THE NEW
SCHAFF-HERZOG
ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF
RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
Editor-in-Chief
SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.
Editor-in-Chief
of
Supplementary Volumes
LEFFERTS A. LOETSCHER, Ph.D., D.D.
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF CHURCH HISTORY
PRINCETON THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY
BAKER BOOK HOUSE
GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN
THE NEW
SCHAFF-HERZOG ENCYCLOPEDIA
RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D. (Editor-in-Chief )
GEORGE WILLIAM GILMORE, M.A. (Associate Editor)
HENRY KING CARROLL, LL.D. (Department of Minor Denominations)
JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D.(Department of Liturgics and Religious Orders)
JAMES FREDERIC McCURDY, PH.D., LL.D.(Department of the Old Testament)
HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D.D.(Department of the New Testament)
ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D. (Department of Church History)
FRANK HORACE VIZETELLY, F.S.A.(Department of Pronunciation and Typography)
VOLUME VII
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1953
EDITORS
SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.
(EDITOR-IN-CHIEF.)
Professor of Church History, New York University.
GEORGE WILLLAM GILMORE, M.A.
(ASSOCIATE EDITOR.)
New York,
Formerly Professor of Biblical History and Lecturer on Comparative Religion,
Bangor Theological Seminary.
DEPARTMENT EDITORS, VOLUME VII
CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH, D.D.
(Department of Systematic Theology.)
Professor of Systematic Theology. Chicago Theological Seminary.
HENRY KING CARROLL, LL.D.
(Department of Minor Denominations.)
Secretary of Executive Committee of the Western Section for the Fourth Ecumenical Methodist Conference.
JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D.
(Department of Liturgies and Religious Orders.)
Rector of St. Ambrose's, New York City.
JAMES FREDERICK McCURDY, Ph.D., LL.D.
(Department of the Old Testament.)
Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Toronto.
HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D.D.
(Department of the New Testament.)
Professor of the Literature and Interpretation of the New Testament, Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass.
ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D.
(Department of Church History.)
Professor of Church History, Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, Waco, Tex.
FRANK HORACE VIZETELLY, F.S.A.
(Department of Pronunciation and Typography.)
Managing Editor of the STANDARD DICTIONARY, etc., New York City.
CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME VII
HANS ACHELIS, Ph.D., Th.D.,<.b>
Professor of Theology, University of Halle.
JEAN GERARD RICHARD ACQUOY (t), D.D.,
Late Professor of Church History and the History of Dogma, University of Leyden:
OTTO WILHELM FERDINAND ALBRECHT, Th.Lic.,
Pastor at Naumburg-on-the-Saale.
JOHN ALEXANDER BAIN, M.A.,
Pastor of the Westport and Newport Presbyterian Churches, County Mayo, Ireland.
EDOUARD BARDE (t), D.D.,
Late Professor of New Testament Exegesis, School of Theology, Geneva.
CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH, D.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, Chicago Theological Seminary.
HEINRICH BEHM, Ph.D.,
Superintendent in Doberan, Mecklenburg.
KARL BENRATH, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Konigsberg.
IMMANUEL GUSTAV ADOLF BENZINGER, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
German Orientalist and Vice-Consul for Holland in Jerusalem.
CARL ALBRECHT BERNOULLI, Th.Lic.,
Author at Arleshelm, near Basel.
CARL BERTHEAU, Th.D.,
Pastor of St. Michael's, Hamburg.
BERNHARD BESS, Th.Lic.,
Librarian, University of Halle.
WILLIAM LLOYD BEVAN, Ph.D.,
Assistant Editor of The Churchman, New York City.
EDWIN MUNSELL BLISS, D.D.,
Author of Books on Missions, Washington, D. C.
THEODORA CROSBY BLISS,
Writer on Missions.
CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME VII
HEINRICH BOEHMER, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
Professor of Church History, University of Bonn.
HERMANN BOENIG,
Gymnasial Professor in Konigsberg.
AMY GASTON CHARLES AUGUSTE BONET-MAURY, D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Church History, Independent School of Divinity, Paris.
GOTTLIEB NATHANAEL BONWETSCH, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Gottingen.
FRIEDRICH HEINRICH BRANDES, Th.D.,
Reformed Minister and Chaplain at Buckeburg, Schaumburg-Lippe.
CHARLES AUGUSTUS BRIGGS, D.D., Litt.D.,
Professor of Theological Encyclopedia and Symbolics, Union Theological Seminary, New York.
JAMES MONROE BUCKLEY, D.D., LL.D.,
Editor of The Christian Advocate, New York City.
OSKAR GOTTLIEB RUDOLF BUDDENSIEG (t),Ph.D.,
Late Director of the Teacher's Seminary in Dresden.
FRANTS PEDER WILLIAM BUHL, Ph.D.,Th.D.,
Professor of Oriental Languages, University of Copenhagen.
KARL BURGER (t),Th.D.,
Late Supreme Consistorial Councilor, Munich.
JACQUES EUGENE CHOISY, Th.D.,
Pastor in Geneva.
JOSEPH BOURNE CLARK, D.D.,
Editorial Secretary of the Congregational Home Missionary Society, New York.
FERDINAND COHRS, Th.Lic.,
Consistorial Councilor, Ilfeld, Germany.
HENRY COWAN, D.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Aberdeen, Scotland.
AUGUST HERMANN OREMER (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Greifswald.
GUSTAV HERMAN DALMAN, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis University of Leipsic, and President of the German Evangelical Archeological Institute, Jerusalem.
SAMUEL MARTIN DEUTSCH (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Church History, University of Berlin.
HENRY MARTYN DEXTER (t), D.D.,
Late Editor of The Congregationalist,Boston
MORTON DEXTER, M.A.,
Congregational Clergyman and Author, Boston.
WILHELM DILTHEY, Ph.D.,
Professor of Philosophy, University of Berlin.
PAUL GOTTFRIED DREWS, Th.D.,
Professor of Practical Theology, University of Halle.
JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D.,
Pastor of St. Ambrose's Church, New York City.
DUCHEMIN,
Pastor in Neuilly-sur-Seine, France.
FRIEDRIOH HERMAN CHRISTIAN DUESTERDIECK (t),Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late General Superintendent, Osuabruck, Germany.
EMIL EGLI (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Church History, University of Zurich.
RUDOLF EIBACH, Th.D.,
Consistorial Councilor, Dotzheim, near Wiesbaden, Germany.
HUBERT EVANS, Ph.D.,
Member of the Editorial Staff of the Encyclopaedia Britannica Company, New York.
JOHN OLUF EVJEN, Ph.D.,
Professor of Theology in Augsburg Seminary, Minneapolis, Minn.
HERMANN AUGUST PAUL EWALD,Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Dogmatics and New Testament Exegesis, University of Erlangen.
CHRISTIAN THEODOR, FICKER, Ph.D.,
Emeritus Pastor at Eythra, near Leipsic.
DAVID HAY FLEMING, LL.D.,
Honorary Secretary of the Scottish Historical Society, Edinburgh.
FRITZ FLIEDNER (t), M.D.,
Late German Evangelist in Spain.
GUSTAV WILHELM FRANK (t) Th.D.,
Late Professor of Dogmatics Symbolics , and Christian Ethics, University of Vienna.
GEORG FROBOESS,
Director for the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Prussia.
EMANUEL VOGEL GERHART (t), D.D.,
Late Professor of Systematic Theology at Lancaster, Pa.
GEORGE WILLIAM GILMORE, M.A.,
Formerly Lecturer on Comparative Religion, Bangor Theological Seminary, Associate Editor of THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG ENCYCLOPEDIA.
FRANZ GOERRES, Ph.D.,
Assistant Librarian, University of Bonn.
WILHELM GOETZ, Ph.D.,
Honorary Professor of Geography, Technical High School, and Professor, Military Academy, Munich.
JOHANNES FRIEDRICH GOTTSCHICK(t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of New Testament Exegesis, Ethics, and Practical Theology, Evangelical Theological Faculty, University of Tubingen.
CASPAR RENE GREGORY, Ph.D.,Th.D., D.D., LL.D., Dr. Jur.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Leipsic.
PAUL GRUENBERG, Th.D.,
Pastor In Strasburg.
GEORG GRUETZMACHER, Ph.D., Th. Lic.,
Extraordinary Professor of Church History, University of Heidelberg.
PETER REINHOLD GRUNDEMANN,Ph.D., Th.D.,
Pastor in Morz, near Belzig, Prussia.
EDUARD GUEDER (t), Th.D.,
Late Preacher in Biglen, Canton of Bern, Switzerland.
HERMANN GUTHE, Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Leipsic.
HEINRICH HAHN, Ph.D.,
Formerly Professor of History and German In the Luisenstadt Realgymnasium, Berlin.
ADOLF HARNACK, Ph.D., Th.D., Dr. Jur., M.D.,
General Director of the Royal Library, Berlin.
CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME VII
ALBERT HAUCK, Ph.D., Th.D., Dr. Jur.,
Professor of Church History, University of Leipsic, Editor-in-Chief of the Hauck-Herzog Realencyklopadie.
HERHMAN HAUPT, Ph.D.,
Professor, and Director of the University Library, Glessen.
JOHANNES HAUSSLEITER, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Consistorial Councilor, Professor of New Testament Theology and Exegesis, University of Greifswald.
MAX HEINZE (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Philosophy, University of Leipsic.
ERNST HENKE (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Marburg.
WILHELM HEYD (t), Ph.D.,
Late Oberstudienrat, Stuttgart.
KARL HOLL, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Berlin.
LOUISE SEYMOUR HOUGHTON,
Author and Translator.
JOHANN FRIEDRICH IKEN (t),
Late Pastor in Bremen.
HEINRICH FRANZ JACOBSON (t), Ph.D.,
Late Professor of Law, University of Konigsberg.
ALFRED JEREMIAS, Ph.D., Th. Lic.,
Privat-docent for Old Testament Exegesis, Leipsic.
GUSTAV ADOLF JUELICHER, Ph.D.,Th.D.,
Professor of Church History and New Testament Exegesis, University of Marburg.
ADOLF HERMANN HEINRICH KAMPHAUSEN.(t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Bonn.
FERDINAND FRIEDRICH WILHELM KATTENBUSCH, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Dogmatics, University of Halle.
PETER GUSTAV KAWERAU, Th.D.,
Consistorial Councilor, Professor of Practical Theology, and University Preacher, University of Breslau.
KONRAD KESSLER (t), Ph.D.,
Late Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Greifswald.
OTTO KIRN, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Dogmatics, University of Leipsic.
RUDOLF KITTEL, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Leipsic.
FRIEDRICH EDUARD KOENIG, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Bonn.
HEINRICH ADOLF KOESTLIN (t),Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Privy Councilor in Cannstadt, formerly Professor of Theology, University of Glessen.
JULIUS KOESTLIN (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,Dr. Jur.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Halle.
THEODOR FRIEDRICH HERMANN KOLDE, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Erlangen.
RICHARD KRAETZSCHMAR, (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Marburg.
HERMANN'GUSTAV EDUARD KRUEGER, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Glessen.
JOHANNES WILHELM KUNZE, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Systematic and Practical Theology, University of Greifswald.
GEORG RITTER VON LAUBMANN (t), Ph.D.,
Late Director of the Royal State Library in Munich.
WILLIAM LEE (t), D.D.,
Late Professor of Church History, University of Glasgow.
FRIEDRICH LEZIUS, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Konigsberg.
RUDOLF LIECHTENHAN, Th. Lic.,
Pastor In Buch, Canton of Zurich, Switzerland.
FRIEDRICH LIST (t), Ph.D.,
Late Studiendirektor, Munich.
FRIEDRICH ARMIN LOOFS, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Halle.
JOHANN LOSERTH, Ph.D.,
Professor of History, University of Graz.
JAMES FREDERICK McCURDY, Ph.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Toronto.
PEDER MADSEN, Th.D.,
Professor of Theology, University of Copenhagen.
WILHELM JULIUS MANGOLD (t),Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Bonn.
THEODOR MEINHOLD,
Superintendent in Barth, Prussia.
JOHANNES MERZ, Ph.D.,
Consistorial Councilor, Stuttgart.
PHILIPP MEYER, Th.D.,
Supreme Consistorial Councilor, Hanover.
GEROLD MEYER VON KNONAU, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of History, University of Zurich.
CARL THEODOR MIRBT, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Marburg.
WILHELM ERNST MOELLER (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology in Kiel.
RICHARD CARY MORSE, M.A.,
General Secretary of the International Committee of Young Men's Christian Associations.
GEORG MUELLER, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Inspector of Schools, Leipsic.
CHRISTOF EBERHARD NESTLE, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor in the Theological Seminary, Maulbronn, Wurttemberg.
ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Church History, Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, Waco, Texas.
CONRAD VON ORELLI, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and History of Religion, University of Basel.
MARGARET BLOODGOOD PEEKE (t),
Late Inspectress-General of the Martinist Order for America.
CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME VII
CARL PFENDER,
Pastor of St. Paul's Evangelical Lutheran Church, Paris.
ERWIN PREUSCHEN, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Pastor at Hirschhorn-on-the-Neckar, Germany.
GOTTHILF PAUL EMIL LEOPOLD FRIEDRICH RANKE, Th.D.,
Head Pastor and Senior at Lubeck.
GEORG CHRISTIAN RIETSCHEL, Th.D.,
University Preacher and Professor of Practical Theology, University of Leipsic.
ROBERT WILLIAM ROGERS, M.A., Ph.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, Drew Theological Seminary, Madison, New Jersey.
FERDINAND SANDER,
Councilor for Schools in Bremen, Germany.
DAVID SCHLEY SCHAFF, D.D.,
Professor of Church History, Western Theological Seminary, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania.
PHILIP SCHAFF (t), D.D., LL.D.,
Late Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York, and Edior of the Original SCHAFF-HERZOG ENCYCLOPEDIA.
REINHOLD SCHMID, Th. Lic.,
Pastor in Oberholzheim, Wurttemberg.
CARL WILHELM SCHOELL (t), Ph.D., D.D.,
Late Pastor of the Savoy Church, London.
THEODOR FRIEDRICH SCHOTT (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Librarian and Professor of Theology, University of Stuttgart.
JOHANN FRIEDRICH RITTER VON SCHULTE, Dr. Jur.,
Professor of Law, University of Bonn.
LUDWIG THEODOR SCHULZE, Ph.D., 'i'h.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Rostock.
REINHOLD SEEBERG, Th.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Berlin.
EMIL SEHLING, Dr. Jur.,
Professor of Ecclesiastical and Commercial Law, University of Erlangen.
EDUARD SIMONS, Th.D.,
Extraordinary Professor of Practical Theology, University of Berlin.
PHILIPP FRIEDRICH ADOLPH THEODOR SPAETH, D.D., LL.D.,
Professor in the Lutheran Theological Seminary, Mt. Airy, Philadelphia.
GEORG EDUARD STEITZ (t), Th.D.,
Late Pastor in Frankfort-on-the-Main.
HERMANN LEBERECHT STRACK, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Extraordinary Professor of Old Testament Exegeals and Semitic Languages, University of Berlin.
ERNST PETER WILHELM TROELTSCH, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Heidelberg.
JOHANN GERHARD WILHELM UHLHORN (t), Th,D.,
Late Abbot of Lokkum, Germany.
SIETSE DOUWES VAN VEEN, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History and Christian Archeology, University of Utrecht.
JOHN VIENOT, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, Independent School of Divinity, Paris.
JOHN VINSON,
Founder of the Church of the Living God.
WILHELM VOLCK (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Rostock.
GUSTAV WARNECK, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Formerly Honorary Professor of the Science of Missions, Halle.
JOHANNES WEISS, Th.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Heidelberg.
EDWARD ELIHU WHITFIELD, M.A.,
Retired Public Schoolmaster, London.
ALBERT EDMUND WILLIAMSON,
Pastor in Brooklyn, N. Y.
OTTO ZOECKLER (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Church History and Apologetics, University of Greifswald.
SAMUEL MARINUS ZWEMER,
Formerly Missionary in Arabia.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX-VOLS. I-VII
The following list of books is supplementary to the bibliographies given at the end of the articles contained in vols. I.-VII., and brings the literature down to March, 1910. In this list each title entry is printed in capital letters. It is to be noted that, throughout the work, in the articles as a rule only first editions are given. In the bibliographies the aim is to give either the best or the latest edition, and in case the book is published both in America and in some other country, the American place of issue is usually given the preference.
ABRAHAM A SANCTA CLARA: Werke in Auslese, ed. H. Strigl, 6 vols., Vienna, 1904-07.
ADAM OF BREMEN: P. W. Kohlmann, Adam von Bremen, Leipsic, 1909.
ADENEY, W. F.: See below, GOD.
AFRICA: S. A. Donaldson, Church Life and Thought in North Africa, A.D. 200, London, 1909.
J. C. Lambert, Missionary Heroes in Africa, Philadelphia, 1909. AGRICULTURE, HEBREW: F. Lundgreen, Die Benutzung der Pflanzenwelt in der alttestamentlichen, Religion, Giessen, 1908.
AINGER, A.: E. Sichel, The Life and Letters of Alfred Ainger, London, 1910.
ALEANDRO, G.: J. Paquier, Lettres familieres de Jerome Aleandro 1510-40), Paris, 1909.
AMORITES: A. T. Clay, Amurru, the Home of the Northern Semites; a Study showing that the Religion and Culture of Israel are not of Babylonian Origin, Philadelphia, 1910.
ANDERSON, G.: Hitherto Untold, New York, 1910.
ANDREWES, L.: An edition of his Manual for the Sick is published, New York, 1909.
ANGELS: T. Laval, Le Monde invisible, ou traite dogmatique et ascetique des anges, Paris, 1909.
ANGELUS: The Angelus and the Regina Coeli; with a few short Notes, explanatory and historical, New York, 1910.
APOCRYPHA: H. M. Hughes, The Ethics of Jewish Apocryphal Literature, London, 1909.
APOLOGETICS: E. Boutraux, Science and Religion in Contemporary Philosophy, London, 1909.
H. C. King, Letters on the Greatness and Simplicity of the Christian Faith, Boston, 1909.
A. S. Peake, Christianity: its Nature and its Truth, New York, 1909.
W. S. Turton, The Truth of Christianity. Being an Examination of the more important Arguments for and against Believing in Christianity, New York, 1909.
C. D. Williams, A Valid Christianity for To-day, ib., 1909.
ARABIA: O. Weber, Eduard Glaser's Forschungsreisen in Sudarabien, Leipsic, 1909.
ARIANISM: D. H. von Schubert, Das alteste germanische Christentum, oder der sogenannten "Arianismus" der Germanen, Tubingen, 1909.
ARISTOTLE: The Works of Aristotle are to be translated into English under the editorship of J. A. Smith and W. D. Ross; of this series there have appeared the Parva naturalis, De lineus insecobilibus, Metaphysica.
I. Bywater, Aristotle on the Art of Poetry (Text, Introduction, Transl.), London, 1908-1909.
ARNOLD, T.: H. M. Butler, Ten Great and Good Men, New York, 1909.
ART AND CHURCH: L. von Sybel, Christliche Antike. Einfuhrung in die altchristliche Kunst, vol. ii., Plastik, Architektur, und Malerei, Marburg, 1909.
ASBURY, F.: G. P. Mains, Francis Asbury, London, 1910.
ATHANASIAN CREED: W. Hay, The Athanasian Creed, London, 1909.
ATONEMENT: E. DeW. Burton, and J. M. P. and G. B. Smith, Biblical Ideas of Atonement, Chicago, 1909.
AUGUSTINE: Scnpta contra Donatistas, pars iii., ed. M. Petschenig, Vienna, 1910.
BAALBEK: K. Maurer, Baalbek, Darmstadt, 1909.
BACON, B. W.: See below, JOHN THE APOSTLE.
BACON, R: Liber primus Communium naturalium; Partes prima et secunda ed. R. Steele, New York, 1909, also Metaphysica, de viciis contractis in studio, ib., 1909.
BANKS, L. A.: The Problems of Youth; A Series of Discourses for Young People on Themes of the Book of Proverbs, New York, 1909.
BARNABAS: J. M. Heer, Die versio Latina des Barnabasbriefes und ihr Verhaltnis zur altlateinischen Bibel, Freiburg, 1908.
BELLARMINE: J. de la Serviere, La Theologie de Bellarmine, Paris, 1909.
BIBLE TEXT: Der Codex Boernerianus der Briefe des Apostels Paulus in Lidhtdruck nachgebildet, Leipsic, 1909. BIBLE VERSIONS: H. von Soden, Das lateinische Neue Testament in Afrika zur Zeit Cyprians, in TU, xxxiii., Leipsic, 1909.
Die aramaischen Bibel-Versionen (Targumim); Targum Jonatan ben Uzziel und Targum Jerusalem, Text, Umschrift, and Uebersetzung ... von M. Altschuler, vol. i., Genesis, Vienna, 1909.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX-VOLUMES I-VII
The Octateuch in Ethiopic, According to the Text of the Paris Codex, With the Variants of Five Other MSS., ed. J. O. Boyd, part i., Genesis, in Bibliotheca Abessinica, ed. E. Littmann, Leyden, 1909.
S. Feist, Etymologisches Worterbuch der gotischen Sprache, mit Einschluss der sogenannien Krimgotischen, part ii., Halle, 1909.
BIBLICAL CRITICISM: P. Fiebig, Aufgaben der neutestamentlichen Forschung in der Gegenwart, Leipsic, 1909.
BIBLICAL THEOLOGY: A. Schlatter, Die Theologie des Neuen Testaments, Vol. i., Das Wort Jesu, Stuttgart, 1908.
S. E. Keeble, The Social Teaching of the Bible, New York, 1909.
F. S. Schenck, The Sociology of the Bible, ib., 1909.
M. Dibelius, Die Geisterwelt im Glauben des Paulus, Gottingen, 1909.
J. Adams, Israel's Ideal; or Studies in O. T. Theology, Edinburgh, 1910.
BOTTOME, MARGARET: Heart to Heart Letters; being Extracts from the Letters of Margaret Bottome to a Son, New York, 1910.
BOURIGNON DE LA PORTE, A.: A. R. Macewen, Antoinette Bourignon, Quietist, London, 1909.
BUDDHISM: H. Hackmann, Buddhism as a Religion; its Historical Development and present Conditions, London, 1909.
BURIAL: S. KIein, Tod und Begrubnis in Paldstina zur Zeit der Tannaiter, Berlin, 1909.
BUTLER, H. M.: Ten Great and Good Men. Lectures, New York, 1909.
CABALA: Sepher ha-Zohar. Le Livre de la splendeur. Doctrine esoterique des Israelites, Paris, 1909.
CALVIN J.: A. Ruegg, Die Beziehungen Calvins zu Heinrich Bullinger und der von ihm geleiteten zurcherischen Kirche, Zurich, 1909.
CAMPBELL, A.: J. Egbert, Alexander Campbell and Christian Liberty, St. Louis, 1909.
CAMPION, E.: Works, ed. P. Vivian, Oxford, 1909.
CEMETERIES: J. Wilpert, Die Papstgraber und die Caciliengruft in der Katakombe des heiligen Kallistus, Freiburg, 1909.
CHASE, F. H.: Confirmation in the Apostolic Age, London, 1909.
CHINA: See below, KOREA.
S. P. Conger, Letters from China, London, 1909.
J. J. M. Degroot, The Religion of the Chinese, New York, 1910.
Feng-Shen-Yen-I. Die Metamorphosen der Gotter. Aus dem, Chinesischen . . . by W. Grube, vol. i., Leyden, 1909.
CHRISTMAS: R. Beck, Das heilige Weihnachtsfest, Regensburg, 1909.
CHRISTOLOGY: J. C. Granbery, Outline of N. T. Christology, Chicago, 1909.
CHURCH: A. M. Fairbairn, Studies in Religion and Theology; The Church in Idea and in History, London and New York, 1910.
CHURCH HISTORY: S. A. Donaldson. See above, AFRICA.
K. Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte, 2d half, 2d division, Aufklarung. Neueste Zeit, Tubingen, 1909.
A. C. Flick, The Rise of the Medieval Church, London, 1909.
CLEMENT VII: C. F. Young, The Medici, i. 436-493, London, 1909.
CLEMENT OF ROME: H. Hemmer, Clement de Rome, epure aux Corinthiens. Homelie du ii. siecle, Paris, 1909.
COLENSO, J. W.: A. T. Wirgman, Life of James Green, London; 1909. (Dr. James Green was the archopponent of Colenso; and this book in dealing with Green throws much light on Colenso.
COMPARATIVE RELIGION: W. S. Lilly, Many Mansions; being Studies in Ancient Religions and Modern Thought, London, 1907.
F. B. Jevons, An Introduction to the Study of Comparative Religion, New York,1908.
W. O. E. Oesterly, The Evolution of the Messianic Idea. A Study in Comparative Religion, London, 1908.
G. Galloway, The Principles of Religious Development, ib., 1909.
R. R. Marett, The Threshold of Religion, ib., 1909.
E. Mogk, Die Menschenopfer bei den Germanen, in the Abhandlungen of the Royal Saxon Academy, Philological-historical class, Vol. xxxvii., no. 17, 1909.
F. Cumont, Les Religions orientales dans le paganisme romain, 2d ed., Paris, 1909.
W. St. C. Tisdall, Comparative Religion, London, 1909.
CONDER, C. R.: The City of Jerusalem, London, 1909.
CONFIRMATION. See above, CHASE.
CONFUCIUS: L. H. Schutz, Die hohe Lehre des Confucius, Frankfort, 1909.
CONSCIENCE: G. Hughes, Conscience and Criticism, London, 1909.
CONSTANTINOPLE: E. M. Antoniadi, Beschreibung der Hagia Sophia in Konstantinopel, vol. i., Paris, 1909.
CONWELL, R. H.: He Goeth before you, Cleveland, 1910.
COSMAS INDICOPLEUSTES: The Christian Topography of Cosmas . . . , ed. with Geographical Notes /i>by E. O. Winstedt, Cambridge, 1910.
COUNClLS: C. J. Hefele, New French transl. of the Conciliengeschichte, Histoire des conciles, augmented with notes, vols. i. . . . iii. 1, Paris, 1907-09.
CREATION: W. F. Warren, The Earliest Cosmologies, New York, 1909.
CREIGHTON, M.: Lessons from the Cross, London, 1910.
DANTE: W. H. V. Reade, The Moral System of Dante's Inferno, New York, 1909.
P. Toynbee, Dante in English Literature from Chaucer to Cary, 2 vols., ib., 1909.
Quastio de aqua et terra, ed. and transl. C. L. Shadwell, ib., 1910.
DEACONESS: W. M. Tippy, The Socialized Church, New York, 1909.
DIVORCE: J. P. Lichtenberger Divorce; a Study in Social Causation, New York, 1909.
DOBSCHUTZ, E. VON: The Apostolic Age, London, 1909.
DOCTRINE, HISTORY OF: O. Pfleiderer, The Development of Theology in Germany since Kant, New York, 1909.
DODS, M.: Christ and Man, ed. H. R. Mackintosh, London, 1909.
LIUTPRAND, lūt'prand: Medieval Italian historian; d. about 970. He was of Lombard descent and was educated at the court of Pavia, where he attracted the attention of King Hugo, and later became the chancellor of King Berengar. In 949
he went to Constantinople on a mission for the king, but afterward became opposed to Berengar and went to the court of Otto I., who made him bishop of Cremona in 962. Six years later he made a second journey to Constantinople to gain the
hand of a Greek princess for Otto II. His three works, none of which are complete, are as follows: Antapodosis, a history from 887 to 949, designed to requite the good and evil which he had experienced and directed especially against Berengar and Willa; Liber de rebus gestis Ottonis magni imperatoris, a history from 960 to 964; and Relatio de
legatione Constantinopolitana, describing his second visit to the city. His style is attractive, but the subjectivity and unreliability of his writings render their historical value only secondary.
(A. Hauck.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: His works are collected in MGH, Script., iii (1839), 264-363, and in MPL, cxxxvi. 787-938. Consult: R. A. Köpke, De vita et scriptis Liudprandi, Berlin, 1842; C. Dändliker and J. J. Müller, Luidprand von Cremona und seine Quellen, Leipsic, 1871; F. Köhler, Beiträge zur Textkritik Liudprands von Cremona, in NA, viii (1883), 49-89; A. Zanelli, Una legazione a Costantinopoli nel secolo x., Brescia, 1883; Wattenbach, DGQ, i (1885), 347, 391-398, i (1893), 372, 423-428; L. von Ranke, Weltgeschichte, viii. 634-655, Leipsic, 1887; Potthast, Wegweiser, 742-744 (for further literature).
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
by Satan and his demons (Isa. liii. 4-5, R. V. margin; Matt. viii. 17; James v. 14-15; Mark ix. 2129; Luke xiii. 11-17). Statistics are not at hand, but the church reports two congregations in Indianapolis, Ind., and many scattered adherents elsewhere. John Vinson.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Gunn, Memoirs of John Harry Livingston, New York, 1829, condensed by T. W. Chambers, 1868.
Early Life and Education. He grew up amid the austere Scotch piety of his home, with very limited schooling. At ten he went to work in a cotton factory, and formed the habit of putting most of his earnings into the acquisition of books (a Latin grammar, works on natural sciene, etc.), which he studied far into the night. His studies were so successful that in 1830 he was able to enter the University of Glasgow, with the object of studying medicine, supporting himself by factory work in the summer months. To this period belongs his awakening to personal Christianity. He describes his inner transformation as being similar to the curing of color-blindness. His desire to serve the kingdom of God was directed by an appeal of Gützlaff's toward the mission in China. He began to study theology with the design of going to China as an independent missionary. Some friends, however, induced him to join an organized mission. In 1838 he entered the service of the London Missionary Society, at whose expense he continued his studies. When these were completed, his proposed expedition to China was prevented by the outbreak of the Opium War. Through the influence of Robert Moffat, then in England, his thoughts were turned to South Africa, for which he was duly commissioned on Dec. 8, 1840.
Early Missionary Labors. At Moffat's station, Kuruman, Livingstone was to learn the language of the Bechuana people. While astonished at the results already achieved there, he was obliged to modify his earlier conceptions. In many particulars he was not in harmony with the existing methods. Before long his characteristic impulse to go further manifested itself. A few months after his arrival he made a journey of over 700 miles, winning the confidence of the natives wherever he went by his medical activity. Upon Moffat's return with the young missionary Edwards, Livingstone migrated with the latter to the Ba-katla tribe. Here, with great practical efficiency, he organized the Mabotsa station, to which in 1843 he brought Moffat's daughter as his wife. On account of difficulties arising apparently out of the wounded vanity of his colleague, who even brought charges against him before the missionary board of directors, Livingstone proceeded in 1846 to the country of the Bakwena, deserting the house and plantations at Mabotsa. He now founded a station on the river Kolobeñ to which Setshele, the chieftain, transferred his capital. This chief, who had known Livingstone since his first journey, was deeply impressed by his teaching, and when he made up his mind to abandon polygamy he was baptized.. Unfortunately, but few of his subjects followed him. Concerning Livingstone's personal missionary labors at this period little is known, as his diaries have been lost. Since he refused to take in any but true believers, the congregation remained very small. He himself seems to have been far from satisfied with his labors here, which would never have made him famous.
His great nature impelled him onward. There was no rest for him at Kolobeñ. At the coat of laborious journeys, he was continually seeking new tribes. The immediate occasion was furnished by the destruction of his station by the Boers, who, having retreated before the English power into the interior, kept a sharp watch to prevent the natives from obtaining firearms, while Livingstone, a thorough free-trader, paid no attention to their wishes. So when Setshele failed to comply with the demand of the Boers that he should suppress this traffic in his tribe, a retaliatory expedition was undertaken against his capital, in which the mission station was destroyed. At the time Livingstone with his wife and child was on the journey in course of which he discovered Lake Ngami, and was paving the way by his acquaintance with Sebituane, chief of the Makololo, toward wider enterprises.
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Livingston
Livingstone
After escorting his family to Cape Town, he returned, and in 1853 began some preliminary missionary labor with the tribe at Linyanti on the River Tshobe, which was in time to spread abroad to the Barotse race, then subject to the Makololo, in the luxuriantly fertile Zambesi plain. A mission of this kind, however, required a direct and easy way of communication with home. In order to seek such a way, Livingstone, supplied by Sekeletu (son and successor of Sebituane) with a great company of bearers, undertook the journey to Loanda, where he arrived May 31, 1854. After a short rest he returned to the Makololo, whose capital; by his advice, was transferred to the north bank of the Zambesi. Next he proceeded down stream to the east, discovered Victoria Falls, and in the spring of 1856 reached the Portuguese colony of Tete, where he left his Makololo companions and returned by way of Kilimane to England.
Livingstone the missionary had become a world-renowned explorer. While writing the accounts of his travels, and in the midst of diverting influences, very extensive new plans took shape in his mind. A mission on vast lines, combined with colonization and trade, was contemplated. He severed his connection with the London Missionary Society, after it had sanctioned the founding of a Makololo mission, which he promised to support. He personally assumed the leadership of an expedition to the Zambesi with government support, in the capacity of British consul. With this was combined an enterprise of the Universities Mission looking toward the establishment of a "colonizing mission " in the Zambesi district. This second period of Livingstone's activity in Africa (1858-64) was full of difficulties, disappointments, and failures. In the ascent of the Zambesi, the expedition found little support among the Portuguese. What proved the most serious obstacle to Livingstone's plans was their toleration of the slave-trade. Meanwhile he explored the Shire, a left-bank tributary of the Zambesi; discovered Lake Shirwa and reached, by way of the south, Lake Nyasa, which had been recently discovered along its eastern shore by the German explorer Roscher. He then journeyed overland to the Makololo, among whom in the mean time a mission had been founded by the London Society amid the greatest difficulties, but fever had carried off its entire staff. Shortly afterward, in an uprising of the subject tribes, the Makololo were exterminated. Their tribal lands were assigned to the Barotse, among whom eventually the Paris mission assumed the labor toward which Livingstone had aspired in connection with that region. Bishop MacKenzie meanwhile had arrived with missionaries and colonists. The first station of the colonizing mission was founded near Lake Shirwa. But while Livingstone was occupied with the farther exploration of Lake Nyasa (1862), the new establishment once again succumbed to the ravages of fever, drought, famine, and the assaults of the savage slave-hunter Ajawa. After the bishop's death, the few remaining members removed the colony to the Shire. They succeeded no better here in effecting a permanent settlement; and thus the realization of Livingstone's favorite plan was frustrated. Besides all this, he had been troubled by dissensions among the officers of the expedition. A fresh reinforcement arrived, including Mrs. Livingstone, who desired to share her husband's journeys. A few weeks later, he had to commit his wife to the grave (1862). From the depth of mourning he roused himself to new labor. He sought to discover a better approach to Lake Nyasa and the interior by way of the Rovuma. Here again many difficulties and disappointments were encountered. It grew plainer and plainer that the objects of the expedition were not yet to be realized, and in 1864 it was recalled by the Government.
Livingstone remained only a year in England. With the vigorous cooperation of persons of influence, he formed new plans, which no longer had to do with definite missionary labors, but contemplated the solution of that great problem of civilization, the opening up of central
Africa, especial stress being laid on the suppression of the slave-trade.
Directly after completing his second book, The Zambesi and its Tributaries (London, 1864), he sailed for Bombay with the idea of organizing a new expedition from that base. He recruited soldiers in
India; and two native Africans, Chums and Susi, trained in an Indian mission school, became his faithful servants. The bearers were recruited on Johanna Island. Provision was made for beasts of burden, including camels, buffaloes, mules, and asses. This imposing expedition was led by Livingstone, the sole European member of it, by wayof Zanzibar to the mouth of the Rovuma. His plan was to pass around the Portuguese colony and open a route for legitimate trade communication and Christian influences all the way to the interior of the continent. As the expedition proceeded geographical exploration became more and more prominent in its work. Again, and very soon,
unexpected difficulties occurred. In course of a few months the Indian soldiers had to be sent back as totally unserviceable. Livingstone understood the Africans very well, but not the Indians. The animals perished down to the last one. Lake Nyasa was reached with great efforts. Attacked by the savage Mafitu, the carriers from Johanna fled back to their home, and spread the report that Livingstone had been murdered, but he and the remnants of the caravan eluded the pursuers.
While all Europe was mourning over his death, he still pushed on amid the greatest obstacles, sick, without medicine or proper food; and, falling in with an Arab caravan, arrived at Kasembe, thence discovering Lake Moero, and reaching Ujiji on Lake Tanganyika. Provisions were to await him here, but the Arab agent, weary of the delay, squandered
them and embezzled the money. Despite all this, Livingstone so promptly recovered his strength in the wholesome air that he soon (1869), with his few attendants undertook a new expedition westward
through the district of the cannibal Manyema. At Nyangwe he reached the Lualaba, and supposed he had discovered the upper reaches of the Nile. He
Livingstone the missionary developed into the pioneer of civilization, and ultimately into the geographicl explorer. But he never lost sight of the fact that only the Gospel could bring true succor to the peoples of Africa. During his very last journey, he still observed regular devotions with his attendants, and, as long as his strength lasted, divine worship on Sunday. The latest entries in his diary evince unswerving profound piety. His discoveries were carried further with much success by Stanley, and the African continent was opened to European civilization and to the colonial enterprises of ambitious nations. Although this is unhappily not always directed by a Christian spirit, yet missionary work also has received a great impetus and achieved successful results in the spirit of the great pioneer, whose name can never be forgotten by the peoples of Africa.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The works of Livingstone consist of his Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa, London, 1857; Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambesi and its Tributaries, ib. 1865; and Last Journals, ed. H. Waller, 2 vols., ib. 1874. Besides the standard biography by W. G. Blaikie, London, 1888 and often, other lives have been written by: J. S. Roberts, ib. 1874; S. Mossman, in Heroes of Discovery, Edinburgh, 1877; idem, Livingstone, the Missionary Traveller, London, 1882; J. Marratt, ib. 1877; A. Gavard and A. Perier, Paris, 1878; T. Hughes, London, 1891 and often; H. H. Johnston, ib. 1891; T. B. Maclachlan, Edinburgh; 1901; B. K. Gregory, London, 1906; and in DNB, xxxiii. 384-396. Further material is found in: H. M. Stanley, How I Found Livingstone, London, 1872; W. D. Cooley, Dr. Livingstone and the Royal Geographical Society, London, 1874; C. F. Loriot, David Livingstone et sa mission sociale, Paris, 1881; R. Noel, Livingstone in Africa, London, 1895; , and Sir Bartle Frere, in Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. xviii., 1874.
BIBLOGRAPHY Sources for a biography are his own statements in the Notice biopraphique, Paris, 1818, and the life by his friend Mahul in Revue eneyelopedique, xviii. (1823). Consult further: C. J. von Hefele, Der Cardinal Ximenea, Tubingen, 1851, Eng. tranel., London, 1860; P. Gams, Zur GeachichG der apauiachen Inquisition, Regensburg, 1878; idem, Die KirehengeaehichG van Spanien, iii., part 2, ib. 1879; KL, viii. 56-59. The German transl. of Llorente's history of the inquisition appeared in 4 vols., Gmund, 1819, and after the 3d ed. of the original, Stuttgart, 1824. The 2d ed. of the Italian transl. appeared, 8 vols., Milan, 1854.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A valuable list of sources is appended to the article in DNB, xxxiii. 436-439. Consult: N. Salmon, Lives of the English Bishops, pp. 147-158. London, 1733; F. B. Howell, Complete Collection of State Trials, xii. 183-254, xiv. 545-580, ib. 1812; E. H. Plumptre, Life of Bishop Ken, i. 66, 140, 145, 293-316, ii. 1-10, 302, London, 1888; J. H. Overton, The Church in England, ii. 161 eqq., ib. 1897; W. H. Hutton, The English Church (1625-1714), pp. 227 sqq., ib. 1903.
The prayers appended to every psalm are translations of the Oraisons of Augustin Marlorat, preacher at Rouen. The summary preceding each psalm and the appended prayer stamp the work as a manual of edification. Although but a mediocre performance in point of language and practical objectiveness, the Psalter enjoyed a success not much inferior to that of the Huguenot Psalter itself. For nearly two hundred years, Lobwasser had almost unlimited sway in the German Reformed Church; and to this day, he is not quite out of date. He owed this success distinctly to the verbally exact adaptation of his version to the French melodies.
The work was recast musically in 1607 by Landgrave Maurice of Hesse, who sought to bring it into harmony with the declamatory style of singing at that time coming into fashion, and again by Samuel Marschall (Basel, 1606); by Cruger (Berlin, 1656); by Sultzberger (Bern, 1675) and others. The teat was also rendered into other languages: Latin, by Andrews Spetke, 1596; Danish, 1682; Italian, by Planta, 1740, as well as earlier; by the daughter of Landgrave Maurice of Hesse, 1608; by Casimir, 1753; Nicolai, .1762, etc. The attempts of eighteenth-century taste to improve and expand the Lobwasser Psalter led gradually to its disuse. The appendix, which had at first comprised only the Decalogue Hymn (" Erheb' dein Herz, thu' auf dein Ohren ") and the Song of Simeon, and had then been enlarged by the addition of German hymns, many of them Lutheran, grew continually stouter and heavier, till at last the "appendix" swallowed up the Psalter, and new hymnals arose in which only selected psalms were retained.
As the melodies lost their distinctive rhythm, their charm likewise vanished which the Lobwasser text, notwithstanding its stiff and far from poetic language, had possessed. The German hymns which had flourished, indeed, in the sixteenth century, although through the importance attached to Scriptural language and the charm of the French psalm melodies it had yielded to the latter, now gained the supremacy.
Besides his Psalter, Lobwasser also published a collection of Hymni patrum und anderer gottseliger Manner, welche durchs ganze Jahr in den Kirchen gesungen werden, aus dem Latein ins Deutsch mit gleichen Reimen gebracht (Leipsic, 1578-79). Some of these translations found acceptance in the Lutheran Church.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: J. C. Wetzel, Hymnopoepraphia, ii. 79 sqq., Herrnstadt, 1721; M. Adam, Vitae Germanicorum jureconsultorum pp. 267 sqq., Heidelberg, 1620; C. Hartlknoch, Preussische Kirchenhistorie. pp. 498 sqq., Frankfort 1866. Consult: P. Wackenagel, Das deutsche Kirchenlied, i. 509 eqq., iv. 844 sqq., Leipsic, 1863-76; G. Doring, Choralkunde, pp. 52-57, 234, Danzig, 1865; E. Hopfner, Reformbeatrebungen auf dem Gebiet der deutschen Dichtung, Berlin, 1866; E. Koch, Geschichte des Kirchenliedes, ii, 594-597, Stuttgart, 1867; F. Bovet, Hist. du psautier des eglises reformees, Paris, 1872; O. Douen, Clement Marot et le psautier huguenot, ib. 1872; P. Wolfrum, Die Entstehung ind erste Entwickelung des deutschen evangelischen Kirchenliedes, pp. 134 sqq.,Leipsic. 1890: J. Zahn, Die Melodien der deutschen Kirchenlieder, vi. 56 sqq., Gutersloh, 1893; ADB, xix. 56-58; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 683-684.
For Lutheran theology Melanchthon's book had the same importance which the work of Peter Lombard possessed for scholasticism. His loci were the subject of commentary as late as Leonhard Hatter, and the term loci communes came to connote any work dealing with the sum of Christian doctrine. Among the Reformed the phrase loci communes was accepted by Wolfgang Musculus (Basel, 1560), Peter Martyr (London, 1576}, Johannes Maccovius (Franeker, 1639), and Daniel Chamier (Geneva, 1653). After the middle of the seventeenth century, however, with the rise of a more systematic treatment of dogmatics the term fell into disuse.
The most important event in his life was the publication of the work which brought him lasting fame as a philosopher, his Essay concerning Human Understanding (London, 1690; five editions by 1706). The purpose was to investigate the origin, certainty, and extent of human knowledge. In this work Locke sought to prove that innate ideas do not exist, and that all knowledge comes through experience by sensation and reflection. He was thus the originator of the empirical philosophy of the eighteenth century which spread over England, France, and Germany and greatly influenced both the political and social theories of his times. His letters on Toleration (1689-90), Two Treatises of Government (1690), a work on the national currency (1692), and Some Thoughts concerning Education (1693) are further weighty productions of this period. Locke was a member of the council of trade (1696-1700), but because of failing health was obliged to decline other preferments.
Locke's influence continued dominant until the spread of Kantian ideas, and he is called "the founder of the analytic philosophy of mind" (J. S. Mill, Logic, book I, chap. vi.). His principles were either so carried out or so misapplied in theology that he became the object of sharp attack; to which he as sharply replied. This was especially the case with Bishop Edward Stillingfleet (q.v.), whose Discourse in Vindication of the Doctrine of the Trinity (London, 1698) brought on a controversy with Locke which continued till 1699. Locke has sometimes been regarded as the father of late English skepticism (see DEISM, §§ 4-5; ENLIGHTENMENT, THE, § 7). While in early life he had deliberately turned away from theology as a vocation, his interest never died out, and this came to its fruitage in his Reasonableness of Christianity (1695), and in his Paraphrase of the epistles to the Galatians, I and II Corinthians, Romans, and Ephesians (posthumous, 1705-07). Of his Works many editions have appeared (3 vols., London, 1714; best ed. by E. Law, 4 vols., ib. 1777); and his Posthumous Works (ib. 1706).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources of knowledge are: Some Familiar Letters between Mr. Locke and Several of his Friends, London, 3d ed., 1737; Original Letters of Lock, Algernon Sidney and Anthony Lord Shaftesbury, ib. 2d ed., 1847; Shaftesbury. Life, Unpublished Letters, and Philosophical Regimen, ed. E. Rand, ib: 1900; J. Le Clerc's Eloge historique de feu Mr. Locks Amsterdam, ,i>Works, ut sup. Consult further: G. W. von Leibnitz, Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement, Amsterdam, 1765, Eng. transl., New Essays concerning Human Understanding, London, 1896; J. G. Buhle, Geschichte der neuern Philosophie Critical Essays, pp. I-32, Boston, 1842; A. H. Everett, Critical and Miscellaneous Essays, pp. 381-451, Boston 1846; J. D. Morell, Historical and Critical Review of the Speculative Philosophy of Europe in the 19th Century, i. 91-147, London, 1846; R. Vaughan, Essays in History, Philosophy, and Theology, ii. 59-120, ib. 1849; E. Tagart, Locke's Writings and Philosophy historically Considered, ib. 1855; T. E. Webb, The Intellectualism of Locke, Dublin, 1857; V. Cousin, La Philosophie de Locke, Paris, 1863; J. Tulloeh, Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy in England in the 17th Century, 2 vols., London 1872; T. H. Green, ATreatise on Human Nature by DavidHume (Introduction), ib.1878; H.Marion, J. Locke, sa vie et son aeuvre, Paris, 1879; J. Brown, Horae subsecivae, Locke and Sydenham, Edinburgh, 1882; P. King, Life and Letters of John Locke; with Extracts from his Commonplace Books, new ed., New York, 1884; H. Winter, Darlegung und Kritik der lockeschen Lehre vom empirischen Ursprung der sittlichen Grundsatze, Bonn, 1884; R. Falekenberg, Geschichte der neuren Philosophie, pp. 111-133, Leipsic, 1886; J. Fowler, Locke, London 1887; M. M. Curtis, An Outline of Locke's Ethical Theory, Leipsic, 1890; W. L. Courtney, Studies at Leisure, London, 1892; G. F. von Hertling, John Locke and die Schule von Cambridge, Freiburg, 1892; P. Fischer, Die Religionsphilosophie des John Locke, Erlangen, 1893; J. McCosh, Locke's " Theory of Knowledge," with a Notice of Berkeley, New York, 1894; E. Fechtner, John Locke, Stuttgart. 1898; W. Graham, English Political Philosophy, London, 1899; E. E. Worcester, The Religious Opinions of John Locke, Geneva, N. Y., 1899; A. C. Fraser, Locke, Edinburgh, 1901; idem, J. Locke as a Factor in Modern Thought, London, 1905; J. Rickaby, Free Will and Four English Philosophers, London, 1906. Of importance, also, are the works on the history of philosophy, particularly those of J. E. Erdmann, Eng. transl., London, 1893; W. Windelband, Eng. transl., ib. 1893; A. Weber, Eng. transl., ib. 1896; and F. Ueberweg, Eng. transl., New York, 1874.
The two species which are moat common in Syria (Aeridium Peregrinum and (Edipoda migratoria) are particularly dreaded on account of their voracity and their great numbers. When the desert winds drive the immense swarms through the air (Ex. x. 13; Prov. xxx. 27) they darken the sun like heavy clouds and the rattling of their wings sounds like the noise of chariots (Joel ii. 2, 5; Rev. ix. 9). Wherever they settle down, the verdure immediately disappears, even the Garden of Eden becomes a desert (Joel ii. 3). Those which are not yet winged crawl on the ground and no obstacle can stop them or divert them from the path they have chosen (Ex. x. 6; Joel ii. 7, 9). Broad ditches and large fires avail little to destroy the swarms, and even the red-hawk and the rosy grackle (turdus roseus), which fly along with them and devour many, scarcely lessen the swarms. Rain is their most dangerous enemy, as it destroys their eggs, and a severe storm does away with them altogether by sweeping them into the sea (Ex. x. 19; Joel ii. 20).
Locusts were looked upon as clean according to Lev. xi. 22, and they were eaten by the poor as they are today by the Bedouins (cf. Matt. iii. 4; Mark i. 5). By the Assyrians they were regarded as a delicacy. They are often mentioned in the Old Testament as a type of an enormous multitude (Judges vi. 5; Jer. xlvi. 23; Nah. iii. 15; Eccles. xliii. 17); of littleness, unimportance, and transitoriness (Num, xiii. 33; Ps. cix. 23; Isa. xl. 22; Nah. iii. 17); of greed (Deut. xxviii. 38; Isa. xxxiii. 4), and of destruction (Amos vii. 1). Their advancing in bands is described in Prov. xxx. 27; in their leaping and in their appearance they are. compared to horses (Joel ii. 4; Rev. ix. 7). A plague of grasshoppers was one of the most dreadful judgments of God (Deut. xxviii. 38; I Kings viii. 37; Amos iv. 9). A highly poetical description of a swarm of locusts and the destruction and waste they left behind them is given by Joel (chaps. i.-ii).
The Old Testament has many names to designate locusts. The one most generally used, 'arbeh, is a generic name (cf. Ex. x. 4 sqq.) as well as the name of a particular species, probably the flying, migratory locust (gryllus migratorius), which is said to bear this name in Bagdad at the present day. In Lev. xi. 22, sal'am, hargal, and haghabh are named as different species; haghabh, however, seems to be also a common designation. The names in Joel (i. 4, ii. 25) are popular expressions (cf. hasil, " the devourer," Deut. xxviii. 38; Pa. lxxviii. 46) which serve everywhere as general designations (Jer. li. 27; Amos iv. 9; Nah. iii. 16). To these may be added gebh and gobh (Isa. xxxiii. 4; Amos vii. 1; Nah. iii. 17)--an exceptional wealth of synonyms easily understood from the great part the locust played everywhere in the land. Some of these synonyms may have had their origin in the various dialects of the country.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. Bochart, Hierozoicore, II, iv. 1, 3 vols., Leipsic, 1793-96; J. L. Burckhardt, Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabis, London, 1830; H. B. Tristram, Natural Hist.of the Bible, dpp. 306 eqq., ib. 1880; A. Munro, The Locust Plague and its Suppression, ib. 1900; DB, iii. 130-131; EB, iii, 2807-10; JE, viii. 147; and the commentaries on Leviticus at xi. 22, and on Joel, particularly that by Driver, in the Cambridge Bible, containing an excursus on locusts and giving the literature.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. I. Proost, Jodocus van Lodenstein, Amsterdam, 1880; M. Goebel, Geschichte des christlichen Lebens in der rheinisch-westfalischen evangelischen Kirche, ii. 160-180, Coblentz, 1852; H. L. J. Heppe, Geschichte des Pietismus und der Mystik in der reformirten Kirshe, Leyden, 1879; A. Ritschl, Geschichte des Pietismus, i. 152 sqq., Bonn, 1880.
In 1839 Lobe became pastor at Rasephas, where the remainder of his life was to be spent. Here he contributed largely to Pierer's Universal-Lexikon, and practically edited the fourth and fifth editions of the work (1857-64; 1867-72), as well as the three additional year-books incorporated in the same encyclopedia (1865-73). He also did most of the work on the edition planned by Preuss of the Loci, theologici of Johann Gerhard (9 vols., Berlin and Leipsic, 1863-85). His third field of activity was the local and ecclesiastical history of Altenburg, represented by his Geschichtliche Beschreibung der Residenzstadt Altenburg und ihrer Umgebung (Altenburg, 1841), and the completion, in collaboration with his eldest son, Ernst Conon Lobe, of Sachse's Altenburger Kirchengallerie (3 vols., ib. 1886-91).
The personality of Loehr must, however, be
judged in its entirety. He was not only a man of
pure, although sometimes one-aided, orthodoxy,
but a creative power in the field of charitable
work. From 1840 he was active in educating
spiritual workers for the German emigrants to
America. He founded the Missouri Synod in union
with the emigrant Lutherans of Saxony, the Franconian colonies in Michigan, and at a later time
the Iowa Synod. Neuendettelsau possesses two
stately buildings devoted to the education of missionaries for North America and Australia. In 1849 Lohe founded the Lutheran Society of Home Missions, and in 1853 an institution of deaconesses
which was dedicated in the following year, the
eighteenth in order of foundation, but the third or
The characteristic trait in Lohe's personality was a healthy combination of orthodoxy with originality of thinking. Sin and grace, justification and sanctification, were the central points of his theology. As a preacher, he was among the greatest of the century. Originality of conception, vivid imagination, and prophetic fervor, were his chief characteristics in the pulpit. Lohe also made a profound study of liturgics and laid down his views in Agende fur christliche Gemeinden (1848). He awakened everywhere the sense for liturgical order. But he was perhaps even greater as a pastor than as a preacher. Lohe was a man of striking appearance. His head was large, his forehead high; his mouth made the impression of great decision of character; his voice was powerful, and his eye bright and searching. He wrote not less than sixty works growing out of the experiences of his spiritual office and serving practical purposes. His earlier writings originated from his opposition to the State Church, Unsere kirchliche Lage (Nordlingen, 1850); Aphorismen uber die neutestamentlichen Aemter und ihr Verhaltniss zur Gemeinde (Nuremberg, 1849); Kirche und Amt, nette Aphorismen (Erlangen, 1851); Die bayerische Generalsynode vom Fruhjahr 1849 und das lutherische Bekenntnis (Nuremberg, 1849). Of a permanent value are Drei Bucher von der Kirche (Stuttgart, 1845); Rosenmonate heiliger Frauen (1860); Der evangelische Geistliche (2 vols., 1852-58); Sieben Predigten (Nuremberg, 1836); Predigten uber das Vaterunser (1837); Sieben Vortrage uber die Worte am Kreuze (Stuttgart, 1859); Erinnerungen aus der Reformationsgeschichte von Franken (Nuremberg, 1847); Haus-, Schul- und Kirchenbuch fur Christen lutherischen Bekenntnisses (Stuttgart, 1845); Samenkorner (Nordlingen, 1844).
IBLIOGRAPHY: J. Deinzer, W. Lohes Leben; 3 vols., 3d ed., Gutersloh, 1901; H. Back, Die innere Mission in Bayern, pp. 18 sqq., Hamburg, 1880; K. Eichner, Wilhelm Lohe, ein Lebensbild, Nuremberg, 1907.
Loner was. equally independent as a hymnologist; and in 1527 twenty-six of his compositions were printed anonymously under the title
Gantz newe geystliche teutsche Hymnus vnd gesang; while
as late as 1561 hymns written by him, but hitherto unpublished, were still printed, so that their entire number, amounts to something more than thirty
seven. In like manner his Vnterricht des glaubens oder Christlicher kinderzucht in LXXII. Fragen vnd Antwortt verfast
(Nuremberg, 1529) is an independent
work, despite its indebtedness to Althamer'a catechism and the earlier catechetical writings of Luther.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: His Briefbuch is in Beitrage zur bayerischen Kirchengeschichte, ed. T. Kolde, vols. i.-iii.. Erlangen, 1895-97. Other sources are the letters of Melanchthon in CR, v.-vi. passim, and of Luther in De Wette's ed. of Luther's letters, voles iv-v.; V. L. von Seckendorf, Commentarius criticus . . .de Lutheranismo, i. 241, iii. 186, 219, 221, Leipsic 1692. Modern treatment of the subject will be found in G. W. A. Fikenscher, Gelehrtes Furstenturn Baireut, v. 305-318, Nuremberg, 1803; P. Wackernagel, Das deutsche Kirchenlied, i. 388 sqq., 392, 408-409, 421-422, iii. 618-643, Leipsic, 1862 sqq.; G. Kawerau, in ZKW, x (1889), 487 sqq. 519-525; F. Cobra, in Monumenta Germaniae paedagogica, xxii. 463-480, Berlin, 1901; C. Geyer, Aus der Reformationsgeschichte Nordlingens, pp. 18-23, Nordlingen, 1901; ADB, xix. 152 sqq.
LOESCHE, lOah'e, GEORG KARL DAVID: Austrian Lutheran; b. at Berlin Aug. 22, 1855. He was educated at the universities of Berlin, Bonn, and Tubingen (Ph.D., Jena, 1880; lic. theol., Berlin, 1883), was preacher to the German church in Florence, Italy (1880-85), and privat-docent for church history at the University of Berlin in 1885-1887. In 1887 he accepted a call to the Evangelical Protestant faculty at Vienna as associate professor of the same subject, and in 1889 became full professor. He is a privy councilor, president of the examining board for Evangelical theological candidates in Austria, and vice-president of the Austrian branch of the Gustav-Adolf-Verein and of the Gesellschaft fur die Geschichte des Protestantismus in Oesterreich. In theology he is an adherent of the "modern" school. In addition to his work as editor of the Jahrbuch der Gesellschaft fur die Geschichte des Protestantismus in Oesterreich, he has edited Johann Mathesius' Ausgewahlte Werke (4 vols., Prague, 1896-1904) and Gustav Frank's Die Theologie des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts (Leipsic, 1905), and has written Florenzer Predigten (Halle, 1884); Ernst Moritz Arndt, der deutsche Reichsherold (Goths, 1884); Bellarmins Lehre vom Papst und deren actuelle Bedeutung (Halle, 1885); Analecta Lutherana. et Melanchthoniana (Gotha, 1892); Johann Mathesius, ein Lebens- und Sittenbild aus der Reformationszeit (2 vols., 1895); and Geschichle des Protestantismus in Oesterreich (Leipsic, 1902).
LOESCHER, losh'er, VALENTIN ERNST: German Lutheran; b. at Sondershausen Dec. 29,
1673; d. at Dresden Dec. 12, 1749. At the University of Wittenberg, where his father was professor of theology, he gave his attention mainly to
philology and history, but out of respect to his
father's wish he selected a theological subject for
his master's dissertation, in which he opposed the
Pietistic position. Subsequent study at Jena
aroused his interest in church history. During
travels undertaken at this time he formed the acquaintance of a number of influential anti-Pietistic theologians. In 1696 he began to lecture at Wittenberg on the origin of Deism and Pietism. After
serving as superintendent at Juterbog (1698-1701)
and Delitzsch (1701-07) and professor of theology at
Wittenberg (1707-09), he became pastor of the
Kreuzkirche and superintendent in Dresden. Here
BIBLIOGRAPHY: On Jewish and ethnic doctrines of the Logos consult: A. Aall, Der Logos, Geschichte seiner Entwickelung, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1896-99; J. M. Heinze, Die Lehre vom Logos in der griechischen Philosophie, Oldenburg, 1872; Schurer, Geschichte, iii. 555-557, Eng. transl., II, iii. 374-376; works on O. T. theology, especially that of Schultz; and the literature under PHILO. On the Johannine doctrine: H. H. Wendt, Das Johannesevangelium, Gottingen, 1900; M. Stuart, in Bibliotheca Sacra, 1850, pp. 281-327 W. Emlieht, Theophania; or, Scriptural View of the Manifestation of the Logos or pre-existent Messiah, London, 1857; Rohricht, in TSK, 1868, pp. 299-315; J. Reville, La Doctrine du Logos dans Ie quatrieme evangile et dans les aeuvres de Philon, Paris, 1881; H. P. Liddon, Divinity of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, lecture v. London, 1885; H. W. Watkins, Modern Criticism Considered in its Relations to the Fourth Gospel, lecture viii., ib. 1890; A. Harnack, in ZKT, ii (1892), 189-231; idem Dogma, vols. i.-iv (contains also the later development); G. B. Stevens, Johannine Theology, chap, iv., New York, 1894; W. Baldensperger, Prolog des 4. Evangeliums, Freiburg, 1898; Jannaris, in ZNTW, Feb., 1901, pp, 13 sqq,; W. R. Inge, Personal Idealism and Mysticism, lectures ii.-iii., New York, 1907; Lichtenberger, ESR, viii. 334-339; DB iii. 132-138; EB, iii. 2811-2812; the commentaries on the Fourth Gospel, especially that of H. J. Holtzmann, Tubingen, 1893; the works on N. T. theology, particularly that of Beyschlag; and the works on the history of doctrine. The last-named class of works is also to be consulted for the later development of the doctrine, and further works of value are: L. Atzberger Die Logoslehre des heiligen Athanasius, Munich, 1880; C. Bigg, Christian Platonists of Alexandria, London, 1886.
LOISTS, f'o'ists: A pantheistic sect of the sixteenth century. The first mention of the sect of the Lolsts occurs in a letter of Luther's dated Mar. 21, 1525, in which he writes that some " new prophets " from Antwerp had appeared in Wittenberg, and that they put the mind and reason of man on terms of equality with the Holy Ghost. A disputation took place, in Luther's presence, between Melanchthon and the leader of this sect, a slater named Eligius (Loy) Pruystinck; and shortly afterward Luther directed a warning to his own adherents at Antwerp against dangerous " blustering and noisy spirits." Pruystinek was subjected to an examination by the Inquisition at Antwerp (Jan., 1526); he recanted, and was cleared with the sentence of public ecclesiastical penance. Nevertheless his doctrines in the following decades spread not only in Antwerp but also in the district about Cologne, in Brabant, and in Flanders. But an additional investigation ensued in the summer of 1544, ending in the execution of Pruystinck and of six of his followers and completely disbanding their sect. The Loists religious attitude may be defined as a corollary of practical pantheism. Man's intellectual nature is a spiritual substance; in other words, every one possesses the Holy Ghost. Since man's flesh and spirit are thoroughly independent, and with no influence upon each other, the spirit of man incurs no responsibility for the weakness of the flesh; hence the spirit, as such, is sinless. The final goal of man is to vanish into the divine being. The Loists based their doctrines upon forced exegesis of the Bible. There appears to have been no relation .between the Lolsts and any sects antedating the Reformation, and they seem to have been wholly independent of the Baptists. (They certainly had much in common with the Beghards (q.v.) and the Brethren of the Free Spirit (see FREE SPIRIT, BRETHREN ON THE). A. H. N.] It is fair to suppose that the pantheistic doctrines of the " Libertines," which from 1545 onward were combated notably by Calvin, in the Romance countries took their point of departure from the sect of the Lolsts disbanded at that very time. [David Joris was probably a disciple of Pruyetinck, and the latter may have influenced Henry Nicolas, founder of the Family of Love (see FAMILISTS; and ANTINOMIANS), and through him several of the more recent varieties of Antinomians. A. H. N.]
BIBLiOGRAPHY: A valuable collection of sources and history of the sect is given in J. Frederichs, De secta der Loisten of Antwerpsche libertijnen (1525-45), Ghent, 1891; idem, Un lutherien francais devenu libertin spirituel, in Bulletin historique et litteraire de la societe de l'histoire du protestantisme francais, xli (1892), 250-269; idem, La Moralite des libertins epirituels, ib., pp. 502-504; A. Jundt, Hist. du pantheisme populaire au moyen age, pp. 122 sqq., Paris, 1875.
LOISY, lwa"zi', ALFRED FIRMAN: French
Roman Catholic; b. at Ambrieres (6 m. n. of .Mayenne) Feb. 28, 1857. He was educated at the Seminary of Chalons and was ordained to the priesthood in 1879, after which he was parish priest of
Broussy-le-Grand and Landricourt (1879-81); became lecturer in Hebrew at the Institut Catholique, Paris, in 1881; was appointed associate professor
in 1882 and titular professor of Holy Scripture in
1889. The freedom of his views, however, caused
such distrust of his orthodoxy that in 1893 he was
removed from the Institut and appointed chaplain
of the Dominican nuns engaged in teaching at
Neuilly-sur-Seine. In 1899 he retired to Bellevue,
and in 1900-04 lectured at the Sorbonne on Assyriology, but in the latter year was again obliged by his superiors to cease lecturing. Since that time
he has lived in retirement at Garnay, in the department of Eure-et-Loire. His works attracted considerable attention, and five were placed, in
1903, on the Index, although Loisy claims to seek
to refute the radicalism of A: Harnack (q.v.) and
to defend the orthodox faith of the Church. He
has written: Histoire du canon de l'Ancien Testament (Paris, 1890); Histoire du canon du Nouveau Testament (1891); Le Livre de Job, traduit de l'hebreu (1892); Histoire critique du texte et des
versions de la Bible (2 vols., Amiens, 1892-93); Les
Mythes babyloniens et les premiers chapitres de la
Genese (Paris, 1901); Etudes bibliques (1901); La Religion d'lsrael (1901); Etudes evangeliques (1902);
L'evangile et l'eglise (1902; Eng. transl. by C.
Home, The Gospel and the Church, London, 1903);
4. Lollard Memorial of 1395.
A few years later Lollards were numerous in London, Lincoln, Salisbury, and Worcester, and their tenets, no longer restricted to religion, extended to economic and political life. In 1395, doubtless emboldened by the blunt refusal of Parliament to pass the archbishop's bill for the destruction of all Wyclif's translations of the Bible, the Lollards felt themselves sufficiently strong to present a memorial to Parliament and to demand the cooperation of that body is carrying out their reform. The twelve clauses of this memorial were as follows: Faith, love, and hope had vanished from the English daughter-churcb since she bad been lost in worldly wealth through her association with her great stepmother of Rome; the Roman Catholic priesthood was not that of Christ; the priestly law of celibacy resulted in unnatural vice; transubstantiation was a feigned miracle and conduced to idolatry; prayers over bread, salt, wine, water, oil, wax and the like were unlawful magic rites; it was contrary to the word of Christ (Matt. vi. 24) to have king and bishop or prelate and judge in one person; prayers for the dead were ineffectual, pilgrimages and the invocation of images were nearly idolatrous; auricular confession was not essential to salvation, but was a source of priestly arrogance and permission to sin; war was contrary to the New Testament, and death and pillage to the poor; the vows of nuns led to infanticide and unnatural impurity; and art was unnecessary and conducive to luxury and extravagance. [Cf. the tex in Fasciculi Zizaiorum, W. W. Shirley in Rolls Series, pp. 360-369, London, 1858; Wilkins, Concilia, III., p. 221; condensed transl. in Lechler's John Wyclif, ed. P. Lorimer, pp. 447-448.] In this memorial, however, the Lollards had overestimated their strength, and the king, who had taken no part hitherto in the episcopal proceedings against them, now admonished them sternly.5. Ecclesiastical Opposition to Lollardism.
The decline of Lollardism now began. In 1396 Thomas Arundel, a bitter opponent of the movement, succeeded Courtenay as archbishop of Canterbury, and three years later Richard II. was murdered. The throne was then occupied by the Lancastrian Henry IV., who found it to his interests to follow the lead of the hierarchic and aristocratic faction which had given him the crown. In Jan., 1400, the bishops declared that they were unable to make headway against the heretics, and the statute De comburendo haretico was accordingly passed. The first to be executed under its provisions was W. Sawtrey (Chartris), who died at the stake in the following month. The act was enforced with special severity in the counties of southern and middle position to England, while those who were not burned to death were either tortured into recantation or ended their lives in prison. Undismayed by these measures, the Lollards sought support in their struggle for religious and political freedom in the hatred of the oppressed peasantry for the priests who lived in luxury. Both the secular and the regular clergy, and especially the friars, were regarded as being long since deserted the principles of their founders and as having persecuted their own brethren, the Fraticelli, the Beghards, and the Lollards, for remaining faithful to the teaching of their fathers. In Piers The Plowman's Creed (c. 1394) a man in search of the true doctrines of Christ is represented as inquiring of the four mendicant orders in succession, only to meet the scornful reply that the words of Jesus are no longer remembered, and not until he finds the "Poor Priests" does he obtain what he desires.6. The Constitutions of Arundel
Popular approbation of the Lollards, however, could avail little against the power of the archbishop, who in 1408 extorted from the convocation of Oxford, then the center of the movement, the Constitutiones Thomas Arundel, which were designed to crush the tenets of Wyclif. Among other prohibitions, these regulations forbade preaching without the permission of the bishop, as well as the punishment of the sins of the clergy by the laity, and required that the writings of Wyclif and the Lollards be destroyed. They likewise enacted periodical inspection of the residences of Oxford students, and all suspected of Lollardism were ruthlessly expelled. The success of the measure was complete, and within a few years the university was one of the foremost defenders of Roman Catholic orthodoxy.The movement of repression was now extended, and commoners in city and country alike were in peril of gallows, ax, and stake. On the other head, many of the nobility remained true to their principles. Prominent among the latter was Sir John Oldcastle, Lord Cobham (see OLDCASTLE, SIR JOHN), who gave free scope to the Lollards on his Kentish estates, especially as he was protected against Arundel by his friendship with Henry IV. and the Prince of Wales, afterward Henry V. The date of his conversion to Lollardism is unknown, but was before 1410, when he was in high favor with the prince, whom he even sought to win over to his sect. During the reign of Henry IV. he had no need to fear the hostility of the bishops, who hated him for his denial of transubstantiation and his opposition to auricular confession, pilgrimages, and the adoration of images, as well as for the wealth which he expended on the preparation and maintenance of itinerant preachers.
7. Sir John Oldcastle
Henry V., however, lent a ready ear to the complaints of the archbishop
and the convocation. Oldcastle refused to be convinced of his errors by
the king, and left the court without permission, retiring to his castle of Cowley in Kent. Ignoring Arundel's citations, he was placed under the ban for contumacy and arrested by a royal warrant. He now formulated a reply to a committee consisting of Arundel and the bishops of Winchester and London, but his answers concerning transubstantiation and confession were unsatisfactory. After much urging, he finally declared himself ready to accept the teachings of the Church, but denied that the pope, the cardinals, or the prelates had the
right to define these matters. He was accordingly brought before another episcopal court on Sept. 25. He refused to retract his opinions and sharply rebuked the pope and the clergy, whereupon
8. Suppression and Decline of Lollardism.
With Oldcastle's death the hopes of Lollardism vanished. Minor recalcitrants were forced to choose between recantation and execution, and all political and social aspiration, if they had ever existed, disappeared. The Council of Constance (1414-18), moreover, had put an end to the Great Schism, and the Church, again able to devote its reunited energies to the suppression of heresy, forced the Lollards to seek refuge in secrecy and obscure hiding-places. Driven from the fields and the streets, they concealed themselves in hovels and barns, sand-pits and caves, while conventicles in the houses replaced preaching in the streets. Their numbers at first remained undiminished, and in some parishes the Lollards formed so large a proportion that pilgrimages and processions, as well as the observance of saints' days, were neglected. Some of the clergy were found among them, but after the execution of Oldcastle the leader was gone, although the Lollard hatred of the Church was occasionally manifested by rabid outbursts on the part of individuals. Executions for Lollardism continued long after the middle of the fifteenth century, and in 1476 the University of Oxford again had to proceed against some of its members for Wyclifi's heresy. In 1485 and 1494 bishops preached in Coventry and Kyle against the "Bible Men," and in the first decade of the following century, before the thoughts of Luther had crossed the Channel, increasing numbers were condemned and burned for possessing Wyclif's writings, reading the Bible in the vernacular, and rejecting transubstantiation, auricular confession, the invocation of saints, and pilgrimages, the very things which had formed the point at issue in 1395. At Amersham, a Lollard center, thirty men were executed in 1506, and eleven years later sectaries called "Brethren in Christ" or "Known Men" (the latter name derived from a mistranslation of I Cor. xiv. 38) were cited before the courts. In a certain sense, therefore, Lollardiam, inherited for generations, was a real, though secret, precursor of the Reformation in England. With no Hues or Luther to lead them, they achieved what no other religious movement of the Middle Ages was able to do, when they succeeded in awakening and maintaining a longing for the Bible in the vernacular. The repeated efforts to secure an English Bible which were made by Tyndale, Coverdale, Taverner, Cranmer, the Geneva fugitives, and Parker were inspired primarily by the Lollard "Bible Men. From England Lollardism spread to Scotland. Oxford infected St. Andrews, and the teachers there were repeatedly accused of adhering to the doctrines of Wyclif's followers, while Knox expressly termed the Lollards of Kyle, Ayrshire, the forerunners of the Reformation and the descendants of the Lollards of the fifteenth century.
9. Tenets of Lollardism.
The tenets of the Lollards must be gleaned fromthe legal proceedings against them, contemporary accounts, the memorial of 1395, Piers Plowman's Creed, Piers Plowman's Complaint, The Lanthornof Light, The Plowman's Prayer, and the Repressor of R. Pecock, but these documents moat be used with caution. The scanty literature of the Lollards themselves, on the other hand, shows no trace of system. It is obvious from these sources, of which the most important is the Repressor, that Lollardism was based on the teachings of Wyclif and centered about the Bible, whence were derived all Lollard arguments and postulates. According to the Franciscan W. Woodford, their chief dogma was that only what the pope and the cardinals could deduce from the Bible was true, all else being false, while if they could be convinced of the erroneous nature of this tenet, they would readily return to the Roman Catholic Church. The Plowman's Prayer ,makes true religion consist in love, fear, and trust in God above all things, and also declares that the soul of man, rather than an earthly temple, is the dwelling-place of the Lord. Pecock, in like manner, describes their faith as based on three postulates: Only what can be found in the Bible (especially in the New Testament) may be regarded as the command of God; each Christian man or woman of humble soul, and desirous to know the Scriptures, may comprehend their true meaning; whosoever has grasped the meaning of the Bible must refuse to accept any opposing arguments, whether derived from the Bible or reason. He also adds that the Lollards were called "Bible Men" because they memorized the New Testament in their mother tongue and found the reading of the Bible so profitable that they preferred it to instruction by scholars or priests.
10. Lollard Opposition to Roman Catholic Doctrines.
On the basis of these views, the Lollards protested against a series of ecclesiastical requirements which find no authority in the Bible. They rejected the use of images in the churches, pilgrimages to holy places, the right of the clergy to possess land, the orders of the hierarchy, the legislative power of the pope and bishops above the Bible, the institution of spiritual orders and the priestly mediation, the invocation of
2. The First Petition: "Hallowed be thy name." The Greek translation of the original Aramaic uses throughout the aorist imperative, except in the fourth petition of Luke's version, didou. The aorist is employed to express an act at once completed (cf. I Pet. i. 13, where teleios elpisate expresses a hope continuing to the end). The petition is not expressed in the active voice, " Hallow thou thy name," but " let thy name be hallowed by men, especially by thy disciples." As Bengel says: " God is holy, that is God is God, he is therefore hallowed when he is acknowledged, worshiped and proclaimed to be what he is " (Gnomon, on Matt. vi. 9).
3. The Second and Third Petitions: "Thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven." Although it might be said that the full object of the prayer is attained when God's name is hallowed, yet this can actually never be realized until heaven and earth become one. God is manifested in his children, and his children walk as under his eye. Therefore Jesus directs the gaze of his disciples toward the future union of the heavenly and the earthly world. These two petitions must therefore be taken in an eschatological sense. " The kingdom of God, which we pray may arrive, tends unto the consum- mation of the age " (Tertullian, De oratione, v.; ANF, iii. 683). Then shall the world be changed from a state of sin and death into a land of peace and life and the perfect congregation of the saints shall praise their king whose will it is their delight to fulfil.
The next four petitions deal with the earthly interval which must elapse before the consummation of all things and the actual kingdom of God arrive. The disciples of Jesus are taught to pray that they may have strength to live in faith and love as children of God and thus hallow the name of the Father, who is asked to supply their material and spiritual needs.
4. The Fourth Petition: "Give us this day our daily bread " (Matthew), "Give us, day by day, our daily bread " (Luke). Bread is the staff of life, " all that pertains to the support and necessities of life " as Luther says. The followers of Jesus may well expect to receive daily the bread they need, as on the night of his passion Jesus asked his disciples: When I sent you without purse and scrip and shoes, lacked ye anything? (Luke xxii. 35). The anxiety of the Gentiles or pagans about food and clothing is put forth by Jesus as a warning in Matt. vi. 25-34. Although Cyprian (" On the Lord's Prayer," viii.;ANF, v. 452) and Tertullian (De oratione, vi.; ANF, iii. 683) emphasize the spiritual meaning of the word " bread," yet they admit that it is used here also in a material sense. Jerome in translating epiousion by supersubstantialis also attributes to it a spiritual meaning; still not only is this a false translation but it gives a false meaning to the words of Christ. Hugo Grotius is perhaps nearer the true interpretation when he says (Critici sacri, , vol. vi.): "Epiousia is all that period of life which we have yet to live; unknown to us, known to God; epiousionwhat is sufficient for that period." In the same way Bengel interprets the word (Gnomon, on Matt. vi. 11), " Bread, as a single gift, is to be supplied to us for our whole life, but the giving of it is portioned off day by day."
6. The Fifth Petition:
"And forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors" (Matthew),
"Andforgive us our sins; for we also forgive every one that is indebted to us" (Luke).
The interval which the disciples of Jesus must spend before the coming of his glorious kingdom brings them not only in need of bodily nourishment but of permanent peace in the soul also. Man lives not by bread alone (Matt. iv. 4), especially sinful man. This is the connection of the fifth with the fourth petition. The forgiveness of sins prayed for refers to a daily forgiveness. The words imply that in comparison with God the suppliant is not good but evil (Matt. vii. 11); the spirit being willing but the flesh weak (Matt. xxvi. 41). It would be a sign of self-deceit against which Jesus gives express warning (Matt.vii.) for a man to consider himself sinless (John i. 8). The disciples of Jesus are to take an attitude
exactly opposite to that indicated in the proud prayer of Apollonius of Tyana, " O ye gods pay thedebts ye owe to me" (Vita APollonii
, II i. 11, ed. Kayser, p.10). The term debt, opheile, opheilema
, is primarily used of money owed but not paid (Matt.xviii. 32); hence in a spiritual sense it becomes equivalent to paraptomata
"transgressions" (Matt. vi. 15), or hamartiae, "sins "
(Luke xi. 4;, cf. Luke xiii. 4 and 2). But this prayer that God would remit our debts to him is not so much the appeal of slaves to a master (Luke xvii. 10) as of children to a father (Matt. xxi. 28-31), and the less the disciples of Jesus boast of their own perfection and the more conscious they are of their debts to God, so much the more when they utter this prayer will they have the consciousness of God's forgiveness and feel moved to forgive their brethren, even to the end (Matt xviii. 22; Luke xvii. 4). For when the disciple of Jesus forgives his neighbor it is by no
LOVE, WILLIAM DE LOSS: Congregationalist; b. at New Haven, Conn., Nov. 29, 1851. He was graduated from Hamilton College (A.B., 1873), and Andover Theological Seminary (1878); was instructor in mathematics and natural science in the Military Academy at Leicester, Mass., in 1873-1874, and principal of the Broadway Grammar School, Norwich, Conn., in 1874-75. After being pastor of the Evangelical Congregational Church, Lancaster, Mass., from 1878 to 1881, he traveled and engaged in commercial pursuits until 1885, besides acting as supply for the Second Congregational Church, Keene, N. H., for a year. Since 1885 he has been pastor of the Farmington Avenue Church, Hartford, Conn. He has written The Fast and Thanksgiving Days of New England (Boston, 1895) and Samson Occom and the Christian Indians of New England (1900).
LOW CHURCH. See ENGLAND, CHURCH OF.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Besides the Memoir in the Remains,
consult: J. Miller, Singers and Songs of the Church,
pp. 431-433, London, 1889; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 706-707.
LYTTELTON, GEORGE, first
BARON LYTTELTON:
English author and statesman; b. at
Hagley (6 m. n.e. of Kidderminster),
Worcestershire, Jan. 17, 1709; d. there Aug. 22, 1773. He
studied at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, but
took no degree. He entered parliament in 1735 as
member for Okehampton, Devonshire, and
continued to represent this borough till 1756, when he
was elevated to the peerage. He was lord
commissioner of the treasury 1744-54, and chancellor
of the exchequer 1755-56. Though he was a good
debater, he became prominent in parliament chiefly
because of his influential political connection. With
Lord Cobham, his uncle, William Pitt, a relation
by affinity, and the Grenvilles, his first cousins,
Lyttelton formed the powerful political clique
known at first as the "Cobhamites," then, after
Lord Cobham's death, as the "Grenville Cousins."
He was a liberal patron of literature and enjoyed
the friendship of Pope, Thomson, Shenstone,
Fielding, and others. His principal works are,
Observations on .the Conversion and Apostleship of St.
Paul (London, 1747; new ed., 1879), which Dr.
Johnson characterized as "a treatise to which
infidelity has never bin able to fabricate a special
answer"; Dialogues of the Dead (1760; 4th ed.,
enlarged, 1765; new ed., 1889); and The History
of the Life of Henry II. (4 vols., .1767; 3d ed., 6
vols., 1769-73), a work of much careful research,
which has, however, been superseded. His verse,
which is inferior to his prose, was chiefly included
in Poems (Glasgow, 1773), and in his Poetical Works
(London, 1785). His nephew, G. E. Ayscough,
collected his Works (London, 1774; 3d. ed., 3 vols.,
1776), including both verse and prose. Sir Robert
Phillimore edited his Memoirs and Correspondence
(2 vols., 1845).
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
An excellent list of authorities is given at
the end of the sketch in DNB xxxiv. 369-374, and a Life
is found in A. Chalmers, Works of the English Poets, vol.
xiv., London, 1810. Consult also: E. S. Creasy, Memoirs of
Celebrated Etonians, ib. 1876; and the works on the
history of the times.
MAAS, mas, ANTHONY JOHN: American
Jesuit; b. at Bainkhausen, a village of Westphalia,
Germany, Aug. 23, 1858. He was educated at the
gymnasium of Arnsberg from 1874 to 1877, when
he entered the Society of Jesus. He then left
Germany for the United States, and after studying at
Manresa, N. Y., from 1877 to 1880, studied
philosophy at Woodstock College, Woodstock, Md.,
until 1883. He was then professor of classics at
Frederick, Md., for a year, after which he returned
to Woodstock and studied theology until 1888.
Except for the year 1893-94, spent in Manresa,
Spain, he has been connected with Woodstock
College since 1885, where he has been professor of
Hebrew since 1885, librarian since 1888, professor
of Scripture since 1891, prefect of studies since
1897 and president since 1907. In addition to
numerous minor contributions, he has written: Life of
Jesus Christ according to the Gospel History (St.
Louis, 1891); Day in the Temple (ib., 1892); Christ
in Type and Prophecy (2 vols., New York, 1893-96);
and Commentary on the Gospel of St. Matthew
(Boston, 1898), and has prepared the fourth edition of
Z. Zitelli Natali's Enchiridion ad sacrarum
disciplinarum cultores accomodatum (Baltimore, 1892).
MABILLON, ma"bi"lyen, JEAN:
French Roman
Catholic; b. at St. Pierremont in Champagne Nov.
23, 1632; d. in Paris Dec. 27, 1707. He entered
the Congregation of St. Maur in 1853, and was
professed in the following year. After some years
spent in different houses of the order, he was at
Saint-Denis in 1663, and the neat year at the
abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Pres in Paris, the literary
headquarters of the congregation, where he
assisted D'Achery (see ACHERY, JEAN LUC D') in the
compilation of the last six volumes of the
Spicilegium.
In 1667 appeared two folio volumes of the
works of St. Bernard, edited from the oldest and
best manuscripts, the beginning and the model of
the editions of the Fathers which the congregation
was to issue thenceforth in rapid succession.
Mabillon's most important life-work, however, was the
history of the Benedictine order, for which D'Achery
had collected a mass of materials. In 1668 appeared
the first volume of the Acta sanctorum ordinis sancti
Benedicti, relating to the sixth century. After thirty-four
years of work, nine folio volumes had appeared,
bringing the work down to 1100, and the material
for a tenth was in shape. On this foundation
Mabillon began to work at his most mature production,
the Annales ordinis sancti Benedicti, (6 vols., Paris,
1703-39), of which four volumes had been
published before his death; the fifth was published by
R. Massuet (1713), and the sixth, to the year 1137,
by E. Martene (1739). He won perhaps even
greater fame in another department of scholarship,
owing to a controversy with the Jesuits, brought
on by a dissertation of the Bollandist Papebroch
in the second volume of the Acta sanctorum for
April (1675). Papebroch set down most of the
early documents conveying monastic privileges,
and especially the Merovingian archives of
Saint-Denis, as forgeries. The Benedictines, in whose
possession most of these were, regarded this as an
attack on themselves, and Mabillon answered it in
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
The
Ginza,
called also the
Sidra rabba, is
best consulted in the ed. of H. Petermann,
Thesaurus give
liber magnua, vulgo " Liber Adami," vol.
i., Berlin, 1867,
vol. ii., Leipsie, 1867 (based on a comparison of four MSS.
of 16th and 17th centuries). A prior ed. was by M. Norberg,
Codex Nasaraua, liber Adami appellatua, vols. i.-iv.,
Copenhagen, vol. v (onomasticon), Lund, 1817 (misleading, being a Syriac transcription, but has Latin tranal.).
A Germ. transl., with notes, has been issued by W. Brandt,
G6ttingen, 1893, and the same scholar gives the titles of
the tracts or books of which the
Ginza is
composed in his
very scholarly
Manddiache Religion, pp.
.207-209, Leipsic,
1889. Other Manderan writings published are:
Qolaeta,
by J. Euting, Stuttgart, 1867 (a liturgical work); parts
of the
Sidra de Yahya
("Book of John"), in Germ.
transl. by G. W. Lorsbaeh, in
Beitragen zur Philosophic
and Geachichte, v
(1799), 1-44. Mandman inscriptions
have been published: H. Pognon,
Inscriptions mandaitea
lea coupes de Khouabir, 2
vols., Paris, 1898-99 (cf. the review by M. Lidzbarski in TLZ, 1899); idem,
Une incantation contre lea genies malfaiaanta en Mandaite,
Paris,
1892; M. Lidzbarski, in
Ephemeris fur aemitiache Eloigraphik, i. 1
(1900), 89-106; cf. J. H. Mordtmann and
D. H. Moller,
Sabdische Denkmaler,
Vienna, 1883.
For early reports concerning the Mandeeans consult:
F. Ignatius a Jesu,
Narratio originia, rituum et erromm
Christianorum S. Joannia,
Rome, 1652; Abraham Ecchellensis,
Eutychiua patriarchs Alexandrinua vindicatua, pp.
310-336, Rome, 1660; Jean Thdvenot,
Voyage au Levant,
Paris, 1664; J. Chardin,
Journal du voyage . . . en Peres,
London, 1686; C. Niebuhr,
Reisebeachreibung nach Arabien
and andern . . . Ldndern,
3 vols., Hamburg, 1774-1837,
Eng. transl., 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1792. The two important modern works besides that of W. Brandt, ut sup.,
are by H. J. Petermann,
Reisen im Orient,
2 vols., Leipsic, 1861; and M. N. Siouffi,
-0tudea our la religion lea
Soubbae ou SaWene, laura dogma, leurs maura,
Paris, 1880.
Not to be overlooked is W. Brandt, in JPT,:viii (1892),
405-438, 575-603. Consult further: J. Matter,
Hist. du
gnoaticiarm, ii.
394-422, Paris, 1828; L. E. Burckhardt,
Les Nazoriene ou Mandai-Jahja (disciples de Jean),
Stras.
burg, 1840 (based on Norberg); D. Chwolsohn,
Die Saabier, i.
100-138, St. Petersburg, 1856; J. M. Chevalier
Lyeklama,
Voyages . . dana la Mlaopotamie, vol. iii.,
book 3, chap. iv., Paris, 1868; Babelon, in
Annales de
philoaophie chr4tienne,
1881; E. Bischoff,
Im Reiche der
Gnosis. Die myatiachen Lehren lea judiachen und chriatlichen Gnoaticiamua, Manddiamua and Manichdiamue and
ihr babyloniach-mtraler Uraprunp,
Leipsic, 1906; an important body of magazine literature is indicated in Richardson.
Encyclopaedia, pp
. 674-675;
Encyclop'todia Brfr
tannica, xv.
467. For the language: T. N51deke,
Manddi8che Grammatik,
Halle, 1875; idem, in
Abhandlungen der
Gottinger Geaellachaft,
1862; H. Pognon,
Inscriptions,
ut.
sup., pp. 257-308.
MANDE, mdn'de, HENDRIg: Dutch mystic
of the Windesheim community; b. at Dort c. 1360;
d. in the monastery of Sion, near Beverwijk, 1431.
want of which, as contrasted with Christianity, it
failed to attain popularity. Even more
r. The dangerous than this was a religion
Religion which, rising in the Orient, united in
Character- itself the charms of the new with the
ized. allurements of the old as represented
in the mysteries - which were so
attractive to the peoples of that time. This was
Mithraism, of which Renan once rightly remarked,
New York, 1908; and the literature on totemism under
C01IPAPATIVE RELIOIoN.
On the history of Christian marriage consult: Bingham,
Oripines, passim (using the index); DCA, ii. 1092-1115;
G. E. Howard, A History
of
Matrimonial Institutions,
chiefly in
England and
the United Stotts, 3 vole., Chicago,
1904; E. Saalfeld,
Luthers Lehre
von der Ehe Leipsic,
1882; W. Kawerau, Die Reformation
and
die
Ehe,
Halle, 1892; J. F. Bingham, Christian Marriage; the
Ceremony, History and Significance, New York, 1900.
On the theory of marriage consult: W. Glock, Christ
liehe Ehe
and ihre
modernen Gegner,
Carlsruhe, 1881 C.
Th6nes, Die christliche
Anschauunp der
Ehe, Leyden, 1881;
W. Humphrey, Christian Marriage, London, 1886 (Roman Catholic); A. H. Huth, Marriage
of
Near Kin, ib.
1887; A. Richard, Marriage
and Divorce,
ib. 1888 (religious, practical and political); H. A. Smith, in Is Marriage a Failure? ib. 1888 (a popular handbook); O. D.
Watkins, Holy
Matrimony, i
b. 1895; A. M. Caird, The
Morality
of
Marriage, ib. 1897; D. F. Wilcox, Ethical
Marriage, Ann Arbor, 1900; M. W. Allen, Marriage, its
Duties
and Privileges,
Chicago, 1901; P. A. Morrow, Social
Diseases
and
Marriage, Philadelphia, 1904; L. F. Poet,
Ethical Principles
of
Marriage
and
Divorce, Chicago, 1908;
H. H. Henson,
Christian Marriage,
London, 1907.
On the law of marriage and its history consult: J. P.
Bishop, Commentaries on As Law
of
Marriage
and Divorce,
2 vols., Boston, 1881; G. Mansells, De impedimentis mat·
rimonii
dirimentibua, Rome,
1891; P. Brillaud, Traitk
des
emptchements
de
mariape, Paris, 1884; J. Freisen, Geeehichte des canonischen Eherechts, TQbingen, 1888; A.
Esmein, Le Mariape en droit mnonique, 2 vole., Paris, 1891;
F. Heiner,
Grundriss des
katholisden EherecJUa, Monster,
1892; F. H. Geffeken, Zur Geschichts der
EhescJuidunp
vor Gratian, Leipsic, 1894; G. Revess, Dos Trauerfahr der
Witwe, Stuttgart, 1902; L. Gaueueeh, Dos
Ehehindernis
der h6heren Weihe, Vienna, 1902; M. Leitner, Lehrbuch
des
katholiachen E
herechts Paderborn, 1902.
For marriage law and the general status in different
countries, consult for France: E. Kelly,
The
French Law
of
Marriage, London, 1885; G. Baidry-Laeantinerie, Du
contrat de mariape, 3 vole., Paris, 1901. For Germany:
C. Barasetti, Das
Eherecht, Hanover,
1895; C. Sartorius,
Kommentar gum
Personenatandpesets in
der vom Jan. 1,
1800, an
geUenden Faseunp, Munich,
1902. For England:
W. Ernst, Treatise on Marriage and Divorce, London,
1879; J. T. Hammick, The Marriage Law
of
England, i
b.
1887; D. M. Ford, Matrimonial Law, ib. 1888; C. Crawley, The Law
of
Husband and Wife,
ib. 1892. For the
United States: J. Fulton, The Laws
of
Marriage, New
York, 1883; W. L. Snyder, The Geography cq/ Marriage,
New York, 1889 (on the complexities of marriage law in
the U. S.); C. D. Wright, Report on Marriage
and Divorce
in the U. S., Washington, 1889; L. J. Robinson, Law of
Husband and Wife,
Boston, 1890; J. P. Bishop, Commentaries on Marriage, Divorce
and Separation,
2 vole.,
Chicago, 1891; F. Keeser. Law
of
Marriage
and Divorce,
Boston, 1908; J. M. Donovan, Law
of
Marriage, Annulment, Domicile, Divorce, Sioux Falls, 1908.
M
Principal Haddow of St. Andrews, assailed it in his opening sermon at the Synod of Fife, Apr., 1719; and a " committee for preserving the purity of dootrine " was chosen at the Assembly that year, the business of which was to discredit the book. This was attempted by garbled extracts. In their report in 1720 the committee condemned the book as Antinomian, and the Assembly approved. Then the friends of the book rallied to its defense. Twelve men, who were called " the Representers," formally called the attention of the Assembly to the anomaly that it had condemned, because taught in the book, propositions which were couched in Scripture language, and others which were expressly taught in their symbolical books. The Neonomians, however, gained a moderate victory, and in the Assembly of 1722 the twelve Representers were solemnly rebuked; subsequently every effort was made by the Neonomians to prevent the settlement of ministers holding the Marrow doctrines. No action was taken against the Representers, and the controversy in the church courts ended. But the irritation lasted, and ultimately led to the formation of the Secession Church (see PRESBYTERIANS).
BIBLIOGRAPHT: W. M. Hetherington, Hist. of the Church of Scotland, chap. ix., pp. 342, 344-347, New York, 1881; C. A. Briggs, American Presbyterianism, pp. 254 sqq., ib. 1885.
of the writings of Madame Ouyon, which were henceforth to control him. Gradually withdrawing from ascetic extremes, De Marsay and his wife devoted themselves more to practical work, became partially reconciled with his family, and accepted a pension from his father's estate. Now all his former struggles seemed to him self-righteousness, and he regarded himself as a child with neither light nor certainty. Then began, according to his convio-
and avowedly preachers' expositions: The Spiritual Development of St. Paul (1890; 4th ed., 1897), a study of the thirteen epistles of Paul, but not of the literature on them; The Lady Ecclesia, an Autobiography (1896; 2d ed., 1896), an allegory; Sidelights from Patmos (1897; 3d ed., 1903); Studies of the Portrait of Christ (2 vols., 1899-1900; vol. I., 10th ed., 1907, vol. IL, 6th ed., 1907), a very interesting study of the life of Christ as an aid to faith and not as a contribution to scholarship, generally considered his best piece of work; The Representative Men of the Bible (2 series, 1902-03; first series, Adam to Job, 6th ed., 1907; second series, Ishmael to Daniel, 3d ed., 1907); The Representative Men of the New Testament (1905); and The Representative Women of the Bible (1906). But it is likely that he will be longer useful as author of a third class of books, the devotional, for these have had a very wide sale and reached many who were not attracted by his other books: My Aspirations (1882); Moments on the Mount (1884); Voices of the Spirit (1888); Searchings in the Silence (1895); Words by the Wayside (1896); Times of Retirement (1901); Leaves for Quiet Hours (1904); Rests by the River (1906); Messages of Hope (1908); Thoughts far Life's Journey (1908); and. Day unto Day (1908), prayers. He wrote also poetry: Sacred Songs (1890; 3d ed., 1904); and one hymn (not in this collection), "O Love that wilt not let me go," will be sung long after all his other compositions are forgotten. It was written at the Innellan manse in five minutes on the evening of June 6, 1882, and only changed in a single word, "trace"for"climbed" in the third stanza. But four other hymns which are in this colleotion have been incorporated into several hymn-books. BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. Macmillan, The Life of George Matheson, London, 1907.
Irish temperance advocate; b. at Thomastown (5 m. w. of Cashel), Tipperary, Oct. 10, .1790; d. At Queenstown Dec. 8, 1856. He studied for a year at Maynooth, 1807-08; passed through the novitiate of the Capuchin order and was ordained in 1814. He was then sent to Cork to take charge of a chapel in the destitute portion of the city, where his high personal character and gentle spirit won confidence and affection. He aided in philanthropic and educational enterprises for the uplift of the poorer classes. In 1838 he was impressed with the evils of intemperance and was asked to conduct the totalabatinence crusade. On Apr. 10 of that year, Father Mathew, who was then in his forty-eighth year, definitely committed himself to the work. His success was phenomenal. By January of the next year, two hundred thousand persons, most of whom lived in Cork and its vicinity, had embraced the new gospel. Father Mathew extended his labors over all Ireland, visited Scotland and England (18421843), and spent two years in America (1849-51), going as far west as St. Louis, everywhere making converts by the hundreds. His success was due to his exhaustless flow of animal spirits, his humor and wit, his downright earnestness, and above all, to his ability, courage, and high character.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The principal life is by J. F. Maguire, Lon- don, 1864, abridged ed., 1890. Others are S. R. Wells, THE NEW SCHAFF HERZOGNew York, 1867; F. J. Mathew, London, 1890; and Katharine Tynan, ib, 1908. Consult also S. H. Burke, Rise and Progress of Father Mathew's Temperance Mission, ib. 1885.
MATHEWS, GEORGE DUNCAN: Irish Presbyterian; b. at Kilkenny (73 m. s.s.e. of Dublin), County Kilkenny, Apr. 25, 1828. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1848), after which he held successive pastorates at the United Presbyterian Church in Stranraer, Scotland (18541868), Westminster Presbyterian Church, New York City (1868-78), and at the Canadian Presbyterian Church, Quebec (1878,88). He was also professor of dogmatic theology in Morrin College, Quebec, from 1880 to his retirement from active life in 1888. He was American secretary of the General Presbyterian Alliance in New York in 1873-88, and since the latter year has been general secretary of the General Presbyterian Alliance at London. He was also a member of the Council of Public Instruction for the Province of Quebec from 1880 to 1888, and in theological position is a liberal conservative. In addition to minor contributions, he was editor of The Christian Worker in 1870-74, and associate editor of Catholic Presbyterianism in 1879-83 and of The Quarterly Register (the official organ of the General Presbyterian Alliance) in 1880-88, of which he has been general editor since the latter year. He likewise edited the Proceedings of the General Presbyterian Alliance for 1884, 1892, 1896, 1899, 1904, and 1909.
MATHEWS, SHAILER: Baptist; b. at Portland, Me., May 26, 1863. He was educated at Colby University, Waterville, Me. (A.B., 1884), Newton Theological Institution, from which he was graduated in 1887, and the University of Berlin (1890-91). He was associate professor of rhetoric at Colby University in 1887-89 and professor of history and political economy in the same institution in 1889-94, as well as lecturer in New-Testament literature in Newton Theological Institution in 1888,89, after which he was associate professor of New-Testament history and interpretation at the divinity school of the University of Chicago from 1894 to 1897 and professor from 1897 to 1904. Since the latter year he has been professor of systematic theology in the same seminary, was junior dean of the divinity school 1894-1907, and dean since 1907. In addition to his work as editor of The World Today since 1903 and of the series of New Testament Handbooks, as well as associate editor of The Biblical World and The American Journal of Theology, he has written: Select Mediwval Documents (New York, 1891); The Social Teaching of Jesus (1897); A History of New Testament Times in Palestine (1899); Constructive Studies in the Life of Christ (in collaboration with E. D. Burton, Chicago, 1901); The French Revolution (New York, 1901); Principles aced Ideals for the Sunday School (in collaboration with E. D. Burton, Chicago, 1903); The Messianic Hope in the New Testament (1905); and The Church and the Changing Order (New York, 1907).
MATHIEU, and"tt"O', FRAY OIS DESIRE: Cardinal; b. at Einville (41 m. n. ~ Lun6ville), France, May 28, 1839; d. in London Oct. 26, 1908. He was ordained to the priesthood in 1863, after hav-
MATINS: The office which, with its complement Lauds (q.v.), forms the nocturnal part of the Breviary (q.v.), and in length amounts to about one-half of that for the whole day. On ordinary week-days and simple feasts it has only one division or nocturn; on Sundays and all feasts above the rank of simple, it has three, corresponding to the ancient Roman division of the night into three watches. After the silent recitation of the Lord's Prayer, Hail Mary, and Creed, it begins with the introductory versicles and responses, and Ps. xcv., interspersed with repetitions of the invitatory, a versicle referring to the day or season; then a hymn, varying with the day, and the psalms, twelve on ordinary week-days, on festivals three to each nocturn. Each psalm or group of psalms has its Antiphon (q.v.) to bring out a special meaning for the day. The psalms are followed by the lessons, each with a short responsory. Those of the first (or on week-days the only) nocturn are taken from the Old Testament; those of the second from the lives of the saints or the writings of the Fathers; those of the third from some patristic exposition of the Gospel for the day. After the last lesson the place of the responsory is taken on Sundays (except in Advent and from Septuagesima to Easter), festivals, and week-days in the Paschal season, by the Te Deum.
Before the Reformation, matins, like vespers, was frequently a public service attended by the laity, so that some account was early taken of it in the reorganization of worship. In the Deutscher Kirchenamt, probably as early as 1523, there is a reformed vernacular office based upon it. Luther wished to retain matins and vespers, and saw no need of making radical changes in them, since they were mainly taken from Scripture. He wished to shorten matins, and to read the whole Psalter and the rest of the Bible consecutively, adding exposition on Sundays. In the Formula Missae of 1523 and the Deutsche Messe of 1526, he sets forth his arrangement at some length. It was not at all universally followed, especially in South Germany. The Reformed Churches knew nothing of it, and even where it was retained among the Lutherans there was no uniformity. In some places it was recited daily, in others on Sundays, and in others again only on great festivals; and the order of the service varied. In the nature of the case it was to be expected that this ancient service should gradually disappear; the last traces of it in Germany were retained on the three great festivals, especially Christmas; but none of the modern Agenda make any attempt to reproduce it. [In the Church of England Prayer-book (see COMMON PRAYER, BOOK OF) the vernacular office entitled "Morning Prayer," and colloquially designated as matins to this day, is a fusion of various features of the ancient matins, lauds, and prime.] (P. DREWS.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bingham, Origines, XIII., ix., 10; A. J. Binterim, Denkwürdigkeiten, iv., 1, pp. 357 sqq., Mainz, 1827; W. Palmer, Origines liturgicae, , i. 213, Oxford, 1832; F. Armknecht, Die alte Matutin- and Vesperondnung in der evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche, Göttingen, 1856; T. Kliefoth, Liturgische Abhandlungen, vi. 185 sqq., vii. 438 sqq., 489sqq., viii. 164 sqq., Halle, 1859-61; F. Kraus, Real-Encyklopädie des christlichen Altertums, ii. 530 sqq., Freiburg, 1886; V. Thalhofer, Handbuch der katholischen Liturgik, ii. 358, 434 sqq., 450, Freiburg, 1893; KL, viii. 1042 sqq.; and much of the literature under BREVIARY.
I. The Apostle.
II. The Gospel.
External Testimony (§ 1).
Criticism versus Tradition (§ 2).
The Sources (§ 3).
Content, Structure, and Purpose (§ 4).
Date and Value (§ 5).
I. The Apostle: In all the lists of the apostles in the New Testament Matthew appears as one of the Twelve, in Mark and Luke occupying the seventh place, in Matthew and the Acts the eighth. By the appellative "publican" (Matt. x. 3) he is to be identified with the Matthew of ix. 9 sqq. and doubtless with the Levi of Mark ii. 14 and Luke v. 27 sqq., Mark adding that his father was Alpheus; possibly Mark and Luke used his earlier name, Matthew being his name after he became a disciple. He was doubtless a Jew, as his name indicates, contrary to the statement of Julius Africanus. Nothing further regarding his life is told in Matthew or the Acts. In tradition his story developed. Thus Clement of Alexandria calls him a vegetarian ("The Instructor," II., i.; ANF, ii. 241) and places him in the list of those saints who did not suffer martyrdom; later tradition made him a martyr by fire, beheading, or stoning; he is said to have preached first to his own people, afterward in foreign lands (Eusebius, Hist. eccl., III., xxiv. 6; NPNF, 2 ser., i. 152). The stories concerning his grave and his relics may be found in R. A. Lipsius, Die apokryphen Apostelgeschichten, p. 217, Brunswick, 1890.
II. The Gospel: In the early Church the authorship of the first Gospel was universally ascribed to
Matthew. The tradition of apostolical authorship
arose very early, and that Gospel was the chief
source used by the Apostolic Fathers,
I. External while Papias is expressly quoted as
Testimony. asserting the Matthean origin ("So
then Matthew wrote the logia in the
Hebrew language, and every one interpreted them
as he was able," Eusebius, Hist. eccl., III., xxxix. 16;
NPNF, 2 ser., i. 173).
By the assertion that
the logia were in the Hebrew was meant not the
classical Hebrew of the Old Testament, but the dialect of Syriac which was the mother tongue of Matthew and of Jesus, and he implies that the translations (into Greek) are more numerous than could
be desired because inaccurate. With this sentence
of Papias, then, begins the external testimony to
the authorship of the first Gospel. Later writers
never contradict Papias but rather copy or corroborate him (Eusebius,
Hist. eccl., III., xxiv. 6, V., viii. 2, VI., xxv. 4).
The fact of a Hebrew
Matthew receives confirmation from still another
source. And by this is meant neither what is related in the Apocryphal Acts of Barnabas (Lipsius, Die apokryphen Apostelgeschichten, ii. 2, pp. 270 sqq., 291 sqq.) concerning the finding of an auto-
(K. KESSLER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Bore, Saint Laaare, ou hid. de la soeUM religieuse armbnnienne de MEchitar, Venice, 1835; idem, La Couvent de S. Lazare h Venise, Paris, 1837; s. Somalian. Quadro delta etoria letterarla di Armenia, Venice, 1829; C. F. Neumann, Versuch einer Geechirhte der armenischen Litteratur, Leipsic, 1836; Windischmann, in TQ, 1835, part 1, cf. 1846, pp. 527 sqq.; Le Vaillant de Florival, Les MEkhitaristes de S. Lazare, Venice, 1856; V. Langlois, The Armenian Monastery of St. Lazame-Venice, Venice, 1874; P. A. Hennemann Das Kloster der amenisden MGnche auf der Intel St. Lazzaro, ib. 1881; A. Mayer, Die Mechitaristenbuchdruckerei, Vienna, 1888; F. Scherer, Die Mechitaristen in Wien, ib. 1892; K. Kalemkiarian, Skizze der litemrisclrtypopraphischen Thdtipkeit der Afechi tariaten Congregation in Wien, ib. 1898; S. Weber, Die katholische Ruche in Armenien, Freiburg, 1903; HL, viii. 1122-37. Some of the literature given under ARMENIA will be found pertinent. Consult also Heimbusher. Orden and %onyrnpationen, i. 313-319.
MELANCHTHON, PHILIPP.
- I. Life.
- Education (§ 1).
- Professor at Wittenberg (§ 2).
- Theological Disputes (§ 3).
- Augsburg Confession (§ 4).
- Discussions on Lord's Supper and Justification (§ 5).
- Relations with Luther (§ 6).
- Controversies with Flacius (§ 7).
- Disputes with Osiander and Flacius (§ 8).
- Death (§ 9).
- II. Estimate of His Works and Character.
- Luther and Melanchthon (§ 1).
- His Work as Reformer (§ 2).
- As Scholar (§ 3).
- As Theologian (¢ 4).
- As Moralist (§ 5).
- As Exegete (§ 6).
- As Historian and Preacher (§ 7).
- As Professor and Philosopher (§ 8).
- Personal Appearance and Character (§ 9).
- His Fame (§ 10).
- Education (§ 1).
I. Life
1. Education.
Philipp Melanchthon, the German humanist and Reformer, was born at Bretten (13 m. e.n.e. of Carlsruhe) Feb. 16, 1497, and died at Wittenberg Apr. 19, 1560. His father, Georg Schwarzerd, was armorer to Count Palatine Philip. Melanchthon received his first instruction in the school of his native city; he then had a private tutor, Johann Unger, in the house of his grandfather. In 1507 he was sent to the Latin school at Pforzheim, the rector of which, Georg Simler of Wimpfen, introduced him to the study of the Latin and Greek poets and of the philosophy of Aristotle. But he was chiefly influenced by his great-uncle, Johann Reuchlin, the great representative of humanism, who advised him to change his family name, Schwarzerd, into the Greek equivalent Melanchthon. Not yet thirteen years old, he entered in 1509 the University of Heidelberg where he studied philosophy, rhetoric, and astronomy, and was known as a good Greek scholar. As the lectures of the university did not satisfy him, he diligently read in private grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, and the ancient poets and historians. Being refused the degree of master in 1512 on account of his youth, he went to Tubingen, where he pursued humanistic and philosophical studies, but devoted himself also to the study of jurisprudence, mathematics, astronomy, and even of medicine. When, having completed his philosophical course, he had taken the degree of master in 1516, he began to study theology. Under the influence of men like Reuchlin and Erasmus he became convinced that true Christianity was something quite different from scholastic theology as it was taught at the university. But at that time he had not yet formed fixed opinions on theology, since later he often called Luther his spiritual father. He became conventor (repetent) in the contubernium and had to instruct younger scholars. He also lectured on oratory, on Vergil and Livy. His first publications were an edition of Terence (1516) and his Greek grammar (1518), but he had written previously the preface to the Epistolae clarorum virorum of Reuchlin (1514).
2. Professor at Wittenberg.
The more strongly he felt the opposition of the scholastic party to the reforms instituted by him at the University of Tubingen, the more willingly he followed a call to Wittenberg as professor of Greek, where he aroused great admiration by his inaugural De corrigendis adolescentiae studiis. He lectured before five to six hundred students, afterward to fifteen hundred. He was highly esteemed by Luther, whose influence brought him to the study of Scripture, especially of Paul, and so to a more living knowledge of the Evangelical doctrine of salvation. He was present at the disputation of Leipsic (1519) as a spectator, but influenced the discussion by his comments and suggestions, so that he gave Eck an excuse for an attack. In his Defensio contra Johannem Eckium ([Wittenberg,] 1519) he had already clearly developed the principles of the authority of Scripture and its interpretation. On account of the interest in theology shown in his lectures on Matthew and Romans, together with his investigations into the doctrines of Paul, he was granted the degree of bachelor of theology, and was transferred to the theological faculty. Soon he was bound closer than ever to Wittenberg by his marriage to Katharina Krapp, the mayor's daughter, a marriage contracted at his friends' urgent request, and especially Luther's (Nov. 25, 1520).
3. Theological Disputes.
In the beginning of 1521 in his Didymi Faventini
versus Thomam Placentinum pro M. Luthero
oratio (Wittenberg, n.d.), he defended Luther
by proving that Luther rejected only papal and
ecclesiastical practises which were at variance with
Scripture, but not true philosophy and true
Christianity. But while Luther was absent at the
Wartburg, during the disturbances caused by the Zwickau
4. Augsburg Confession.
Although based on the Marburg and Schwabach articles of Luther, the Augsburg Confession (q.v.), which was laid before the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, was mainly the work of Melanchthon. It is true, Luther did not conceal the fact that the irenical attitude of the confession was not what he had wished, but neither he nor Melanchthon were conscious of any difference in doctrine, and so the most important Protestant symbol is a monument of the harmony of the two Reformers on Gospel teachings. But at the diet Melanchthon did not show that dignified and firm attitude which faith in the truth and the justice of his cause should have inspired in him, although it is true that he had not sought the part of a political leader, since he lacked the necessary knowledge of human nature, as well as energy and decision. The Apology of the Augsburg Confession, likewise the work of Melanchthon, was also a clear exposition of the disputed doctrines, drawn immediately from experience and Scripture. Now in comparative quiet Melanchthon could devote himself to his academical and literary labors. The most important theological work of this period was the Commentarii in Epistolam Pauli ad Romanos (Wittenberg, 1532), a noteworthy book, as it for the first time established the doctrine that "to be justified" means "to be accounted just," while the Apology still placed side by side the two meanings of "to be made just" and "to be accounted just." Melanchthon's increasing fame gave occasion for several honorable calls to Tubingen (Sept., 1534), to France, and ba England, but consideration of the elector induced him to refuse them.
5. Discussions on Lord's Supper and Justification.
He took an important part in the discussions concerning the Lord's Supper which began in 1531. He approved fully of the Formula of Concord sent by Butzer to Wittenberg, and at the instigation of the Landgrave of Hesse discussed the question with Butzer in Cassel, at the end of 1534. He eagerly labored for an agreement, for his patristic studies and the Dialogue (1530) of OEcolampadius had made him doubt the correctness of Luther's doctrine. Moreover, after the death of Zwingli and the change of the political situation his earlier scruples in regard to a union lost their weight. Butzer did not go so far as to believe with Luther that the true body of Christ in the Lord's Supper is bitten by the teeth, but admitted the offering of the body and blood in the symbols of bread and wine (see WITTENBERG, CONCORD OF). Melanchthon discussed Butzer's views with the most prominent adherents of Luther; but Luther himself would not agree to a mere veiling of the dispute. Melanchthon's relation to Luther was not disturbed by his work as a mediator, although Luther for a time suspected that Melanchthon was "almost of the opinion of Zwingli"; nevertheless he desired to "share his heart with him." During his sojourn in Tubingen in 1536 Melanchthon was severely attacked by Cordatus, preacher in Niemeck, because he had taught that works are necessary for salvation. In the second edition of his Loci (1535) he abandoned his earlier strict doctrine of determinism which went even beyond that of Augustine, and in its place taught more clearly his so-called Synergism (q.v.). He repulsed the attack of Cordatus in a letter to Luther and his other colleagues by stating that he had never departed from their common teachings on this subject, and in the antinomian controversy of 1537 Melanchthon was in harmony with Luther.
6. Relations with Luther.
It is true, the personal relation of the two great
Reformers had to stand many a test in those years,
for Amsdorf and others tried to stir up Luther
against Melanchthon so that his stay at Wittenberg
seemed to Melanchthon at times almost unbearable,
and he compared himself to
"Prometheus chained to the Caucasus."
About this time occurred the
notorious case of the second marriage of
Philip of Hesse (See LUTHER, MARTIN,
~ 21). Melanchthon, who, as well as Luther,
regarded this as an exceptional case was present at
the marriage, but urged Philip to keep the matter
a secret. The publication of the fact so affected
Melanchthon, then at Weimar, that he became
exceedingly ill.
In Oct., 1540, Melanchthon took
an important part in the religious colloquy of
Worms, where he defended clearly and firmly the
doctrines of the Augsburg Confession. It is to be
noted that Melanchthon used as a basis of the
7. Controversies with Flacius.
The last eventful and sorrowful period of his life began with controversies over the Interim (q.v.) and the Adiaphora (q.v.; 1547). It is true, Melanchthon rejected the Augsburg Interim, which the emperor tried to force upon the defeated Protestants; but in the negotiations concerning the so-called Leipsic Interim he made concessions which can in no way be justified, even if one considers his difficult position, opposed as he was to the elector and the emperor. In agreeing to various Roman usages, Melanchthon started from the opinion that they are adiaphora if nothing is changed in the pure doctrine and the sacraments which Christ instituted, but he ignored the fact that concessions made under such circumstances have to be regarded as a denial of Evangelical convictions. Melanchthon himself perceived his faults in the course of time and repented of them, having to suffer more than was just in the displeasure of his friends and the hatred of his enemies. From now on until his death he was full of trouble and suffering. After Luther's death he became the "theological leader of the German Reformation," not indisputably, however; for the real Lutherans with Flacius Illyricus at their head accused him and his followers of heresy and apostasy. Melanchthon bore all accusations and calumnies with admirable patience, dignity, and self-control.
8. Disputes with Osiander and Flacius.
It can not be denied, on the one hand,
that the Lutherans defended themselves against not
only supposed but actual deviations from their
beliefs, although their zeal sometimes carried them
to extremes, nor on the other hand that Melanchthon
and his followers represented a justifiable point of
view, though they could not always express it
within proper limits. In his controversy on justification
with Andrew Osiander (q.v.) Melanchthon
satisfied all parties. Melanchthon
took part also in a controversy with
Stancari, who held that Christ was our
justification only according to his
human nature.
He was also still a
strong opponent of the Roman
Catholics, for it was by his advice that the elector of
Saxony declared himself ready to send deputies
to a council to be convened at Trent, but only
under the condition that the Protestants should
have a share in the discussions, and that the pope
should not be considered as the presiding officer
and judge. As it was agreed upon to send a
confession to Trent, Melanchthon drew up the Confessio
Saxonica which is a repetition of the Augsburg
Confession, discussing, however, in greater detail,
but with moderation, the points of controversy
with Rome. Melanchthon on his way to Trent at
Dresden saw the military preparations of Maurice
of Saxony, and after proceeding as far as Nuremberg,
returned to Wittenberg (March, 1552); for Maurice
had turned against the emperor. Owing to his act,
the condition of the Protestants became more
favorable and was still more so at the peace of
Augsburg (1555), but Melanchthon's labors and
sufferings increased from that time.
The last
years of his life were embittered by the disputes
over the Interim and the freshly started
controversy on the Lord's Supper. As the statement
"good works are necessary for salvation" appeared
in the Leipsic Interim, its Lutheran opponents
attacked in 1551 Georg Major (q.v.), the friend and
disciple of Melanchthon, so Melanchthon dropped
the formula altogether, seeing how easily it could
be misunderstood.
But all his caution and
reservation did not hinder his opponents from continually
working against him, accusing him of synergism
and Zwinglianism. At the conference in Worms
in 1557 which he attended only reluctantly, the
adherents of Flacius and the Saxon theologians
tried to avenge themselves by thoroughly humiliating
Melanchthon, in agreement with the malicious
desire of the Roman Catholics to condemn all
heretics, especially those who had departed from
the Augsburg Confession, before the beginning of
the conference. As this was directed against
Melanchthon himself, he protested, so that his
opponents left, greatly to the satisfaction of the
Roman Catholics who now broke off the colloquy,
throwing all blame upon the Protestants. The
Reformation in the sixteenth century did not
experience a greater insult, as Nitzsch says.
Nevertheless, Melanchthon persevered in his efforts
for the peace of the Church, suggesting a synod
of the Evangelical party and drawing up for the
same purpose the Frankfort Recess (q.v.) which
he defended later against the attacks of his enemies.
More than anything else the controversies on the
Lord's Supper embittered the last years of his life.
The renewal of this dispute was due to the victory
in the Reformed Church of the Calvinistic doctrine
and its influence upon Germany. To its tenets
Melanchthon never gave his assent, nor did he use
9. Death.
But before these and other theological dissensions were ended, he was at last freed by his death; a few days before this event he committed to writing his reasons for not fearing it. On the left were the words,"Thou shalt be delivered from sins, and be freed from the acrimony and fury of theologians"; on the right, "Thou shalt go to the light, see God, look upon his Son, learn those wonderful mysteries which thou hast not been able to understand in this life." The immediate cause of death was a severe cold which he had contracted on a journey to Leipsic in March, 1560, followed by a fever that consumed his strength, weakened by many sufferings. The only care that occupied him until his last moment, was the desolate condition of the Church. He strengthened himself in almost uninterrupted prayer, and in listening to passages of Scripture. Especially significant did the words seem to him, "His own received him not; but as many as received him, to them gave he power to become the sons of God." When Caspar Peucer (q.v.), his son in-law, asked him if he wanted anything, he replied, "Nothing but heaven." His body was laid beside Luther's in the Schlosakirche in Wittenberg.
II. Estimate of his Works and Character
1. Luther and Melanchthon.
Melanchthon's importance for the Reformation lay essentially in the fact that he systematized Luther's ideas, defended them in public, and made them the basis of a religious education. These two, by complementing each other, harmoniously achieved the great results of the Reformation. Only the heroism and creative power of a Luther were able to break with the reigning church. Melanchthon was impelled by Luther to work for the Reformation; his own inclinations would have kept him a student. Without Luther's influence Melanchthon would have been "a second Erasmus," although his heart was filled with a deeper religious interest in the Reformation. While Luther scattered the sparks among the people, Melanchthon by his humanistic studies won the sympathy of educated people and scholars for the Reformation. Beside Luther's heroism of faith, Melanchthon's many sidedness and calmness, his temperance and love of peace, had a share in the success of the movement. Both men had a clear consciousness of their mutual position and the divine necessity of their common calling. Melanchthon wrote in 1520, "I would rather die than be separated from Luther," whom he afterward compared to Elijah, and called "the man full of the Holy Ghost." In spite of the strained relations between them in the last years of Luther's life, Melanchthon exclaimed at Luther's death, "Dead is the horseman and chariot of Israel who ruled the Church in this last age of the world!" On the other hand, Luther wrote of Melanchthon, in the preface to Melanchthon's Commentary on the Colossians (1529), "I had to fight with rabble and devils, for which reason my books are very warlike. I am the rough pioneer who must break the road; but Master Philipp comes along softly and gently, sows and waters heartily, since God has richly endowed him with gifts." Luther also did justice to Melanchthon's teachings, praising one year before his death in the preface to his own writings Melanchthon's revised Loci above them and calling Melanchthon "a divine instrument which has achieved the very best in the department of theology to the great rage of the devil and his scabby tribe." It is remarkable that Luther, who vehemently attacked men like Erasmus and Butzer, when he thought that truth was at stake, never spoke directly against Melanchthon, and even during his melancholy last years conquered his temper. The strained relation between these two men never came from external things, such as human rank and fame, much less from other advantages, but always from matters of Church and doctrine, and chiefly from the fundamental difference of their individualities; they repelled and attracted each other "because nature had not formed out of them one man." However, it can not be denied that Luther was the more magnanimous, for however much he was at times dissatisfied with Melanchthon's actions, he never uttered a word against his private character; but Melanchthon, on the other hand, sometimes evinced a lack of confidence in Luther. In a letter to Carlowitz he complained that Luther on account of his polemical nature exercised a personally humiliating pressure upon him. Luther certainly never intended to exercise such a pressure, and if it existed at all, it was Melanchthon's own fault.2. His Work as Reformer.
As a Reformer Melanchthon was characterized
by moderation, conscientiousness, caution, and love
of peace; but these qualities were sometimes only
lack of decision, consistence, and courage. Often,
however, his actions showed not
anxiety for his own safety, but regard
for the welfare of the community,
and for the quiet development of the
Church.
Melanchthon did not lack
personal courage; but it was less of an aggressive
than of a passive nature. When he was reminded
how much power and strength Luther drew from
his trust in God, he answered, "If I myself do not
do my part, I can not expect anything from God in
prayer." His nature was inclined rather to suffer
with faith in God that he would be released from
every evil than to act valiantly with his aid.
The
distinction between Luther and Melanchthon is
well brought out in Luther's letters to the latter
(June, 1530): "To your great anxiety by which
you are made weak, I am a cordial foe; for the
cause is not ours. It is your philosophy, and not
your theology, which tortures you so,-- as though
you could accomplish anything by your useless
anxieties. So far as the public cause is concerned,
I am well content and satisfied; for I know that it
is right and true, and, what is more, it is the cause
3. As Scholar.
As a scholar Melanchthon embodied the entire spiritual culture of his age. At the same time he found the simplest, clearest, and most suitable form for his knowledge; therefore his manuals, even if they were not always original, were quickly introduced into schools and kept their place for more than a century. Knowledge had for him no purpose of its own; it existed only for the service of moral and religious education, and so the teacher of Germany prepared the way for the religious thoughts of the Reformation. He is the father of Christian Humanism, which has exerted a lasting influence upon scientific life in Germany. His works were not always new and original, but they were clear, intelligible, and answered their purpose. His style is natural and plain, better, however, in Latin and. Greek than in German. He was not without natural eloquence, although his voice was weak.
4. As Theologian.
As a theologian, Melanchthon did not show so
much creative ability as a genius for collecting and
systematizing the ideas of others, especially of
Luther, for the purpose of instruction. He kept to
the practical, and cared little for
connection of the parts, so his Loci
were in the form of isolated paragraphs.
The fundamental difference between
Luther and Melanchthon lies not so much in the
latter's ethical conception, as in his humanistic
mode of thought which formed the basis of his
theology and made him ready not only to
acknowledge moral and religious truths outside of
Christianity, but also to bring Christian truth into closer
contact with them, and thus to mediate between
Christian revelation and ancient philosophy.
Melanchthon's views differed from Luther's only in
some modifications of ideas. Melanchthon looked
upon the law as not only the correlate of the Gospel,
by which its effect of salvation is prepared, but as
the unchangeable order of the spiritual world
which has its basis in God himself. He furthermore
reduced Luther's much richer view of redemption
to that of legal satisfaction. He did not draw from
the vein of mysticism running through Luther's
theology, but emphasized the ethical and
intellectual elements.
After giving up determinism and
absolute predestination and ascribing to man a
certain moral freedom, he tried to ascertain the
share of free will in conversion, naming three causes
as concurring in the work of conversion, the
Word, the Spirit, and the human will, not passive,
but resisting its own weakness. Since 1548 he used
the definition of freedom formulated by Erasmus,
"the capability of applying oneself to grace."
He was certainly right in thinking it impossible to
change one's character without surrender of the will;
but by correlating the divine and the human will
he lost sight of the fundamental religious experience
that the desire and realization of good actions is a
gift of divine grace.
His definition of faith lacks the
mystical depth of Luther. In dividing faith into
knowledge, assent, and trust, he made the
participation of the heart subsequent to that of the
intellect, and so gave rise to the view of the later
orthodoxy that the establishment and acceptation
of pure doctrine should precede the personal
5. As Moralist.
In ethics Melanchthon preserved and renewed the tradition of ancient morality and represented the Evangelical conception of life. His books bearing directly on morals were chiefly drawn from the classics, and were influenced not so much by Aristotle as by Cicero. His principal works in this line were Prolegomena to Cicero's De officiis (1525); Enarrationes librorum Ethicorum Aristotelis (1529); Epitome philosophiae moralis (1538); and Ethicae doctrinae elementa (1550). In his Epitome philosophiae moralis Melanchthon treats first the relation of philosophy to the law of God and the Gospel. Moral philosophy, it is true, does not know anything of the promise of grace as revealed in the Gospel, but it is the development of the natural law implanted by God in the heart of man, and therefore representing a part of the divine law. The revealed law, necessitated because of sin, is distinguished from natural law only by its greater completeness and clearness. The fundamental order of moral life can be grasped also by reason; therefore the development of moral philosophy from natural principles must not be neglected. Melanchthon therefore made no sharp distinction between natural and revealed morals. His contribution to Christian ethics in the proper sense must be sought in the Augsburg Confession and its Apology as well as in his Loci, where he followed Luther in depicting the Evangelical ideal of life, the free realization of the divine law by a personality blessed in faith and filled with the spirit of God.
6. As Exegete.
Melanchthon's formulation of the authority of Scripture became the norm for the following time. The principle of his hermeneutics is expressed in his words: "Every theologian and faithful interpreter of the heavenly doctrine must necessarily be first a grammarian, then a dialectician, and finally a witness." By "grammarian" he meant the philologist in the modern sense who is master of history, archeology, and ancient geography. As to the method of interpretation, he insisted with great emphasis upon the unity of the sense, upon the literal sense in contrast to the four senses of the scholastics. He further stated that whatever is looked for in the words of Scripture, outside of the literal sense, is only dogmatic or practical application. His commentaries, however, are not grammatical, but are full of theological and practical matter, confirming the doctrines of the Reformation, and edifying believers. The most important of them are those on Genesis, Proverbs, Daniel, the Psalms, and especially those on the New Testament, on Romans (edited in 1522 against his will by Luther), Colossians (1527), and John (1523). Melanchthon was the constant assistant of Luther in his translation of the Bible, and both the books of the Maccabees in Luther's Bible are ascribed to him. A Latin Bible published in 1529 at Wittenberg is designated as a common work of Melanchthon and Luther.
7. As Historian and Preacher.
In the sphere of historical theology the influence of Melanchthon may be traced until the seventeenth century, especially in the method of treating church history in connection with political history. His was the first Protestant attempt at a history of dogma, Sententiae veterum aliquot patrum de caena domini (1530) and especially De ecclesia et auctoritate verbi Dei (1539). Melanchthon exerted a wide influence in the department of homiletics, and has been regarded as the author, in the Protestant Church, of the methodical style of preaching. He himself keeps entirely aloof from all mere dogmatizing or rhetoric in the Annotationes in Evangelia (1544), the Conciones in Evangelium Matthaei (1558), and in his German sermons prepared for George of Anhalt. He never preached from the pulpit; and his Latin sermons (Postilla) were prepared for the Hungarian students at Wittenberg who did not understand German. In this connection may be mentioned also his Catechesis puerilis (1532), a religious manual for younger students, and a German catechism (1549), following closely Luther's arrangement. From Melanchthon came also the first Protestant work on the method of theological study, so that it may safely be said that by his influence every department of theology was advanced even if he was not always a pioneer. Rothe did not exaggerate when he said: "Whatever was done in the time of the Reformation for the upbuilding of Evangelical theology in Germany, was his work."
8. As Professor and Philosopher.
As a philologist and pedagogue Melanchthon
was the spiritual heir of the South German
Humanists, of men like Reuchlin, Wimpheling, and
Rudolf Agricola, who represented an ethical
conception of the humanities. The liberal arts and a
classical education were for him only a means to an
ethical and religious end. The ancient classics
were for him in the first place the sources of a
purer knowledge, but they were also the best means
9. Personal Appearance and Character.
There have been preserved original portraits of Melanchthon by three famous painters of his time-- by Holbein in the Royal Gallery of Hannover (said to be the best), by Durer (made in 1526), and by Lukas Cranach. Cranach represented the Melanchthon of later years, worn out, thin, and unsightly, but with a mild and peaceful expression on a highly intellectual face. Melanchthon was small and slight, and but of good proportions, and had a bright and sparkling eye, which kept its color till the day of his death. He was never in perfectly sound health, and managed to perform as much work as he did only by reason of the extraordinary regularity of his habits and his great temperance. He set no great value on money and possessions; his liberality and hospitality were often misused in such a way that his old faithful Swabian servant had sometimes difficulty in managing the household. His domestic life was happy. He called his home "a little church of God," always found peace there, and showed a tender solicitude for his wife and children. To his great astonishment a French scholar found him rocking the cradle with one hand, and holding a book in the other. His noble soul showed itself also in his friendship for many of his contemporaries; "there is nothing sweeter nor lovelier than mutual intercourse with friends," he used to say. His most intimate friend was Camerarius, whom he called the half of his soul. His extensive correspondence was for him not only a duty, but a need and an enjoyment. His letters form a valuable commentary on his whole life, as he spoke out his mind in them more unreservedly than he was wont to do in public life. A peculiar example of his sacrificing friendship is furnished by the fact that he wrote speeches and scientific treatises for others, permitting them to use their own signature. But in the kindness of his heart he was ready to serve and assist not only his friends, but everybody. He was as enemy to jealousy, envy, slander, and sarcasm. His whole nature adapted him especially to the intercourse with scholars and men of higher rank, while it was more difficult for him to deal with the people of lower station. He never allowed himself or others to exceed the bounds of nobility, honesty, and decency. He was very sincere in the judgment of his own person, acknowledging his faults even to opponents like Flacius, and was open to the criticism even of such as stood far below him. In his public career he sought not honor or fame, but earnestly endeavored to serve the Church and the cause of truth. His humility and modesty had their root in his personal piety. He laid great stress upon prayer, daily meditation on the Word, and attendance of public service. In Melanchthon is found not a great, impressive personality, winning its way by massive strength of resolution and energy, but a noble character which we can not study without loving and respecting.
10. His Fame.
Estimates of Melanchthon's character and work have undergone radical changes since his death, according to the theological standpoint of those seeking in the representative figures of Luther and Melanchthon their champion or at least their spiritual associate. It is said that Leonhard Hutter (q.v.), the head of the Wittenberg theologians in the beginning of the seventeenth century, on the occasion of a public disputation, when the authority of Melanchthon was invoked, tore down his picture from the wall, and in sight of all trampled it under foot. For more than a hundred years after that, few voices spoke a word in his favor. In 1760 the anniversary of his death was for the first time celebrated, and from that time he began to be regarded in a different light. After this change there was revived not only the interest in his person and works, but even the defects of his rationalism and unionism were defended. Recently, however, these defects have been looked upon again in their true light. The celebration of his four hundredth anniversary in 1897 referred on the whole more to the humanist than to the theologian; but a just opinion will not ignore that Melanchthon rendered great services both to the Church and to theology by his reform of humanistic education. For later followers and their doctrines see Philippists.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Opera of Melanchthon, incomplete,
appeared in 4 parts, Basel, 1541; ed. C. Peucer, 4 parts.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. E. Ryle, Early Narratives of Genesis, London, 1892; Rosch, in TSK, 1885, pp. 321 sqq.; A. H. Sayce, "Higher Criticism" and the Monuments, London, 1894 (to be used with caution); F. Hommel, Ancient Hebrew Traditions as Illustrated by the Monuments, ib. 1897; DB, iii. 335; EB, iii. 3014-16; JE, viii. 450; the commentaries on Genesis; the pertinent sections in works on the history of Israel, particularly Kittel's. The Expository Times, vols. vii.-viii., contains a series of pertinent articles by Sayce and Hommel.
MELDENIUS, RUPERTUS: The pseudonym of a German Lutheran theologian who, at the time of the Thirty Years' War, wrote a small tract in Latin, admonishing theologians in their disputes not to forget moderation and love. His tract bore the title: Paraenesis votiva pro pace ecclesiae ad theologos Augustanae confessionis auctore Ruperto Meldenio Theologo [Rottenburg, 1626]. The contents indicate that it was written after the death of Johann Arndt (q.v.; d. 1621), when there was a renewal of controversy over his orthodoxy. From the tenor of the closing words: "In a word, were we to observe unity in essentials, liberty in incidentals, and in all things charity, our affairs would be certainly in a most happy situation," Lucke (see bibliography) inferred the author to be the originator of the celebrated phrase In necessariis unites, in non necessariis libertas, in utrisque (or, in omnibus) caritas. The pseudonym "Rupertus Meldenius" resulted from transposing the letters of Petrus Meuderlinus, the Latinized name of Peter Meiderlin (b. at Oberacker, near Maulbronn, 26 m. n.w. of Heidelberg, in 1582; d. at Augsburg, 1651), ephor of St. Anne's in Augsburg, 1612-50. Meiderlin, in F. A. Veith's Bibliotheca Augustana (12 vols., Augsburg, 1785 96), is mentioned as author of the Paraenesis, hence Meiderlin is to be regarded as the originator of the phrase in question, since so far as is known it occurs nowhere any earlier than in his tract. All else known of him is eminently in accord with that utterance, as with the sentiments manifested in the Paraenesis. Richard Baxter (q.v.) refers to the phrase in his treatise: The True and Only Way of Concord of all the Christian Churches (1680), and speaks of the same as "the Pacificator's old and despised words."
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Lucke, Ueber das Alter, den Verfasser, die urapranpliche Form and den wahren Sinn des kireh lichen Priedeneprurhes In neeessariia unites, etc., G5ttingen, 1850; idem; in TSK, 1851, pp. 905-938; L. Bauer, M. Peter Meiderlin, Augsburg, 1906; ADB, xxi. 293.
MELETIUS, me-li'shi-us, OF ANTIOCH AND THE MELETIAN SCHISM.
- Personal History of Meletius ($ 1).
- Origin of the Schism ($ 2).
- Strengthening of Meletius' Position ($ 3).
- Continuance of Schism after his Death ($ 4).
- Origin of the Schism ($ 2).
1. Personal History of Meletius.
In his personal history Meletius forms a curious complement to Eustathius of Sebaste (q.v.), having come into possession of a large part of the esteem which has been withdrawn from Eustathius. He was spoken of in Rome as an Arian as late as 377, and his first deposition was inflicted on him, according to Philostorgius (v. 5), after conviction of perjury, according to the Chronicon paschale (362 A.D.) "for godlessness and other History of evil deeds"; while to-day he is reckoned as a saint by both the Roman and the Greek Churches. It might be thought that this reversal of judgment was due merely to ecclesiastical policy, if our knowledge of his virtues were confined to the letters of Basil and the pulpit rhetoric of Gregory of Nyssa ("Funeral Oration on Meletius," NPNF, 2 ser., v. 514 sqq.) and Chrysostom (Hom. in S. Meletium). But fortunately this hypothesis is ruled out by the honorable acknowledgment made by Epiphanius about 376 (Haer. lxxiii. 35) in favor of Meletius, with whom he had little dogmatic or partizan sympathy. It is clear that Meletius must have been a man of ascetic strictness of life and generally upright and amiable character, and honored as such widely. He was born at Melitene in the province of Armenia Minor, held property in the northern part of this province at Getasa, and had a good secular education. He makes his first appearance in history soon after 357 as an adherent of the compromise policy of Acacius, with whom he opposed the Homoiousians Basil of Ancyra, George of Laodicea, and Eustathius of Sebaste; and when the last-named was deposed at a synod held in Melitene (probably 358) he became his successor. Possibly on account of the opposition of the followers of Eustathius, he resigned his bishopric and retired to Beroea, then, according to Socrates (Hist. eccl. II., xliv., NPNF, 2 ser., ii. 73), attended the synod of Seleucia in the autumn of 359 and subscribed an Acacian confession. Even after the synod of Constantinople in the spring of 360, unfavorable as it was to the Homoiousians, he still possessed the confidence of the court party; and when Eudoxius of Antioch was translated to the see of Constantinople (Jan. 27, 360) he was chosen for the vacant bishopric. He was received with enthusiasm in Antioch when he took possession of his new see at the end of the year; but he had occupied it only a month when he lost it. The cause is not certain, but the old tradition asserts that his theological attitude disappointed the party with which he had been acting: Epiphanius indicates, and the orthodox historians of the fifth century say positively, that the special cause was a sermon, the orthodoxy of which embittered the opposite party. It was preached in the emperor's presence and by his command on Prov. viii. 22, after Acacius and a certain George, probably George of Alexandria, not of Laodicea, had already discoursed on the same text. But this was scarcely the cause of his deposition; the most decisive evidence against the tradition is the sermon itself, still extant (in Epiphanius, Haer. lxxiii. 29-33), which, while not Arian, is certainly not Homoousian nor even Homoiousian, but just what might have been expected from a Homoian court bishop who was not a crypto-Arian. The conclusion which best satisfies the conflicting authorities is that the first expulsion of Meletius was not on dogmatic grounds, but caused rather by some action of his which embittered opponents could construe as illegal.
named in the teat and that on Simoxe, MsxNo, also contain references to a rich literature. Consult further: S. Blaupot ten Cate, Geachiedenie der Doopegezinden, 5 parts, Leeuwarden and Amsterdam, 1839-47; R. Baird , Religion in U. S. A., pp. 593-594, Glasgow, 1844; B. Ely, %urzgefaaate Kirchen-Geachichte und' Glaubenelehre der taufgeainnten Christen and Menoniten, n.d., Lancaster, Pa.; the periodical Doopsgezinde Bifdmgen, 1860 sqq.; J. F. Funk, The Mennonite Church and her Accusers, Elkhart, Ind.. 1878; D. Musser, The Reformed Mennonite Church, Lancaster, 1878; F. Ellis and S. Evans, Hint. of Lancaster Co., Pa., chap. asvii., Lancaster, n.d.; A. Brons, Uraprung and Schickaale der Taufgeeinmten odor Mennonites, Norden, 1884; M. Schoen, Das Mennonitenthum in Weatpreusaen, Berlin, 1886; B. C. Roaeen, Geachichte der Mennoniten-0emeinde zu Hamburg and Altona, 2 parts, Hamburg, 188687; A. Mans, Unaere %olonien in Ruasland, Odessa, 1887; J. P. Maller, Die Mennonites in Oetfrieeland, Emden, 1887; H. C. Vedder, Short Hist. of the Baptiste, pp. 103-106, Philadelphia, 1891; idem, The Baptieta, pp. 24 sqq., New York, 1903; T. Armitage, Hint. of the Baptists, pp. 51, 366, New York, 1893; J. Loserth, Anabaptiamus in Tirol, Vienna, 1892; idem, Communismua der mahrischen Wiedertdtufer, ib. 1894; A. H. Newman, in American Church History Series, vol ii. passim, New York 1894· idem, Hint. of Anti-Pedobaptiem, pp. 296 sqq., Philadelphia, 1897; C. H. A. Smissen, %urzgefasete Geachichte der Tdufer, Summerfield, Ill., 1895; H. P. Krehbiel, Hint. of the General Conference of the Mennonites of North America, Canton, Ohio, 1898; G. Tumbolt, Die Wiedertdufer. Bielefeld, 1899; wedel, Geachichte der Mennonites, 4 vols., Newton, Hans., 1900-02; E. C. Pike, The Story of the Anabaptist&, London, 1904; C. H. Smith, The Mennonites of America, Goshen, Ind., 1909.
MENSES PAPALES ("PAPAL MONTHS"): A term applied to the pope's right of making appointments to certain benefices falling vacant in certain specified months, while the bishops and other patrons appointed in the remaining months. The arrangement is set down in the Roman chancery regulations, under No. IX. The point should be particularly noted that in common parlance the expression " papal months " is incorrectly supposed to mean the same as odd months, alternating months, alternativa mensium, while in fact the papal months are January, February, April, May, July, August, October, and November. There is one defined exception to the rule as stated, and this is specifically laid down in the chancery regulations, namely, that in favor of the patriarchs, archbishops, and bishops who contemplate personal residence in their sees, the eight papal months are reduced to six, and in such fashion that the pope has reserved for himself only the six odd months (January, March, May, July, September, November).
The origin of the papal months rests on the following facts. From the twelfth century, the popes began to recommend incumbents for vacant benefices in case of particular churches, at first through the channel of written requests (precw); and if this proved ineffectual, they would then
supply the place with the designated incumbent, by a mandatory reseript (naandatum de providendo). When the mandate itself was not observed, it was customary to issue, in due succession, liUrw monir torim, prmceptarim and executorim (briefs of admo. nition, injunction, and execution); and then, if necessary, the " execution "followed. Since these mandates came to be issued, for the most part, in favor of indigent petitioners, such concessions were styled per f-m communem, or in forma pauperum. Before long, however, the issue of mandata de providendo was applied to benefices not only actually but also prospectively vacant, which involved a violation of a provision of the Lateran Council of 1179, forbidding the bestowal of a contingent incumbency. A regulation of the practise was undertaken by the Council of Basel (1418) and by the Concordat of Vienna 1448; though it came to be much modified later by custom and by special indults.
The right of the papal months is still in existence, although with fresh modifications in modern times, or under special agreements. Thus the Bavarian concordat of 1817 provides that the king shall appoint two canonries in the six apostolic or papal months. In the case of Prussia, the bull De salute am marum (1821) decrees " from this time forth, canonries falling vacant in the months of January, March, May, July, September and November, shall be bestowed in the manner hitherto observed in the Chapter of Breslau." In Breslau, by virtue of his title as sovereign duke of Silesia, the king had exercised the right of nomination to vacant canonries in the odd months, the bishop supplying credentials as to canonical fitness, whereupon the papal brief of provision was issued. In various other countries, the papal months have lapsed along with other curial reservations; as in Hanover, the territories belonging to the ecclesiastical province of the Upper Rhine, etc. E. SEHLIN(i.
MENTAL HEALING. See PSYCHOTHERAPY.MENTZER, BALTHASAR: The name of four German scholars.
1. Balthasar the Elder: Theologian; b. at Allendorf (11 m. e. of Marburg) Feb. 27, 1565; d. at Marburg Jan. 6, 1627. After preliminary studies at the gymnasium at Hersfeld, he entered the University of Marburg in 1583; became pastor at Kirtorf in 1589; and professor at Marburg in 1596, enjoying the friendship of Ludwig III., landgrave of Hesse, until the latter's death in 1604. Mentzer was a strict adherent of Lutheran orthodoxy; the course of the new landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, Maurice, in favoring the Reformed type of doctrine was therefore a severe blow, intensified by the prohibition of discussions which involved the points at issue between Lutherans and Reformed and by the sending of advocates of the Reformed teachings to preach in Marburg. This gave an opportunity to the landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt to interfere in the affairs of Hesse. He therefore, in 1605 invited Mentzer and two other professors to establish a gymnasium at Giessen for the protection of Lutheranism. The new institution was a success from the first, and this led to the founding
Besides editing the quarterly Scottish Review from 1882 to 1900, he has written or edited The Natural Truth of Christianity (Paisley, 1880); The Reaaonablenesa of Christianity (1882); Pinkerton's Vita! Antiques Sanctorum Sconce (2 vole., 1889); Ancient Lives of Scottish, Saints from the Latin and Icelandic (1895); Scottish Legends of the Saints (3 vole., Edinburgh, 189s); Charters and Documents relating to the Burgh of Paisley (Paisley, 1902); The Legends of Saints Ninian and Machar in the Scottish Dialect of the Fourteenth Century (1904); and History of the County of Renfrew (1905).
METEMPSYCHOSIS. See COMPARATIVE RELIGION, VI., 1, a, J s·
METH, EZEKIEL: German mystic and leader of a band of enthusiasts; b. in Langensalza (19 m. n.w. of Erfurt) late in the sixteenth century; d. at Erfurt Oct. 26, 1640. The founder of the sect was Meth's uncle, Esaias Stiefel, but Meth appears to have been the real leader. For the characteristics of the sect, which entertained beliefs partaking of the peculiarities of those of the Quakers, Anabaptists, and Schwenckfeldiana, see STCE1rEr., E$wIw$. Stiefel was supposed to be immortal, and after his death in 1627 proved this supposition to be mistaken, Meth returned to the Lutheran Church.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: B. F. GSeehel, Chronik der Stadt Lunpen salza, ii. 310, Leipeie, 1820; G. Arnold, UnparEeyische Kirrhen-and Ketzer-Hiatorie, Theil III., cap. iv., 4vols., Frankfort, 1700-1b.
METHODIST NEW CONNECTION. See METH ODISTS, L, 3.
METHODIST PROTESTANT CHURCH. See MExaont$x$, IV., 3.
Wesley, in his Short History of Methodism, gives the names of four Oxford students who, in Nov., 1729, began to spend certain evenings in a week in reading together, chiefly the New Testament in Greek. The number slowly increased and, in 1735, George Whitefield affiliated with them. " The exact regularity of their lives and studies occasioned s gen-
Government and Activities (¢ 3). Representatives and Results (§ 4). 3. The Methodist Protestant Church.4. Wesleyan Methodist Connection or Church of America.
b. The Free Methodist Church.8. The African Methodist Episcopal Church.
7. The African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church.
8· The Colored Methodist Episcopal Church.
9. Minor Methodist Churches.10· In Canada end the Maritime Provinces.
Beginnings (§ 1).Division sad Denominations (§ 2). Unification (¢ 3).
V. The Doctrinal Standards of Methodism.
Doctrinal Bases (6 1). Distinctive Doctrinal Features American Position (¢ 3). Purpose and Results (§ 4).tleman of Christ Church to say, ` Here is spnmg up a new sect of Methodists.' "
1. John Wesley Early Life. The undisputed founder of Wesleyan Methodism, John Wesley (q.v.), was the great-grandson of Bartholomew Wesley, a clergyman educated at Oxford, and one of 2,000 ministers ejected from their pulpits in 1662 under the Act of Uniformity (see UNl>rox>afi'x, ACTS or). His son John also studied
2. Early Associations.
When George Whitefield (q.v.) returned from
America he promptly visited Wesley. The reputation of Whitefield as the greatest of pulpit orators
had spread on both continents; and as no building could contain the number
who desired to hear him he resorted to
the fields. Wesley found it difficult to
approve this; but as he continued to
preach with the terrible energy and unction of a
first believer, he was not usually allowed to speak
a second time in the churches: on this account and
because of the crowds, he also was led to preach in
the open sir. For doing the same thing the
archbishop of Canterbury threatened Charles Wesley with excommunication. Wesley's Arminianism
caused an estrangement from the uncompromising
Calvinist Whitefield. When controversy had become intense, Wesley summed up by saying that
"those who believed in universal redemption had
no desire to separate, but that those who held particular redemption would not hear of any accommodation, being determined to have no fellowship
with men who were in such dangerous errors; so
there were now two sorts of Methodists-those for
particular and those for general redemption." The
break between Wesley and Whitefield lasted but a
short time, but the result was the formation of two
sorts of organized Methodists, "Wesleyan Methodists" and "Calvinistic Methodists." Before this
separation numerous societies had been formed,
but, not having proper supervision, most of them
dissolved. Peter Bohler suggested to Wesley the
formation of another in London, and it was established in Fetter Lane, conducted in connection with
the Moravian Church. In the summer of the same
year, several small companies in Bristol united
under the name of the Methodist society; a similar
union took place in Kingswood, and another in
Bath. These received the name of " United Societies." Wesley places the time when the first of
these was formed toward the close of the year 1739.*
3. Bands; Class Meetings.
While affiliating with the Moravians, Wesley's
followers had instituted " Men's Bands" and
"Women's Bands," which were to meet at least
once a week to sing, pray, and exhort. They were
expected to reveal the true state of their souls as they understood it, and
confess their faults one to another.
Wesley met the men every Wednesday
evening, and the women on Sunday.
Some objected on the ground that the Bands were
"man-made." Wesley replied: "They are prudential helps, grounded on reason and experience,
in order to apply the general rules given in Scripture according to particular circumstances." Others
stigmatized them as "mere popery." Wesley answered: " Do they not yet know that the only
popish confession is the confession made by a single
person to a priest? ... Whereas what we practise
is the confession of several conjointly, not to a
priest, but to each other." Members of the "Bands "
were selected from the united societies. The united
4. Love Feasts, Prayer-Meetings, Lay Preaching. Love Feasts originated in the proposal that, on one evening in the quarter, the men, and on the next, the women, in the Bands should meet, and on a third day they should meet together. The latter Wesley called a Love Feast. In these assemblies bread Prayer- and water, partaken of by all present, are the symbols of fellowship. Prayer, singing of hymns, and testifying to experimental religion succeed each other, and in the early period of Methodism developed the greatest enthusiasm.
Public prayer-meetings were established in 1763 by two young men who introduced them in places where there was no Methodist preaching. They soon became general, for it was found that they exercised the talents of young men, training them in the various services of the church. When Wesley visited the Germans he heard Christian David (see UNITY OF THE BRETHREN) preach, was deeply impressed, and was prepared by David's career to establish lay preaching, when a suitable person should appear. John Cennick, a spiritual, and intellectually capable man was invited to hear a brother read a sermon to the colliers, but, the reader not arriving, Cennick was requested to speak to the people; he reluctantly complied, and "the Lord bore witness with his words in so much that many believed in that hour." When Wesley came many desired him to forbid Cennick to preach, instead of which he gave encouragement, and for the next eighteen months Cennick preached constantly, sometimes supplying Wesley's place in Bristol. Writers before Tyerman assumed that Thomas Maxfield was the first lay preacher; Tyerman maintains that John Cennick preceded him.
5. Origin of Conference: George Bell. As unity, direction, and instruction of the lay preachers and actively sympathizing clergymen who affiliated with Wesleyan Methodism were essential to the integrity and spirit of the movement, they were assembled for consultation. The first conference was in the Foundry in London on June 25, 1744. John and Charles Wesley, John Hodges, Henry Piers, Samuel Taylor and John Meriton, clergymen of the Church of England, were present; and four lay preachers, Thomas Rogers, Thomas Maxfield, John Bennett, and John Downs. They evolved a system of doctrine, discipline, and practise. At the third conference the country was divided into seven circuits. Copies of the minutes of the conference were to be given to those who were present, but were ordered read to the stewards and leaders of Bands the Sunday and Thursday following each confer ence. At the conferences the preachers were stationed at the various circuits: the result of their systematic and energetic labors amazed the United Kingdom. The most distinguished clergyman in sympathy with the work of Wesley, and for many years the most useful to him next to his own brother Charles, was John Fletcher (q.v.), vicar of Madeley. A Swiss by birth, a man of culture and rare gifts in speech and literary composition, he had been converted by Methodists. As in the apostolic era and in every religious movement since, excess of enthusiasm turned the heads of some, so George Bell, one of Wesley's local preachers, became a fanatic, believing that he could work miraculous cures. He became almost if not actually insane. Wesley bore with him long, Methodism suffering in reputation thereby. To the grief and astonishment of Wesley, Bell secured the support of Thomas Maxfield, who had been converted under Wesley's preaching during his first visit to Bristol, and had been ordained by the bishop of Londonderry who, in laying hands upon him, said, "Sir, I ordain you to assist that good man, John Wesley, that he may not work himself to death." Bell, whose fanaticism daily intensified, caused a panic by prophesying that the world would end on a given day, and Wesley was obliged to expel him. Many in London withdrew from the societies, exclaiming, "Blind John is incapable of teaching us; we will keep to Mr. Maxfield." Subsequently Bell lost his religious ardor, became a skeptic, and then a politician, "as ultra in his political opinions as he bad been in religion." Maxfield opened an independent chapel (A. Stevens, History of Methodism, i. 409, New York, 1858).
It was not wonderful that thousands flocked to
Wesley's standard, that many societies were established and chapels reared, since he was apparently
ubiquitous, traveling constantly and preaching often
ten times in a week, inspiring the people by his
|
|
Circuits. |
Preachers. |
Members. |
|
England |
26 |
75 |
22,410 |
|
Ireland |
9 |
19 |
2,8012 |
|
Scotland |
5 |
7 |
468 |
|
Wales |
1 |
3 |
232 |
|
|
41 |
104 |
25,911 |
These had endured the scrutiny and discipline of Wesley. As Wesley advanced in years the necessity for measures to prevent the dissolution of the societies became obvious, not only to the magician who had wrought such marvelous results, but to leading minds among the clergymen who affiliated with him, lay preachers, and the more astute members of the society.
6. The Deed of Declaration. To meet the emergency, in the year 1784 Wesley gave to the conference " a legal settlement." From an early period the deeds of chapels and preachers' houses or parsonages had conveyed the said buildings to trustees for the use of such the preachers as John or Charles Wesley should send, and, after their death, as the conference should appoint. Thomas Coke, a wealthy clergyman, educated for the bar, who had devoted his time and possessions to Methodism, advised Wesley to consult the civil authorities; and he ascertained that the conference could not be recognized unless more precisely defined, and that, as things then were, it could not claim control over the pulpits. Wesley reported this to the conference, which requested him to "draw up a definition of its character and powers." Under the guidance of the best legal counsel he executed a deed of declaration, in which the names of one hundred preachers were recorded, to constitute a legal conference after his death. He deemed this number sufficient to secure the property and insure the unity of the body, and also as many as could wisely be withdrawn annually for a week or more from pastoral work. Wesley recorded that "in naming these preachers, as he had no advisers he had no respect to persons, but simply set down those which according to the best of his judgment were most proper." The deed provides that the conference meet once a year at London, Bristol, Leeds, or any other place which the members should select. The sessions were never to last over three weeks, nor less than five days, and the conference was empowered to fill vacancies. To give validity to any act or vote, forty members must be present, with the exception that if the legal hundred should by death or other cause be reduced, those present might conduct business. In order to secure attendance, any member who should remain away from two successive annual sessions forfeited membership, unless he appeared on the first day of the third session, or was voted exemption. It was forbidden to appoint to any of the chapels a preacher not a member of the Methodist connection. "No appointment could be made for a longer term than three years, except in the cases of ordained clergymen of the Church of England." The conference had power to commission members of the body to represent it in any part of the earth, their "official acts being recognized as acts of the conference." The life estate of John and Charles Wesley in the houses and chapels of the connection was not to be affected by this deed. As there were 191 members of conference, the names of ninety-one were not included in the deed and they were not allowed to participate in the conference on equal terms with their brethren. Controversy ensued, and several preachers left the connection. Those who remained were permitted to vote, and such as had been members a given number of years were allowed to vote for the president in nomination, for the confirmation of the legal hundred.
7. Events after Wesley's Death. After the death of Wesley serious contests arose and continued for several years. Influential laymen and ministers proposed to adhere to the Church of England, and a few attached themselves to various dissenting bodies. The conference of 1791 expressed its views equivocally, and that of 1792 cast lots to determine whether the sacraments should be administered in the ensuing year. Eventually the following rules were enacted:
"No ordination shall take place in the Methodist Conneotion without the consent of the Conference. "If any brother break the above-mentioned rule by ordaining or being ordained without the consent of the conference, the brother so breaking the rule does thereby exclude himself. The Lord's Supper shall not be administered by any person among our societies in England and Ireland for the ensuing year on any consideration whatever except in London."
In 1793 the conference resolved that:
"Where the Societies desired it they should have it, and that there should no longer be any distinction between ordained and unordained preachers, that no gowns, cassocks, bands nor surplices, nor the title of Reverend should be used."
Neither party was satisfied. The substance of the plan adopted in 1795 was that where the sacraments were being peaceably administered they should be continued; but that they should not be administered elsewhere unless a majority of the trustees and of the leaders and stewards concurred in desiring it; not for many years was the practise of laying-on of hands in ordination adopted.
8. Polity.
Wesleyan Methodism is a form of Presbyterianism, yet, "strictly speaking, it is neither Episcopal,
Presbyterian, nor Congregational," but has characteristics of each. Wesleyan Methodism denies a
radical distinction between teaching and ruling presbyters, but reserves for
the presbyters or pastors the determination of questions of doctrine and discipline.
When the society developed into a church, the leaders and stewards became the local church council.
There is a distinct local preachers' quarterly meet
ing, over which the superintendent minister of each
circuit presides. There are also lay officials, formerly
called general, but now circuit stewards; these receive the moneys from stewards of the societies in
the circuit. Such society and circuit officers are
appointed to office by the ministers, and chosen by
the members of the meeting into which they are to
9. Eminent Officers and Representatives. The conference confers great power on its president; but, in general, the presidents have been both defenders and guides. The most dominating ruler was Jabez Bunting (q.v.), four times president, and, whether in or out of that office, for more than a third of a century the controlling spirit. Robert Newton, a chaste orator, was also four times president. and Adam Clarke (q.v.), oriental scholar, vigorous preacher and Biblical commentator, three times; and Thomas Coke (q.v.), Joseph Bradford, John Pawson, Thomas Taylor, Thomas Jackson, historical and connectional book editor; John Hannah, John Scott, Richard Reece, Joseph Entwisle, Henry Moore, one of the appointed biographers of Wesley; John Barber, James Wood, George Marsden, John Farrar, George Osborne, and James Harrison Rigg (q.v.) each twice filled the chair. The last-named was one of the most eminent in the list, in force of character and clearness of mind, who was long connected officially with public education. There is one living ex-president, who has served twice, Charles H. Kelly, beloved as a personality, and useful in high connectional offices. Several of the most notable men in the presidency served but once. Of these, perhaps the greatest was William Arthur (q.v.), conspicuous for fifty years throughout the religious world. Hugh Price Hughes (q.v.), of the modern type, was known as an evangelist and promoter of enterprises for uplifting the submerged classes and popularizing the Christian religion and church. Among the noteworthy men that Wesleyan Methodism has produced are Richard Watson, William B. Pope, theologians, and William Morley Punahon (qq.v.), the orator; from the beginning laymen have increased in influence, many being as well known and as useful as the most distinguished of the clergy.
10. Education and Missionary.
Wesleyan Methodism has always placed a high
estimate upon education. The views of Wesley
on this subject were in some particulars unendurably ascetic, but mingled with these
were principles of permanent value. In 1836 the conference took up the
subject of education in general and a
Wesleyan Educational Committee was
appointed. Week-day and infant
schools were established in 1843. In 1851 a training-college at Westminster was opened, and in 1872
a second training-college for female teachers. Houses
for the Wesleyan schools are held in trust for the
connection. The conference of 1875 approved the
Education Committee's plan for establishing middleclass schools, of which there are ten or more. The
first great movement in the direction of higher education was the establishment of Wesley College,
Sheffield; the next, the institution now known as
Queen's College, Taunton. A theological institution was established in 1834, and there are four
branches, situated respectively at Richmond, Didsbury, Headingley, and Handaworth. Besides these
are the Methodist College at Belfast, Ireland, the
Westminster Training School and the Leys School
at Cambridge. Missions to the heathen were not
undertaken until 1786, when Thomas Coke started
a mission to negro slaves in the British West Indies.
At his instigation a mission to West Africa was begun in 1811, and in 1813 another in Ceylon. In
1815 missions were opened in Australasia, in Germany in 1830, in Switzerland in 1839, in Italy in
1860. Many of the missions established are now
independent. The missions under the immediate
direction of the British conference are: in Europe:
Italy, Spain, Portugal, Gibraltar, and Malta; in
Africa, Cairo; in South Africa, Transvaal, Swaziland, Rhodesia; in West Africa, Sierre Leone, Gold
Coast, Lagos; in Asia, Ceylon, India (north and
south), and China; in the western hemisphere, the
Bahamas, Honduras, and the West Indies. In general, Wesleyan Methodist foreign missions have
prospered greatly. Home missions are reduced to
a most efficient system. The Wesleyan Methodists
report for 1909 in Great Britain, 520,868 communicants; foreign missions, 143,467; French conference, 1,675; South African, including English and native, 117,146.
The report for 1909 is 246 ministers, 621 lay preachers, 421 church buildings, 1,606 other preaching-places, 25,969 communicants.
2. Calvinistic Methodists: After the death of Whitefield, the Calvinistic Methodists divided into three sects. The first, known as Lady Huntingdon's Connection (see HUNTINGDON, SELINA HASTINGS, COUNTESS of), observed strictly the liturgical forms of the Church of England, and instead of an itinerant ministry instituted a settled pastorate. As practically a congregational .polity was adopted, many of the congregations became associated with the collection of Congregational churches. The second division was the Tabernacle Connection, or Whitefield Methodists. As each society considered itself independent, they soon disappeared as a distinctive denomination, most of them affiliating with the Congregationalists or Independents. The third was the Welsh Calvinistic Methodists (see PRESBYTERIANS), organized in 1743. They have prospered, extending principally in Wales and reaching the United States by way of immigration. They are influential and vigorous, at times experiencing revivals of such intensity as to attract the attention of the Christian world. After contributing for many years to the London Missionary Society, the Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Foreign Missionary Society was founded in Liverpool in 1840. Its first attempts were in India, where persevering faith has been rewarded. There are more than 500 preaching-places, 450 day schools, 6,000 communicants, and nearly 20,000 attendants.
3. The Methodist New Connection: Alexander Kilham, born in Epworth, 1762, of Methodist parents, became a local preacher, and in 1785 Wesley received him into the regular itinerant ministry. As he grew in influence he proposed various alterations. Three years before the death of Wesley, Kilham made known his design of petitioning the conference "to let us have the liberty of Englishmen, and to give the Lord's Supper to our societies." He sent petitions to the conference of 1791, and submitted a new system of government for the connection. As discussion progressed he grew more determined, appealing to God "to destroy everything that belongs to despotism wherever it appears." At the conference of 1796 he was put upon trial. After hot debate the conference unanimously adjudged him "unworthy of being a member of the Methodist Connection." Soon afterward he began the formation of the Methodist New Connection. In places where the Wesleyans would not allow him to preach in their chapels, dissenters opened their houses of worship. To disseminate his views he established, at Leeds, a periodical called The Monitor. In Leeds 167 class-leaders and other officers, and sixty-seven delegates from the trustees of the connection appeared at the conference of 1797, calling for changes in the government. The spread of sympathy with Kilham's projects within the pale of the Wesleyan connection caused alarm.
The conference of the Methodist New Connection
was constituted upon the representative system,
laymen having an equal voice with the clergy in
the government of the church; while in doctrine
and general us" they did not differ from the old
connection. This church at first gained rapidly,
and later at a slow but steady pace. At the first
ecumenical conference, held in London, 1881, it
was reported to have 31,652 members.. It took the
first step in mission work in 1824, and soon after
established missions in Ireland. It began a mission in Canada in 1837, and thirty-eight years after,
4. Primitive Methodists: The Primitive Methodists arose in 1810. Lorenzo Dow (q.v), an eccentric American Methodist preacher, with a spark of genius, visited England and Ireland and there introduced camp-meetings. The story of the remarkable meetings in the western forests of the United States recalled to older members the marvelous open-air triumphs of Wesley and Whitefield. Dow was master of a weird eloquence and absorbed by his conviction that the Lord had sent him to England to revive the spirit of the ancient days. A few regular Wesleyan preachers permitted the camp-meetings to be held within the bounds of their circuits, and attended them; but the conference denounced this as highly improper. About this time young Hugh Bourne was passing through an experience in some respects similar to that of John Wesley. When he was twenty-seven years of age he read The Life of Fletcher, several of Wesley's sermons, Alleine's Alarm, and Baxter's Call to the Unconverted, and these works seemed to meet his spiritual needs. He joined the Wesleyans and zealously sought the salvation of certain rough Iumbermen in his employment. In May, 1807, assisted by several Wesleyans, especially by William Clowes and Thomas Cotton, he held a camp-meeting at Mow Cap, "a border-line between Staffordshire and Cheshire." The next summer special meetings of like character were held. The Wesleyan preachers of the circuits adjacent to Mow Hill, fearing the spread of a fanaticism which might bring scorn upon true religion, issued hand-bills repudiating the movement. At the next session of the Wesleyan Methodist conference the following resolution was passed: " It is our judgment that even supposing such meetings to be allowed in America, they are highly improper in England and likely to be productive of mischief; and we disclaim all connection with them." Thereafter, most of the leading Methodists held aloof from the camp-meeting. Bourne and a few others persisted and, securing recognition of their meeting by the civil authorities, were enabled to preserve order. The Wesleyan conference would not endure what it described as Bourne's "insufferable contumacy." Bourne and Thomas Clowes were expelled from the connection, which naturally made them yet more zealous. In 1809 Hugh Bourne and his brother James hired James Crawfoot, noted for piety, to preach in neglected places for three months, the salary being ten shillings per week. " This is generally looked on as the commencement of the Primitive Methodist ministry." In the spring of 1810 those converted in meetings held by Hugh Bourne were formed into a class, which was offered to the Burslem circuit (Wesleyan), but the authorities declined to accept its members " unless they pledged to sever their connection with Hugh Bourne." Bourne took the class under his personal charge as a distinct society, Sept., 1810; and this is considered to be the birth of the connection. The name " Primitive Methodist " was formally assumed in 1812. Two years later a comprehensive body of laws was adopted. The form of church government is in substance Presbyterian, but with a larger mixture of the lay element than is found in Presbyterian, or, even at this day, in other Methodist denominations. The general conference convenes yearly, and consists of twelve " deed poll " members, four persons elected by the previous conference, and delegates chosen by the district meetings, in the unusual proportion of two laymen to one traveling. preacher. In 1829 a deed poll was "enrolled in chancery " to make more effectual the deeds, leases, etc., and to render donations and trusts secure; it was also valued as a permanent statement for the settling of controversy. An appeal isallowed from court to court to the final arbiter, the conference. This communion has paid much attention to education. One of the foremost scholars of to-day, Arthur Samuel Peake (q.v.), is associated with other accomplished persons on the staff of the Hartley College of this church, located at Manchester, England, and named after the philanthropist, W. P. Hartley, who has given munificently for its endowment. Famous preachers such as James Macpherson, William Antliff, Samuel Antliff, James Travis, and John Flanagan have been among the leaders of this enterprising and growing section of the Church of Christ. The Primitive Methodist Church is by far the largest of those which follow Wesley in Great Britain, with the exception of the original Wesleyan body. It has constantly grown; in 1881 it had 185,316 communicants, 1,150 ministers and more than twelve times as many local preachers, the majority preaching every Sunday. This denomination formed a foreign Missionary Society in 1844, opening missions in Canada, New Zealand, and Australia. These missions were affiliated with the other Methodist bodies of those countries. It also carries on energetic missions in Africa among the natives. Statistics for 1909 show 212,168 members, 5,148 church buildings at home and 5,018 members and probationers in foreign missions.
5. The Protestant Methodists: The Protestant Methodists, who in 1828 organized themselves into a separate body, resulted from irreconcilable differences of opinion in the society over the introduction of an organ into the largest chapel in Leeds. Until 1820 trustees of chapels could obtain this "risky innovation " only by direct application to the conference. In this case the conference had prematurely consented, and a local preacher convoked unauthorized assemblies for the purpose of agitation. When, at the appeal of the superintendent, he would not desist, the latter sentenced him to three months' suspension from his office. Thereupon seventy local preachers made common cause, and refused to preach, affirming that they would sit in silence with him. He was expelled, and a futile attempt made to secure pacification. A large number seceded, assuming the name of nonConformist Methodists (popularly called "NonCons."). This name they changed for that of Protestant Methodists.
6. The Wesleyan Methodist Association: The Wesleyan Methodist Association began in the determination of the Wesleyan conference to establish a theological seminary. Two days before the conference of 1834, a number of ministers and laymen met to discuss the project of such an institution, to be presided over by Dr. Jabez Bunting. In the progress of the controversy, Samuel Warren found himself in a minority; and as soon as the conference adjourned he began a general agitation. The Manchester district meeting suspended him, and Robert Newton was requested to undertake the superintendency. Warren applied to the court of chancery for an injunction against Newton and the trustees of the Oldham Street Chapel. The vice-chancellor sustaining the district meeting, Warren appealed to Lyndhurst, the lord chancellor, who, after a thorough review of the Methodist polity, as established by Wesley's deed of declaration, and of the chief events in the history of the conference, affirmed the decision of the vice-chancellor. Warren was expelled, as were two others on charges of lawlessly abetting him. Circulars had been distributed denouncing the action of the conference, as well as the leaders who directed the acts. All who had anything to do with the distribution were under censure, and others under suspicion. The disruption of 1849 began with the expulsion of James Everett, Samuel Dunn, William Griffith, James Bromley, and Thomas Rowland, suspected of connection with the "fly-sheets." No formal and general secession took place until after the conference of 1850. Within five years after that date the original Wesleyan connection was depleted by 100,469, and "some of the fairest and most fruitful circuits in Methodism were laid waste." But, less than half of those who left the Wesleyan connection entered the new denomination.
7. The United Free Churches: The Protestant Methodists, the Wesleyan Methodist Association, and the "Wesleyan R-formers " (the title taken by those who organized after the expulsion of Everett and his companions), certain societies calling themselves " Arminian " Methodists, and others styling themselves Welsh Independent Methodists, united in the year 1857 under the name of the United Free Churches. This body at once became the third in numerical importance of the Methodist denominations in England. When consolidated it had 39,986 members and 2,152 probationers. At the end of twenty years the church included 72,997 members and 6,984 on probation. The government is democratic. The home circuits are divided into districts, but district meetings are not possessed of remarkable powers; the annual assembly controls only matters of connectional interest. The connectional officers are the president of the assembly, elected annually, the connectional secretary, treasurer, and the corresponding secretary. The church has shown commendable interest in foreign missions, continuing those which came in with the union, and establishing others in the West Indies, Africa, and China. Among the most eminent of British Methodists in his day was Marmaduke Miller, heard on religious and civic questions with great interest. At the end of 1907 it had 84,464 members and probationers at home, and in the foreign field 18,739 members and probartioners.
8. Bible Christians: The denomination known
as "Bible Christians " originated in Cornwall.
William O'Bryan was one of its founders, and in
May, 1810, was formally excluded from the Methodist society, "in the chapel of which he had given
the freehold beside one-half the cost of the building, for no crime except irregular attempts to save
souls." In 1814 he retired from business in order
"to be ready to go whithersoever providence directed his steps." He sought out parishes in which
there was no evangelical preaching and wrought
much good. After a few years of independent action he reunited with the Methodist society, but
subsequently his "ticket " was withheld on the
ground that he had not been excluded, but that he
had excluded himself. He then began to form his
own plan of appointments, and a new society resulted. James Thorne was an associate founder of
the "Bible Christians." During 1815 and 1816
throngs were converted, O'Bryan being so active
that the converts were characterized as "Bryanites." Societies were formed in various parts of
England and adjacent islands. The first conference
consisted of twelve of the itinerant brethren. Every
circuit was empowered to send one of its stewards
to the annual district meeting, "and, to prevent
priestly domination, every fifth year additional representatives were to be so appointed as to make the
number of the itinerant preachers and representives equal." A contention began in 1827 as to
the authority of conference, and O'Bryan developed
a spirit similar to that of those Wealeyans who had
disfellowshiped him. In the struggle both O'Bryan
and those who formulated their demands used the
iron hand without the velvet glove. In the end
O'Bryan migrated to America and had no further
connection with the Bible Christians. The work
had spread throughout the outlying provinces of
England. The first chapel was built in 1818; in
1859 the connection occupied 453 chapels at home,
and in 1900 the number had increased to 607. Between the years 1851 and 1860 separate conferences
were established in Canada, South Australia, and
Victoria. The enterprising spirit of the society
was apparent in the fact that, in 1821, a missionary
society was established for sending missionaries
into dark parts of the United Kingdom and other
countries, "as divine providence might open the
way." In 1831 two missionaries were sent to British North America; and in 1850 James Rowe and
the devout James Way were set apart to open a
mission in South Australia, which prospered exceedingly and extended into the neighboring colony
of Victoria. Missions were established later in
New Zealand, Queensland, and China. In the report to the ecumenical conference in 1881 its number of communicants had reached 31,542. At home it had long maintained a force of missionaries working among the lowest stratum of London's population, and in other parts of England. See BIBLE CHRISTIANS
Methodism in Great Britain and Ireland now consists of three large bodies, Wesleyan Methodists, the Primitive Methodist Church, and the United Methodist Church.
Besides these are two smaller societies, the Wesleyan Reform Union, 8,489, and the Independent Methodist Churches, 9,442. There are in all these bodies 969,078 members, exclusive of members of the foreign missions.
II. In Australasia:
1. History.:The Rev. Samuel Leigh, the first Methodist preacher to go to Australia, arrived in Aug., 1815, and began his work in New South Wales. By Mar., 1816, an address of the Methodist societies in New South Wales was sent to the Wesleyan mission committee in London. The history of his subsequent work and that of his successors is as interesting as the civil and personal history of the country and its inhabitants. Thirty years after Mr. Leigh began his work, the Primitive Methodists appeared; and later the Bible Christians, United Methodist Free Churches, and the Methodist New Connection planted missions. The Wesleyan spread among the English in the seven colonies, and established missions in Fiji, Tonga, and New Guinea. The Primitive Methodists were also at work in all the colonies save West Australia. The Bible Christians labored in South Australia, Victoria, and New Zealand, maintaining a few circuits in New South Wales. The United Free Methodists were represented in Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland, and New Zealand. The Methodist New Connection had established but two circuits in Australia. About 1888 these circuits were incorporated with the Wesleyan and Bible Christian churches. In 1895 the Wesleyan Methodists had in Australasia 51,702 members, and there were in the missions 34,691 members. According to the number of members at that time the Bible Christian denomination was twice the size of the United Methodist Free Churches, and the Primitive Methodist body double the size of the Bible Christians. These smaller bodies were two-fifths the size of the Wesleyan Church in Australia, New Zealand, and Tasmania, and one-fourth that of Wesleyan Methodism in the whole southern world. Methodist union in Australasia was agitated for a long time before effective steps were taken. In New Zealand, after prolonged negotiation, the ministers and members included in the Wesleyan conference, the United Free Methodist Churches, and the Bible Christians formed a union in the year 1896. The only section of Methodism in that island which declined to enter into the union was the Primitive Methodist. Two years later a union of the denominations was effected in Queensland. The Primitive Methodists and the Bible Christians in South Australia came together, and later the Methodist New Connection; and in 1900 the Wesleyan Methodists, the Primitive Methodists, and the Bible Christians, joined by the United Free Church, were consolidated into one body in South and West Australia. By this time preparations for the complete union of all Methodists in Australia reached a culmination, and from Dec. 31, 1902, Methodism became one in Australia, a continent nearly as large as Europe, and almost one in New Zealand, about as large as the British Isles; there was, therefore, a united Methodism throughout Australasia, except the Primitive Methodists in New Zealand, who represented only one-eightieth in numbers of the Methodism of Australia.
2. Agencies and Activities.
The Methodist Missionary Society of Australasia
supports missions in Samoa, Fiji, and New Britain.
Tonga was formerly connected with the board of
missions. The latest mission is that
to Solomon Islands. The list of native ministers is long, and includes
such names as Philemon Waqaniveitagavi, Ananias Tagavi, Tychicus Noke,
Moses Mamafainoa, and Zephaniah Bilavucu. The
Fiji district synod has reached such a degree of development that the conference resolved that the
principle of lay representation be brought into operation in 1908. It is also under contract to accept
from the Wesleyan Missionary Society of England
a definite field of work in India, and a complete
plant in one of the presidencies in that country.
A recent conference recorded its gratitude to God
for the signal success which he has given to its missions in the South Seas; for the islands which have
been won from savagery and cannibalism and that
are now Christian; for the thousands of men and
women savingly converted to God, and for the native ministers, local preachers, and teachers raised
up, by whose labors, in conjunction with those of
the missionaries sent from England and Australia,
so great a work has been done. These incontestable statements constitute a pillar of defense against
attacks upon missionary effort in behalf of the uncivilized races. The Australasian Methodist Church
is devoting itself to education. It supports a theological college and other institutions for training
purposes and a number of high and village schools.
The progress of Australasia, though unequally distributed in the various colonies, of recent years has
been extraordinary, and not only the British Empire but all leading nations have watched with interest its various experiments in legislation which
have dealt with the burning questions of the age.
As in other continents Methodism has shown in
Australasia its ability to stem a dangerous tide or
swell a beneficent one. Many able ministers and
III. In Japan: The Methodist Episcopal Church established a mission in Japan in the year 1873. In the same year the Canadian Methodist Church began a similar work in that country. Twelve years later, the Methodist Episcopal Church South also sent missionaries there. The work of the Methodist Episcopal Church has expanded into two annual conferences, and that of the Canadian Church and the Methodist Episcopal Church South into two more. As the same doctrines were taught, and the same spirit infused, a sentiment arose in favor of a union of the Methodist Churches in Japan. The churches in America appointed commissioners to effect a union and, in July, 1906, they unanimously agreed upon a plan. In accordance therewith, a general conference was convened in Tokyo, Japan, on May 22, 1907, composed of delegates, previously elected by the four annual conferences of the three uniting churches in Japan, and the Nippon Methodist Kyokwai was formally organized. A system of government was adopted, and went at once into effect, the first general conference under the same being held in June, 1907. The relation of the churches in the United States and Canada to the Methodist Church of Japan is cooperative. The missionaries from America hold their conference relation in their home conferences, and are supported by them; but they are entitled to the rights and privileges of membership in the annual conference to which their work of the preceding year has been related, except when the character or relations of Japanese preachers are under consideration.
IV. In America.-1. Methodist Episcopal Church:
1. Beginnings. Philip Embury (q.v.), an Irish Methodist local preacher, accompanied by his wife, Paul Heck, Barbara, his wife, and several others, emigrated in 1760 from Limerick to New York. Five years later came five families, some of whom were related to Embury. In 1766 Barbara Heck, finding several of them engaged in card-playing, expostulated, and begged Embury to sound a note of warning. He opened his house for a meeting, preaching there to Mrs. Heck and four others who had responded to her invitation. Those present at this first service were enrolled in a class. Numerous conversions followed and additional classes were formed. Embury was strongly reinforced by Thomas Webb (q.v.). a Wesleyan local preacher and captain in the British army, and soon it was necessary to build a church. While Embury and Webb were preaching in New York a similar awakening was creating excitement in Maryland. Robert Strawbridge (q.v.), an Irishman, had emigrated to Maryland, and, as he was persuasive in private, convincing in public, and ever active, many accessions resulted from his labors. The society in New York continued to prosper, and Thomas Taylor, a layman, besought Wesley to send over a preacher of wisdom, sound in faith, and a good disciplinarian. The twenty-sixth annual British conference, held in 1768, sent to the church in New York City fifty pounds, also passage money for two missionaries, Richard Boardman and Joseph Pilmoor. In 1771 came Francis Asbury (q.v.), as devoted and untiring as Wesley, who, in Oct., 1772, appointed him "assistant superintendent." Pilmoor and others objecting to his methods as a disciplinarian, Wesley appointed Thomas Rankin (q.v.) "superintendent of the entire work of Methodism in America"; and with him sent George Shadford, who received a letter from Wesley which reveals the vastness of his imagination and expectations, all of which have been more than fulfilled. ". . . I let you loose, George, on the great continent of America. Publish your message in the open face of the sun, and do all the good you can. I am, dear George, Yours affectionately, John Wesley." Asbury came to America to stay, determined to identify himself fully with its people and their institutions; Rankin was full of notions and emotions of loyalty and government, and so magnified authority that those who had thought Asbury's hand iron found that of Rankin to be of steel. The first American conference was held in Philadelphia in 1773; ten preachers were present. It acknowledged the authority of Wesley and the Wesleyan conference; resolved that the doctrine and discipline of Methodism, as contained in the minutes, should be the sole rule of conduct; and that the members of the conference should " strictly avoid administering baptism and the Lord's Supper." Strawbridge had administered the sacraments before any of Wesley's regular missionaries arrived, and would not comply. Asbury explained that the rule was adopted with the understanding that "no brother in our connection shall be permitted to administer the ordinances at this time except Mr. Strawbridge, and he under the particular direction of the assistant." But Strawbridge refused to administer under such direction. At the second conference there was sharp conflict between Rankin and Asbury. The latter records, "My judgment was stubbornly opposed for a while, but at last submitted to." Unable to take the test-oaths or to sympathize with the colonies, Rankin left the country, and Rodda, another English preacher, also fled. Finally, Asbury of all the European Wesleyan preachers was left alone. The conference of 1778 showed a loss of 873 members; but in 1779, extensive revivals having occurred in those parts of the connection not directly affected by the war of the Revolution, the loss was made up with a gain of 1,600.
2. Dissensions; Wesley's Device.
The first serious controversy occurred in 1779
the preachers in the South having determined toy
secure authority to administer baptism and the
holy communion. A committee was chosen by
those thus minded, who ordained themselves and
others, and to the satisfaction of most of the Methodists in that region began at once to administer
the sacraments. The preachers north of Virginia
3. The New Organization. Coke and his companions landed in New York on Nov. 3, 1784. On Sunday the 14th, by appointment, he met Freeborn Garrettson at the residence of Judge Bassett of Delaware, and in a neighboring chapel preached to a multitude, administering the Lord's Supper to more than 500. At this service sixteen preachers, including Asbury, learned the purpose of the commissioners in coming to this country. A special conference was opened Dec. 24 of the same year, and about sixty preachers agreed to organize themselves into a Methodist Episcopal Church "in which the liturgy (as presented by the Rev. John Wesley) should be read, and the sacraments administered by a superintendent, elders and deacons, who shall be ordained by a presbytery, using the Episcopal form, as prescribed in the Rev. Mr. Wesley's prayer book." Asbury was ordained deacon by Coke, assisted by Vasey and Whatcoat; on the following Sunday was ordained an elder, and on Monday consecrated superintendent. Before receiving ordination Asbury was unanimously elected superintendent, having stated that he could not serve as he had hitherto done, merely by Mr. Wesley's appointment. Coke also was elected superintendent. Several days were spent in perfecting a code of rules, selecting preachers to receive orders, and in ordinations. The first Discipline of the Methodist Episcopal Church was adopted by this convention. The prayer-book which Wesley had prepared and printed for the use of the church in America was entitled, A Sunday Service of the Methodists in North America, with Other Occasional Services. The articles of religion of the Church of England were reduced from thirty-nine to twenty-four, and those retained were so altered as "to eradicate all traces of Romanism, High-church ritualism, and the distinctive points of Calvinism." The church now formed consisted of 18,000 members, 104 traveling preachers, as many local preachers, and twice as many licensed exhorters. There were sixty chapels and 800 recognized preaching-places. Coke went everywhere baptizing children and administering the Lord's Supper, as did Asbury wherever opportunity offered. In the mean time the general superintendents at their own initiative assumed the title of bishop, asking the conference to approve it, not to the exclusion of the name general superintendent under which they were ordained, but for brevity's sake, as its equivalent and alternative.
4. The General Conference.
By the year 1789 it became necessary to hold
eleven conferences. A plan was devised by Bishops
Coke and Asbury, which involved the establishment
of a council to be invested with extraordinary
powers, and to consist of general superintendents
(i.e., bishops) and presiding elders. The council
met that year, and a second was convened in 1790, which boldly claimed
general additional power. Its proceedings
Conference. created such dissatisfaction that the
plan was abandoned, and it was decided to provide for a general conference. The annual conferences unanimously authorized the bishops to call such an assembly to meet in Baltimore
the first of Nov., 1792. The most important event
was a conflict between Bishop Asbury and James
O'Kelly (q.v.), a strenuous elder, who presided over
a wide district. He proposed that preachers not satisfied with their appointments might appeal to the
conference. The motion was lost by a large majority and O'Kelly and several other preachers seceded. The second general conference met in Baltimore in 1796, and the subject of slavery was
discussed at length. An earnest debate, concerning
the relations of Coke to the Methodist Epispocal
Church, occupied two days. Jesse Lee—a powerful debater and preacher—and others, who opposed
By 1828 the astonishing increase in members became a topic of public discussion. The increase in the next quadrennium was thirty-three per cent., and placed the membership more than 13,000 beyond the half-million mark. In 1836 the church established an annual conference in Africa, and plans were made to enter China.
5. Slavery amd the Church in the South.
Notwithstanding several petitions, the conference refused to change the section on slavery, or
to countenance the agitation on the slavery question then assuming the aspect of a crisis. Perplex-ing questions presented themselves in 1840. A resolution was adopted " that it is inexpedient and unjustifiable for
any preacher among us to permit colored persons to give testimony against
white persons in any state where they
are denied that privilege in trials at law." To quell
the commotion which this created, explanatory
resolutions were passed. The material and spiritual
progress of the denomination is indicated in part by
the election of four book-agents, editors of the
Quarterly Review, Christian. Advocate, Western Advocate, Christian Apologist, Ladies' Repository, Southern Christian Advocate, Richmond Advocate, and theSouth-Western Advocate;
and the fact that, in addition to the main centers, depositories were appointed at Charleston, Pittsburg and Boston. The
subject of slavery came up with explosive force in
the conference of 1844. The Baltimore conference
had expelled a member for holding slaves through
his wife. He appealed to the general conference,
which affirmed the expulsion by 117 to 56. The
numerous petitions for the enactment of laws to
exclude slave-holders from the church might have
been dealt with to the pacification of a majority;
but a fatal element entered with the knowledge
that Bishop James O. Andrew had become a slaveowner by inheritance and marriage. A motion was
made that he be asked to resign. Efforts to reach
a peaceable solution were futile, and the conference
finally declared, by a vote of 111 against 61, "That
it is the sense of this conference that Bishop Andrew
desist from the exercise of his office so long as this
impediment remains." The southem delegates
presented a protest " in behalf of thirteen annual
conferences of the Methodist Episcopal Church, and
portions of the ministry and membership of several
other conferences, embracing nearly 5,000 ministers, and a membership of nearly 500,000 constitutionally represented in this general conference."
A plan of separation was passed, and a prominent
member, Leonidas Lent Hamline, educated to the
law, maintained that the only point in it which
touched the constitution related to the division of
the funds of the Book Concern, and that was the
only one to be sent to the annual conferenore. On
a test resolution there were 135 votes in the affirmative, and fifteen in the negative. After ten months
of excited discussion throughout the country, the
6. Lay Representation. The second vote for lay representation had failed, but in the interim the Methodist Episcopal Church South had admitted lay delegates, and sentiment speedily changed throughRepresen. out the whole church. Nearly all the members of this conference were ready to concede this long-deferred boon, but there were differences of opinion concerning the modus operandi. The plan adopted provided for a lay vote, and, should there be a majority for the innovation, the annual conferences were to vote to change the constitution so as to enable the ensuing general conference, after ratifying that action by a vote of two-thirds, to admit laymen provisionally elected. The required three-fourths were obtained, and on the first day of the general conference of 1872, the lay representatives were seated. The conference selected episcopal residences, and prescribed a method of residential assignment. A law was passed, that the general conference should declare "who of the bishops are effective, and who are non effective." In 1876 the election of presiding elders was strongly advocated, but being opposed on the grounds of unconstitutionality and inexpediency, the proposition was lost. The body also refused to approve the licensing of women to preach, and allowed conferences having both white and colored members to be divided on race lines "when it shall be requested by a majority of the white and also a majority of the colored members; but in no case where it is not clearly to be seen that such division would improve the work," etc. When the general conference of 1848 refused to receive Lovick Pierce as delegate from the Methodist Episcopal Church South, he announced that, should there ever be official fraternal relation, the Methodist Episcopal Church would be obliged to initiate it. Such preliminary steps having been taken by the Methodist Episcopal Church, the first fraternal delegates from the Methodist Episcopal Church South were welcomed with every demonstration of satisfaction, and their message augmented the spirit of fraternity. From that time the relations between the two churches have been increasingly friendly. The conference of 1880 is notable for having revised the ecclesiastical code. In 1884 William Taylor (q.v.), already the most renowned world-exploring voluntary missionary, was elected missionary bishop for Africa. The general conference also adopted and ordered inserted as a preface to the "Form of Consecrating Bishops," the following:
"This service is not to be understood as an ordination to a higher Order in the Christian Ministry, beyond and above that of Elders or Presbyters, but as a solemn and fitting Consecration for the special and most sacred duties of Superintendency in the Church."
7. Female Representation.
At the conference of 1888 several women presented credentials of election, but their right to
seats was challenged on the ground of sex, and by
a small majority they were denied admission. It
was maintained that the constitution did not allow
women to act as representatives; therefore the
conference sent the issue to the annual conferences that there might be a lay and clerical vote as
8. Government. The general conference is the supreme legislative, judicial, and executive body, having "full power to make rules and regulations for the church," with certain constitutional restrictions. It can not do away with episcopacy, nor destroy the plan of itinerant general superintendency. This plan excludes diocesan bishops, gives the power of ordination to the bishops, makes them presidents in the annual conferences, and gives them authority to decide questions of law when presiding there, subject to appeal to the general conference. To them belong the power and duty of appointing the preachers and district superintendents, and to transfer pastors. Each annual conference is divided into districts, of which, in the absence of a bishop, the district superintendent has the charge. The quarterly conference is the ultimate body in the local church. The annual conference has substantially the function of a Presbyterian synod, except that, as a conference, it has no legislative function. It is the sole decider whether candidates for the ministry shall be received on trial, and, if so, who among them shall be ordained deacons and elders. Appointments are in the power of the bishop in charge and of his agents the district superintendents. Deeds to church property contain the provision that the pastors sent by the general conference through a bishop (and such only) shall be received. A bishop presides in the general conference, but in the absence of a bishop, the conference can elect one of its members president pro tempore. As an appeal can be taken from the presiding officer's decisions on parliamentary law direct to the conference, and he has no right to make decisions of law or interpret the constitution before the general conference, his functions are strictly those of a moderator. But the veneration felt for his office as bishop adds moral influence to his office as president, and it is rarely that his parliamentary decisions are contested. The bishop is amenable to the general conference. It can superannuate him, as annual conferences do their members, and can order the manner of his trial, and expel him if, in its judgment, this be just and necessary. From its decision there is no appeal. The rights of members and ministers to trial before a committee and to an appeal are guarded. The profits of the Book Concern and chartered fund are restricted to the purposes specified in the constitution. The general rules can be changed only as the constitution provides, and the ratio of representation is to be determined in the same manner. The doctrines of the church are protected by a double constitutional guard. They can not be changed by the general conference, nor by the constitutional methods which apply to other protected subjects. The method of change must itself be revoked before the doctrines, as embodied in the " Articles of Religion," the Sermons of Wesley, and his Notes on the New Testament, can be modified in the least degree.
9. Missions.
The Missionary Society was founded in 1819,
having the compound title of " The Bible and Missionary Society." The next year the
title of " Bible " was eliminated, and
the society made entirely missionary.
It was adopted by the church in 1820,
and dealt at first strictly with the home field. Foreign fields were entered in the following order:
Africa, in 1833; South America, 1836; China, 1847;
India, 1858; Bulgaria, 1857; Japan, 1872; Mexico,
1873; Korea, 1885; Malaysia, 1885; Germany,
1849; Norway, 1853; Sweden, 1854; Switzerland,
1856; Denmark, 1857; Italy, 1871; Finland, 1884;
France, 1906; Russia at St. Petersburg, 1907. The
missions in Scandinavia, Germany, and Switzerland
received their initial impulse by citizens of those
countries migrating to the United States, coming
10. Brotherhood. The origin and organization of the Methodist Brotherhood is as follows: In 1877 Dr. A. B. Kendig organized a group of men in the church of which he was pastor, which he styled the Mizpah Brotherhood. He continued to organize such societies until 1898. Bishop T. B. Neely, independently of this movement, organized in the churches of which he was successively pastor what was termed a Wesley Brotherhood. The first of these was organized in 1890. Meanwhile societies of men in local churches had been springing up. Some of these were called the International Brotherhood of St. Andrew and Philip (see ANDREW AND PHILIP, BROTHERHOOD OF). Besides these there were Oxford Clubs and Brotherhoods, Embury Brotherhoods, etc. In 1896 Dr. F. D. Leete organized in his church the Brotherhood of St. Paul. In the succeeding two years the Wesley Brotherhood and the Brotherhood of St. Paul began to spread. In 1898 Dr. Neely invited representatives of all local and general brotherhoods to a convention. There was a union of several, and those bodies that united took the name, first, of the Brotherhood of the Methodist Episcopal Church, which later was changed to " The Wesley Brotherhood-the Brotherhood of the Methodist Episcopal Church." This was its legal title. As the Brotherhood of St. Paul had not affiliated with this body, there arose in the church two distinct movements, and this brought about the wide-spread organization of independent brotherhoods. In Nov., 1907, the first real convention of the Wesley organization was held at Louisville, Ky. At the convention of the Brotherhood of St. Paul, and at the instance of Bishop Berry, a resolution was adopted calling for union with the Wesley Brotherhood. Commissions were appointed by each body and the joint commission of unification met in Buffalo Mar. 11, 1908. The two brotherhoods then went out of existence and the Methodist Brotherhood was formed. The Methodist Brotherhood memorialized the general conference of 1908 for recognition and adoption, which was granted. In these later movements from the year 1905 Mr. William B. Patterson, corresponding secretary of the Wesley Brotherhood, was very influential, and he was elected general secretary and still holds that position.
11. Other Agencies. In the Methodist Episcopal Church, almost from the beginning, education has been in the front rank of denominational enterprise. The official list shows that the church sustains 173 institutions of learning: 26 of these are theological institutions; 54 universities and colleges; 27 classical seminaries; 8 institutions exclusively for women; 55 foreign-mission schools; and 4 missionary institutes and Bible training-schools. Wesleyan University was founded in 1831. It is the first institution of its grade established under distinctively Methodist auspices. The Northwestern, Syracuse, Boston, and Wesleyan universities have the largest endow ments; and the first three the largest number of students.
The first theological institution established by
American Methodists was located at Concord, N. H.,
in 1847. Its corporate name was the Methodist
General Biblical Institute. After Boston University was established, the Institute was transferred
from Concord, and became in 1871 The Boston
University School of Theology. The Garrett Biblical Institute, incorporated by the legislature of
Illinois in 1855, situated in Evanston, Ill., was endowed by the philanthropic woman whose name it
bears. Drew Theological Seminary, formally opened
in 1867, at Madison, N. J., was made possible,
furnished with buildings, and endowed by Daniel
Drew. The value of the property held for the
church by the trustees of these institutions is twenty-six million dollars, and the sum total of the endowment twenty-four million dollars. In addition
to the Missionary and Church Extension societies,
the church supports a Board of Education, a Board
of Sunday-schools, and a peculiarly interesting
Board of Freedmen's Aid. It has, in the southern
and neighboring states, 217,011 communicants of
African descent. Vast sums have been expended
in aiding them to maintain churches and schools.
To an intelligent and sympathetic appreciation,
12. Notable Representatives. The episcopacy has been the most potent personal force in the development of those bodies in which it exists. After Coke and Asbury, the most representative directing and constructive bishops were William McKendree, Joshua Soule (q.v.), and Elijah Hedding. Since 1844, Edmund S. Janes (q.v.), who was most efficient for more than thirty years, Edward R. Ames, who was a dominant factor for a quarter of a century, and Matthew Simpson (q.v.), who combined administrative skill with unsurpassed persuasive oratory, were the most notable. The last-named probably did more to popularize his denomination in the United States, and other countries, than any other of its bishops. In higher education, Wilbur Fisk (q.v.) occupies the first place in time and value of influence. In the organization and promotion of foreign missions, John Price Durbin (q.v.) stands forth most clearly; and among the missionaries whose work is done William Butler, William Taylor, and Robert Samuel Maclay (qq.v.) will be recognized as leaders. The relation of William Nast to his countrymen in Germany, and in this country, is similar to that of the men who, having migrated from Sweden, Norway, and Denmark to this country and falling under the influence of Methodism, have returned and laid the foundations of that form of Christianity in those countries.
The whole number of communicants in the United States at the close of 1909 was 3;159,913; and the number of communicants in the foreign missions of the church, 313,818—a total of 3,473,531 members.
1. Organization.
2. The Methodist Episcopal Church South: The separate history of- this body, the second in number of communicants in the Methodist world, begins with the close of the fourteenth general conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church. The momentous proceedings of that body are recorded above. It adjourned at midnight June10, 1844. The next day the southern delegates met to determine what course should be pursued. Wisely they suggested to their constituents that nothing be done till "all the conferences represented " could assemble in a general convention. It was decided to meet in Louisville, Ky., May, 1845. In the interim the quarterly conferences, stations and circuits, and annual conferences discussed the subject and concluded that "dire necessity" was upon them to be freed from the jurisdiction of the northern conferences. All recommended strict adherence to the Plan of Separation adopted by the general conference. The convention assembled, and a committee on organization was instructed to consider events and influences which had a bearing on the possibility of maintaining the " unity of Methodism under one General Conference jurisdiction, without the ruin of Southern Methodism." It reported that ninety-five per cent of the ministry and membership in the south deemed a division of jurisdiction indispensable, and on May 17, by a vote of ninety-four to three, the convention adopted a report which declared:" The jurisdiction hitherto exercised over said Annual Conferences by the General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church entirely dissolved; and that said Annual Conferences shall be, and hereby are, constituted a separate ecclesiastical connection under the provisional Plan of Separation aforesaid, and based upon the Discipline of the Methodist Episcopal Church, comprehending the doctrines and entire moral, ecclesiastical, and canonical rules and regulations of said discipline, except only in so far as verbal alterations may be necessary to a distinct organization, and to be known by the style and title of the Methodist Episcopal Church South."
The first general conference (under this plan of withdrawal and organization) met in May, 1846, in Petersburg, Va., and its successors were to convene in the month of April or May, once in four years successively. There Bishop Soule formally declared his adherence to the Methodist Episcopal Church South, upon which, by a unanimous rising vote, he was received as one of the bishops of that church. A permanent Board of Missions was organized, and an agent chosen to establish a Book Concern. Three commissioners were elected to confer with a similar body from the Methodist Episcopal Church concerning the division of the property of the Book Concern. Lovick Pierce (q.v.) was elected fraternal delegate to the ensuing general conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church. William Capers and Robert Paine were elected bishops, and ordained by Bishops Soule and Andrew. The pastoral address, sent out to the conferences, declared:
" No recognized principle of the Methodism
of our fathers has been in any way affected by these changes.
All the
doctrines duties, and usages, the entire creed and ritual
of the Church before the separation, remain without change
of any kind."
|
|
Traveling preachers |
1,519 |
|
|
Local preachers |
2,833 |
|
|
White members |
327,284 |
|
|
Colored members |
124,961 |
|
|
Indian members |
2,972 |
|
|
Total |
459,589 |
2. Property and Development. In 1849 the Methodist Episcopal Church South entered suit, in the United States courts of New York and Ohio, for a pro rata part of the property of the Book Concern. That brought in New York was decided in 1851 in favor of the claimants on every matrial point; that in Ohio was, in 1852, decided adversely to them and the commissioners appealed to the supreme court of the United States, when the judgment was reversed by a unanimous decision. The conclusions of the court are thus stated:
"The division of the Church as originally constituted, thus became complete; and from this time two separate and distinct organizations have taken the place of the one previously existing. ... We entertain no doubt that the General Conference of 1844 was competent to make it; and that each division of the Church, under the separate organization, is just as legitimate, and can claim as high a sanction, ecclesiastical and temporal, as the Methodist Episcopal Church first founded in the United States. The authority, which founded that Church in 1784, has divided it, and established two separate and independent organizations, occupying the place of the old one. ... As a division of the common property followed, an matter of law, a division of the Church organization, nothing short of an agreement or stipulation of the Church South to give up their share of it, could preclude the assertion of their right; and it is quite clear no such agreement or stipulation is to be found in the Plan of Separation."
By this decision the Methodist Episcopal Church South secured the printing-establishments in Richmond, Charleston, and Nashville. "To them were transferred the debts due from persons residing within the limits of their annual conferences, and in addition $270,000, in cash, the defendant also paying the cost of the suit." The second general conference, held in 1850, showed an increase of 60,000, of which four-fifths were white. Two years before the meeting of this conference, California was ceded to the United States. The bishops, urged by southern emigrants, sent missionaries "to unfurl their banner in that distant and interesting portion of the great republic." Another large increase of membership was noted when the general conference of 1854 convened. New conferences were required, and Drs. Pierce, Early, and Kavanaugh were added to the episcopacy. The general conference of 1858, in session at Nashville, Tenn. , permanently located the publishing-house in that city. This "determined the future rank of Nashville as the ecclesiastical center of Southern Methodism." The general conference provided the organization of the Rio Grande Mission Conference, recommended the establishment of a mission in Central America, and requested the bishops and Board of Missions to organize a mission at such point in Africa as should he deemed expedient. New Orleans was chosen as the place for the conference of 1862. The historian Gross Alexander says "Little did the delegates dream of the events and changes that were to take place in the interval." During the war "halls were vacated, schools deserted, endowments swept away, hundreds of schools as well as churches burned or dismantled by use as hospitals, warehouses, or stables; mills destroyed, plantations and farms laid waste." "In April, 1862, New Orleans was in the possession of the Federal Government, which was represented there by General Butler." Delegates were appointed, but it was impracticable to hold a conference at that time and place. Not till 1866 was a general conference held, which met in New Orleans. The Baltimore conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church at the time of the separation had adhered to that church, but in 1861 a large part of it withdrew from its jurisdiction and maintained a separate existence. Now it was received into the Methodist Episcopal Church South. The statistics showed a loss of 246,044 members during the Civil War, "practically a threefold decimation." The Missionary Society of the church was $60,000 in debt, and the publishing-house practically in ruins. Of the 207,776 colored members in 1860, in the southern body, there remained at the close of the war only 48,742. Attendance upon class-meeting was made voluntary, and the rule requiring a probation of six months before membership, set aside. The pastoral term was extended from two to four years. The reconstructive spirit of this conference and the statesmanship manifested in the introduction of equal lay and clerical representation into the general conference, and a limited representation of the laity in the annual conferences, was a prophecy that the ravages of war would soon he repaired.
3. Government and Activities.
The government of the Methodist Episcopal
Church South is still, in most respects, in agreement with that of the undivided church, but the
general conference of 1870 initiated a constitutional
change of vital import, which the annual conferences confirmed. It was,
that when any rule is adopted by the
conference which, in the opinion of
the bishops, is unconstitutional, they
may present their objections in writing, and if the
general conference shall by a two-thirds vote ad
here to its action, the rule shall take the course pre
scribed for altering a restrictive rule. The bishops'
veto, therefore, in any case, delays the consummation for four years. In the first instance, if the conference should not by a two-thirds vote adhere to
its action, it is made by the objection of the bishops
null and void. Another feature of the government
is that when a bishop decides a question of law in
an annual conference, it controls for that time and
place; but is not binding elsewhere unless the college of bishops approves it. The making of and
dealing in intoxicants is treated unequivocally and
laconically as follows: " If any preacher or member
shall engage in the manufacture or sale of intoxicating liquors to be used as a beverage, let the discipline be administered as in cases of immorality."
From 1845 to 1860 the church, as its members had
been from the beginning, was much occupied with
the instruction and conversion of the slaves. When
the Civil War began, there were "207,776 negro
4. Representatives and Results. No small elected body has included a larger majority of competent men of different types than the college of bishops of the Methodist Episcopal Church South. In its early period Bishops Soule and Andrew and William Capers sentatives and Robert Paine were the most revered. H. B. Bascom, already renowned, died less than six months after he was elected. The oratorical fame of Bishop George Foster Pierce spread throughout the United States, and he lived to diffuse it more than thirty years after his election. No more potential bishop arose in that body than Holland Nimmons McTyeire (q.v.), legislator, administrator, historian. John Christian Keener (q.v.) was for half a century un usually influential in several spheres. The sage Lovick Pierce, who survived to be appointed fraternal delegate to the general conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, the Nathaniel of the church, and John Berry McFerrin, the rejuvenator of every embarrassed enterprise, were pillars amidst the changes of their times. In all the diverse and increasing modes of Christian effort upon which Methodism, in Europe and America, has been so ready to enter, the Methodist Episcopal Church South is energetically working, being rewarded by a constant increase of members and liberality. The tendency to federation, if not to union, between the two great divisions of Episcopal Methodism is shown in their copartnership in the publishing-work in China, a common catechism, and a common hymnal, compiled by joint commissioners, authorized by the general conferences and introduced to the congregations by the signatures of the bishops of both communions.
The membership of the Methodist Episcopal Church South was computed at the end of 1909 to be 1,780,778, and in the foreign missions over 15,000, making a total membership of about 1,800,000.
3. The Methodist Protestant Church; William S. Stockton, an influential layman of the Methodist Episcopal Church, began, in 1821, the publication of the Wesleyan Repository, its contributors being ministers and members of the Methodist Episcopal Church. "Church polity" was criticized in successive numbers by Nicholas Snethen (q.v). As its circulation increased, its utterances became more aggressive, and it encountered wide opposition, but on account of an announcement in the Methodist Magazine of 1823 that its editors would not admit "subjects of controversy which act to disturb the peace and harmony of the church," the Wesleyan Repository gained a large patronage.
While the general conference of 1824 was in session in Baltimore a convention of reformers was
held there. It consisted of local and itinerant ministers, several of whom were members of the general conference, and numerous laymen. To take the place of the
Wesleyan Repository
this convention established a periodical entitled
The Mutual Rights of the Ministers and Members of the Methodist Episcopal Church,
and made preparations to
organize union societies in various parts of the
country. The Methodist Episcopal Church, considering this movement revolutionary, took steps
to suppress it. Dennis B. Dorsey, a member of the
Baltimore conference, was excluded from the church
for refusing to pledge himself to desist from "spreading incendiary publications." W. C. Pool was similarly dealt with, and within thirty days eleven local
preachers and twenty-two laymen were expelled in
Baltimore; they took an appeal. When the general conference of 1828 drew nigh, the reformers
adopted a memorial to be presented to that body
and also issued an address to the public. Thomas
Emerson Bond, a physician of Baltimore and a local
preacher, issued a powerful appeal to Methodists in
opposition to the changes proposed by the reformers; these were the elimination of the episcopacy
and the presiding eldership, and the admission of
laymen to the general and annual conferences.
The general conference confirmed the expulsion of
Dorsey and Pool. Prior to this a number of expelled members and their sympathizers formed
themselves into a society named Associate Methodist Reformers. Its members were. most numerous
in New York, Baltimore, Philadelphia, Pittsburg,
and Cincinnati. A book issued by one of their
number, Alexander McCaine, which proved peculiarly irritating, was chiefly devoted to attacks upon
episcopacy as a form of government, and upon the
"If we are true to it [the pure, unmixed question of representation], if we are not ashamed of it, if we glory in it, it must finally prevail, and proselyte every Methodist in the United States. They may, indeed, remain episcopal Methodists, but so sure as we are not moved away from our high calling, the whole lump will be leavened into representative Methodists."
Its government is the embodiment of the representative principles for which it contended. In no period of its existence has it failed to be represented by men of rare ability. Among those of the middle period was Thomas Hewlings Stockton (q.v.), who had few if any superiors as a preacher. Another was Dr. Alexander Clark, orator, author, editor, traveler, no mean poet, and the principal compiler of the Voice of Praise, the hymn-book of the denomination. This communion has always been interested in education, and maintained useful institutions. For many years it aided the foreign mission work of other denominations. The Woman's Foreign Missionary Society was formed in 1879, and the Board of Foreign Missions in 1882. Its work has been chiefly in Japan and China.
The membership in 1909 numbered 188,806, a gain of over sixty per cent since 1892.
4. Wesleyan Methodist Connection or Church of America: Divers uncompromising abolitionists conferred together in 1842 as to the wisdom of secession from the Methodist Episcopal Church. In that year Orange Scott, Jotham Horton, and Leroy Sunderland announced, in a paper called the True Wealeyan, their withdrawal, and issued a call for a convention of all who agreed with them to prepare a plan of government and to organize a church which should be non-episcopal and anti-slavery. The convention met May 31, 1843, at Utica, N. Y., and founded the Wesleyan Methodist Connection of America. About 6,000 joined, twenty-two of whom were traveling ministers of the Methodist Episcopal Church, and as many more from the Methodist Protestant and Reformed Methodists. To these were added forty-four who reported by letter. The discipline of the Wesleyan Methodist Connection of America differs in various particulars from that of other sections of the Methodist family. Members are forbidden to join any secret society, and if any break this rule and refuse to withdraw "they shall without trial be declared withdrawn from the church." Unatationed ministers are allowed to speak in. the conference but not to vote. In less than eighteen months after it was founded the membership increased from 6,000 to 15,000; but thirty-two years later it had no more. Its rigid condemnation of secret societies repelled many, and after slavery was destroyed, nearly one hundred ministers, accompanied by thousands of communicants, returned to the Methodist Episcopal Church. This denomination of Christians strives faithfully to convert men, and to enforce the stringent rules which it conscientiously holds to be just—to be Christian. Its present roster shows 19,485 members.
5. The Free Methodist Church:
This church
was organized in 1860 at a convention of ministers
and laymen. The action was the culmination of
an agitation in the Genesee conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church. Certain ministers in that
body had, for several years, been declaring that the
church was tolerating worldly practises, and contradictory teachings on entire sanctification; that
primitive Methodist simplicity was disappearing,
unconverted persons being received into the church;
that little attention was paid to discipline, and that
many Methodists were allowed to belong to secret
societies. They condemned the renting of pews,
choir-singing, all worldly amusements, and the
building of costly churches. In 1858 B. T. Roberts and Joseph McCreary were expelled from the
Methodist Episcopal Church on charges of contumacy and alleged immoral and unchristian conduct. The charge of contumacy was based upon
Roberts' publishing and circulating a second edition of New
School Methodism
and a pamphlet giving a short account of his previous trial. Many
considered the expulsion of these ministers as persecution. Several ministers of the conference publicly expressed their sympathy, and four of them
were expelled on similar charges, and two others
were retired from the itinerant ministry to the
local. At the general conference of 1860 the cases
were taken up and the appeal of Roberts was not
allowed. The conference affirmed that an unendurable spirit of censoriousness and insubordination
was the cause of the action against them, and that
their expulsion was in harmony with the regular
forms. In the government of the Free Methodist
Church a general superintendent, elected quadrennially, was substituted for the episcopacy. In all
church courts the number of laymen was made equal
to the ministry. The office of presiding elder was
retained, but the officer is entitled district chairman. Two articles of faith were added to those of
the Methodist Episcopal Church. The first is on
entire sanctification, and the second on future reward and punishment. B. T. Roberts, who was
long general superintendent of the body, having
been reelected several times, was an alumnus of
Wesleyan University, a good writer, and in private
intercourse a man of both commanding and persuasive ability. The Free Methodist Church has
furnished many illustrations of heroic self-denial.
Limited as are the resources of the body, it has
small missions in Africa, India, San Domingo, and
6. The African Methodist Episcopal Church: Early in the history of American Methodism there was dissatisfaction in the colored membership, who were aroused by Question 25 in the minutes of the conference of 1780: "Ought not the assistant to meet the colored people himself, and appoint as helpers in his absence proper white persons, and not suffer them to stay late and meet by themselves? Ans. Yes." In Philadelphia, in 1787, certain colored people belonging to the Methodist Church met to consider their condition. When their ideas were opposed, they withdrew from the church, and Bishop William White (q.v.), of the Protestant Episcopal Church, ordained a colored preacher for them. Asbury, in 1799, ordained Richard Allen (a slave who had bought his freedom, grown rich, and erected on his own land a church for the people of his race) a deacon, he being the first colored preacher ordained by the Methodist Episcopal Church. The African Methodist Episcopal Church sprang from the relations between the white and colored Methodists of Philadelphia. John Emory (q.v.), representing the Methodist Episcopal Church, sent a letter to them stating that the white preachers could no longer maintain pastoral responsibility over them. On account of this they considered themselves disowned by the Methodists, but an attempt was made to regain them. The case was taken into the courts, and was decided in favor of Bethel Church, with the result that the colored people in 1816 organized themselves into an independent body, adopting as its standards the doctrines of the Methodist Episcopal Church, and, with a few modifications, its form of government. Richard Allen was elected bishop. The church steadily prospered, but not proportionately in education. In 1843 a controversy arose on the subject of the qualifications for ministers, led by Daniel Alexander Payne (q.v.), who had been trained as a theologian in the Gettysburg Theological Seminary, and to him is due a large part of the intellectual progress of the church. In 1863 the church purchased Wilberforce University in Ohio. This institution has been successfully conducted. After the Civil War, the church increased steadily. Educational work is carried on with intelligence and enthusiasm. The African Methodist Episcopal Church and the British African Methodist Episcopal Church of the Dominion of Canada were united as a result of negotiations begun in 1880. A peculiarity of this body is that it makes the bishops members of the general conference. The African Methodist Episcopal Church has been devoted to missions. Before it was sixteen years old it established a mission in Hayti. In 1847 it founded The Parent Home and Foreign Missionary Society. It carries on missions in Africa, South America, West Indies, and Hawaii, and in Africa its missions have about 12,000 members. This body has produced notable orators, such as Bishops Campbell and Arnett, who have elicited admiration and respect for themselves, their race, and their denomination. The government of the body resembles that of other Methodist Episcopal Churches in most respects, but includes special differences of its own origination. The corrected returns by Dr. Carroll give the membership at 452,126.
7. The African Methodist Episcopal Zion
Church:
The colored people of the City of New York
resented caste prejudice, which "forbade their taking the sacrament until white members were served."
This, and the desire for other church privileges denied them, induced them to organize among themselves, which they did in 1796, and in the year
1800 they built a church and called it " Zion." A
contract was made between that body and the
Methodist Episcopal Church of the United States
of America., that, as they had no ordained ministers of their own race, the Methodist Episcopal
Church should provide them. Under this arrangement " Zion " received the services of preachers
of that church for " about twenty years." In the
end, a minister, who had been sent to " Zion
Colored Church," having seceded from the Methodist Episcopal Church, the trustees of " Zion " invited him to finish out the year, and, when this was
done, the members induced him to ordain as elders
three of their brethren, already ordained as deacons. These proceeded to ordain others. These
elders, following the example of Wesley, ordained
one of the number a bishop: During 1820 churches
were organized in Philadelphia and New Hampshire. An eight years' controversy began in 1848,
which finally reached the civil courts. The laity
were admitted to representation in the annual and
general conferences in 1851, and by 1858 the spirit
of unity in the church had gained the ascendency.
As late as 1865 the church had but 92 ministers
and 5,000 members; but between 1864 and 1876
it doubled its membership more than five times.
This body eliminated the word, "male" from the
discipline so that the sexes are equally eligible to
all positions, lay and clerical. In 1868 an unsuccessful attempt was made by Gilbert Haven (q.v.)
and others to promote the union of the Zion Church
with the Methodist Episcopal Church. Negotiations for union between the African Methodist
Episcopal Zion Church and the African Methodist
Church have also proved abortive. In 1868 the
episcopacy was made technically a life office; nevertheless the bishop was to be elected quadrennially;
if not reelected, he was considered to be " retired,"
but could retain the title of bishop. This rule, in
practise, created dissatisfaction, and in 1880 it was
enacted that, without reelection, the bishop should
be certain of tenure during good behavior. This
church early espoused education, but for a long
while its enterprises to promote it were unsuccessful; at last, however, Livingstone College was
firmly established under the presidency of Dr.
Joseph C. Price, whose abilities were extraordinary.
On the platform and in conversation he was irresistible; anywhere in England or America he could
secure money. for the institution, which became
famous. The church publishes weekly periodicals
and a Quarterly Review, and is endeavoring to
8. The Colored Methodist Episcopal Church: In 1866 the conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church South authorized the bishops to organize its colored members "into an independent ecclesiastical body," if it should appear that the members desired it. The bishops then formed a number of annual conferences, consisting wholly of colored preachers. These requested in 1870 the appointment of five as a commission to meet five of their own number to create an independent church. The convention chose as the name of the body " The Colored Methodist Episcopal Church." Two bishops of the Methodist Episcopal Church South presided and ordained to the episcopacy two colored elders, W. H. Miles and R. H. Vanderhorst, selected by the eight colored conferences. The total value of church property then made over by the Methodist Episcopal Church South to the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church was $1,500,000. Members of the Methodist Episcopal Church South have given them plots of ground and aided them in building churches. Paine College, Augusta, Ga., (with an enrolment of 300 in 1907), and Lane College, Jackson, Tenn., are carried on by the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church in connection with the Methodist Episcopal Church South. This church took over, from the body that had nourished it, the articles of religion and the forms of government. Its rules will not allow any others than negroes the privilege of membership. At the outset there were but little more than 60,000 members; in 1909 it had 233,911, shepherded by 2,809 ministers and housed in 2,619 churches.
9. Minor Methodist Churches: The Primitive Methodist Church, as it exists in the United States, came from England. It has three annual conferences subdivided into districts and maintaining itinerant and local ministers and class-leaders. They are slowly growing, having had 4,764 communicants in 1890 and 7,295 in 1909. The Independent Methodist Churches are composed of congregations in Maryland, Tennessee, and the District of Columbia. Their statistics are inaccessible. The Evangelist Missionary Church comprises ministers and members in Ohio, who in 1886 withdrew from the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church. They have now about 5,000 members. They have one bishop and profess to have no creed but the Bible. The New Congregational Methodists withdrew in 1881 from the Methodist Episcopal Church South in Georgia on account of alleged arbitrary action. Seven years later a number of its churches united with the Congregationalists. At the present time they report 1,782 members. The Congregational Methodists originated in Georgia in 1852. When the Congregational body began to establish congregations in the South after the war many of the churches and ministers that organized the Congregational Methodist Church went over to them. In doctrine, the Congregational Methodists agree with other Methodist bodies; and in polity they are not strictly Congregational. Appeals from the decision of the lower church may be taken to a district conference, thence to the state conference, and ultimately to the general conference. This church has 15,529 members, chiefly in the southern states. The African Union Methodist Protestant Church dates from 1816, and differs from the African Methodist Episcopal Church in opposing itinerancy, paid ministers, and episcopacy. It has 3,867 members in eight states. The Union American Methodist Episcopal Church agrees in doctrines and usages with other Methodist bodies. It antedates the African Methodist Episcopal Church, being organized in 1813 in Wilmington, Del., is divided into conferences, and elects its bishops for life. In 1890 it had 2,279 members, and now reports 18,500. The Zion Union Apostolic Church was organized in 1869 in Virginia. It was reported in 1890 to have 2,346 communicants, and at the end of 1909 reports 3,059.
10. In Canada and the Maritime Provinces:
1. Beginnings.
Methodism was introduced into Newfoundland in
1765 by Lawrence Coughland, who was admitted
as a traveling preacher by John Wesley in 1755.
Coughland preached there until 1773,
his work being strengthened by local
preachers. In 1785 Wesley sent John
McGeary especially to that colony.
Methodism came into being in Nova Scotia in 1779
by the conversion of William Black through the influence of Wesley's sermons, and the efforts of
newly arrived Methodists. Black in 1784, seeking
for reinforcements, visited the conference called at
Baltimore, Md., to receive Dr. Coke and form the
Methodist Episcopal Church. By 1791 the work
had so prospered in Nova Scotia as to demand a
district with Black as elder, to act as superintendent of six stations, manned by as many preachers
from the United States. Other preachers had been
sent to various parts of the provinces. Methodism
reached New Brunswick by way of Nova Scotia
and the United States. In the Province of Canada
local preachers had been working before the year
1790, but to William Losee, a preacher on trial
without a definite appointment, belongs the honor
of being the first missionary to Canada. His experiment proving successful, the next year he was
regularly appointed. By 1799 a flourishing, presiding elder's district existed. In 1810 the Genesee conference was organized, and preachers in
Canada for the most part assumed relations with
that body. Until 1812 they had been associated
with the Methodist Episcopal Church. From the
beginning there had been steady advance till the
war between the United States and Great Britain;
but during that conflict the members were dispersed,
and at its close only 1,785 could found. The
Methodists of Lower Canada, having no preacher
competent to administer the ordinances, applied to
Nova Scotia for aid, and a regular minister was
sent from the British conference. This created
confusion, which continued till 1820, when the
upper province was allotted to the American preachers, and the lower to the British. In 1824 Methodism in Upper Canada, then comprising thirty-five
ministers and preachers on trial and 6,150 members, was organized into a single annual conference, and during the next four years increase was
2. Division and Denominations, In 1833 the Methodist Episcopal Church of Canada had three annual conferences, 197 effective ministers, 25,000 members, and a polity practically the same as that of the Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States. In that year it unified with the British conference, changing its name and form of government. When the conference agreed to this union it did so without formal consultation with the laity. The majority both of ministers and laymen acquiesced, but certain dissentients declared that, as it had not been submitted to the societies, the act was unconstitutional, and that it infringed upon the agreement made between the church in Canada and the Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States. These organized a new Methodist Episcopal Church of Canada, more than one-thirteenth of the membership, declining to affiliate with the British conference, associating with them. Being without schools, parsonages, and churches, they began litigation to secure a pro rata part of the property. The lower courts decided in their favor, but on appeal the higher court recognized the Wesleyan Methodists of Canada as the rightful owners. After this question was settled the Wesleyan Methodist Church of Canada entered on a career of prosperity, and the Methodist Episcopal Church, thrown wholly on its own resources, made every sacrifice in order to succeed. Four Primitive Methodist ministers had been sent in 1829 from England because of the number of that sect emigrating to the United States. Three years later the Hull circuit in England decided to take the Canadian societies under its immediate charge. A general missionary committee was formed by the home church and under its management the increase of members was such that in 1854 the Canadian annual conference of Primitive Methodists was established. In 1831 the Bible Christians sent two missionaries to the British dominions in America, one to West Canada and the other to Prince Edward Island. In 1855 the society was strong, and held its first conference in Columbus. It then had 51 churches, 21 regular preachers and many lay helpers, and 2,200 members. Ten years afterward the union with it of the Prince Edward Island churches, together with local growth, raised its membership to 5,000. The Canadian Wesleyan Methodist Church was formed in 1829. It was founded principally by Henry Ryan and introduced lay representation in all its courts. Ryan died in 1833, but the little church struggled on, and in 1841 united with the Methodist New Connection. The Methodist New Connection of England, with the consent of the parent society, established a mission in Canada in 1837. The mission, enlarged by admitting a small denomination, assumed the title "Canadian Methodist New Connection." In 1840 the British conference "withdrew from its cooperation" with the Canada conference, which acted independently for seven years, but during that period the form and name of the Wesleyan Methodist Church remained unchanged. In 1847 the union was restored, and in 1854, by special arrangement, the Lower Canada and the Hudson Bay missionary districts, both of which had stood in immediate connection with the British Wesleyan conference, became incorporated with the Wesleyan church in Canada. In 1857 the Methodist Episcopal Church founded an educational institution at Bellville, which was incorporated as Bellville Seminary; three years later it was affiliated with the Toronto University as Bellville College, the ladies' department taking the designation of Alexandria College, and later the remaining part of the institution being known as Albert University.
3. Unification.
For years a yearning existed in many hearts for
organic union of Methodist bodies. This first bore
fruit in the union of the Wesleyan
Methodist Church in Canada, the Eastern British American conferences, and
the Methodist New Connection Church,
proposed in 1872, and consummated in Toronto in
1874, the uniting bodies adopting the all-inclusive
name of the Methodist Church of Canada. Its first
census reported 1,031 ministers, and 101,946 mem
bers, two universities, three theological schools, and
several colleges and secondary schools. Yet some
thing still greater awaited Canadian Methodism.
The first Ecumenical Conference of Methodism,
which convened in Wesley Chapel, London, in 1881,
gave such impulse to fraternity as to extend the
horizon till glimpses of complete Methodist unity
could be perceived in the not distant future. Canada was the first to know its visitation. In Bellville, in 1883, was accomplished the formal and ac
tual union of the Methodist Church of Canada, the
Methodist Episcopal Church in Canada, the Primitive Methodist Church in Canada, and the Bible
Christian Church of Canada. The body thus formed
was in the possession of seven colleges, having 100
professors and 5,068 students. The Methodist
Church of Canada contributed to the union 128,337 members; the Methodist Episcopal Church in
Canada, 25,678 members; the Primitive Methodists, 8,000; and the Bible Christians, 6,800—a sum
total of 168,815 members. The itinerant general
superintendents hold office for the term of eight
years, and are eligible to reelection. The annual
conferences are composed of ministers and an equal
number of laymen, a president being selected from
among the ministerial members. The president of
the annual conference is the superintendent of the
district in which he may be stationed. The annual
conference elects superintendents for each district.
There are now six departments of mission work,
home, Indian, French, Chinese and Japanese in
British Columbia, and foreign. The home work
embraces needy fields in the dominion, Newfound
land, and Bermuda. These include more than
35,000 communicants. The French missions are
in Quebec, The foreign missions are in China and
V. The Doctrinal Standards of Methodism:
1. Doctrinal Bases. John Wesley was a clergyman of the Church of England. The societies which he formed were organizations for the conversion of men and their religious development. He aimed to retain his converts within the pale of that great national church, and from its clergymen the majority of Methodists received the sacraments. He and they believed the fundamental doctrines of universal Christendom, as contained in the articles, homilies, and ritual to which they had been accustomed from childhood. Nevertheless, in the judgment of Wesley, certain doctrines of the New Testament were neglected by the clergy or robbed of their true proportion and emphasis. These doctrines were by him considered vital to the spread of pure Christianity. Accordingly he expounded them in his conferences, published them with comments in the Minutes and preached upon them. Also he found it necessary to write and publish sermons upon the doctrines which Methodism emphasized; for his preaching excited vehement opposition from unsympathetic Anglican clergymen, and from Presbyterian, Independent, and Baptist ministers. The Baptists differed from him on the method and subjects of baptism and its relation to the reception of the Lord's Supper. To preserve unity of belief among the preachers and members of his societies, he prepared Notes on the New Testament, wherein are clear explanations of the pivotal passages upon which he based the views he so firmly believed and fervently preached. To render impossible the preaching of heretical doctrines in the chapels, the deeds by which they were held contained a limitation of the powers of trustees in the following words: "Provided always, that the persons preach no other doctrine than is contained in Mr. Wesley's 'Notes on the New Testament,' and four volumes of 'Sermons.'" The same provision subsists in the model deed of the Wesleyan Methodist Church (in England, Ireland, etc.) in the following words: "No person shall be allowed to preach, who shall maintain, promulgate, or teach any Doctrine or Practise contrary to what is contained in certain Notes onthe New Testament, commonly reputed to be the Notes of the said John Wesley, and in the first four volumes of Sermons, commonly reputed to be written and published by him."
When introducing these Sermons to the public, Wesley said,
"The following sermons contain the substance of what I have been preaching for eight or nine years past. During that time, I have frequently spoken in public on every subject in the ensuing collection, and I am not conscious that there is any one point of doctrine, on which I am accustomed to speak in public, which is not incidentally, if not professedly, laid before every Christian reader. Every serious man, who peruses these, will, therefore, see in the clearest manner what these doctrines are, which I embrace and teach as the essentials of true religion."
It was for this purpose that Wesley made these Sermons so large and vital a part of his doctrinal standards. Certain discrepancies have been alleged with respect to the number of these Sermons. The Wesleyan Methodist Church of Great Britain and Ireland and the Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States recognize fifty-three; the Methodist Church of Canada and the Methodist Episcopal Church South but fifty-two, and certain critics but forty-three. The discrepancies are of no significance, as all agree on the smallest number, stated in the model deed, and all essential truths of the system of doctrine on which Methodism depends are discussed in the forty-three, and nothing additional of doctrinal value is contained in the nine or ten added by Wesley after he had made the others a standard.
2. Distinctive Doctrinal Features.
The distinctive doctrinal features of Methodism
are suggested by the titles of these Sermons: "Scriptural Christianity," "The Almost Christian,"
"Awake thou that sleepest," "The Way to the
Kingdom," "Salvation by Faith," "Justification
by Faith," "The Righteousness of Faith," "The
First Fruits of the Spirit," "The Spirit of Bondage
and Adoption," "The Master of the
New Birth," "The Witness of our own
Spirit," two sermons on the" Witness
of the Spirit," "Sin in Believers," thirteen sermons on the Sermon on the
Mount, "The Nature of Enthusiasm,"
"A Caution against Bigotry," "Christian Perfection," "The Judgment." Incidental to the direct
exposition of these topics the distinction between
Wesley's Arminian theology and that of Calvin is
pointed out; and the dangerous license of Antinomianism condemned. Wesley emphasized foreknowledge, but opposed the doctrines of election
and reprobation as taught by Calvin. Magnifying
free will and resultant responsibility, he acknowleged
3. American Position. Until 1784 Methodism in America was under the control of Wesley; it was in fact the extension of his societies. In that year it devolved upon him to superintend its transformation into a church. Before his plan had fully matured or any American had anticipated it, the American conferences asked, and by vote answered, a peculiar question.
Q. " How shall we conduct ourselves toward European preachers? " Answer: " If they are recommended by Mr. Wesley, will be subject to the American conference, preach the doctrine taught in the four volumes of Sermons, and Notes on the New Testament, ... we will receive them; but if they walk contrary to the above directions, no ancient right or appointment shall prevent their being excluded from our connection."
Wesley sent to America a series of articles of religion, selected from the Thirty-nine of the Church of England. The following were adopted, with slight verbal changes and minor omissions: "Of Faith in the Holy Trinity," "Of the Word, or the Son of God, who was made very Man," "Of the Resurrection of Christ," "Of the Holy Ghost," "Of the Old Testament," "Of Free Will," "Of the Justification of Man," "Of Good Works," "Of Works of Supererogation," "Of Sin after Justification," "Of the Church," "Of Purgatory," "Of Speaking in the Congregation in such tongue as the People understand," "Of the Sacraments," "Of the Lord's Supper," "Of both Kinds," "Of the one Oblation of Christ, finished upon the Cross," "Of the Marriage of Ministers," "Of the Rites and Ceremonies of Churches," "Of Christian Men's Goods" and "Of a Christian Man's Oath." The following were retained with important omissions: "The Sufficiency of the Holy Scriptures for Salvation," "Of Original or Birth Sin," "Of the Church," and "Of Baptism." The following were rejected: "Of the Going down of Christ into Hell," "Of the Three Creeds," "Of Works before Justification," "Of Christ alone without Sin," "Of Predestination and Election," "Of Obtaining Eternal Salvation only by the Name of Christ," "Of the Authority of the Church," "Of the Authority of General Councils," "Of Ministering in the Congregation," "Of the Unworthiness of the Ministers which Hinders not the effect of the Sacrament," "Of the Wicked which eat not the Body of Christ in the Use of the Lord's Supper," "Of Excommunicate Persons, how they are to be avoided," "Of the Homilies," "Of Consecration of Bishops and Ministers," "Of the Civil Magistrates."
4. Purpose and Results. A comparison between the English Articles as they were originally and as they were transmitted to the American conference reveals that the guiding purpose of Wesley, in altering and omitting, was to expurgate the leaven of ritualism, Calvinism, and Romanism. These articles, however, do not contain special reference to some of the most precious doctrines held by the founder of Methodism and by the churches that derived preaching, teaching, and example from those whom he instructed. But Wesley knew that the American Methodists had incorporated in their standards all that he had imposed upon English Methodism. Episcopal Methodist Churches, including the Canadian Methodist Church, accepted the articles sent by Wesley. The Methodist Episcopal Church of America is in harmony with these facts. The rule on the subject is as follows:
"The General Conference shall not revoke, alter or change our Articles of Religion, nor establish any new standard or rules of doctrine contrary to our present, existing, and established standards of doctrine."
The unparalleled unity in belief among the various Methodist bodies is the fruit of Wesley's method of conserving doctrines. Had he expressed them in confessions or even creeds, they would have been centers of controversy. His followers in every land concur with the Canadian Methodist theologian, Burwash:
"It is to the spirit and type of this preaching that our obligations bind us. There may be in the Notes and Ser mons things incidental, accidental and personal, to which no Methodist minister or layman would feel bound to profess assent; but Methodism demands that in all its pulpits we should preach this Gospel and expound the word of God according to this analogy of Faith."
The Calvinistic Methodists signify their doctrines by their name. In Evangelical spirit they are similar, but in the doctrines on which Wesley took the Arminian position they adhere to the Calvinist standards.J. M. BUCKLEY.
Bibliography: The fundamental sources are the Works of John Wesley, the best ed. for this purpose being that issued as standard by the Methodist Book Concern, New York, in 7 vols., including in vols. i-ii. his Sermons, in vols. iii.-iv. his Journals, and in vols. v.-vii. his miscellaneous works; his Explanatory Notes upon the New Testament, issued by the same house as a standard (the recently deciphered diaries from which the Journals were written, containing a considerable amount of new material, are in course of publication in London, and will be available at the principal repositories for Methodist literature in the United States); the Lives and other literature given under the articles on the Wesleys in the lsst volume of this work; the Books of Discipline of the various Methodist bodies; the Journals of the Methodist Episcopal Church and of the Methodist Episcopal Church South; the Minutes of the annual conferences; the Proceedings of the Ecumenical Methodist Conferences, bold in London, 1881 Washington,1891, and London, 1901; the Records of theCentennial Convention in Baltimore, 1884; the Year Books of the various bodies; and the early periodicals to which reference in made in the text. Consult also the numerous sketches of Methodist worthies in this work, and the literature given there.
Treatises of a general character are: A. Stevens, Hist. of the Religious Movement . . . Called Methodism, 3 vols., New York, 1858-61; H. S. Skeats, Hist. of the Free Churches of England, 1688-1851, London, 1859; G. Smith, Hist. of Wesleyan Methodism, 3 vols., ib. 1885; L. S. Jacoby, Geschichte des Methodismus, seiner Entstehung und Ausbreitung, 2 vols., Bremen, 1870; W. H. Daniels, Illustrated Hist, of Merhodism in Great Britian and America from the Wesleys to the Present Time, New York, 1880; J. Atkinson, Centennial Hist. of American Methodism, ib. 1884; idem, Beginnings the Weslyan Movement in are Wesleyan Movement in
Works on various Methodist bodies are: G. Smith, Hist. of Wesleyan Methodists, 3 vols., London, 1857-61; H. Smith, Sketches Sketches of Methodist New Connexion Ministers, ib. 1893; G. Packer, The Centenary of the Methodist New Connexion 1797-1897 ib. 1897; T. Colhouer, Sketches of the Founders of the Methodist Protestant Church and its Bibliography, Pittsburg, 1880; A. H. Bassett, Concise Hist. of the Methodist Protestant Church, Baltimore, 1882; E. J. Drinkhouse, Hist. of Methodist Reform and the Methodist Protestant Church, 2 vols., Baltimore, 1899; E. Bowen, Hist. of the Origin of the Free Methodist Church, North Chili, New York, n.d.; F. W. Bourne, The Bible Christians: Origin and History, London, 1905; J. Petty, Hist. of the Primitive Methodist Connexion, 1861; W. Williams, Welsh Calvinistic Methodism. A Historical Sketch, ib. 1884; D. Young, The Origin and Hist. of Methodism in Wales and the Borders, ib. 1893; J. S. MacGeary, The Free Methodist Church, Chicago, 1909.
For the Methodist Episcopal Church North and South consult: Hist. of the Organization of the Methodist Episcopal Church South. Comprehending all the Official Proceedings of the General Conferences, etc., Nashville, 1845; A. Stevens, Memorials of the Introduction of Methodism into the Eastern States, 2 vols., Boston, 1848-52; idem, Hist. of the M. E. Church in U. S. A., 4 vols., New York, 1864; idem, Centenary of American Methodism, ib. 1866; C. Elliott, History of the Great Secession from the Methodist Episcopal Church in the year 1845, Eventuating in the Organization of the New Church Entitled "The Methodist Episcopal Church South," Cincinnati, 1855; J. Lednum, A History of the Rise of Methodism in America. Containing Sketches of Methodist itinerant Preachers, 1738-86, Philadelphia, 1859; N. Bangs, Hist. of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 4 vols., New York, 1860; L. C. Matlack, Antislavery Struggle and Triumph in the M. E. Church, ib. 1881; H. N. McTyeire, Hist. of Methodism, Nashville, 1886; J. G. Jones, A Complete Hist. of Methodism as Connected with the Mississippi Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church South, Vol. i., 1799-1817, Nashville, 1887; G. Alexander, in American History Series, vol. xi., New York, 1894; J. M. Buckley, in American Church History Series, vol. v., New York 1897.
For Methodism among the African races consult: J. B. Wakeley, Lost Chapters Recovered from the Early History African Methodism, New York, 1889; L. M. Hagood, The Colored Man in the Methodist Episcopal Church, Cincinnati, 1890; D. A. Payne, Hist. of the A. M. E. Church, Nashville 1891; J. W. Hood, One Hundred Years of the African M. E. Zion Church, New York, 1895; I. L. Butt, Hist. of African Methodism in Virginia; or, four Decades in the Old Dominion, Eastville, Va., 1908.
Books dealing with special topics are: J. Emory, Defense of Our Fathers, New York, 1827; D. W. Clark, Life and Times of Elijah Hedding, ib. 1855; R. Paine, Life of W. MaKendree 2 vols., Nashville, 1869; E. H. Myers,Description of the M. E. Church, 1844-1846: comprising a 30 Years' History of the Relations of the two Methodism, Nashville, Tenn., 1875; T. L. Flood and J. W. Hamilton, Lives of Methodist Bishops, New York, 1882; F. A. Arehibald, Methodism and Literature, Cincinnati, 1883; A. W. Cummings, Early Schools of Methodism, New York, 1886; W. J. Townsend, The Story of Methodist Union, London, 1906; D. B. Brummitt, Epworth League Methods, Cincinnati, 1906; H. K. Carroll, Missionary Growth of the M. E. Church, Cincinnati, 1907; J. Telfond, Wesley's Veterans. Lives of Early Methodist Preachers told by Themselves. With Additions and Annotations, London, 1909;
On Methodism in various, countries consult: G. H. Cornish, Cyclopedia of Methodism in Canada, Toronto, 1881; E. Ryerson, Canadian Methodism; its Epochs and Characteristics, ib. 1882; A. Sutherland, Methodism in Canada, London, 1903; J. E. Sanderson, First Century of Methodism in Canada, vol. i., Toronto, 1908; C. H. Crookshank, History of Methodism in Ireland, vol. i., Wesley and his Time, vol. ii., The Middle Age, Belfast, 1885-1886; E. Thomas, Irish Methodist Reminiscences, London, 1889; R. C. Phillips, Irish Methodism, ib. 1897; H. B. Foster, Wesleyan Methodism in Jamaica, ib. 1881; J. Colwell, Illustrated Hist. of Methodism in Australia, New South Wales. and Polynesia, Sydney, 1904; H. Adams, Methodism in the West Indies, London, 1908; J. M. Erikson, Metodismen i Sverige, Stockholm, 1895; J. Jiingst, Der Methodismus in Deutschland, Giessen, 1906.
On the polity, constitution, doctrines, and discipline of Methodism consult: R. Emory, Hist. of the Discipline of the M. E. Church, New York, 1843; T. E. Bond, The Economy of Methodism Illustrated and Defended, ib. 1852; T. E. Bond, Economy of Methodism, ib. 1852; E. Grindrod A Compendium of the Laws and Regulations of Wesleyan Methodism, London, 1858; B. Hawley, Manual of Methodism, or the Doctrines, General Rules and Usages of the Methodist Episcopal Church, New York, 1868; J. H. Rigg, Connexional Economy of Wesleyan Methodism, London, 1879; idem, Church Organizations, ib. 1896; H. W. Williams, Constitution and Polity of Wesleyan Methodism, London, 1881; S. M. Merrill, A Digest of Methodist Law; or, Helps in the Administration of the Discipline of the E. Church, Cincinnati, 1885; D. Sherman, Hist. of the Revisions of the Discipline of the M. E. Church, New York, 1890; T. B. Neely, Evolution of Episcopacy and Organic Methodism, ib. 1888; idem, Hist. of the Origin and Development of the Governing Conference in Methodism, Cincinnati, 1892; B. Gregory, Side Lights on the Conflicts of Methodism, 1827-52, London, 1898; D. J. Waller, Constitution and Polity of the Wesleyan Methodist Church, ib. 1898; W. F. Barclay, Constitution of Methodist Episcopal Churches in America, Nashville, Tenn., 1902; G. F. Oliver, Our Lay Office Bearers, Cincinnati, 1902; J. J. Tigert, Doctrines of M. E. Church in America, ib. 1902; idem, Constitutional Hist. of American Episcopal Methodism, Nashville, 1903; Doctrines and Discipline of the M. E. Church South, ed. Alexander, ib. 1906; D. A. Goodsell, J. B. Hingeley and J. M. Buckley, The Doctrines and Discipline of the Methodist Episcopal Church, Cincinnati, 1908; H. Wheeler, Hist. and Exposition of the Twenty-five Articles of Religion of the M. E. Church, New York, 1908; H. T. Hudson, Methodist Armor; or, A Popular Exposition of the Doctrines, Peculiar Usages and Ecclesiastical Machinery of the M. E. Church South, Nashville, n.d.
METHODIUS
Works.
Greek Church Father and bishop
of Olympus, in Lycia; probably martyred by
Maximinus, 311. The only one of his works preserved
entire in Greek is the "Symposium," which, as its
name implies, forms a counterpart to Plato's
"Symposium." Ten maidens, invited to the "garden of
virtue," are the speakers, their themes being the
following:
(1) the praise of virginity as the essence
of the likeness to God brought by
Christ;
(2) the divine ordinance of marriage;
(3) virginity preferable to the married state;
(4) virginity the best medicament to immortality;
(5) virginity the great vow;
(6) virgins keep themselves undefiled for the
marriage with the Logos;
(7) they are equal to the
martyrs and are meant by
Doctrine.
Deeply influenced by Platonism and Stoicism, and strongly allegorical in interpretation, Methodius is at once an advocate of early Christian realism and of the ascetic and contemplative life. The main points of his constant opposition to Origen have already been noted. His concept of God was characterized by the attributes of non-becoming, power, and exemption from all need. If the Father is the essential principle of all being, the Son is the external effective force; yet Methodius stresses the divine nature of the Son, who was the means of all revelation of salvation, even in the Old Testament. The world was created for the microcosm man, whose will is absolutely free, and who is progressively taught by God to conquer the devil. The Logos necessarily became incarnate to bring man into harmony with the Divine, and, bringing "knowledge of the Father of all," he stripped off the old man, which he replaced "with his own flesh." This is done through the Church, for whom the Logos left the Father in heaven; and the souls betrothed to him are "helps meet for him," thus realizing the "deep sleep" of Adam (Gen. ii. 21). Nevertheless, outward membership is no guaranty of salvation, which is the work of grace that rewards longing with fulfilment. Yet even the Christian does not entirely extirpate sin in this life, and the forgiveness of sins and deeper recognition of the divine will only strengthen the natural good in him; while the birth of Christ in the faithful, transforming them into Christs, is essentially a spiritual growth, though coming to pass on principle in baptism. The cure for all evils and the root of true morality is the spiritual understanding of the Scriptures, wisdom blooming in the desert, where dwells the bride of the Logos. The progress in the Christian life here outlined, however, finds its culmination, as implied above, in perfect virginity of both body and soul. The ideal of Methodius is that of the ascetic sage. In accordance with the tradition of the Church, more over, Methodius was inclined toward a moderate chiliasm, holding that in the seventh millennium the faithful would celebrate the true Sabbaths and the real Feast of Tabernacles with Christ, this millennium being the rest preliminary to endless eternity.
(N. BONWETSCH.)For Methodius the apostle to the Slavs see CYRIL AND METHODIUS.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The first complete ed. of the "Banquet" was by Allatius, Rome, 1656. An incomplete collection of the works was made by F. Combefs, Paris, 1644, enlarged, 1672. The works are also in A. Gallandi, BiblioIkeca roeterum patrum, iii. 670 eqq., Venice, 1767; in MPG, xviii. 27-408; and an edition is by A. Jahn, Halle, 1865. There is an Eng. trans]. with introduction in ANF, vi . 307-402. The earlier literature on the subject is given very completely in ANF, Bibliography, pp. 75-76. Consult: Jerome, De wir. ill., Ixxxiii.; Socrates, Hint. eccl., vi. 13; A. Pankau, Methodius, BiechofwonOlymput, Mainz, 1888; N. Bonwetsch, Methodiue won Olympus, Leipsio, 1891; idem, Die Theolopis des Methodiua won Olympus, Berlin, 1903; O. Bardenhewer, Patrologie, pp. 154 eqq., Freiburg, 1894; Ehrhard, Die altchristliche Litteratur and ihre Erforschung, 1884 -1900, pp. 363 sqq., ib. 1900; Harnack, Litteratur, i. 468-478, 786, 929-930, ii. 2, pp. 147 eqq., 150-151; idem, Dogma, vols. i.-v. passim; Krilger, History, pp. 235-242; Schaff, Christian Church, ii. 309-312; Ceillier, Auteure eacr6a, iii. 62-73; DCB, iii: 909-911.
METHURGEMAN ("Interpreter"): The title given to the Palestinian official who in the synagogue service translated into the vernacular (Aramaic) the lesson read in Hebrew from the law verse by verse, and the lesson read from the prophets three verses at a time. See SYNAGOGUE, I.; and TALMUD.
METROPHANES, me"tref'a-niz, CRITOPULUS,
crai'tep-u-lus: Patriarch of Alexandria; b. at
Berrhoea, Macedonia, probably in 1589; d. at
Alexandria, probably in 1639. After entering a
monastery at an early age and becoming the
protosyncellus of the patriarch of Constantinople, he
was sent to England by Cyril Lucar (q.v.) and
studied at Oxford until 1623. He then went to
Helmstedt, and, after visiting other German cities,
was an associate of the Reformed at Geneva in
1627. In 1631 he signed himself at Alexandria as
BzHLIoaBAPBT: A. Harmaclc, in TU, i (1882), 278-282; We.., uaeracwr, x.143, 239-240, 255-256, ii. 1, pp. 381382, 2, pp. 228, 283; idem, Dopnw, ii. 190, 237, 243; O. Otto, in Corpus apotopetarum CArist~norum, ix. 384373, Jens, 1872; T. Zahn, Forerhunpen sur Geeahiehte des . . Kamm, v. 237-240, Leipeio, 1892; lis'fer, Hiaforv, pp.121-122.
MILTON, JOHN: Famous English poet and leader of Puritanism during the Great Rebellion; b. in London Dec. 9, 1608; d. there Nov. 8, 1674. He was the son of a scrivener of strong Puritan tendencies, and was educated at St. Paul's School, London, and at Christ's College, Cambridge (1625-32). While still at Cambridge he wrote some fine poems, among them the Ode on the Morning of Christ's Nativity. He was originally destined to a ministerial career, but his independent spirit led him to "prefer a blameless silence before the sacred office of speaking bought and begun with servitude and forswearing." He spent five quiet years at Horton in Buckinghamshire, reading and writing. To this period belong L'Allegro and Il Penseroso, Arcades, Comus, and Lycidas, all breathing the lofty spirit of his religious convictions. In 1638 and 1639 he traveled on the continent, coming into contact with such men as Grotius, Galileo, and Lucas Holete (q.v.), but was recalled by a rumor of the outbreak of the armed struggle for liberty at home. The next twenty years of his life were devoted almost entirely to prose work in the service of the Puritan cause. In 1641 and 1642 appeared his tractates Of Reformation touching Church Discipline in England, Of Prelatical Episcopacy, the two defenses of Smectymnuus, and The Reason of Church Government Urged against Prelaty. With frequent passages of real eloquence lighting up the rough controversial style of the period, and with a wide knowledge of ecclesiastical antiquity, he struck weighty blows at the intolerant High-church party which seemed to dominate the Church of England. The ill-success of his first marriage, with the daughter of a Royalist squire in Oxfordshire, who left him in a month, led him to write four tracts dealing with divorce, the first entitled The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce, attacking the English marriage law as it had been taken over almost unchanged from medieval Catholicism, and sanctioning divorce on the ground of incompatibility or childlessness. His intercourse with Hartlib and Comenius led him to write (1644) a short tract on Education, urging a reform of the national universities; and in the same year appeared the most popular of his prose writings, Areopagitica, a Speech for the Liberty of Unlicensed Printing. The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates (1649) announced his adhesion to the cause of the Commonwealth, to which he was made Latin secretary in March. As part of his duties in this post, he wrote his Eikonoklastes (1649) in reply to the Eikon basilike popularly attributed to Charles I., the first Pro populo Anglicano defensio (1651) against Salmasius, and in 1654 his Defensio secunda and Pro se defensio; and his fine Latin style was of great avail for the drafting of the state papers which passed between Cromwell's government and the continent. His incessant labors cost him his eyesight, but he retained his office until the Restoration. He then lived in retirement, devoting himself once more to poetical work, and publishing Paradise Lost in 1667, the epic by which he attained universal fame, to be followed by the much inferior Paradise Regained, together with Samson Agonistes, a drama on the Greek model, in 1671.
Milton's religious position, partially expressed in
the treatises named above and in his Civil Power in
Ecclesiastical Causes and Considerations touching
the Likeliest Means to Remove Hirelings out of
the Church (1659), is most clearly seen in his
posthumous De doctrine Christiana, the
manuscript of which, long lost, was discovered only
in 1823.
His point of view is entirely subjective
and individualistic; his faith is deduced from
Scripture by the inner illumination of the Spirit,
not tied to human traditions. It is not therefore
surprising to find him taking his own view on the
Trinity, the divinity of Christ and the Holy Ghost,
predestination, the creation of the world, etc., as
also in regard to practical questions such as
marriage, infant baptism, and the observance of
Sunday.
What he attempts to give is not a complete
[The figures enclosed in parentheses in the following summaries give for purposes of comparison the corresponding data of the Protestant Missions, or, as the author prefers to designate them. "Evangelical," as objectionable term in its implications, though frequently used sad appropriate if properly defined.)
I. Introduction: According to the Roman Catholic conception, the missionary task consists in the Catholicizing of non-Catholic peoples, while Protestants understand by it the Christianizing of nonChriatians. In conformity with this view, this treatment will deal with the work of Roman Catholics among the heathen. It is, however, difficult to carry out this distinction, since efforts are made in the missionary fields not only occasionally to convert Europeans, but also to draw over native Evangelical converts to the Roman Catholic Church [the counterpart to the Protestant propagandaj. Those who are expelled or are dissatisfied furnish a welcome excuse for this work, and an excessive lenity toward unchristian customs serves as a temptation. It therefore happens that among the Roman Catholic converts from heathenism, many are counted who are gathered from Evangelical missions. Besides the Congregation de propaganda fide in Rome, where all the threads of the widely diffused Roman missions are brought together, there are in the different Roman Catholic countries
Survey of Missionary Organisations Summary ($ 6). The Evangelical Missionary Fields. America. The Arctic Regions (¢ 1). British North America (¢ 2). United States (¢ 3). West Indies (§ 4). Central and South America (4 b). Africa. Central Asia. British India. Non-British UpperTndis. Malay Archipelago. Chins. Korea. Japan. Oceania. Conclusions. Methodology of Missions. The Purpose of Missions (§ i). Ends to be Attained (§ 2). Auxiliaries Employed (f 3). The Movement for Immediate Evangelization (14). The True Method ($ 5).missionary societies. Thus there is the Xavier Society or Society for the Propagation of Faith, founded in 1822 in Lyons; branch societies exist in most Roman Catholic countries. The journal of the society, the " Year Book," appears in various languages. The contributions reach the sum of from one and a quarter to one and a half million dollars annually. Others are the Society of Foreign Missions (Paris, 1820); the Leopoldinische Stiftung (Vienna, 1829); the Society of Holy Childhood (Paris, 1843) for the rescue of heathen children, who are baptized when in danger of death. In fifty years, twelve million children were baptized (mostly in China) and sixteen and one-half million dollars were expended by the society. Missionary seminaries exist in Paris, Lyons, Milan, Verona and Rome. England also has one: St. Joseph of Mill Hill. The seminary at Steyl, Holland, is principally for the education of German missionaries. Recently several mission homes have been founded in Germany to provide for the German colonies. The greater number of missionaries come, however, from the congregations, many of which serve the heathen mission exclusively; for instance, the Congregation of the Sacred Heart of Mary (1841; later combined with that of the Holy Spirit); the Mariate in Lyons and Paris; the Congregation of Picpus (Congregation of the Sacred Heart of Jesus and Mary); the order of the Oblates of the Immaculate Conception of Mary; in Algiers, the Fathers of the Holy Spirit (called the White Fathers); in Paris, the Lazarists. The old orders also-Dominicans, Franciscans (Minorites), Capuchins, Carmelites, and othersshare in the work. Many of these orders have special missionary fields assigned to them, and have their procurators with the Propaganda. Others assume an auxiliary position, in thatathey supply the missions with lay brothers in great numbers for teaching, the care of the sick, work of civilization, and similar tasks. Many female orders work in this manner and send out hosts of sisters as missionaries.
town, Conn. (A.B., 1873), the school of theology attached to Boston University (B.D., 1876), and the University of Leipsic (Ph.D., 1879). He was then pastor of the church of his denomination at Fayette,
MITHRA, MITHRAISM.
Interest in Mithraism is not attributable merely to the fact that it is a rediscovery of comparatively recent date. Two other reasons give the subject importance: (1) This religion contested with Christianity for the religious hegemony of the Roman world more closely than any other of the pagan cults in the syncretism which marked the religious practise of the later Roman empire. Renan says of it, and without exaggeration: “We may say that if Christianity had been arrested in its growth by some mortal malady, the world would have been Mithraistic .
Mithra was originally an Indo-Iranian deity. In the Vedas he appears as one of the Adityas, a light-deity commonly invoked with Varuna, but later giving way to Savitar. He was a guardian of truth, fidelity, and justice. In Zoroastrianism Mithra was very important. He was one of the Yazatas or lofty genii of the religion, second in age and honor only to Ahura Mazda the Supreme, and is often put on an equality with him. How prominent his part was in Mazdaism may be seen from the fact that in the Avesta the second and longest of the Yasts, the Mihir Yast, is in his praise, and to him the Mihir Nyayis is dedicated (SBE, xxiii. 119-158, 353-355). Here, too, he is a light-god, while his attributes appear in the Avesta as follows (a single passage only for each attribute is cited). He is lord of the country side (Fargard, i. 1) and of wide pastures (Sirozah, i. 7), having 100 ears and 10,000 eyes (Sirozah, i. 16); his club strikes the demons (Khorshad Yast, 5); he makes the world grow (Farvardin Yast, 18); has piercing rays (Afrin Paighambar Zartust, 6), possesses full knowledge, is strong, sleepless, was made by Ahura the most glorious of all gods, “Mithra and Ahura,
3. Development and Diffusion of Mithraism.
The first step in the development of Mithraism as an independent religion was the carrying of the cult to Babylon, the winter capital of the empire. It there encountered the philosophical theologizing of the Babylonian priests, who identified Mithra with Shamash (see BABYLONIA, VII., 2, § 4), and welded to Mithra’s story the mythology in which Babylonia was so rich. In addition to this there was ingrafted the mythology of the zodiac and shreds of Babylonian astrolatry, and this all came to have a large part in the symbolism of Mithraism. Into Armenia the faith was carried, and thence into Asia Minor, where, after the division of the empire of Alexander, Mithra became the favorite deity. It was probably at this period, 250-100 B.C., that the Mithraic system of ritual and doctrine took the form which it afterward retained. Here it came into contact with the mysteries, of which there were many varieties, among which the most notable were those of Cybele. Cumont attributes the development of the mysteries to the habit in Persia of transmitting from father to son the essentials and secrets of ritual. But if this be the origin, there is left unaccounted for the markedly sodalistic or fraternity character of the Mithraic communities. The worshipers in each mithræum were a small body, limited in membership, and the ensemble was much like that of a modern lodge. When it is remembered that the period 300 B.C.-100 A.D. was the one marked by a renascence of that curious feature of savage life, the mysteries, and that Asia Minor was the source from which the movement in the Roman and Greek world emanated, it seems more probable that the new cult took this form under the influences then and there so active, and that in this way the then fluent mass of Mithraic belief and practise took permanent form. The spirit of identification which had helped so in Babylon was employed in the new home. Mithra and Helios were identified, while Anahita, the Persian companion of Mithra, to whom the bull was sacred, was regarded as Artemis Tauropolos. These facile accommodations conciliated the populace, the element of secrecy and the grades or orders of the initiates added to the charm, while the belief that in the mysteries access was granted to the fabled wisdom of the East was one more element in favor of the religion. But the great triumphs of Mithraism were not won east of the religion, even Greece was wholly inhospitable; it was in the Roman world where success was to be gained. The story of the transition thither is almost that of romance. Among the people of Asia Minor the Cilicians were possibly the most devoted Mithraists. In their ambition they presumed to dispute with the Romans the control of the seas, and this brought upon them the force of Roman arms and the consequent conquest by the Romans of the “Cilician pirates” Among the immediate results of this was the initiation of Roman soldiers into the mysteries—it must not be forgotten that the cult of Mithra appealed especially to the soldier, and one of the ranks in the mysteries was that of miles or “soldier.” To this was due the introduction of the mysteries into the army, and the army was the principal of three methods by which Mithraism passed into the Roman world. The successive wars of the Romans in the East brought the
4. Mythology and Theology
The four elements, fire, water, earth, and air—the first and third typified by the lion and the serpent—were deified and worshiped. So, too, the sun, moon and planets were objects of regard. Babylonian influence wove into Mithraism its theories of the control by each of the planets of one day in the week, and with each a metal was associated, while the signs of the zodiac, which take creation under their influence, marked the devotions of the months in their turn. In the background as the primal cause which created and governed all things was Kronos, Unending Time, figured as a lion-headed human figure with four wings, sexless and passionless, his legs and body in the embrace (sometimes sixfold) of a serpent (representing the motion of the sun in the ecliptic), the head of which rested on his head. The figure carried a key, a scepter, and a torch, while the insignia of other deities (the thunderbolt of Zeus, the hammer and tongs of Hephæstus, the cock and cone of Æsculapius) were arranged about it to indicate that Kronos embodied the qualities of all the gods. He was fate, destiny, supreme cause, the ultimate creator. The dualism inherent in the parent religion continued its theoretic influence, leading to constant need for interposition by the savior, the part assumed by Mithra, who was called mesites, “mediator,” first because he inhabited the air, midway between heaven and earth, on account of which the sixteenth of each month was sacred to him; and, second, because he was middleman between the ineffable, unknowable, and unapproachable god and the race of men. In many of the monuments of Mithraism appear two torch-bearers, interpreted as the double incarnation of Mithra, with himself forming a triad or triple Mithra. One of these, with torch erect, symbolized the growing sun and life; Mithra himself, in the center, was the sun at noon and the vigor of life; the other torch-bearer, with torch inverted, was the declining sun and death. Mithra himself is pictured in the mythology as born of the rock, and the sculptured representation of this event, common in the mithræums, showed him issuing from the living rock with knife and torch in his hands. It was then his task to demonstrate his invincible strength, and his first trial was against the sun, whom he vanquished, then crowned with the rayed crown and made his faithful ally. His next labor was with the bull, and this became the central point in the Mithraic myth, the portrayal of which furnished the set piece in Mithraic art which corresponds to the cross or the crucifix in Christian art. The bull was the first creature made by Ormuzd. It was caught and mastered after a severe struggle, and dragged by Mithra to his cave, whence it escaped. But Mithra was commanded to pursue and sacrifice it, which the pitying god reluctantly did; then from its body sprang all useful herbs, from its spinal marrow wheat, from its blood the grape which furnished the wine used in the mysteries, and from the seminal fluid all useful animals, while its soul became Silvanus, guardian of herds, also a great figure in the mysteries. Thus the death of the bull was the birth of life, and for this reason took its high place in the ceremonial and art of the Mithraic cultus. Meanwhile the first pair had been created and were put under the protection of Mithra. This was necessary because Ahriman was assailing humanity; drought, flood, conflagration, pestilence, and other dangers were met and conquered by Mithra, and then his labors were ended, the conclusion of which was celebrated by a last supper, after which he retired to heaven, whence he still protects his worshipers.
5. Anthropology, Eschatology
But the battle between Ormuzd and Ahriman continues, so far as humanity is concerned. Life is a warfare, and to win, the faithful must ever obey the commands of Ormuzd. What the explicit commands were is not known, but that the Persian ethics persisted is clear. Purity was the end set before man, sensuality was to be avoided; lustrations
That the doctrine always remained pure is of course unlikely. The syncretism has been sufficiently indicated, and it is not unlikely that each district had its own coloring—in Rome Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva were spoken of in the religion, while in Celtic regions Celtic deities appear in the Mithraic crypts. But while syncretism existed, Persian conceptions were the guiding principles.
6. The Mysteries.
The Mithraic liturgy is probably wholly lost, the Mithraic Ritual (London, 1907) issued by
7. Art and Architecture
The Mithraism of the barbaric world no doubt celebrated its mysteries in caves, and this memory was preserved in the fact that the mithræum continued to be an underground structure, in a crypt so fitted up as to be susceptible of an illumination throwing into strong relief the cultic objects. The central representation was the tauroctonous Mithra. The torch-bearers migh