and partly to Simeon (Josh. xix. 2‑3). Among the cities mentioned as being in
Simeon was Beersheba (Josh. xix. 2),
3. Cities of a noted shrine visited by Israelites
Simeonitic (Amos v. 5, viii. 14), where were a
Negeb.	tree planted by Abraham (Gen. xxi. 33)
and an altar built by Isaac (Gen. xxvi. 55'). The city formed the southern extremity of the land inhabited by the Israelitic tribes (II Sam. xvii. 11). It was noted for the well from which it derived its name, said to have been dug by Abraham (Gen. xxi. 30) or Isaac (Gen. xxvi. 32‑33). It was still in the days of Jerome and Eusebius a large village eighteen miles south of Hebron. Some churches were seen there by William of Boldensele (1332) and Ludolph of Sudheim (1335‑41), although the place was then deserted. The locations of Molada,h and Hazar‑ahual are unknown. Azem suggests Azmon on the southwestern boundary of Canaan (Num. xxxiv. 4 sqq.). Hormah is probably identical with the place where David sent presents of Amalekite booty (Josh. xv. 30; T Sam. xxx. 30). Ziklag lay northwest or west of Beersheba (I Sam. xxx.), perhaps in the Hirbet Zubailil~e, e.s.e. of Gaza. Beth‑marcaboth (Josh. xix. 5), or Madmannah (Josh. xv. 31), was Calebitic (I Chron. ii. 49). Shaaraim (I Chron. iv. 31), or Shilhim (Josh. xv. 32), apparently corresponds to a place mentioned in an inscription of Thothmes III. between Tanis and Gaza. Ain and Rimmon, apparently the En‑Rimmon of Nehemiah xi. 29, is apparently the modern Umm al‑Ramamin, nine miles north of Beersheba.
In the Negeb of Judah, Kinah may be associated with the nomadic Kenites (I Sam. xxx. 29). Ads, da,h is probably the modern `Ar'ara, three hours southeast of Beersheba. The Kedesh of Joshua xv. 24 may perhaps be the Kadus mentioned by alMu$addasi as a day's journey southeast of Hebron.
Hazor is perhaps the modern al‑
4. Cities of Huderah, while Ithnan may be the
Judaic	Calebite Ethnan of I Chron. iv. 7.
Negeb	Ziph must not be confused with the
and the Calebite place of the same name be‑
Border.	tween Carmel and Juttah (Josh. xv. 55).
Telem is apparently the Telaim of T Sam. xv. 4, and so the eastern boundary of the Amalekites. Bealoth seems to have been located to the northeast of Kadesh‑Barnes. KeriothHezron (Josh. xv. 25) was a Calebite site and may denote the plateau north of the Wadi Marrah. The Shema of Josh. xv. 26 appears to be connected with Simeon. In the list in Nehemiah xi. 26 it is represented by Jeahua, which has been identified with Hirbat Sa'weh, north of Tell al‑Milb. Tamar, which formed a southern boundary of Israel in the east (Ezek. x1vii. 18‑19; xlviii. 28), was located by the Onomasticon of Eusebius (ed. Lagarde, 210, 85) a day's journey from Mapsis. The Medeba mosaic (see MEDEBA) likewise locates Tamar south of the Dead Sea at the eastern foot of the mountain east of Mapsis, and it is apparently identical with the Tamar built by Solomon (Hebr. of T Kings ix. 18, A. V., Tadmor) to protect the southern trade route. Kadesh‑Barnes (Deut. i. 19, 46), lying on the southern boundary of Israel (cf. Num. xx. 1)
and between Tamar and the brook of Egypt (Ezek. xlvii. 19, xlviii. 28; cf. Num. xxxiv. 4), was east of Gerar (Gen. xx.,1) and was long inhabited by Iaraelitic tribes. The site corresponds to the modern 'Ain 1~adis. Its vicinity is called the wilderness of Kadesh (Pa. xxix. 8) or the wilderness of Zin (Num. xx. 1, 22; Deut. xxxii. 51). Here Moses brought water from the rock by his staff, whence the spring was called " the water of strife " (Num. xx. 2 sqq.; Deut. xxxiii. 8). This latter name, however, is associated in Ex. xvll. 2‑7 with Massah and located on Horeb; and Massah seems originally to have been distinct from Kadesh, or Meriba,h, though later identified with it. Kadesh was also the place where Miriam, the sister of Moses, died and was buried. The place was called also En‑mishpat (Gen. xiv. 7), and seems to have been the scene of a battle against the Amalekites (Ex. xvii.), and possibly the occasion of the expedition of Saul described in T Sam. xv.
	The Negeb also included the wells Esek, Sitnah,
and Rehoboth, dug by the servants of Isaac (Gen.
xxvi. 19‑22). The two latter have been identified
with the remains of an ancient city with wells some
eighteen miles southwest of Beersheba. The term
Negeb was also often used to connote the south (e.g.,
Gen. xiii. 14), and in Daniel even denotes Egypt
(xi. 5 sqq.; and possibly also in Isa. xxx. 6). See
PALESTINE, II., § 2. 	(H. xUTHE.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The three works of moment are: Robinson, Researches, vol. iii.; A. Musil, Arabia Petraa, vol. ii., parts 1‑2, Vienna, 1907‑08; and E. H. Palmer, Desert of the Exodus, vol. ii., ib. 1871. Consult further: G. Williams, The Holy City, i.463‑468, 487 sqq., London, 1849; E. Wilton, The Nepeb or " South Country " of Scripture, ib. 1863; H. B. Tristram, The Lard of Israel, ib. 1865; V. Gu6rin, Description de la Palestine, part I., Jud6e, vol. iii., 7 vols., Paris, 1868‑80; H. C. Trumbull, Kadesh Barnea, New York, 1884; F. Buhl, Geographie van Palllstiua, Freiburg, 1896; G. A. Smith. Historical Geography of the Holy Land, pp. 278 sqq., London, 1897; H. Goths, Paldstina, Bielefeld, 1907; DB, iii. 505‑506; EB, iii. 3374‑80.
NEGRO EDUCATION AND EVANGELIZATION.
I. Education.
Early Status (¢ 1).
In the Northern States (§ 2).
In the South (§ 3).
Benevolent Societies (¢ 4).
Educational Agencies (§ 5).
Results (§ 6). II. Evangelization.
1. General History.
Religious Condition of Early Slaves (§ 1).
	I. Education: Negro slaves imported to America
were kept designedly in ignorance. The written
and unwritten law of the land was that Negroes
should receive no instruction. In the North this
		custom gradually was given up, but
	x. Early with the cotton gin in the South it
	Status. crystallized into law. The law of
		Georgia (1829) is typical: " If any
slave, Negro or free person of color, or any white
person shall teach any other slave, Negro or free
person of color to read or write, either written or
printed characters, the same free person of color
or slave shall be punished by fine and whipping, or
fine or whipping, at the discretion of the court; and
if a white person so offend, he, she, or they shall be
Lack of Early MissionaryEort ort ($ 2).
Effs for Negro Evangelization (§ 3). Results <§ 4).
2. Statistics.
3. Denominational Evangelization.
a. Methodists.
b. Baptists.

101	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Negeb
Negro Education
punished with a fine not exceeding $5W and im
prisonment in the common jail at the discretion of
the court." Such laws were broken by individual
planters here and there in the case of favorite house
servants; but in general they were enforced. In
the northern states few actual prohibitory laws
were enacted, but in Connecticut, New York, Penn
sylvania, Ohio, and elsewhere, mob violence fre
quently arose against Negro schools, and in Connec
ticut the teaching of Negroes was restricted in 1833.
Notwithstanding this attitude Negro schools early
developed. In the North such schools fall roughly
under five different periods: (1) 1704 to 1774, period
of the pioneers; (2) 1774 to 1820, efforts of the free
Negroes; (3) 1820 to 1835, period of partial public
aid; (4) 1835 to 1870, period of separate public
schools; (5) 1870 to 1890, period of mixed schools.
	In the first period fell the epoch‑making efforts
and far‑seeing sacrifice of Elias Neau in New York
and Anthony Benezet in Philadelphia. One of the
first Negro schools in the land, if not the first, was
that established in New York by Elias Neau in
		1704. He gathered slaves and free
	s. In the Negroes, to the number of 200, in
	Northern his own house nightly, and kept the
	States. school open until his death in 1722.
		So, too, Anthony Benezet and the
Quakers of Philadelphia opened a Negro school in
1700, which has had a continuous existence until
our day. After the revolution the free Negroes
were quickened to exertions in many directions,
especially in founding churches, beneficial societies;
and schools. In Massachusetts a Negro school was
formed at the house of Prince Hall, in 1798, and the
teacher paid by the Negroes. In 1807 the Negroes
of the District of Columbia, led by Bell, Franklin,
and Liverpool, three free Negroes, founded the first
Negro school. This school, supported by the Ne
groes, lapsed for awhile, but was revived in 1818,
and many other schools were supported simultane
ously. In Ohio the Negroes of Cincinnati opened
a school of their own about 1820, and in New York
the Negroes rallied to the support of the Old Neau
school. No record is available of the moneys thus
spent by Negroes for education, but sit a later period,
1839, it is instructive to know that the Negroes of
Cincinnati alone were paying nearly a thousand
dollars a year ($889.03) for their schools. The
energy and persistence of the Negroes led to benevo
lence and partial state aid. At first the State made
no efforts to educate Negroes. In 1800 the Negroes
of Boston tried to get the city to adopt their school,
but it refused. About 1806 the city was induced
to grant $200 a year to the school, and the children
paid 121 cents a week as tuition. It was claimed
at the time that technically the public schools were
opened to Negroes, but no inducements were offered
to make them attend, and the abstract right was
rarely tested. In 1812 the Negro school was
adopted by the city. A benevolent society con
ducted the Negro schools in New York until 1834,
when the city took hold. In Ohio the Negroes
were excluded from white schools in 1828, and
practically no provision was made for them save
through benevolence until 1849. The attempt to
open private schools for Negroes was frowned upon
as in the Prudence Crandall case, and nearly all higher institutions, except Oberlin, were closed to Negroes. From about 1835 on it became general for the northern states to support wholly a separate system of Negro schools. They were usually poorer than those for whites, being‑ worse taught, worse equipped, and wretchedly housed. Beginning with Massachusetts, in 1855, these separate schools have been abolished in nearly all northern states.
The history of schools for Negroes in the South falls also in five main epochs: (1) the ante‑bellum schools; (2) the army schools; (3) the schools of the Freedmen's Bureau; (4) the missionary schools; and (5) the public schools.
Some few schools for Negroes existed here and there in the South before the war. In the District of Columbia, as already mentioned,
3. In the no less than fifteen different schools
	South.	were conducted between 1800 and 1861,
		mainly at the expense of the colored
people. In Maryland, St. Frances Academy, for
colored girls, was founded by the Roman Catholics
in 1829. In North Carolina there were before 1835
several schools maintained by the free Negroes.
They had usually white teachers. After 1835 the
few clandestine schools were taught by Negroes.
In Charleston, S. C., there was a school for Negroes
opened in 1744, which lasted some ten years. It
was taught by a Negro and was for free Negroes
only, although some slaves who hired their time
managed to send their children there. Free Negroes
in Georgia used to send children to Charleston for
education. They returned and opened clandestine
schools in Georgia. In Savannah a French Negro,
Julien Froumontaine, from San Domingo, conducted
a free Negro school openly from 1819 to 1829, and
secretly for some time after. Schools were stopped
nearly everywhere after 1830, and as slavery became
more and more a commercial venture all attempts
at Negro education were given up. During the war
the first complication that confronted the armies
was the continual arrival of fugitive slaves within
the Union lines. At first the commands were rigid
against receiving them. " Hereafter," wrote Hal
leck early in the war, " no slaves should be allowed
to come within your lines at all." Other generals,
however, thought differently. Some argued that
confiscating slaves would weaken the South, others
were imbued with abolition sentiment for right's
sake. Twice attempts were made to free the slaves
of certain localities by proclamation, but these or
ders were countermanded by the president. Still
the fugitives poured into the lines and gradually
were used as laborers and helpers. Immediately
teaching began and schools sprang up. When at
last the emancipation proclamation was issued and
Negro soldiers called for, it was necessary to pro
vide more systematically for Negroes. Various
systems and experiments grew up here and there.
The freedmen were massed in large numbers at
Fortress Monroe, Va., Washington, D. C., Beaufort,
and Port Royal, S. C., New Orleans, La., Vicksburg
and Corinth, Miss., Columbus, Ky., Cairo, Ill., and
elsewhere. In such places schools immediately
sprang up under the army officers and chaplains.
The most elaborate system, perhaps, was that under

Negro Education	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	102
Negro Evangelization
General Banks in Louisiana. It was established in
1863 and soon had a regular board of education,
which laid and collected taxes and supported even
tually nearly 100 schools with 10,000 pupils, under
162 teachers. At Port Royal, S. C., were gathered
Edward Lillie Pierce's " ten thousand clients."
Pierce began the organization of relief societies in
the North and established an economic system with
schools. Eventually they passed under the over
sight of General Rufus Saxon, who sold forfeited
estates, leased plantations, received the camp fol
lowers of Sherman's march to the sea, and en
couraged schools. In the West, General Grant
appointed Colonel John Eaton, afterward United
States Commissioner of Education, to be superin
tendent of freedmen in 1862. He sought to con
solidate and regulate the schools already established,
and succeeded in organizing a large system. The
Freedmen's Bureau was especially active in the
establishment of schools for Negroes. In General
Howard's first Freedmen's Bureau report, he says:
" Schools were taken in charge by the Bureau, and
in some States carried on wholly in connection with
local efforts‑by use of a refugees' and freedmen's
fund which had been collected from various sources.
Teachers came under the general direction of the
assistant commissioners, and protection through
the department commanders was given to all en
gaged in the work."
	The increase of Negro education, 1866‑1870, is
thus reported by the Freedmen's Bureau:
Year
	1866 	I
1867 ..........
1868 .................
1869 ...................
1870 ..................
Schools
975 1,839 1,831 2.118 2,677
Teachers
1,405
2,087
2,295
2,445
3,300
Pupils

90,778 111,442 104,327 114,522 149,581
Year
1866... 1867... 1868... 1869... 1870...
Total
EXPENDITURES FOR SCHOOLS.
Fds
Bureau
$123,655.39
531,345.48
965,806.67
924,182.16
Benevolent Associations
$82.200.00
	65,087.01
X700.000.00
i36.5,011n. 00
976,853.291360,000.00
The
Freed
men
$18,500.00 17,200.00
360,000.00
190.000.00
200,000.00
$785,700.00
Total
$224,359.39 813,632.49 2,025,896. 87
1,479,182.18
1,538,853. 29
($5.879.924.00
The chief benevolent society was the American Missionary Association, and next in importance came the various Freedmen's Union Commissions, the Freedmen's Aid Society of the 4. Benevolent Methodist Episcopal Church, the Bap‑
	Societies.	tist Home Mission Society, and Board
		of Missions of the Presbyterian Church.
Besides these the Episcopalians, Roman Catholics,
and Friends did some work. The American Mis
sionary Association, representing the Congrega
tional Church, still maintains three colleges with high
schools attached, one theological school, twenty‑six
high and industrial schools, and seven graded
schools; these schools have about 450 instructors
and 14,000 students. The cork of Northern Baptists among Negroes is carried on by the American Baptist Home Mission Society. This society in the last forty years has spent about $4,000,000 in educational work, and is spending now $140,000 a year in educational and mission work. It maintains and aids thirty‑two schools, of which thirteen are high schools and eight high schools with additional college departments. In these schools there were, in 1907, 342 teachers and 7,746 students; the value of school property was $1,576,450; the students pay $42,000 a year in tuition, and Negro churches and individuals $27,000 a year. The work of the Presbyterian Church for Negro education is carried on through the Board of Missions for Freedmen, which represents work begun as early as 1864. The church property used and owned by the board is worth $670,000, besides $122,000 invested in funds. There are the following schools: one college preparatory school, five girls' schools, thirteen boarding schools, and ninety‑five graded schools; in all, 114 schools, with 13,576 pupils. The patrons of the schools paid in $72,000, in addition to $72,229 contributed by the board. The work of the Methodist Episcopal Church among Negroes is done through the Freedmen's Aid and Southern Educational Society (organized August, 1866). This society had, in 1904‑05, twenty‑four institutions; including one theological school, three medical schools, ten schools with college and preparatory departments, and eleven academies, with 409 teachers, 7,924 students, and property valued at $1,352; 258. Between August, 1866, and June 30, 1905, the society had expended for educational work in the South, chiefly among Negroes, but partially among whites, $7,800,000. Students pay about $90,000 a year in tuition at present; 200,000 pupils have been instructed, of whom 3,000 entered the ministry, 12,000 have become teachers, 800 have become physicians, pharmacists, and dentists. Negro churches also support schools: the African Methodists spend $70,000 a year on twenty‑five schools with 3,700 pupils, and have $500,000 in school property. The Colored Methodists have five schools, and the Zion Methodists nine; the latter collect $17,000 a year for their schools and have $134,950 in school property. The Negro Baptists have 107 schools, chiefly small graded schools, with property valued at $737,377, and expenditures in 1906 amounting to $148,883.50. They have 16,664 students enrolled.
The most prominent Negro schools are five colleges, with preparatory and other departments: Howard University, Washington, D. C.; Fisk University, Nashville, Tenn.; Atlanta University, Atlanta, Ga.; Wilberforce University, Wilberforce, O.; Virginia Union University, Richmond,
g. Educa‑ Va. Eight high and industrial schools, tional with higher work: Talladega, Ala.;
	Agencies.	Tuskegee, Ala.; Brick, N. C.; Lincoln,
		Pa.; Straight, La.; Biddle, N. C.;
Hampton, Va.; Claflin, S. C. Three high and in
dustrial schools for girls: Spellman, Ga.; Scotia,
N. C.; Hartshorn, Va, Four professional schools:
Howard University (medicine, law, and pharmacy),
Gammon (theology), Meharry (medicine and phar
macy), and Shaw (medicine and pharmacy). Gam‑

103	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Negro Education
		Negro Evangelfaatioa
mon, Brick, and Meharry are well endowed; Tuske
gee, Hampton, Howard, and Talladega have some
endowment. The refit have small funds.
	Four special funds for Negro education have been
provided: (1) The Peabody fund of $2,000,000
given in 1867 and 1869. The income of this fund
has gone principally to the education of the whites,
but a small part has provided teachers, institutes,
and schools for Negroes. (2) The John F. Slater
fund of ;1,000,000 given in 1882. The income of
this fund has been given exclusively to Negro schools
and more especially to industrial schools. (3) The
Daniel Hand fund of $1,500,894.25, given to the
American Missionary Association in 1888 for edu
cating needy Negro students. (4) The Jeanes fund,
of $1,000,000, was given by Miss Anna T. Jeanes;
the income goes to Negro rural education, chiefly
industrial.
	There are the following 127 private institutions
for Negroes, including certain state‑aided schools:
States
Alabama ........
Arkansas ........
Delaware . ...
Diet. Columbia . . .
Florida ............... Georgia .............. Kentucky ........
Louisiana . . . . . . . .
Mississippi ... . . ..
Miaeoun . ... .... North Carolina . . . . Ohio ............. Oklahoma. . . . . . . . . Pennsylvania .... South Carolina .... Tennessee ........ Texas . .......... VirginiI. . . .. Went Virginia ....
Total ...............
Schools Teachers
	13	297
	5	57
	2	20
	2	97
	5	57
	14	239
	5	42
	8	148
	5	49
	10	120
	2	29
	17	189
	1	7
	1	8
	2	23
	10	155
	8	183
	7	118
	10	225
	2	38
	127	2,057
Students
5,521
1,708
	213
1,008
1,421
5,482
	773
4,410
	594
2,728
	513
4,250
	83
	319
	219
4,087
2.958
2.574
3.341
	342

42,500
	Besides the private schools there is in the South
a separate Negro public‑school system. The gov
ernments of the southern states which survived the
war made few attempts to establish public‑school
systems, particularly so far as Negroes were con
		cerned. They especially feared idle
	6. Results. ness and social revolution on the part
		of the blacks, and sought to keep them
in serfdom. Alabama, for instance, declared" stub
born or refractory servants " or those who " loiter
away their time " to be vagrants, who could be
hired out at compulsory service by law, while all
Negro minors, far from being sent to school, were to
be " apprenticed," preferably to their fathers'
former " masters and mistresses." The enfran
chisement of the Negro changed this. The so‑called
" carpet‑bag " governments, which under the sway
of the army and the Freedmen's Bureau succeeded
the state governments at war time, have undoubt
edly many sins to answer for. Supported by ig
norant and unlettered Negroes, and led in many
cases by unscrupulous Northerners and Southerners,
they were extravagant and often ludicrous. And
yet, as Albion Winegar Tourgee says: " they insti
tuted a public‑school system in a region where
public schools had been unknown." There have
been enrolled in the Negro public schools in the South the following children:
	188b‑88 	90.778
	1889‑70	149,581
	1878‑77 	b71.b08
	1877‑78	87b,150
	1878‑79 	885,942
	187980 	784.709
188081. . . . . . . . .802,374
	188182 	802,982
	1882‑83 	817.240
	1883‑84	1,002,313
	1884‑85 	1,030.483
	I88b‑‑88	1.048.859
	1 7	1,118,558
	1887‑88 	1,140.405
	1888‑‑89	1,213,092
	188990 	1.298.959
	1890‑91 	1.329,549
	1891‑92 	1,354,318
	1892‑93 . . . . . . . . .	1,387,515
	1893‑94 	1,432,198
	1894‑9b 	1.423,593
	1895‑98 	1,449,325
	1898‑97 	1.480,084
	1897‑98 	1.540.749
	189899	1.509.275
	1899‑1900 	1,580,070
	1900‑01 	1.594.308
	1901‑02	1,57b,8b9
	*1902‑03 	1,578,832
	x1903‑04 	1,577.385
	*1904‑0b	1.820,194
	'1905‑08 	1.817.995
~ $ubjc.;t to correction by United States Bureau of Education.
In 1905‑06, 55.27 per cent of the Negroes five to eighteen years of age were enrolled in school, and of these 60.98 per cent were in daily attendance. There were 129 public high schools (53 of these being in Texas and Missouri) with 891 teachers and 45,037 students. To these may t e added the private and state schools (ut sup.). Of these students less than 3,000 are in college courses,. 736 were studying theology, 125 law, 670 medicine, 106 dentistry, 98 pharmacy, and 186 nurse training. These public schools, save in the case of a few city systems, have been paid for by the Negro population. It has been estimated that in the years 1870‑99 the Negro school systems of the former slave states did not cost the white taxpayers a cent, except possibly in a few city systems.
CostofNegro achoo1s,1870‑99..E89.988,871.48
Estimated total direct taxes paid by Negro
	1870‑99 	E25,000.000.00
Indirect taxes and pro rata share of endow‑
	ments 	. 45.000,000.00
Approximate total, 1870‑99 . . . . . . . . . . .170.000,000.00
Of the cost of their private schools also the Negroes bear a large share. The cost of seventy‑four leading schools for the last nine years has been a little under $12,000,000, and the Negroes paid about 45 per cent of the total cost. Richard R. Wright, Jr., concludes " that it is probably true that the Negroes pay possibly a larger percentage of the cost of their schools than any other group of poor people in America. The Negroes have paid in direct property and poll taxes more than $45,000,000 during the past forty years. They have contributed at least $15,000,000 to education through their churches. The Negro student possibly pays a larger percentage of the running expenses of the institutions which he attends than any other student in the land " (Self Help iii Negro Education, Cheyney, Pa., 1909).
The result of this education on the illiteracy of the Negro has been as follows: Negroes ten years of age and over, per cent of illiteracy: 1870, 79.9 per cent; 1880, 70 per cent; 1890, 57.1 per cent; 1900, 44.5 per cent. At present probably twothirds of the Negro Americans can read and write. Further results can be seen in the occupations of Negroes, the spread of organized effort, the publication of books and newspapers, and the appearance of men and women of distinction.
II. Evangelization. 1. General History: Negro slaves arrived in America with that strong tendency

Negro Evangelization	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	204
to Nature worship and that belief in witchcraft common to all primitive peoples. Some had more or less vague ideas of a supreme being and higher religious ideas, while a few were Mohammedans,
and fewer Christians. Some actual 1. Eeliglous pests were transported and others condition assumed the functions of priests, and
	of Early	soon a form of African religion and
	Slaves.	witchcraft appeared in the West In
		dies, which was known as Obi, or
sorcery. The French Creoles called it Vaudois
(" Waldensian "), because of the witchcraft charged
against the followers of Peter Waldo, whence comes
the dialect term Voodoo or Hoodoo. While in its
origins the system was undoubtedly African, and
part of some more or less well‑defined religious Sys
tem, it often degenerated into mere imposture.
There were probably traces of blood sacrifice and
worship of the moon, but unfortunately information
comes not from serious students of curious human
phenomena, but rather from persons apparently
unable to understand why a transplanted heathen
should cling to heathen rites. The most obvious rear
son for the spread of witchcraft and persistence of
heathen rites among Negro slaves was the fact that
at first no effort was made by masters to offer them
anything better, due to the wide‑spread idea that it
was contrary to law to hold Christians as slaves, an
idea which had become well established by the end
of the sixteenth century. This did not involve any
wide‑spread abhorrence of forced labor from serfs or
apprentices, and it was linked with the idea that the
enslavement of the heathen was meritorious, since
it punished their blasphemy on the one hand and
gave them a chance for conversion on the other.
When, therefore, the slave‑trade from Africa began
it met only feeble opposition here and there. That
opposition was in nearly all cases stilled when it
was stated that the slave‑trade was a method of
converting the heathen to Christianity. The cor
ollary that the conscience of Europe immediately
drew was that after conversion the Negro slave was
to become in all essential respects like other serv
ants and laborers, bound to toil under general
regulations, but personally free with recognized
rights and duties. Most colonists believed that this
was not only actually right, but according to Eng
lish law. And while they early began to combat
the idea they continually doubted the legality of
their action in English courts.
It was not until 1667 that Virginia attacked the issue squarely and declared by law: " Baptisms
doth not alter the condition of the per‑
t. Lack son as to his bondage or freedom, in
of Early order that diverse masters freed from
	Xiesionar7 this doubt maymore carefully endeavor
Effort. the propagation of 	Christianity "
(quoted from a law passed in Virginia in 1667; cf. Henning, Statutes, vol. ii., p. 260). Following this Virginia took three further steps in 1670, 1682, and 1705. First she declared that only slaves imported from Christian lands should be free. Next she excepted Negroes and mulattoes from even this restriction unless they were born of Christians and were Christians when taken into slavery. Finally personal Christianity in Africa or
actual freedom in a Christian country exempted a Virginia Negro slave from lifelong slavery. This changing attitude of Christians toward Negroes was reflected in John Locke's Fundamental Constitutions of South Carolina (published in B. R. Carroll, Historical Collections of South Carolina, vol. ii., New York, 1836), one article of which read: " Since charity obligee us to wish well to the souls of all men, and religion ought to alter nothing in any man's civil estate or right, it shall be lawful for slaves as well as others to enter themselves and to be of what church and profession any of them shall think beat, and thereof be as fully members as any freeman. But yet no slaves shall be hereby exempted from the civil dominion his master bath over him, but be in all things in the same state and condition he was in before." So much did this please the Carolinas that it was one of the few articles reenacted in the constitution of 1688. It is clear from these citations that in the seventeenth century not only was there little missionary effort to convert Negro slaves, but that there was, on the contrary, positive refusal to let slaves be converted, and that this refusal was one incentive to explicit statements of the doctrine of perpetual slavery for Negroes. The French Code Noir of 1685 made baptism and religious instruction of Negroes obligatory. There was no such legislation in English colonies. In Massachusetts John Elliot and Cotton Mather both were much concerned that " so little care was taken of their [the Negroes'] precious and immortal souls," which were left to " a destroying ignorance merely for fear of thereby losing the benefit of their vassalage." So throughout the colonies it was reported in 1678 that masters, " out of covetousness," refuse to allow their slaves to be baptized; and in 1700 there was an earnest plea in Massachusetts for religious instruction of Negroes since it was " notorious " that masters discourage the " poor creatures " from baptism. In 1709 a Carolina clergyman wrote to the secretary of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in England that only a few of 200 or more Negroes in his community were taught Christianity, and they were not allowed to be baptized. This state of affairs led to further laws, and the instructions to some of the royal governors contain a clause ordering them to " find out the beat means to facilitate and encourage the conversion of Negroes and Indiana to the Christian religion."
In 1729 an appeal from several colonies was made to England on the subject in order to increase the conversion of blacks. The crown attorney and solicitor‑general replied that baptism in no way changed the slave's status. The first organized
effort to convert slaves was by the So‑
3. Efforts ciety for the Propagation of the Gos‑
for~1 eero ‑pel in Foreign Parts. In 1702 some Eva~eliza work was done among the Negroes of tion.
Carolina, and in 1704 a Negro school was established in New York, under Elias Neau, a French Protestant. The records of the society abundantly establish the fact that the greatest obstruction to the religious instruction of the Negroes was in the masters themselves. From 1711 to 1783 thousands of sermons and leaflets advocating the conversion of slaves were distributed in

106	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Negro Evangelization
America. In 1783‑84, soon after the separation of the colonies from the mother country, the society's operations ceased, leaving in all the colonies fortythree missionaries, two of whom were in the Southern states, one in North Carolina and one in South Carolina. The Moravians or United Brethren were the first who formally attempted the establishment of missions exclusively to the Negroes, cooperating with the trustees under the will of Dr. Bray, who left funds for converting the slaves of Carolina. Finally Methodists, Baptists, and Presbyterians began efforts among the slaves more or less spasmodically.
Thus the efforts to convert Negroes in America fall in three main periods: The first period was early in the eighteenth century after it was decided that baptism did not free slaves. Results were meager, and the effort spasmodic. A second period came between the Revolutionary war and 1820, when the " Cotton Kingdom " came into being. More was accomplished in this period, though " on the whole but a minority of the Negroes, and that a small one, attended regularly the house of God; and, taking them as a class, their religious instruction was extensively and most seriously neglected." The third period followed after the depression of the thirties. This depression was severe, and lasted nearly twenty years. For instance, the Presbyterian Synod of South Carolina and Georgia, in 1833, said of the slaves: " There are over two millions of human beings in the condition of heathen and some of them in a worse condition. They may justly be considered the heathen of this country, and will bear a comparison with heathen in any country in the world."
As the result of such appeals a reaction set in about 1835, and the Methodists and Baptists especially were active among the slaves. By 1840 enough had been done to furnish Negroes with their own 4. Results. ministers and missionaries and to establish numbers of Negro churches. A minister in Mississippi testified that he had charge of the Negroes of five plantations and 300 slaves; another in Georgia visited eighteen plantations every two weeks. " The owners have built three good churches at their own expense, all framed; 290 members have been added, and about 400 children are instructed." Another traveling minister declares, in 1841, that in many places like Baltimore, Alexandria, and Charleston, the Negroes had large, spacious churches. This religious activity among Negroes brought to the front a number of distinguished Negro preachers: Nat Turner and Denmark Vesey, who led insurrections; Richard Allen, who founded the African Methodist Episcopal Church (see METHODISTS, IV., 6); Abraham Jones, the first Negro Protestant Episcopal rector; Harry Hosier, the companion of Bishop Asbury; George Lisle, the West Indian missionary, and Lott Carey, the African missionary. To these may be added the names of Lemuel Haynes, who pastored white New England churches; John Chavis, who taught a fashionable white school in North Carolina; Henry Evans, a black missionary to whites and Negroes; James Varick, who founded the Zion Methodist Church; Jack of Virginia, Ralph Free‑
man, and Lunsford Lane,‑thirteen remarkable characters.
The gradual increase of these Negro Christians, however, brought peculiar problems. Clergymen, despite the law, were reproached for taking Negroes into the church and still allowing them to be held as slaves. On the other hand, it was not easy to know how to deal with the black church‑member after he was admitted. He must either be a subordinate member of a white church or a member of a Negro church under the general supervision of whites. As the efforts of missionaries slowly increased the number of converts, both these systems were adopted. But the black congregations here and there soon aroused suspicion and fear of the masters, and as early as 1715 North Carolina passed an act which declared: " That if any master or owner of Negroes or slaves, or any other person or persons whatsoever on the government, shall permit or suffer any Negro or Negroes to build on their, or either of their, lands, or any part thereof, any house under pretense of a meeting‑house upon account of worship, or upon any pretense whatsoever, and shall not suppress and hinder them, he, she, or they so offending, shall, for every default, forfeit and pay fifty pounds, one‑half toward defraying the contingent charges of government, the other to him or them that shall sue for the same." This made Negro members of a white church a necessity in this colony, and there was the same tendency in other colonies. It gradually became true, as Brackett says, that " any privileges of church going which slaves might enjoy depended much, as with children, on the disposition of the masters." After the Civil War the Negroes were segregated in their own churches in the South and to some extent in the North.
2. Statistics. [The distribution of the Negroes in the churches as given in the appended tables may receive some illumination and interest from the following facts. The first church in the United States to receive Negroes was the Anglican, the baptism of a Negro child taking place in Virginia in 1624. There has always been a considerable proportion of the Negro population in fellowship with this church and its successor, the Protestant Episcopal. The ceremonial of the service is grateful to the Negro mind, and the rolls of the Protestant Episcopal ministry include over 150 Negro preachers since the first, Alexander Crummell, was ordained in 1839. The connection with the Methodist communion was inevitable. The strongly emotional element in the Negro mind receives the appeal of vigorous Methodist evangelism with special favor. This relationship with the Methodist bodies began as early as the activity of Bishop Thomas Coke (q.v.), whose servant, Harry Hosier (d. 1810), was a noted colored minister. Almost as inevitable was the trend of the Negro toward the Baptist denomination. Here the attractive element was the symbolism of immersion. The explanation given above for the attraction to the Protestant Episcopal Church applies with equal force to the Roman Catholic communion. The next denominations in point of strength, Presbyterians and Congregationalists, do not enlist so strongly the mental leanings of the race.]

Negro Evangelisstion
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
COLORED CHURCH ORGANIZATIONS IN THE
NUMBER OP COLORED OReANIZATIONa. DENOMINATION.
1908 1890
i‑ ‑ ‑
	All denominations consisting in whole or in part of
	colored organizations 	38,770 23,482
Denominations consisting wholly of colored organiza‑ 31.393 19,158
	tions ........................................
18,534 12,533 797 323 251 ...... 48 ....
44 ..
15....
	......
9 ......
		77	42
		8,889	2,481
	.......		I	2,204	1,709
1,759
	32
~~11
224
4,304
	408
		7
		5i
‑~15
83
277
	b
....5
2,984
54
..233
....45
	1
49
•••31
Ba~pfist bodies:
Bapfiats‑National Convention .. . . .. . . .... ... . .. ... .
Colored Primitive Baptist. in America'. .........
United American Freewill Baptiste ..................... Church of God and Saints of Christ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . Churches of the Living God:
Church of the Living God (Christian Workers for Friend‑
	ship) 	.
Church of the Living God (Apostolic Church) .. .
	Church of Christ in God 	. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Evangelistic associations:
	Voluntary Missionary Society of America 	. .
	Free Christian Zion Church of Christ 	. . . . . . . . .
Methodist bodies:
Union American Methodist Ep~ecopal Church .....
African Methodist Episcopal Church .. ..........
African Union Methodist Protestant Church .......
African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church . . . . . .
Congregational Methodist .....................
Colored Methodist Episcopal Church ...............
Reformed Zion Union Apostolic Church . . . . . . . . .
Reformed Methodist Union Episcopal Church .....
Evangelist Missionary Church ......................... Presbyterian bodies:
	Colored Cumberland Presbyterian Church 	. . . .
Denominations consisting in part of colored organizations
Adventist bodies:
Advent Christian Church ...............................
Seventh‑day Adventist Denomination .................. Baptist bodies:
Baptists‑Northern Convention...
Baptists‑Southern Convention ....
Free BaPtiata ...................
Primitive Baptists
	Two‑Seed‑in‑the‑Spirit Predestinarian Baptists 	.
	Christians (Christian Connection) 	. . . . . . . . . . . . . 	. . .
Churches of God in North America, General Eldexship of the
Congregationalists .......................................
Disciples or Christians:
	Disciples of Christ 	. . 	....	..	...	..	..	..	..	.
	Churches of Christ ...................................
Independent churches .................................
Lutheran bodies:
United Synod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the South .........................................
General Council of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in North America ....................................
Evangelical Lutheran Synodical Conference of America... Methodist bodies:
Methodist Episcopal Church ..........................
Methodist Protestant Church ...........................
Wesleyan Methodist Connection of America .. .. .... ... .
	Independent Methodists 	..	..	. 	. 	.......	...	.
Moravian bodies:
Moravian Church (Unites Fratrum) ................... Presbyterian bodies:
Presbyterian Church in the United States of America . . . .
Cumberland Presbyterian Church .....................
	Presbyterian Church in the United States 	...	.
Associate Reformed Synod of the South .................
Synod of the Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America ......................................... Protestant Episcopal Church ........................... Reformed bodies:
	Reformed Church in America 	. . . . 	...	..	.......	.
	Reformed Episcopal Church 					.
Roman Catholic (`hurch .................................
United Brethren bodies:
	Church of the United Brethren in Christ 	. 	. . . . . . .
2,381
	45
	58
198
5,377
2
29
108
197 4
..g2
	15
	158
129
41
12
1
8
3,784
	22
2
417
	I
44
	1
198
2
38
38
10
UNITED STATES 1890‑1906.
NUMBER OF COM‑
MUNICANTS OA MEMBERS REPORTED.
1908
3,885.097
3,207,307
2,281,807
	35,078
	14,489
		1,823
2,878
752
848
425 1,835
4,347
494,777 5,592
184,542
172,998 3,059
4,397
18,088
477,790
72
562
32,839
10,878
102,
	329
1.‑.11,960
9,705
1,528
	490
is
224
x08,551
	2,812
	1,258
351
27,799
		50
	1,183
		18
19,098
	59
2,252
38,235
	..	11	277
1890
2,873,977
2,321,313
1,848,989 18,182
2,279
452,725
3,415
349; 3 8
129,383
2.348
12,958
352,884
35,221 851
271
265 4,989
6,908
19,578
94
248,249
	3,183
. .14,981
...1,588
	78
2,977
1,723
14,517
3,1001 ...........
VALUE OP CHURCH
PROPERTY REPORTED.
1908	1890
$56,636,159
44,873,049
24,437.272
	298,539
		79,278
		8,000
23,175
25,700
9,700

2,400
b,97b
		170,150
11,303,489
		183,897
	4,833,207
~~ 3,017,849
	37,875
	38,985
203,778
11,983,110
3,800
8,474
1,581,328
~~188,130
	2,300
...•89505
		5,500
	459,497
170.285
	14,950
	2,750
5,000
10,00(1
8,104,379
82,851
21,000
8,000
752,387
1,000!
32,850 200

1,773,279
. . . . . 28 287
878,480
•28,828,448
20,525,141
9,038,549
	135,427
	187,800
8,488,280
	54,440
2,714,128
		525
1,713,388
	15,000
2,000
195,828
8,101,307
1,087,518
	3,875
	13,300
	......		930
23,500
248,125
178,795
1,750
		......	13.400
3,830,093
	35,445
	I 		•4875
391,850
.... 22,200
	1,500
192,750
	18,401
237.400
I The organisations shown for this denomination in 1890 were returned at that census as belonging to the Primitive Baptist denomination. q The colored organizations returned for this denomination in 1890 are included in the present report as belonging to the Colored Primitive Baptists in America.

107
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Negro 31vancelisation
COLORED CHURCH ORGANIZATIONS BY STATES AND TERRITORIES, 1906.
VALUE Or CHURCH	DEBT ON CHURCH
	MEMBERS.	PROPERTY. 	PROPERTY.
STATE OR TERRITORY.	Number	Number	Total	Number	Number	Amount
	of Colored 	of Organi		of Organi‑	of 
	Organi‑ 	_ 
	saWODS.	sationa	Number	zations	Value	Organi‑	~ debt
			Re‑		Reported.
R~	ported.	Re‑	Reporting‑ 	Reported.
			Reporting. 
	porting.	porting.
Continental United States 	36,770	30,563	3,685,097	34,660	$56,636,159	9,003	$,5,005,905
North Atlantic division . .	1,020	1,021	134,711	901	8,363,962	558	1,585,575
Maine 	1	1	25	1	3,000	1	1,600
New Hampshire 	1	1	20	.... .. ..	.........	..... ..	.. .... ...
Vermont . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	. . . .	. . .	9,402	. . .	. .	. .	159,508
Massachusetts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	64	64		52	848,425	' 'as
Rhode Island .................	20	20	2,114	18	184,346	15	37,350
Connecticut 	49	48	4 492	42	379,855	23	44,264
New York 	203	202	30;482	169	2,366,796	93	513,412
New Jersey 	259	257	28,015	239	1,289,335	145	231,632
Pennsylvania 	429	428	60,161	380	3,494,205	246	597,809
South Atlantic division . . . . . . . . . 	15,250	15,163	1,741,491	14,448	21,779,621	3,584	1,692,995
Delaware 	125	125	10,583	122	319,832	74	40,836
Maryland 	624	620	71,797	592	1,979,408	277	314,861
District of Columbia 	102	102	46 249	83	2,051,942	60	328,454
Virginia 	1,983	1,974	307,374	1,874	3,562,930	440	308,680
West Virginia 	271	268	14,949	209	498,948	78	42,282
North Carolina 	2,813	2,797	283,707	2,610	3,238,735	511	127,879
South Carolina 	2,860	2,853	394,149	2,808	3,366,223	866	145 878
Georg~a .	4,834	4,790	507,005	4,608	5,125,207	1,182	264,966
Florida 			105,678	1,542	1,638,398
North Central division 	1,638	1,634	166,356	1,872	5,824,226	298	119,159
	2,023	2,012				764	681,494
Ohio , ,	371	367	33,667	336	1,473,251	132	125,636
Indiana 	202	200	23,133	191	596,825	105	73,680
Illinois 	359	358	32,058	333	1,040,148	148	165,422
Michigan „ 	43	43	3,235	43	167,950	19	17,009
Wisconsin 	11	11	310	10	26,850	4	851
Minnesota 	10	10	1,453	9	74,300	5	5,362
Iowa 	72	72	4,108	61	167,125	30	25,711
Missouri 	655	651	50,074	605	1,690,119	202	229,805
North Dakota 	.	. . . . . . 	. . . . . 	. . . . . 	. . . . . 	. . . . . 	. . . 
	. . . . 			.		. .
	.
South Dakota 	2 	38	2 	a,9~	i 	.1
.... ,						,700
Nebraska 	12	12	1,007	11	73,500	5	2,130
Kansas 	286	286	17,273	271	510,458	113	34,188
South Central division 	18,341	18,237	1,634,055	17,322	19,863,508	4,036	963,785
Kentucky 	1,007	1,005	116,918	964	1,845,538	263	102,328
Tennessee 	1,879	1,855	172 867	1,743	2,631,502	364	136,630
Alabama 	3,734	3,715	397,178	3,474	3,920,253	790	168,554
Mississippi 	3,877	3,863	358,708	3,741	3,524,880	857	139,001
Louisiana 	2,085	2,087	185,918	2,032	2,796,242	559	158,708
Arkansas 	2,094	2,081	146 319	1,992	1,628,303	417	77,810
Oklahomal 	618	616	29,115	543	410,689	140	31,957
Texas 	3,047	3,035	227,032	2,833	3,106,101	646	148,797
Western division 	130	130	8,484	117	804,842	61	82,056
Montana 	6	6	135	6	11,650	4	432
Ids,ho .	' 	.	. 	.	...	.......	.........
	'	....	....	. . 
	.....			....
W oming .. . . . .... .	1 	1 	45 	i 	.10,000
C.Torado
New Mexico 	25	25	2,507	24	241,455	17	26,494
	7	7	221	7	10,050	3	440
Arizona 	5	5	208	2	7,500	1	130
Utah 	1	1	30	1	4,000	1	216
Nevada 	....	...	...	...	...	...
					••••
Washington	18	...	614	13	57,900	S 	6,125
		18
Oregon 	4	4	160	3	44,000	3	3,950
Califoraia 
	.	63	63	4,564	60	418,287	24	44,209
1 Oklahoma and Indian Territory combined.
S. Denominational Rvangelization: Evangelization of Negroes through the various sects may be set forth as follows:
a. Methodists: The history of the Negro in the Methodist Episcopal Church is of far‑reaching interest in any study of the relation of the white and black races in the United States. This is the one church with a centralized episcopal government which has a large membership, and the efforts to adjust the races in this organization throw light on the problem in the whole country.
There were in 1790, 11,682 Negro members of
this church; in 1890, 246,249 Negro members, and in 1906, 327,000. The color question in the church cropped out very early. In 1800 colored deacons were allowed; in 1844 the church split on the slavery question and many Negro congregations in border states were left without pastors. They asked for colored ministers and conferences, and the colored ministers were authorized and a colored annual conference was established in 1852. In 1856 and 1866 two Negro bishops were sent to Africa. In 1864 colored annual conferences were recognized and raised to full powers, and Negro bishops sat as

Negro Evangelization
Nehemiah
delegates in the general conference of 1868. From 1872 to the present there has been an ungranted demand for a Negro bishop, but Negro general officers have been elected and a third Negro bishop to Africa. From this church there have been two secessions on account of color discrimination.
African Methodist Episcopal Church (see METHODISTS, IV., 6): Certain Negroes seceded from the Methodist Church in Philadelphia in 1787 and eventually formed the church which has grown as follows:
Members

		42
	6,778
	9,888
	7,937
	7,594
	16,190
	19,914
	73,000
206,331
403,550
452,782
452,725
494,777
Ministers

2 7
15 17 27 67 165 265 1,418 2,857 3,569 3,809 6,000 (7)
1787 ........... 1818 ........... 1822 ........... 1826 ........... 1836 ........... 1846 ........... 1856 ........... 1866 ........... 1876 ........... 1886 ........... 1888 ........... 1890 ........... 1906 ...........
It had in 1903, nine and a half million dollars' worth of property and thirteen bishops. It raises $1,000,000 a year.
African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church (see METHODISTS, IV., 7): A second secession from the Methodists took place in New York in 1796. The growth of the Zion Methodists has been as follows:
1821
1864
1890
1896
1900
1906
Ministers

375

2.473
2,602
Members

		1,500
	13,340
349,788
409,441
551,591
184,542
The Colored Methodist Episcopal Church (see
METHODISTS, IV., 8) : This church, consisting of
Negro members of the Methodist Episcopal Church,
South, set aside in 1866, has grown as follows:
1866 .........................
1872 .........................
1896 .........................
1906.........................
Ministers

..‑635
	1,400
	2,000
Members

80,000 67,889
129,383
172,996
Its property was reported in 1906 as $1,715,566. b. Baptiste (see BAPTISTS, II., 3, § 10): Most of the early colored Baptist churches were identified with white churches, and in churches of mixed membership the whites were often in the minority. In the mixed churches of this period, the colored members had no voice in affairs except in the reception and discipline of members of their own race. After the emancipation of slaves, the Negro Baptists of the Southern States very generally separated from the white churches, and organized churches
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
and associations of shown thus:
1850 .......... 1885 .......... 1890 .......... 1894 .......... 1901 .......... 1902 .......... 1906 ..........
their own. Their growth is
Minister
.4,590 8,637 10,119 14,861 16,080
Churches
. . y,097
	12,856
	13,138
	15,654
	16,440
	19,582
Members
	150,000
1,071,90'
1.367,1; 1
1,604,310
1,975,538
2,038,427
2,311,172
Between 1890 and 1906 the value of property increased from $9,173,176 to $24,733,811.
The growth of the other denominations can be seen in the tables given above. The Roman Catholics, whose efforts were checked a while by the racial
question, have been making especial effort in the last two decades and have doubled their member‑
ship in sixteen years. The Episcopalians show a
large increase due to recently renewed efforts, while
the Presbyterians and Congregationalists have
grown more slowly. 	W. E. B. DuBois.
BIHLIOaBAPHY: Vera Sieg, The Negro Problem. A Bibliography, Madison, Wis., 1909; C. C. Jones. Religious Instruction of the Negroes of the United States, Savannah, 1842; I. G. Penn and J. W. E. Bowen, The United Negro, Atlanta, 1903; Atlanta University Publications, Nos. 8, 8, 12, Atlanta, 1902 aqq.; W. B. Parks. Possibilities of the Negro, Atlanta, 1904; 141. A. Ames, From a New England Woman's Diary in Dixie in 1886, Springfield, Mass., 1906; H. P. Eastman, The Negro, h%s Origin, History and Destiny, Boston, 1908; J. H. Jackson, Hiat. of Education from the Greeks to the Present Time, 2d ed., Colorado, 1906; S. N. Vacs, The Progress of the Negro Race, Raleigh, 7T. C., 1908; R. E. Dennett, At the Back of the Black Man's Mind, New York, 1907; J. A. Price, The Negro: Past, Present and Future, Washington, 1907; B. T. Washington and W. E. B. Du Bois, Negro in the South., Philadelphia, 1907; J. Dowd, The Negro Races. A sociological Study, vol. i., New York, 1907; A. H. Stone, Studies in the American Race Problem, ib. 1908; B. T. Washington, The Store of the Negro; the Rise of the Race from Slavery, 2 vols., ib., 1909: W. Archer, Through Afro‑America. An English Riding of the Race Problem, London, 1910,
NEHEMIAH.
His Lineage (§ 1). His Commission and Its Purpose (§ 2). External and Internal Opposition (§ 3). His Achievements and Character (§ 4).
Post‑exilic Jewish patriot and governor. According to Neh. viii. 9, xii. 26, he bore the titles of tirshatha and Pehah (governor), the first of which is probably a Persian title given to royal commissioners, and the second is in origin Babylonian. The inference of the Syrian and Arabic translators from the title tirshatha and from Neh. x. 9 that Hacaliah and his son were priests is unfounded, the words " these were the priests " (verse 8) not referring to the opening verse, and quite opposed to such an office is the passage Neh. vi. 11. More I. His probable is the very early and persistLineage. ent tradition that Nehemiah was of the family of David. This is supported by the fact that he calls Jerusalem " the place of my fathers' sepulchers " (ii. 3, 5) and agrees with the
I	known liking of Persian kings to have about them the descendants of royal families (Dan. i. 3). Accordant also with this supposition is the confession in i. 6‑7.

109	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	Negro Evangelization.Jab
It was in the month Chisleu of the twentieth year of Artaxerxes I. Longimanus (445 B.c.) that Nehemiah first heard directly from Jerusalem of the pitiful condition at the capital, of the breaches in the wall, and the burning of the gates. The sadness induced by these tidings manifested itself in his countenance and came to the notice of the king as he exercised his office of cupbearer. The latter asked for an explanation, which brought to the king's ear the cause of Nehemiah's sorrow, and gave to the latter opportunity to ask to be sent home with the commission to build the walls of Jerusalem (Neh. ii. 5). That the mission was an extraordinary one is shown by the appointment of a definite time for his return (ii. 6), and the circumstances of his return to the king twelve years later imply that during that time the king appointed him to the permanent office of governor. Furnished with a letter of safe‑conduct to the governors of the region beyond the Euphrates and with orders to take from
z. His the king's forest the necessary mateCommission rials for repair of the gates and walls,
and its and provided with orders that an offi‑
	Purpose.	cial residence be furnished him, and
		also with an official escort, he arrived
at Jerusalem (Neh. ii. 7‑12). After three days' res
idence, he made a visit by night to the wall and
gates of the city and observed the conditions. He
then made an appeal to the national pride of the
Jews and succeeded in stirring them up to the work
of reconstruction, showing them the authority which
he had from the king to accomplish the work. The
zeal, cleverness, and energy of the man are suffi
ciently revealed by the account of the work and by
the shortness of the time in which Jerusalem became
again a fortified city. The work of construction
was done by the community under the leadership
of the principal people, associations, and gilds within
fifty‑two days. The result was intense disappoint
ment to the enemies of the Jews (Neh. vi. 15), and
great thankfulness on the part of Nehemiah for the
accomplishment of his plan and for the triumph
over hindrances both external and internal.
Nehemiah was aware from the first that the accomplishment of his purpose would go contrary to the political plans of the enemies of his people. These at first charged the Jews with harboring rebellious intentions (ii. 20), went on to the use of insult and mockery (iv. 1‑3), and finally prepared for actual hostilities, a plan foiled by the military readiness and foresightedness of Nehemiah. They went on to treacherous attempts to lure Nehemiah outside the walls that they might seize him, and attempted to compromise him by inducing him to invade as for personal security the tem‑
3. External ple area (vi. 2 sqq., 10). Especially
and noteworthy among the active enemies Internal were three men, Sanballat, Tobiah, and Opposition. Geshem. Geshem doubtless had at heart the interests of the settlers in the south and southwest of Judea; Tobiah was related to some of the first families of the land and had a strong following among them; while Sanballat (called "the Horonite," ii. 10, 19) enjoyed the authority and prestige of the position of priest at Samaria, a position which possibly was a conse‑
quence of the event narrated in II Kings xvii. 28. The internal hindrances Nehemiah had to combat were despondency arising from the nature of the work, the rumors of attacks in force by the neighboring people (iv. 10, 12), and the hard economic conditions of the country (v.1,8). The first obstacle was overcome by Nehemiah's encouragement and leadership and example, the last by inducing the voluntary release by creditors of the conditions which made life so hard for the poor. Besides the foregoing hindrances is to be mentioned the fact that while part of the people were tractable, another part wished to maintain their relations with the foes on the outside, and assisted in the carrying out of plots against the leader (vi. 9‑14, 17‑19), even to the procuring of false prophecy.
When the honor of the city was restored by the completion of the walls, Nehemiah turned to the maintenance of that position. The city was half depopulated, and that condition had to be altered, but in accordance with legal and moral rights. To that end a search of the records and a census were ordered (vu. 4‑5). The latter process was a lengthy one, and it is possible that to carry this through Nehemiah sought the office of governor. The former was accomplished by the casting of lots and the bringing of one out of ten to dwell in
4. His the city (xi. 1‑2), the " princes of the Achieve‑ people " taking up their residence ments and there. The narrative of events is someCharacter. what confused under the editing which the memoirs of Nehemiah have undergone. It is not improbable that the great feast detailed in chaps. viii.‑x. took place in the year 444 s.c., while the consecration of the wall fell in the year 430 s.c., after the return of the governor from the king. Other accomplishments were the purifying of the temple by the exclusion of those unlawfully domiciled therein (xiii. 4‑9, 28), provision was made for the orderly conduct and maintenance of the public service, and enforcement of the law against intermarriage with the heathen (xiii. 10, 23). The accomplishments of Nehemiah which are worthy of note then are the awakening of the sense of national honor and of regard for the law, and the reestablishment of Jerusalem as the capital of the country and the rallying‑point. of the community. While Ezra brought together the Jewish communities of the diaspora and the homeland under the dominion of the law, Nehemiah brought about " the national‑political organization as the amphictyony of the holy state." His character appears as that of a man with a lively sense of honor and distinction. He was true to his family, to the God of Israel, and to his duty to his people. He used his high rank, his official position, and his powers in the service he had undertaken, the purpose of which was to preserve the glory of God and to further the welfare of his nation. He permitted no opposition to stand in the way of this service, and employed his own means with great liberality. His first concern was to keep a good conscience toward God, and the memoirs which he left are a testimony to the honesty of his purposes and the diligence and discretion with which he carried them out. II Mace. ii. 13 attributes to Nehemiah also the creation of a library

NN all
and collection of historical archives and sacred books, and by tradition the formation of the third part of the canon is practically traced to him.
(A. KLosTERMANN.)
BxsuooRAPay: Consult, besides the literature under‑EzRA
AND NEHEMIAB, Booxs or, P. Rieealer, in Bibliache Zeitachrift, i (190.9), 232‑245, ii (1904), 15‑27; DB, iii. 507510; EB, iii. 3380‑87; JE, is. 208‑211; Vigouroua, Dictionnaire, aviii. 1685‑73.
NEIL, CHARLES: Church of England; b. in London May 14, 1841. He graduated from Trinity Hall, Cambridge (B.A., 1862; M.A., 1866); he was ordained deacon 1865, and priest 1866; became curate of Bradford Abbas, near Sherborne, Dorset, 1865; vicar of St. Paul's, Bethnal Green, 1866; incumbent of St. Matthias, Poplar, London, 1875; and vicar of St. Mary's, Stamford Brook, London, 1899. He was called to the bar (Inner Temple) in 1864; and has been joint editor of the Clergyman's Magazine, London, 1876 sqq. He is the author of the volume on Romans, in the Expositor's Commentary (London, 1877); the volumes on Genesis, the Gospels, and Acts, in the Teacher's Catechising Bible (1893‑94); The Fallacy of Sacramental Confesaion; Discourses Delivered at St. Matthias, Poplar (1896); and contributed the volume on the Pauline epistles to The Biblical Elucidator (1896). He edited John Todd's Index Rerum (London, 1881); with H. D. M. Spence and J. S. Exell he edited Thirty Thousand Thoughts ([1883] sqq.); and, with C. H. H. Wright, A Protestant Dictionary (1904).
BELLES, SAMUEL SOBIESKI: Methodist educator; b. at Mount Pleasant, near Brantford, Canada, Oct. 17, 1823; d. at Cobourg, Canada, Oct. 17, 1887. He received his education at Lewiston Academy, N. Y., Genesee Wesleyan Seminary, N. Y., Victoria College, Cobourg, Canada, and Wesleyan University, Conn. (B.A., 1846); after teaching for a year he entered the ministry, serving as pastor at Port Hope, Toronto, and at London, Canada; in 1850 he became president of Victoria College, and held the position till his death. See METHODISTS, IV., 10, 1 3.
NELSON, CLEVELAND BINLOCH: Protestant Episcopal bishop of Georgia; b. at Greenwood, near Cobham Station, Va., May 23, 1852. He was educated at St. John's College, Annapolis, Md. (B.A., 1872) and attended lectures at the Berkeley Divinity School, Middletown, Conn., from which, however, he was not graduated. He was ordered deacon in 1876 and ordained priest in the following year, after which he was rector of St. John the Baptist's, Germantown, Pa., from 1876 to 1882, and of the Church of the Nativity, South Bethlehem, Pa., from 1882 to 1892, when he was consecrated bishop of Georgia.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. 9. Perry, The Episcopate in America, p.
337, New York, 1895.
NELSON, DAVID: Presbyterian; b. near Jonesborough, Tenn., Sept. 24, 1793; d. at Oakland, Ill., Oct. 17, 1844. He was graduated at Washington College, Virginia, in 1810. He practised medicine, imbibed infidel opinions, but was converted, and licensed to preach in 1825. After five years' service in Tennessee and Kentucky, he established Marion
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
College in Missouri, and was its first president, holding the position for six years; but his abolitionist views at last forced his departure, and in 1836 he opened at Oakland, Ill., a training‑school, particularly for missionaries. He wrote Cause and Cure of Infidelity (New York, 1836), often reprinted and edited, while it exists in translation in French, German, and Spanish.

NELSON, HENRY ADDISON: Presbyterian; b. at Amherst, Mass., Oct. 31, 1820; d. at St. Louis, Mo., Dec. 31, 1906. He was educated at Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y. (A.B., 1840), after which he taught at Eaton, N. Y., and Homer, N. Y., until 1843, when he entered Auburn Theological Seminary, from which he was graduated in 1846. He was then pastor at the First Presbyterian Church, Auburn, N. Y. (1846‑56), and at the First Presbyterian Church, St. Louis, Mo. (1856‑68), professor of systematic and pastoral theology at Lane Theological Seminary, Cincinnati (1868‑74), pastor of the First Presbyterian Church at Geneva, N. Y. (18741885), and acting pastor at Independence, Mo. (1885‑86). From 1886 until his retirement from active life in 1897 he was editor of The Church at Home tend Abroad (Philadelphia). He was a member of the joint committee of thirty appointed by the general assemblies of the northern and southern branches of his denomination in 1866 to effect their reunion, and in theology " accepted the standards of the Presbyterian Church, but would much prefer a fair statement of the consensus in doctrine of all the churches which acknowledge each other as evangelicals, eliminating all the dogmas which distinguish them from each other." His works include: Seeing Jesus (Philadelphia, 1869); Sin and Salvation (New York, 1881); and Home Whispers (Philadelphia, 1885).

NELSON, RICHARD HENRY: Protestant Episcopal bishop coadjutor of Albany, N. Y.; b. in New York City Nov. 10, 1859. He was educated at Trinity College, Hartford, Conn. (A.B., 1880), the University of Leipsic (1880‑81), and Berkeley Divinity School, Middletown, Conn., from which he was graduated in 1883. After being curate of St. John's, Stamford, Conn. (1883‑84), he was rector successively of Grace Church, Waterville, N. Y. (1884‑87), Christ Church, Norwich, Conn. (1887‑97), and St. Peter's, Philadelphia, Pa. (18971904). In 1904 he was consecrated bishop coadjutor of Albany, N. Y.
NEMESIUS, ne‑mi'si‑us, OF EMESA: Bishop of Emesa in Phenicia in the fourth century. Of his life nothing whatsoever is known, nor was his work, generally known as " On the Nature of Man " (ed. I. Casaubon, Antwerp, 1565; ed. J. Fell, Oxford, 1671; best ed. by MatthSi, Halls, 1802; with collected prefaces also in MPG, xl.; Eng. tranal. by G. Wither, London, 1636), mentioned before Maximus Confessor in the seventh century. The date of the work rests entirely on internal evidence, as in its polemics against Apollinarius and Eunomius, and in its evident allusions to Antiochene Christology. On the other hand, there is no allusion to controversies later than the fourth century, such as

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	N all
Eutychianism and Nestorianism, or to the dyophysitic problem. The work is a noteworthy endeavor to make a Christian philosophical compend of anthropology. Paul and Moses are equated with Menander and Aristotle, and the influence of Galen is also marked. The highest proof of divine providence and of the exalted destiny of man is based on the incarnation; lofty praise is accorded the unity and harmony of the entire creation, while, on the other hand, redemption is robbed of its value as a historical fact. The book shows how strong and complete was the blending of Christianity and Hellenism in the fourth century. It was much used and highly esteemed until the Renaissance, and was translated into Latin by Alfanus in the eleventh century (ed. Holzinger, Prague, 1887) and in the twelfth century by Burgundio of Pisa (ed. Burkhardt, Meidlinger, 1891‑96), as well as by the Humanists Kono and Valla. An Italian version appeared in 1509 and an Old Armenian translation was also made. (R. SCHMID.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. Evangelides, Nemesius and seine Quellen, Berlin, 1882; Bender, Untersuchung titer Nemesius, Heidelberg, 1898; B. Domanski, Die Psychologie des Nemesius, in Beitrdpe zur Geschichte des Mittelalters, vol. iii., Monster, 1900; Ceillier, Auteurs aacrks, vi. 283‑285; DCB, iv. 16.
	NENNIUS: The traditional author of the His
toria Britonum, a work which purports to be a his
tory of Britain to the Saxon conquest. It has little
historical value and there is much dispute concern
ing its origin. It has been ascribed to Gildas, to an
Irish bishop of the ninth century known as Mark
the Hermit, and to an anonymous writer. The
later investigators believe it to be a compilation of
various dates, in which Nennius may have taken
part. If so, he is to be assigned to the close of the
eighth or first half of the ninth century and was
probably a monk of Wales. But information con
cerning him is late and doubtful and the work itself
offers little that is conclusime. The best edition is
by T. Mommsen in Chronica minora, iii. (MGH,
Auct, ant., xiii. 1898), Eng. transl. by J. A. Giles
(London, 1841, and in Bohn's Antiquarian Li
brary).
BIBI.IOORAPHY: C. W. Scholl, De welesiaaticar Britonum Scotorumque historim fontibus, Berlin, 1851; W. F. Skene, The Four Ancient Books of Wales, i. 37‑41, Edinburgh, 1868; A. de la Borderie, nudes historiques bretonnes; Mistoria Britonum attraibuke a Nennius, Paris, 1883; H. Zimmer, Nennius rindicatus, Berlin, 1893; idem, in NA, xix (1894), 436‑443; the preface to Mommsen's edition, ut. sup.; R. Thurneysen, in Zeitschrift furdeutacheTheolopie, xxviii (1895), 80‑113; F. Lot, in Le Moyen he, viii (1895), 177‑184, ix (1896), 25‑36; DNB, xl. 217‑221.
NEOPHYTES (NOVICES): A term applied in the early Church to newly baptized Christians (I Tim. iii. 6). It was used especially during the " week of the neophytes," during which the newly baptized wore the white baptismal garments; it designated also the younger members of the congregation, and where a regular annual season for baptism was observed the members baptized during the last year seemed to have been termed neophytes. The "apostolic rule" (I Tim. iii. 6) that no neophyte could be a bishop is frequently repeated, and in the second Nicene canon of 325 this prohibition is made to include the priestly office. The rule was frequently violated, or at least con‑
sidered capable of suspension, so that laymen were
repeatedly chosen bishops, and Ambrose (q.v.) and
Synesius (q.v.) were not even baptized when elected
to the episcopate. In the East the rule was milder,
Justinian enacting that a layman should be in orders
at least three months before being made bishop
(Novellce, cxxiii. 1). 	(H. AcHElas.)
NEOPLATONISX
I. Character and Origin.
11. The System of Plotinus. Doctrine of the " One " (§ 1). The World‑Soul (§ 2). Religion and Ethics (§ 3).
111. Further Development of NeoplatAnism. Porphyry (§ 1). Jamblichus and Others (§ 2). The Athenian School (§ 3).
I. Character and Origin: Neoplatonism is the last development of Greek philosophy, in which the mind of antiquity, using many elements of the older systems, especially the Platonic, passed beyond the realistic tendencies of the Stoics and Epicureans, dogmatically conquered skepticism, and rose to a height of mystic speculation which was influenced partially by Oriental and Christian ideas. This speculation was directed principally upon the Godhead and the relation to it of mankind and the universe, though physics, ethics, and logic were not wholly neglected. The theosophic‑mystical tendency which is apparent in Plato is responsible for a desertion, to a certain extent, of the path of scientific strictness of reasoning followed by the older Greek philosophers. In the historical development the Neoplatonists follow immediately upon the Neopythagoreans and the Pythagoreanizing or eclectic Platonists; but the Neoplatonist school had much more that was original and independent than the school which preceded it, bringing the sum total of knowledge into a new philosophic system. As a definite school, it originated in Alexandria, where the mixture of nationalities made for a fusion of earlier philosophic and religious tendencies. Its founder was Ammonius Saccas (q.v.), who had been brought up a Christian and had then returned to Hellenism. He left no written remains, and it is thus difficult to determine his exact relation to his successors. Among his pupils were Plotinus, the two Origens (the Neoplatonist and the Christian), and Longinus the critic. When Neoplatonism is mentioned in a general way, it connotes mainly the teaching of Plotinus (b. at Lycopolis, in Upper Egypt, 204; d. at Campania 270). After studying under Ammonius for some ten years he accompanied the Emperor Gordian in his campaign against the Persians, in order to learn something of their philosophy. In 244 he went to Rome and won numerous adherents to his teaching, among them the Emperor Gallienus and his wife Salonina. He taught here till about 268, retiring then to the country estate of a disciple in Campania. He did not reduce his doctrine to writing until toward the close of his life, and then did not publish it, leaving this to be done by his pupil Porphyry, who arranged the fifty‑four treatises of the master in six Enneades, placing them in logical order from the simplest to the most abstruse‑although he also gives their chronological sequence. They were first

Neoplatonium	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	112
printed in a Latin translation by Marsilio Ficino at Florence in 1492, then in Greek and Latin at Basel, 1580.
II. The System of Plotinus: What principally distinguishes Plotinus from both Plato and his immediate predecessors is the assumption of a principle higher than the noun. This assump‑
r. Doctrine tion proceeds from the requirement of
of the unity as an attribute of the highest
	"One."	principle; the nova, as at once subject
		and object of perception, nooun and
nooumenon, is twofold. Therefore something higher
must be sought, which is absolute unity, the One,
identical with the Godhead and wholly transcend
ent‑‑the first cause, the source of all thinking and
being, all the good and beautiful, and all activity.
The utter transcendence of God being thus taught
by Plotinus in a more extreme form than by any
of his predecessors, he admits the insolubility by
human reason of the most difficult of all metaphys
ical problems‑how becoming arose out of immuta
ble being and plurality out of unity. The theory
of Emanation (q.v.), which he accepts, does not
answer the question; but, following Plato, he sug
gests that the eyplanation may be found in the
goodness or benevolence of God. All other beings
produce yet others; and how should the most per
fect of all beings, the primal goodness and the high
est power, remain absorbed in itself as though im
potent to produce ? This, of course, is rather an
anthropomorphic‑ethical than a metaphysical ex
planation; an attempt to supply the latter is found
in the view that the highest being is over‑full, and,
as the higher, does not precisely contain the lower
in itself but allows it to flow forth from its super
abundant perfection. This doctrine may possibly
show oriental influence; but the idea of emanation
occurs in the Stoic teaching, and still more in Philo,
though in neither so fully developed as with Plotinus.
That which first issues from the One is the noes, which is conscious of being a product and image of the One and receives from its relation
2. The to the One its power to produce other
World‑	existences. It is not mere thought but
	Soul.	actual being, comprehending all things
		as the genus comprehends the species.
It contains the ideas, contrary to the teaching of
Plato, who conceived it as being contained in one
of them, that of good. Another difference is that
whereas Plato asserted the existence of ideas only
for such objects as had a common concept or name,
Plotinus attributes them to all single existences.
From the rwua proceeds further the soul, the third
principle. As the highest principle has neither
thought nor consciousness, so the noes, which is
purely contemplative, has no reflective, logical
thought. This is the work of the world‑soul, which
is the link between the intelligible and the phe
nomenal world, carrying on the process of emana
tion down to its lowest terms. Matter is conceived
by Plotinus not exactly as an emanation from the
world‑soul, but rather (as with Plato) in the guise
of a receptive or passive principle in contrast to
the formative or active. What the world‑soul sees
in the noun, with that it is pervaded and that it
strives to reproduce. The content of the soul de‑
scends to lower stages. This content is composed
of the ideas; and thus in the image of the nova and
soul images of the ideas are also contained. These
are the logoi, concepts, whose sum, the Logos par
excellence, like the world‑soul itself, is an emana
tion from the noes. These logoi are the essential
factor in the giving of form to matter, which is
formed in an organic, not a mechanical, manner.
This formative process presupposes purpose, but
not knowledge or deliberation just as in Heracli
tus all becoming takes place on rational principles,
yet without any conscious foresight. If everything,
therefore, is formed and pervaded by rational
powers, the world‑soul with its content permeating
all, all must be rational or reason. Although the
logoi are lower than their prototypes, and their re
lations with formless matter go lower still, yet Plo
tinus finds in the world of phenomena traces of the
highest; the absolutely Good and Beautiful is visi
ble even in the world of sense. The spirit of Plato,
as expressed in the close of the Timous, the idea
that the sensible world is a great and beautiful and
perfect thing, dominates Plotinus also, so that in
spite of matter producing evil, he is far from‑ re
garding this world as evil or hateful, representing
rather in this point the general optimism of Greek
philosophy than the tendency of the early Christian
writers to despise the visible world. On the whole,
in his explanation of the existence of evil in the
universe and his justification of the higher powers
in respect to it, he follows the Stoics.
From the world‑soul proceed individual souls, but they are not parts of it. Going down into bodies, they have forgotten the higher,
3. Religion the divine, from which they came, and and have believed themselves independent;
	Ethics.	thus they have gone continually lower,
		and stand in need of a return to
the better; but Plotinus does not make it plain
whether this can be executed with freedom by men.
The ethical goal is sometimes represented, after
Plato, as approximation to the Godhead, sometimes
in a more Aristotelian fashion as operation in con
formity with the nature of the operator, and again,
with Heraclitus and the Stoics, as obedience to rea
son. Among the virtues Plotinus distinguishes first
the " political " or social, which are the four com
monly accepted by the Greeks‑prudence, cour
age, temperance, and justice; but these can not
make the soul like God. Above them are the Puri
fying virtues, which have that effect. They consist
in freeing oneself as far as possible from the body
and from sin by an avoidance of what is sensual,
though without any exaggerated asceticism. Man,
however, is not to be satisfied by mere freedom
from sin, but must strive actually to become God.
To this end serve the deifying virtues, which are
the reproduction on a higher plane of the primary
or political virtues. Through these the true nature
of man comes to its fulfilment; and thus his beati
tude consists in the maintenance of his proper atti
tude toward himself, undisturbed by external hap.
penings or relations. The supreme aim, indeed,
with Plotinus as with Philo, lies not in the realm of
thought (as the detailed exposition of the deifying
virtues might suggest), but in ecstatic elevation to

113	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Neoplatonism
the highest good, to the Godhead. Logical knowledge is only a preliminary to this, which consists in immediate knowledge of and union with God. To this Plotinus himself, according to the testimony of Porphyry, attained only four times in the six years that the disciple was with him. The reason why man on earth can not remain permanently in this state is that he has not yet succeeded in turning wholly away from the earthly; the time of permanent union will come when he is no longer tormented by any restlessness of the body. On the immortality of the soul Plotinus wrote a separate 'treatise, in which he follows Plato in the main, especially emphasizing the fact that the soul, as incorporeal and incomposite, is incapable of dissolution. A reunion of soul and body in the higher life is inconceivable to him, since the passage into this higher life is conditioned by the desertion of the body, whose nature is in essential opposition to that of the soul.
III. Further Development of Neo‑Platonism: Among the disciples of Plotinus the most important was Porphyry (q.v.; b. at Batanea, Sy:. Porphyry. ria, 233; d. in Rome c. 304), the head of the Syrian school. He wrote lives of Plotinus and Pythagoras, treatises De abstinentia and De antro nympharum, a letter to Marcella, another De diis dwmonibus ad Anebonem, a brief compendium of the doctrines of Plotinus entitled Aphormai pros to noeta, and an introduction to the " Categories " of Aristotle, besides a number of other works not now extant. The work last named is of considerable importance in the history of philosophy, as it contains the germ of the whole controversy between realism and nominalism. The religious character of Porphyry's philosophy is shown by his placing its aim in the " saving of the soul." He mentions four kinds of virtues: the political, which make an ordinary good man; the purifying, which make him a " daemonic " man; those which look up to the noue, their cause, constituting the rational activity of the soul; and the virtue of the nous itself, the paradigmatic. Connected with the purification on which he insists so strongly is the strict asceticism which he recommends, including abstinence from meat and from sexual intercourse. He asserts that he has reached once, but only once, and that when he was sixty‑eight, the height of his desire, being permitted to approach and to be united with the most high God. While he regarded the national religions as justifiable, making no distinction between those of the Greeks and those of the barbarians, he opposed strongly the complete novelty of Christianity in his fifteen books " Against the Christians," which were totally destroyed by Theodosius II. in 335. This work is an indication that the Neoplatonists felt the whole Hellenic system and their own position to be threatened by Christianity. It was considered of so much importance that replies were published by Methodius and Eusebius of C"area among others.
The sober character of Neoplatonism was lost in the soaring speculations of Jamblichus (b. in CoeleSyria c. 283; d. at Alexandria c. 330). In his belief in magic, miracles, and theurgy, or the art of compelling demons and other supernatural powers to VII1.___8
produce desired results, he goes beyond all meas
ure. His miracle‑seeking followers believed him a
		being of a superior order, and called
	s. Jambli‑ him " the Divine " or " Divinest."
	thus and Besides his principal work, the Syna
	Others. gbgg tbn Pythagoreidn dogmatdn, five
		others are extant, of which the most im
portant are the Vita Pythagorica and the Adhortatio
ad phiZosophiam.. The treatise De mysteriia, said to
have been ascribed to him by Proclus, is certainly
not his, but probably belongs to some member of
his school. Jamblichus attempted to justify the
whole polytheistic system, and added a still more
absolutely primal and exalted One above the One
of Plotinus. The lower powers are divided into a
long series of hierarchies, described with a Pythag
orean fondness for exact numbers. With the whole
theurgic system is connected the belief that images
of the gods, whether fallen from heaven or made
by men, partake of divinity and are capable of
working miracles. The surest method for winning
the divine protection is by prayer, which the gods
can hear apart from any tangible medium. The
return to the suprasensual world is made by means
of the virtues, of which at first Jamblichus adopted
the fourfold classification of Porphyry, afterward
adding a fifth class, the priestly or simple virtues
(simple as referring directly to the One), by which
the soul rises to mystic union with the Supreme.
Among the disciples of Jamblichus the most inde
pendent thinker was Theodorus of Asine. Others
of the Syrian school were Dexippus, Edesius of
Cappadocia, who long conducted a flourishing school
at Pergamum, Chrysanthius of Sardis, and Euna
pius, known by his biographies of philosophers and
sophists. A singular combination of learning and
attractiveness won wide renown for Hypatia (q.v.).
Her disciple and admirer Synesius (q.v.) showed a
great deal of Neoplatonist influence in his writings.
	The Athenian school was later in time than the
Syrian, and devoted itself rather to scientific efforts,
		especially the exposition of Plato and
	3. The Aristotle. Its first leader was Plutarch
	Athenian of Athens, head of the school there
	School. until 433, who seems to have followed
		Motinus closely. His successor was
Syrianus (until about 450),who was succeeded in his
turn by Proclus the Lycian. He remained the head
of the school until his death in 485. His principal
works are his commentaries on Plato (especially on
the Timceua and the Republic), the Stoieheiosis the
ologikg, and the Peri tea kota Platona theologian.
He undoubtedly deserves the second place in im
portance among the Neoplatonists for breadth of
knowledge and dialectical power and acuteness. He
attempted like the later scholastics to reduce the
entire philosophical tradition to a complete logical
system. He regarded the Platonic writings in the
light of a revelation, but paid much attention also
to Homer and Hesiod, and had an unbounded rev
erence for Jamblichus, on whom, with Plotinus, he
depends for a large part of his system. Of less im
portance are his successors at Athens, Marinus,
Zenodotus, Isidore of Alexandria, Hegias, and
Damascius. In 529 the teaching of philosophy at
Athens was suppressed by Justinian and the prop‑

Neo
Nerpla,toniem
i
erty of the school confiscated. Two years later, Damascius, with Simplicius, the well‑known commentator on Aristotle, and five other Neoplatonist$, went to Persia in the hope of finding in King Chosroes a friend of philosophy, but were grievously disappointed and returned to Athens in 533. From this time on the efforts of those who were interested in such matters tended more and more to limit themselves to the exposition of earlier philosophers, especially Plato and Aristotle.
	The final dissolution of Neoplatonism was due
partly to its unbounded recklessness of specula
tion and partly to the moral and religious force of
Christianity, which borrowed what was most val
uable of the Neoplatonist system and breathed new
life into it. Augustine, Dionysius the Areopagite,
and Scotus Erigena (qq.v.) were particularly influ
enced by it, and through the two latter both the
mystical and the pantheistic movements of the Mid
dle Ages received much of their direction. Neo
platonism had a marked revival at the Renaissance,
especially through Marsilius Ficinus and Pico della
Mirandola (qq.v.); and through Giordano Bruno
(q.v.) in particular it has come down to modern
times in one form or another, being discoverable
by an acute analysis in the theories of Schelling,
Fichte, Hegel, and other leading nineteenth‑cen
tury philosophers. 	(M. HEINZE.)
BIBLIOaRAPHr: The subject is treated from three different standpoints in three kinds of works: (1) in those on the history of philosophy such as: B. Erdmann, Eng. trawl., London, 1893; W. Windelband, Eng. trawls. of two works, New York, 1893, London, 1900; A. Weber, London, 1896 (an excellent manual); F. Ueberweg, ed. M. Heiwe, vol. ii., Berlin, 1905; (2) in the works on the church history of the period; and (3) in works on the history of dogma. To these general works the student is therefore referred. For special treatment of the subject consult: C. Bigg, Neoplatonism, London, 1895; T. Whittaker, The Neo‑Platonists, Cambridge, 1901; G. Elsee, Neoplatonism in Relation to Christianity, New York, 1908; K. P. Home, Von Plotin zu Goethe. Die Entwicklung des neuplatonischen Einheitagedankem zur Weltanschauung der Neuzeit, Leipsic, 1909; and cf. E. Zeller, History of Eclecticism, London,1883.
On the members of this school, for Plotinus consult: his Opera, ed. A. Kirchhoff, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1856, Eng. trawl. of select works, by T. Taylor, London, 1794, 1&34; of his De pulchritudine, by T. Taylor, ib. 1787; Two Books on the Essence of Soul, and One on the Descent of Soul, by T. M. Johnson, Osceola, Mo., 1880; Selections from the " Enueads " in Germ. trawl. by O. Kisser, 2 vols., Jena, 1905. Consult: J. Simon, Hist. de l'ecole d'Alexandne, 2 vole., Paris, 1846; A. Daunas, Plotin et sa doctrine, ib. 1848; C. H. Kirchner, Die Philosophie des Plotin, Halle, 1854; A. Richter, Neuplatonische Studien, 5 parts, Halle, 1864‑67; M. Heinze, Die Lehre vom Logos, pp. 306‑329, Leipsic, 1872; H. von Kleist, Plotinische Studien, Heidelberg, 1883; H. F. M611er, Dispositionen zu den drei ersten Enneaden des Plotin, Bremen, 1883; A. Lang, Lessons on literature, pp. 92‑101, London, 1889; K. S. Guthrie, The Philosophy of Plotinus, Philadelphia, 1896; O. Gollwitzer, Plotins Lehre von der Willensfreiheit, Kempten, 1900; A. Drews, Plotin and der Untemang der antiken Weltanschauung, Jena, 1907. For Porphyry: his Opera tria, ed. A. Nauck, Leipsic, 1860; Opuscala, ed. Nauck, ib. 1886; Eng trawl. of his select works by T. Taylor, London, 1823, of his work on abstinence by S. Hibberd, ib. 1851, and of his sentences by T. Davidson, in Journal of Speculative Philosophy, iii (1869), 46‑73; N. Bouillet, Porphyre: son role dans l'€cole n&platonicienne, Paris, 1864; M. Haupt, Marci Diaconi vita Porphyriis, Berlin, 1875; A. J. Kleffner. Porphyrius der Neuplatoniker and Christenfeind, Paderborn, 1896. For Jamblichns: his De vitapythagorica, ed. under the direction of the St. Petersburg Academy, 8t. Petersburg, 1884; his De mysteriis, ed. G. Parthey,
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
Berlin, 1857, Eng. trawl. by T. Taylor, Chiswick, 1821; his Adhortatio ad philosophiam, Lat. text ed. H. Pistelli, Leipsic, 1888, the Gk. text ed. the same, ib. 1894; H. Dodwell, De fide et estate Jamblichus, in his Exercitationes
. de agitate Pythagori, London, 1704; J. Simon, ut sup., ii. 187‑265; E. Vacherot, Hist. critique de L'kcole d Alexandria, ii. 57‑65, 126‑146, Paris, 1846; G. C. A. von Harless, Das Buch von den agyptischen Mysterien, Munich,
• 1858; A. Wilden. Jamblichos on the Mysteries, in The Platonist, Aug., 1885‑,Tiny, 1887. On Ammonius: the Aristotelis vita, ed. in Diopenis Laerlii de . . . philosophorum vitis, Gk. and Lat., Paris, 1850; Fragments conserves par Nemesius, ed. M. N. Bouillet in Les Enneades de Plotin, ib. 1857; L. J. Dehaut, Essai higtorique our la vie et la doctrine‑ d'Ammonius Saccas, Brussels, 1836; E. E. Vacherot, ut sup.; E. Zeller, in Archiv fur Geschichte der Philosophie, vii (1894), 295‑312. Consult also the convenient compend Plotina opera omnia, Porphyrii liter de vita Plotini cum Marsilii Ficini commentariis et ejusdem interpretations castigates, annotationem in unum lxbrum Plotini et in Porphyrium attitit Daniel Wyttenbach, apparalum eriticum disposuit, indices concinnavit G. H. Moser, ad fidem codicum MSS. et in nova recensionis modum Grwea Latinaque emendavit indices expleoit, prolegomena introducbones, annotationes, explicandis rebus ac verbis itemque Nicephori Nathanaelis antitheticum Adversus Plotinum et Dialopum Grawi scriptoras anonymi ineditum de anima adyecit F. Crewer, 3 vols., London, 1&35.

ftEOSTADIENSIUM ADMONITIO: The most important of the replies evoked by the Formula of Concord. The brief enforced return of Heidelberg to Lutheranism under the Elector Louis (1576‑83) obliged the Reformed to flee to Neustadt, where they found themselves obliged to defend their beliefs against the Lutheran doctrines; Ursinus accordingly wrote, in their name, the Admonitio (Neustadt, 1581, found also in his Opera, vol. ii., Heidelberg, 1612). Its twelve chapters contain a presentation of the Reformed doctrines, a refutation of the principles advanced in the Formula of Concord, and a critique of the Augsburg Confession and Luther. The distinctive Reformed tenets discussed are Christology, communion, and predestination. The two natures of Christ are declared to be both united and distinct, the personal union consisting " in the subsistence and constitution of substance of a single person." Fellowship with Christ in the communion is regarded as given only through faith, thus excluding all idea of the real presence. The treatment of predestination is chiefly a sharper definition of the views advanced more vaguely and incorrectly by the Lutherans. The Latin edition of the Admonitio was soon followed by one in German, and the work naturally called forth several refutations, especially by Selnecker, Chemnitz, and Timotheus Mrchner, which were answered in the Examen reeitationum Nicolai Selneecera (1582) and the Defensio admonitianis Neostadiance contra apologize Erfurtensis sophismata (1586). Throughout this period Neustadt was the Reformed center, and the place of publication of a number of the writings of the theologians of Anhalt and Bremen.
(E. F. KARL MJLLER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Schweizer, Die protestantischen Centraldogmen, i. 491 sqq., Zurich, 1854; R. Sudhoff, Olevnanus and Ursinus, pp. 432 sqq., Elberfeld, 1857; H. Heppe, Geschichte des deutschen Protestantismus, iv. 277 aqq., Marburg, 1859.

NEPOMUg. See JOHN Or' NEPOMUB.
NEPOS, ni'pes: Egyptian bishop before the middle of the third century. He is known from the

118	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Neeiflat°nl°m
attack by Dionysius of Alexandria on his lost " Refutation of the Allegorists " in the second book of the Peru Epangelion. , From this it is clear that the chiliasts in Arsinoe regarded the works of Nepos as irrefragable proof of the future reign of Christ on earth and of the realistic interpretation of the Apocalypse. According to Gennadius (De' ecdesiasticis dogmatibus, Iv.), Nepos held that after the resurrection of the righteous there would be throughout the millennium a world of the unconverted, which would war upon the just at the expiration of the thousand years, only to be destroyed by God. Nepos was also a writer of hymns, and seems to have been an excellent exegete. His position represented the conflict between the eschatology of the early Church and the spiritualizing tendency of Origen; but the Nepotians mentioned by Fulgentius (MPG, lxv. 709) were at most mere chiliasts, having no organic affiliations with the doctrines of
Nepos. 	(N. BONWETacH.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Eusebius, Hist. eccl., VIL, xxiv.; Tillemont, M€naoires, iv. 261 eqq.; C. W. F. Walch, Historie der Ketzereien, ii. 152‑167, 11 vols., Leipsic, 1762‑85; DCB, iv. 23: Ceillier. Auteurs sacr€s, ii. 404‑405, 564‑565.

NERGAL, ner'gnl: The patron deity of the Babylonian city Cutha, forming from the Assyrian period a political triad with Marduk of Babylon and Nebo of Bursippa. Nergal, who appears in the Assyrian lists of gods as Ne‑uru‑gal (" Lord of the Great Dwelling," i.e., of the dead), was the divinity of the burning heat of the sun, then of war and the chase, of disease (especially fever) and pestilence, and above all of the realm of the dead, of which his temple (yet undiscovered) was a copy. He was identified with the unlucky planet Saturn, but later was confused with Mars (cf. the Mandwan names Nirig and Nargil, " Mars "; see MANDYANa). As the god of the glowing sun Nergal was represented as a lion, a symbol of the sun common throughout eastern Asia, especially as during the dog‑days the sun is in Leo. Nergal was known in Cyprus, Syria, and Sidon, the latter a center of his cult.
The Babylonian and Assyrian cult of Nergal is mentioned in II Kings xvii. 30; and in Isa. xxxv. 7 sharabh (R. V., " glowing sand ") has been interpreted as an allusion to Nergal, especially as a Babylonian list of gods states that Nergal was called Sharrabu among the Amorites. Winckler (Altorientalische Forschungen, i. 293, Leipsic, 1893), reading nergalim for nidhgaloth (R. V., " army with banners ") in Cant. vi. 4, 10, seeks to find here an allusion to Gemini, which was sacred to Nergal. The name of the deity occurs in the Old Testament as a component of the Babylonian Nergal‑sharezer (" Nergal protect the king ") in Jer. xxxix. 3, 13. See BABYroNrrA, TV., § 10, VII., 2, § 8.
(ALFRED JEREUUS.)
BIBLIOGRAPAY: Consult, besides the pertinent literature under BABYLONIA: A. Jeremias, in W. H. Roscher, AusPhrliches Lesikon der griechiachen and rdmischen Mytholopie, iii. 250‑271, Leipsic, 1895; Schrader, KAT, pp. 412 aqq.; P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Lehrbuch der Relipionsgeschichte, i. 303‑305, Tfibingen, 1905.

NERI, PHILIP, SAINT, AND THE ORATORIANSS:
The founder of the Roman Catholic order of Ora, toriansand his followers. The founder was born
at Florence, Italy, July 22, 1515, and died at Rome
May 26, 1595. In early childhood he showed marked
		evidence of piety, and in 1533 he went
	Life and to Rome, where he studied with the
	Character Augustinians, at the same time prac
	of the tiling works of asceticism, mercy, and
	Founder. religious instruction. On May 23,
		1551, he was ordained to the priest
hood in the church of St. John Lateran, and took
an active part in the confraternities and other or
ganizations evoked by the revival within the Ro
man Catholic Church for strengthening it and for
saving the half‑heathen populace in body and soul.
He was one of the founders of the Confraternity of
the Holy Trinity, designed primarily for the care
of strangers and the convalescent poor. St. Philip
gathered old and young, priests and laymen, to
meditations held each evening, which, after 1556,
crystallized into definite form. The meditations
were held in the evening in an oratory, where prayer,
readings from the Bible, the Church Fathers, and
histories of martyrs alternated with catechizings and
hymns set to music more popular in character than
the Gregorian chant. No address was allowed to ex
ceed half an hour in length, and all rhetoric and casu
istry was excluded. From his apologetic lectures
delivered here, Baronius formed the nucleus of his
immortal Annales ecclesiastici, and from the music
here sung the " oratorio " had its rise. The house
of the community breathed a spirit of friendliness,
joyfulness, and service, and several times a week
the founder and his friends visited the hospitals to
tend the sick, neglecting no menial tasks either
there or in their own house. St. Philip was firmly
convinced that a joyous demeanor was far more
suited to win souls to Christian virtue than a mel
ancholy air. His apparent light‑heartedness and
sociability brought upon him the suspicion of more
puritanical leaders of the Roman Catholic move
ment for reform, and he was accused before the
cardinal vicar of Rome of seeking empty honors
and striving for high‑church offices under cover of
his conferences. He bore with patience his suspen
sion from hearing confession and from preaching,
and the charge that he contemplated establishing
a new sect was abruptly ended by the sudden death
of the cardinal vicar. The accusations were later
renewed, though without disturbing his somewhat
whimsical humor, in which he seems to have sought
to rebuke the pharisaical puritanism which held
sway in Rome at the period. At the same time, he
was capable of severe ascetic sternness, and it must
be borne in mind that his biographers commonly
ascribe his apparent levity to his humility and his
determination to avoid all praise of men. He was
thus curiously like the rigid Pope Sixtus V. (1585
1590), whose invincible humor likewise made a deep
impression on the memory of the Roman people.
Repeated efforts were made to induce St. Philip
to accept the cardinal's hat, but in vain. Such was
his influence, however, that when Clement VIT.
long refused to release Henry TV. of France from
excommunication after his submission to the Church
in 1593, St. Philip bade Baroniua deny the pope
absolution after his confession until he should grant
it to Henry. Baronial obeyed in trembling, but

Nerl	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	116
Nerses
the desired absolution was soon given to the king, thus accomplishing what had been impossible for the entire French episcopate.
	The Oratorians were confirmed by the pope in
1575 and again in 1612. All members were equal,
the brethren even having legislative and judicial
power over the superior. Government was by ma
jority vote, and the members of the community
		were secular priests, bound by no vows,
The Italian retaining their own property, and at Oratory. liberty to withdraw at any time. They paid a certain amount monthly for the maintenance of their house, receiving only roomrent free. Nevertheless, their " Institution " contained many strict rules, such as a triweekly scourging in memory of the scourging borne by Christ for man (see FLAGELLATION; FLAGELLANTS); and the problems and cases of conscience considered at meals were designed especially for confessors. On the other hand, St. Philip wished his followers to restrict themselves to prayer, the administration of the sacrament, and preaching. He permitted the establishment of daughter houses unwillingly, but such institutions, once founded, were placed more or less under the jurisdiction of their respective bishops, so that the Oratorians have no general, no convention of delegates, and no central organization. The oratories of Naples and Milan were founded by Tarucci in 1586, almost contemporary with those at San Severino, Fermo, and Palermo, and these were quickly followed by others. Some years before his death, St. Philip resigned his place as superior to Baronius, though until his death he remained active as a confessor and in pastoral care, filled with the deepest humility to the last. In 1622 he was canonized. Among the distinguished members of the order which he founded were Bar ronius and Reynaldus (d.1671), the brothers Thomas and Francis Bozius (d. 1610 and 1635; the former the first to declare that Luther committed suicide and to recount the terrible deaths of (Ecolampadius, Butzer, Calvin, and others in his De slgnia ecclenee, Cologne, 1593), Antonius Gallonius (d. 1615; the author of the De 8anctorum martyrum mucwibm, Rome, 1594, and frequently), Giovanni Mareiano, Andrea Gallandi (q.v.; the editor of the celebrated Bibliotheca veterum patrum, 14 vole., Venice, 1765 aqq.), and Cardinal Capecelatro (q.v.). The English Oratorians established in 1849 included F. W. Faber (q.v.) and Cardinal J. H. Newman (q.v.).
A French oratory resembling the one founded by St. Philip was established at Paris in 1611 by Pierre de B%4rulle, who was born 1575, and died at Paris Oct., 1629. Ordained to the priesthood in 1599 and created cardinal by Urban VIII. in
The French 1627, he designed his order primarily Oratory. to hear confessions and to give religious instruction. The French Oratoruns were required to render to their respective bishops the same obedience as that given by the Jesuits to the pope, and the exaction of any monastic vow was expressly forbidden. Of B6rulle's successors the first two (Condren (1629‑41) and Bourgoing (1641‑62) contributed most, both to extend the congregation and to develop it. It was far more centralized than the Italian branch and
had both a convention of delegates and a general, who later received coadjutors. It gained the enmity of the Jesuits, however, and later, after Jansen had invited Oratorians to settle in the Spanish Netherlands to teach strict Augustinian doctrines of sin and grace, became involved in the fortunes of Jansenism, besides being suspected of Cartesianism. Nevertheless, in 1760 the congregation possessed seventy‑three houses, fifty‑eight in France, eleven in Holland, two in Venaissin (a papal district in Provence), one in Savoy, and one in Li6ge, some of these being seminaries and others colleges (both in contradistinction. to the Italian organization). So deeply did the French Oratorians resist the absolutism of Church and State in the eighteenth century, that at the outbreak of the Revolution some of them united with the nobler advocates of the upheaval. During the first half of the nineteenth century the congregation was in abeyance, but with the beginning of the second half it revived under the leadership of Pdtktot (d. 1887) and commenced to make progress toward its former standard of learning, its success being evinced by such Oratorians as Auguste Joseph Alphonse Gratry (q.v.) and H. de Valroger. The English Oratorians, already mentioned above, received many accessions from the Tractarian movement, and as early as 1850 had a house in each of the cities of Liverpool, London, and Birmingham. Here their organization favored their increase, being more in harmony with English traditions than the majority of Roman Catholic orders. They have materially aided the progress of Roman Catholicism in England, in part by their publication of the records of the Roman Catholic martyrs under the Tudors. (O. ZricsLEat.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Vita by A. Gallonio (Ital., Rome, 1800, 1818; Lat., Mains, 1602; Germ., Mainz, 1611) and G. Barnabei (Rome, 1622, 1703) are in ASS, May, vi. 480 eqq. Other lives are by: P. J. Bacci, Rome, 1622, 1837, Germ. tranel., Regensburg, 1859; P. GuArin, Lyons, 1852; N. P. S. Wiseman, London, 1858; A. Capecelatro, 2 vole., Milan, 1884, Eng. tranal., 2 vols., London, 1894; G. M. Zampini, Turin. 1884; C. Maseini, Milan, 1894; Comtesse D'Estienne d'Orves; Paris, 1900; A. F. von Pechmann, Freiburg, 1900; F. Bazet, Albi, 1902; and Antrobus, St. Louis, 1903; and in KL, ix. 213 sqq.
On the congregation consult: Heimbucher, Orden and Kongregationen, iii. 413‑424; I. Mareiano, Memorieietoriehe delta Congreg. dell' Oratorio, 5 vole., Naples, 1693‑1703; C. A. de Villaroso, Memorie degli acrittori Pilippini, 2 vols., ib. 1837‑42; A. Perraud, L'Oratoire de France, Paris, 1865; J. de la Pasardibre, L'Oratoire de St. Philippe de Neri, Draguiguan, 1880.
NERO: Roman emperor from 54 to 68 A.D.; b. at Antium (38 m. s. of Rome) Dec. 15, 37; d. near Rome June 9, 68. His name is associated with the first great persecution of the Christians known to history, and immediately connected with the conflagration which swept over Rome for six days and nights, beginning with the night of July 19, 64. These events fall in the darkest period of Nero's life; and though it is uncertain how well founded were the popular suspicions and the direct accusations of Roman historians that he deliberately caused the fire, there is much evidence, such as his policy for rebuilding and beautifying the city, for believing them. At all events, the conflagration was atoned for by the blood of the Christians to avert the suspicions of the people from himself, after

117	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Nerf
		Nerses
all other attempts to appease the populace had
failed. The precise reason why the Christians were
especially chosen as the victims is unclear. It is
certain, however, that it was not jealousy of the
Empress Poppies for the alleged Christian mistress
of Nero, Acte, as Aub6 supposed; or a religious
motive of making the Christians, as despising the
Roman temples, an expiation for their destruction,
as Renan held. Nor can Hilgenfeld's theory that
the persecution was due to paganism's instinctive
fear of its approaching doom be maintained, for
Christianity was not yet regarded as in itself a
" forbidden religion." It would seem, therefore,
that a prime factor in the selection of the Christians
was the popular hatred of Jews and of orientals in
general, the Christians being involved because they
were still regarded by the heathen as a Jewish sect.
The situation was complicated, moreover, by the
messianic expectations of the Jews which led them
to proclaim divine judgment on the heathen and to
see such a visitation in the burning of the metrop
olis of the world. On the other hand, the Chris
tians, with their expectation of an immediate sec
ond advent, looked for the destruction of the world
by fire (cf. Minucius Felix, Oclavius, xi. 1; Rev.
xviii. 9 sqq.); they thus afforded a ready basis for
the suspicion that they had kindled the conflagra
tion. The restriction of the accusation was not due
to Jewish charges, as some have thought, but to the
fact that, on the one hand, the Jewish population
of Rome was so large and that the Jews were al
ready intensely embittered against the Romans,
and, on the other hand, that the Christians were
regarded as the greatest fanatics and as guilty of
grave vices, besides being the instigators of Jewish
riots (cf. Suetonius, Claudius, xxv.). While the
precise course of investigation is not absolutely
certain, Tacitus (Annales, xv. 44) seems to imply
that certain Christians were first arrested, and that
in consequence of their statements the Christians
were seized and condemned en masse, their mere
adherence to Christianity and their alleged hatred
of all the rest of the human race being regarded as
sufficient evidence of guilt, without proving their
actual incendiary acts in every case.
	The execution of the Christians was made a fes
tival of the Roman populace. In Nero's gardens,
the present Place of St. Peter's, some were cruci
fied or sewn in skins and torn by dogs, and others
were rolled in pitch and burned at night as living
torches. According to Tacitus, moreover, Nero him
self appeared as a charioteer at the circus games
given in connection with these executions and
mingled with the people; yet even so he was unable
to avert the suspicion among the populace that the
Christians were not being sacrificed to the public
weal but to the cruelty of an individual.
	It is clear from Tacitus and Suetonius, notwith
standing the assertions of Orosius (vii. 7) and Sul
picius Severus (ii. 2g), that the persecution was
restricted to Rome; nor is the allusion to the mar
tyrdom of Antipas at Pergamus in Rev. ii. 13
sufficient evidence for a more general persecution.
But though the actual scene of the Neronian per
secution was local, its effects were far‑reaching. In
the burning of the great metropolis and the bloody
reaction of paganism against Christianity was seen the approaching end of the world, and this belief was confirmed by the events of the years following‑the fall and death of Nero, the Jewish war, and the savage internecine strife for the throne of the Caesars. Nero's demoniac figure became interwoven in the eschatology of the time (cf. Rev. xviii.). Escaping from his murderers, or, in another version, raised from the dead, he was to return as Antichrist to wage the last great war of annihilation against the followers of Christ, only to be crushed by the Messiah appearing in judgment.
(ROBERT PSHLMANN.)
BiBuoaRAPay: E. T. HIette, Die Chriatenkataatrophe enter Nero nach ihren Quellen, TQbingen, 1907; B. Aub€, in Comptea rendua de Z'aead6mie des inscriptions, 1866, pp. 194 eqq.; idem, Hist. des persecutions de Upliae, p. 421, Paris, 1875; E. Renan, L'Antichriat, chaps. vi.‑viii., Paris, 1873, Eng. transl., London, 1889; T. Keim, Aus den Urchridenthun, pp. 171‑181, Zurich, 1878; idem, Rom and das Christenthum, pp. 132 eqq., ib. 1881; G. Uhlhorn, Conflict of Christianity with Heathenism, pp. 241250, New York, 1879; C. F. Arnold, Die neroniaohe Christenverjoigung, Leipsic, 1888; A. C. McGiffert, Apostolic Age, pp. 627 sqq., New York, 1897; Schaff, Christian Church, i. 376‑390; Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ed. J. B. Bury, ii. 79 sqq.; articles in ZWT, by Hilgenfeld, xii (1869) 421 aqq., xxx (1890). 223 sqq., by Hildebrand xvii (1874), 94 aqq.; and by E. Zeller, xxxiv (1891), 357 sqq.; and in general, works on the church history of the apostolic period and on the history of the Roman empire
NERSES, ner'siz: The name of several Armenian prelates.
1. Nerses I. " The Great ": Armenian catholicos; b. of royal (Arsacidan) lineage‑also a direct descendant of Gregory the Illuminator (q.v.)‑at Vagharshabad (now a village near Echmiadzin) c. 310; d. after 381. He studied in Greece and returning became chamberlain of King Arshak. King and people united in urging him to renounce civil and military pursuits and honors and to assume the duties first of bishop (c. 364) and afterward of catholicos or patriarch (c. 366). He was active alike in combating heathenism, which still survived, and the more primitive forms of Christianity, which resisted the intrusion of Greek doctrine and practise. In the interest of the Church he founded schools and charitable institutions. He was sent as an ambassador by King Arshak to the Emperor Valentinian I. and was able to restore amicable relations between these rulers. He failed in a similar embassy to the Emperor Valens, whose Arianism he disapproved, and was banished by him to a desert island, where he was obliged to remain until liberated by the Emperor Theodosius the Great (381), who recalled him to Constantinople and detained him for awhile to participate in the second ecumenical council. Returning to Armenia he found that he had been supplanted by Chad of Bagravand and was out of favor with the king. Still more unfriendly were his relations with the succeeding King Pap, who is said to have caused his death by poison (384). If Moses of Chorene is correct in stating that Nerses was catholicos for thirty‑four years, he must have been installed about 350, which is several years earlier than other authorities indicate.
2. Nerses M% Armenian catholilxs 524‑533. He was called " Nerses of Ashtarak " from his native town in Bagravand. A reforming synod was

Nerees
Nestor
held by him in 527 at Tvin (Dwin). See NESTORIANB, § 3.
3. Nerses III.: Catholicos 640‑661; d. 661. He was called " the builder " because he rebuilt Tvin, the patriarchal city that had been destroyed by the Arabs. He lived in troublous times, when Greeks and Arabs alike were seeking to subjugate the Armenians. During a short interval of peace he held a synod at Tvin in which the Chalcedonian symbol was rejected. A successful Arab invasion (646) led the Emperor Constans II. to march an army into Armenia. Nerses met him and succeeded in pacifying him, but was obliged to accept the Chalcedonian symbol. After the emperor's departure another synod (648) requested him to give the Armenians freedom to accept or reject the Chalcedonian symbol. Nerses now lost his popularity by adhering to that statement of faith and retired from Tvin in 649, leaving the anti‑Chalcedonian party in control. After this the Arabs again gained possession of the country, and, the antiChalcedonian leader Theodorus having died, Nerses returned to Tvin (654) and resumed the ecclesiastical leadership.
4. Rerses IV.: Catholicos 1166‑73; b. about 1098; d. Aug., 1173. Of royal lineage and princely birth, he was early dedicated to the Christian ministry and was carefully educated under the guidance of his elder brother, the Catholicos Gregory III., and later of Stephen, abbot of the " Red Monastery." In 1135 he was ordained priest and soon afterward elevated to the episcopate. At a synod at Rom‑Blah, held shortly before his death, Gregory, with the approval of the synod, consecrated Nerses his successor. Before this time Nerses had become deeply interested in the question of union with the Greek Church and just after his brother's death received from the Emperor Manuel T. an invitation to visit Constantinople in this interest. He was unable to accept the invitation, but wrote approvingly of union (Opera, i. 195‑204, Venice, 1873). A second embassy from the emperor (1170) led to another synod at Rom‑Kla,h and further union measures (Opera, i. 231‑238). As a result of other overtures from the emperor (1173) nine points that had been in dispute between Greeks and Armenians were agreed upon (excommunication of all Monophysite leaders‑Eutyches, Dioscurus, and others; acknowledgment of two natures, wills, and energies in Christ united in one personality; omission of the words " who was crucified " in the Trisagion [see THEoPAsc=Es]; celebration of the Greek festivals on the dates fixed by the Eastern Church; olive‑oil to be used in the preparation of the myrrh for unction; leavened bread and wine mixed with water to be used in the eucharist; laity as well as clergy to remain in church during communion and divine service; acknowledgment of the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh ecumenical councils; the catholicos to be appointed by the Greek emperor). Before the negotiations were completed he died. Nerses was an eloquent speaker and an elegant writer. He wrote a commentary on Matthew and many minor exegetical pieces, and a number of somewhat elaborate doctrinal tracts and letters. Several occasional discourses have been preserved.
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
His most widely known work is his collection of short prayers for every hour of the day and night. This has been translated into thirty‑six languages and frequently published in this polyglot form (e.g., Venice, 1882). By his poetry he gained literary renown. Besides many shorter poems, an epic on the history of Armenia, an elegy on the destruction of Edessa by the sultan of Aleppo, and a long religious poem, "Jesus the Son," have been preserved (Venice, 1824). The Armenians regard him as their national Homer. He is said to have introduced riming into Armenian.
5. Nerses of Lambron: Archbishop of Tarsus; b. 1133; d. July 14, 1198. He was son of a prince and on his mother's side a scion of the royal.house of Arshak, also a nephew of Nerses IV., by whom at the age of sixteen he was ordained priest. When eighteen years of age he was offered an abbacy and a bishopric. These preferments he declined in favor of a long course of study with his teacher Stephen in a desert place. In 1176 he reluctantly accepted the archbishopric of Tarsus and Lambron and the abbacy of Skyrra. He was a highly gifted writer in prose and verse and was not devoid of statesmanship. In 1179, at the request of the Catholicos Gregory, he participated in a synod at Rom‑Klah called in the interest of union with the Greek Church. He spoke in favor of union and had the concurrence of the synod; but the death of the Emperor Manuel 11180) prevented its consummation. These efforts at union resulted from considerations of political expediency rather than from theological conviction, and when (1190) Frederick Barbarossa approached the borders of Cilicia, Nerses accompanied the catholicos and the governor of Cilicia to meet him, evidently hoping to form an alliance with the Western Empire and the Latin Church. Frederick died before they reached the German army. Negotiations with the Latins embittered the Greeks against the Armenians, whom they stigmatized as Eutychiana. In 1193 union with the Latins was consummated by the Cilician Armenians, Leo, the governor, having been made king by the Latins and twelve Roman bishops, of whom Nerses was first, having been recognized. Nerses was highly honored by Greeks, Latins, and Syrians, as well as by his own people. He was sometimes designated " the second Apostle Paul of Tarsus." But this high praise is hardly deserved, and he seems to have been more of a politician than of an apostle or theologian. He was familiar with the Latin, Greek, Syriac, and Coptic languages and translated a number of works from these languages into Armenian. He wrote several commentaries and many practical works, drawing largely from the writings of Greek, Latin, Syriac, and Egyptian fathers. Among his poetical works is a somewhat lengthy necrology of his uncle Nerses IV. (St. Petersburg, 1782).
A. H. NEW‑MAN.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: In general consult: F. Justi, Iranisches Namenbuch, pp. 222‑225, Marburg, 1895 (refers to others bearing names of Nelses and gives literature); M. Lequien, Oriens Christianus, i. 1345. 1375, 1399, Paris, 1740. On Nerses I. consult: J. B. Chabot, Narsai le docteur et les origines de l'€cole de Nisibis d'aprr?s la chronique de Barhadbesabbe in JA, vi. 157‑177; F. 3(:. E. Albert, The School of Nisibis, its History and Statutes, in Catholic Uni‑

119	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Nerses
		Nestor
	versity Bulletin, xii., 2, pp 160‑181.	In addition, on Nerses
	IV.: his writings were edited by the Mechitarisis in Ar
	menian with Latin translation, Venice, 1830; a collection
	of his letters (excerpts, in Mai, Nova	collectxo, vi. 415‑424)
	appeared in Echmiadzin, 1865; and	the encomium of him
	by Nerses of Lambron, ib. 1875; Liber superiorum . .
	Mar Narakia homilim in Joseph, doeumenta patrum de qui
	bu8dam vera! ><dei dogmatibus, ed. P.	Bedjan, Leipsic, 1901.
	Consult: J. S. Assemanni, Bibliotheca Orientalis, ii. 364
	365, Rome, 1719; Arsak TerMikaelian, Die armenische
	%irche in ihren Beziehungen zur	byyzantiniachen (.¢. 13.
	Jahrhundert), pp. 88 eqq., Leipsic,	1892. On Neraes of
	Lambron consult: S. C. Malan, Life and Times of Greg
	ory the Illuminator, pp. 356, London, 1868; C. F. Neu
	mann, Versuch einer Geschichte der armenischen Literatur,
	p. 148, Leipsic, 1836; Ter‑Mikaelian, Nerses. Das ar
	menische Hymnarium. Studien zu	seiner geschichtlichen
	Entwicklung, Leipsie, 1905; The Liturgical Homilies of
	Narsai, in TS, viii. 1 (1909); and	the literature under
	ARMENIA.
	NERVA, MARCUS COCCEIUS: Roman emperor
from Sept. 18, 96, to Jan. 27, 98; b. at Narnia (40 m.
n. of Rome), Umbria, 32; d. at Rome Jan. 27, 98.
[He came of a family eminent as jurists, father
and grandfather both having followed with dis
tinction that profession. His own training was
civil rather than military. These facts have bear
ing upon the character of his relations to the Chris
tians as indicated below.] Proclaimed emperor
immediately after the assassination of Domitian,
probably in accord with a previous understanding,
his reign was characterized by mildness. Domi
tian had already ceased persecuting the Christians
and recalled the fugitives, who actually returned
under Nerva (of. Eusebius, Hist. eccl., III., xix. 20;
Tertullian, Apol., v.; Dio Cassius, lxviii. 1). He
also stopped the abuses of the informers, forbade
all complaints against Jewish practises, and abro
gated the fiscal disabilities of the Jews (among
whom the Christians were included). The legal sta
tus of Christianity, however, remained unchanged;
and the reign of Nerva marked for them the tran
sition from persecutions of caprice, such as those
of Nero and Domitian, to those begun by Trajan,
based upon the execution of existing law.
		(G. UHr.Holuvt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Peter, Geschichde Roma unter den Kaisern,
	iii. 507, Halle, 1871; B. Aub6, Hist. des persecutions de
	Uglise, i. 195 sqq., Paris, 1875; K. wieseler, Die Chris
	tenveruolgungen der Christen, pp. 12	sqq., Gatersloh, 1878;
	A. H. Hors, Eighteen Centuries of the	Orthodox Greek Church,
	p. 73, New York, 1899; and the works on the church his
	tory of the period and on the history	of the Roman empire.
	NESTLE, n@st"16', CHRISTOF EBERHARD: Ger
man Lutheran; b. at Stuttgart May 1, 1851. He
was educated at the theological seminaries at Blau
beuren and Tabingen and at the universities of
Tiibingen (Ph.D., 1874) and Leipsic (1874‑75),
after which he spent two years in further study in
England. He was then a tutor at the Evangelical
theological seminary at Tfbingen (1877‑80), dear
con at Munsingen, Wurttemberg (1880‑83), gym
nasial professor at Ulm (1883‑90, again 1893‑98),
and provisional supply for the vacant professor
ship of Semitic languages at the University of
Tfbingen (1890‑93). Since 1898 he has been pro
fessor in the Evangelical theological seminary at
Maulbronn, Wurttemberg. Theologically he is an
adherent of the mediating school. He has written:
Die israelitischen Eigennamen nach ihrer religions
geschichtlichen Bedeutung (Haarlem, 1876) ; Conradi Pellicani de modo legendi atque intelligendi Hebrwum (Tiibingen, 1877); Psalterium tetraglottum, Grace, Syriace, Chaldaice, Latine (Leyden, 1879); Psalmi Chaldake et Syriace (Tiibingen, 1879); Psalterium Syriaeum (1879); Brevis lingua? Syriacm grammalica (Carlsruhe, 1880); Veteris Teslamenti Grteci codices Vaticanus et Sinaiticus cum textu recepto collati (Leipsic, 1881); Syrfische Grammatik (Berlin, 1888; really a translation and second edition of the Latin Syriac grammar; Eng. transi. by A. R. S. Kennedy, 1889); De sancta cruce, sin Beitrag zur christlichen Legendengeschichte (1889); Septuaginta8tudien (4 parts, Ulm and Maulbronn, 18861903); Marginalien and Materialien (TUbingen, 1893); Novi Testamenti Grmei supplementum (Leipsie, 1896); Philologica sacra, Bemerkungen fiber die Urgestalt der Evangelien and Apostelgeschichte, Berlin, 1896); and Binfuhrung in das griechische Neue Testament (Tdbingen, 1897, 3d ed., 1909; Eng. transl. by W. Edie, London, 1901). He edited the sixth and seventh editions of Tischendorf's Septuaginta (Leipsic, 1880, 1887) the Syriac version of Plutarch's De eapienda ex inimicis utilitate (London, 1894), an edition of the Greek and German New Testament since 1898, and an excellent edition of the Latin and Greek‑Latin New Testament since 1906.
NESTOR‑ Russian monk of the eleventh century, incorrectly regarded as the earliest Russian annalist. According to his own statements, he entered the cave‑monastery of Kief shortly after the death of Abbot Theodosius in 1074, where he was soon ordained deacon or archdeacon, and where he wrote his " Readings from the Life and Death of the Blessed Martyrs Boris and Gleb " and " Life of the Abbot Theodosius "; both works are characterized by edifying material and rhetoric rather than by history. The first Russian historical writer, however, was Jacob a monk of the same cloister, possibly identical with the priest Jacob, who seems to have come from the monastery of Boris and Gleb in Pereiadaf, whom Abbot Theodosius on his death‑bed desired for his successor. Before 1072 Jacob wrote his " Account of the Martyrdom and Eulogy of the Murdered Holy Martyrs Boris and Gleb," and his " Memorial and Eulogy of the Russian Prince Wolodimer.°r
As early as the middle of the thirteenth century the oldest Russian annals became connected with the name of Nestor; wrongly, however, for the annalist expressly states that he was an inmate of the monastery in the lifetime of Theodosius. He was apparently born at Kief, and entered the cloister shortly after 1065, when seventeen years of age. He was, in all probability, Silvester, abbot of the monastery of St. Michael, who in 1116 stated that he had written the annals in question. Though borrowing from John Malalas and Gregorius Hamartolus, this pioneer Russian historian adhered strictly to the simpler annalistic form.
(N. BONWETscm)
BIBLIoaRAPHT: Chronica Nedoris, ad. F. Miklosich, pp. 183186, Vienna, 1860 ; L. Leger, La Chronique dite de Nestor, Paris, 1884; P. Strahl, Beitrege cur russisehen %irchengoachichte, Halls, 1827; J. J. Sreznevskij, "The Narratives concerning the Holy Boris and Gish," St. Petersburg, 1860 (in Russian); Srunubaeher, Geschichte, pp. 35, 356‑357, 408.

Nestorians
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
120
ftESTORIANS.
Rise in Persia (¢ 1). Diffusion in Arabia, India, and China (§ 2). Varying Fortunes (¢ 3). Under Mohammedans and Mongols (¢ 4). Persecutions; Rapprochement with Rome (¢ 5). History from the Sixteenth Century (4 8). Kurdish Nestorians ($ 7). Nestorians of India ($ 8).
In the Christological controversies of the fifth century (see CHHISTOLOGY, V., and references given there) the East Syrian Church adopted and developed independently the doctrines ascribed to Nestorius (q.v.), broke all connection with the monophysite and Catholic churches of West Syria, and became a mighty church party which was called by his name and extended its missionary influence as far as China. The first
r. Rise in extension of Nestorianiam was from Persia. the eastern boundary of the Roman Empire over Persia. The prime impulse was the letter of the Presbyter Ibaa of Edessa (q.v) to Bishop Mari of Hardashir in Persia, written shortly after the reconciliation of Patriarch John of Antioch and Cyril of Alexandria (q.v.), evidently inclining more to the former, but at the close expressing his joy at the reconciliation between Cyril,and the Antiochian bishops. This letter and the Syriac translations of Diodorus of Tarsus and Theodore of Mopsuestia spread the doctrines of Nestorius throughout Persia. The movement was aided by the expulsion of the Nestorian teachers from the school at Edessa and by their settlement in Nisibis, the most noteworthy of these scholars being Baraumas, who, as bishop or metropolitan of Nisibis (435‑489), where he established a celebrated theological school, zealously sought to extirpate the adherents of Cyril. Christianity was established in Persia apparently in the post‑apostolic age, but its primitive history is wrapped in obscurity. Under the Arsacids the Christians were apparently unmolested, except for one brief persecution and Trajan'a invasion of the Parthian kingdom. Though the Christians were widely spread and well organized in Persia in the third and fourth centuries (cf. A. Harnack, Expansion of Christianity, ii. 295 sqq., New York, 1905), as is clear from the writings of the pseudoBardesanes, Aphraates, and the older Acts martyrum, they did not yet form a distinct church with catholicos, bishops, and other clergy. Nevertheless, the bishop of Seleucia‑Ctesiphon gradually rose to be primate of the Christians in the Seleucid kingdom and the entire orient, though his claims were long contested by the bishop of Persia. In 313 the bishop of Persia was still independent of the bishop of Seleucia, and the former was considered at the Nicene Council the representative of all Persia and India; nor was it until the episcopate of Timotheus (778‑820) that Seleucia definitely became the metropolitan see. Both bishoprics were first actually, and then nominally, subject to the patriarch of Antioch, but the frequent wars between the Romans and Persians rendered it practically impossible for the prelates to be consecrated at Antioch. Shahlufa (d. 244) seems to have been the first to be consecrated by the oriental bishops at Seleucia. This see thus early gained a certain
measure of independence. His successor, Papa, was called archbishop; later prelates, beginning with Babmus (Syr. Babhai) in 499, assumed the title of patriarch, or catholicos, and ranked themselves after the patriarch of the West. While his predecessors Dadhisho, Babaeus, and Acacius wavered between Catholicism and Nestorianism, Babaeus II. was the first to break entirely with the Occidental Church. At a synod held by him in 499 he enacted, among other things, that unconditional obedience should be rendered to the patriarch of Seleucia; that the bishops should assemble for consultation on ecclesiastical affairs with their metropolitan annually instead of semi‑annually and with their patriarch quadrennially instead of biennially; and that the patriarch, bishops, priests, and monks should be permitted to marry one wife each and that the presbyters should be required to marry another wife on the death of the first, the object of this canon being to do away with immoral relations of the clergy with several wives at once. The successors of Babaeus followed in his course, placing Nestorians in all episcopal vacancies and eagerly seeking to extend their domain in all directions. Nestorianism was also advocated by numerous writers, especially the monks of several monasteries in Assyria, as well as by the pupils of various schools, of which the oldest and most famous was that of Nisibia.
Christianity had also spread at a very early time to Arabia, to the wide districts south of Palestine, Damascus, and to Mesopotamia (cf. Gal. i. 17). Though these Arabic communities, including such bishoprics as that of Bostra, were connected with those of Rome, both Nestorians and 2. Diffusion Jacobites later sought to introduce in Arabia, their doctrines. The former were the India, and more successful. Under the califa they
	China.	extended through Syria and Pales
		tine, and during the patriarchate of
Mar Aba II. (742‑752) there was a bishop of the Nes
torians in Egypt under the jurisdiction of the met
ropolitan of Damascus. The Arabian bishops were
originally subject to the metropolitan of Persia,
who also had jurisdiction over India, the western
coast of which must have been partly Christianized
by the beginning of the seventh century. A very
ancient tradition, given in the third century Acts
of Thomas (Eng. transl. in ANF, viii. 535‑539),
makes Thomas the apostle to India, so that the In
dian Christians are commonly termed Christians of
St. Thomas. Many Christians seem to have fled to
India from the persecutions in Persia; and in 345
a bishop with priests from Jerusalem are said to
have gone to Malabar. Cosmaa Indicopleustes (q.v.;
about 530) mentions churches at Malabar, there was
one in Ceylon, as well as a bishop at Calliana; and
in 570 the presbyter Bodh was sent to inspect the
Indian churches. After a period of ecclesiastical
declension, Timotheus (778,820) appointed a met
ropolitan for India. China received Christianity
from Chorassan, and a long inscription in Syriac
and Chinese at Si‑ngan‑fu, giving a lengthy list of
Nestorian clergy, testifies to the prosperity and wide
extension of Nestorianiam in China in 781. This
famous Nestorian monument was visited in 1907 by

121	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Nestorian*
Frits V. Holm, who had a replica made of it which is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (cf. The Nestorian Monument: an ancient Record of Christianity an China, ed. P. Carus, Chicago, 1909, which contains an account of the securing of the replica, the Chinese text of the inscription, A. Wylie's Eng. transl., and historical notes). The first, metropolitan for China was appointed by Selibhazecha (714‑726), and about the same time Herat and Samarcand received metropolitans. At Balkh, whence several bishops were sent to China, a bishopric had early been erected; and Nestorianism later spread through Tartary.
The fortune of the Nestorians varied widely. Expelled by the emperors of the East, they enjoyed protection under the Parthian Arsacids, but with the revival of Zoroastrianism by the
	3. Varying	Sassanids, their persecution began
	Fortunes.	anew, though seldom except when wars
		broke out with the Greek emperors.
Toward the end of the reign of Kobad (488‑531) a
twelve years' schism broke out among the Nestor
ians, two patriarchs, Nerses (ace NExsEs II.) and
Elisaeus, being elected by rival factions and each
appointing his own bishops. The schism was ended
by the death of Nerses in prison and the deposition
of his rival. Mar Aba T. (536‑562), a convert from
Zoroastrianism, translated from Greek into Syriac
the Nestorian liturgy still in use. Among his many
activities, he held a synod in 544 at which the rule,
still in force, was adopted that neither the patri
arch nor the bishops might marry. Here the former
canons were confirmed, and strict adherence to the
Nicene Creed was required, while the standard of
exegesis was declared to be Theodore of Mopsuestia.
Various local schisms, moreover, caused by anti‑pa
triarchs and anti‑bishops were ended by deposition
of the disturbing clerics. A second synod was held
in 577 by the patriarch Ezekiel (577‑580), the chief
result being an edict against the Messalians. After
repeated persecutions by Chosroes I. (who is said by
tradition to have become a Christian in his later
years), the Nestorians were highly favored by Hor
mizd IV. and Chosroes IL, the latter even forcing
all Christians to adopt Nestorianism. Nevertheless,
the latter monarch also persecuted them for choos
ing Gregorius patriarch against his will, and after
the death of this prelate in 608 the patriarchate re
mained vacant twenty years until the accession of
Siroes. Under this ruler and his successors the
Nestorians enjoyed peace.
Mohammedan persecutions of the Nestorians were rare, especially as Mohammed was traditionally said to have received his knowledge of Christian doctrines from a Nestorian monk named Sergius; and the Nestorians claim to have re‑
4. Under ceived letters of protection from the
Mohamme‑ prophet, Omar Ali, and others. They dans and held high posts as governors of cities
	Mongols.	and districts, secretaries of califs and
		emirs, and physicians in, ordinary;
while they were also distinguished translators into
Syriac and Arabic. Such was their influence that
Qa'im bi'amr Allah and Muqtadir Billah subjected
the Catholic Christians, the Melchites, and the
Jacobites to the jurisdiction of the patriarchs. Ex‑
cept for a brief persecution by Harun al‑Rashid, only two occurred during the entire period‑one by Mutawakkil, and the other by Hakim bi'amr Allah, the latter including all Christians and the Jews, but restricted to Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. After the foundation of Bagdad, the patriarchs were chosen and had their residence there, though consecrated in Seleucia. Under the Mongols, in like manner, the conditions of the Nestorians were generally peaceful. Hulagu Khan, who took Bagdad in 1268, and most of his successors favored the Nestorians not only because they were opposed to the Mohammedans, the political foes of the Mongols, but also on account of the superficial similarities between Nestorian Christianity and the Mongol type of Buddhism and through the Christian wives of some of the khans. Certain Mongol rulers, indeed, became converts to Christianity, particularly in the district of the Keraites south of the Lake of Baikal; and the dynastic title of these latter khans, Unk‑khan or Owing‑khan, corrupted to Joan or Johannes, seems to have given rise to the legend of Preater John (q.v.), which was later transferred to the hitherto unknown Christian king in Ethiopia (i.e., Abyssinia). In 1292 the Minorite Johannes de Monte Corvino converted a descendant of Unk‑khan and several of his court from Nestorianism to Catholicism; but the Roman Catholic community thus founded proved of short duration, the converts returning to Nestorianism in 1299 (see MONGOLS, § 2).
The first direct persecution of the Nestorians, after their centuries of peace under Arabs and Mongols, was by Timur, who oppressed Christian and Mohammedan alike. The Nestorian con‑
5. Persecu‑ nections with the Far East now came tions; Rap‑ to an end and the churches there fell prochement into decay. The advance of Islam opwith pressed or destroyed the Christians in
	Rome.	Tartary and India, and a like course
		was pursued by the Shiites in Persia
and by the Mohammedan dynasties in Hither Asia.
In addition to all this, the popes, especially after the
advent of the pro‑Christian Mongols, sent many
missionaries to counteract Nestorianism. Their
efforts were largely successful, the first distinguished
convert being the metropolitan Sahaduna in 628, and
shortly afterward Heraclius, in his j ourney to Assyria,
converted numbers of Nestorians and Monophy
sites. During the pontificate of Eugene IV., Tim
otheus of Tarsus, metropolitan of the Nestorians in
Cyprus, attended the synods of Florence and Rome
in hopes of union. Innocent IV. sent certain bish
ops with a letter to Rabban Ara, vicar of the Nes
torian East, and in his reply was included a creed
prepared by the archbishop of Nisibis and signed by
two other archbishops and three bishops, in which
Mary was designated" the Mother of Christ" (1247).
Similar letters were written at the same time by the
Jacobite patriarch Ignatius and the Mafrian Jo
hannes. Nicolas IV. addressing, a letter with a
creed to the patriarch Yahballaha in 1288, his
successor Benedict XI. received an answer in 1304
in which the Roman Catholic Church was termed
"the mother and teacher of all others" and the
Pope was called " the chief shepherd of all Chris‑

Nestorians
Nestorius	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	122
6. History from the Sixteenth Century.
tendom." In 1445, moreover, all the Cyprian N estorians with their patriarch Timotheus of Tarsus were converted to the Roman Catholic faith by Archbishop Andrew.
More lasting contact with the Roman Catholic Church began with the middle of the sixteenth century. Except for the Christians of St. Thomas in India, the Nestorians were then a small remnant with a few bishops in the Kurdish mountains. The patriarchate had become hereditary,
nephew succeeding uncle. In 1551 this system resulted in a schism, and one faction sent its candidate for consecration to Rome, where he was proclaimed patriarch of the Chaldeana by
Julius TIT. The schism still exists, the Uniate patriarch of the Chaldeans, always called Joseph, residing at Diarbekr, Mosul, and since 1830, Bagdad. In 1888 his jurisdiction included four archdioceses and seventeen dioceses, with some 33,000 souls. The patriarch of the non‑Uniate Nestorians, always termed Simeon, lives in the almost inaccessible valley of Kochannes in the Kurdish mountains on the boundary between Persia and Turkey. In 1833 the number of these Neatorians, living in the Kurdish mountains and on the shores of the Lake of Urumiah, and constituting, except for the scanty communities in India, the sole remnants of this once powerful sect, were estimated at 70,000 souls. They do not, however, call themselves Nestoriansa term now employed only for the Nestorian Uniates‑but Chaldeans, Meshihaye (" followers of the Messiah"), Naarani (Arab., "Christians"), Syrians, Assyrians, and Madenhaye ("Orientals"), declaring that Nestorius, whose language they did not know, was not their patriarch, and that he followed them rather than they him. Since 1834 American missionaries have worked among the non‑Uniates, not only keeping them from being absorbed by the Roman Catholic missions surrounding them‑‑especially the Dominicans stationed at Mosul to counteract the American Protestant influence‑but also raising their moral and intellectual status, a task the more difficult since they are unstable and inclined to sensuality and superstition. The American missionaries, moreover, have preserved the modern Syriac dialect of the Nestorians and developed it into a literary language, into which they have translated the Bible and written or translated an abundance of religious literature. The spoken language is divided into a number of dialects, falling mainly into the plain and mountain groups, the latter presenting the fuller forms. The liturgies and other ritual books of both Nestorians and Chaldeans are in classical Syriac. They live in almost constant open hostility with the Mohammedan Kurds, who in 1846,mamaored some 6,000 of all ages and both sexes.
The Chaldean Nestorians have eight ranks in their clergy: Vatholil~a or patriarVa; metropolita or mutran; episkopa; arkidyakona; kasshisha ("priest"); ahammasha ("deacon "); huhpodyaVona (" subdeacon "); and $aroya ("reader"). The Kurdish Nestorians are characterized by a pronounced Judaic Christianity which is also apparent in their rituals. Those in northern Mesopo‑
tamia now have nine dioceses with metropolitans, bishops, etc. Among their peculiarities is their
aversion to all religious representations, y. Kurdish only the Cross and the portrait of
Nestorians. Christ being allowed in their churches.
Their number of sacraments varies. In the medieval period it was seven, Timotheus IT. (1318‑60) defining them as ordination, consecration of a church or altar, baptism and unction, the Eucharist, benediction of monks, office for the dead, and marriage, with indulgence, or penance, and absolution as an appendix. Assemani held that they had but three sacraments: baptism, the Eucharist, and ordination. Among the modern Nestorians the Eucharist is a magic ceremony with certain peculiar usages. The Nestorian fasts are very numerous, meat being forbidden on 152 days. They eat no pork, and keep both the Sabbath and Sunday. They believe in neither auricular confession nor purgatory, and permit their priests to marry. The Nestorians of the plains, who are more intelligent than their mountain brethren, have peculiar marriage customs, and some of the usages of their other feasts are of interest. The mountain Nestorians are employed chiefly in hunting and pasturage. Their houses are in general wretched affairs, often having but one room, sometimes underground. They add to their resources by selling nut‑galls, and are renowned for their basketry, especially in the district of Cheba, whence basketvenders traverse all Asia. They also engage in weaving and apiculture. Their chief food is barley bread, roasted meal, dried mulberries, and milk and its products. Despite their poverty they are extremely hospitable. They are governed by hereditary village sheiks called malik (Arab., " king "). Their clergy, who are greeted by kissing their hands and raising the hat (a usage not common elsewhere in the East), are ignorant but highly honored.
The Nestorians of India, after receiving a metropolitan from the Patriarch Timotheus (778‑820), had bishops appointed henceforth immediately by the patriarch. They enjoyed special privileges from the native princes, particularly after the beginning of the ninth century, these being due pri‑
marily to Thomas Kananaeus (also 8. Nestorians called Mar Thomas), who seems to have
of India. been a wealthy and influential mer‑
chant, and not a bishop. Thanks to these privileges and their increase in population, they gradually became able to have kings of their own, but on the extinction of the dynasty their little domain was inherited by the rulers of Cochin. The internecine strife of the Indian princes so oppressed the Christians of St. Thomas that in 1502 they offered the crown to Vasco da Gams, when he landed in India. The bond between the Indian Nestorians and the patriarch seems to have been broken at an early date. About 1120‑30 their spiritual head, Johannes, seems to have gone to Constantinople to request consecration, and thence to Rome. Later the church sank so that only a deacon was left to perform ail ecclesiastical functions. Georgius and Joseph were accordingly sent in 1490 to the Nestorian patriarch to obtain a bishop; they were ordained priests and received the

123	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Neetoriane
Neetoriu®
monks Thomas and Johannes as bishops. The patriarch Elias (d. 1502) consecrated three more monks bishops and sent them to India, where they reported some 30,000 Christian families, scattered in twenty cities, chiefly in Carangol, Palor, and Colom, although there were churches in all cities. Later Portuguese accounts reduce the number of Christian families to 16,000. In extreme poverty and oppressed from every side, they declared their sole allegiance to King Emmanuel of Portugal. The result was their destruction, oppressed both by the native princes because of this Portuguese alliance and also crushed by the Portuguese themselves. They were obliged, moreover, by Alexius Menezes, archbishop of Goa, to accept the decisions of the synod held at Diamper in 1599, so that only a few communities in the mountains remained true to the faith of their fathers. But in 1653 they revolted from their enforced union with the Roman Catholic Church, nor have the efforts of the Discalced Carmelites since that time availed to reconcile the Indian Nestorians with Rome. In 1665, on the other hand, the patriarch Ignatius of Antioch sent the Jacobite metropolitan Gregory of Jerusalem to Malabar, where he introduced a Jacobite tendency among the non‑Uniates which became wide‑spread, the Malabar Jacobites being estimated at nearly 170,000 by the younger missionary Baker.
	The present number of Nestorians in Kurdistan
and Persia is estimated at something over 150,000,
with 250 churches, twelve archbishops and bishops,
and more than 300 priests; the Chaldeans at over
100,000, with 150 churches and more than 250
priests. In India there are some 120,000 Nestorians
and 250,000 Uniates. 	(K. KEasLERt.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The chief source, outside the writings named in the text, is J. S. Amemani, Bibliotheca orientalia, especially vol. ii., part 2, 3 vols., Rome, 1719‑28. Consuit further: M. Le Quien, Oriens Christianuz, 3 vols., Paris, 1740; Gregory BarhebrEeus, Chronicon ecclesiaaticum, ed. Abbeloos and Lamy, 3 vols., Paris, 1872‑1877; J. Guidi, Ostsyrische Bischofe and Bischofssitze, in ZDMG, xliii (1889), 388 114; E. A. Wallis Budge, The Book of Governors: The Historica Monastica of Thomas, Bishop of Marga, A.D. 840, forming a History of Nestorian Monasticism and Asceticism for over Three Hundred Years, 2 vols., London, 1893; Histoire de Mar Jab Alaha, ed. P. Bedian, Paris, 1895; Mari ibn Suleiman, Maris Amri et Slibo; de patriarchia Nestorianorum commentaria, ed. H. Gismondi, 2 parts, Rome. 1896‑99; the " Chronicle " of Michael the Syrian has been edited by J. B. Chabot, 2 vols., Paris, 1899‑1901; O. Braun, Daa Bueh der Synhadoa, Stuttgart, 1900; G. Diettrieh, Die Neatorianische Taufliturgie ins Deutsche vberada, Giessen, 1903; The East Syrian or Nestorian Rite translated by A. J. Maelean, London, 1905; Acts of the synods collected in A. Mai, Scriptorum veterum noua collectio, vol. x., Rome, 1838; and by J. B. Chabot, in Notes et eztraits, xxxvii. 695 eqq., Paris, 1902. On Nestorian canonical law cf. the dissertation by H. Leclereq in the Fr. transl. of Hefele's Conciliengeachichte, ii. 1271‑1301, Paris, 1908. For Nestorian authors consult: Aasemani, ut sup., i. 1‑362; W. Wright, A Short Hiat. of Syriac Literature, pp. 166 eqq., London, 1894; R. Duval Anciennes litt&aturea chr6tiennes, vol. ii., Paris, 1900; H. Labourt, De Timotheo 1. Nestorianum patriarchs (7,28‑8.23), Paris, 1904. General accounts are: J. W. Etheridge, The Syrian Churches, London, 1846; G. P. Badger, The Nestoriana and their Ritual, 2 vois., London, 1852; A. Grant, Hiat. of the Nestorians, London, 1855; Georgius Ebedjesu Kbayyath, Syri orientalea aeu Chaldan Nestoriani, Rome,. 1870; A. Kleisz, Sur lea missions nestoriennes en Chine au vii. sikcle, Paris, 1880; A. d Avril, La Chaldfe chritaenne Paris, 1892; H. Holme, The Oldest Christian Church, London, 1896; J. E. Heller,
Das neatorianisehe De4kmal in Singan‑fu, Budapest, 1897; W. Kbhler, Die katholischen Kirchen des Morgenlandes, Darmstadt, 1898; B. Szechenyi, Wiasenschaftliche Ergebnisse der Reiss in Oatasien 1877‑80, vol. ii., Vienna, 1898; W. Barthold, Zur Geschichte des Christentums in MittelAsien Us zur mongoliachen Eroberung, Tilbingen, 1901; S. Jamil, Genuinee relationes inter sedem apostolicam et Assyriorum orientalium seu Chaldaorrum ecclesiam, Rome, 1902; J. Labourt, Le Chridianisme dans (empire Perm soul la dynastie Sasaanide, 824‑83,2, Paris, 1904; DCB, iv. 29‑33. For the Nestorians in India consult: G. B. Howard, Christians of St. Thomas and Their Liturgies, Oxford, 1864; J. D. Macbride, The Syrian Church in India, Oxford, 1856; W. J. Richards, The Indian Christians of St. Thomas, otherwise Called the Syrian Christians of Malabar, London, 1908; V. A. Smith, Early Hiat. of India, pp. 218 sqq., Oxford, 1908. For Kurdish and Mesopotamian Nestorians consult: J. Perkins, A Residence of Eight Years in Persia among the Nestorian Christians, Andover, 1843; Sketches of Pious Neatorians . . . at Oroomiah, Persia, Boston, 1857; T. Laurie, Dr. Grant and the Mountain Nestoriana, Boston, 1874; A. J. Maclean and W. H. Brown, The Catholicos of the East, his People, London, 1892; G. Oussani, Modern Chaldeans and Nestoriana, in Johns Hopkins Semitic Papers, 1902, pp. 72‑90.; W. A. Wigram, The Doctrinal Position of the Assyrian or East Syrian Church, London, 1908. Much of interest and importance will be found under SYRIAN CHURCH. Material is also to be found in the periodicals Der christliche Orient, Oriena Christianus, Bessarione, and Revue de l'oriew chr*ien.
NESTORIUS.
Life and Writings (§ 1). Teaching (§ 2).
Beginning of Opposition to Him (§ 3). Formal Attack (§ 4).
The Council of Ephesus (§ 5).
Events till Nestorius' Death (§ 6).
Nestorius, the famous patriarch of Constantinople and the founder of the sect which still bears his name (see NESTORIANS), was born in Germanicia, not far from the boundary between Cilicia and Cappadocia, and died in exile after 451. Educated
at Antioch, he lived as a monk in a r. Life and monastery before the city walls. Here Writings. he won fame as a pulpit orator. In
April, 428, he was consecrated patriarch of Constantinople, succeeding Sisinnius (d. Dec. 24, 427), his election being due to the court, which would not choose as patriarch a resident of Constantinople. The impression which he made on the bishops present at his consecration was extremely favorable, and he quickly manifested great zeal against the heretics, destroying an Arian place of worship in Constantinople on the fifth day after being enthroned. He claimed to be the real inspirer of the edict against heretics of May 30, 428; he proceeded against the Novatians, the Macedonians on the Hellespont, and the Quartodecimanians in Asia Minor. Yet in Dec., 430, Nestorius himself, the firm opponent of all heretics, was anathematized as a heretic by Cyril of Alexandria. Before proceeding to an account of the origin of the Nestorian controversy, some description of the fragments of his numerous writings should be given. Gennadius (De vir. ill., liv.; Eng. transl., NPNF, 2. ser., iii. 394‑395) states that Nestorius wrote " a great many treatises on divers themes " while still a presbyter at Antioch, and that after his consecration he wrote a work on the Incarnation. Ebed Yesu (J. S. Assemani, BiblioMeca orientalis, III., i. 35‑36, Rome, 1719) mentions, besides " several books " destroyed by non‑Nestorians, the following: Liber tragwdiw, a history of his controversy; Liber Heraclidis; Epis‑

Hestorius	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	124
tola ad Cosmam; a liturgy; Liber epistolarum; and Liber homiliarum et orationum. The extant fragments comprise only his anathemas against Cyril as translated by Marius Mercator; twelve other anathemas in Syriac translation; fragments of the " Tragedy "; fourteen letters or fragments of letters; some sermons translated by Marius Mercator; and a number of citations in the writings of Cyril of Alexandria, Marius Mercator, Cassian, Arnobius the Younger, Leontius, the Synodicon, the Acts of the Council of Ephesus, and other sources. The fragments are collected by F. Loofs in Nestoriana (Halls, 1905). P. Bedjan has edited a newly discovered Syriac translation of the Liber Heraclidis (Paris, 1910). The material has been employed by J. F. BethuneBaker in his Nestorius and his Teaching. A fresh Examination. of the Evidence (Cambridge, 1908).
The origin of the Nestorian controversy doubtless lay in the antithesis between the Antiochian training of Nestorius and the Alexandrine traditions, or Apollinarian coloring, which prevailed in his new surroundings. Nevertheless, there were representa‑
tives of the two schools in Constanti‑
	Teach‑	nople before Nestorius came, and it
	ing.	was already a moot question whether
		Mary was to be called mother of God
or mother of man. Nestorius entered upon the
struggle with the first of his " Sermons against the
`Mother of God,'" delivered not later than Christ
mas, 428. This was quickly followed by other
sermons on the same theme. Declaring himself
sharply opposed to the epithet "mother of God,"
he declared: "Mary did not give birth to divinity,
but to man, the instrument of divinity." Here his
motive was his desire to exalt the divinity of Christ,
holding, as he did in his first sermon, that " the crea
ture hath not given birth to the uncreatable." He
was also offended by the cult of Mary easily arising
from the belief that she was the mother of God, yet
he never failed to recognize that the epithet might
be employed if the views and tendencies which he op
posed were separated from it. Since, however, such
a use of the term as he advocated seemed to him
to be very rare at the beginning of his patriarchate
at Constantinople, he recommended that Mary be
called " mother of Christ " instead of " mother of
God." This, he held, like the terms "Son" and
"Lord," referred to both natures of Christ. Fol
lowing Antiochian Christology, he yet sought to
avoid the charge that it taught two Sons, saying,
for instance, " we have not two Christs or two Sons;
for there is not with us a first and a second, or one
and another, or one Son at one time and another
at another, but the same one is twofold, not in
honor, but in nature." While holding that most of
the statements of the Bible concerning the Son of
God refer to the incarnate Word, Nestorius taught
that after the incarnation the Son of God was no
longer the Logos per ae. The immediate basis is
indeed purely Antiochian, declaring emphatically
that the Son was twofold in nature and that the
mother of Christ bore the Son of God as man who
was the Son through the Son conjoined, thus dis
tinguishing the natures but unifying adoration of
him. On the other hand, Nestorius modified the An
tiochian dyophysitism by holding that each nature
worked by sharing in the peculiar properties of the other. His Christology was thus based on the primitive double view of the historic Christ which was the basis of the earliest Christology, saying " we confess the God in man, we reverence the man worshiped together with God Almighty through the divine union." The earnestness of his endeavor, despite his dyophysitism, to see a single God‑man is shown in his denunciation as a monothelite by the synod of 880 because he had written " God the Logos was not one and the man born therein another, for there was one person of them both, in reverence and honor distinguished neither in manner nor time by difference of decree or will."
The condemnation of Nestorius for these teachings was brought about by, Cyril of Alexandria (q.v.), though Nestorius had already met with considerable opposition in Constantinople. Nestorius did not fail to return the attacks in kind, securing the con‑
demnation of Philip, one of his former 3. Begin‑ rivals for the patriarchate. But notning of withstanding all these difficulties, Nes‑
Opposition torius could write to Pope Celestine to Him. (Mansi, Concilia, iv. 1022 D, 1024 C),
that the church at Constantinople was flourishing. In the latter part of 430 he and his clergy had determined in what sense the term " mother of God " could and should be used, thus retracting his opposition to the phrase, and John of Antioch thought that the troubles in Constantinople were at an end. The complaints of Cyril and the monks opposed to Nestorius, alleging grievous schism in Constantinople, accordingly deserve no credence. While still at Antioch Nestorius seems to have prepared sermons for publication, and after his consecration he united these older sermons and more recent ones, including several on the mother of God, into a book of considerable size (at the latest by the beginning of 429), afterward circulating other sermons subsequently delivered. Individual sermons, or possibly the entire book, were sent by Nestorius to Rome, and a collection of his sermons also found its way to Egypt, doubtless without the author's wish. Shortly after Easter, 429, Cyril took occasion to write to all the monks of Egypt justifying the use of the term "mother of God" and opposing the arguments of Nestorius without mentioning his name. Copies of this letter were brought to Constantinople, where they strengthened the opposition,

* In ATHANABIUB (II., § 2) a reference appears promising a minute examination of the Athanasian Cbristology in the article Nestorius. This was probably inspired by the fact that writings usually attributed to Athanasiue would make him a forerunner of Nestorius. But Professor Loofs (Leitfaden zum Studien der Dogmenpeachichte, pp. 284‑288, Halle, 1908) refers to R. Hoss (Studien uber das Schriftlhum and die Theolopie des Athanaaiw . . . Leipsic, 1899) and A. Stiileken (Athanwiana, ib. 1899) as disproving the alleged Athanasian authorship of those writings. This leaves as the salient facts that the Athanasian Christology remained essentially unchanged from the first, that it was the divine side which engaged his attention, that his references to the human side were traditional and never closely analysed, and that in the bLtorical Christ there was only one subject, the Logos, and that Christ grew, hungered, and suffered in his flesh. No vital connection can be established between the Christology of Athanasius and of Nestorius
so far as the human aide is concerned.	c. A. s.

1225	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Nastorins
hitherto weak, against Nestorius. Photius, a presbyter of Nestorius, now wrote against Cyril's letter, and Nestorius preached a sermon to prove that the Logos could be subject neither to birth nor suffering. Both the letter and the sermon were sent to Alexandria, but before they reached there Cyril heard of his opponents' disapproval of his attitude and wrote his first letter to Nestorius. For a time the correspondence was conducted with external courtesy, but soon the hostility between the two patriarchs became irreconcilable. This was due less to dogmatic reasons, however, than to calumnies uttered to Nestorius against Cyril. The latter now wrote his second letter early in 430, in which, after a brief mention of the Alexandrine charges, he proceeded to instruct Nestorius in the true faith. While it would seem from these letters that the controversy was essentially theological, Cyril's letter to the clergy in Constantinople, written almost at the same time, makes it clear that his real motive was his fear of being cited to appear at Constantinople to answer the charges brought against him.
His war of extermination against Nestorius now began. To this end he wrote three lengthy letters covertly attacking his rival to the em‑
4. Formal peror, his sister, and the empress, and
	Attack.	at the same time endeavored to win
		over Celestine, of whose position he
was uncertain. For the latter purpose, he wrote,
early in 430, his five books "Against the Blas
phemies of Nestorius," attacking in detail forty
tbree citations from the writings of his antagonist.
In the spring of the same year he sent this work,
together with numerous sermons of Nestorius, and
his own two letters to him, to Celestine, with a
clever letter of his own to the pope, not free from
misrepresentations. The result was fully success
ful for Cyril, although the reason is somewhat
problematical. It would seem that Cyril actually
convinced Celestine that " at one time Nestorius
made Christ mere man, and at another attributed
to him participation in divinity." This is the atti
tude, at least, assumed by Cassian in De incarnatione
Domini contra Nestorium. At the same time Celes
tine was evidently offended at Nestorius by his
kindly, but innocent, reception of Coelestius, Julian,
and three other bishops, who had been convicted
of Pelagianism in the West. With their views Nes
torius could not possibly have sympathized, nor
did he intend to oppose the pope. He learned of
the nature of the charges against them through the
Commonitorium of Marius Mercator, which resulted
in the expulsion of the Pelagians from Constanti
nople. Nestorius had already written Celestine at
least twice to learn the reason of their condemna
tion at Rome, but the pope was so offended by the
patriarch's protection of the refugees that he left
his letters unanswered. In Aug., 430, Celestine held
a synod at Rome and excommunicated Nestorius
unless he should publicly recant within ten days
after learning of the decree. He wrote to the same
effect to Nestorius, the clergy of Constantinople,
John of Antioch, Juvenal of Jerusalem, the Mace
donian bishops, and Cyril. The latter was formally
authorized to pronounce anathema on Nestorius
unless he should recant within the appointed time. He accordingly held his synod at Alexandria early

in November and wrote a synodical epistle to Nes, torius, which was given him, together with a letter
from Celestine, on Dec. 6, 430. Cyril could now con
sider himself close to his goal of crushing Nestorius
if he could have equal success at court in parrying
the charges against himself by accusing his op
ponent. But here he failed, and though the course
of events is obscure, it is certain that his letter
found very unfavorable reception at court and that
the charges against him were still believed. Nes
torius himself, who enjoyed the favor of the court,
had purposed to hold a general synod in the sum
mer of 430 to discuss primarily other ecclesiastical
matters than his controversy with Cyril, though
the latter was also doubtless intended to be con
sidered. The Emperor Theodosius accordingly di
rected the synod to convene at Ephesus at Easter,
431, at the same time again manifesting his disap
proval of Cyril. Under these circumstances Nes
torius was little disturbed by the letters of Celes
tine and Cyril. He enjoyed the support of his clergy
and speedily opposed twelve counter‑anathemas to
the twelve anathemas of Cyril attached to his
synodical letter, which were equally offensive to
John of Antioch, Theodoret, and Andrew of
Samosata.
After some delay, the Council of Ephesus was opened on June 22, 431, with 198 bishops, fifty of these being partizans of Cyril, who was also supported by forty bishops from Asia and g. The twelve from Pamphilia, while John of
Council of Antioch with his bishops and the dele‑
	Ephesus.	gates from Romer were still on the
		way. The Imperial Commissary Can
didian and sixty‑eight dissenting bishops pleaded
in vain that the council be not opened until all
had arrived. On the very first day of the council
Nestorius was condemned and declared deposed
from all clerical office. The emperor, however, on
June 29, commanded further consideration of the
matter. Meanwhile the Antiochian bishops had
reached Ephesus and opened a counter‑council on
June 27 at which they excommunicated Cyril's
partizans and declared Cyril and his chief adherent,
Memnon of Ephesus, deposed. This condemnation
was signed by forty‑three bishops and both parties
sought through their sympathizers to defend them
selves at court. The Roman envoys came in July,
joined Cyril, and held a second session with them
on July 10, joining on the following day in the con
demnation of Nestorius. Other sessions of Cyril's
council were held on July 16, 17, 22, and Aug. 31;
but the real decision now lay with the court since
the factions both of Cyril and of Nestorius refused
to change their position. While still maintaining
his views, Nestorius declared himself ready to retire
to his monastery at Antioch. In the first half of
August the court sent the Comes Sacrorum Johan
nes and confirmed the deposition of both councils.
Cyril and Memnon were interned and Nestorius
was committed to the custody of his friend Can
didian. Johannes was unable to reconcile the fac
tions, and eight delegates of both sides were sum
moned to the imperial court. It is noteworthy

Nesto~rius
Neuc	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	126
tel
that the Antiochian party, which included John of Antioch and Theodoret, made no special plea for Nestorius, while their opponents worked earnestly in behalf of Cyril and Memnon. Nestorius was now required to retire to his monastery at Antioch and readily obeyed. Henceforth he was dead to the court, where Alexandrine influence for some unknown reason now became supreme; and on Oct. 25, 431, Maximian was consecrated patriarch of Constantinople, soon showing his sympathy with Cyril by deposing four of the chief supporters of his predecessor.
Despite the victory of Cyril, he was still but partially successful, for ecclesiastical union between him and the Antiochians was still broken. The emperor, however, forced peace on the Church, and after a long series of negotiations in which Paul of
Emesa acted as mediator and letters
	6. Events were exchanged not only between
till 	Cyril and John of Antioch, but also
Nestorius's between the latter and Pope Sixtus
	Death.	and Maximian of Constantinople, Cyril,
		in the spring of 433, accepted a creed
submitted to him by John (which shows a striking
similarity to the Antiochian creed of 431 which is
ascribed on creditable authority to Theodoret, to
which Nestorius himself might have subscribed),
while John acquiesced in the condemnation of Nes
torius and recognized Maximian as patriarch. This
peace resulted in the schism of the Persian Nes
torians (see NEsTORIANs, § 1), and was also un
pleasing to many Antiochians, including Theodoret
and Acacius of Berea. Some of the bishops even
allowed themselves to be deposed, yet within a few
years it was possible for such decided friends of
Nestorius as Irenseus to be consecrated bishop.
The dogmatic problem was still unsolved and was
to be threshed out anew in Eutychianism (q.v.).
Nestorius lived in high honor at Antioch after the
autumn of 431, although Celestine urged that he
be banished from all human society. On July 30,
435, however, Theodosius promulgated an edict in
which he branded the Nestorians with the name of
Simonians and ordered the writings of Nestorius to
be burned. About the same time Nestorius himself
was exiled to Oasis in Egypt. The reason for this
stern measure is unknown, but it is not impossible
that either the Tragwdia of Nestorius had excited
the imperial displeasure or that John of Antioch
was disturbed by the presence in the same city of the
friend he had denied. Nestorius was still living
in Oasis when Socrates completed his church his
tory in 439. Indeed the Liber Heraclidis proves
that he survived the opening of the Council of
Chalcedon (451). Evagrius has preserved two let
ters written during his banishment, according to
which he was set free by an attack of the nomads
on Oasis, whereupon he surrendered himself to the
governor of the Thebaid " lest he be suspected of
flight or some other crime." He was then dragged
within a short time from one place of banishment
to a second, a third, and a fourth. The tenor of
these letters and other details of the life of Nes
torius during his exile may be shown by the Liber
Heradidis as yet accessible, however, only in the
Syriac. '	(F. Looirs.)
Bxsraoanwrar: Most of the sources are indicated in the text. Specially of note are the Opera and Literca of Cyril of Alexandria, in MPG, bcxvi.‑lxxvii.; the Opera of Marius Mercator, ed. Garner (cf. the preface), Paris, 1873, and Baluze, ib. 1884, also in MPL, xlviii., the Opera of Casaian, especially his De incornalione, in CSEL, vol. xvii.; the Opera of Theodoret, MGP, lxxx.‑lxxxiv.; and the Commonitorium of Vincent of Lerins, in MPL, vol. 1. Of first importance are the Acts of the Council of Ephesus in Mansi, Concilia, vole. iv.‑v.; Hefele, Coucaliengeschichte, vol. ii., Eng. transl., vol. iii., Fr. transl. ii. 1, pp. 219‑377, cf. ii. 2, appendix 4 on the Nestorian collection of canons; and particularly, with voluminous dissuasion, the ed. of J. Chrystal, 3 vole., Jersey City. 1895‑1908.
Consult further: Tillemont, Mbmoires, vol. xiv., Venice, 1732; C. W. F. Walch, Historie der Ketzereien, v. 289938, Leipsic, 1770; Fabricius‑Harles, Bibliothera Gra'ca, x. 529‑549. Hamburg, 1807; A. Thierry, Lea Grandee H&Eaiea du Vihma &ads, Neatorius et Eutych2s, Pans, 1878; L. Fendt, Die Christdogie des Nestorius, Kempten. 191Q; Ceillier, Auteura sacra, viii. 36B‑374 et passim: DCB, iv. 33‑34; Schaff, Christian Church, iii. 714‑729; and in general the works on the church history of the period.
NETHERLANDS. See BELGIUM; HOLLAND.
NETHERLANDS BIBLE SOCIETY. See BIBLE SOCIETIES, IL, 3.

NETHINIM. See LEVI LEVITEB, § 3.

VETO, n6'to, SEBASTIAN JOSE: Patriarch of Lisbon and cardinal‑priest of The Twelve Apostles; b. at Lagos, Portugal, Feb. 8, 1841. He entered the order of Observantine Minorites, and in 1879 was consecrated bishop of Angola and the Kongo. Eleven years later, he was enthroned patriarch of Lisbon, and in 1884 was created cardinal. He is a member of the Congregations of the Propaganda, Rites, Indulgences, and the Lauretana.
NETTER (WALDENSIS), THOMAS: English Carmelite and leading theological opponent of the doctrines of Wyclif; b. at Saffron‑Walden (35 m. n.n.w. of London), Essex (whence his appellation Waldensis), probably about 1380; d. in Rouen (?), France, Nov. 3, 1431. He was educated at Oxford and, entering the Carmelite order, became English provincial in 1414. In the same year, having already attended the Synod of Pisa in 1409, he went to the Council of Constance, both in his official capacity and as mandatary of Henry V., whose confessor and private secretary he was from 1413 to 1422. He was an important figure in Henry's measures against the Lollards, as in the trials of Lord Cobham (1413) and William Sartor (1422). He visited Lithuania in 1419 to reconcile King Jagello with the grand master of the Teutonic Knights, and in 1431 accompanied Henry VT. to his coronation in France.
Although Netter is said to have written commentaries on several of the works of Aristotle, as well as Super sentential libri quatuor and Super omnes Bibliorum libros postilla scholastics, but two of his books are extant‑Doctrinale antiquitatum fidei ecclesice catholicce (3 vols., Paris, 1521‑32; 4th ed., by T. B. Blanchiotti, Venice, 1757‑59) and Fasciculi xizaniorurrt Magistri Johannis Wiclif cum tritico (ed. W. W. Shirley, No. 5 of Rolls Series, London, 1858). The former of these was composed between about 1415 and 1429, and, like the second,

127	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Nesto~lus
		NenchBetel
which is a collection of documents for the history of
Wyclif and the Lollards, was written to contra
vene Wyclifite tenets. Wyclif's appeal to Scrip
ture is accepted by Netter with the proviso that
the exegesis be that of the early Fathers, especially
as individual interpretation is only too often used
to afford a basis for heresy. If, moreover, as in
Wyclif's case, only the authority of Christ be rec
ognized, then Christ, the head, is severed from his
body, the Church; and while the authority of a
single Father may be doubted, the consensus of
practically all must be respected. And, more than
this, the usages of the Church, her " living faith,"
give light when written sources fail or disagree.
Again, since canonical authority was first given the
Bible by the Church, and since the law of Christ
had in those books reached perfection, therefore
neither doubtful books nor strange doctrines could
be accepted or taught either by the Church or by
individuals. The strange doctrines of Wyclif must
accordingly be rejected.
	Proceeding from strict Roman Catholic patristic
exegesis, but relatively ignoring scholasticism, and
in complete harmony with the theological position
of his period, Netter refuted in detail the teachings
of Wyclif, with whose writings he shows himself
thoroughly acquainted, supporting his arguments
by the Bible and citations from the Fathers and
older theologians and schoolmen. His special ob
jects of attack are Wyclif's predestination, which
leads to determinism and pantheism, besides sub
verting freedom and service; and his anthropology
and Christology. The first book of the Dodrinale
is thus devoted primarily to theological doctrines;
but Netter's main interests being practical, the
second book treats of the Church, the third of the
perfected in religion, the fourth of mendicancy, the
fifth of the sacraments, and the sixth of the Sacra
mentals (q.v.). In the second book the primacy of
Peter and of the pope is demonstrated; and Wyclif's
doctrine that the Church is " the totality of the
predestined" is rejected. In the third book the " re
ligion of those made perfect " is defended by the ex
amples of the Sethites, the Rechabites, and Samuel;
and in the fourth mendicancy is based on the in
terview of Christ with the woman of Samaria and
the teaching of the apostles. In the fifth book
Wyclif is branded as despising the sacraments, and
adoration of the host and transubstantiation are
zealously defended. Utraquistic tendencies are
condemned, for if the " all " of Matt. xgvi. 27 were
rigidly interpreted, it would imply that even chil
dren and heinous sinners should receive the cup.
The scholastic concept of " character," disposing
the soul to fulfil the commandments of God and to
receive sacramental grace, is maintained regarding
baptism and declared to be found in Eph. iv. and
the Fathers. The primitive nature of the hier
archy is defended, as are the usual doctrines of
auricular confession and the " Power of the Keys "
(q.v.). The distinction between mortal and venial
sins is held to be implied in the Bible, as in the ac
count of Cain; and venial sins are declared to be
committed through ignorance and frailty, but
mortal sins through contempt. The concluding
book, treating in detail of sacramentals, discusses,
among other themes, prayer, rites, the mass, intercession, the veneration of saints, canonization, pilgrimages, and the adoration of the cross.
(R. SEEBERQ.)
BmuoaHArar: The most complete life is prefixed to Blanchi‑
otti's ad. of the work noted in the text, i., ix.‑xvii. Other
material is found in: J. Leland, Commeraarii de ecriptmsbue Britannicia, ed. A. Hall, pp. 438‑441, Oxford, 1709; Cosme de Villiers de Sainte‑Etienne, Biblia CarMelitana, ii. 824‑828, 833‑842. Consult also DNB, xl. 231‑234.
NETTLETON, ASAHEL: American Congregationalist and revivalist; b. at North Killingworth, Conn., Apr. 21, 1783; d. at East Windsor, Conn., May 16, 1844. He graduated at Yale in 1809; and, after studying theology, was licensed in 1811, and ordained as an evangelist in 1812. From 1812 to 1822 he was active as an evangelist in Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New York. In 1827 he went to Virginia for his health, returning in 1829. He held meetings in Connecticut and New York City in 1830‑31, and visited Great Britain in 1831. In 1833 he was appointed professor of pastoral theology in the recently established theological institute of East Windsor (now Hartford Seminary), but though he declined, yet he settled there and occasionally lectured to the students. He was a powerful preacher, and large accessions to the church resulted from his efforts, which were strongly doctrinal and Calvinistic. He was regarded as the representative of the conservative tendency, in opposition to Charles G. Finney (q.v.), whose evangelistic labors aroused much criticism. He published Village Hymns (1824), regarded as one of the best of American collections of hymns.
BIBLIoaHAPHY: B. Tyler, Memoir o) Rev. A. Nettleton, Hart‑
ford, 1844; W. B. Sprague, Annala of the American Pulpit, 1542‑bb4, New York, 1859.
NEUBURG, RELIGIOUS COLLOQUY OF. See CANDIDUO (WEISS), PANTALEON.

NEUCHATEL, nff"sha‑tel', INDEPENDENT EVANGELICAL CHURCH OF: A free Evangelical church organized in 1873 in the canton of Neuchfitel, the object being to create a church entirely independent of the State.
In origin the Independent Church of Neuchitel may be said to date back to the time of the Reformation. At that time the sovereigns of the country remained attached to Roman Catholicism; and the governor, their representative, opposed with all his might the powerful preaching of Farel, and the reformatory impulse aroused in the people by that preaching. But the Reformed Church was established in Neuch&tel without, and even in spite of, the State; while in the other Swiss cantons the administration of the Church and that of the State were generally united in the hands of the political power, since the grand councils placed themselves at the head of the movement, and imposed the Reformation on the country, even against opposition.
The pastors of the new church, with Farel, the Knox of Switzerland, at their head, used to meet regularly in the city of NeuchAtel to discuss the affairs of their churches. From these spontaneous reunions originated the body called the "Company of Pastors," which continued at the head of the

Neuchatel
Nevin
church of Neuchgtel down to 1848, governing the church completely, independently of the State, and maintaining with great fidelity the preaching of the pure Gospel. For the material sustenance of the church a fund was provided, formed partly from old‑church property, partly from private contributions. But in 1848 the revolution which dissolved the relation in which the state of Neuch&tel had stood to Prussia since 1707 overthrew the ecclesiastical sovereignty of the Company of Pastors. From the negotiations between that body and the new authorities resulted a reorganization of the church, according t:• which its administration was confided to a synod, composed of ecclesiastics and laymen chosen by the forty churches of the country. The synod also appointed the professors of theology, without any interference from the side of the State. The former church property was absorbed by the State treasury, which then was charged with the payment of the ecclesiastical officers.
Under this constitution the church lived until about 1865. At that time a number of freethinkers who had acquired great influence in the circles of the government resolved to disrupt the stubborn dogmatic unity. A revision of the ecclesiastical law was decided upon in the grand council; and shortly after a new law was carried by a majority of seven votes. According to Art. 4 of the new law, every citizen of the State is by birth a member of the church, and has the franchise. According to Arts. 6 and 12 every minister is eligible to an office in the church, if he has a license to preach; and he can not be bound in advance by any measure, regulation, or creed. Art. 17 leaves the synod no authority outside of the administration; and an article added during the debate transfers the appointment of professors in theology from the synod to the council. This led to a debate as to the measures necessary under the circumstances, in which differences of opinion developed.
Some thought that it was their duty to submit to the new law, though it was ruinous to the church, and to live on under the deplorable constitution, waiting for better times. Others thought that the new establishment had nothing whatever in common with the Church founded by Christ himself, and insisted upon the necessity of an organization independent of the State. The adherents of the latter opinion assembled in 1873, and charged the members of the old synod who were present with taking the necessary measures for the organization of the new church. The professors of the theological faculty were invited to open their lectures at the ordinary term, and under the direction of the synod. Out of the forty parishes of the country, twenty‑one groups of faithful were formed, which, with their pastors, declared in favor of forming the new church. The most numerous groups contained between five and six hundred voters; others, however, only about thirty. A synod was elected, consisting of all the pastors, and three laymen for each pastor. A new constitution was also drawn up, and submitted to the churches, which adopted it with a unanimous vote.
A synodical committee governs the church in the intervals between the sessions of the synod.
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
The pastors are paid, not directly by their parishes, but from a central fund formed by voluntary gifts. The annual budget, comprising the maintenance of the theological faculty of four professors, amounts to over 110,000 francs, each pastor being paid from 2,500 to 2,800 franca a year. As the use of the church‑buildings is by law guaranteed to all religious denominations, the independent congregations can use the buildings; and about onehalf of them do so. But the others, having met with various impediments in the exercise of their right, have built their own places of 'worship, and spent for that purpose another million. These sacrifices, however, are not considered a burden since by those sacrifices the contributors have preserved the preaching of the pure Gospel, not only for themselves and their children, but also in the state church; for the government has felt compelled to give up the introduction of rationalism in the state establishment, feeling convinced that a number of pious persons who still cling to that institution would, in such a case, immediately enlist in the ranks of the independent church. F. Gon>Tt.
In 1906 it was conceived by a political party that for financial reasons the time had come to disestablish the national church of the canton, giving to all who care for religion the opportunity to apply some of the principles taught for twenty‑five years by the independents. The motion was rejected by a majority of five in the grand council, but was again brought forward by the central commission in September of the same year. The electoral campaign which followed was marked by the admission of the state church that if the new motion should not carry, yet a new financial basis ought to be found for the support of their church. The popular vote of Jan., 1907, was against disestablishment by a majority of 6,679 in 23,500 votes, showing that free‑church principles had not won.
The statistics of 1908 show 24 parishes with 4,429
voters, 6,140 female members, and a body of ad
herents of about 15,000. 	N. WElss.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Bulletins de Synodes; G. Godet, La Question ecclkaiastique de Neuchdtel, in Revue chr&ienne,
Sept., 1873‑Jan., 1874; C. Monvert; Him. de to Jondation
de Ugliae kvangai4ue raeuch6teloiae sndEPenda^ta de ma,
Neuch9tel, 1898.

NEUDECKER, nei‑dek'er, JOHANN CHRISTIAN GOTTHOLD: German Protestant; b. at Goths (27 m. w. of Weimar), Germany, Apr. 10, 1807; d. there July 11, 1866. He was educated at the University of Jena (1826‑29), and after a brief residence at Leipsic, followed by a tour of southern Germany and Alsace, he became a private tutor at Cassel. From 1832 to 1842 he resided at Goths as a private scholar, but in the latter year was appointed teacher at the Knabenbiirgerschule; he became titular connector there in the following year, and in 1855 was made second rector of the garrison and Erfurt Vorstadtschule, while from 1860 until his death he was director of the Goths BVrgerschule. Among his writings of theological interest are: All‑
gemeines lexikon den Religions‑ and christlichen
Kirchengeschichte fur alLe Konfessimlen (4 vole. with supplement, Weimar, 1834‑37); Urkunden aus den Refarmationazeit (Cassel, 1836); Merkwiirdige Ak‑

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Nenchatel Nevin
tenstilcke aua der Zeit der Reformation (2 parts, Nu
remberg, 1838); Lehrbuch der	historisch‑kritischen
E'inleitung in das Neve Testament (Leipsic, 1840);
New Beitrdge zur Geschichte der Reformation, mit
historischrkritischen Anmerkungen (2 vole., 1841);
Geschichte der Reformation von	1b17‑153.E (1842);
Geschichte des evangelischen	Protestantismus in
Deutschland fur denkende and priifende Christen
(2 parts, 1844‑46); and Die	Hceuptversuche zur
Pacifikation der evangelischrproteatantiachen Kirche
Deutschlands von der Reformation bis auf unsere
Tage (1846). He also edited	Handschriftliche Ge
schichte Matthiius Ratzebergers ziber Luther and seine
Zeit (Jena, 1850) and Georg SPailatina historiseher
Nachlass and Briefe (with L. Preller; 1851), besides
continuing the third edition of W. Miinacher's Lehr
buch der christlichen Dogmengeschichte (Cassel, 1838).
	(A. SCHUMANN f .)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gothaaache Zeitunp, July 14, 1888; AD B, axiii. 479 aqq.

	NEUMANN, nei'mdn, CASPAR: Lutheran theo
logian and hymnist; b. at Breslau Sept. 14, 1648;
d. at Breslau Jan. 27, 1715. He was pastor at St.
Elizabeth's, Breslau, inspector overall the local
churches and schools, and first professor in the two
municipal gymnasia. He commanded wide learn
ing in the spheres of political and natural science,
but in theology he accomplished little that was note
worthy. Though unfriendly to Pietism, he was still
characterized by deep devoutness, with some touch
of Spener's spirit. He was less known through
his collected sermons Licht and Recht (Berlin, 1716;
Leipaic, 1731) than he was through his prayer
book Kern alter Gebete (enlarged in 2d‑4th eds.,
Wittenberg, 1686‑93; twenty‑two issues down to
his death; new edition Eisleben, 1882). Written
originally for his private use, it became expanded
into a comprehensive prayer‑book. In the Evan
gelical Church of Germany, Neumann is even still
better known through his thirty‑nine church
hymns, of which ten or twelve are retained to this
day in the state church hymnals. A few of his
hymns are: " Grosser Gott von alten Zeiten," Eng.
transl. by H. J. Buckoll, " God of Ages never end
ing "; " Herr, es ist ein Tag er$chienen "; " Nun,
bricht die finstre Nacht herein "; and " Herr, auf
Erden muss ich leiden," Eng. transl. by Miss Wink
worth, " Lord, on earth T dwell sad‑hearted." There
is, however, more poetry in Neumann's prose than
in his hymns. 	HERMANN BECK.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Julian, Hymnology, p. 795; E. E. Koch, Geachichte des Kirchenliedea, v. 458 aqq., 7 vole., Stuttgart, 1888‑72; A. F. W. Fischer, Kirchenlieder‑Lexikon, pp. 459 aqq., 2 vole., Goths, 1878‑79; ADB, xaiii. 532 sqq.

NEUMARg, nei'mdrk, GEORG: Hymnist; b. at Langensalza (19 m. n.w. of Erfurt), Germany, Mar. 16, 1621; d. at Weimar (?) July 8, 1681. He studied jurisprudence at Kiinigsberg, then at Weimar he became ducal librarian and recorder, and later was keeper of the archives for the Palatinate. He belonged to the " pompous court set " of poets. Some of his spiritual hymns were meritotious, expressing, as they did, both a strong trust in God that was rooted in the depth of experience, and an intrinsic sensibility, and have remained in VIIL‑9
use to the present. His most famous hymn was:
" Wer nur den lieben Gott lasst walten " (Eng.
tranal. by Catherine Winkworth, " My God, I leave
to thee my ways "). 	HERMANN BECK.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. E. Koch, Geachichte des Kirchenliedes, iii. 410 aqq., iv. 148 aqq., 7 vols., Stuttgart. 1888‑72; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 79rr797; ADB, xaiu. 539 sqq.

NEUMEISTER, ERDMANN: Lutheran theologian and hymnist; b. at Uchteritz near Weissenfels (20 m. s.w. of Leipsic) May 12, 1671; d. at Hamburg Aug. 18, 1756. He studied at Schulpforta and Leipsic, and after transient academic occupation entered the ministry, becoming pastor at St. James' Church in Hamburg in 1715. He was a vehement antagonist of Pietism, and took the field against Spener himself, and afterward against Zinzendorf. The influence he had with his contemporaries came through his ascetic writings and his hymns. Of the former mention may be made of his manual for communion: Der Zugang zum Grtadenstuhl Jesu Christi (Weissenfels, 1703 and often); Das Aufheben heiliger Hande zu Gott (2d ed., Hamburg, 1726); and Das Gott suchende and von Gott lebende Herz (Hamburg, 1731). He wrote many hymns of worth, not a few of which have survived to this day, among which may be named " Jesu, grosser Wunderstern," Eng. transl. by E. Cronenwett, "Jesus l great and wondrous star "; and " Jesus nimmt die Sunder and " often translated into English, e.g., by Mrs. Bevan, " Sinners Jesus will receive." He was also the creator of the Church cantata. J. S. Bach, in particular, composed the music for seven of his cantatas.
HERMANN BECK.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Julian, Hymnology, pp. 797‑798; E. E. Koch, GeachichEe des Kirchenlieda, v. 371, 7 vole., Stuttgart, 1888‑72; ADB, iii. 543 aqq.
NEUTRI. See FRANCIS, SAINT, OF Assisi, AND THE FRANCISCAN ORDER, III, § 7.

NEVIN, ALFRED: Presbyterian; b. at Shippensburg, Pa., Mar. 14, 1816; d at Lancaster, Pa., Sept. 2, 1890. He graduated from Jefferson College, Canonsburg, Pa., 1836, and from the Western Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Pa., 1839; was pastor of the Cedar Grove Church, Pa., 1840‑45; of the German Reformed Church, Chambersburg, Pa., 1845‑52; of the Second Presbyterian Church, Lancaster, Pa., 1852‑57; and of the Alexander Church, Philadelphia, 1857‑61; he was also lecturer in the National School of Oratory, Philadelphia, 1878‑80. Among his works are: Churches of the Valley; or, An Historical Sketch of the Presbyterian Congregations of Cumberland and Franklin Counties in Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1852); Guide to the Oracles (Lancaster, 1857), reissued as The Book Opened; Analysis of the Bible (Philadelphia, 1869); The Age Question: or, A Plea for Christian Union (1868); Popular Expositor: Gospel and Acts (1872) ; Notes, Exegetical, Practical and Devotional, on Exodus (1873); Parables of Jesus (1881); Triumph of Truth: or, Jesus the Light and Life of the World (1881); EncycloPtedia of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America (1894).

Nevin
New England Theology
NEVIN, EDWIN HENRY: Presbyterian; b. at Shippensburg, Cumberland County, Pa., May 9, 1814; d. at Philadelphia July 2, 1889. He was graduated at Jefferson College, Canonsburg, Pa., 1833, and at Princeton Theological Seminary, 1836; became pastor at Portsmouth, O., 1837; president of Franklin College, New Athens, O., 1841; pastor at Mount Vernon, O., 1845; of the Plymouth Congregational Church at Cleveland, O., 1851; Lancaster, Pa., 1855; in Philadelphia (First Reformed), 1870; retired from the pastorate 1875, and joined the Central Presbytery of Philadelphia. He is the author of numerous hymns, perhaps the best known being " Always with us, always with us." He was also the author of Man of Faith (Boston, 1858); The City of God (Lancaster, Pa., 1868); The Minister's Handbook (Philadelphia, 1872); Thoughts about Christ (1882). He was one of the editors of History of all Religious Denominations (1872).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. W. Dufeld, English Hymns, pp. 28‑29,
New York, 1888; Julian, Hymnology, p. 799.

NEVIN, JOHN WILLIAMSON: Reformed (German); b. near Strasburg, Pa., Feb. 20, 1803; d. at Lancaster, Pa., June 6, 1886. He graduated from Union College in 1821; and from Princeton Theological Seminary in 1826, where he taught Hebrew, 1826‑28; he was stated supply at Big Spring, Pa., in 1829; professor of Hebrew and Biblical literature in the western Theological Seminary, 18291840; then professor of theology at Merceraburg Theological Seminary, 1840‑53; president of Marshall College, Merceraburg, Pa., 1841‑53; professor of esthetics and history in Franklin and Marshall College, Lancaster, Pa., 18616; and president 1866‑76, then professor, at the same college, of mental and moral philosophy, 1868‑76. In 1876 he retired to private life at Caernarvon Place, near Lancaster, Pa. He was one of the founders of the Merceraburg Theology (q.v.). He edited the Mer‑
NEW ENGLAND THEOLOGY.
	I. Definition and Characterisation.	2. Edwards' Successors, Bellamy and
II. Preliminary Conditions.		Hopkins.
		The Period of Settlement in	IV. The Development.
			America, 1620‑80 ($ 1).	1. The Younger Edwards to Samuel
		The Period of Decline, 1880‑1728			Harris.
			($ 2).		Doctrine of the Atonement ($ 1).
III. The Founders.		Regeneration (§ 2).
	1. Jonathan Edwards the Elder.	2. The Great Controversies.
His Fundamental Position ($ 1).	The	Universalist	Controversy
His Doctrine of the Will ($ 2).		($ 1).
Original Sin and Virtue ($ 3).
I. Definition and Characterization: New England theology, in the technical sense of these words, designates a special school of theology which grew up among the Congregationalists of New England, originating in the year 1734, when Jonathan Edwards (q.v.) began his constructive theological work, culminating a little before the Civil War, declining afterwards, and rapidly disappearing after the year 1880. During this period it had become the dominant school among Congregationalists, had led to a division among Presbyterians, resulting in the creation of a new denomination, the New School Presbyterian (1838‑69), had founded all the theological seminaries of the Congregationalists and
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
iso
cersburg Review, 1849‑53, writing the largest part of its contents. He published A Summary of Biblical Antiquities; Compiled jor the Use of Sunday School Teachers (Philadelphia, 1828; revised 1830); The Anxious Bench (Chamberaburg, Pa., 1843); The Mystical Presence; or a Vindication of the Reformed or Calvinistic Doctrine of the Holy Eucharist (Philadelphia, 1846); History acrd Genius of the Heidelberg Catechism (Chambersburg, 1847); Antichrist; or the Spirit of Sect aced Schism (New York, 1848).
BIBLI00$APHY: T. Appal, Life and Work of John Wiiliamson Nevin, New York, 1890.
NEVIUS, JOHN LIVINGSTON: American missionary; b. near Ovid, Seneca Co., N. Y., Mar. 4, 1829; d. at Chefoo, North China, Oct. 19, 1893. He was educated at Union College, Schenectady, 1845‑47, and Princeton Theological Seminary, 1850‑53. In the latter year he was ordained, accepted as a missionary by the Presbyterian Board, and assigned to Ningpo, China. He labored at this post 1854‑59; at the mission center of Hang‑chow, 1859, where he was the first to find a footing; and in 1859‑61 sojourned in Japan, preparing a " Compendium of Theology " for Chinese students. On his return he removed to the Shantung district, North China, serving at Tung‑chow, 1861‑64; and at Chefoo, 1871‑93, where at his death he was occupied with a translation of part of the Bible. He wrote China and the Chinese (New York, 1863), and Demon Possession and Allied Themes (1895).
BIHLIOaRAPHT: Mrs. H. S. C. Nevins, Life of John Livingston Neviue, New York, 1895.
NEW APOSTOLIC CHURCH. See MIBCELLANEOUB RELIdIOUB BODIES, ZO.
NEW CONGREGATIONAL METHODISTS. See METHODISTS, IV., 9.
	The Unitarian Position and the
		Answer ($ 3).
	The Separation of the Unitarians
V. The Ripened Product.
	Taylorism (¢ 1).
	Bushnell, Smith, and Finney
	Edwards Amass Park (¢ 3).
	Summary of Park's Theology (§ d).
The Unitarian Controversy ($ 2).VI. The Collapse of the School.
several of the Presbyterians, had furnished the vital forces from which had sprung the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, had established a series of colleges from Amherst in the East to Pacific University in the west, and led in a great variety of practical efforts for the extension of the kingdom of Christ. It may be formally defined as the Calvinism of Weetminister and Dort modified by a more ethical conception of God, by a new emphar ais upon the liberty, ability, and responsibility of man, by the restriction of moral quality to action in distinction from nature, and by the theory that the constitutive principle of virtue is benevolence. This article sketches its history genetically, details

131	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Nevin	Theology
as to the individual men being remitted to the special articles upon them.
II. Preliminary Conditions: The emigrants to New England were, in England, Calvinistic Puritans. In Holland, John Robinson (q.v.) had come in contact with the Arminians, and had taken sides against them. Arminianism was a recoil from the extreme positions of a scholastic Cal‑
I. The vinism, but as it had no better psycholPeriod of ogy or philosophy by which to estab‑
Settlement fish its objections than Calvinism had
in America, developed, it was unable to obtain the I6ao‑6g. general assent of minds of the first rank which had been thoroughly trained in the old system. At a disputation which was held in the University of Leyden in 1613, Robinson had appeared for the Calvinistic party, and subsequently published a Defence of the Doctrine Propounded by the Synod of Dort (Leyden, 1624). Two years after the Westminster Confession (see WESTMINSTER STANDARDS) had been prepared in England it was adopted in New England (1648) as the general theological standard of the new churches. The type of theology thus fixed remained unchanged during this period, the two theological events which occurred exercising no perceptible influence upon it. The first of these was the Antinomian controversy, which was stirred up by the teachings of Mrs. Ann Hutchinson in Boston, and which was brought to an end by the Synod of 1637 and subsequent civil action (see ANTINoMIANISM AND ANTINoMIAN CONTRovERsIEO, II., 2). Mrs. Hutchinson taught that the evidence of justification was the immediate revelation of the indwelling Spirit, and was independent of sanctification; and this was no sooner fully understood than it was rejected. The second event was the publication in 1650 of a treatise upon The Meritorious Price of our Redemption by William Pynchon (q.v.), the leading personality at Springfield, and a layman. Pynchon's principal contention was against the idea that Christ suffered the pains of hell, but he also rejected the imputation of our sins to Christ and of Christ's merits to us, making justification to be forgiveness, and presenting for a positive theory of the atonement the thought that Christ's obedience more highly pleased God than our sins displeased him, thus repeating substantially the theory of Anselm. The book met with a stern reception, being publicly burned by order of the General Court, and then, by order of the same body, refuted by John Norton (q.v.) who pursued quite the line of the standard orthodoxy. And thus the book fell into obscurity without leaving a trace of its influence. But meantime this Westminster theology of the New England Fathers was working out its natural results. ‑ It was characteristic of Calvinism to lay so much stress upon the sovereignty of God as to neglect the freedom of man. The tone of mind in New England was unphilosopbic. The sovereignty of God was the great doctrine of theology in the popular estimation. Man was abased that God might be exalted; and hence the common preaching dwelt so much upon man's helplessness that the function of the pulpit to rouse the people to repentance and the exercise of vigorous faith
was suspended, if not destroyed. Man's activity was so lost sight of in the contemplation of God's agency that faith was represented as something to be waited for as a mysterious gift from on high. It could not be understood as primarily an act of the will, for the will itself had not been separated from the other faculties of the mind so that theology could ascribe to it any independent activities. As was natural, a paralysis spread over the churches. Conversions were rare, and the second generation of New England was largely unconverted, and even failed to bring their children to baptism. The results were alarm and that effort to remedy the evil by outward means which was the first event with which the next period opens, the "Half‑Way Covenant" (q.v.); but the effort was vain.
The religious paralysis continued, degeneration of the public character followed, indifference to religion increased, and immorality began to abound. Things grew so bad that in 1679 a "Reforming Synod " was called in Boston. The account given by the synod of the state of morals is
s. The so dark that some exaggeration must Period of be suspected. But the positive sins
Decline, mentioned, the increase of profanity,
I66o‑iys6‑ intemperance, and licentiousness, show that there was rising about the Church a community which the Church was not making its own. The causes of this decline were not all theological, for the roughness of frontier life, the perils and losses of the Indian wars, the deprivation of the privileges of education which the fathers had enjoyed in England, and even the effect in the new country of such untoward events in the old as the restoration of the Stuarts, are to be considered. But the theological currents of the times had contributed their part. Latitudinarianism and that form of Arminianism which was represented by Tillotson, Clarke, Whitby, Taylor, and others, whose writings were freely read in New England, helped to loosen the hold of conviction upon the minds of men, producing a state of indecision and inactivity, accompanied by some new sense of the dignity of human nature, without performing any deep and thorough work of theological reconstruction. The tide soon set toward Arminianism; the Arminian theories were more or less accepted; the doctrine of the new birth which, in the forms of a theology of dependence upon a sovereign God, was inconsistent with the new feeling of freedom which was stirring in the thought of the times, was forgotten or denied; under the operation of the HalfWay Covenant and the theory of Solomon Stoddard (q.v.) that the communion should be opened to unbelievers as a converting ordinance, vital piety was neglected for an outward piety of good works; and thus not only the Calvinistic theology, but even the religious life of New England was endangered. An Increase Mather' might still be found to preach powerful revival sermons and to pretest against destructive innovations, but protest was rare and ineffectual. New England was in a bad way. The Puritan experiment of founding a pure church to sustain and extend vital piety and pure doctrine from generation to generation was near utter failure. Who would or could save it?

New England Theology	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	132
III. The Founders.‑1. Jonathan Edwards the Elder: By birth and early training belonging to the strictest circles of the old theology, and by nature and religious experience inclined to the heartiest acceptance of the great cent. His Fun‑ tral doctrine of Calvinism, the sover‑
damental	eignty of God, Jonathan Edwards the
	Position.	Elder (q.v.) was essentially a defender
		of the old, with little sympathetic ap
preciation of the new thought which was struggling
for expression. Much less was his work a new
movement, beginning at a new point, and produc
ing a theology which by its very radicalness was
able to replace the old with something destined to
mark one of the great advances of the human spirit.
The times were not ripe for any such work. The
principle of authority was still dominant in the
Protestant world. The Deists had shaken it off from
their own minds, but they had made no permanent
impression upon their times. The new views had
not succeeded in establishing themselves by such
an interpretation of the Scriptures as should render
it necessary for the theologian to admit that they
were favored by revelation, much less that they
were its evident meaning. Calvinism still seemed
to have the Scriptures in its favor; and, upon the
generally accepted principles of the day, to say this
was to pronounce the doom of Arminianism. Ed
wards accordingly set himself, first for his own peo
ple, and then for the community at large, to the task
of overcoming Arminianism, and he performed it
by presenting the old theology afresh, but in such a
form as he believed would carry the assent of his
generation. He formed the distinct purpose of
proving every proposition he advanced with so co
gent logic that every consistent thinker should be
compelled to accept it. His premises were Scrip
tural, but his method was purely rational, however
it may seem now and then to clothe itself in the
form of consecutive interpretation; and by this he
introduced a new force into American theology. It
was to prove at last more powerful than any other
element of this theology. He began his work by
preaching that series of sermons upon justification
by faith which led to his first revival in 1734. It
may be said that there is nothing new in these ser
mons. They present the old doctrine in the old
formulas, but with the intensity of a man who had
an independent grasp upon the thought he was ur
ging. But there was something in the earnestness
of the preacher, something in his exaltation of the
work of Christ, which evoked action, and thus in
troduced a new element into the religious life of New
England. It became natural to look for conversion
as the result of preaching, and so the doctrine of the
new birth was reintroduced into New England as a
living idea, and soon became a controlling theologi
cal principle. By logical necessity the next step was
the reerection of the fact of the new birth as the
indispensable condition of church‑membership, the
original peculiarity of the New England churches.
Edwards took it, and it led to his dismissal from
his parish.
In the retirement of Stockbridge the work went on. Driven now by a mental necessity, he went into a more fundamental refutation of Arminian‑
ism. He attacked it in his most famous treatise,
that upon the Freedom of the Will. The book is not
		that of an investigator, or even that of
	2. His an impartial judge. It is the work of
	Doctrine an advocate. Edwards was firmly
of the Will. fixed upon the basis of the Calvinistic
		doctrine of the divine sovereignty,
which he viewed as a doctrine not only glorious but
unspeakably sweet and precious. He perceived the
necessity of philosophical determinism to that con
ception of the divine government which he had
formed, and it was, therefore, determinism which
he embraced and advocated. He believed the
Arminian position to be thoroughly opposed to
that sound philosophy which everybody accepted
and which was already before the world in the
works of John Locke. All that was necessary to
banish it from the earth was elaborately to exhibit
this fact. He did not condescend to notice Locke's
own suggestion of a threefold division of the mind,
whereby the will obtained a separation from the
other faculties which seemed to suggest its inde
pendent operation. He reverted to the standard
twofold division which had come down from Cal
vin, and, simply taking Locke's theory, as it was
presented in the Essay concerning Human. Under
standing, without the addition of a single impor
tant element or even argument, he set it forth in
contrast with Arminianism, and exposed Arminian
ism in the light of it, till for himself and the major
ity of his age there was no reply to be made. In
deed, grant him his postulate, and there is no
answer. This postulate is that the law of causation
reigns in the intellectual world as completely as it
does in the natural. There can be no such thing as
an uncaused event. Hence the will is moved by
causes, and these are the motives which operate
upon it. The will always is as the greatest apparent
good. Freedom consists in the power to do what
the will has chosen. There is no liberty of the will
apart from this. The self‑determination of the
Arminians is an impossible hypothesis. A self
determined volition is an uncaused event, an im
possibility, or it is caused by some previous action
of the will. But if a previous action of the will de
termining it is necessary to constitute it free, then
an action still previous is necessary to make that
act free, or else it, being unfree, can not give rise to
a free act, and so on ad infinitum. This is his reduc
tion of his adversaries' position to absurdity, re
peatedly employed in his work. The Arminians
were more nearly correct upon the main point than
Edwards was; and yet they had so mingled their
real advance with errors of excess in the direction of
other anthropological doctrines that they seemed as
much to ignore the agency of God in man's religious
life as the Calvinists ignored that of man. In spite
of his main position, which would have reduced man
to a mere machine, Edwards gave to him a real ac
tivity, and laid great emphasis upon the fact that
moral agency consists in choosing. He also intro
duced a distinction between natural and moral abil
ity, which, though fallacious, as he stated it, was
seized upon by his successors and made the basis of
effective preaching. But, faulty as was the book in
these respects, it was a marvel of acuteness in dia‑

lectic. So thorough‑going and minute discussion of this theme had never yet been had. It made the greatest sensation in the literary world and remains to this day the main support of Edwards' literary fame as one of the greatest of Americans.
But Edwards' strictly theological work did not stop here. In his treatise upon Original Sin he advanced a step by laying down the principle that all sin is voluntary. In this book he becomes the in‑
vestigator and innovator. However $. Original defective his definition of the word vol‑
Sin and untary might be, sin consisted in choos‑
ing and choosing wrongly. While retaining the doctrine of original sin, and thus of man's connection with Adam, he thought it necessary to explain it in such a way as to give room for this new principle, which he did by substituting mediate for immediate imputation, teaching that we must consent to Adam's sin by voluntarily sinning before his sin can be imputed to us. This idea went down to his successors, as well as the idea of connection with Adam by a " divine constitution," under which idea Edwards taught a certain identity of all men with Adam, spending some energy upon a discussion of personal identity and the possibility of embracing Adam and his descendants in such identity. This treatise is, then, no mere piece of reaction. Edwards learns as he writes. What he opposes are for the most part real errors. He says nothing about other principles of Taylor's (whose work he is reviewing) which were later to form a large part of the working materials of the school. And he has put the theology more markedly upon an ethical basis by making corruption of nature an ethical corruption, consisting principally in deprivation of the presence of the Holy Spirit‑nothing physical, nothing merely mysterious. The greatest constructive work of Edwards' life, however, was done in a little treatise, commonly left unmentioned, the Nature of Virtue, in which he arrives at the principle that benevolence is the constitutive element of true virtue. The idea is not original with him, but is derived from Hutcheson and Cumberland. But Edwards rises at once upon a plane of rational intuition upon which his predecessors had no footing. Indeed, he does not so much prove his position as unfold it. And thus beginning with the idea of harmony, which is the ideal condition of the universe, he proceeds at once to bring the idea of virtue into connection with it; and when that connection is established, his work is done. Virtue, he teaches, is something beautiful, or some kind of beauty. It is a moral kind of beauty, one belonging to the disposition and will. Nor is it any " particular " beauty, or beauty in a limited sphere, but one which is still beautiful when viewed in the most comprehensive manner. Now, " beauty does not consist in discord and dissent, but in consent and agreement; and if every intelligent being is in some way related to being in general, and is a part.of the universal system of existence, and so stands in connection with the whole, what can its general and true beauty be but its union and consent with the great whole? " That is substantially the whole argument. Virtue is beauty, and beauty is harmony. Virtue, then, is harmony,
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
New England Theology
or the choice of harmony. It is agreement to being, or consent to being. This being is general being, and hence virtue is love to being in general, or disinterested benevolence. A volition is virtuous when it is the exemplification of such benevolence; an act is virtuous when it rests upon the motive of love. Both Edwards and his school thought their conception to be identical with that of Jesus when he said that the whole law hung on the two commandments, Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart; and thy neighbor as thyself. This theory is the central root from which grew most that was distinctive of New England theology, and may be said to be that theology in germ; and yet its importance was not perceived by its originator, nor did he make any recognizable application of it to the system.
Thus Edwards revivified the doctrine of the new birth, introduced the work upon the theory of the will which was to occupy so much of the strength of his successors, made one application of it in the way of an improvement in the doctrine of imputation, and propounded the theory of virtue. These were his contributions of material to the New England school; but his theological work was far wider than this. Through his personal contact with a number of young minds in their formative period he did much to instil his spirit, the spirit of unfettered, rational inquiry, into the next generation of ministers, and to form a " school." Among those who resorted to his house to study theology with him for a longer or a shorter time were especially two, who remained his intimate friends and advisers throughout his life, Joseph Bellamy and Samuel Hopkins (qq.v.; see also HOPKmBIAmBM).
2. Edwards' Successors, Bellamy and Hopkins; Bellamy fully adopted Edwards' theory of virtue, and made extensive applications of it in his prin, eipal work, True Religion Delineated (Boston, 1750). This work defines religion as consisting in conformity to the law of God and compliance with the Gospel of Christ. The law is fulfilled by love. Under the Gospel, Bellamy considers the principal points of theology, and here the effects of Edwards' influence begin to appear. Ability is emphasized, and men are exhorted to immediate repentance, as a thing wholly within their powers. Their inability is recognized, but it is an inability arising from a want of a good disposition, and therefore culpable. "The more unable to love God we are,"he says, " the more are we to blame." Under original sin he says that " our corruptions " are " free, spontaneous inclinations." Election is founded upon God's goodness. In the doctrine of the atonement, Bellamy made the transition for the school from the Calvinistic theory that the sufferings of Christ were a satisfaction to justice, rendered to God as the offended party, to the Grotian theory that they are a penal example, and that God in this matter is to be considered as a moral governor. He performed a very great service also in discussing the Wisdom of God in the Permissimc of Sin (1758), justifying it on the ground that evil is the necessary means of the greatest good. And, above all, he so preached the Gospel, under the influence of the new conceptions, as to stir men powerfully to spiritual activity, and to

Now England Theology	THE NEW SCRAFF‑HERZOG	134
do much to enlarge the influence of the revivals which had begun under Edwards. Hopkins began his career in a storm of opposition called out by his adherence to high Calvinism. His first published work was entitled Sin through the Divine Interposition an Advantage to the Universe (1759). The title was enough for most readers. It occupied substantially the position of Bellamy. More serious was the opposition to his views upon conversion and regeneration. Over against this new theology of the new birth was a tendency which sought to win men to God by presenting something less radical than an entire, immediate, and voluntary surrender to God as the condition of the divine acceptance. Mayhew, Mills, Hart, and Hemmenway represent various forms of this opposition, which was met by Hopkins in a series of tracts. One of them, which went to the root of the opposition, was the Inquiry into the Nature of True Holiness (1773), which presented the theory of Edwards, but in an original way, and modified it by making all sin to consist in selfishness, as all holiness in benevolence. By all this work Hopkins was finally brought to the preparation of his System (1793). It was the first system of theology prepared in New England which could be called original; but it followed quite strictly the conventional selection and arrangement of topics. The modifying elements are Edwardsean, that moral agency consists in choice, that man possesses true ability to repent, that love is the essence of virtue. Hopkins advances upon Edwards in the emphasis which he lays upon the real freedom of man. He grounds his doctrine of the divine decrees distinctly upon the divine love. He defends the freedom of men under the decree by asserting that the decree includes freedom, though he does not say how. He really fails to deliver himself from the supralapsarianism of his predecessors. The doctrine of sin he improves by teaching that " there is, strictly speaking, no other sin but actual sin." And upon the atonement, he teaches the Grotian theory distinctly as to what is accomplished by the sufferings of Christ, but holds that there is another part of Christ's work, which he accomplished by his obedience. This is, however, not imputed to believers, as in the old theology, but by a merit of congruity Christ procures the gift of the Holy Spirit for believers, by whom they are sanctified and made meet to receive eternal life. Thus the new ideas have begun to work; and thus there has appeared before the second century of American life has closed a system which, for comprehensiveness, thoroughness, high tone, power of reasoning, independence, ethical and spiritual value, and solid contributions to the advancing school, deserves to be called a great work.
IV. The Development.‑1. The Younger Edwards to Samuel Harris; Up to this point the new theology had been wrought out by patient thinkers in the retirement of quiet studies, but their results had commonly been produced in reply to some distinct call, some error which had arisen, some need which had been felt. This continued to be the case; and the development of the school was always conditioned by controversy. The doctrine of the atonement was no exception. There arrived in
America in 1770 an English Universalist, John Murray (q.v.), who began to advocate universal salvation upon the basis of the theory of 1. Doctrine James Relly (q.v.), of London, which Atonement.
	01' the	he called "union." It was nothing
		but the old Calvinism of satisfaction
and imputation plus the proposition that Christ
died for all. Relly concluded that Christ's merits
were imputed to all, and therefore that all were
saved. This conclusion could not be accepted by
the New England divines. Their views upon the
subject of the future had been settled by long con
sideration. But the logic of the Universalist argu
ment was good, and hence the trouble must lie in
the premises. It could not lie in the proposition that
Christ died for all. Bellamy had shown this. It
must therefore lie in the proposition that Christ's
merits are imputed to us. The Grotian theory of
the atonement had already been introduced into
the New England thinking on account of its closer
agreement with the theory of virtue, and the idea
was already familiar that God does not act in the
matter of sin as the offended party, chiefly con
cerned in the satisfaction of hiss own attribute of
justice, and that the sufferings of Christ are not
the payment of the sinners' debt but a penal exam
ple, opening the way for the free exercise of God's
merciful love of men. Following this suggestion, a
group of thinkers in Connecticut, with Stephen
West of Stockbridge (q.v.), set forth almost simul
taneously the New England theory of the atone
ment as the answer of New England to Universal
ism. Jonathan Edwards the Younger (q.v.) was
the chief of these, and his sermons at New Haven
in 1785 are to be regarded as its first adequate pres
entation. As presented by Grotius, the theory was
legal in its forms and without the ideal side. That
ideal was given by the Edwardsean theory of virtue.
God's government rests upon his character, and
that character is love. Love puts men under a
moral government, and controls them by motives.
It prescribes just penalties for disobedience; but
these will not be exacted simply because God is
just. There is no virtue in an act of justice apart
from love. Hence God will act from love‑that is,
from a regard for the general good of the universe.
His character must be shielded, his law maintained,
because love to men demands all this. But if this
can be done, authority maintained, sinners for
given, and yet no moral influence exerted thereby
upon the sinner calculated to result in his hurt, love
demands that it shall be done. All this is actually
effected by setting forth Christ as a penal example.
Thus public justice, or love, is satisfied by the
atonement, but distributive justice not; and it is
rendered consistent with the good of the universe
to forgive repentant sinners, but the debt of man
is not paid nor are the merits of Christ imputed to
him. Thus the major proposition of the Rellyan
argument is taken away. From this time on the
words "moral government" are found on many a
page of the New England writers. They worked
patiently upon the theory, developing this feature
and that with some greater degree of fulness; and
yet the main ideas were fully stated in the begin
ning. Stephen West (q.v.) brought out the relation

135	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	New England Theology
of the atonement to the character of God; Edward
Dorr Griffin (q.v.) expatiated upon the provision
made in it for all men, and developed more fully
the nature of the divine government; Caleb Burge
brought out the fact that the atonement is necessary
that God should be " just to himself " by properly
representing his character; and Nathaniel William
Taylor (q.v.) restated the nature of God's moral
government with unsurpassed fulness and clearness.
	From the time of Edwards the doctrine of regen
eration had excited continual attention. It was the
doctrine of the most immediate practical impor
tance. The doctrine of the will was fundamental
	2. Regan‑ to it; and hence, the subject of the
	oration. will ~ and puIm'ly swards' great
		work, was subjected to long study,
and passed through a development of great inter
est to the thinker, and of fateful significance for the
school itself. Edwards' treatise produced so tre
mendous an impression that for twelve years after
its appearance no criticism of it was sent forth.
Then James Dana published an Examination (Bos
ton, 1770) which urged with persistent force the
position that upon Edwards' basis the only effi
cient causation in the universe must be that of God.
To this work Stephen West of Stockbridge replied
in his Moral Agency (1772), in which he followed
Edwards in the main, but was driven boldly to an
nounce the position to which Dana had tried to
drive the Edwardseans, that moral agency consists
in exercises (i.e., acts of the will), which are the
action of deity as the sole true efficient cause. He
thus reversed the motion of Hopkins in the direc
tion of a greater freedom than Edwards had given
to man. Samuel West (q.v.) of New Bedford was
stirred by this reduction of man to a mere machine,
to send out his Essays (1795) which were remarkable
for first proposing in New England the division of
the mind into three fundamental faculties, which
he styled the " perception, the prepension, and the
will," and taught that the mind, by divine com
munication, is a first cause in the same sense as God
is himself. This revolutionary psychological pro
posal received no appropriate attention, for it was
too far in advance of its times. West himself did
not appreciate its importance nor give to it the
weight which it ought to have received in the dis
cussion. He attacked the main positions of Ed
wards, but each by itself, strongly maintaining that
motives are not the causes of volitions, and deny
ing the distinction between natural and moral abil
ity. He shows how Stephen West's idea of efficient
cause makes God the only living principle in the
universe. But the main argument for freedom is
consciousness, and in this the real strength of the
book lies. " We feel ourselves free." This work
was replied to by the younger Edwards in a Dis
sertation concerning Liberty and Necessity (1797).
He comes stoutly to the defense of his father,
though modifying the position of motives, making
them occasions rather than causes of the action of
the will. His favorite method of reply is to show
that West really meant, and often said, just what
Edwards said. Fundamentally it is rather a verbal
than a material answer. He follows Stephen West
in making God the cause of men's volitions, and
then banishes true efficient causation not only from the finite world but also from the universe, saying that God " is no more the efficient cause of his own volitions than of his own existence." Thus the tendency of New England theology was still to exalt the agency of God at the expense of that of man. Nathanael Emmons (q.v.) closed this branch of the development and expressed the dependence of man in the extremest forms. God creates our volitions. But in Emmons the other tendency, whicb was found in Bellamy and Hopkins, also reappears, and the freedom of man is asserted with the most unflinching disdain of apparent inconsistency. Men are as free as if God did not act in their volitions. If their volitions are created, they are created free. But at this point of paradox and contradiction there appeared a book which was finally to reverse the current and set the Edwardsean school upon the road to a doctrine of true freedom, Asa Burton's Essays on Some of the First Principles of Metaphysicks (Portland, 1824). This service was rendered by the proposal of the same threefold division of the faculties of the mind which West had vainly made, now so presented as to make its way to general acceptance. The "taste," as Burton calls the sensibility, is entirely separated from the will, the two faculties being completely distinct; but for the sake of preserving the same certainty for which Edwards labored, and which was supposed to be necessary to the divine sovereignty, an " infallible connection " is declared to have been established by God between the taste and volition. The action of the taste is necessary. It is the " spring of action in all moral agents," and operates as the cause of voIitions. Burton leaves man in the toils of Edwards' necessity. He has corrected one by one the minor errors of his predecessors‑of Hopkins that freedom consists in voluntariness, of Emmons that the mind is a chain of exercises, and that volitions are created by God. He has distinguished between the kind of necessity with which the intellect operates, and that by which the will is determined. But he has not given a true freedom. This work was performed by Nathaniel William Taylor (q.v.), who had come under the influence of the Scotch school and seized upon the new division of the mind as giving a neutral point in humanity, not corrupted by original sin, to which the Gospel could appeal. He made man the efficient, though not the sole efficient, agent of hiss own actions. In possessing agency, man has a "power to the contrary," or capacity of alternate choice. Motives have influence but not causative power to produce volitions. But the certainty of future moral events is not relinquished, though left unexplained. Charles Grandison Finney and James Harris Fairchild (qq.v.), at Oberlin, cleared this position of some unnecessary complications. And Samuel Harris (q.v.), the Sir William Hamilton of the school, brought this development to its highest point by defining the will as the power of a person " to determine the end or objects to which he will direct his energy and the exertion of his energy with reference to the determined end or object." Man "has the power of self‑direction, self‑exertion, and self‑restraint." He distinguishes between choice as self‑direction and

New $nslaad Theology	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	188
volition as self‑exertion and neli‑restraint. And, upon the basis of consciousness, criticism, and history, he affirms that " freedom is inherent in rationality." Edwards was wrong, he says, in considering the will from the point of view of efficient causation and forgetting that it might be exercised (in choice) prior to all causation.
2. The Great Controversies: The first of these to take a distinct form was the Universalist, beginning, as already said, with John Murray in 1770.
Other leaders followed him, some of 1. The Uni‑whom came from the Congregational
verss'ist ministry, such as Huntington, whose
Ooasro‑
versy. posthumous Calvinism Improved was
entirely upon the basis of Relly, and Charles Chauncy (q.v.), who published a Salvation of All Men (1782). The general reply to Rellyanism was the theory of the atonement, as explained above. But elaborate replies to these and other Universalist publications were made by John Smalley (q.v.), the younger Edwards, and others. After a time whatever danger there may have been that Universalism would invade the Congregational ranks passed by, and the interest of divines in this discussion slackened, as another occupied their attention more and more. But meantime Elhanan Winchester (q.v.) had appeared as another original Universalist, and Hosea Ballou (q.v.) had made the change of Universalist theology from the old orthodox basis to a Unitarian, while Walter Balfour had written voluminous exegetical works in the interest of Universalism. Moses Stuart (q.v.) closed this controversy upon the orthodox side by elaborate exegetical discussions.
But this controversy, interesting as it is in itself, was of little importance in comparison with the Unitarian controversy. This has its roots in the
early divergence to Arminianism 2. The against which Edwards set himself.
Unitarian Successful as he was in recalling the
Oonsro‑
versy. majority of the ministers and churches
back to Calvinism, there were circles in which the Freedom of the Will was regarded with great objection from the first. In view of the development of the Edwardsean school itself toward a doctrine of more genuine freedom, it may be said that Edwards made a great theological blunder when, for the sake of avoiding certain unevangelical concomitants of self‑determinism, he turned his back upon so plain and simple a truth as freedom. He missed the opportunity of carrying New England forward in a common movement to a better theology, and founded a school instead of guiding a church. Many of the Edwardsean ideas were accepted by theologians who would ‑not suffer the name of Edwardsean to be applied to them. This was particularly true of the theory of virtue. And when Arminianiam began to turn in the direction of Unitarianism in New England, Edwards and his successors haul for a long time nothing really helpful to say. They do not seem to have understood the issue presented, though that issue was clearly enough put in the first.book of a Unitarian son which obtained any influence in America, Thoma Emlyn's Humble Inquiry into the Scripture Accoun of Jesus Christ (5th ed., Boston, 1756). Was the
theory of two natures in the one person of Christ correct? Was it so managed as to meet the difficulties raised by the evident limitations laid upon the attributes of Christ? Calvinism had bean open from the time of Calvin down to the charge of substantial Neatorianism, for it had never been able to do more than assert the Chalcedon doctrine of the unity of Christ's person, and had treated the divinity and humanity in such a way as to render any true unity impossible. The old theology was now summoned either to justify its exegesis by a satisfactory rationale, or surrender its doctrine of Chriatology and the Trinity.
This issue was not at all met in New England. Half a century after the appearance of the book on this side of the water, Henry Ware (q.v.), believed to be a Unitarian, was made Hollis professor of divinity in Harvard College (1805). But during this period Unitarianism was 8: TheUni‑progressing by Private reflection and ta,riaa Po‑ study, not by open controversy. The sition and public debate began after 1815 when the Answer. the large departure from the old theology became known, and after 1819, in particular, when William Ellery Charming (q.v.) preached big Baltimore sermon on " Unitarian Christianity." On the orthodox aide the debate was carried on by Moses Stuart and Leonard Woods (qq.v.), professors at Andover Seminary, and closed by Nathaniel William Taylor (q.v.). On the Unitarian side, Ware and Norton came to Channing's support. Among lesser men the controversy spread over a large territory and a long time. But the Unitarian argument was completely stated by Channing. He said, " According to this [Trinitarian] doctrine, there are three infinite and equal persona, possessing supreme divinity, called the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. They love each other, converse with each other, and delight in each other's society. They perform different parts in man's redemption, each having his appropriate office, and neither doing the work of the other. Here, then, we have three intelligent agents, possessed of different consciousneeses, different wills, and different perceptions, performing different acts, and sustaining different relations; and if these things do not imply and constitute three minds or beings, we are utterly at a loss to know how three minds or beings are formed." Of the nature of Christ he said: " According to this doctrine, Jesus Christ, instead of being one mind, one conscious, intelligent principle, whom we can understand, consists of two souls, two minds; the one divine, the other human; the one weak, the other almighty; the one ignorant, the other omniscient. Now we maintain that this is to make Christ two beings." Thus was again set forth the rational issue exactly as Emlyn had done. Stuart's reply sought, first, to remove certain misunderstandings, and make certain qualifications. In these he himself left the orthodox ground of his time and approached Charming. He dropped the separation of functions of Father and Son to which Charming objected, rejected the " eternal sonahip " of Christ, gave up the word " person," and reduced the Trinity to an otherwise undefined eternal " distinction " in the divine nature. He did nothing to clear up

137	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	New 31agland Theology
the doctrine of the person of Christ. The weight of his argument was, however, exegetical; and here in the estimation even of a Unitarian critic (Ellis) he proved his main point, that the doctrine of the true deity of Christ is the doctrine of the New Testament. The contest was a drawn battle. The Unitarians made a demand for a rationale which the orthodox did not meet, although they substantially taught that whatever was Biblical was rational. Not to meet the demand was, therefore, in a measure to fail. The orthodox made a Biblical argument which the Unitarians could not invalidate, although they were bound, by their own adherence to the inspiration of the Scriptures, to show that their new positions were the true meaning of the Bible. The orthodox were still maintaining the principle of Biblical authority in theology, and their thinking was being lamed by it, unconsciously to themselves. The Unitarians had already substantially passed over upon the ground of pure rationalism, but were hampered by their supposed adherence to the inspiration of the Scriptures. The time had not come on either side for complete clearness of thought.
Yet the antagonists had come so near to one another in respect to the Trinity and Christology that one questions why they did not come nearer. The answer is to be seen in the further development of the controversy, particularly in the
4. The writings of Ware and Woods. The difSeparation ference between the two parties la
of the Uni‑	p 	y
deeper than has yet appeared. The Unitarians were full of the thought of the dignity of human nature, and they greatly softened the idea of sin and guilt. They were thus out. of sympathy with the spiritual and experiential attitude of the orthodox, with their practises of worship and service, with revivals and missionary efforts. They were religiously sterile and cold. In fact these defects had appeared long since, for in the time of Edwards the same religious community out of which Unitarianism ultimately sprung had opposed the revivals; and when James Freeman (q.v.) carried King's Chapel in Boston (1785) over to Unitarianism, a certain detachment from the sterner and sadder realities of life marked the new preaching. What theoretical dogmatics might not have been able to do, difference of tone and estrangement of sympathies effectually accomplished, and the two parties separated in church fellowship as well as theology, and a new denomination was produced. The result is the stranger since the Unitarians were, after all, children of the same theological home as the Trinitarians, had as generally adopted the distinguishing feature of the Edwardsean school, the principle of benevolence, as their opponents, and emphasized many of the cardinal maxims of the other tendency, even anticipating sometimes results to which the Edwardseans were finally to come.
V. The Ripened Product: The name of N. W. Taylor has already been mentioned, who seized upon the suggestions of Burton to develop a better doctrine of the will than New England had yet had. A large part of his active life was passed in theological controversy, to which he was introduced by
a Concio which he preached at New Haven in 1828 to an assembly of clergymen. In this sermon he incidentally introduced the topic
1. °° Tay) of the prevention of sin, as to which he
lorism. advanced the view, arising from his new conception of the will as free under whatever pressure of motives might be brought to bear upon it, that, possibly, owing to the nature of moral agency, God could not prevent sin, or at least the present degree of sin, in the moral system. Three important controversies sprung from this single proposal. The first was with Joseph Harvey, who regarded Taylor as having wholly gone over to Arminianism because he seemed to have relinquished the certainty of human moral action, and understood him as teaching that sin is an evil which God did not choose to permit but which he could not prevent. The second was with Leonard Woods of Andover, who discussed the prevention of sin from the basis of the Burtonian kind of necessity, aside from which theory as to the action of the will, there was little difference between the antagonists, as Taylor was careful to point out. More serious was the third controversy, that with Bennet Tyler (q.v.), which had its roots in the distant past, in the long interest of New England in the theory of conversion, and was set in motion by a Dissertation on the Means of Regeneration (1827) by Gardiner Spring (q.v.). Upon the basis of Emmons' theology, Spring taught that no motives presented to men can produce in them holy love to God. Taylor had been a great revival preacher, and he felt this doctrine to be bad because so paralyzing to all human effort, and he therefore opposed it upon the basis of his new views of human nature. There was in man a neutral point to which motives might appeal, and this point gave courage to the preacher and effectiveness to his words. He found this neutral point in man's natural desire for happiness (which he styled self‑love, following Hopkins and others), to which the motives of the Gospel could certainly appeal since they really urge to what is the highest happiness of man. He conceived regeneration as taking place after this method: the Spirit of God suspended the " selfish principle " in man, that is, broke the control of sinful purpose, the motives of the Gospel appealed to the native desire for happiness, a choice was made by the act of the free will which choice was "using the means of regeneration," and thus the man was regenerated, the whole complex operation being " instantaneous." Tyler failed to get his point of view. He did not grasp the idea of freedom which Taylor had introduced, classified him with the Arminians and Socinians, and from that moment lost all capacity for understanding him. Out of all this confusion came, however, the good result of greater clearness upon the moral government of God, which had been over and over again confounded with his physical government, and the fact that it is a government by means of motives, while the other is a government by forces. Taylor at last broke away from the subjection to Edwards in which the school had heretofore lain, and controverted the position of the great leader as to moral inability. In his lectures he further modified his position upon the prevention of sin, teaching finally

New England Theology	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	138
that the freedom necessary to a moral system, unchecked by influences which may be inconsistent with the highest perfection of that system, may lead to that degree of sin which is actually found in the world. " Taylorism " when finally developed might be defined as an attempt, while maintaining the principal doctrines of Calvinism, including the previous certainty of every moral act, to introduce a philosophy into the explanation and defense of the system which should be true to the facts of human consciousness. Its prominent feature, which could never be hid and seemed to most men utterly inconsistent with Calvinism, was the freedom of the will, which was now made for the first time in New England the real working theory of theology and practise. It therefore led to powerful attacks upon the whole New England school, particularly from Princeton, and was the great theological reason for the disruption of the Presbyterian Church in 1838.
Later writers connected more or less intimately with the Divinity School of Yale University carried on the work of theological development in more or less accord with the prevailing line of New England thought. Among these one of the most important 2. Bushnell, was Horace Bushnell (q.v.). In his God Smith, and in Christ (New York, 1849) he dwelt
	Finney,	upon the defects of human language
		and forms of thought, and hence main
tained a great degree of reticence as to the nature
of the immanent Trinity and of the divinity of
Christ, while affirming both. He did much to save
the doctrine of Christ's real, consubstantial human
ity from the reaction of orthodoxy against Unitari
anism by which it might have been lost. He em
phasized the method of nurture in religious training
whereby a " child was to grow up as a Christian
and never know himself as being otherwise." His
work upon Nature and the Supernatural (1858) did
much to establish the realm of the supernatural as
the realm where free will prevails. But perhaps his
greatest work was in his contribution to the doc
trine of the atonement, where, while neglecting
the objective side of it, and formally denying the
governmental theory, the substance of which he
held, he emphasized as had never been done in the
ological history the direct work of Christ in saving
men, his loving service by which he moves their
souls toward holiness. George Park Fisher (q.v.),
the great master in church history, was also an active
and strong apologist. But he and Samuel Harris,
while thoroughly loyal in their own persons to the
New England school, had come to base their rear
sonings and general treatment of the subject so
entirely upon foreign, and chiefly German, scholar
ship, that they constitute the transition from this
school to later forms of theology. Among the New
School Presbyterians, Henry Boynton Smith (q.v.)
was a loyal son of New England, whom extensive
studies abroad and wide theological scholarship did
not carry out of the precincts of the school. He be
longed to the conservative side, having studied
with Woods at Andover, and remained to the end
a determinist in his doctrine of the will. His effort
to form a " Christocentric " theology, and thus pro
mote the development, resulted in little more than
a nominal embodiment of this idea. The Oberlin
theologians were very productive, especially in the early years of the institution (1833 aqq.). Charles Grandison Finney (q.v.) had early come to the adoption of the great New England principles in a substantially original manner. In its matured form, his theology was substantially Taylorism. An early discussion in Oberlin upon sanctification and the possibility of perfect holiness in this life led to the formulation of a principle which was long current in Oberlin, to which the name of " the simplicity of moral action " was given. Supposing that there could be at any instant but one moral choice of the will, it was affirmed that that single and indivisible moral act must be either wholly sinful or entirely holy. And, since the will is free, the possibility of an uninterrupted series of perfectly holy choices; and hence of perfect holiness, must be maintained. .Tames Harris Fairchild (q.v.) closed the line of New England theologians at Oberlin with Elements of Theology (1892), which was the summing‑up of the previous growth, stated with great simplicity and clearness, a moderate and sensible working theology for the average minister.
The New England system received its fullest, most comprehensive, and most representative expression in the lectures of Professor Edwards Amass Park (q.v.). There is scarcely a great 8. Edwards thought, and certainly no great contribution to the growing system in any of his predecessors, which he did not take up and give its due place and influence in his own theology. He was of that line of theological descent which, beginning with Edwards, flowed through Hopkins, Emmons, and Woods; but he was greatly modified by Taylor, and took up, with one great and fatal exception, all of the results of his study into his own thought. From his system as a point of view the meaning of the whole development becomes plain. As thus constituting the key to the whole school and embracing it all, Park's theology may be considered the culmination of the school. It is, first of all, a " system," a structure in which course is built upon course till all is complete. Adopting the Scotch philosophy, Park began with the doctrine of causation and built upon this the argument for the existence of God. He thus obtains, not a perfect conception of God, but an elemental idea, upon which the rest of the argument may be founded. He then proceeds to the proof of the benevolence of God, and here he discusses the prevention of sin, and, as a Lemma to this argument, the immortality of the soul. His argument here is generally the later position of Taylor, that perhaps God can not consistently prevent sin in the best moral system. He did not follow Taylor into indeterminism, but remained more nearly with Edwards, accepting, however, Taylor's discriminations in respect to the moral government of God. Park then proceeds to the positive arguments for the benevolence of God, the greatest of which is man's moral nature, which makes it certain that God can not occupy a lower level than we. The structure of his argument never flinches, and never advances propositions for which a preparation has not been made before. The fact

189	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	New England Theology
that God is benevolent is made the basis of an argument to show that his benevolence comprises his entire moral nature, and that all his acts are referable to this motive. This is the consistent and full application of the Edwardsean theory of virtue. The love of God is thus made the determinative principle of Park's theology. In his treatment of the Bible, Park prepared for the next stadium of American theology, though not himself entering upon it. The discovery of various readings of the original texts, Stuart's treatment of minor forms of error in the Bible, the rumor of the higher criticism, and the influence of the Origin of Species, had combined to make Park first reject the doctrine of the verbal inspiration of the Bible, and then limit its inspiration to its " religious and moral impression and teaching " as to the matter, and to " suggestion " and " superintendence " as to the manner. Thus some of the most objectionable features of the idea of Biblical authority were removed. Miracles were accepted and defended principally from their necessity to revelation, which makes them so probable that they need very little evidence to commend them to present acceptance. As to the Trinity and Christology, Park left these doctrines where Stuart had left them. The weight of his argument is expended in maintaining the divinity of Christ. He does nothing to advance the rationale of either doctrine. This was itself an almost fatal omission, for the questioning which the Unitarians began in the middle of the preceding century had now become so insistent that not to attempt to meet it was a confession of incompetence to meet the issues of the day. But Park was still hindered from perceiving the full demand of the times by his reliance upon the sufficiency of the Biblical argument to prove any position of theology, although in practise his proof was almost entirely a rational one for the doctrines which he really discussed.
These favorite doctrines of Park, and of New England, are met in the anthropological group. He was a high Calvinist. He maintained the " previous certainty of all events which actually occur." To maintain this, he also maintained 4. summary Edwards' theory of the will, not fol‑
of Park's lowing Taylor into his modifications
Theology. in the interest of freedom. Hence he also defended the doctrine of election, which he founded in God's benevolence by adopting the general principle that God elected as many as he consistently could, that is, as many as he could without interfering too much in the system which he had established. Park taught that all sin is voluntary, and that original sin is not sin " properly so called." The " proximate " occasion of man's sinning is the corruption of his nature; but this proceeds from the sin of Adam, which is therefore the " remote " occasion of man's sinning. As to the theory of the connection existing between Adam and his descendants, Park observed silence. In his treatment of the atonement, Park followed closely his predecessors in the nature and scope of the doctrine, and in the forms under which it was presented, retaining and employing the old governmental analogies. He thus failed to ethicize the theology, and made the idea of atonement unreal
to the modern mind. But he powerfully refuted the idea that God is an angry God to be placated by a blood‑offering; he enlarged the idea of sacrifice; he made the whole universe, and not merely this little globe, the theater of the atonement; and he strips from the older forms of the theory many merely adventitious elements. And he defines it formally thus: " The atonement exhibits and honors the holiness, distributive justice, and law of God, and it promotes the holiness and happiness of the universe, so as to make the conduct of God in forgiving men consistent with the honor of his holiness, distributive justice, and law, and so as to satisfy his general justice in rescuing sinners from unconditional punishment, in adopting measures for inducing them to repent, and in eternally rewarding them if they do repent." The underlying idea of punishment which determines this theory is that punishment is an expression of the divine disapproval of sin, eternal in its very nature as the disapproval is eternal, for the ultimate object of preventing further sin in the universe. Thus while the idea that punishment is a satisfaction to justice is outgrown, the idea that it is essentially for the reformation of the criminal himself has not yet appeared. To dispatch remaining elements more briefly: Park's treatment of regeneration did not reach the height of Taylor's discussions, because he did not follow Taylor in modifying Edwards' theory of the will, feeling apparently no necessity for a "neutral point " in the mind to which motives might be addressed; he made the truth the means of regeneration; sanctification is progressive, and men do not actually become perfectly holy in this life; justification is synonymous with forgiveness; and the future punishment of those who die without having surrendered themselves to the claims of apprehended duty, will be eternal.
VI. The Collapse of the School: The theology of Park was a highly elaborated and finished structure and the source of great light to many minds; but, like a great lighthouse, it was placed among the waves, and those waves were destined to rise to an unexampled height and to sweep the edifice away. It is a simple historical fact that in 1880 the New England theology was taught at all the Congregational seminaries with the possible (and only partial) exception of Hartford, and that in about fifteen years, the great professors who represented it had all passed away and were succeeded in every case by men who anxiously sought to separate themselves from all identification with it. And this collapse was the more complete in that no one appeared to maintain the system by formal and careful exposition or defense. And within ten more years the theological tone of the whole denomination had completely altered. The New England theology, as constituting a distinct school, having recognized leaders, conscious of its own worth and able to resist encroachments and perform the theological service demanded by the day, had passed away. It remains to ask whether there is anything in the history here traced to explain this remarkable end of so long and great a movement. (1) it will be evident that with all its brilliant modifications and substantial 11 improve

New England Theology New Jerusalem Church
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
ments " in theology, the New England theology was essentially defensive, conservative, immovably Calvinistic. Edwards had no thought of innovation. He did innovate, but it was by the internal necessity of his own thinking, a fact which was largely hidden from himself. To the end, the leaders in general supposed themselves to be saying substantially ‑what had been said, only in better ways, with the removal of this or that error, supposed in every case to be incidental rather than central and vital. And at the end the main features of the Calvinistic view of the world, the sovereignty of God, determinism, and human helplessness, remained unaffected so as to give to the whole system, in the eyes of a world where humanity had begun to find itself, an air of abstractness and unreality which could not be suited to the actual needs of men. The world had passed on into another atmosphere in the three hundred years since Calvin's death, and his great doctrines seemed to have no reality to men now living. (2) But the difficulty was more specific than this. The new philosophy of the day was evolutionistic. Professor Park had done his best to be just to Darwin, but it may be said that the Darwinian idea never once entered his mind, was never comprehended by him. Evolution magnifies law, it rejects Miracles. It consequently rejects the idea of a miraculous revelation of religion from God to man. It explains even the Bible as a development. Hence it is the foe of authority in the sphere of religion, and acknowledges only such an authority as the evident truth has, however discovered and in whatever department of human thought. New England theology did nothing essential to meet this condition. It yielded the point of verbal inspiration, it admitted a modified development in the Old Testament, it retired within the very citadel of theology by concentrating the inspiration of the Bible upon its religious message alone; but it did not consider the facts about the Biblical miracles, it contented itself with an untenable apology, and it did not once raise the question of any such necessity of revelation as it had always assumed. With all this it preserved the authority of the Bible, and when it was faced, as in the Unitarian controversy, with a demand for a rationale or a surrender of its doctrine, it took shelter behind this authority, which the age no longer acknowledged, and refused a rationale. A new conception of revelation was what the new age demanded; and when New England theology showed itself unable even to comprehend the question, it pronounced its own sentence. (3) And then the system, by the exigencies of a rational defense of the several doctrines, which it was not willing to modify, had depotentiated the old system which it sought to replace, and had become at many points lean and meager. Its Trinity was a Trinity of " distinctions " which lent itself little to the worship of the Church which had long been addressed to " the Father of an infinite majesty, his adorable, true, and only Son, also the Holy Ghost." Its Christ was too entirely a God and not a man in any conceivable way. Even its work of atonement had become so abstract as to seem superfluous, and yet it was not
140
recognized as superfluous. In no place was it full, warm, living, palpitating with life, except in its purely ethical and psychological portions, where it dealt at first hand with accessible facts. No wonder that men educated by it, who felt the breath of the new life of the new age, accepted its silent lesson, more powerful than its open one, rejected what it had minified, and took its ethics for its true message, thus superseding it. It is so full of the most valuable instruction on every point that no man can master it without becoming a theologian; and no man can become a theologian in this day, even by its help, without finally rejecting it for something simpler, more in touch with realities, and sounder in its rational processes.
FRANK HUGH FOSTER.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The school should be studied in the Works of its several great leaders, Hopkins, the two Edwards, Bellamy,Emmons, Woods, Dwight, etc., and in their numerous
monographs. There has been no general genetic history of the school until that of the present writer, A Genetic
History of the New England Theology, Chicago, 1907; but the Bibliotheca Sacra is full of valuable articles upon it, and Professor Park wrote Memoirs of Hopkins (Boston,
1852) and Emmons (1861) of the first rank. A Life of Edwards is promised by Rev. Wm. E. Park, which will be of great value. The reader should also consult the litera‑
ture under the articles on the men named in the teat; G. P. Fisher, Discussions in History and Theology, New
York, 1880; G. N. Boardman, A Hist. of New England Theology, ib., 1899; W. Walker, Ten New England Lead‑
ers, ib., 1901; H. G. Goddard, Studies in New England Transcendentalism, ib., 1907; J. W. Riley, American Philosophy; the early Schools, ib., 1907.
NEW ICARIA. See COMMUNIsM, II., 7.

NEW JERUSALEM CHURCH (NEW CHURCH).
Doctrinal Basis (¢ 1). Origins in Europe and America ($ 2). Development; Statistics (§ 3). Publishing Agencies (§ 4). The Academy (¢ 5). The General Church of the New Jerusalem (§ 6).
	The New Church " signified by the New Jerusa
lem in the Apocalypse," according to Emanuel
Swedenborg, and hence called also the New Jeru
salem Church and Church of the New Jerusalem, is
the body of Christian believers who accept Sweden
		borg's interpretation of the Holy
:. Doctrinal Scriptures as a divinely given revela
	Basis. tion of their spiritual meaning and
		who believe that in this opening of the
divine Word in its interior meaning the Lord is ma
king his second advent to the world; that this ad
vent is accompanied by the universal judgment,
overturning, and remaking of the religious beliefs
of mankind which were figuratively foretold in
Matt. xxiv. as the " end of the world " and in Rev.
xxi. as the " passing away of the former things,"
the " beholding of a new heaven and a new earth,"
and the " descent from heaven of the holy city,
New Jerusalem, to be the tabernacle of God with
men." In its largest meaning the New Church,
according to Swedenborg, is a new divine dispensa
tion, following the apostolic or Christian as that
followed the Jewish, and embraces all of whatever
name or tongue who acknowledge the three essen
tials of the Church which are: (1) the divinity of
the Lord, (2) the holiness of the Word, and (3) the
life of charity (Divine Providence, p. 267). In a

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
New England Theology New leivsalem ~lmrch
restricted sense the New Church consists of those who openly confess the Lord Jesus Christ as revealed in his second coming in the newly opened Word, and unite by the proper rites with the ecclesiastical body organized for the worship of Jesus in his divine humanity as the only God of heaven and earth, believing that in his glorified person is the Trinity of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit (like soul, body, and operation in man) and that he is the redeemer and savior of mankind; and who cooperate for the promulgation of this new Christian knowledge and confession among mankind. They might therefore be distinctly classified as " Jesus‑worshipers." For the complete theological system of the New Church see SWEDENBORG, EMANUEL.
The organization and growth of the New Church are peculiar as they are those of a belief instilled by books without the influence of any personal persuasion or leadership. Swedenborg
2. Origins died in London in the year 1772. He
in Europe never preached a sermon, and he made
and no effort to gather about him a band America. of disciples or followers. He donated his works, about twenty volumes, published in Latin anonymously, to bishops and university librarians. The first to translate complete volumes into English were two esteemed clergymen of the Church of England, Thomas Hartley, rector of Winwich in Northamptonshire, and John Clewes, rector of St. John's in Manchester. The movement toward a church organization began in England with a small body of the receivers of the doctrines who on July 31, 1787, held the first meeting for worship according to the doctrines of the New Church in the house of Thomas Wright in Poultry Road, London. Mr. James Hindmarsh, who had been a Wesleyan preacher and had received the doctrines through his son Robert Hindmarsh the printer, was chosen by lot to officiate at this inaugural meeting in place of a priest, the sacrament of the holy supper was administered to eleven persons, and five others were baptized into the faith of the New Church. In 1788 the "public worship of the Lord in his second coming" was celebrated for the first time at the opening service of a chapel obtained in Great East Cheap, London, by the society adopting the name " The New Church signified by the New Jerusalem in the Revelation." Here took place, the same year, June 1, the first ordination of ministers for the New Church; James Hindmarsh and Samuel Smith, both former Methodist preachers, being set apart for ordination, and twelve members being chosen by lot to lay their hands upon the candidates. Through James Hindmarsh and his successors are derived all the subsequent ordinations of ministers in the New Church in Great Britain. About the same time circles of readers and believers were formed in Stockholm, Gothenburg, and Skara in Sweden, although no distinct church organization was attempted in that country. Readers and publishers of the doctrines appeared at that time also in Germany, France, and Russia. In America the doctrines were introduced by James Glen, a Scotchman, who in Philadelphia in June, 1784, delivered a public lecture on
the doctrines of the New Church, this being their first public proclamation in any place in the world. Books were later sent over by Robert Hindmarsh of London and an edition of the True Christian Religion was published in Philadelphia by Francis Bailey in 1789, among the subscribers to which were Benjamin Franklin, Robert Morris, and other distinguished men. In 1790 Lord Thomas Fairfax, Dr. John J. Cabell, Colonel Robert Carter of Virginia, and Judge John Young of Philadelphia, later of Greensburg, Pa., were instrumental in introducing the doctrines in these states. In 1792 a society was organized in Baltimore and a liturgical worship introduced, the first sermon in America being preached here on April 1 in the court house, by the Rev. James Wilmer, formerly of Christ Church College, Oxford. In the same year Ralph Mather, a convert and lay preacher of Liverpool, arrived in Philadelphia and held meetings for worship there. In 1794 the Rev. William Hill of the Church of England, an ardent disciple of the New Church, went to Boston, published the writings and deposited a set of the Areana celestia in the library of Harvard College, thus planting the seed for the extensive growth of the New Church in Boston and throughout New England. In 1798 the distinctive priesthood of the New Church in America began in the ordination of Ralph Mather and John Hargrove by the church in Baltimore, " ten elders or representatives " laying their hands upon the candidates for ordination. Through John Hargrove are derived the successive ordinations into the priesthood of the New Church in America as in England through James Hindmarsh. In 1802 the Rev. John Hargrove preached a sermon in the rotunda of the capitol at Washington before the Senate and House of Representatives.
Societies having sprung up in various.places in England, the first " General Conference of the Members of the New Jerusalem Church " was held in London April 13, 1789, at the place of worship in Great East Cheap, London. The at‑
3. Develop‑ tendance included members from ment; Sweden and from America. In this
	Statistics.	and the annual conferences following
		a catechism and liturgy were adopted
and forms of ordination and rules for the vestments
of the ministers were drawn up. With few omissions
the conference has met every year from that time
to the present. The one hundred and second ses
sion was held in London in 1909. The body is now
designated as the " General Conference of the New
Church." Its Minutes for the year 1909 shows 70
societies with a total membership of 6,665, and
Sunday‑schools numbering 7,907 scholars and 739
teachers. The ministers of the English Conference
are classified as ordaining ministers, ordained min
isters, recognized leaders, and missionaries. The
ordaining ministers number 7, the ordained 38, and
the leaders and missionaries 18. The first general
convention of the New Jerusalem in America was
held in Philadelphia on May 15, 1817. At first a
convention of delegates of societies, it has since
become a body composed of the several associations
of state and territorial organizations of the church
which with some isolated societies are represented
by delegates. The convention has continued to

New Jerusalem Church New Xanicheans
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
142
meet every year with few omissions until the present time. The Journal of the 89th session of the general convention of the New Jerusalem in the United States of America, held in 1909, has a list of 14 associations and 6 isolated societies with a total membership of 6,425, and a Sunday‑school membership of 3,281. Its roll of ministers embraces: general pastors, who have ordaining powers and preside over associations, 8; pastors and ministers, 95; authorized candidates and preachers, 6. The English conference maintains a theological school for training men for the ministry in the New Church College in Islington, London, with its local branches. The American convention has its theological school at Cambridge, Mass., with commodious grounds and buildings immediately adjoining Harvard University. It maintains an able faculty and in 1909 graduated a class of two and in 1910 a class of one. The church also maintains a preparatory school at Waltham, Mass., and schools for collegiate and advanced studies in Urbana, Ohio, the latter institution having received a university charter from the State of Ohio in 1850. Societies of the New Church exist, outside of the United States and Canada and Great Britain, in Brazil, France, Switzerland, Austria, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Australia, Natal, Mauritius, and Mexico.
The publishing activity of the New Church has been quite phenomenal. Book and Tract Societies were shortly after the death of Swedenborg established in London, Manchester, and Birmingham in England, and in Boston, New York,
4. Pub‑ and Philadelphia in America. The
lishing Swedenborg Society established in
	Agencies.	London in 1810 has published editions
		of Swedenborg's writings in whole or
in part in Latin, English, Welsh, Icelandic, Swedish,
Danish, Italian, French, German, Russian, Polish,
Magyar, Arabic, and Hindi. The works in Italian
are deposited in the free libraries throughout I£aly
and Sicily. Between one and two hundred thou
sand volumes have been distributed to the Protes
tant ministers applying for them in England and
America, and the American Swedenborg Printing
and Publishing Society furnishes all free libraries
applying with full sets of the works. Swedenborg's
Latin editions have been carefully and elegantly
republished, and the original manuscripts preserved
in the Royal Academy's library at Stockholm have
been reproduced in photolithographed volumes at
great expense. The number of titles of Sweden
borg's works and of works relating to him and the
New Church contained in the British Museum Cat
alogue is over five hundred, and the Bibliography
of Swedenborg published by the Swedenborg Society
(London, 1907) containing titles alone is a volume
of 760 pages. The periodical press of the New
Church embraces one Quarterly Review, two monthly
magazines, and a considerable number of monthly
and weekly papers published in English, German,
Danish, and Swedish. The publishing center in
London is at 1 Bloomsbury Street, W.; and in New
York at 3 West Twenty‑ninth Street. A publish
ing house also exists in Stuttgart, Germany. The
dissemination of the doctrines of the New Church
through the press and by means of books on phi‑
losophy and literature by those not identified with the religious body itself is so extensive as to indicate an influence of the New Church on modern thought and belief much wider than the limits of its enrolled membership.
The ritual of the New Church follows in general the lines of the Anglican Book of Common Prayer, although the doxologies and prayers are all addressed to the Lord Jesus Christ as God instead of through him to another divine person. The following creed or " faith " is found in the Book of Worship of the American Convention:
Tan Man.
We worship the One God, the Lord the Savior. Jesus Christ; in whom is the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit; whose Humanity is Divine; who for our salvation did come into the world and take our nature upon Him. He endured temptation even to the passion of the cross. He overcame the hells and so delivered man. He glorified His Humanity by uniting it with the Divinity of which it was begotten; so He became the Redeemer of the world, without whom no mortal can be saved. And they are saved who believe in Him and keep the Commandments of His Word. This is His Commandment: That we love one another as He has loved us. Amen.
In accordance with the high degree of sanctity attached to the Word by virtue of the indwelling divine and spiritual meaning beneath its letter, the sacraments are held in the highest veneration: the Lord being " really " although not materially present in the Lord's Supper in the divine good and truth which are his body and blood; and in baptism, there being an actual angelic association formed and an enrolment in heaven effected. New Churchmen do not call themselves " Swedenborgians," believing that this name implies a sect originating in a man's opinions and leadership, whereas the New Church is a divine dispensation of truth of which the man Swedenborg was only the transmitting instrumentality, as the evangelists were the human transmitters of a divine revelation, and not founders of sects to be named after them. FRANg SEWALL.
The Academy of the New Church is the result, of a reformatory movement based upon the labors of Rev. Richard DeCharms (d. 1863),
g. The and of Rev. William Henry Benade Academy of (d. 1905), for a stricter adherence to
	the New	the revelation given through Emanuel
	Church.	Swedenborg, and for a greater dis
		tinctiveness of the religious and social
life in the New Church. After many years of pre
paratory work the Academy was organized in Phila
delphia June 19, 1876, by W. H. Benade, John
Pitcairn, and ten others, eminent ministers and
laymen of the New Church, on the basis of the
following distinctive principles: (1) The acknowl
edgment of the divine authority of Swedenborg's
theological writings as the Word of God in his sec
ond coming; (2) the recognition of the spiritually
consummated state of the Christian world, and the
consequent necessity of the distinctive establish
ment of the New Church in worship, organization,
and life; (3) the government of the church to re
side in its priesthood in its three degrees; (4) New
Church baptism as the necessary means of en
trance into the outward Church; (5) the wine of
the holy supper to be administered only in the

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
New Jerusalem Church New Xaniohesaas
fermented juice of the grape; (6) marriage to be based on religious principles and on similarity in religion between husband and wife; (7) interference with the birth of offspring in marriage to be condemned as an abomination; (8) the laws revealed in Swedenborg's work on conjugal love concerning the intermediates between marriage and adultery to be acknowledged as laws of order; (9) social life to be based upon similarity of religion; (10) unanimity in essential things to be the guiding principle in the government of the church; (11) legislation in spiritual things to be avoided as unnecessary and hurtful; (12) education of the young in the doctrines of the New Church the chief hope for the establishment of the New Church in the Christian world.
In pursuance of these principles and aims the Academy in 1877 opened a theological school and college for young men in Philadelphia, and, a few years later, a seminary for young ladies and primary schools for children of both sexes. In 1897 all these departments were removed to Bryn Athyn, Pa., fifteen miles northeast of Philadelphia, and there, through the munificence of John Pitcairn, a number of large buildings have been erected and equipped for the educational work of the Academy, the enterprise being liberally endowed by him. The faculty of the schools consists of twenty‑five professors and teachers, with Charles E. Doering as the present superintendent. The religious education is under the direct supervision of Bishop Pendleton, who is also the president of the Academy. New Church baptism is an obligatory condition of entrance into the schools. The aims and methods of instruction are unique, the constant purpose being to prepare the pupils for a life of piety, virtue, and usefulness not only in this world but more especially for the eternal life. Religion, therefore, enters as the essential and all‑qualifying element in all branches of instruction. The Academy issues an annual Journal of Edition.
The majority of those who sympathized with the aims and principles of the Academy were members of the Pennsylvania Association, which was a component part of the General Conven‑
6. The tion. This association, in 1883, adopted General the name of " The General Church of
Church of Pennsylvania " together with an epis‑
the New copal form of government, and with
Jerusalem. this body friends of the Academy in other states began to associate themselves. Determined and persistent opposition to the Academy on the part of the leaders of the convention culminated in 1890, when the convention refused to receive the annual report of the General Church of Pennsylvania and attempted to interfere with that autonomy in its internal affairs which had been guaranteed to state associations by the constitution of the general convention. The General Church then severed its connection with the convention, and the majority of its members in 1897 organized anew under the name of The General Church of the New Jerusalem, with Rev. William Frederick Pendleton as its bishop. This church, a year after its organization, counted 300 members, but at present numbers 1,000 members,
all of whom have been received by individual ap
plication. There are sixteen societies and circles,
with twenty‑two ministers. Five of the societies
maintain local parish schools, conducted according
to the principles of the Academy. The bishop is
assisted by a consistory and a general council. The
council of the clergy and the (lay) executive com
mittee meet annually. There are annual district
assemblies, and a general assembly every third year.
New Church Life, a monthy magazine established
in 1881, is the official organ of the General Church;
it is published at Bryn Athyn, Pa., and is edited
by Rev. Carl Theophilus Odlmer and Rev. Alfred
Acton.	C. T. OD R.
BrBiroaseray: For the history consult: R. Hindmamb. Rise and Propreae of the New Jerusalem Church in England and her Parts, London, 1861; New Church Almanac, Boston, 1889 (contains historical account of the denomination). G. Field, Memoirs, Ineidenta, and Reminip. uncse of the Early Hist. of the New Church in Michigan, Indiana, Illinois .... New York, 1879; J. Bayley: New Church Worthies, London, 1884; R. Sundelin, Seoederrborpianismens historic i Sverige, Upeala, 1888; the rour. nals of the General Convention, 1817‑36, were reprinted in 3 vols., Boston, 1888; G. H. Briggs, Hilt. of the Rhodes Now Church Society, 1797‑190,.0, London, 1904; 0. F. Dole, The New Church; what, how, whyl New York, 1906.
The principal treat of the doctrine of the New
Jerusalem Church is given in the article Swedenborg (q.v.). Consult further: B. F. Barrett, Lectures on the New Dispensation, Philadelphia, 1842; idem, Catholicity of the New Church, New York, 1863; A. Clissold, Creeds of Athanasaus, Sabelliu8, Swedenborg, Compared, Landon, 1873; J. Clowee, Outlines of Swed~e Doctrines, London, 1873; New Jerusalem Church, Creed of the New Church, London, 18&3; J. Worcester, Lectures upon the Doctrines of the New Church, Boston, 1888; T. Parsons, Outlines of the Religion and Philowyhy of Swedmborp Boston, 1894; J. F. Bum, What the New Church Teacher, London, 1897; F. Sewall, Swedenborg and modem idealism, London, 19o2; G. Trobridge, Foundations of philosophy, London, 1904; E. Swift, Manual of the Dodriaee of the New Church, Boston, n.d.
NEW JERUSALEM, GENERAL CHURCH OF THE. See NRw JRRusAl.Rnr CauRca, 1 8.
NEW LIFE CHURCH. See Nnw, Joan FAIR. NEW LIGHT ANTIBURGHERS. SRz P8=HTTNaIANS.

NEW MANICHEAN&
1. In the East.
Euebites, Predecessors of the Bogomiles (f 1).
Bogomile Doctrine of Creation and Salvation (¢ 2).
Bogomile Practises and History (¢ 3). II. In the West.
Their Diffusion and Names; Cathari, Bulga4 Alblgenres (4 1).
Forerunners and Foundations 0 2).
Albigensian Doctrines (§ 3).
Doctrines of the Cathari (§ 4).
Campaigns Against Them (¢ 5).
The term " New Manicheans " may conveniently be applied to certain medieval duaWc sects, which both in their dualistic teaching and in their organization and ascetic principles represent a recrudescence of Manicheism (see MANl, MAN1caRANa), with which they are historically related. The principal sects falling under this category are: Euchites and Bogomiles of the East, and the Cathari and Albigenses of the West.
I. In the East: The dualistic Bogomilee, who appeared early in the twelfth century in Bulgaria

New Xanioheane	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	144
and the neighboring districts, arose from the amalgamation of the Paulicians (q.v.) and the Euchites or Messalians (q.v.). Both these earlier i. YV_qWbp, sects had wandered, between the eighth Predecessors and tenth centuries, from Armenia,
of the Mesopotamia, and northern Syria, B~ oeomiles. to Thrace, where they had become absorbed in the Slavic Bulgarians. The dogmatic and ethical dualism evolved in Paulicianism from its Mareionitic basis received from the Euchites an ascetic and orgiastic element. [The Key of Truth (.tkrmenian text, Eng. transl., and introduction by F. C. Conybeare, Oxford, 1898), which Conybeare calls " a manual of the Paulician church " and attributes to the early medieval period, contradicts the charge of dualism made by medieval writers against this party. A. H. N.] This was the more easy since an ascetic rigorism, either gnostic or Manichean in origin, had been an important factor in the earlier phases of the Paulician sect. There was also doubtless some intermixture of Persian Manicheism. Paulicianism, deriving its elements partly from Persian Manicheism and partly from Marcionism, brought to the Bulgarian heretic not only the lofty authority of their " apostles " or " perfected," but also the rejection of the Old Testament, an asceticism which commanded to abstain from meat, and a horror of the cross. chitism on the other hand, gave as its ancient Manichean heritage ,the doctrine of the evil soul generated in man b~,• Satan, to be conauered
orv__ 	ssion of those made
n Fv‑the‑Draver and interce‑ *
Trfent ;*, aangticism.	t ‑eese early elements
were overlaid partly by Slavic		anism and partly
by the independent speculations o e leaders of
the sect. The fully gdoned system of the Bogo
miles of the early twelfth century, therefore, reveals
its Jdnghi~n‑wwith the older Gnostic and Lanichean
dualism only in its simpler basal principles. A
pre fu3e to the Bogomilian system is furnished by
the doctrines of the Thracian Euchites about 1050,
as described by Psellus in " On the Activity of
Demons " (ed. F. Boissonade, Nuremberg, 1838; also
MPG, cxxii.). Their view of God and the universe
was one of relative d Bpi 1i am. From thehest '	God,
who ruled over the supramundane regions emanate
	two sons. the older. Satanael, controlling Me‑ earthly
	world, and the,‑younger, Christ the lord of the
	heavenly world. This dualism, which was regarded
as merely transitory, gave rise to three divisions of
	the Euchite, One honored Satanael and Christ.
equally; another hpnnreri Christ, .tone, but feared
	Satanael too much to scorn or blaspheme him;
	the third reverenced only Satanael as the first
	born of the highest God and the creator of the
	visible world, considering Christ the cause of in
	juribus phenomena in nature. These .Fwwhitea,
	evidently a development of the earlier Messalians,
seem to have becomeamaleamated with the P,$,li
	cians of Thraae and Bulgaria toward the end of the
	eleventh century, thus giving rise to the great sect
	of the Pogomilea. Their name signifies " friends
	of Goo ," evidently a special d g nation of the p r
	ec~ted " of the sect.
The B omffes re'ected the Mo '	,but
	Aggepted t e Psalter, the " Book of the Sixteen
Pro hets," _four Gospels, the Writings of tht, anos‑
e&,, and various apocrypha. The Euchite dualism of Satanael and Christ. was evolved by them into a cosmognic drama, which opens a. Bogomile with the account of the creation and
Doctrine of fall in enesis, Elohim being interCreation and preted as Satanael. Falling from
	Salvation. heaven, this,S,tan~him ,creates
4be frrrr•	world as recorded in
	Genesis, and forms man of muT,,‑while the moisture
	falling from the right great toe of this human figure
	assumes the form of the serpent. Satanael then
	endeavors to breathe into the lifeless man, but suc
	ceeds only in sending breath through the image's
	toe into the serpent, which thus receives life. In
	despair Satanael send* a messenger to the highest
	God to vivify man, promising that man shall then
	belong equally to the highest God and to Satanael,
	thus filling the place in the upper world of angels
	made vacant by the fall of Satanael. God accepts
	this agreement, but Satanael, seeking to win Adam
	and Eve for himself alone, enters the serpent and
	embraces Eve, thus becoming the parent of Cain
	and his sister Calomena. Adam later begets by Eve
	Abel and other sons and daughters. After death
	entered the terrestrial world, however, the high
	est God deprived the recreant demiurge Satanael
	of his divine form and creative power, though
	permitting him for a time to rule the lower world
	and humanity. Through his tool, Moses, and
	through the Decalogue, full of contradictions and
	folly, Satanael deceived countless men, until, for
	their salvation, God caused the Logos to emanate
	from himself as his second born son in 5500 A.M.
	This Logos, or redeeming principle, known now as
	Michael or " the angel of great counsel," and again
	as Jesus or Christ descending from heaven, entered
	the Virgin by her right ear and seemed to assume
	the body of an earthly man. Really, however, he
	brought his spiritual body from the higher world,
	and with this body, though apparently born of the
	Virgin, he proclaimed the Gospel to mankind. He
	thus conquered Satanael, who became the power
	less Satan. The passion, death, and resurrection
	were docetic, and he now occupies Satanael's former
	place at the right hand of God, though at the last
	(cf. I Cor. xv. 28) he shall return to the Father
	whence he emanated. The trinitarianism of the
Bogomiles is thus Sabellian.
The cult and the ethics of the Bogomiles show many parallels with the teachings of the Euchites. A certain amount of reverence must be shown the demons whom the highest God per3. Bogomile mitted to rule temporarily over the
	Practises	world, lest injury be received from
and History. them. Outward conformity with the
		Church was therefore required. It was
also held, in genuine Euchitic fashion, that demons
of Satan dwell in all men and abide, after the death
of the sinful, in or near their corpses to punish them.
From the Bogomiles, on the other hand, these tor
turing spirits flee a bow‑shot away, for in these
" friends of God " dwells the Holy Ghost begotten
of the Son. The‑ Bogomiles, therefore, did not
die but were painlessly freed from the foul raiment
of sinful flesh and clad in the garment of Christ‑

145	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	Now ltaaioheans
an ethereal body such as he had on earth. The sacraments of the Church were rejected. Members were received into the sect by a " baptism of the Spirit " for which preparation was made by confession and prayer for seven days. An oath of silence was exacted, and after a further period of probation the candidate was received by the imposition of hands from all the Bogomiles present, the postulant facing the east and the Gospel of John being placed on his head. Sacred images, including the cross, were abhorred; marriage was despised and prayer and the eating of meat were prohibited; fasting was required thrice each week until midafternoon; and the saints and fathers of the Church were banned as false prophets. The Bogomilian heresy maintained itself in the Byzantine empire for centuries, though undergoing many modifications. The heresy spread to Asia Minor, for in 1143 at a synod at Constantinople two Cappar docian bishops were deposed for Bogomilianism. The emissaries of the sect were still active in the thirteenth century, nor were the Bogomiles finally extirpated until the fifteenth century (see below).
II. In the West: The genetic connection of the western New Manicheans with the early Manicheans is much clearer than in the case of the eastern dualistic sects. As early as the time of Augustine and Leo the Great numerous Manichean
r. Their communities were to be found in Diffusion North Africa, Spain, France, and Italy, and whence they reached Holland and Names; Germany by the beginning of the elevCathari, enth century. Manichean dualism had Bulgari, penetrated Northern Gaul in the course Albigenses. of the fourth century, and records show its wide dissemination in Italy in the sixth and seventh centuries. While the Spanish Priscillianists (see PiusciLruN) may have exercised some alight influence on the development of New Manicheism in the West, its connection with the eastern Euchites and Bogomiles is indubitable. Certain " Poor men of Christ," burned for heresy on the lower Rhine in the first half of the twelfth century, asserted that their doctrines were held in Greece and elsewhere, a statement confirmed by the similarity of their tenets to those of the Bogomiles. Besides being called Manicheans and Cathari these heretics were also known as Publicani or Popelicani, and (especially in Northern France and Flanders) Bulgari (French Bougres). A large number of Cathari were likewise termed Druguria (or Dugrutia or Dugunthia) from a Thracian district belonging to the Byzantine exarchate of Philippopolis. In Northern Italy they were called patareni or Paterini (a name transferred from the anti‑clerical followers of Ariald and Erlembald), Albanenses (from the city of Alba in Piedmont), Concorrezani (after Concorrezzo near Monza), and Bagnolesi (after Bagnolo near Brescia). Somewhat later the Southern French local designations came into use, such as Albigenses (after Albi in Languedoc), Tolosates, Agennenses, Provengals, and Tisserands or Texerants (" weavers "). The sect was propagated in the West both by the emigration caused by the measures taken by the Commen, against VIIL‑10
the Euchites and Bogomiles, and also by their wandering missionaries, who found their way from Bulgaria through Bosnia and Dalmatia to Northern Italy, whence some of them penetrated to Southern France or down the Rhine to the Netherlands. Everywhere they found the land prepared for them, for the remnants of ancient Manichean communities, hidden for centuries, began in the early eleventh century to resist the Church.
Before the rise of the Cathari there thus lay a period of preliminary development. About 1000 a certain Leutard attempted to found a sect near Chdlons which was clearly influenced by Mani‑
cheism; and in 1022 there was dis‑:
i. Fore‑ covered at Orl6ana a sect of the Canon runners and Stephen and the Scolastic Lisoy which
Founda‑ likewise taught such tenets as doce. tions. tism, rejection of baptism, the mass,
the veneration of the saints, and the doctrine of good works. A similar sect appeared about the same time in the dioceses of Liage and Arras, founded by an Italian named Gundulf; and in 1030 another body arose at Monteforte near Turin, which, beside the usual doctrines, required communism in property and constant prayer by day and night. They put to death fellow sectaries who were mortally ill, holding that a violent death was the surest path to blessedness. For the pope they substituted another head, though whether this was the Holy Ghost or some secret head of the sect is unknown. They also seem to have rejected the doctrine of the Trinity. 'Similar sects appeared in Northern Germany, as at Gosiar, where Henry III. executed certain " Manicheans " about Christmas, 1052. By the second half of the twelfth century New Manicheism had become a power in Flanders, Western and Southern France, and Upper Italy, where its adherents not only boldly proclaimed their dualism but also sought formal organization. In 1152 the Cathari of Flanders were at least tolerated by Archbishop Henry of Reims. Five years later the Cathari held a great council at St. Felix de Caraman near Toulouse, where a " pope," Nicetas or Niquinta, lately come from Constantinople, consecrated several Cathari bishops by the comolameWum, or the " baptism of the. spirit " by the laying on of hands. Bin ops of the sect are henceforth rmprded as residing in various cities of Southern France, and the Cathari in Middle and Southern Italy were also divided into " dioceses " until late in the thirteenth century. Bosnia is frequently regarded as the seat of the Cathari " pope," who seems to have been represented by a deputy, especially in Southern France. Each " bishop " was aided by an " elder son "and a " younger son "; and deacons and deaconessea of the Cathari are also mentioned.
	A harsh dualism was maintained by the Aibg
nenses o 	h
		and the Albiaa arms n
	SO t 9190‑ France. Their distinctive
3. Albigen‑ doctrines maybe summarized as fol
sian DOC‑ Iowa. From all eternity the god of light
trines. has ruled over things invisible, and the
	prince of this world over things visible.
Lucifer, the son of the prince (or god) of this
world, seduced some of the angels, the creatures of

New Xanioheans	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	148
New Thought
the god of light, to his lower world. The work of redemption, therefore, is to restore to liberty these " lost sheep of the house of Israel," who are commingled with and superficially similar to the carnal (i.e., procreating) creatures of the god of this world. This deity, whose tool was Moses, hindered the work of redemption by his law so far as he could. But after the beneficent influence of the good god on mankind had become apparent in the Psalms and the prophets, Christ, the most perfect heavenly creature and the chief of good angels, completed the work of redemption by proclaiming the truth in an ethereal body, performing marvellous works, and returning to the invisible world of heaven after an apparent death. The .Albigenses extended their Docetism (q.v.) to Mary, Joseph, and St. John the Divine. John the Baptist, on the other hand, by his baptism of water, had been the chief agent through whom the prince of this world worked in opposition to the Redeemer. Through the baptism of Jesus by the spirit, which the teachers of truth convey by the laying on of hands, is accomplished the salvation of all who accept this doctrine. Since, however, erring souls can return to their heavenly home only through the church of the Cathari, and since many have died both before and after Christ without knowing of this true church, a transmigration of souls through various forms of men and animals is assumed, perfection coming only with admission to the sect. The Cathari, therefore, enter heaven immediately upon death, but for all others death means only entrance into a new body to continue the atonement yet uncompleted. The Concorrezani, closely followed by the Bagnolesi, modified this extreme dualism, putting at the head of their system the supreme Creator who had formed the worlds of spirit and of matter, but had left the sovereignty of the second to his elder son Lucifer (the gnostic demiurge and the Bogomilian Satanael). Lucifer, originally good but fallen from heaven through pride, is the god of the Old Testament and is to be rejected. The evil one created the bodies of Adam and Eve, but God created their souls. While rejecting the Albigensian metempsychosis and other eschatological doctrines, the Bagnolesi maintained a more or less docetic Christology which was rejected by the majority of the Concorrezani. Both, however, seem to have agreed with the Sabellianism of the Bogomiles, though some were more or less Arians.
The Cathari were more uniform in cult and custom than in doctrine. They regarded as deadly sins the possession of earthly property, association with men of this world, lying, war, the killing of animals (except snake‑like creeping 4. Doctrines creatures), the eating of animal food
of the (except fish, since the latter were not CatharL supposed to be produced ex coitu), and above all sexual intercourse under any conditions. Admission to the number of the " perfected " was by the laying on of hands (consolamentum); and only these " perfected " could give the consolamentum to the " faithful " or other members of the sect, or perform any part of the cult. The " perfected," moreover, were required to travel and eat in company with a companion, who might
be merely one of the " faithful." Since a single transgression after receiving the conaolamentum was held to involve loss of salvation, the " faithful " often postponed it as long as possible, while, on the other hand, many of the " perfected," to escape danger of mortal sin, committed suicide, generally by starving themselves to death (the so‑called endura, a custom which, found at Monteforte about 1030, seems to have spread from Northern Italy to Southern France, but did not transcend the limits of the Albigenses). Among the peculiar features of the cult of the Cathari, special mention may be made of the restriction of the right to repeat the Lord's Prayer to the " perfected," prayers for the deceased " faithful " who had not received the conaolamentum and were consequently condemned to metempsychosis, the blessing of bread by the prayer of the " perfected," the breaking of bread or appareddamentum (connected with the confession of sins monthly), and the ceremonies attending the conaolamentum (e.g., the kiss of peace). On the latter occasion the sick especially were wont to give at least a portion of their possessions to the " perfected," whose spiritual duties relieved them of material cares.
In Southern France neither the secular arm nor the endeavors of the Church, beginning with Gregory IX., could check the growth of the Cathari; in Northern Italy they were counted by thousands, in Florence about 1228 almost a third of the population were Cathari; nor was it until the end of the
fourteenth century that the Inquisition g. Cam‑ succeeded in extirpating the sect. Failpaigns ing to convert the Cathari by argument,
Against	Alexander III. sent a crusading army
Them.	against them in Languedoc in 1181‑82,
but with equally scanty results. By the beginning of the thirteenth century nearly all the princes and barons of Southern France had embraced the heresy, and the Roman Catholic Church had become a jest. But with the accession of Innocent III. the state of affairs changed. At first comparatively mild measures were adopted, but on the murder of the legate Peter of Castelnau in 1208, a crusade headed by Arnold of Citeaux was formed against Raymond VI., Count of Toulouse, the protector of the Cathari. Making a separate peace with Raymond and thus weakening the Cathari, the crusaders attacked the territories of the Catharist Viscount Roger II. of Beziers, stormed Beziers and Carcamonne, and ravaged the land, which was then given to the commander‑in‑chief, Count Simon of Montfort. After 1211 Simon invaded the domain of Raymond, which was formally granted him at the fourth Lateran council in 1215. After the death of Simon in 1218, Raymond VI. and his son, Raymond VII., regained their lands, but at the instance of Honorius III., Louis VIII. directed a new crusade against the Albigenses and succeeded, before his death in 1226, in recapturing a part of Toulouse. Finally, in 1229, the peace of Toulouse put an end to the war. The conditions, however, were disastrous to the Albigenses, especially as a permanent inquisition was established, Raymond VII. himself being forced to aid in the extirpation of his former protkg6s. The Cathari who revolted against

147
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
him fled at last to the castle of Montsegur, but it was stormed by Raymond's troops, and no less than 200 " perfected " were burned at the stake. Yet even despite this catastrophe the Albigenses stubbornly held out until the middle of the fourteenth century, when they finally disappeared. Their last remnants may perhaps be the Cagots of the Pyrenees, who are marked by red crosses and are avoided with horror as a sort of pariahs, yet recall the " faithful " converted during the Albigenses crusade.
The Cathari survived in northern Spain about as long as in southern France; but in northern France, Flanders, and along the Rhine they were reduced by the Inquisition at a somewhat earlier date. Particularly energetic in their suppression was the Dominican inquisitor Robert, who had himself been for twenty years a member of the sect. During the thirteenth century, however, Cathari or New Manicheans in the strict sense of the term seem to have been few in Germany. New Manicheanism survived longest as a distinct organization in the Balkan peninsula, maintaining its existence as Bogomilianism up to the second half of the fourteenth century in Bulgaria, where smaller individual communities lasted down to modern times. The rigid dualists of Bosnia, the Paterini of the Greek documents, resisted all attempts at conversion and all more energetic measures, remaining the strongest religious body in the land up to the fifteenth century. Their decline began with the conversion of King Stephen Thomash to Roman Catholicism in 1445. His succesedr, Stephen Thomashevich, issued a decree in 1459 which gave them their choice between conversion and exile. Some forty thousand are said to have migrated to Herzegovina, but with the conquest of this district by the Turks in 1463 the Bosnian Cathari vanished from history. The great majority of them were doubtless compelled to embrace Islam, though some have seen traces of a secret continuation of the sect even in the last decade of the nineteenth century. (O. ZBCICT Rt.)
Bratrotsaerar: Soup for the history of the movement in the East are: Michael Pwllus, in MPG, exxii. 537 sqq.; Euthymius Zigabenus, MPG, exxa.; Anna Comnena, in MPG, cxm. 59 sqq For the West: Peter the venerable, in MPL, daaxia. 719; Hugo Rotomagensis, in MPL, cxeii. 1255; Egbert, in MPL, excv. 11; The Key of Truth: ed. Conybeare, as mentioned in the text; further sources m MPL, cluuii. 876, ccz. 305, cciv. 775; E. Marthne and U. Durand, Thesaurus novua anecdatorum, vol. v., Paris, 1717; and C. Dupleesis d'ArgentrE, Collecdio fudiciorum de novia errorum, Paris, 1726. EspeciaVy valuable is the literature under INQuIsmon, particularly part of the work of Lea (Inquisition of the Middle Aga. vole, i.‑ii.), Frederiehs, and Fr6ddricq. On the eastern sects modern discussions are: C. J.,Jirec'ek, Gerchichte der Bulqaren, pp. 175 sqq., Prague, 1876; M. Gaster, Grmco‑Slavonic Literature and Folklore, pp. 15 sqq., London, 1887• Hampet Ter‑Mkrttschian Die Paulikianer, Leipsic, 1893. On the western development may be consulted: J. C. F&slin. Kirchen‑ and Kdserhistorie der mittlerm Zeit, 3 vols., Leipsie, 1770 J. C. L. S. de Siamondi, Hid. of the Crusades against the Albipenaea in the 15th Century, London, 1828: S. R. Maib land, Facts and Documents Relating to the Albigenses and Waldenses, ib. 1832; U. Zahn, Geschichte der Ketser im Mittelalter, 3 ‑is., Stuttgart, 1845; C. Schmidt, Hid. d doctrine de la aecte de Catharea. 2 Vale., Paris, 1849; A. Lombard Paulieiens, Bulparea d Bona‑Hommea en Orient d Occident, Geneva, 1879; E. Comba, Storia della riforma in Italia, vol. i., Florence, 1881; N. Peyrat, flint. den Albipeoie, Pans, 1882; F. Toceo, L'Bresia net medio
New Manicheana New Thought
evo, Florence, 1884; J. J. I. von D81Iinger, Beitrfe sxr Sektenqeschidde den Mittelaltera, 2 vols., Munich, 1890; V. Canet, Simon de Montford d la eroiaade contra lee ALbipeoia, Lille, 1891; C. Dousis, L'A1bi0Eiams d iea fr6rea pr&heure h Narbonne, Paris, 1894; P. Alphandhry, Lea Idea moraW ches lea hderodoxea latina au d&ut du 1s. adlcle, ib. 1903; A. Luehaire, Innocent Ill. La Croiaade des Albipeoia 1,807‑15, ib. 1905; T. de Causons, Lee Albipeoia d 1'inquiaition, ib. 1907. To the works on the relation of the inquisition to these sects should be added C. Douafe, Documents pour aemir h chid. de (inquisition an Languedoc, Paris, 1900 sqq.; and P. Flade, Dan r6miache Inquisitionaoerfahren in Deutschland, Leipsie, 1902.

NEW THOUGHT: An imperfectly nucleated movement having its rise in the closing years of the nineteenth century. It can not be said to have advanced beyond the nebulous stage, nor to have crystallized into a formal philosophy or an organized view of life. At the hands of some of its representatives, New Thought aspires to furnish a thoroughgoing philosophy of life; while others see in it a fragmentary principle or an eclectic and unassimilated synthesis of principles. In the absence of a universally recognized organizing principle, the movement can be characterized only in its main features.
The atmosphere or mood of New Thought is the spirit of optimism. The confident outlook on life and the spirit of mastery in life
	Its Atti‑	are fundamental in all the aspects of
	tude and	the movement. It is never hedonistic
	Diversity.	search for happiness as a goal, but
		rather cheerfulness resulting from the
recognition that " all things work together for
good," or can be made to work together. Thus
optimism as an ideal and meliorism as a motive
for conduct are the dominant key‑notes. But this
optimism is only the common temperament of the
movement. It is not a groundless optimism, it
attempts to give an account of itself; it is a confi
dence and buoyancy toward life which essays to
find its justification in certain principles of thought,
a temperament which offers a rational justification.
At this point the apparent unity of New Thought
practically disappears in the great divergence of
theoretical or philosophic explanations offered.
As a mood toward life, the term New Thought
describes a sort of unitary thought‑movement.
As a philosophy justifying and directing the mood,
New Thought presents little unity, but a great
variety of diverse and often mutually contradictory
principles. One exponent offers one consideration,
another exponent builds upon a totally different
consideration. Confusion and eclecticism charac
terize most of the expositions offered of the doc
trine as a whole. Examples of this diversity of
emphasis are seen in the shibboleths and captions
coined or employed by the movement. " In tune
with the Infinite," " I can and I will," " harmony
and health," "psychic control," "science of being,"
" thought force," " suggestion and will," " sub
mission to higher laws," " joy philosophy," " the
optimism of faith," " the newer science," are phrases
taken almost at random from the current literature
of New Thought, illustrating the variety of emphasis
employed. The modern emphasis upon the divine
immanence is a fruitful principle for some of the
theorists. Again, the emphasis is upon psychic

New Thought	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
New York Sabbath Committee
14S
control, mental therapeutics, or faith healing.
Hypnotism and occultism figure largely in some of the literature; to others the notion of law gives the point of departure, while some attempt to give a natural science grounding to their theory of the universe and life. The philosophic bent of New Thought exponents varies all the way from naturalism to mysticism; and the religious temper, all the way from fert ent Christianity to avowed pantheism or implicit atheism. The classification clearly does not fix a man's philosophy. And it is doubtful whether New Thought, as such, can be said to carry any religious implications. It is a philosophy of life rather than a religion, but a philosophy which reffeots, in some of its many phases, almost all the newer movements in philosophy, science, psychology, theology, psychical research, and the like.
Since all the above thought emphases exist in their own right outside the New Thought camp, it is obvious that they do not serve to identify the
New Thought movement. None of The them, per ae, are New Thought doc‑
Unifying trines, but are only modern concep‑
Principle. tions adopted by the latter movement,
and employed with various applications. Even optimism is no monopoly of New Thought but a sort of dominant mood. What is the essential unifying principle of New Thought? This inner principle consists chiefly in the insistence upon the power of mind to modify bodily conditions, as also to bring betterment in all conditions of life. New Thought is the affirmation that life can be controlled from the standpoint of mind. It is a form of idealism, with a practical intent, usually with an ethical emphasis, and varying greatly in the place and scope of its application. Life, including physical conditions, may be controlled by the mastery which the mind can achieve. Mind is the world's master. In construing this princ!ple of the supremacy of mind over life, New Thought employs one or more of the doctrines of modern thinking as its point of departure and its rational justification. These several doctrines are not in themselves marks of New Thought; they are simply apologetic efforts to establish the reasonableness of the movement. Thus, e.g., the " immanence of God " opens an avenue for touching the life of God. The discovery of the " laws " of the universe founds a variety of philosophies of coming into " tune with the universe." Psychological knowledge opens up the laws of suggestion and of Psychotherapy (q.v.). Idealism in philosophy translates the utterances of modern science into the service of the mind. Ethical and social sciences furnish the notions of unity and relatedness in personal life, which are employed in manifold ways by New Thought. The modern insistence upon ethical " values " is usually, though not always, employed in the movement. Thus around the standard of New Thought are grouped a great variety of theorists whose points of contact seem to be the principles indicated above‑optimism and the mind's control.
It follows perhaps inevitably from the above emphasis upon psychic control, that the theorists of the movement are usually characterized by extreme subjectivism which often closely resembles
the Transcendentalism (q.v.) of a generation ago. "New Thought makes little use of the induc‑
tive method of modern science, but Subjectiv‑ deduces its principles from certain ism and axioms of idealistic philosophy." It Apriorism. Should also be pointed out that a
critical study of the movement shows great ambiguity and confusion as to the meaning of mental control. Sometimes it is the thoughtfactor in mind that is appealed to, again it is the will that is central. The psychology of the " mind " involved is seldom given definite and specific expression.
It is apparent that New Thought has a close affinity with Christian Science (see S=NcE, CmIsTfeN), from which it received its initial impulse,
and from which it has recruited a maRelations to jority of its disciples. But it rejects Christian " Eddyism " as an essential, together Science; with the more dogmatic or sectarian Extension. features of the program of Christian
Science. It retains much of the spirit and principles of the older movement, while it claims emancipation from the letter and the law of that cult. It insists upon inner and inherent resources rather than external. Unlike Christian Science, however, it recognizes the reality of the material; while affirming that the mind is the place of control. Like Christian Science, New Thought originated in the United States, and in like manner it has spread to England and the continent. The extent and influence of the movement can not be justly estimated because of the indefinite nature of its propaganda. Moreover, all of the doctrines characteristic of New Thought are severally held by a great multitude who disclaim any sympathy with that movement. As a description of a spirit and method, New Thought characterizes many minds. As a technical propaganda or an organized movement, it defines a comparatively small group.
HERBERT ALDEN YOUTZ.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The following are a few of the works which advocate New‑Thought principles: E. H. Anderson, Psychical Development and Philosophy of she New Thought, Toledo, O., 1901; C. B. Patterson, Dominion and Power, Oecawanaon‑Hudson, N. Y., 1901; W. W. Atkinson, Lam of the New Thought, Chicago, 1902; C. A. Ballough, Power that Heals and horn to Use it, De Land, Fla., 1902; E. W. Hopkins, Science of the New Thought, Bristol, Conn., 1904; J. W. Winkley, First Lessons in New Thought, Boston, 1904; Mrs. E. J. Towne, Life Power and how to Use it, Holyoke, Mass., 1908; J. Allen, Path to Prosperity, Way to Peace, 2 vole., New York, 1907; F. C. Haddock, Power of Will, Auburndale, Mass., 1907; S. Leavitt, Essentials of as Unity of Life, New York, 1907; B. MacLeVand, Prosperity through Thought Force. Holyoke, Mass., 1907; J. Fair, The New Life, 4 vole., 1908: H. Fletcher, Optimism, a Real Remedy, Chicago, 1908; F. C. Haddock, Personal Atmosphere: Studies in Poise and Power, Auburndale, Mass., 1905; C. B. Newcomb, Principles of Psychic Philosophy, Boston, 1908,' Mrs. E. W. Wilcox, New Thought Common Sense, Chicago, 1908; H. Wood, New Old Healing, Boston, 1908.

NEW YEAR'S CELEBRATION: The Christian Church adopted the Julian year of the Romans. This year begins with Jan. 1, which at the beginning of the Christian era was observed in Rome as a public holiday. The festival was noisy, attended with games and sports, which degenerated into coarse and indecent behavior. From this the

Christian Church held aloof, and penitential ser
mons were appointed for the day, warning against
	participation in the heathen feasts. But inasmuch as
	Christian participation in the feasts of the pagans did
	not cease, the Church prescribed a three‑days' fast
at New Year (Second Council of Tours, 567, canon
	xvii.), and in the decrees of later synods, the festival of
	Jan. l is mentioned among prohibited pagan customs;
as late as 1270, in a form of procedure by the in
	quisitors for hearing persons who were suspected
	of taking part in idolatry and evil arts, it was pre
	scribed that they be also examined as to whether
	they had spent Jan. 1 in heathen fashion (cf. J.
	Hansen, QueUen and Untersuchungen zur Geschichte
	lea Hexenwahm, p. 43, Bonn, 1901). From the
	fourth century, when the festival of the Nativity
	was instituted on Dec. 25, the first of January had
	come to be the "octave of Christmas " when, after
	Luke ii. 21, the circumcision and naming of Jesus
	were celebrated (see below), and neither in the
	missals nor in homilies is there any reference to the
	beginning of a new year. This was the more natu
	ral because in the Church the year opened with
	Christmas or with Mar. 1, or Mar. 25, or Easter.
	But since in civil life the year still began with Jan.
	1, and as all calendars adhered to this usage, the
	Church could not continually disregard the same.
	The matter was first espoused by the inferior clergy,
	who, deferring to the uneducated, contrived the
	caricature of a serious festival, in the so‑called feast
	of fools (see Fools, FF.ABT op). Toward the close
	of the Middle Ages, the Dominicans introduced the
	custom of " dispensing New Year from the pulpit,"
	that is, of conveying to their hearers appropriate
	wishes in the sermon on New‑year's day. Luther
	preached on Jan. 1 of the circumcision of Jesus, and
	rejected a celebration of the beginning of a new year
	on that day as a heathen custom. Nowadays the
	first of January is celebrated in the Evangelical
	churches as the beginning of a new year. Moreover,
	the custom was occasionally revived of " dispensing
	New Year " from the pulpit. In the Roman Catho
	lic Church, the feast of the naming of Jesus has been
	set, since 1721, for the second Sunday after Epiph
	any, while Jan. 1 has continued to be the festival
	of the circumcision. 	CARL BE$Tm'ul,U.
The festival of the circumcision of Christ is observed on Jan. 1 in the Greek, Roman Catholic, and Anglican Church, and was placed on this day, the eighth after Christmas, with reference to Luke ii. 21. It is a double of the second class and a feast of obligation in the Roman Catholic Church, and a " red‑letter day " in the Anglican. The services for the day have no relation to the beginning of the civil year.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Consult the literature under nmAm AND FESTIVALS; also Bingham, Oripines, XX., i. 3; H. Alt, Der ehrsatdiche CulUus vol. ii., Berlin 1843; C. P. Csspari, Eine A‑udin fdlechl" beipelepte homilia de saetaepiis, pp. 10, 12‑13, 33 sqq, 49, Christian* 1888; E. C. Achelis, LehrbucA der Prnktischen Thedopie, i. 278 eqq., Leipsie, 1898; DOA, ii. 1387‑1389.

NEW YORK SABBATZI COMMITTEE: An ororganization formed in 1857 to promote the observance of the Lord's Day, and especially to secure the enforcement of the laws which protect the quiet and
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA New Thought
New York Sabbath Committee
order of Sunday and the right of all classes to the weekly rest. It grew out of a prevalent feeling of the need of some measures to check the growing public desecration of Sunday, and the alarming increase of drunkenness, disorder, and violent crimes on that day. At a conference of prominent citizens a permanent committee of twenty was formed, to whom the conduct of the reform was committed, with power to fill vacancies in their own number. The committee was composed of leading laymen, representing the different denominations and the various business and social interests of the city. Norman White, a layman who had taken the chief part in initiating the movement, was made chairman, and to his eminent zeal, wisdom, and perseverance the success of the committee in its earlier years was very largely due; an efficient secretary and executive officer was found in the person of R. S. Cook, who had previously been a secretary of the American Tract Society. The committee, from the beginning, secured the hearty support of the clergy, both Protestant and Roman Catholic. It adopted, and has always adhered to, these principles in its work: viz., clearly to discriminate between the Sabbath as a religious and as a civil institution, and carefully to respect the proper limi4tions of civil intervention in guarding the weekly rest; to keep the one issue distinct from other measures of reform; to avoid impracticable measures; to recognize the controlling power of public sentiment, and to take no step until the way should be prepared for it; to advance one step at a time; to work through the constituted authorities, giving as little prominence as possible to its own agency; and to conduct its work on such broad and just grounds as to secure the cooperation of the widest possible constituency.
The committee undertook, successively, the suppression of the noisy crying of newspapers on Sunday, the Sunday selling of liquor, Sunday theatrical entertainments, noisy processions and parades on Sunday, unnecessary Sunday work on the public streets, and other encroachments upon the rest and quiet of the day, incident to a large city.
To accomplish these reforms, additional legislation was necessary and has been secured from time to time; notably the Sunday theater law, the Sunday processions law, amendments to the excise law, the reenactment of the Sunday statutes io the penal code of 1882, and the like. In recent years vigilant efforts have been required to meet the assaults upon the Sunday laws in the alleged interests of the large foreign‑born population. The committee from the beginning has made large use of the public press and especially has issued a series of carefully prepared documents discussing the various aspects of the Sunday question. These documents and occasional fly‑leaves, circulars, etc., have been printed in large numbers and widely distributed in English and other languages. Several of them have been reprinted in Europe. Especial pains have been taken to enlist the wage‑earning classes in the maintenance of their weekly rest.
The success of the committee from the start was so signal that its influence was felt in inspiring movements in the same direction in other cities,

Drew York Sabbath Committee	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
Newman, Albert Henry
150
The secretary and members of the committee have addressed public meetings in behalf of the reform in many of the larger cities of the country. It acted effectively in behalf of the Sabbath during the Civil War, and it was at its instigation that President Lincoln issued his famous Sunday order to the army and navy in 1862. It aided in the closing on Sunday of the national industrial expositions, and secured official recognition of Sunday by the representatives of the United States government at international expositions in Europe.
The committee has accumulated a valuable reference library open to the use of any who may wish to write or speak upon the Sunday question, and conducts a wide correspondence, at home and abroad. It has also been the organ of cooperation with similar movements in Europe and has been represented by its secretary at the important international congresses on Sunday rest which have been held on the continent. During its entire history it has had the service of a general secretary as its executive officer, who has devoted his entire time to its work, writing and editing its numerous publications, holding public conferences, and acting with other friends of the cause in defeating hostile legislation. The first secretary was succeeded by Philip Schaff, who did a most important work in securing the sympathy and cooperation of large numbers of the German population. On his resignation in 1869 W. W. Atterbury was called to the position which he held for upward of thirty years. Upon his resignation because of advanced years, he was elected a member of the committee and its recording secretary. He was succeeded by William S. Hubbell. See SUNDAY.

NEW ZEALAND: A British colony in the South Pacific Ocean, about 1,000 miles southeast of Australia. It consists of two large islands, North Island with an area of 44,468 square miles, and South or Middle Island with 58,525 square miles; Stewart Island with 665 square miles; and smaller groups and individual islands, the total area being about 104,751 square miles. The colony has been developed from a settlement of adventurers and refugees since 1805, and the first missionaries landed in 1814. In 1839 the islands were declared to be a part of the colony of New South Wales, and in 1840 Wellington, the capital, was founded on North Island. Despite the favorable character of the country, the increase of immigration was relatively slow, the principal obstacle being the wars with the brave aborigines, the Maoris, which began in 1845 and did not cease until 1892. Notwithstanding this, the white population in 1891 was 626,700 and in 1906 888,578, in addition to 47,731 Maoris and 2,570 Chinese of various religions. There is no established church in New Zealand. Ecclesiastical and religious conditions assumed a mixed character in the course of time, and only three Protestant denominations and the Roman Catholic Church report a considerable number of communicants. The Anglican Church is naturally predominant, with a membership of over 368,000 in 1906. The first bishopric was Auckland, founded in 1841, New Zealand having been previously under the
jurisdiction of the Bishop of Australia (see AusTRwI.IA). In 1895 the Bishop of Auckland became primate of New Zealand. The other dioceses of the province are Christchurch (1856), Nelson (1858), Waiapu (1858), Wellington (1858), Melanesia (1861), and Dunedin (1866).
In consequence of a large immigration from Scotland, the Presbyterian Church gained in importance, so that it numbers over 203,000 adherents. It has shared the fortunes of the Australian Presbyterians with regard to its relations with its foreign fellow believers. The Methodists number 89,000 and, as in the Australian commonwealth, their Wesleyan Union is extremely strong, although the denomination is divided into two large sects. The Congregationalists number 7,000, and the Lutherans, chiefly of German extraction and mostly scattered in the villages, have 4,840 members, while the Baptists, augmented especially by immigration from Australia, have (in 1909) 4,435 communicants. Of the twelve or fifteen sects which are small or unimportant elsewhere in the British Empire, the Plymouth Brethren have almost 7,500 adherents, and the Church of Christ, or Christian Disciples, 6,110. The Salvation Army reports 8,000 members, and the Mormons 270 disciples.
To the Roman Catholic Church belong 127,227 inhabitants of the islands. The province of Wellington was organized in 1887, the city having been the seat of a bishop since 1845. Auckland also formed a diocese after 1848, and Christchurch was made a diocese simultaneously with the elevation of .Wellington to an archbishopric; in 1869 the diocese of Dunedin was separated from Wellington.
	Among the non‑Christians were (1906) 1,867
Jews and 2,430 Buddhists and Confucians. Other
forms of faith are represented by smaller numbers
of adherents, although 8,521 persons declared them
selves to be freethinkers, undenominational, and the
like, while 24,325 refused to give any information
regarding their religion. The Maoris are reckoned
almost without exception among the Christian
population. 	Wu=rm GoETz.
BmLIOGSAP81: W. Gisborne, Colony of New Zealand, its History. London, 1891; Australian Handbook, ib. 1902 (includes New Zealand); R. Y. Irvine and O. T. G. Alpers, Progress, of New Zealand in the Century, ib. 1902; T. F. Martin. The Position . . . of tire Anglican Church in New Zealand, ib. 1903; R. Horsley, New Zealand, ib. 1908; J. Cow‑. The Maoria of Neto Zealand, ib. 1910.

NEW, JOHN FAIR: Founder of the Newtian Church; b. in New York City Feb. 12, 1832. He was of Quaker stock and religiously educated. When eighteen years old he began to preach what he called " The New Life Science," which may be summed up in the statement " that sin, sickness, and death are not a necessity of our lives and that if we live a pure holy life as our ensample Jesus did, we shall ascend to the Father as he did." He has been twice around the world in the interest of this faith. Churches have been organized in Philadelphia (May 10, 1907) and Boston (Jan. 22, 1909). Each church has for officers a president, secretary, and treasurer. Dr. New is the head bishop, but it is announced that in 1910 there will be an election