261	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Exile of the Israelites
		Extreme Unction
ferred succeeds when the vacancy occurs. Such
rights first come into notice in the twelfth century.
For the purpose of rewarding deserving clergy and
scholars, but also, especially later, in order to pro
vide an income or a higher income for officials and
favorites of the curia, or to please secular rulers,
the popes began in the period named to ,give letters
of commendation to bishops and chapters regarding
the bestowal of benefices, whether vacant or not.
These soon assumed a mandatory character, and
compliance with them was enforced by special
officials and by the employment of ecclesiastical
censures, the right to issue them having been held
since Innocent III. as a part of the papal powers.
The resistance of the persons regularly entitled to
nominate to such offices brought about the formal
reservation of whole classes of benefices to the pope
(see RESERVATIONS, PAPAL). To the expectancies
described above was added in the fifteenth century
the custom of papal nomination of perpetual coadju
tors with right of succession, either to avoid long
vacancies or contested episcopal elections, or to
assure a see to a member of a particular princely
house, or, especially in tile Reformation period,
to a person of assured loyalty to the papal system.
Besides expectancies conferred by the popes, an
other class came up in the thirteenth century, in
cathedral and collegiate foundations, varying ac
cording to their constitution (see CHAPTER), giving
a right to the first vacancy in a limited chapter,
or (where the number of canons was not limited
but that of prebends was) conferring the title of
canonicus supernumeraries with a right to the first
vacant prebend, or promising both title and prebend
at once. Again, expectancies developed from the
exercise of the jus primariarum precum, according
to which from the thirteenth century the emperors,
the kings of France and England, and later a num
ber of petty German princes and even empresses
and queens of England, claimed the right on their
accession or coronation to request from each en
dowed foundation or monastery in their territory
the assignment of a benefice or position, vacant or
to be vacated, to their nominees. This claim,
based at first on custom, was confirmed by papal
indults, and fell into disuse only at the beginning
of the nineteenth century. Many of these develop
ments were in direct contravention of the ancient
canonical principle which forbade appointments to
ecclesiastical offices before they were vacant, and
even required evasion of the ruling of the Third
Lateran Council of 1179 to the same effect. The
process, however, went on until bishops, founders,
and monasteries were obliged to protect themselves
by special papal indults against the misuse of the
practise. The Council of Trent again forbade all
kinds of expectancies, only allowing the pope to
nominate a coadjutor with right of succession to a
bishop or head of a convent in case of necessity.
This prohibition has, indeed, been interpreted as
referring not to the pope but to other ecclesiastical
dignitaries; but practically, in the altered modern
circumstances, the matter is no longer of impor
tance. The same thing applies to the Protestant
churches of Germany, which at one time allowed
expectancies to exist in the bishoprics and chapters
that became Protestant at the Reformation or the Peace of Westphalia.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. Hinsehius, Kirchenrecht, ii. 65, 69, 84, 255, 474, 639, 65'3, iii. 113, 6 vols., Berlin, 1869‑97; J. H. BShmer, Jus ecclesiasticum protestantium, iii. 8, §§ 9 sqq., 4 vols., Halle, 1756‑63; H. C. de Senekenberg, De jure primarum precum, Frankfort, 1784 ; A. Mayer, Thesaurus noaus juris ecclesiastiei, i. 249, Regensburg, 1791.
EXSUPERIUS (EXUPERIUS), SAINT: Bishop of Toulouse; d. Sept. 28 (?), year not known. His early life is unknown, but from allusions in Jerome's letters (liv. 11, cxix., cxxiii. 16, cxxv. 20) it has been conjectured that in 394 he was a presbyter at Rome; he was bishop of Toulouse in 404, and in 411 was still living. In 406 Jerome dedicated his commentary on Zechariah to him. Jerome pays a glowing tribute to his self‑sacrificing charity during the disturbances in that part of France in 411. From the letters of Pope Innocent I. (Epist., vi.) it appears that in Feb., 405, Exsuperius applied to the pope for advice respecting Biblical and episcopal matters. He completed the basilica of St. Saturninus, begun by his predecessor, Silvius.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: ASS, Sept., vii. 623‑630; Tillemont, Ml;‑
moires, Vol. x.
EXTREME UNCTION.
	I.	In the Roman Catholic Church.
		History (§ 1).
		Doctrine (§ 2).
		Preparation and Administration (§ 3).
II. In the Greek Church.
Extreme unction is one of the minor sacraments of both the Roman and the Greek Churches.
I. In the Roman Catholic Church: Extreme unction is mentioned as the fifth sacrament by Peter Lombard who brings it into close connection with the sacrament of penance. He
	r. History.	uses two passages as Biblical authori
		ties, Mark vi. 13 and Jas. v. 14‑15.
These passages have, however, little to do with the
sacrament as developed in the Church of Rome.
Extreme unction is not often mentioned in the
early Church. Augustine, Chrysostom, and Ire
meus speak of it, but do not treat it as a sacrament.
Oil was, however, frequently used by Christians in
private life, chiefly for the anointing of the sick.
Tertullian, for instance, mentions the healing of
Severna, the father of the Emperor Antoninus, with
oil. Popular superstition soon exploited these ex
periences, and used the oil in the church lamps.
Some bishops, e.g., Chrysostom and Decentius, did
not object, but limited the employment to members
in good standing. Innocent I. also mentions the
anointing of the sick, but not of the moribund; in
case a priest was not available, laymen might per
form the ceremony. Toward the end of the eighth
century extreme unction entered upon a definite
course of development, and was brought into rela
tions with remission of sins; it received, conse
quently, a sacramental character in connection with
penance. The question of the repetition of extreme
unction was raised in the twelfth century. A
popular superstition held that a Christian who,
after participation, had been restored to health was
to be looked upon as one departed: he was not to
touch the ground with bare feet, eat meat, or
cohabit with his wife. When Theodulf of Orl6ans

xxtreme Unction 8zekiel
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
recommended that the anointing should take place in the church, he had not in mind either exclusively or chiefly the application to the moribund. Hugo of St. Victor (Summa aenten.tiarum, vi. 15) was the first theologian to treat extreme unction systematically. He deals, however, only with two questions, the institution and the repetition of the sacrament. From that time on, extreme unction received more detailed attention, particularly by Bonaventura and Thomas Aquinas. The latter treats it from two points of view: (1) the sacrament itself, its effect, matter, and form; (2) its administration and use, the recipients, repetition, and parts to be anointed. The principal features of the sacrament were thus fixed, and received ecclesiastical sanction at the Council of Florence (1439) through Eugene IV., and its final and definite form at the Council of Trent.
Extreme unction was instituted according to Peter Lombard by the apostles, according to Alexander Hales by Christ, according to Bonaventura by the Holy Spirit through the apos2. Doctrine. tles, according to Thomas Aquinas by Christ, but was promulgated by the apostles. The Council of Trent declares that, according to Mark vi. 13, Christ suggested the sacrament, and that James, his brother, promulgated and recommended it. The material which is to be used in extreme unction is olive‑oil consecrated by a bishop: and, according to a decision of Paul V., given in 1655, the oil is not effective unless so consecrated. Gregory XVI. (1842) confirmed and further limited this decision by declaring that not even in case of extreme necessity could a priest consecrate oil for the purpose. The form of the sacrament was settled only after many discussions. With the growing tendency to look upon anointing as sacramental, the form of prayer was changed from the precatory to the declarative, and this was confirmed by the Council of Florence. The specific purpose and effect of extreme unction is somewhat indefinite. The Council of Trent declares that this sacrament completes not only penance, but the whole Christian life. Nevertheless, it does not occupy nearly the important position in the doctrinal system of the Roman Church taken by baptism, the mass, and penance it is merely an annex to the latter sacrament to which it gives the character of preparation for death. A specific effect has never been attributed to it officially. Peter Lombard gives as the purpose the remission of sins and the alleviation of physical infirmity. Albert the Great declares that extreme unction could purify only from the remnants of sin which prevent the entrance of the soul into eternal rest. Thomas Aquinas defines these remnants as a spiritual weakness and lassitude which disqualify man for the full enjoyment of the life of grace and glory, and states that extreme unction is a medicine for both. He speaks of physical healing as a secondary effect, taking place when the primary purpose of the sacrament is not hindered but promoted. Bonaventura, on the other hand, teaches that the specific effect of extreme unction is the remission of venial sins which were completely obviated by this sacrament owing to its strengthening effect upon soul and body.
The Council of Trent repeated all the positive doctrines of the theologians, and added the doctrine of unction with the Holy Spirit as the specific effect. These differences concerning the effect and purpose of extreme unction were unsatisfactory, and attempts were made at greater precision. The Roman Catechism assumes two effects, the remission of venial sins, and the removal of spiritual weakness and of any remaining traces of sin. BelIarmine,finally, attempts a precise definition of the " remnants of sin "; they are mortal or venial sins which man might commit, after penance and the Eucharist; or sins which were not atoned for properly, because sick persons had unwittingly received in an improper manner, and, therefore, without the due effect.
The olive‑oil used in extreme unction is consecrated during the mass on 11laundy Thursday. Each deanery receives a certain amount for distribution among the parishes. The oil which is not used up within a year, is burned in
3• Prepara‑ the sanctuary lamp; if there be danger tion and that the supply will be exhausted
Athninis‑ before the end of the year, small quan‑
	tration.	titles of unconsecrated oil may be
		added. Only a priest or higher dig
nitary may administer this sacrament. Even the
pope can not authorize deacons and laymen to do
so, although Innocent I. implies that they may in
case of necessity. The administrator acts as a
representative of the whole Church; and for this
reason it is desirable that several priests be present
to take part in the ceremony. The regulations
concerning the degree of sickness which entitles a
person to receive the sacrament vary, but agree in
the particular that the probability of recovery is
excluded, and that the recipient must be conscious.
The oil is to be applied to the eyes, ears, hands,
nose, and mouth, and to the abdomen and the feet
of males, but not of females. The sacraments of
penance and of the Eucharist should as a rule
precede extreme unction.
II. In the Greek Church: The usage of the Greek Church differs widely from that of Rome both in methodsof administration andindoctrine. Thereit is simply an anointing of the sick, and its purpose is the restoration of health, physical and spiritual. The place of administration is the church, if possible. The ritual is elaborate, and requires seven priests if they are procurable. The oil is consecrated on each occasion by the senior priest, and each priest repeats the full ceremony while seven selections are read each from the Epistles, Gospels, and collects. On Maundy Thursday the feast of euchelaion (" oil of prayer ") is observed, in which the whole congregation joins and is anointed. The frequent use of the sacrament is recommended.
	The Neatorians never use extreme unction; the
Armenian Church has discontinued l ~it.
(F. i1ATTENBUaCH.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: On the Roman sacrament consult: RL, ix. 712‑725: E. Martbne De antiqau ecekaia•, ritibus i.. chap.
7, Antwerp, 1738; A. J. Binterim, DenkvxArdig,~n, vi.
3, pp. 217 eqq., Mains, 1831; J. C. N. Augusti, i)enk_ %OkeLfen. ix. 455 sqq., Leipaio, 1828; J. H. Blunt,
Sacraments and Sacramental Ordinances London, 1867;
idem. Dictionary of	„al and Historical Theology, pp

958	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	~ kime Qaolrioa
771‑773, ib. 1870; F. Probst, Sakramente and Sakramentalien, pp. 373 sqq., Tiibingen, 1872; J. H. Oswald, Die dogrratische Lehre von den heiligen Sakramenten, ii. 257 sqq., Munster, 1877; M. Heimbucher, Die heilipe Oelung, Regensburg, 1888; P. Schanz, Die Lehre von den heiligen Sakramenten, pp. 639 sqq., Freiburg, 1893; W. E. Addis and T. Arnold, Catholic Dictionary, pp. 363‑366, London, 1903.
For the G•eek Church consult: W. Gass, Svmbolik der priechiechen Kirche, pp. 292 eqq., Berlin, 1872; F. Kattenbuseh, Lehrbuch der verglefichenden Kunleaeionakunde, i. 434 sqq., Freiburg, 1892; A. von Maltzew, Die Sakramente der orthodox‑kalholiachen Kirehe, pp. eoexxtiii. eqq.,,. 450‑553, Berlin, 1898; K. Beth, Die orientalische Chria‑
tenheit der Mittelmeerldnder, pp. 316 sqq., Berlin, 1902.
EYLERT, RUHLEMANN FRIEDRICH: Evangelical bishop of Prussia; b. at Hamm (20 m. s.e. of Munster) Apr. 5, 1770; d. at Potsdam Feb. 8, 1852. After completing his theological education at Halle in 1794, he became pastor in his native town, and in 1806 was appointed preacher to the court and garrison at Potsdam. Eleven years later he became bishop of Prussia and a member of the council of state as well as of the ministry for religion and education. Far more important than 'his official activity, however, was the influence which he exercised on Frederick William III. The development of Eylert was from rationalism toward orthodoxy, although he never reached a sure dogmatic position. He was deeply interested in the agenda and in the movement for union, and remained in active service until his resignation in 1844. Eylert was a prolific writer, his chief works being as follows: Betrachtungen caber die trostvollen Wahrheiten des Christentums bei der letzten Trennung von den Unsrigen (Dortmund, 1803); Homilien iiber die Parabeln Jesu (Halle, 1806); Predigten 4'sber Bediirfnisse unsers Herzens and Verhdltnisse unsers Lebens (1813); Ueber den Wert and die Wirkung der fur die evangelische Kirche beatimmten Liturgie and Agende (Potsdam, 1830); Das gate Werk der Union. (1846); and, above all, Charakterziige and historische Fragmente aus dem Leben Friedrich Wilhelm 111. (3 vols., Magdeburg, 18431846; Eng. transl. Characteristic Traits and Domestic Life of Frederick William III., King of Prussia, by J. Birch, London, 1844). He also collaborated with J. H. B. Daseke in publishing the Magazin von Fest‑, Gelegenheits‑ and anderen Predigten (4 vols., Magdeburg, 1816‑20).
(AUGUST THOLUCKt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Neuer Nekrolog der Deutachen, Weimar, 1852; ADS, vi. 458.
EZEKIEL. I. The Prophet.
II. The Book.
Divisions and Contents (§ 1). Literary Peculi4rities (§ 2).
Symbolic Actions (§ 3).
Other Characteristics (§ 4). Theological Character (§ 5). Relation to the Priest Code (§ 6). L The Prophet: Concerning Ezekiel, the earliest exilic prophet, his book teaches (i. 2, 3, iii. 15, xxix. 17, xl. 1) that he was the son of Buzi, of priestly descent (through the Zadokites), that he lived by the river Chebar not far from Tel‑Abib among the captives whom Nebuchadrezzar had deported with King Jehoiachin, and that he labored there as prophet from the fifth to at least the twenty‑seventh year
of this captivity (593‑571 B.c.). The statement of Josephus (Ant. X., vi. 3) that he was still a boy when carried into captivity is not probable, since he was well acquainted with the temple and its service. The river Chebar must not be confused with the Habor of II Kings xvii. 6, xviii. 11 (the modern Khabur), which empties into the Euphrates (q.v.) near Carchemish, on which the exiles of the Northern kingdom were settled; it must be sought in Babylonia and is probably the canal Kabaru, not far from Nippur. Ezekiel enjoyed the authority of a prophet among the exiles, and they often sought his counsel though it was generally contrary to their desire, and in secret they gave vent to their wrath (ii. 6). He exercised a pastoral care among his people and formed a spiritual center for those who were cut off from their land and its temple (viii. 1, xiv. 1 sqq., xx. 1, xxiv.18, xxxiii. 30‑31).
II. The Book: The prophecy of Ezekiel, the third of the books of the major prophets in the arrangement of the English Version, was no doubt put in systematic form by the prophet himself; it divides into two main parts which correspond to the two periods in which Ezekiel prophesied. The first (i.‑xxiv.) closes with the beginning of the
siege of Jerusalem by Nebuchadrezzar :. Divi‑ (588 B.c.); the second (xxxiii.‑xlviii.)
sions and begins after the destruction of the
Contents. city (586 B.c.). The interval is filled
in by prophecies against foreign nations not arranged in strict chronological order (xxv.‑xxxii.). Each main part opens with utterances upon the importance and responsibility of Ezekiel's office. The contents vary in a characteristic manner. As long as Jerusalem was standing, the announcement of coming judgment predominated; what had been God's kingdom was to fall utterly; when that had come to pass, the work of reconstruction was to begin. " While in the first half Ezekiel buried the material hope of Israel, which rested on the continued existence of Jerusalem and the Temple, in the second he rebuilt in spirit land and people, city and temple " (Klostermann). Pronouncement of judgment on the worldnations formed the transition to the establishment of the theocracy in Israel; the episode belongs therefore to the second part.
The literary peculiarities of Ezekiel's book are connected with his position as an exile during its composition. He differed from the earlier prophets, even from his older contemporary Jeremiah, by being removed from the actual theater of history, thus being denied an immediate influence in the
developments of his time, and this 2. Literary affected the form of his oral and writ‑
Peculiari‑ ten speech. His prophecies were no ties. casual addresses to fit passing events,
but were worked out in quiet meditation and prepared with literary art, for which he had an evident liking. Not that the short, striking, oracular utterance is wholly wanting; but Ezekiel more often discusses his subject at leisure and his deliverance develops deliberately before his prophetic eye (compare the detailed description of his first vision‑chap. i.‑with the brief sketch of the similar vision in Isa. vi.). He is not satisfied with

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
Ezekiel
a few characteristic strokes, but rather aims at a perfect picture which affects the spectator less by its immediate power and warmth than by its grandeur and harmonious finish. The frequency of the visions attests also his inclination toward quiet meditation. That he could not come into immediate contact with the concrete objects may, furthermore, have helped to cause the figurative descriptions which are peculiar to him. His contemporaries complained of his figurative speech (xx. 49), and the enigmatie character of his writing has always tried the patience of Jewish as well as Christian interpreters, while it has yielded the richer material to mysticism. Figurative utterance is found in Ezekiel in various forms‑now as simple metaphor, now approaching the parable (xv.; xxii. 18 sqq.), now as true allegory (xvii.). He delights especially in personifying nations and countries or in representing them under the image of animal or plant. Thus he portrays Judah (Jerusalem) and Samaria as prostitutes (xvi., xxiii. 1 sqq.); the house of David as a lion's den (xix. 1 sqq.), or a vine (xix. 10 sqq.; cf. xvii. 6), or a cedar (xvii. 3); Egypt as a cedar (xxxi. 3 sqq.), or a crocodile (xxxii. 1 sqq.); the Chaldean power as a great eagle full of feathers of diverse colors (xvii. 3). After giving the meaning of his cryptic utterances, he again takes up the allegoric form. He shows himself a master in describing the great and sublime, and some portions of his book are specimens of the most beautiful and the most tender lyric poetry‑e.g., the elegies, characteristic of him as of Jeremiah, in which he laments the lot of the foreign powers (xix. 1 sqq., xxvi. 17 sqq., xxvii. 2 sqq., xxviii. 12 sqq., xxxii. 2 sqq.). To consider Ezekiel only a writer, however, who did not actually deliver his addresses, is not admissible; but it is true that the written form was of special importance to him, particularly as his spoken words could benefit only a small part of his people.
Once again, Ezekiel's position, his exclusion from all share as an active participant in the events of his time, was accountable for the symbolic actions with which he accompanied his discourses and made them impressive. His whole person was called on to serve his oracles in most varied pantomime. Dumbness (iii. 26), motionless constraint
(iv. 4‑8), eating and drinking (iv. 9 3. Symbolic sqq.), cutting of the hair (v. 1 sqq.),
Actions. stamping with the foot and clapping
of hands (vi. 11), sighing (xxi. 11), and trembling (xii. 17) were all made " signs." What happened to the prophet was emblematic of the fate of his people (xxiv. 14 sqq.); in his own person he represented also that of his king (xii. 3 sqq.). Partly because of the triviality of such symbolic signs it has been denied that they were actually employed, and they have been regarded as mere literary devices. But considering Oriental skill in interpreting such symbols and the readiness of the Israelites to attach importance to the acts of a prophet, actual performance is the more natural assumption, though vii. 23 and xxiv. 3‑5 are probably parables. In other cases a mere recital of what happened to the prophet would have lacked significance and contributed little as illustration.
264
But what an impression it must have made when people found him in the condition described in iv. 1 sqq. with hostile look directed for weeks on Jerusalem and with arm uplifted against itl The picture was a most eloquent epitome of the fate of the city. Klostermann attempts to make the long immobility of the prophet more intelligible by finding here the symptoms of severe catalepsy. Dumbness, indeed, seems to have been imposed on the prophet, to judge from expressions which can not be referred to mere silence (cf. iii. 26‑27, xxiv. 27). Such a disease might be considered a means rod‑ordained for prophetic purposes.
To the solemnly ceremonial style of Ezekiel belongs also the stereotyped recurrence of certain solemn formulas. The sayings are generally introduced by " thus saith the Lord Yahweh " (117 times according to Zunz) or ` the
¢. Other word of Yahweh came unto me."
Character‑ The prophet is always addressed by
	istics.	God and the angels with the elsewhere
		unusual name " son of man "; and
many other recurring phrases give the book a
uniform cast. Like Jeremiah, Ezekiel draws fre
quently from former prophets. His muse is in
spired by the entire sacred literature of the past,
especially by the " Mosaic " law, but also by sacred
history and tales of prehistoric times (cf., e.g., Gen.
ii. 8 and Ezek. xxviii. 13; Gen. i. 28 and Ezek.
xxxvi. l l ). Beside this is his artistic realism, which
everywhere produces concrete forms from the
material furnished by the historical, archeological,
and literary store of the theocracy. He was no
mere " scholar," as he has been called, but rather a
creative genius who made his knowledge of the
past useful for new ideas. His sentences are in
volved, often diffuse, and his language is more
Aramaized than that of Jeremiah; but the clumsi
ness of expression in Ezekiel's book is partly due
to corruption of the text, which in many passages
can be corrected from the Septuagint.
Passing to the spiritual significance and theological character of Ezekiel , he has marked points of contact with Jeremiah, who remained in Jerusalem. Both declare with all emphasis the destruction of the Jewish commonwealth to be unavoidable and near at hand, destroying relentlessly the illusory hopes of the patriots and strongly condemning the fraudulent policy of the princes who were trafficking with Egypt. The Levitical character of Ezekiel's prophecies, which portray the city of
g. Theo‑ God and its cultus under a new
logical	regime and in its details, springs from
	Character.	his sacerdotal education and dispo
		sition. The Levitical side of Ezekiel
in recent times has been exaggerated in two ways.
In the first place it is asserted that he was the
originator of the priestly legislation with its taber
nacle, its orders of sacrifices and priests. In the
second place he is charged with having pushed aside
or destroyed by his formulas and outward injunc
tions the free ethical religion of the prophets, be
coming the father of the bigoted postexilic Judaism
and Pharisaism. It is true that for Ezekiel, as for
the Mosaic law, external order and ethical com
munion with God are inseparably connected. He

886	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
	regards it as highly important that the holiness of
God be preserved by the ceremonial purity of his
ministers and by the exclusion of the profane.
But chap. xviii., which exhibits Ezekiel's ethics,
	puts beside the first command, to worship God
	only, the other which is like unto it, to love one's
	neighbor, and emphasizes the truth that every one
	is judged by God according to his personal conduct.
	A parallel passage is found in xiv. 14 eqq. But how
	little the prophet expected salvation from mere
	formal fulfilment of commandments is shown by
	xi. 19‑20, xxxvi. 26‑27; complete obedience is
	the result of a new heart written over with God's
	law, which the Lord is to give with a new spirit (of.
	Jer. xxxi. 33), so that regeneration and sanctificar
	tion appear as God's work. With Ezekiel the
	glory of God was the highest good. The people's
	misfortune was a just punishment for great guilt.
	Future salvation, however, was to come not be
cause of man's merit (xxxvi. 22), but for the sake
	of God's name. This sovereign God was not
	arbitrary or cruel; his will purposed the conversion
	and life, not the destruction, of his sinful people
	(xxxiii. 11). The awakening of the congregation to
new life is exhibited in a hopeful allegory (xxxvii.).
	The Davidic royalty was again to be established.
	David, the servant of the Lord, i.e., a future heir
	of the mind and power of David, was to rule his
	entire people in the name of his God (xvii. 22 eqq.,
	xxxiv. 23, xxxvii. 24). Ezekiel does not stop
	with the portrayal of a favored ruler from this
	family; he describes in detail a last attack by the
	heathen world upon the law of Yahweh already
	announced by former prophets. In this whole
	delineation the relation to Joel is to be observed
	(of. C. v. Orelli, Die zw6l j Heinen Propheten,
	Munich, 1896, p. 43). The closing vision (xl.‑xlviiL)
has no connection with these other prophetical
	utterances. The description of the new temple is
not merely a sketch for its reestablishment. The
seer is raised above existing conditions. On the
	other hand, his sketch and his arrangement are well
	considered and are so clear that one can as easily
	make a sketch of Ezekiel's as of Solomon's temple.
The question of the priority of Ezekiel to the
Priest Code reenters here. Popper and Graf, break
	ing with tradition, declared the conception of the
	Mosaic tabernacle (Ex. xxvi.‑xxvii. and xxxvi.
	xxxvii.) to be later than Ezekiel's picture of the
	temple and they are followed by most of the
critics. There are some; however, who with equal
confidence advocate the preexilic origin of the
Priest Code. A close relationship exists between
		the earlier addresses of Ezekiel and
	6. Relation the so‑called Law of Holiness (Lev.
	to the Priest xvii.‑xxvi.). Graf and Kayser con‑
	Code.	sider the prophet the author of the
		latter, which Klostermann has ex
haustively shown to be wrong. He prefers to
consider this law a kind of catechism in use
among the exiles, which the prophet also followed.
Bantwh also, though following Graf in the main,
comes to the conclusion that a large part of the
Law of Holiness was prior to Ezekiel and was used
by him as a basis of his discourses. This being
admitted, the same should also hold good for the
rest. Otherwise it would be difficult to explain how later men imitated the prophet's style, but boldly opposed his revelations. Baudissin by an impartial comparison arrives at an essential affirmation of the priority of the Law of Holiness and the Priest Code (apart from Lev. xvi. which may be a later interpolation). Dillmann considers the Law of Holiness as much older than Ezekiel, which however (especially Lev. xxvi.) was revised during the exile with the use of Ezekiel's utterances. The main argument for the opposite view is found in xliv. 6‑13, according to which only the Levitical priests of the house of Zadok are the priests proper; the Levites, however, who had worshiped in the high places, were to perform the lower functions. Here may be perceived the first distinction between classes of Levitos. In Deuteronomy such a difference does not exist; the door to the sanctuary at Jerusalem was open for the priests of the high places (Deut. xviii. 6 sqq.). In the Priest Code, however, the sharp distinction between priests and Levites is traced back to Moses; Ezekiel stood between. But it must be remembered that Ezekiel nowhere stated in what respects the new temple was to resemble the present or differ from it. But he certainly censures as a transgression of the covenant, and as a breach of Mosaic order that strangers should perform the lower temple services. This supposes that that order provided for other temple servants, no doubt Levitical (see Lxv1, Lavrm). Another obvious difference is that Ezekiel does not mention the high priest. But from this it can not be certainly inferred that the prophet did not know the office and that in the preexilic period a head of the priesthood did not exist. History proves the contrary. His silence may be explained from the same point of view as the fact that in place of the preexilic king he puts a modest prince (xliv. 3 sqq.). It is possible that xxi. 26 sqq. is an afterthought, where it is acid: "Remove the diadem, and take off the crown." The prophet presupposes an ancient ordinance traced back to Moses (xx. 10‑11, xliv. 7‑8), according to which he reforms depraved practise, but with prophetical liberty he is not afraid to change ordinances to prevent future abuses or to give a purer expression to the spiritual idea. That Mosaic ordinance is nothing else than the Priest Code, whose directions Ezekiel intensifies in many points in the interest of the holiness of God. It is therefore untenable that he is the lawgiver who created this legislation. It must not be forgotten that he established neither a complete code nor one serving for an immediate use; as a teacher of the Mosaic law he could therefore move more freely in order to emphasize those thin which served his prophetic purpose.
C. VON ORELld.
BIRLIOGRAPHr: The best text is by S. Baer, with Aeeyriolocal notes by Friedrich Delitzsch, Leipei0. 1888, of. C. H. Toy in 3BOT, 1899. Commentaries are by H. Ewald, G6ttingen, 1841; F. Hitzig, Leipaie, 1847; P. Fairbaim, Edinburgh, 1861; E. W. Hengetanberg, Berlin, 1867, Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1869; C. F. Kell, Leipeuc, 1888; E. Henderson, Edinburgh, 1870; G. Curry, in Bible Commentary, vol. vi., London, 1876; R. Smend, Leipeic, 1880; C. von Orelli, Munich, 1896; A. B. David. son, in Cambridge BiW 1892; J. Skinner, in Expositor's Bibls. London, 1896; A. Berthokt, T9bingen, 1897; R.

Ezion‑Qeber
Bzra and Nehemiah
Kraetzechmar, GSttingen, 1900; P. Schmalzl, Vienna, 1901; C. M. Cobem, New York, 1901; H. A. RedPath, London, 1907. For questions of criticism consult' C. H. Cornill, Das Buch des Propheten Ezechie4 LeiPsic, 1888; H. Graetz, Ennendationes, vol. ii., Breslau, 1893; D. H. Miiller, EzechieGStudien, Berlin 1894; T. K. Cheyne, in Crit%ca Bablroca, London, 1903. Various phases are treated in: J. J. Balmer‑Rinek, Des Propheten Ezechiel Gesieht room Tempel,, Basel, 1858; B. B6nteeh, Das Heiligkeiteoeeetz. Erfurt, 1893; A. Bertholet, Der Ver/assunpsentwur/ des Hesekiel, Freiburg, 1898. More personal are C. H. Cornill, Der Prophet Ezechiel, Heidelberg, 1882; H. Meulenbelt, De Predikang van den profet Ezekiel, Utrecht, 1888; L. Gautier, La Mission du prophke tztchsel, Lausanne, 1891. Consult also DB, i. 814‑820; EB, ii.1450‑72.

EZION‑GEBER (EZIOft‑GABER). See EL&T8.
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
EZRA.

His Powers as a Royal Commissioner (I 1).
His Principal Acts and Methods (§ 2).
His Joint Activity with Nehemiah ($ 3).
Apposition and Final Success (4 4)•
	Ezra, poatexilic leader of the Jews and lawgiver,
was through his ancestor Seraiah (II Kings xxv.
lS) connected with the Aaronic line (Ezra vii.
5)• Doubtless this relationship induced him to
acquire that familiarity with the law of Mows by
reason of which he is called " a ready scribe "
(verse 6), which can mean only that he had so
mastered its principles and provisions that he was
able to give answers on points submitted for his
decision. It was Ezra's purpose to bring this law
into authoritative application to practical life, a
		thing which could be done only in the
	z. His independent community in Judea.
Powers as a He therefore put himself diligently to
Royal Com‑ the study of the law so as to set forth
	missioner. in Israel what belonged to duty and
		order. Evidently Ezra had gained in
the senate of the Diaspora a position of authority
as an expert in the written law like that which
Zadok had gained under other conditions as a
priest‑prophet (II Sam. xv. 27). It was only
through the authority thus gained as the one man
acquainted with the law that he could urge the
king (Artaxerxes L) to grant him his mission,
which had to do with political as well as religious
conditions. So that he was commissioned to " in
quire concerning Judah and Jerusalem " (Ezra
vii. 14), and "to appoint magistrates and judges"
(verse 25) and to execute judgment upon all who
were disobedient to the law of God and of the
king (verse 26). He was also commissioned to
carry the royal gifts and those of the nobility
and to draw from the king's treasury other sums
up to a specified limit for the reestablishment
of the temple service. Such powers are conceiv
able only in case he was recognized as the trusted
representative of the Jews regarded as a religious
community apart from the state. This relation
influenced the permission of the king for all Jews
who wished to accompany Ezra on the return to
Jerusalem. But the religious aide of his mission moat
concerned Ezra, and by this he was so engaged
that he refused to ask an escort from the king (viii.
22). When he arrived at Jerusalem (458 s.c.) he
appeared not only se the king's representative;
he was the leader of a reenforcement of the Jewish
community amounting to 1,600 males and the means of bringing rich gifts. So that his coming meant the material strengthening of the Jewish commonwealth and the conveyance of the king's favor. The way in which he went to work demonstrated that he was concerned not to act according to arbitrary and selfish ends, but was there to follow the recognized order of procedure.
The record of the doings of Ezra after his coming to Jerusalem given by himself possesses great accuracy and completeness, as even the mutilated Hebrew text indicates. He evidently delivered the gifts of the king to the appointed authorities, and the firman of permission to the Persian representatives in the land. There are traces also of a census of the Jews already settled
s. His there, for his next teak was to investiPrincipal gate the condition of the Jews as a
Acts and community. The first discovery was
	Methods.	that the practise of intermarrying
		with the heathen round about had
been so common that it had invaded even the
priestly families. It is characteristic of the man
that he did not deal with this matter as the repre‑
sentative of royal authority but as a religious leader, reminding them of their duty to the God who was recalling the nation from death to a renewed life. His pleadings were effectual, and the
local leaders of the people were induced to join with him in the movement to purify the community from the evil into which it had fallen. A commission was created to look after the matter, and the business was completed within three months (Ezra ix. 1x. 17).
It is a matter of regret that neither in the memoirs of Ezra nor in the words of the author is there any information concerning the twelve years between the event last narrated and the coming of Nehemiah. On the one aide it is clear that the man whose mission was to restore to honor the house of God and who had brought with him a host of those expert in the direction of the services would not be a laggard in the matter of the g. His joint organization of affairs so important Activitywith to the community and in attempting
	Nehemiah.	to bring the practise of the people into
		accord with the religious ideals. In
accordance with the commands given him, he found
as a prime necessity the awakening in the commu
nity .of the sense that the norms of conduct were
expressed in the law. On the other hand it is
admitted that it was after Nehemiah had come
from the king as a prince and with military escort,
had with strong hands seized the reins of direction
and had overborne the opposition which developed, that the full achievement of the desires of Ezra was accomplished. The explanation of this doubtless is that Ezra purposely abstained from appealing to his own authority and from decreeing and ordaining the changes which he wished to bring about by awakening the popular conscience. Another
side of the explanation is the opposition which was naturally aroused on the side of the heathen, and of a part of the community itself. The very rigor of the separation enforced between Jews and heathen did much to sharpen the opposition and

967	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
		Ms and Xehenniah
even to strengthen the enemy. It is not improbable that the attempt to stop the building of the walls of Jerusalem which was denounced as the antecedent of political revolt had some connection with the reform in the marriage customs of the Jews. And the reports of Nehemiah have something to say about a secret agreement of priests and Levites with the opponents and of an antipathy which bad been aroused. It is indeterminable whether under the stress of opposition and hindrance
4. Opposi‑ Ezra was temporarily absent from tion and Jerusalem, or whether he definitely
Final limited himself to the service of those Success. whose allegiance came willingly until the arrival of Nehemiah, or whether these two men had come to an understanding as to the methods to be employed. At any rate, it is clearly stated that Ezra and Nehemiah were united in the work of the restoration of the law at the celebration referred to in Neh. viii. 8 sqq. It was only after repeated effort that the law‑book was established (in 444 B.C.) as the authoritative guide of the people in the feast lasting seven days, which is recorded in Neh. viii.‑x. The one thing which stands out is that Ezra's recourse was not to force and authority, but he awaited, as did Zerubbabel and Joshua, the voluntary submission of the community to the demands of the law itself. And in the institution of the law as the norm of action, he created a close bond between the home community and the Jewish diaspora. Whoever considers with unprejudiced mind the reports by Ezra and about him can not doubt that for him and his companions and for the circle to whom he came, the book of the law, considering its full effect, must have been an authority of long standing. The citations which appear in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah and the references in the prayers establish that what is there adduced is practically the Pentateuch. But even that the Pentateuch was not wholly in its present form in the time of Ezra is disclosed, according to some scholars, by the tax of the half shekel of Ex. xxx. 13 which must belong to a later time than the third of a shekel of Neh. ix. 33. It is to be noticed, however, that a difference should be made between the desires and the possibilities of an oppressed people, which may account for the earlier tax.
Out of the curiously embellished recollection of the epoch‑making service of the real Ezra and from the fact that after the time of Ezra and Nehemiah the Jews and Samaritans remained strictly separate communities, and that the Samaritans possessed the law in the old character while the Jews had it in the square character, many of the statements concerning the traditional form of the books of the law have originated. Some of these attribute the newer form to Ezra, others to Ezra and the Great Synagogue, who affixed the punctuation (Neh. viii. 8), and others assert that since the law had been forgotten by the Jews Ezra had come from Babylon and reestablished it de novo.
(A. KLOsTE$MANN.)
BIHLI0u6APHr: Consult, besides the literature given under
	ELRA AND NEHEMIAH, BOOKS OF, DB, i. 820‑821; BB, ii.
	1473‑78; JR, v. 821 eqq.
		IV.‑17
EZRA AND NEHEMIAH~ BOOKS OF.
I. Transmission of the Text.	The Corrections Traced
1. The Arabic Version. 	to Their Source (§ 2).
Ears Based on the Septu‑	4. The Latin Version.
	agint (§ 1). 	5. The Hebrew Text.
Nehemiah a Revised Syr‑ II. Composition of the Books.
		iac (§ 2).	Analysis of the Books
2. The Syriac Version.		(§ 1).
3. The Greek Version.	The Sources Employed
	Its Fidelity to the Hebrew		(§ 2).
		(§ 1)	The Author's Purpose
				(¢ 3).
L Transmission of the Text.‑1. TheArabic Version: In the London Polyglot the two books bear the title " First and Second Books of Ezra the Priest," and there are indications that the two books were translated by different hands. This is substantiated by the fact that Ezra was translated from the Septuagint and Nehe‑
1. Ezra miah from the Syriac. AB a result,
Based on the text is untrustworthy. But while the Septna‑misunderstanding of the basal text fit' is frequent and mistakes are numerous, it is clear that the Septuagint was by the translator regarded as authoritative, especially the recension represented by the Alexandrine and Vatican codices, particularly by the former.
The text of Nehemiah is much shortened, and that this is not due to gaps in the exemplar before the translator is shown by his especial dislike for the lists of names; e.g., Neh. vii. 6‑72 is omitted for the stated reason that it duplicates Ezra ii., and for the names given after Pashhur (Neh. x. 3) to xii. 27 he substitutes " and the remainder of their company," and similar omissions occur in the lists of the builders in chap. iii. as also in chap. xii.
2. Nehe‑ 33‑34, 41. The traces of origin from miah a Re‑ the Syriac are exceedingly numerous, vised
consisting not merely in the transference of renderings peculiar to that version but in construction and arrangement and in misunderstanding of the original text. To these must be added the fact that the Arabic has errors which can be explained only from a misreading or misunderstanding of the Syriac. Yet it must be remarked that in the passages in Nehemiah which have parallels in Ezra, the Arabic translator of the former was influenced by the Arabic of the latter.
While the principal dependence of the translator of Nehemiah was the Syriac, there are evidences also of other influences. This is shown by the form the name Geshem takes in ii. 13, by the departure from the Syriac text in the corrupt passage iv. 23, by agreement with the Septuagint against the Syriac in vi. 18, by the late form of the word " Siloam " in iii. 15; by the probability that " Bethlehem " in iii. 14 is derived from the Greek Bethacham (for Hebr. BethrHakkarem), and by the fact that in xii. 39"strong‑gate" (for Hebr. " fish‑gate ") misreads the Greek ischuran "strong" for ichthuran "fish." There appears in a number of cases reference to the original Hebrew, often accompanied by true exegetical insight, correcting the sometimes senseless reading of the Syriac and of the Septuagint. Such a case is presented in the literal rendering of the Hebrew " behind their backs" (ix. 26), and another in iv. 10 in the rendering "The heart of the Jews was bold and the

	Dww and lffehemiah THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	..		,
read
bearers of rubbish were many, but we could not build." So an attempt is made to improve on the Syriac rendering of xiii. 24 by translating " spake half Hebrew, half Aramaic, according to the language of the heathen." The Arabic translation has therefore a mixed character and varying worth.
	2. The Syriac Version: Here the printed text is
often untrustworthy. An arbitrary change is made
in pointing "kingdoms " as plural in Neh• ix. 22
against all the witnesses, while Ndamyahis read for
Hebrew I'ramyah and Syriac Nramyah in Neh. xii. 34.
Similar mistakes appear in Ezra vii. 5‑6, viii. 1; Neh.
iv. 23, and elsewhere. Instances occur, however, in
which the original Syriac is corrected after the He
brew text, se in Neh.viii.15‑18 in the alteration of the
words" when they heard" to " that they should
hear" while inNeh•ii•13the Syriac "hill‑fountain"
is a slip of the pen for "dragon‑fountain." But the
Syriac has also a preference for the ending " ‑el "
instead of " ‑yah " in names compounded with the
name of God, e.g., in Neh. xii. 26 "Nehemiah"
appears as " Nehemel." Double translations also
occur, as in Ezra ix. 7; also paraphrases instead
of translations as in vii. 9, 28, viii. 18, 31. The
rendering is not consistent, the same word in the
original being translated by different words in
different passages. Parallels in other books of the
Bible are drawn upon for illustration by way of
paraphrase, as when hum. xiv. 4 is employed in
Neh. ix. 17. Misunderstandings of the original
are numerous; as when the plane‑name Adrian is
translated " at that time " (Ezra ii. 59), or "the
tower of the furnaces " is displaced by "the neg
lected tower" (Neh. iii. 11), while the figure of
"shaking the lap " in Neh. v. 13 is totally mis
apprehended. The word "servants " presented
such difficulties for the translator that he trans
lated it atone time "sons " (N eh. v. lfi), at another
time as a proper name (Ezra ii. 58), though in the
parallel to the last passage (Neh• vii. 57) he trans
lated correctly.
8. The Greek Version: There are many indications that the work of the translators Aquila and Theodotion have been embodied in the text of the Septuagint. But the character of the translation in the two books is so different that evidently two hands have done the work. Nehemiah often shows a strong feeling for the Septuagint method of rendering as opposed to that of Aquila, as when in
ix. 7 all the manuscripts read for " Ur 1. its Fi‑ of the Chaldeea " "the land of the
delity to	dees•" This tendency is obscured
	the8ebrew.both in Swete's text and in Lagarde's;
and unfortunately Swete's undertaking to give the text of codex B as the groundwork of his text is not consistently carried out, a fault which is somewhat mitigated by the giving of notes which enable one to correct the text. Lagarde'atext is especially full of errors, particularly such as seem due to oversight in proof‑reading. A comparison of the texts of codices A B with S from Ezra ix. 9 on shows that in the first there is an endeavor to reproduce the Hebrew or Aramaic with so great fidelity that regard for Greek grammar has often gone by the board, and when even that would fail, the original is transliterated. This attempt at fidelity is especially
notable in proper names, as when SbnwrEn is
instead of the usual Greek form Samareia. A further result of this comparison shows that the three codices go back upon a common exemplar. This conclusion is not vitiated by the differences which exist between these codices, since many of them are explicable by mistakes of the eye and the ear, by dittography, or omission caused by catching the sameword in a passage further along. And further, the archetype of these three codices must have exhibited the qualities noted, especially an intelligent and well‑directed desire for a faithful reproduction of the Hebrew and Aramaic text. Many of the changes in the individual codices are due to attempts to correct and make intelligible the strange combinations brought about by this desire for fidelity.
Of this class are the corrections noted by Tiachendorf and Swete in the St. Petersburg codex, and the source of these corrections has been discovered in a manuscript seen by Pamphilus. These correc‑
tions are seen at their best in Neh. xi., 2. The Cor‑ in which the gaps are filled in which
rections mere of the Greek text a mere torso,
Traced to and in Neh. xii. where only the first Their of the four classes of priests were given.
Source.
So that the extant Greek text has reached its present condition through processes of smoothing, of correction by comparison with the original and through glosses which have been incorporated into the text. Under the Lucian text moat be seen the text of Origen, and into the latter were taken the additions of Theodotion. In this way can be explained the differences between the Lucian text and that of the manuscript of Pamphilus.
In the Greek, as in the Syrian, there are numerous double renderings, explainable on the ground of glosses brought into the text, a notable case of which is found in which " nor we " is introduced before " kept thy law" (Neh• ix. 34.) Sometimes the lengthened text is due to a comparison of a parallel text or to reference to a passage which was thought illustrative.
4. The Latin Version: This exemplifies very much the same errors in transmission as have come to light in examination of the other versions. Inconsistent translations of the same expression occur (cf. Neh. xii. 31, 40 with verse 38). On the other hand Jerome renders by the same expression different words (cf. Neh. viii. ? and 11, silentiurn faciebant). And apparent lacunae are filled in to make the Latin construction complete. He did not follow blindly the instruction of his Jewish teachers, often following the Greek; sometimes rendering mistakenly, as when he wrote de igne Chaldcsorurra for " Ur of the Chaldeea." But his main reliance was the Hebrew text and the Greek versions which came nearest to it. Sometimes he combined in a conflate reading the rendering of two versions, as in Ezra i. 11, where the readings of Lucian and the Septuagint are united. Occasionally where a word was ambiguous, two possible renderings are presented (Neh. v. 10 b, 11 b).
6. The Hebrew Text: The foregoing study of the versions gives as a result the greater value of the Hebrew and Aramaic, though the errors ass numer‑

269	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Ezra and Nehemiah
ous. For errors and omissions in the text the pseudo‑Ezra is sometimes serviceable (Ezra v. 15). Many of the lacunte in the text are evident, and occasionally the evident completion of the sense may be gathered from the context (Ezra iii. 12‑13). It is quite likely that the lacuna between Ezra iv. 23 and 24 is not to be laid to the charge of the author, but to carelessness or to arbitrariness on the part of copyists. That changes have taken place in the person of the verb, particularly from the first to the third, is one of the matters of which note must be taken in a critical discussion of the text.
II. Composition of the Books: This is understood both by the arrangement of the material and by its nature. The one book Ezra‑Nehemiah is the second half of a large work, of which I and II Chronicles are the first half. The divisions of Ezra‑Nehemiah are Ezra i.‑vi., vii.‑x., Nehemiah i.‑xiii. These three parts are constructed on the
1. Analysis same plan, each narrating the story of the of a return of the Jews under special Books. authority and with grants from the Persian kings under Zerubbabel and Joshua, Ezra and Nehemiah, and telling the weighty consequences for the temple community in the Holy Land. There resulted the completion of the temple, the restoration of the public service, the binding together of the community by prohibition of foreign marriages, the securing of political independence of the neighboring peoples through completion of the wall of the repeopled capital, and adoption by the community of the law‑book of Moses (Ezra vi., x.; Neh. iii. sqq., viii.).
These results are interwoven into the history of the times. The first step was taken under Cyrus and continued under Darius, the second in the seventh year of Artaxerxes, the third in the twentieth and thirty‑second year of the same Artaxerxes. The Persian succession was well known to the author, who in Ezra iv. rr7 names successively Cyrus, Darius, Xerxes, and Artaxerxes. During that period fell the decrees which were the legal basis of the Jewish community and the contests the successful issue of which consolidated that community and impressed upon it a distinctive character. The seventh year of the Artaxerxes of Ezra vii.
		can not be regarded as the seventh
	2. The	year of an Artaxerxes who lived some
	Sources	sixty
	Employed.		years later under whom the
		events of Neh. i.‑xiii. happened.
Nor may it be held that the author dealt with fic
titious dates and decrees. Such suspicions are ex
cluded by the quality of the material, which the
writer has brought together and made to serve his
purpose. The books are a mosaic. The author
doubtless obtained the list of the returning exiles
from the Books of the Kings of Israel and Judah.
He also employed the " Memoirs " of Ezra, those of
Nehemiah, and a reputed report of Tabeel and his com
panions (Ezra iv. 7) directed to Artaxerxes. Here the
Masoretic text is the result of a complete misunder
standing. The author of it made out of the original
"with the permission of Mithredath "the series" Bish
lam, Mithredath," producing a triple authorship for
a document which is only referred to and not given,
since the document in Ezra iv. 11‑16 is specifically
stated to be by others (verses 8‑9). It is to be noted also that iv. 12 refers to the building of the city and iv. 24 to the building of the temple, and that if the traditional theory were correct, the author would have confused entirely different events and blended the accounts as though they referred to one and the same thing. Similarly out of the reports of Nehemiah, narrated in the first person, the writer built up a story in which seven successive steps in the progress of the work of rebuilding the wall appear, which is a reconstruction by the Chronicler of the order of events as they probably lay in the original documents. Into this is woven an account of the introduction of the lawbook, explained by the union of efforts by Ezra and Nehemiah for that purpose. This part is probably taken as an excerpt from ,ths memoirs of Ezra.
In defense of the author's stylistic method it must be remembered that he was writing for his contemporaries, probably using documents stored in the Jewish archives; that he was not concerned with historical matters of detail the interest in which is
8. The great to modems; and that he had Author's a comprehensive view of the whole
	pose.	work of restoration of the Jewish
		commonwealth, which he put for
ward in the shape of a mosaic the joining of which
is not always close and the parts of which are not
well coordinated. It was his idea to set forth that
as the Samaritans of the time of Zerubbabel
hindered the work commanded by Cyrus, so they
continued their attempts at hindrance in the days
of Artaxerxes. He desired in his notes of time
(Ezra vii. 1; Neh. i. 1, ii. 1, viii.‑xiii.) to indicate
the cooperation of Ezra and Nehemiah in the work.
The question has been raised whether the narrative
as it stands is the result of wilful perversion of the
sources, or of misunderstanding, or whether it
conforms to the facts. Nehemiah reports that to
him had come sad accounts of the ruinous state of
the walls and city of Jerusalem; the apology of
Tabeel narrates that the work of reconstruction
had been prohibited and forcibly prevented through
a denunciation to the Artaxerxes who sent Jews
back to Jerusalem. But who could be so influen
tial and so secure in bringing about the restoration
of Jerusalem as those who had come with letters
missive from the king directed to the accomplish
ment of this task of restoration? The general out
line of history as made out by the author agrees
with the facts as presented by his sources.
(A. KLO$TERMANN.)
131BLIOGRAPHY: Texts are issued by $. Baer in the Baer and Delitsech series, Leipsic, 1882; in the Polychrome Bible. by H. Guthe, New York, 1901; and a new text is by M. L&hr in the new Biblia Rebraica begun by R. Kittel, Leipsic, 1905. The best commentaries are by J. D. Michaelis, Frankfort, 1720; C. F. Keil, Leipeic, 1870, Eng. tranal., Edinburgh, 1873; G. Rawlinson and others in Pulpit Commentary, 1880; E. Berthesu and V. Ryssel, Leipsie, 1887; H. E. Ry:a, in Cambridge Bible, 1893. Discussions on special topics are: R, smend, Die Listen den Biixher Ears and Nehemiah, Basel, 1881; A. van Hoonacker, N&tsnie et EBdras, nouvelle hypothdse Bur la chronolopie, Gand, 1890; idem, Nekemie en t'an .80 d'Artaxerxes 1. et EBdras en Van 7 d'Artaxerxes ll., ib. 1892; idem, Zorobabel el Is second temple, ib. 1892; idem, Nouvelle itudessur la reetauration juive, Paris, 1896 (a reply to Hostere, be‑

M~
low); p. H. Hunter, After the Bsiie• nbur~h. 18~: G. 13awlineon, in Men of the Bible Series, London, 1891; W. H. Koctere. Het Herstel van Israel, Leyden, 1893: A. H. Sayse. ltrod.Mon to . . . Esro. Nehemiah a"l Either, London, 1893; idem, Higher Uria^d the Monuments, ib. 1894; E. Meyer, BntatehurW des J~S^' fume, Halle, 1898 (cf. J. Wellhausen in OGA, 1897• ii. 89 eqq.); C. C. Torrey, COftipositi°n and Historic Valr•‑ ^f Ezra and Nehemiah. in ZATW. Giessen, 1898; T.
C	Jewish RsisPious life after the Exile, New York,
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
lggg; p. W. H. Kettlewell, Books of Esra a~ Nelwmiah, London, 1901; E. Schrader, in TSK, 1867, pp. 4~"b04; idem, KAT, i. 294‑297: DB i. 821‑824; BB, ii. 147814g8, Consult also the works on the history of Israel and on introduction to the Old Testament, especially Driver, Introduction, pp. 507 eqq.
EZRA, RON‑CANO14ICAL BOOKS OF. See
APOCRYPHA, A, IV., 1; P8EUDEPIOR.APHA, OLD TESTAMENT, IL, 7‑8 F.
	FABER, fd'ber, BASILIUS: Teacher and writer;
	b. at Sorau (56 m. s.s.e. of Frankfort), Lower
	Lusatia, c. 1520; d. at Erfurt 1575 or 1576. He
	studied at Wittenberg after 1538; was private
	tutor in the house of Johannes SpanBenberg>
	preacher in Nordhausen; then rector of the Latin
	school in that place; and later held 9, similar posi
	tion at Frankfort, and from 1557 to 1560 at Magde
	burg. For the next ten years he directed the abbey
	school at Quedlinburg. On account of his refusal
	to subacribethe Corpus doctrince Philippicum, he was
	dismissed on Dec. 5, 1570; and the following year
	he was called to the new Latin school at Erfurt,
	where he remained as head of the Alumnat, until
his death. 	t both through his
	Faber s influence was grey ,
pupils (among whom were men like Cynacus Span
genberg and Johannes Caeelius, qq.v.) and as author.
His grammatical works enjoyed great acceptance;
likewise his Libellua de diaciplina aciwlastica (Leip
aic, 1572, 1579); but above all the Thesaurus
eruditionia sc)tolasticce (1571 and often), which was
intended to be more than a mere dictionary,
veritable treasury of helps to a knowledge of the
Latin tongue and the interpretation of the Latin
writers. It was repeatedly revised and was used
even into the eighteenth century. As theologian,
Faber was a devoted supporter of Luther and his
doctrine; he translated into German Luther's
commentary on Genesis, chaps. i: xxv.; was col
laborator in the first four " Magdeburg Centuries "
(q.v.); and wrote certain edifying, in part eschato
logical works. He also issued in 1583 a German edi
tion of Saxania, by Albert Krantz (q.v.).
GEORG M~,,ULLER.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ereah and Gruber, Allgesui'>M Eneyldo‑
pedie, I. al. 2, pp. 12‑13 Leipeic, 1844: ADB, vi. 488490: J. Janssen, Cleschitlate des dautaehen i'oikea, ed. L. Pastor, vii. 56 eqq., 220, Freiburg, 1893.
FABER, f5'ber, FREDERICK WILLIAM: English Roman Catholic; b. of Huguenot ancestry at the vicarage of Calverley (5 m. w.n.w. of Leeds), Yorkshire, June 28,1814; d. at the Brompton oratory, London, Sept. 26, 1863. He studied at BaIliol College, Oxford, and won the Newdigate prize in 1836 for his poem The Knights °/ St. John. He was made fellow of University College in 1837 and was ordained priest in the English Church in 1839. In 1842 he accepted the rectory of Elton, Huntingdonshire. 1n Oxford he because an ardent admirer of John Henry Newman and an earnest advocate of the Tractarian movement (see TRACTARIANIBM)• The greater part of the years from 1840 to 1844 he spent with a pupil on the Continent, and during this time his feelings changed
with reference to the Roman Catholic Church; ha impressions are recorded in Sights and Thoughts in IT orChurches and among Foreign Peoples (London, 1842). He visited the Continent in 1843 with the distinct purpose of observing Roman Catholicism and furnished with letters from Cardinal
'iseman. Hia Life of St. Wilfrid (London, 1844)
lowed clearly his Roman tendencies, and in 1845 e abjured Protestantism and was reordained in 347. He formed a religious society at Birmingham with the name Brothers of the Will of God, and again visit ed the Continent, being received at Rome by Gregory XVI. In 1848 he joined the Oratory of
It. Philip Neri in London (see PHILIP NERI, SAINT) and in 1849 became head of the congregation, re‑
naining in this position till his death. He was ;rested 17.D. by Plus IX. in 1854.
Faber and Keble were the chief religious poets >f the Oxford movement and the former's permanent fame rests upon his hymns; which are marked by fervid piety and grace of language. The moat beautiful, perhaps, are " O gift of gifts, O grace of
faith" (from a longer poem, Conversion), Workman of God, O lose not heart " (from The Right Must Win), and " Paradise, O Paradise." He was a prolific author of religious and devotional works, including An Essay on Beatification, Canonization, and the Processes o f the Congregation o f Rites (London, 1848); The Spirit and Genius of St. Philip Neri (1850); The Blessed Sacrament (1855); Lives ° f the Canonized Saints and Servants ° f God (42 vols., 1847‑56, continued by the brothers of the Oratory); Devotional Notes on Doctrinal and Spiritual Subjects, ed. J. E. Bowden (2 vole., 1866). His hymns were first published in a small collection in 1848, enlarged editions appeared in 1849 and 1852, and the final edition (150 hymns) in 1862.
D. s. Scse>!P.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. E. Bowden, Life and Letters of F. TV.
Faber, London, 1889, new ed., 1888: F. A. Faber, Brief
Sketch of the Early Life of F. W. Faber, ib. 1889 (by his
brother); 9. W. Duffield, English Hymns. pp. ~~•
New York, 1888; Julian, H7nn, pp. 381‑382; DNB, aviii. 108‑111.
FABER, GEORGE STARLEY ~ English controversialist, uncle of Frederick William Faber (q.v.): b. at Calverley (5 m. w.n.w. of Leeds),
Yorkshire, Oct. 25, 1773; d. at Sherburn Hospital, near Durham, Jan. 27, 1854. He studied at University College, Oxford (B.A., 1793; M.A., 1796; B.D., 1803), and was fellow from 1793 to 1803, when he became his father's curate at Calverley. In 1805 he received the vicarage of Stockton‑upon‑
Tees, in 1808 the rectory of Redmarshall, and in 1811 that of Long Newton, which he held till 1832,

281	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Faber
when he was made master of Sherburn Hospital. In 1830 he was given a prebendal stall in Salisbury Cathedral. His voluminous works, devoted largely to prophecy, belong to the apocalyptic school of Biblical interpretation and are now of little importance. To be mentioned are, Home Mosaic (Oxford, 1801), Bampton Lectures delivered in 1801; The Origin of Pagan Idolatry (3 vols., London, 1816); and The Sacred Calendar of Prophecy (3 vols., 1828).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A Memoir by his nephew, F. A. Faber, is prefixed to an edition of The Many Mansions, London, 1854. Consult also: Gentleman's Magazine, May and June, 1854; G. V. Cox, Recollections of Oxford, p. 203, London, 1870; DNB, xviii. 111‑112.

FABER, f 8'ber, JOHANNES: The name of three Roman Catholic theologians of the sixteeLth century.
	x. Johannes Faber of Augsburg was born in the
second half of the fifteenth century at Freiburg,
and died c.1530; the place of his death is unknown.
About 1515 he was prior of a Dominican monastery
at Augsburg, and in 1516 was instructor in theology
at Bologna, but was soon appointed court‑preacher
and confessor of the Emperor Maximilian I. At
the recommendation of Erasmus he became court
preacher to Charles V., and sought to further a
policy of mediation in the Lutheran controversy.
Erasmus seems later to have become hostile to him.
The only writing known to have been composed by
him is a funeral oration over Maximilian (Augs
burg, 1519). 	(J. A. WAGFxnsArlrrt.)
BIalrIOGRAPHY: J. Echard and J. Quetif, 3criptoras ordinie prtediomtorum, ii. 80, Paris, 1721; C. Khamm, Hierarchia Aupuatana chronologica, dipartita, i. 308, Mains, 1709; HL, iv. 1170‑1171.
Z. Johannes Faber of Leutkirch was born at Leutkirch (40 m. a. of Uhn) in 1478, and died at Baden (12 m. s.a.w. of Vienna) May 21, 1541. He studied theology and canon law at Tobingen and Freiburg, and was successively vicar and rector at Lindau, rector of Leutkirch, and canon and episcopal official at Basel. In 1518 he was appointed vicar‑general of the diocese of Constance and received the title of prothonotary from Pope Leo X. The course of events forced him gradually to break with such humanists and Reformers as Erasmus, (Ecolampadius, Zwingh, and Melanchthon, and to change from their friend to their opponent. He disapproved of the preaching of indulgences by Bernhardin Sanson in Switzerland, and was in communication with Zwingli (1519‑20) and even with Luther, while his condemnation of Eck was undisguised. A radical change took place in his attitude, however, and though he had not yet broken with Luther, he was planning polemics against him and Carlstadt in 1519. His attitude was strengthened by a journey to Rome in the autumn of 1521, when he dedicated to the new pope, Adrian VI., his Opus adversus nova qumdam dogmala Lutheri (Rome, 1522). Faber returned to Germany a firm opponent of the new movement. On Jan. 29, 1523, he attended the disputation of Zurich as a delegate of the bishop of Constance, but was unable to prove the doctrines of the mass or the invocation of saints either from the Bible or tradition to the
satisfaction of Zwingli and his adherents. In the
same year he attended the Diet	of Nuremberg,
where he seems to have met the Archduke Ferdinand,
and in 1524 he was a delegate of his bishop at
Regensburg, where he and Eck	were the chief
representatives of the projected Counterreformation.
At the same time he republished his	polemic against
Luther under the title Mdlleus in	hceresin Luthe
ranam (Cologne, 1524), and was invited to the court
of Ferdinand as chaplain, counselor, and confessor.
In September of the same year he	took part in the
heresy trial of Kaspar Tauber at Vienna, and was
later employed in various affairs of	state, endeavor
ing in 1525 and the following years	to win the Ro
man Catholic cantons of Switzerland from France
to Austria, and acting as ambassador to Spain and
England in 1527. In 1528 he was consecrated
bishop coadjutor of Wiener‑Neustadt (now St.
Palten), and in the following year	became provost
of Ofen. He was active in promoting the Roman
Catholic cause, taking part in the	burning of Bal
thasar Hiibmaier (Mar. 10, 1528), defending the
execution in his anonymous Ursach warum Bal
thasar Hubmaier verbrannt sei (Dresden, 1528), and
urging the theological faculty of the University of
Vienna to action against Lutheran	heresy. As the
court‑chaplain of Ferdinand he attended the Diets
of Speyer and Augsburg. On the death of Johannes
de Revellie in 1531, Faber succeeded him as bishop
of Vienna, and was also administrator of the dio
cese of Neustadt until 1538. In the midst of his
episcopal duties, rendered doubly difficult by
Protestantism and Turkish invasion, he found
time to establish an institution for impoverished
theological students and to attempt to improve
the university and theological faculty of Vienna.
He was an author of note, his works including, in
addition to those already mentioned, De Moscovi
tarum religions at juxta mare glaciale religio (Basel,
1526) and De fade et bonis operxbus	(Cologne, 1536).
	(EMIL EGLI.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A collection of his smaller polemical writings appeared, Leipsic, 1537; another collection, principally of polemical works, 3 vols., Cologne, 1537‑41. Consult: C. E. Kettner, De J. Fabri rift aeriptisque, Leipaio, 1737; J. Echard and J. Quetif, $criptores ordinia prmdiaatonum, ii. 111, Paris, 1721; R. Roth. Geachichte der . .
Reichastadt Leutkiroh, i. 200, ii. 90 eqq., Leutkirch, 1872; A. Horawita, J. Heigerlin, Vienna, 1884; BL, iv. 1172‑75.
3. Johannes Faber of Heilbronn was born at Heilbronn (26 m. n. of Stuttgart) about 1504, and died at Augsburg after 1557. He was a Dominican of the monastery of Wimpfen and was educated at Cologne at the expense of his city. He was later called to Augsburg as preacher at the cathedral and was a zealous opponent of the Reformation. The most of his writings are polemics against Protestantism and include the following: Ricardi Pampolitani Anglo‑Samonis enarratio in Psalmos (Cologne, 1536); Quod fides esse possit sine caritote (Augsburg, 1548); Enchiridion bi7bliorum (1549); Fructus qut&us dignoscuntur hwretici (Ingolatadt, 1551); Testimonium PetrumRomw fuisse (Antwerp, 1553); Der rechte Weg (Dillingen, 1553); Was die evangelische Mess sei. (Augsburg, 1553); and Johe1 in Predigten ausgelegt (1557).
(J. A. WAaaMLAxNt.)

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG

BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Echsrd and J• Q~tif• Rcrripw°° ordtnis	Faber fled with his friend Gtsrard Roussel (q.V.)
	yradica!orum ii. lei, Paris, 1721‑ J. N. Mederer, Annales	to Strasburg, under the pseudonym of Peregrinus,
	1„polstad;snsia Aoadernia', Ingoldstadt, 1782: P. 1. Braun.	earl in Nov., 1525. After the return of Francis I.
	Geschichte der Bisch6fs roan Augsburg, Augsburg, 1813‑		y
	15; Kt, iv. 1171‑72.	to France, both were recalled. Faber even became
		private tutor of the king's children and lived as
	FABER, PETRUS. See FAVBE, PIERRE.	librarian in the royal castle at Blois. As conditions
	FABER (FAB,~R,I), STAPULENSIS, JACOBUS	grew more menacing for the adherents of the Ref
(JACQUES LE1tL'VRE D'kTAPLES): The most	ormation, the Queen of Navarre took Faber to her
prominent among the men who in the beginning	residence in Nt=rac, where he spent peacefully the
of the Reformation in France prepared the way for	remainder of his long and active life. Faber fully
Calvin and Farel, at the same time a promoter and	%vowed the principles of the Reformation, but ex
renovator of the genuine Aristotelian philosophy,	ternally remained in the Roman Church, hoping
founder of a better exegesis of Holy Scripture, and	that the renovation of the Gospel might be effected
translator of the Bible; b. at ttaples (120 m. n.n.w.	without rupture with papacy, and being unequal
of Paris), Picardy, c. 1450; d. at Ni=rac (85 m. s.e.	to an open battle with hostile powers.
of Bordeaux), Barn, 1536 Notning is known of		Faber's theological productions may be divided
his family or of his youth except that he was or‑	into two classes‑editions of Church Fathers and
dained priest and came early to Paris, attracted	mystical writers, and translations and commen
by his love of knowledge. Here he devoted him‑	taries on Holy Scripture. The first result of his
self earnestly and zealously to classical studies.	Biblical studies was his Psalterium quintuplex
Jerome of Sparta became his teacher in Greek,	(1509). The preface to his commentary on the
and with him, as well as with Paulus qua of	Pauline Epistles is remarkable because Faber here
Verona, Faber lived in intimate intercourse, although	propounded the principles of the Reformation,
his Latin style and his knowledge of the Greek	five years before the Wittenberg theses of Luther.
language were always very defective. He became	He maintained the authority of Holy Scripture and
teacher, and in 1492 traveled to Italy, where he	the unmerited grace of redemption, combated the
sojourned in Florence, Rome, and Venice, studying	merit of good works, the celibacy of priests, and
Platonism and works of mystics, but chiefly Aris‑	discussed the necessity of a reform of the Church.
totle. Returning to France he renewed his ac‑	In	1522 appeared his commentary on the four
tivity as teacher in Paris, with a clearer insight.	Gospels and in 1525 on the Catholic Epistles. Here
He became professor in the college named after its	he first discovered the errors of the Vulgate and by
founder, Cardinal Lemoine, and exerted an influ‑	his exposition of the text prepared the way for a
ence beyond the lecture‑room by intimate inter‑	better exegesis. The Bible is for him the only rule
course with gifted students and by Latin transla‑	of faith, and he is not afraid of offending against
tions of the Church Fathers and introductions and	the dogmas and usages of the Church. At the in
commentaries on works of Aristotle. He inspired	stance of the king and his sister, Brigonnet induced
respect and love by his extensive knowledge, his	Faber to translate the New Testament into French.
talents as a teacher, his piety, modesty, and gentle‑	The translation was made from the Vulgate and
ness, and found numerous admirers and friends.	appeared at Antwerp in 1523; the Psalms fol
When Guillaume Brisonnet (q.v.), his former pupil,	lowed in 1525. In Blois Faber prepared a French
was made head of the famous Benedictine abbey	translation of the whole Bible (1530), which be
of St. Germain des Pry (1507), he appointed Fa‑	came, at least for the New Testament and the Apoc
ber librarian, and they lived together until 1520.	rypha, the basis of R. Olivetan's translation of the
About this time, Faber, already more than fifty,	Bible (1535) sanctioned by the Reformed Church
laid aside secular studies, and devoted himself to	of France (see BIBLE VERSIONS, B, VI., § 3) and
the Bible. Two critical essays on Mary Magdalene	so very useful.	(G. BoNEm‑MAuRy.)
which he published in 1517 and 1518 gave the
Sorbonne occasion for an accusation of heresy;	BiBaj°°g°paT: The best sources for a life are Natalia Beda,
and Natalia Beda (No51	dier)Bt, syndic of the theo‑	A""°,`°"°"'a Fabrum et Brasmum (o. lsTb); Gutelsume
logical faculty of Paris, had the book formally		Fares' Bycstrv a tow SeandeA. (c. 1548); Theodore Base,
	con‑	Icorus, Geneva, 1580. and A. B. Herminjard, CorresPon,
	demned by a decree of the faculty, Nov. 9, 1521.	dance des ROmrn'ateura, i. 3‑4, 89. 132. 158‑2IS, Paris,
Beda,who suspected a secret Lutheran in Faber,	1878.Later works are: K. A. Graf, in ZHT, 1852, parts
wanted to institute further proceedings against	1‑2' He Bonnet, Plantfer, Le(ksrs d',tapiss, Montauban,
	1870; J. Bonnet, Recite du xui. si&ie, Paris, 1876: H. M.
him, but was prevented by the interference of	Baird, Hiat. of the Rise of As Huguenots, vol. i., chap. ii
Francis I. and Marguerite of Navarre. In 1520	London, 1880. On his Bible consult: . Quidvreux, La
Faber had to leave Paris and gladly followed an A~ ~ du Nouveau	do 1'Aaciis^ T ta's°ntedeBLe
invitation of Brisonnet to come to Meaux as director thorn, ib. 1895.
of the hospital for lepers. In 1523 the bishop ap
pointed him vicar‑general. After the battle of	FABIAN, Wbi‑an: Pope Jan. 10, 236‑Jan. 20, 250,
Pavia (1525), the captivity of the king gave Faber's	martyr in the Decian persecution. In the Chroni
opponents opportunity to proceed more severely	con Paschale he is called Flavian, while the Coptic
against the adherents of so‑called Lutheranism,	Synaxarium terms him Palatian. According to
and a special commission was appointed by parlia‑	Eusebius (Hilt. eccd., vi. 29), he was chosen to succeed
ment to investigate the heresies in the diocese of	Anterus because a dove descended from heaven
Meaux. Several preachers who had been installed	and lighted on the head of Fabian, a bishop who
by Brigonnet, were arrested; others recanted;	had been summoned to Rome with others to elect

pb'363 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
a new pope. Fabian was pope during the reign of Philip the Arab. Origen addressed to him a treatise defending his teachings, while Cyprian mentions a letter written by Fabian with regard to Privatus, a heretic (and probably bishop) of Colonis Lambesitana in Numidia. Macarius Magnes speaks of Fabian as a worker of miracles, and names him together with Polycarp, Irenacus, and Cyprian. Cyprian occasionally mentions this pope with respect, but the ordinances of Fabian in the three letters of the pseudo‑Isidore and the twentyone decrees of Gratian are forgeries.
Though few details are actually known concerning Fabian, it is clear that he was one of the most important popes. His reign was in a period of extraordinarily rapid development of the Church, for it was the time in which the Gnostic heresies, the Christological controversies, and the schism of Hippolytus were crushed, when penance increased rapidly, when the city of Rome was divided into seven or fourteen parishes, when the minor clergy was formed into five grad, and when the temporal power of the Church was greatly augmented. In all these measures Fabian must have been the leading spirit. It was due to him, moreover, that the Decian persecution found a far more sturdy power of resistance in Rome than in Carthage, and that the Roman Church was able to maintain so honorable a position in the year which elapsed between the martyrdom of Fabian and the election of his successor, Cornelius. (A. HAIi21ACx.)

Bisniomerax: Libor pontifccalie, ed. Duchesne, i. 148‑149,
Paris, 1886, ed. Mommsen in MGH, Gut. pont. Ram., i (1898), 27; R. A. Lipsius, Chronolopie der rbmisden Bischafe, Kiel, 1889; J. B. l.ightfoot, Apostolic Fathers, i. Clement of Rome, London, 1885; Harnaek, Litlarahur, i. 848, 11. i. 144 eqq.; Bower, Popes, i. 23‑24; Milman, Latin Christianity, i. 82.

FABRI, fd'brf (not Faber), FELI%: German Dominican; b. at Zurich 1441 or 1442; d. at Ulm Mar. 14, 1502. He belonged to a distinguished family, and in 1465 entered the Dominican order at Basel. He studied theology and was sent to Ulm in 1477 or 1478 as lector and preacher. From early childhood he desired to visit the Holy Land, and his longing was increased by pilgrimages to Aix‑la‑Chapelle in 1468 and to Rome in 1476. He first visited the East in 1480, but remained only nine days in Jerusalem. In 1483‑84 he made a second journey of longer duration, visiting Jerusalem and other parts of Palestine, as well as Mount Sinai and Egypt in company with four Swabian noblemen. Except for frequent trips in behalf of his order, such as his visits to Venice in 1486‑87, he spent the remainder of his life as a teacher and preacher in his monastery at Ulm, though he was also a preacher in neighboring nunneries. His works, which are mostly unpublished or lost, show keen observation, piety, sincerity, and humor, though they are marred by their lack of critical acumen, while their Latinity is strongly monastic. Nevertheless, he is the most important and instructive of the pilgrims of the fifteenth century. His chief works are as follows: Evagatorlum in Terra Sancta;, Arabite et Xgypti peregrinationem (ed. C. D. Hassler, 3 vols., Stuttgart, 1843‑49; Eng. tranal.,
The Wanderings of Felix Fabra, in Publications of Pilgrims' Text Society, vols. vii.‑x., London, 1897); Eigentliche Beschrexbung der Hin‑ and Wiederfahrt zum heiligen Land (Frankfort, ? 1556); Gereimtes Pilgerbiichlein (ed. A. Birlinger, Munich, 1864); and Historic Suevonsm (partly edited by M. Goldcat, in Suevorum rerum Scriptores, Frankfort, 1605, Ulm, 1727). The most important portions of the Descriptio Suevice were published by H. Fseher, in Quellen zur Schweizer Geschichte, vi. 107‑202 (Basel, 1884), while G. Veesenmeyer has edited the Traaatua de civitate Ulmensi (Stuttgart, 1889). Die Sionapilgerin is partly printed in Verhandlung des Vereins f9r Kunst and Altertfmer in Ulm and Oberachwaben, new series, i. 30 sqq.
G. BtlB$ERT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: An early account is: Haberfin, De vita, itineribus et scrip& Felicia Fabri, 08ttingen, 1742; J. Echard and J. Quetif, Script. ordinia prmdticatorum, i. 871, Paris, 1721; 0. Lorens, Deutschlande Gaashichtequeilen, i. 91, 108, 209, 347, Berlin, 1887.
FABRI, FRIEDRICH GOTTHARDT KARL ERNST: German theologian; b. at Schweinfurt (22 m. n.n.e. of Warzburg) June 12, 1824; d. at Wurzburg July 18, 1891. He was educated at W ilrzburg, Erlangen, and Berlin, and in 1846 entered the seminary for preachers at Munich. In 1848 he was appointed municipal pastor and instructor in a technical school at Wiirzburg, and then published his first work, Die materiellen Notstdnde der protestantischen Kirche Baierns (Nuremberg, 1848), which was followed by his Ueber Armut and Armenpfiege (1851). In 1851 he became pastor at Bonnland near W ilrzburg, and while there published his Ueber Kirchenzucht im Sinn and Geist des Evangeliums (Stuttgart, 1854), in which he deprecated public admonition and excommunication. He first became widely known, however, by his Briefe gegen den Materialiamus (1855), a criticism of the theories of Darwin and Lyell. From 1857 to 1884 Fabri was president of the Rhenish mission at Barmen. He successfully opposed the denominational strife which threatened to disrupt the organization and raised the educational standard for those who were to go to the mission‑field under the auspices of the society, making the preliminary course two years and the seminary training four. The candidates gained both in number and in ability, and branch schools were erected for younger pupils in Barmen (1856), Stellenbosch (1860, 1865), and Gftersloh. Under his auspices the mission increased from twenty‑nine stations, thirty‑five missionaries, and 6,600 converts in 1857 to forty‑seven stations, sixty‑four missionaries, and 25,800 converts in 1884. In 1866 he founded the general conference for missions, which henceforth convened triennially, and in connection with missionary activity he wrote Die Bntstehung des Heidentums and die Aufgabe der Heidenmission (Barmen, 1859) and Der sensua communis das Organ der Ofenbarung Gottes in allm Menschen (1861). In 1865 Fabri established a committee for German Protestants in southern Brazil, which was enlarged in 1883 to comprise all Protestant Germans in America. He was also keenly interested in inspiring the Greek Church with a spirit of Evangel‑

Fabrics Mccleeiea Fagnani
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
icalism, as was shown by his Mua Mazedonien (Elberfeld, 1877).
The political events of 1866 presented unexpected ecclesiastical problems to Pruesi: • which Fabri sought to solve in his Die polittschen Breignisse des Summers 1888 (Barmen, 1866), a work followed by his Die politische Lage and die Zukunft der evangelischen Kirche in Deutschland (1867), Die Unionsund Verfassungsfrage (1867), Staat and Kirche (1872), and Kirchenpolitischm Credo (1872). In Jan., 1871, he was summoned to Strasburg on account of the ecclesiastical situation which had arisen there, and he gladly obeyed, successfully seeking to secure independence for the Evangelical Church of Alsace‑Lorraine‑ In the same spirit he later wrote: Wig toeitert Kirchenpolit'ische Betraehtungen zum Ends des Ktdturkampfes (Goths, 1887 ).
By his Bedarf Deutschland der Kolon'ent (1879) Fabri gave the first impulse to the colonial movement in Germany, proposing the foundation of agricultural and mercantile colonies. A number of associations were accordingly formed, and the course of events proved the wisdom of his counsels, of which his last work, Funf Jahre deutscher Kolonialpolitik (1889), gave a final survey. On Oct. 2, 1889 he was appointed honorary professor in the Evangelical theological faculty of Bonn.
(E. SACHBSE.)
BIBLIoaaAPBY: Sources for a life are the Akten der r
niaclwn Missionveaellschat in Barnsen; L. von Rohden
Qeachiehte der rheronieden MisaionepeseiiadaA Barmen,
1858: and the Nachrufe in Derichte der rkainieden M'
eionageeelledhaft for 1891, p. 260, appearing in AUPesaes
Misaionazaitachrifk 1891, p. 477.
FABRICA ECCLESM: Literally "a church
building," but used as the technical name of that
portion of the funds appropriated for the main
tenance of the building. At first a part of the gen
eral revenue was set aside for this purpose, but
later this was kept up only in case of cathedrals
and collegiate churches, where a special magister
or procurator fabricta had charge of the fund. The
difficulty, however, of obtaining the means neces
sary to maintain church buildings led to the forma
tion of special fabric‑funds in ordinary parishes,
which became the object of many rules and regula
tions according to custom and local law. The pro
vision of church utensils and the requirements of
divine service,	y the lighting, were also in
cluded. There was no general regulation as to how
the fund should be provided; usually it was made
up from oblations, tithes, burial‑fees, and the like.
The fabric‑funds. have had special importance in
France and the adjoining German lands on the left
bank of the Rhine, where they were allowed to con
tinue when the church property was confiscated (de
cree of Apr. 22, 1790) and have occasioned much
subsequent legislation. See CHURCH‑BUHnlNa,
TAXATION lroR.
	FABRICIUS, fa brish'i‑vs, JOHANN: German
theologian; b. at Altorf (13 m. e.n.e. of Nuremberg)
Feb. 11, 1644; d. at K6nigslutter (9 m. w.n.w. of
Helmstadt) Jan. 29, 1729. He studied theology at
Helmstadt (1663‑65), and then traveled extensively,
especially in Italy, where he was preacher to a con‑
gregation of Evangelical merchants at Venice. In 1677 he accepted a call to a professorship at Alto
but twenty years later went in the same capacity to Helmetadt, where he became abbot of KSnigslutter in 1701 and counselor of the consistory in 1703. His specialty was comparative symbolics, and to this was devoted his most important work, Conaideratio variorum controroeraiarum (Aelmetadt, 1704). 1n this book, however, he displayed a latitudinarianiam which exposed him to severe criticism; and his position became still more difficult when he pronounced a formal opinion, prepared at the request of Duke Aston Ulrich and based on elaborate arguments, that the Princess Elizabeth Christine might conscientiously become a convert to the Roman Catholic faith to wed the King of Spain. This brought upon him a storm of opposition from the court‑chaplains, but their arguments were refuted and they were deposed, while Fabricius and the duke were supported, on the whole, by the ruling of the theological faculty of Helmatadt and a number of other scholars. He then finally suc‑
ceeded in overcoming the religious scruples of the princess, and her conversion took place at Bamberg on May 1, 1707. In the previous year he had published anonymously a pamphlet entitled Ertirterte Frage Hewn Fabricia, dasa zwischzn der av98burgischen Konfession and katholischen Relioon
kein aonder'licher Unterachied sei (Helmstadt [e], 1706). Throughout the Protestant world, and especially. in England and Holland, the most violent indignation was excited, and the elector of
Hanover, moved by his hopes of gaining the English crown, obliged Aston Ulrich to deprive Fabri‑
h tins of his professorship. He accordingly resigned
t in 1709, but remained abbot of KtSnigslutter, and
occupied the closing years of his life in beautifying his estate and preparing his Historic bibliothecte Fobyriciance (6 vole., Wolfenbiittel, 1717‑24).
(G. Ua1.aoRxt.)

Brsrroasersr: Sources for a life are found in his own work last mentioned above. The subject is treated in the Geachichta der Dopnwtiac by W. Gals, ii. 183, Berlin, 1857, and in G. Frank's (3eachichte der Theoto0oe. 1'• 226' Leap sic, 1885. Consult also J. Beets. aeschichte der braunechweigierlur, Landeakircha. pp. 3WW• WolfenbVttel,
1889.

FABRICIUS, JOHANN ALBERT: German theologian and bibliographer; b. at Leipsic Nov. 11, 1668; d. at Hamburg Apr. 3, 1736. He studied theology, philology, philosophy, and medicine in Leipsic, and in 1693 removed to Hamburg, where he assisted Johann Friedrich Mayer, the chief pastor of the city. Six years later he was appointed professor of ethics and rhetoric at the gymnasium, and from 1708 to 1711 was also rector of the Johanneu>p. He possessed a library of some 32,000 volumes, and was an extremely prolific writer. Several of his works are still unsuperseded. Among his bibliographical writings special mention may be made of the following: BibliatheCa latina (Hamburg, 1697; best edition
by J. A. Ernesti, 3 vole., Leipsic, 1773‑74); Bibli.otheca grceca (14 vole., Hamburg, 1705‑28; best edition, though incomplete, by G. C. Harless, 12 vole., 1790‑1809); Bibliographia antaquar'la (1713);

286	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Fabrioa Boole"
Bibliotheca ecclesiastics (1718); and Bxbliotheca latina media et in imm a:tatis (5 vols., 1734‑36; completed by J. D. Mansi, 6 vols., Padua, 1754). In theology his work is antiquated, although mention may still be made of his Hydrotheologie (1730) and Pyrotheologie (1732), written to show the goodness of God in creating water and fire; as well as of the Centifolium Lutheranum (2 vols., 1728‑30), a somewhat crude bibliography of Luther and the Reformation, and of the Salutaria lux Evangelii toti orbi ezoriens (1731), with a valuable list of over 4,000 bishoprics. He likewise published a number of classical authors, but his only editions of permanent value were his Codex apocryphus Novi Testamenti (2 vols., 1703; enlarged, 1719) and his Codex pseudepigraphus Veteris Testamenti (1713; enlarged, 2 vols., 1722‑23), both of which are still indispensable in a study of their subjects.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. Reimarus, De vita et acriptie J. A. Fa. bricii, Hamburg, 1737; RL, iv. 1191‑82.
FACULTIES: The term applied in canon law to powers conferred by an ecclesiastical superior upon a subordinate. The most important are the papal faculties. These are conferred on missionaries for certain cases of dispensation and absolution, especially ontheheadsof missionary orders; since thesixteenth century on papal nuncios in countries where, as in Germany, the Roman Catholic Church is endeavoring to recover her former footing; and on the bishops and archbishops, who are regarded as missionaries. These powers have always been limited by a regard to the special needs of the region over which they are to be exercised. Those which are conferred upon bishops in certain countries are usually good for a period of five years (hence called facultates quinquennales), and are normally renewed on their expiration. Besides these traditional faculties, there are certain special ones which may be regarded as an extension of them, allowing archbishops and bishops to reduce masses on a foundation, to designate certain altars as privileged, and to nominate synodal examiners. All these faculties are revocable at the will of the people. They are attached to the person of the bishop in respect of his connection with a particular diocese, and terminate by his death or removal from the particular office, but not by the death of the pope who granted them. The bishops in their turn can confer faculties upon their clergy, especially deans and vicars‑general, to perform certain functions belonging to the ordinary jurisdiction of the bishop (e.g., absolution in cases reserved to the bishop); and they can also, when this right has been expressly given, subdelegate the exercise of the powers conferred on them in their facultatea quinquennalea to such officials. (P. Hlxscmust.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: O. Meier, Die Propapanda, ihre Provinaen and ihr Rech4 i. 39 sqq., ii. 201 sqq., GSttingen, 1852; P. Hinechius. Hirchenrech4 iii. 807 sqq., Berlin, 1882; N. Nilles, in ZHT, xv (1891), 580; A. Konings, Coramentatio in /acultatea apoetoticaa, New York, 1893.
FACUliDUS OF HER111IAHE: Bishop of Her miane, in the North African province of Byzacena; d. after 571. He belonged to the leaders of the anti‑imperial opposition in the so‑called Three Chapter Controversy (q.v.) and in 548 submitted
to Justinian a work in twelve books Pro de f enslone
trium capitulorum, in which he sought mainly to
prove that the emperor's design of condemning
the Antiochian theology might seriously impair the
authority of the Council of Chalcedon. A second
treatise, Liber contra Mocianum scholasticum, in
opposition to the judicatum by which Pope Vigilius
had condemned the Three Chapters, shows that
he was already estranged from Rome, yet the date
of composition is uncertain. A third work is the
Epistola ftdei catholicce in defensione trium capitu
lorum. The three treatises are in MPL, lxvii. 521
878, and in A. Gallandi, Bibliotheca, xi. 663‑821.
G. K'afl(3E8.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Hsrnack TLZ, v (1880), 832‑‑838; H. Kihn, Theodor von Mopauestia, pp. 50‑51, Freiburg, 1880; O. Bardenhewer, Patrolopie, pp. 582‑583, ib. 1901; DCB, ii. 444‑446.

FAGIUS, fii'gi‑us (PHAGIUS, BUCHLEIN), PAULUS: German theologian; b. at Rheinzabern (9 m. s.e. of Landau), Rhenish Bavaria, 1504; .d. at Cambridge, England, Nov. 13, 1549. He studied at Heidelberg (1515) and at Strasburg (1522), where Capito taught him Hebrew; he became rector of the school at Isny, 1527; was a student of theology at Strasburg, 1535; returned as Evangelical pastor to Isny, 1537, and became pupil in Hebrew of Elias Levita; he succeeded Capito as pastor and theological professor in Strasburg, 1542. Violently opposed to the Interim when it was introduced (1549), he accepted Cranmer's invitation to come to England and became professor of Hebrew at Cambridge and soon died of a fever. Under Queen Mary his and Butzer's bones were exhumed and burned (Feb. 6, 1557) and their university honors were taken from these; but Queen Elizabeth ordered that the university formally restore to them their honors (July 22, 1560; cf. Foxe, Arts and Monuments, ed. Townsend, viii. 282‑295, and A brief Treatise concerning the Burning o f Bucer and Phagius with their Restitution, London, 1562). Fagius had a great reputation as a Hebrew scholar and his publications are upon Old Testament exegesis and Hebrew philology. In the bibliography of his writings in La France protestante, iii. 71 sqq., also in Strype's Memorials o f Archbishop Cranmer, p. 845, twenty‑three works are cited, but none has any present interest.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: An account of his life is contained in the Historia de vita Buceri, Strasburg, 1582. Consult: Sobiffer, Paul Fapiua, der eweite eroanodiaahe Prediger ms Junpen St. Peter in Sbuesburp, Strasburg, 1877; ADB, vol. vi.; DNB, xviii. 120.
FAGNANI, fd"nyd"nf, CHARLES PROSPERO: Presbyterian; b. in New York City Oct. 29, 1854. He was graduated at the College of the City of New York in 1873, Columbia College Law School In 1875, and Union Theological Seminary in 1882. He taught in the public schools of New York 18731879, and was chapel minister of Grace Mission of the Fourth Avenue Presbyterian Church 1882‑85 and pastor of Westminster Presbyterian Church, Yonkers, N. Y., 1885‑86. The five years following were spent in Europe, and in 1891 he was appointed instructor in Harvard Divinity School, but was unable to accept on account of ill health. Since

Mari
1892 he has been instructor and professor of He‑		FAIRBAIRN, PATRICK: Scotch Presbyterian;
brew in Union Theological Seminary. In theology		b.	at Hallyburton (32 m. s.e. of Edinburgh),
he belongs to the advanced school of Presbyterian
ism. He has written A Primer of Hebrew (New		6,	1874. He was educated at the University of
York, 1903).		Edinburgh,	was licensed to preach in 1826, and
		from 1830 to 1836 was located in the Orkney
FAGNANI, PROSPER: Roman canoeist;	b.	Islands. In 1836 he was transferred to Bridgeton,
	1598; d. in Rome 1678. At twenty he was grad‑	Glasgow, and in 1840 to Salton, in East Lothian.
	uated as a doctor of law at Perugia, and two years	In	1843 he left the Established Church, but re
	later he was given the important position of secre‑	Wined in Salton as pastor of the Free Church.
	tary to the Congregatio concitif, which held he for	In 1853 he was appointed professor of divinity in
	fifteen years. He was afterward successively sec‑	the theological college of the Free Church at Aber
	retary to other congregations and probably profes‑	deen, and in 1856 he was transferred to the Free
,or of canon law at Rome. The commentary which,		Church college at Glasgow. He was appointed
	at the instance of Alexander VIL, he wrote on the	principal of the institution on Nov. 4 of the same
	decretals (3 vols., Rome, 1661) is still appealed	yes. and held this position till his death. In 1865
to by canoeists.	He was blind from his forty‑	he was moderator of the General Assembly, and
fourth year.		in	1867 a member of the Scotch delegation ap
BIBLIOV8ePH7: HL, iv. 1204‑1208.		pointed to visit Presbyterian churches in the United
	FRANZ IGAAZ: German Roman	States. He was also one of the company for re
FAHRIIER,		vising the Old Testament. His principal works are,
	Catholic; b. at Riehtoldsheim, Alsace, Aug. 27,	The Typology of Scripture (2 vols., Edinburgh,
	1865. He studied at the theological seminary at		guide in the
	Strasburg 1887‑92 and at the University of Munich	1~7;new od.,New York, 1900; a gu lain at Markirch 1892‑97 interpretation of Biblical symbolism), Ezekiel and
(D.D., 1902), was chaplain		the Book of his Prophecy (1851); Prophecy Viewed
	arid vicar of the cathedral at Strasburg 1897‑		,in its Distinctive Nature, its Special Functions, and
	1900. He became professor of moral theology at		its Proper interpretation (1856); Herical Man
	the Strasburg theological seminary in 1902, and in	ual	(1858); and Pastoral Theology, with d Bio
	1903 was appointed associate professor of canon	graphical Sketch of the Author, by J. Dodds (1875).
	law in the University of Strasburg, where he	He also edited, The Imperial Bible Dictionary (2
	has been professor of moral theology since	vols., London, 1866) and translated several theo
	1905. He has written aeschichte der Ehescheid‑	logical works from	the German.
	ung im kanonischen Rech#, i. Unauflbsliehkeitaprin‑		BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides ,the sketch by J. Dodds, ut sup
	zip and vollkmnmene Scheidung der Ehe (FTeiburg,	consult DNB, xviii.122.
1903).
		FAIRCHILD, JAMES HARRIS: Congregation
	FAIggAIRN, ANDREW MARTIN: Congrega‑		alist; b. at Stockbridge, Mass., Nov. 25, 1817; d. at
	tionalist; b. near Edinburgh Nov. 4, 1838. He	Oberlin, O., Mar. 19, 1902. He was graduated at
	studied in Edinburgh (B.A., 1860), at the Evan‑	Oberlin College in 1838, and in it was successively
	gelical Union Theological Academy, Glasgow (1856‑		tutor (1838), professor of Latin and Greek (1842),
	1861), and the University of Berlin (1866‑67). After	of mathematics (1847), moral philosophy and sys
	being minister of Evangelical Union Congrega‑	tematic theology (1858), and president (1866,89).
	tional churches at Bathgate, West Lothian (1860‑		From 1889 till becoming emeritus professor (1895) he
	1872), and St. Paul St., Aberdeen (1872‑77), he was	taught systematic theology in Oberlin Theological
	principal of Airedale College, Bradford, England,	Seminary. As a teacher he was clear, philosoph
	until 1886; and Mansfield College, Oxford, from	ical, and impressive. As a theologian he succeeded
	1886 till his retirement 1909. He was chairman of	Charles Grandison Finney, with whom he agreed
	Congregational Union of England and Wales in		in general, though not without differences springing
	1883 and a member of the royal commission on	from his strong individuality. He taught a " new
	secondary education in 1894‑95, of the theological	school "	Calvinism, in which the freedom of the
	board and theological examinsr in the University	will was emphasized to the essential modification of
	of Wales in 1895‑1904, and of the advisory com‑	the system. The general cast of his system was
	mittee to the theological faculty in the University	practical and concrete rather than metaphysical;
	of Manchester in 1904. He was Muir Lecturer in		but he maintained the divinity of Christ and the
	the University of Edinburgh in 1878‑82, Lyman	trinity, the atonement (governmental theory), and
	Beecher lecturer at Yale in 1891‑92, Gifford Lec‑	the endless future punishment of the incorrigibly
	turer in the University of Aberdeen in 1892‑94,	wicked. He maintained also the ethical doctrine to
	Haskell Lecturer of the University of Chicago in	which earlier Oberlin had given prominence, the sim
	India in 1898‑99, and Deems Lecturer in New York	plicity of moral action, but minimized the doctrine
	University, 1906. He has written Studies in the	of perfection which had been associated with it,
	Philosophy of Religion and History (London, 1876);	teaching the possibility of perfection in this life,
	Studies in the Life o f Christ (1881); The City o f	though laying no emphasis upon it, and not asserting
	(hod (1882); Religion in History and in Modern	its probability. The foundation of moral obligation
Life (1884); Christ in Modern Theology (1893);	he found in the essential worth of sentient being in
Christ in the Centuries (1893); Catholicism, Roman	immediate perception of this, and in the intuitive
and Anglican (1899); and The Philosophy of the	affirmation of obligation to promote universal well
Christian Religion (1902).	being, by conscience. But his greatest service to
THE NEW SCHA.FF‑HER.ZOG
888

267	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	32
		,1
his college was as an administrator, being distin
guished for his business capacity and good sense, his
urbanity and patience, his entire unselfishness, his
reliability, his interes~ in individuals, his extraor
dinary skill in handling men, and his power to bring
things to pass, so under him the institution throve
greatly. He edited the memoirs of President Finney
(New York, 1876), and the latter's Systematic Theol
ogy (Oberlin, 1878). His other publications include
Moral Philosophy; or, The Science of Obligation
(New York, 1869); Woman's Right to the Ballot
(1870; an affirmative statement); Oberlin, the
Colony and the College (Oberlin, 1883); Elements of
Theology, Natural and Revealed (1892).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. T. Swing, Life of James Harris Fair
	child, New York, 1907.
					FAITH.
		I. The New Testament Conception
			The Background (§ 1).
			The Teaching of Jesus (¢ 2).
			Paul (§ 3).
	II. The Doctrine in Theology.
			Before the Reformation (¢ 1).
			The Reformation and Modem Theology (§ 2).
			Faith in Systematic Theology (4 3).
	I. The New Testament Conception: Like every
New Testament conception, the idea of faith goes
to the Old Testament for the key to its meaning.
It		was born when the political fortunes of Israel
entered on their decline. The division of the
				kingdom and the increasing helpless‑
i. The ness of a small state lying across the
Back‑	highway between Mesopotamia and
	ground.	Egypt conditioned its growth and
		character. It dealt with the future
of the nation (Isa. vii. 9, viii. 17, xxvi. 1 sqq.,
xxviii. 16). As secular conditions grew less
favorable, the mind of the representative Israel
ite, the prophet, stayed itself more and more on
the living God, the base and spring of the nation's
existence. Thus the idea of faith is inseparable
from the development of prophetic monotheism.
It is bound up with the unity and holiness of
God and with the divine dominance over nature
and history.
Faith is man's part in the self‑revelation of God, the method of which is vitally connected with its matter. God reveals himself through the experience and history of the chosen nation, and faith is man's assent to God's self‑revelation in and through the nation's experience. By means of faith, the divine control over nature and history in the interest of a distant but authoritative moral end is vitally apprehended so as to constitute the very pith and marrow of man's moral nature. It is an act of trust, a bias and bent of the working will in man's breast, a mood in which he waits steadfastly and joyously for God's assertion of his right of way in history (Isa. xxxviii. 16; Hab. iii. 17‑19).
In ‑prophetism a supreme conception is only half blocked out. The essential quality of faith is disclosed, but its scope and method are not clearly apprehended. Judaism did much to supplement the work of later prophetism (Jeremiah and Ezekiel). The subjective side of life was developed. The nation ceased to be the exclusive unit of thought and emotion, and the individual came, in some
degree, to his rights. In apocalyptics (the Book of Daniel, etc.) the divine control of history is wrought up into a splendid imaginative presentation that has vast power of appeal to the common consciousness. All this helped to enrich the conception of faith. But with the gain came a heavy loss. The apocalyptist weakened the connection between the moral ideal and the forces of history, so that the moral end becomes more or less detached from the moral process.
It was the Savior who restored the sound connection between prophecy and history. The staple of his thought was the messianic
2. The idea, the national hope of Israel. Teaching But by fulfilling the ideal of the suf‑
	of Jesus.	fering servant of the Lord he tran
		scended Judaism. Of the two meth
ods which his age proposed to him, the violence of
the zealot and the dualistic pessimism of the
apocalyptist (IV Esdras), he chose neither. He
realized the kingdom of God in character, the
character of man built upon the character, that
is to say, the fatherhood of God. The kingdom of
God is in the heart and under the eye of those
who have eyes to see (Luke xvii. 21). The law of
its realization is the law of service (Mark x. 45).
The thought of force is expelled from the idea of
God and the conception of man (Matt. xxvi. 52).
The Savior carried the messianic idea out of politics
(Matt. xxii. 21), but without weakening the hold
of the moralizing will in God and man upon his
tory. Saving faith, with Jesus as with the proph
ets, means an entire confidence in the divine con
trol of nature and history. But by laying the
foundations of eschatology in character, the Savior
fulfilled the logic of prophetism and achieved
spiritual and moral universalism without the loss
of social vigor and organizing power (Sermon on
the Mount; John xiii.‑xvii. ).
The work of Christ was summed up in the founding of a church or community devoted to his person and committed to his views and claims. This community was a new type. Its dominant mental quality was the open vision of the kingdom of God manifesting itself in ecstatic forms (the glossolalia, and I Cor. ii. 9 sqq.; see EcsTAsY), not capable of translation into terms of the common good (I Cor. xiv. 20‑25). But its fundamental quality was constructive prophecy (I Cor. xiv. 12), the ethical interpretation of contemporary society and history (" signs of the times ") in their bearing on the well‑being and destiny of the Christian communities. The creed of these communities was the belief in the triumph of the crucified Savior (Acts ii.‑vii.), expressing itself in the impassioned conviction of his resurrection and second coming. This faith was the cleansing element in life (Acts xv. 9), freeing the heart of the believer from fears regarding the inability or unwillingness of God to keep the promises made to the fathers (Acts iii. 20), and inspiring a joyous confidence in the end of the Christian's personal and social existence, which gave to the imitation of Jesus a saving and redemptive aspect (St. Stephen's dying prayer). This community is a messianic community. Dedication to the eternal, the common good, is the essence of its life (hapanta

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
koina, Acts ii. 44, iv. 32). The entire commu~ is pledged to belief in the reality and imminence or God's sway (parousia). And faith in its essence is this practical Old Testament conviction, made radiant and all‑controlling by the life of Christ. It is this stage of the New Testament development of faith that is represented by the Epistle of James and the First Epistle of Peter.
It was the work of Paul to go to the root of the great conception first shaped by the Hebrew prophets. He did this, not by outgrowing the primitive Christian eschatology (for Chris‑
	t. Paul.	tianity is fundamentally eschatologic),
		but by applying the work and mind
of Christ to the ultimate problem, the problem of
character as personality. His conversion flushed
his emotions with the feeling of the divine creative
ness (I Cor. xv. 8; Eph. iii. 8). His work as mis
sionary to the Gentiles deepened this experience.
It was given to him to build congregations of
Christians from the ground (I Cor. i. 28 aqq.; Rom.
iv. 17‑18). The creative character of God mani
fested in Christ became the starting‑point of his
thinking.
When the Judaizing Christians denied his standing as an apostle and sought to stamp his work with their own views, he was driven to a fundamental analysis of the prophetic term faith, and to turn its creative and critical force against the Pharisaic conception of religious merit (ergs rbmou). How is true character or personality (dikaiosune) possible? Of course the Pauline conception of righteousness differs from the conception entertained by the Hebrew prophets; four centuries of Judaism have intervened; the subjective mood is far stronger; the individual is the center of gravity. Yet the apostle continued to think along prophetic lines. He differed broadly from the monastical individual of a later age. While the salvation of the individual is his conscious aim, he thinks about the individual's blessings in terms of the common good (I Cor. ii. 9‑10, xiii.). The point in question is God's ability and willingness to keep his promise of a heavenly commonwealth (Rom. iii. 4; II Cor. i. 20). To be saved by Christ is to have been brought into quickening relation with the supreme hope (Rom. viii. 24). The two great ethical terms righteousness and right, which with the separation of Church from State become more or less separated and specialized, must be brought together in thought if we are to interpret aright the words of Rom. i. I6‑17.
Paul's monotheism is best contrasted with Aristotle's. To use more or less inaccurate terms, Paul's conception is an " ethical monotheism," while Aristotle's is metaphysical. That is to say, Aristotle's final statement is in terms of pure reason, whilo Paul's is in terms of common and social wellbeing. It is in the unity between Jew and Gentile that for him the mystery of things centers (mysWion, Rom. xi. 25 aqq.; Eph. ii. 11‑iii. 19). The religious and social unity of the Mediterranean world was his supreme object. As with Isaiah, so, on a different level, with Paul, the creative and vitalizing unity of God invading history through Christ is the all‑controlling thought. God can
efficiently manifest himself only in terms of human unity (Ram. iii. 27 sqq.; I Cor. i.‑iv.; Phil. i. 27ii. 11). A saving faith is, necessarily, a creatively social faith (the two editions of the trilogy: I These. i. 3, and I Cor. rill. 13). Faith in Christ pledges the redeemed man to the realization of the kingdom of God (Gal. v. 6).
In the Epistle to the Hebrews the Hellenistic or metaphysical element enters, coming from Alexandrine Judaism and its reflective view of revelation. But the Hellenic element is controlled and directed by the prophetic element. Faith is defined (xi. 1) as that state of the heart and that bias of will in men which gives substance to things hoped for and secures a solid conviction regarding the reality of things unseen. Here as elsewhere, faith is inseparable from the kingdom of God. The things hoped for are the messianic blessings promised by God through the prophets. Faith in Christ gives them a body, imparts to the conscience moral certitude touching the end and issues of history. Owing to the blending of the philosophical and prophetic elements in this definition the Church catholic adopted it as its working conception.
The different shades of meaning in New Testament writers serve to bring out more clearly the decisive agreement. Faith is the saving assent of the heart to Christ's proclamation of the supreme moral order described as the kingdom of God. The creedal conception of faith grows out of this conception, under the historical conditions of a later period in the Church. But, owing to those conditions, the creedal conception is not wholly true to the New Testament emphasis on the kingdom of God. Faith, in the New Testament sense, is man's perception of the spiritual and moral order of experience and life offered to man by God in Christ. But it is more than a perception. It is the supreme form of will‑power in man. By faith he perceives, and in faith he wills and, under God, ordains the moral equality and the moral end of human history. Through the believer's self‑surrender to the divine plan for the nation and the race, God gives him a righteousness that has vitalizing and unifying power among the complications of life, and at the same time, gives to society the promise of justice and right. Without this organizing power, faith shrivels to the individual's confidence in his personal salvation.
HENRY 8. NAaH.
II. The Doctrine in Theology: Faith, in the language of religion, is that personal attitude by which divine revelation is subjectively appropriated. With Paul it was the all‑sufficient ground of righteousness and justification (Rom. iv. 22 sqq.)a view which was soon obscured in the
z. Before Christian Church. With the Apos‑
the Refor‑ folic Fathers the connection of faith
	oration.	with the attitude of love was more a
		postulate than an inherent necessity
(I Clement x. 7, xii. 1; Shepherd of Herman, Sim.
VIII. ix. 1). Moralistic and intellectualistic
thoughts of foreign origin penetrated Christianity
and as early an Clement of Alexandria faith was
supplanted by love as condition of salvation and

989	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	IWth
by gnosis as the knowledge of revelation, and became nothing more than a rudimentary step in the development of the Christian. For Augustine, too, faith means only the" beginning of religion." To believe means cum assenaione cogitare (De prcedestinatione sonctorum, v.) and assent is obedience to the law of a formal authority which primarily is Scripture, but then also the Church. Faith is decisive for the reception of salvation only in so far as it is active through love. The consummating effect of grace is therefore the inspiration of love (inspiratio diledionis). Similar thoughts were advanced by Anselm of Canterbury, and Peter Lombard first coined the expressions fides informis (=mere faith) and fides formats (=faith connected with love). Thomas Aquinas defines faith on the basis of Augustine's formula (cum assensione cogitare) as an act of the intellect which is impelled to assent by the will. Although in the last instance related to the first cause or deity, faith has reference principally to the Church; it is a faith of authority.
The Reformation gave back to faith its immediate relation to the revelation of salvation and understood it again in the Pauline sense as the personal apprehension of divine grace in Christ. Luther describes faith as a living trust of the heart. The assensus, according to him, is an assenting impulse of the will which originates in the Z. The Ref‑ impression of the truth of the divine
ormation word upon the conscience and heart. and Modern God's revelation, which awakens faith,
	Theology.	sets all spiritual powers of man into
		motion, and the assent to his Word
and knowledge of his grace are born only with the
trust in salvation. Love can not be separated
from faith. Melanchthon taught the same views,
but in the later form of his Loci distinguished be
tween notitia, ossensus, fcducia, and prepared the
way for the mechanical view of the later ortho
dox school which regarded notitia and assensvs
as preliminary steps of fiducia. Johann Gerhard
advanced this view. According to it, a rational
knowledge of divine revelation is necessary before
we can inwardly assent to it. David Hollaz drew
the consistent conclusion that such an abstract con
viction of the truth of Scripture can be only a
faith of authority.
In modern theology Schleiermacher's conception of religion as an original inner experience, distinguished from knowledge and action, has exercised a decisive influence upon the treatment of the conception of faith, by the establishment of a psychological scheme; but owing to his insufficient appreciation of historical revelation, his doctrine of faith bears the traits of a general religion rather than of the Christian faith of salvation. R. Rothe prepared the way for a more definite grasp of Christian faith by emphasizing more strongly the historical and yet at the same time supranatural element of revelation. A. R?tgchl defined faith as trust (fiducia) in the revelation of God in Christ and demanded rightly that the faith of providence should be understood as the realization of the Christian faith of atonement; but his connection of justification with the existence of the community of believers led him to the conclusion that the
reception of the forgiveness of sins forms rather the presupposition than the content of individual faith. In general it may be said that there exists in modern Protestant theology an agreement on the following points: (1) Faith does not originate from logical processes, but from an immediate inner experience. (2) It is not a human achievement and not the acknowledgment of a human authority, but an effect of God through his revelation. (3) The assensus in the sense of conviction of faith and knowledge of faith can not be separated from fiducia. (4) Trust in salvation presupposes an awakened knowledge of sin and the desire for salvation. (5) The new moral life of the Christian has as its basis the forgiveness of sins, which has been received in faith.
The conception of faith is usually treated in systematic theology both in a general way as the principle of Christian knowledge, and more specifically, in the doctrine of salvation, as the medium of the appropriation of sal3. Faith in vation. In the former case it refers Systematic to revelation in general and is
	Theology.	treated in its relation to knowledge;
		in the latter case it refers to the
salutary gift of the forgiveness of sins and is
treated in its relation to repentance and works.
Since Christian revelation culminates in redemp
tion, only the faith of salvation is the truly
Christian faith of revelation. In redemption God
reveals himself as holy love which saves the
sinner; the faith of the Christian bears there
fore the character of a grateful trust in God
who effects his salvation in Christ. This trust has
its basis and support in the revelation of salvation
which is appropriated by the believer. Faith may
therefore be traced back to two primary elements,
to an activity of God, in which he realizes his holy
love through redemption, and to an experience of
man in which he recognizes and seizes the revelation
of salvation as his own possession. Because trust
of salvation is based upon historical revelation,
it includes a certain representation of God and his
activity which develops into knowledge of faith;
but because this revelation can be understood only
by him who seizes it in trust, knowledge of faith
can not exist without experience of faith. Objec
tions might be raised against the statement that
faith rests upon an inner experience because in
this way its objective basis in God's revelation
might be obscured; but the origin of faith must be
traced back to the effect of God and not to man's
own decision. The fundamental act of God which
awakens Christian faith is to be found in the send
ing forth of Christ and in his work of redemption.
The deciding motive of faith is Christ as he is rep
resented in the testimony of his first disciples.
Although faith is a spontaneous and original ex
perience which can not be derived from anything
else, a definite psychic disposition may be spoken
of without which faith of salvation does not origi
nate; namely, knowledge of sin and its misery.
Christ as the redeemer can be seized with real trust
only by him who desires to become free from sin.
Therefore it is pertinent that the reformatory doc
trine of salvation places repentance before faith.

Faith
Fallows
Nevertheless, the repentance which prepares the
way for faith is neither a perfect knowledge of sin
nor a complete deliverance from it. It is only a
longing for justification. It is therefore true that
repentance, without which faith of salvation does
not come into existence, becomes an accomplished
fact only with that faith. The division of the uni
form function of faith into the three acts of notitia,
assess, and fiducia is misleading, if it is to be
understood as rational explanation of the origin
of faith. Notitia and assensvs have to do with
religious faith only if they are included in fiducia.
It is self‑evident, of course, that trust of salvation
can not originate without hearing of the message
of salvation, but the assensni~a as a certain con
viction of the power of redemption of Christ
and of the reality of a transcendent God can
take place only in and with fiducia. All cer
tainty and knowledge of God and divine things
has its origin in fiducia. To this certainty which
faith gives, belongs before everything that trust
ing certainty of one's personal salvation which
the Reformation opposed to the uncertainty of
salvation as taught by the medieval Church and
the Council of Trent. It is upheld by the testi
mony of the Spirit; i.e., by the inwardly experi
enced union with Christ and God. But in this
communion with God there is at the same time
the source of a new moral activity. There is no
appropriation of the divine grace of salvation which
does not include the appropriation of the holy will
of God; but even as the principle of Christian
morality, faith does not lose its receptive character.
The will to do good does not originate from a power
which faith possesses in itself, but from the power
which it continually receives from its union with
Christ. On the same basis there arises for the
Christian finally the knowledge of faith which is
distinguished from other knowledge in so far as
it presupposes the individually conditioned ex
perience of salvation and in so far as it is the per
ception of existing reality in the light of the tran
scendent knowledge of God, a perception sub specie
ceternitatis. As knowledge of faith has been
acquired at the highest summit attainable to man,
it must necessarily decide before everything his
view of the world, although it is true that its con
nection with the knowledge of the world presents
special difficulties on account of its different origin
and point of view; nevertheless, it is the indis
pensable task of Christian theology to find the right
method for a harmony. 	(O. KIRN.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY. A large literature in English is indicated in J. F. Hurst, Literature o/ Theology, pp. 706‑707, New York, 1898. On the New Testament idea consult: A. Sehlatter, Der Glaube im N. T.. Stuttgart, 1898; F. C. Baur. Paulus, ii., part i., chap. 4, Stuttgart, 1846, Eng. trans[., Paul the Apostle, London, 1875 (not to be neglected); O. Pfleiderer, Pauliniemua, part i•, chap. iv., Leipsic, 1873, Eng. transl., Paulinisrn, London, 1877; and the works on N. T. theology by Weiss, Beyschlag, and Gould mentioned in or under BIBLICAL THEOLOGY.
For faith as a theological concept consult: T. C. Upham, The Life of Faith, Boston, 1845; J. Mi511er, Dopmatische Abhandlungen, Bremen, 1870; J. H. Newman, Grammar of Assent, London, 1870; H. W ace, The Foundations of Faith, ib. 1880; J. Kaftan, Glaxbe and Dogma, Bielefeld, 1889, idem, Truth of the Christian Religion, Vol. Ii., London. 1893; A. Ritschl, Fides xmplicita, Bonn,
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
270
1890; A. FIarnsck, in Ze%tachritt fib' Theologee and R%rche, i (1891), 82 eq4.; F. E. KBnig. Der Glaubensattt der Christen, Leipeie, 1891; P. Strutt, The Nature of Faith, London, 1891; J. KBatlin, Die Beprilndung unserer eittlichreLipi6am Ueberaeu9unp, Berlin 1893; %dem, Der Glauba and seine Bedeutunp far Erkenntnias. Len and Kirehe, ib. 1895; J. Hauseleiter, Greifawalder 9tudien, pp.. 159 eqq., Greifewald, 1895; K. Thieme, Die aitUiehe Trieblcraft des GlaTbe"s• Leipeic, 1895; G. Vorbrodt, Pattchohgie des Glaubena, GSttingen, 1895; M KBhler, Der sopenannte hiatoriache Jesus and der gesehichtliche, bablieeha Jesus, Leipaie, 1898; F. Sieffert, Die neueaten theolopiachen Forachunpen caber Busse and Gfaube. Berlin, 1898; W. James, The Will to Believe, New York. 1897; M. Reiaehle, in Zeitachritt far Theolopie and Kirchs, vi (1897), iii.: idem, Christliche Glaubenalehre, Halls, 1902; W. Bright, The Latu of Faith , London, 1899; G. A. Gordon, Ultimate Conceptions of Faith, Boston, 1903; A. C. A. Hall. Relations of Faith and Life, London, 1905; W. Schmidt, Moderns Theotopie des alten Glaubsne, GOtersloh, 1908; and the literature under DOGMA, DOGIaAT1Ca.
FAITH, RULE OF. See REGULA FIDEL
FAKIR. See HINDUIBM, I, § I.
FALASHAS. See ABYSaINIA AND THE ABY6BINIAN CHURCH, §§ 1, 7.
FALCONER, ROBERT ALEXANDER: Presbyterian; b. at.Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Feb. 10, 1867. He studied in London (B.A., 1883), Edinburgh (M.A., 1889; B.D., 1892), Berlin,. Leipaic, and Marburg, and since 1892 has been connected with the Presbyterian College, Halifax, Nova Scotia,
as lecturer in New Testament exegesis (1892‑95), professor of the same subject (1895‑1904) and principal (since 1904). He has written The Truth of the Apostolic Gospel (New York, 1904).
FALCOftIO, DIOMEDE: Roman Catholic arch‑
bishop and apostolic delegate; b. at Pesctxostanzo (73 m. n. of Naples), Italy, Sept. 20, 1842. He entered the Franciscan Order in 1880, and five years later was sent to the United States as missionary. In 1868 he was ordained priest, and was professor of philosophy and vice‑president of St. Bonaventure's College, Allegheny, Pa. (1866), professor of theology and secretary of the Franciscan Province of the Immaculate Conception (1867), and president of the College and Seminary of St. Bonaventure (1868‑71). He was secretary and administrator of the cathedral at Harbor Grace, N. F., 1871‑82, and after a year in the United States returned to Italy and was elected provincial of the Franciscans in the Abruzzi. He was later reelected, and in 1888 was commissary and visitor‑general for the province of Puglia, becoming in 1889 synodal examiner for the diocese of Aquila and commissary and visitor‑general for the
Franciscan province of Puglia. He was procurator‑general of his order and visitor‑general in various Franciscan provinces from 1889 to 1892, when he was consecrated titular bishop of Lacedonia, being elevated, three years later, to be arch‑
bishop of Acerenza and Maters in Basilicata. He was Apostolic Delegate to Canada 1899‑1902, and since 1902 has been apostolic delegate to the United States.

FALK, f81k, JOHANNES DANIEL: German philanthropist‑ b. at Danzig Oct. 28, 1768; d. at Weimar Feb. 14, 1826. He was the son of a wigmaker who belonged to the • eformed Church, and

271	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Faith
Fallows
received but a limited education, until, by the intervention of friends and relatives, he was allowed to study music, and to take part in the musical entertainments in the Catholic Church. In his home he had the opportunity of learning French, which he gradually supplemented by a knowledge of English. In 1787 he was awarded a stipend which enabled him to pursue the study of theology at the University of Halle, but gradually he forsook theology for philology and literature. Filled with plans for a literary career, he settled in Weimar, and was cordially received by Wieland, Goethe, and Herder. Falk's trend was essentially satiric, and he accordingly began to criticize the weaknesses and inconsistencies manifested by the social and poetical conditions of his time. The events which were then agitating Germany finally caused Falk to become more practical in his tendencies, and in 1806 he began the publication of a periodical instead of the belletristic Taschenb4cher. The main title of this journal Elysium and Tartarus, was still reminiscent of his former tendency, but its subtitle, Zeitung fur Poesie, Kunst and Zeitgeschichte, revealed a new interest in life. On account of its freedom of expression, however, the periodical was suppressed before the battle of Jena (Oct. 14, 1806).
This conflict marked a turning‑point in Falk's career. The French commission chose him as a mediator between itself and the populace, and in this position he was enabled to prevent many an injustice and to alleviate much suffering. In recognition of his services the grand duke of Weimar created him a Legationsrat, while the people honored him with the title of " the benevolent councilor." The war claimed still other services from him. Many orphaned children sought refuge with him, and he took them into his home in the place of his own children, who had fallen victims in the struggle. Together with Horn of Weimar he founded Die Gesellschaft der Freunde in der Not (The Society of Friends in Need), and remained its moving spirit. This society assumed the task of distributing the orphaned children in the homes of citizens, although Falk made it a rule to keep some of them in his house until he could form an idea of their capabilities, while a teacher's training was given those who showed an aptitude for learning.
Falk shared with Fmncke the pedagogic tendency to make confidence in God the center and aim of all activity; not in the punctilious spirit of Pietism, but with freedom and joy. His lofty ideals savor of Pestalozzi in his insistence on the close companionship of teacher and pupil. The beautiful songs, such as 0 du frohliche and Was kann schoner sewn, which he wrote among and for the children, form a fitting close to his literary career. Although devoid of essentially religious training, and lacking denominational character, Falk's activity, a precursor of Reinthaler's Martinatift at Erfurt and Wichern's Rauhes Haus at Horn, may he said to have been a forerunner not only of educational societies, but also of home missions. This view was voiced by himself when he said, " The chief aim pursued by our society for eleven years
seems a form of missionary work, a saving of souls, a conversion of heathen; not in Asia or Africa, but in our own midst, in Saxony and in Prussia "; and he himself characterizes the great turning‑point in his life in the following words: " I was one of a thousand scamps in German literature, who thought that they served the world if they sat at their desks, yet by the grace of God I was not, like the rest, made into writing paper, but was used as lint, and placed in the open wounds of the age. So they tear me and pluck me the whole day long. for the wound is deep, and they use me to stanch it as long as a shred is left of me."
(THEODOR SCHAFER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Rosalie Falk, Erdnnerungabltitkr, Weimar, 1868; W. Heinselmann, J. Falk and die Gesellseha ft der Freunde do der Nofh, Brandenburg, 1879; Daa Leben des Johannes Falk, Hamburg, 1892; W. Baur, Geschiehtaund Lebenebilder Gus der Erneuerung des religi66aen Lebene, p. 223, ib. 1893; P. Wurster, Die Lehre von'der Inneren Mission, p. 32, Berlin, 1895; ADB, vi. 549.
FALKENBERG, JOHANNES: Dominican, professor of theology at Cracow; d. at Liegnitz (40 m. w.n.w. of Breslau), Silesia, after 1438. In the light of his writings thus far published and what has been published about him, he is noteworthy only on account of the accusation brought against him by the Polish delegation to the Council of Constance. Commissioned by the Teutonic Order, with which Poland was then waging a hot contest for its existence, he had written an impassioned tract against the Polish king, to the effect that as the king had supported infidels in warfare against believers, he was himself to be treated as an unbeliever. After Martin V. had occupied the " orphaned " see of St. Peter, . the Polish envoys succeeded by brutal proceedings, in bringing Falkenberg to trial. By the condemnation of Falkenberg, which was pronounced secretly as early as May 14, 1418, the pope secured, in Jan., 1424, the Polish support against a new council. Fadkenberg was then set free, and after still plying his envenomed pen against the Teutonic Order, which had not rewarded him to his satisfaction, he is supposed to have died on the way home.
B. BEss.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: sources are certain of his tracts in Gersonai Opera, ad. Du Pin v. 1020‑29, Antwerp, 1706; Monuments . . ree geatas Polonix illustrantia, viii (1883), no. 581, xii (1891), 113, 170‑174. Consult B. Bees, in ZKG, xvi (1892), part 3.
FALK LAWS. See ULTRAMONTANIsM.
FALL OF MAN. See SiN.
FALLOWS, SAMUEL: Reformed Episcopal bishop; b. at Pendleton (a suburb of Manchester), Lancashire, England, Dec. 13, 1835. He emigrated to the United States at the age of thirteen and was graduated at the University of Wisconsin in 1859.
He was vice‑president of Galesville University, Galesville, Wis., in 1859‑61 and a minister of the Methodist Episcopal Church from 1859 to 1875. He served in the Union army during the Civil War, and was promoted colonel and brevet brigadiergeneral. After the cessation of hostilities he was pastor of a Methodist church in Milwaukee. He was a regent of the University of Wisconsin 18661874 and state superintendent of public instruction

a:yaaniAt a
8slstions
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	272
youth to be the prophet to prepare the way for the approaching end of time. In this period he began to commit his revelations to writing, and for twenty years (1540‑ 60), Emden was the center both of his mercantile activity and his religious propaganda, while he journeyed throughout Holland and Flanders, and also visited Paris and London. To this period belong the majority of his stings, of which the most important were Den Spegel der Gherechticheit, dorch den Geist der
	.,rgodeden M6nseh H. N. uth
de hemmelische Warheit betilget, and Evangelium
offte sine frqlicke Bodeschop des Rycke godes uncle
Christi (Eng. transl., An Introduction to the Under
standing o f the Glasse o f Righteousness, by C. Vittell,
1575 [?J). Most of these works were printed secretly,
but, as is now certain, partly by the press of the
famous Antwerp printer Plantin, who had become
a convert to Niclaes' views about 1550, despite
the fact that later he was the " prototypo
graphus " of the king of Spain and printer to the
Holy See. Niclaes himself continued to be osten
sibly a strict Roman Catholic, his works being dis
seminated by his closest disciples, while he him
self established his Familia caritatis at Emden.
This was essentially a community of mystic . indifferentism, only loosely connected with historic
Christianity. While the teachings Doctrines of the Bible and the Church were of the not denied, they were practically
Familists. ignored, being regarded either as a
mere preparation for the age of love, or being reduced to allegories. The basis of the system is a mystic pantheism, which explains how Niclaes could believe that God and Christ had become incarnate in himself, although others also might thus partake of God. On the other hand, the self‑consciousness of the founder, who did not hesitate to term himself an incarnation of God or Christ, often defeated the logical consequences of pantheism; and the organization of the sect, with its twenty‑four elders, archbishops, four classes of priests, and "supreme bishop," was entirely monarchical. A centralized administration was necessitated, moreover, by the complicated system of priests professing poverty, a community giving tithes, and an involved law of inheritance. There is no reason to suppose, however, that Niclaes was a conscious hypocrite, although his mysticism of love had an antinomian tendency, and both the organization of the sect and many practises of the community were not free from peril. The propaganda of Niclass did not escape the notice of the authorities of Emden. Niclaes himself escaped in 1560, before proceedings could be taken against him, and lived the life of a refugee for several years, residing successively at Kampen, Utrecht, probably again in England, and, after 1570 in Cologne. He seems to have died in 1580, the year in which appeared his Terra Paris, Ware Getfgenisse van idt geistelick Landachop des Fredes (Eng. transl., Terra Paeia. A True Testifieation of the Spirituall Lande of Promyse, 1575 [?]). His success on the Continent had been comparatively slight. At the time of his death he had disciples in Amsterdam, Antwerp, Dort, Kampen,
for Wisconsin 1870‑74. In 1874‑75 he' was presi dent of Illinois Wesleyan University, Bloomington, Ill., but in 1875 withdrew from the Methodist Episcopal Church for the Reformed Episcopal denomination. Since 1875 he has been rector of St. Paul's Reformed Episcopal Church, Chicago, and has been a bishop of the Church since 1876. Iie has been elected presiding bishop seven times. In 1876 he founded the Reformed Episcopal Appeal, which he edited for four years. Among his writings mention may be made of Bright and Happy Homes (Chicago, 1877); The Home Beyond (1879); Past Noon (Cincinnati, O., 1886); The Bile Looking Glass (Naperville, Ill., 1898); Popular and Critical Biblical Dictionary (Chicago, 1901); and Christian Philosophy (1905.)
FAMU.IAR SPIRIT. See DivnJeTTON, ~ 1.
gAMILIARES; A term applied to domestic
servants or craftsmen employed in the service of a monastery, who, without being either monks or lay brothers, were considered as belonging in a sense to the order, and were thus required to join in certain religious exercises.
FAXELIARITAS (coMMENSALTTIUM): In canon law, a term describing one of the grounds on which a bishop may ordain a man who dote not strictly belong to his diocese. It is not required that the candidate shall have literally lived in the bishop's house and sat at his table, but he must have received his support from the bishop's personal funds, and have been for three years in such dose communication with the bishop that the latter shall have had full opportunity to acquaint himself with his character. A benefice must also be provided for him by the bishop within a month after his ordination.
FA>IHLI6TS (Family of Love; Huia der Liefde; Familia caritatis) : A short‑lived religious community, founded in Emden, East Friesland, about 1540 by Hendrik Niclaes, or Niclas, and exercising a certain amount of influence in the The religious confusion of the later Eng‑
	Founder.	fish Revolution, as well as in the Phila
		delphian Society of Jane Lead (q.v.).
Horn of Roman Catholic parentage on Jan. 9 or 10,
1502 or 1501,, possibly at Munster, Niclaes spent
the first twenty‑nine years of his life in his native
city as a merchant. He was originally a devoted
follower of the ancient faith, and even in his career
as the leader of a sect he felt still formally con
nected with Romaq Catholicism. However, he
entered into spiritual communion with many who
were inclined toward the Reformation, and in
1528 he was imprisoned for a short time, but was
released for lack of evidence. Some time before
1531 he settled in Amsterdam, remaining there
more than nine years. The only details known
concerning this residence are that within a year
he was again imprisoned, and that after his speedy
release he lived in seclusion, devoting himself to
a life of Pietism. It was not until his thirty‑ninth
year that Niches became a figure of importance
and claimed that revelations had assured him that
God had poured upon him the " spirit of the true
love of Jesus Christ," and had chosen him from his

278
Rotterdam, Emden, Cologne, and Paris, but in all these places the community seems to have survived only a short time, the last certain mention of them dating from 1604.
In England the influence of the Familiste was deeper and more lasting. The entering wedge seems to have been a Dutch congregaThe tion in London, with whom Niclaes
	Familiata came in contact, especially as this
in 	community included adherents of
	England., David Joris (q.v.) and similar fanat
		ics. Christopher Vital, a native of
Delft, the city of Joris, was, moreover, long the
head of the English Familists, but the movement
soon spread to genuinely English soil, and the most
of the writings of Niclaes were translated into
English. In 1574 the English government pro
ceeded against the Familists, whereupon they
addressed to Parliament An Apology for the Service
o f Love and the People that Own it, and in: the fol
lowing year issued A Brief Rehearsal of the Belief
o f the Goodwilling in England, which are named the
Family of Love. They were answered by John
Rogers and John Knewetub, and on Oct. 3, 1580,
Elizabeth issued a proclamation against them
which condemned their books and directed that the
sectaries themselves be imprisoned. A week later
a	formula of abjuration was promulgated, and
laws against the Familists soon followed. The
sect did not disappear, however, and James I. was
addressed by them in petitions soon after his ac
cession, but in vain. The new monarch was ex
tremely antagonistic to them, and had declared as
early as the preface to his Basilicas doron in 1599,
that they were responsible for the rise of Puritanism.
After the fall of the Stuarts, they were opposed by
John Etherington; but in the Republican period
many of the works of Niches .were reprinted,
while it has been suggested that Bunyan's Pil
grim's Progress owes its inspiration to Familist
writings. They were also closely connected with
the Ranters of the Commonwealth. After the
Restoration the Familists vanished, and by the
beginning of the eighteenth century but one aged
member of the sect was known to be alive.
Niclaes' faithless disciple Hendrik Jansen of Barreveldt, writing under the pseudonym of Hiel, long survived his teacher. Of his The life little is known, although in his
	Successor	later years he himself says that he
	of Niclaes.	led the life of a wanderer. He was
		closely associated with Plantin and
his family, who printed the greater part of his
writings, his chief work being Het Boeck tier Ghs
tuygenissen van den verborgen Ackersehat, published
by Plantin at Antwerp in Flemish and French about
1580. Hiel discarded the hierarchic and ceremonial
traditions of his master, and declared all external
worship a matter of indifference, thus rendering it
possible for the famous Antwerp printer to remain
formally in the Roman Catholic Church, and to
belong to the Spanish Catholic party despite his
sympathy with the Familists. (F. Loose.)
Btataomsrax: The fundamental work for a study of Nielsee and his sect is F. Nippold, HeinrisA Niches and
das Haus tier Liebe, in ZHT, xxxii (1862), 323102, 473IV.‑18
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
b83, which uses original and newly discovered sources, all of which and others are noted by J. H. Hemels, Notes and Quoin, OcL‑Nov., 1869. The article in DNB, xl 427‑431 is exceedingly valuable. Consult further: O. Arnold, Kircken‑ snl %treNHistorie, ii. 123 sqq 4 vole., Frankfort, 1700‑15; C. A.,Tiele, Chrietophs Piantin et le aedaire mystique Henrik Niches, in Le Bibliophile Beige, iii (1868), 121‑138 (noes original sources partly the same as. Nippold's, ut sup.); M. Rooms, Ckrietophe Planks, pp. 441 ,sqq.. Antwerp, 1882 (seta forth Plantin'e relation to Niches and the sect); A. J. van tier As, Biopraphisrh Woordenboek tier Nederlanden, xiii. 177‑185, Haarlem, 1868; J. H. Blunt, Dictionary of Bade, Heresies, . .. , pp. 158‑160, Philadelphia, 1874 (useful for referenoee to books treating of the sect in England).

FAMILY AND	MARRIAGE RELkTION3,
	HEBREW.
Patriarohsl.Conetitution of the Family (1 1). Marriage Effected by Purchase (1 2)•
The Wife's Property Rights (1 3).
Polygamy the Rule (1 4).
Tendency toward Monogamy (1 5).
Ethical and Social Limitations and Preferences (16). Divorce (§ 7).
Legal Status of Woman (1 8).
Social Position of Woman (¢ 9). Wedding Customs (1 10).
Legal Position of the Widow (¢ 11). The'Levirate (1 12).
Desire for Children (1 13). Customs at Birth (1 14).
Legal Statue and Training of Children (1 15). Position of the First‑born (1 16).
In historical times the Israelite family was patriarchal, i.e., kinship, tribal affinity, and inheritance were determined by descent from the father; though there was a time when matriarchy existed among the Semites, these relations then being determined by the mother. And it must be admitted :. Patri‑ that among the Hebrews traces are archal Con‑ found of former matriarchal constitution of ditions, e.g., the position occupied by the Family. such women as Leah, Rachel, Bilhah, Zilpah, Keturah, and Hagar. Expressions found in Gen. x1ii. 38, xliii. 29, xliv. 20 (of. Judges ix. 2) show how long the feeling persisted that relationship was determined by the mother. Descent from the same mother but not from the father formed a barrier to marriage. This is shown by marriage with half‑sister, stepmother, and daughter‑in‑law, a practise which continued till the exile (Ezek. xxii. 10‑11). Characteristics of the matriarchy were: derivation of name from the mother (Gen. xxx. 3), inheritance through her (Gen. xxi. 10), marriage of the girl through the brother's'initiative (not the father's; Gen. xxiv.; only in verse 50 is Bethuel's name added), and marriage of the man into the family of the wife (Gen. xxiv. 5; Judges xiv., xv. 2).
Marriage was effected by purchase. The legal relation was founded upon an engagement acxomplished by the payment of purchase‑money. The engaged girl became the property of the man, and in case of rape or infidelity was treated as a married woman. Written marriage‑contracts, 2. Marriage which were customary among the anEffected by cient Babylonians (Code o/ HamrmtPurchase. rabi, § 128), are not mentioned until a late period (Tobit vii. 14). The father received the purchase‑money; but in course of time this custom changed and a part of the

Fsm11y&ndXexT1&'el"latioas
money went to the bride. On an average the price was about fifty shekels (Dent. xxii. 29; cf. Ex. xxii. 16‑17; Code of Hammurabi, § 139). This obligation could also be met in other ways: Jacob served as a hired hand (Gen‑ xxix. 15 sqq.), others accomplished feats of war (Josh. xv. 16; I Sam. xvii. 25, xviii. 20 sqq.). While not explicitly stated in the Old Testament, it is implied that the unjustifiable withdrawal of the bridegroom caused him to lose the purchase‑price. If the father‑inlaw withdrew, he had to repay the money twofold (Code of Hammurabi, §§ 159, 160).
All that the wife brought with her were the presents, if any, received from the groom (Gen. xxiv. 53, xxxiv. 12; cf. Code of Hammurabi, § 159), and those from her family (Josh. xv. 16 sqq.), including particularly slaves for her personal
3. The service (Gen. xvi. 2, xxiv. 59, xxix.
Wife's	24 sqq.). There is no mention of a
Property	dowry, properly speaking, until after
	Rights.	the exile (Tobit viii. 21; Ecclus. xxv.
		22; I Kings ix. 16 proves only the
Egyptian custom). Daughters could not inherit
paternal property; but whatever they brought
into matrimony with them remained theirs. The
husband had no authority over the personal slaves
of the wife (Gen. xvi. 6, xxx. 3 sqq.). In the ab
sence of any express statement to the contrary,
it must be assumed that in case of separation or
death of the husband, the wife received back her
original property (cf. Code of Hammurabi, §§ 137,
138, 171, 172).	I
The consent of the girl was not necessary to the engagement, though it is probable that she was usually consulted (Gen. xxiv. 58). The negotiations were conducted by the girl's father or guardian (Gen. xxiv. 50, xxix. 23, xxxlv. 12); for the unmarried daughter belonged to her father, who had the right to sell her (Ex. xxi. 7). The seduction of a girl was a trespass against the father, who could demand of the offender the usual price of a wife without being required to give the girl in marriage to the seducer (Ex. xxii. 1G‑17).
In contrast to the custom in ancient Babylon, polygamy was the rule in Israel. In Babylon (Code of Hammurabi) a man could marry only one principal wife, but he was allowed 4. Polygamy to keep another woman in addition,
	the Rule.	unless his wife gave him one of her
		slaves as a concubine. In Israel the
only limit to the number of wives was ability to
support them. Wealthy men made extensive use
of their rights (cf. II Sam. v.13; I Kings xi. 1 sqq.);
still the law of the kingdom, referring covertly to
Solomon, forbade the King to take many wives
(Dent. xvii. 17). The Talmudists allow to the
king not more than eighteen wives at one time,
to a man of the people not more than four. Pre
sumably the commoner in Israel, like the modern
peasant in Palestine, was content with onp or two
wives. If the first wife remained barren, the hus
band was entitled to either another wife or a con
cubine, in which case the wife might voluntarily
give him her handmaid (Gen. xvi. 1 sqq., xxx. 3
sqq.; cf. Code of Hammurabi, § 144).
But even this limited polygamy caused much
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
274
inconvenience, particularly in the status of the childless wife (Gen. xvi. 4 sqq.; cf. xxx.; I Sam. i. 1 sqq.). The later law took the part of the dis‑
carded wife (Dent. xxi. 15 sqq.); and 5. Tendency the former custom of marrying two
toward sisters at the same time was proMonogamy. hibited (Lev. xviii. 18). The devel‑
opment was toward monogamy; and Gen. ii. 18 sqq., as well as passages in the Prophets, where the relation of God to his people is characterized as one of marriage, shows that monogamy was regarded as the normal state. The praise of the virtuous wife in the Proverbs and elsewhere proves that the later period saw in monogamy the ideal marriage (Ps. cxxviii.; Prov. xii. 4, xviii. 22, xix. 14, xxxi. 10 sqq.; Ecclus. xxv. 1 sqq., etc.).
Impediments to marriage were unknown to ancient custom except that marriage between father and daughter or mother and son was always looked upon as an abomination. Theoretically the young man might choose a wife wherever he pleased; practically, he was limited. Since it was a question of admitting a woman into the family, marriage became a family affair. The father chose the bride for his son (Gen. xxiv. 2 sqq., xxviii. 1
sqq, xxxviii. 6), and it was unseemly 6. Ethical for the son to marry against the will and Social of his parents (Gen. xxvi. 34‑35, Limitations xxvii. 46). Yet the preferences of and the young people were taken into Preferences. account; and, since there were no
particular restraints on the social intercourse of the sexes, there was ample opportunity for the development of such attachments (Gen. xxiv. 58; Ex. ii. 16; I Sam. ix. 11, etc.). Yet by custom, marriages outside of the tribe were interdicted, while marriages with relations were preferred (Gen. xxix. 19; Num. xxvi. 59, and often in patriarchal history). Particularly the cousin on the father's side was chosen as a girl's wooer (cf. the cases of Isaac and Rebecca, Jacob and Rachel), a custom that still exists. To be sure, settlement in Canaan brought changes, and marriages with Canaanites and other foreigners were not infrequent (Judges iii. 6; II Sam. iii. 3; I Kings xi. 1, etc.). In the regal period friendship for the Canaanitea turned to hatred, and marriages with heathen peoples, except the Egyptians and the Edomites, were prohibited (Dent. vii. 1 sqq., xxiii. 4 sqq.; cf. Ex. xxxiv. 16). Still, the law was not carried out, and no lasting change was effected till the time of Ezra (Ezra ix. and x.). The law sought also to limit marriages with relations and forbade marriage with stepmother, with sister or half‑sister, and with mother‑m‑law (Dent. xxvii. 20, 22). But even this did not break the popular custom (Ezek. xxii. 10‑11). Finally, the priest‑code forbade marriage with mother or stepmother, niece or aunt, with the wife of an uncle on the faher's side, with mother‑in‑law or daughterin‑law, or with the wife of a brother (Lev. xviii. 6 sqq.; cf. xx. li sqq.). The prohibition of marriage with a daughter is probably omitted through error in the text. Thus, union between uncle and niece, between nephew and widow of the mother's brother, and between the children of brothers and

276
sisters was permitted. On the whole, these regulations correspond to pre‑Islamitic Arabian custom, which Mohammed enacted into law.
The husband could divorce lys wife at will, since she was his property (so in Code o f Hammurabi); but he forfeited the purchase‑price and the wife's property. In the Code of Hammurabi, if the wife is not to blame, the husband must compensate her. This tended to limit divorce. On the other hand, the wife and her family suffered no injustice thereby;
at least no moral blemish attached to 7. Divorce. the wife. The law in Deuteronomy
evidently attempts to limit divorce. It demands a written bill of divorce (xxiv. 1 sqq.), deprives the husband of the right to divorce a wife at all in two cases (xxii. 19, 28), and decrees that a divorced woman who has married again can not return to her first husband when she is free a second time (xxiv. 1 sqq.), in contrast to the earlier custom, which corresponded to the Arab usage (Hoses iii. 3; cf. II Sam. iii. 14). Finally, this law requires that there must be cause for divorce. Hillel's school interpreted this to mean that any cause was sufficient for a divorce, particularly any unseemly behavior. The more austere school of Shammai found that immoral conduct was meant. Unfortunately the true meaning of the law can not be learned from the Old Testament, and by way of comparison one may well consult the Code of Hammurabi (§§ 141‑143), where an unwifely attitude, extravagance, etc. are made grounds for divorce (cf. Ecclus. xxv. 18 sqq., xlii. 9). In Deuteronomy the tendency is toward a higher position for the wife; and Malachi (ii. 13‑14) condemns divorces unconditionally. Unlike the women of ancient Babylon (Code o f Hammurabi, § 142) the Hebrew woman had no legal right to leave her husband and no means of freeing herself.
The legal status of the Hebrew wife was lower than that of the wife in ancient Babylon, where, as regards property at least, she enjoyed a degree of independence (see HAMMMURABI AND His CODE).
In ancient Israel the wife was simply 8. Legal a possession; but it must be added
Status of that her position had compensations.
Woman. In bearing sons she gave to the tribe
its most valuable possession; and the rights of the husband over her did not extend to her person. She was not a slave that he might sell, as he could his daughter; nor could he sell her handmaid that had become his concubine.
While her lot may have been a rather unhappy one, since a considerable part of the hardest work was imposed upon her, yet the Hebrew woman was by no means intellectually and morally in the position of the Mohammedan townswoman of the present. She had much more freedom, and there is no indication that she was secluded. The wife had her private rooms, which no strange man was
allowed to enter (Judges xv. 1, xvi. 9; g. Social II Sam. xiii. 7; I Kings vii. 8); but
Position of she was by no means forbidden to
Woman. associate with men and might even
take part at banquets (Ex. xxi. 22; Deut. xxv. 11; Ruth ii. 5 sqq.; II Sam. xx. 16; Matt. ix. 20, xii. 46, xxvi. 7). Women enlivened
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA FamilyandXarrlaseRelatione
the popular feasts with song and dance (Ex. xv. 20‑21; Judges xvi. 27, xxi. 19 sqq.; I Sam. xviii. 6). As already mentioned, the position of the wife was gradually improved in the course of time; and in the account of creation J makes her the helpmate and equal of man. Still, the jealousy of the husband continued to deprive her of property‑rights. Death by stoning was the penalty for adultery by the wife (Deut. xxii. 22 sqq.; cf. Exek. xvi. 40, and John viii. 5, 7). The suspecting husband could force his wife to submit to the ordeal of the bitter water (Num. v. il sqq.). The law imposing a penalty for false accusation of a wife (Deut. xxii. 13 sqq.) never became effective. However, this austerity did not prevent the prophets from complaining again and again about adultery (Jer. xxiii. 10, Hos. iv. 2; Mal. iii. 5, etc.).
Very little is known of wedding festivities among the Hebrews. The principal feature was the bringing of the bride into the home of the bridegroom. This ceremony signified the entrance of the girl into the family of the husband. On io. Wedding the day of the wedding the bridegroom,
	Customs.	in wedding‑ornaments (Isa. 1xi. 10)
		and accompanied by friends (Judges
xiv. 11‑12; cf. Matt. ix. 15), went to the home of the
bride and conducted her to the home of the groom,
or to that of his parents (Jer. vii. 34; Cant. iii.
6 sqq.; Matt. xxv. 1 sqq.). The bride was like
wise ornamented but veiled (Isa. xlix. 18; Jer. ii.
32, etc.) and was accompanied by her girl friends
(Ps. xlv.14). Only seldom was the bride conducted
to meet the bridegroom (I Mace. ix. 37‑38). The
wedding‑banquet took place at the home of the
groom; and in families of wealth and distinction
this extended over a week or two (Gen. xxix. 27;
Judges xiv. 12, 17; Tobit viii. 20).
The lot of the widow was a sad one. She had no hereditary rights whatever in her husband's property (similarly the Code of Hammurabi, § 172), but, in the earliest period, was a part of the estate. Even during his father's lifetime Reuben wanted to enter upon his inheritance (Gen. xxxv. 22), Absalom showed himself his father's successor by seizing David's harem (II Sam. xvi. 20 aqq.), Abner's intercourse with Saul's concubine was a trespass on the rights of Ish‑bosheth (II Sam. iii. 7), and in Abishag Adonijah demanded
II. Legal a part of Solomon's inheritance (I Position of Kings ii. 22; cf. 15). In spite of the the Widow. law to the contrary, marriages with the stepmother were not unusual even to the time of Ezekiel (xxii. 10; cf. I Chron. ii. 24 in the Septuagint). The story of Ruth shows that, even if there were no children, the heir had 'to accept the widow along with the real estate, though not obliged to marry her. He might give her in marriage to another; or, if he chose, he might renounce the entire inheritance in favor of another heir (Ruth iv. 5 sqq.). The story of Tamar illustrates the right of the heirs to the childless widow: Judah refused to marry her, but he retained his right over her and regarded her intercourse with other men as adultery (Gen. xxxviii. 24 aqq.). At the same time, the story shows that the right of the widow to

marry again was recognized. Yet these old customs fell more and more into disuse. Deuteronomy (xxv. 7 sqq.) even allows the brother of the deceased to decline to marry his childless sister‑inlaw, a thing that was formerly a duty. Otherwise; this law is outspoken in the interest of the widow, assigning her legal rights (Dent. x. 18, xxiv. 17, xxvii. 19), and recommending her, together with the Levites and the poor, to the benevolent care of the people (Dent. xiv. 29, xvi. 11 sqq., xxiv. 19 sqq.). Not till a much later period were certain rights in the property of the deceased conceded to the widow, concerning which the rabbis promulgated detailed rules. The law determines nothing concerning a second marriage, except as to marriage with the brother‑in‑law.
Intimately related to the hereditary right just discussed was the institution of the levirate. In the earliest period the right to inherit the widow had. already become a duty to marry her if the deceased had left no sons. If there was no brotherin‑law to marry her, this became the duty of the father‑in‑law or of the agnate who inherited, whoever he might be; and the first son of this marriage was regarded as the son of the deceased. Since levirate marriage is found chiefly among peoples who hold to ancestor~worship (Indians, Persians, Afghans, etc.), it is probable that
rz. The herein lies the explanation of this in‑
Levirate. stitution in Israel. It is significant
that the law in regard to such a mar‑ n riage was made in favor of the deceased, not of the
widow, the purpose being to provide him with descendants (Gen. xxxviii. 8; cf. II Sam. xviii. 18). After this form of belief had lost its significance the levirate marriage continued, having acquired new importance after the settlement in Canaan, in view of succession to property. At this time the custom served to secure the family property. Since the first son of a levirate marriage was reckoned to the deceased, this son inherited from his putative not from his real father. Thus was accomplished what the law had often attempted: the disintegration of property and its acquirement by strangers was prevented, and the family to which it belonged was. perpetuated. Deuteronomy had limited this matrimonial duty of the brother of the deceased, allowing him to decline to marry .the widow, but such a course brought him into disrepute. The ancient ceremony of the shoe is given an entirely different meaning in Deuteronomy: after having been publicly rejected by her brother‑in‑law the widow was to go with him to the proper authorities, tear his shoe from his foot and spit in his face (Dent. xxv. 5 sqq.). Later, in default of sons, daughters were given the right to inherit, that in this way the family estate might be preserved, (Num. xxvii. 4); and then the levirate became limited to cases where the deceased had left no
children at all. The priest‑code tried to prohibit
the custom entirely, as being incestuous (Lev. xviii. lE, xx. 21); but the ancient custom proved more potent than written law (Matt. xxii. 24 sqq.).
It was the heart's desire of the ancient Israelite to have numerous children. For a woman to be sterile was considered a great misfortune, even a
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
punishment from 'God (I Sam. i. 5 sqq.); .for as
the mother of a son the wife held a position of
distinction in the family (I Sam. i. fi‑7; cf. Gen.
xvi. 4, xxx. 1 sqq.). For the man to have no sons
was even worse, since this threatened the extinc
tion of his house. It is noteworthy that the cus
tom of adopting a strange child, prevalent in an
cient Babylon (Code o f Hammurdri, ¢ § 185 aqq. )
		is not found in ancient Israel. Rather
	13. Desire the slave was allowed to inherit (Gen.
	for xv. 3). Sons were especially de
	Children. aired because they alone perpetuated
		the family and the family worship,
since the daughters married into other families;
and only the sons belonged to the k, ahal, " congre
gation," or body of men able to bear arms. Their
precedence is shown especially by the fact that they
alone could inherit (see Lew, HEBREW, CIVIL AND
CRIMINAL), in contrast to the custom in ancient
Babylon (cf. Code of Hammurabi, §§ 180 sqq.).
However, these . views were not peculiar to the
Israelites, being found also among the Arabs. The
fact that a girl could be sold into matrimony and
was therefore not without value, formed a sort of
counterpoise to the disdain in which she was
usually held. At all events, no trace is found in
the Old Testament of the thorough contempt for
the girl prevalent among other peoples; and, so
far as,can be seen now, the custom of killing female
infants, a frequent occurrence among Arabs, was
ever practised by the Hebrews.
The distinction between legitimacy and ille‑
gitimacy in their present significance did not exist. In so far as the father. was known, all children were legitimate, whether borne by concubines or lawful wives (Gen. xxi. 10).. Even Jephthah, the son of a ,prostitute and, in the strictest sense, illegitimate, was reared, with the father's legitimate. children; and if later these thrust him out it was only a case of might (Judges xi. 1 sqq.). The hereditary rights of .. such a son may not have been the same as that of the sons by lawful wives. There seems to have been no rigid. custom regarding this, much depending upon the good‑will of the father.
The Israelitish women had the reputation of bearing children with great ease (Ex. i. 15 sqq.); though even in. the earliest period they employed midwives (Gen. xxxv. 17; Ex. i. 15 sqq.). At the time of Jer. xx. 15 the.father was not present at the accouchement. Job iii. 12 has been interpreted as expressing a symbolic act whereby the father acknowledged the child, similar to the custom of the Roman father of lifting the child from the floor as a token that it was to live. If this be correct, the passage is the only reminiscence of a former
custom of child‑murder. After the 14. Customs navel had been cut, the newly born
at Birth. babe was bathed in water, then rubbed
with salt and wrapped in swaddling‑
clothes (Ezek. xvi. 4). The peasants of to‑day
think that salt strengthens the child; . originally it probably had religious significance. The mother nursed the children herself (Gen. xxi. 7; I Sam. i. 22; I Kings iii. 21), and only exceptionally did she resort to nurses (Gen. xxiv. 59, xxxv. 8). This custom seems to have become more common later

277
with the wealthy (II Sam. iv. 4; II Kings xi. 2; cf. Ex. ii. 9). Nursing continued two or three years as in modern Palestine (cf. II Mace. vii. 27; according to the rabbis two years). Weaning was the occasion of a family celebration (Gen. xxi. 8; 1 Sam. i. 24). The birth of a child rendered the mother unclean (see DEFILEMENT AND PURIFICATION, CEREMONIAL). This notion, still common to uncivilized peoples, was generally held by ancient peoples. The foundation of thia.belief was either the view that child‑birth was a disease and like other diseases, under the influence of certain demons; or else, that it was protected by some spirit, together with other processes of sexual life.
For circumcision and naming gee CIRCUMCISION; NAMES.
	The father had almost unlimited power over his
children. He could sell his daughter as a bride,
or even as a slave, but not to foreigners (Ex. xxi.
7 aqq.). To assault or even curse the father was
an offense deemed worthy of the death‑penalty
(Ex. xxi. 15, 17; for the later period of. Lev. xx. 9;
Prov. xx. 20; Matt. xv. 4). There is no mention
of an age‑limit to the father's authority, though in
practise this was attained when the son married
and founded a home. During the early years the
education of the children was an affair of the mother
(Prov. xxxi. 1). Boys and girls were left together
		in the harem where the girls remained
i5. Legal till marriage. When the boys began Status and to grow up they came under the care Training of of the father, or, if the family was
	Children.	well‑to‑do, they might be entrusted
		to special tutors (Num. xi. 12; 11
Kings x. 1 sqq.; I Chron. xxvii. 32; Ian. xhx. 23).
Special weight was laid upon early religious train
ing (Ex. xiii. 8; Deut. iv. 9 aqq.); otherwise the
main thing was to impart practical knowledge of
some industry. The wealthier class also learned
reading and writing, an art that was probably
fairly well known at the time of Isaiah, and even
earlier (Ira. viii. 1, x. 19; cf. Judges viii. 14). In
the Old Testament there is no mention of a school.
Not till a much later period were schools estab
lished, and then only in the larger cities (Josephus,
Ant. XV., x. 5). After the exile particular stress
was laid on the study of the law; and Deuteronomy
contains numerous admonitions to instruct the
children in the statutes and sacred history. Prov
erbs and Ecclesiaaticus contain a sort of pedagogy.
Stress was laid on education rather than instruction;
and all knowledge was summed up in fear of God
and obedience to parents (Prov. i. 7, and often).
Strict discipline was to be maintained, nor was the
rod to be spared (Prov. x. 17, xiii. 14, xxiii. 13,
xxix. 17). These precepts applied to sons only.
The first‑born son occupied a position of distinction among the remaining children; and as heir he received a double portion. The father might deprive him of his prerogatives and put 16‑ Position the favorite younger son in his place of the First‑ (Gen.xxi.1 sqq., xlix. 3 eqq.; I Kings i.
	born.	11 sqq.); but custom did not approve
		of this, and later it was prohibited
(Deut. xxi. 15 sqq.). In return it was the eldest
son's duty to take care of the female members of
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
the family, since he became the head of the family at his father's death. Unfortunately it is not known whether landed property was partitioned or whether it all went to the eldest son, who then settled in some way with his brothers. This custom rested upon a religious foundation. The first‑born was thought to take a certain precedence in holiness, since in him the common blood of the tribe flowed in its purest state (Gen. xlix. 3; Deut. xxi. 17). This superiority was deduced from the particular claim of Yahweh to all the first‑born (Ex. xxli. 29). The supposed sacred character of the first‑born accounts for his consecration to the service of Yahweh (I Sam. i. 11, vii. 1). But usually the first‑born was redeemed (Ex. xiii. 13, xxxiv. 20); for the worshipers of Yahweh had always opposed the sacrifice of children, a custom common among their Semitic neighbors (Gen. xxii.). The idea of dedicating the first‑born to Yahweh was first introduced into the law in the Priest‑code, according to which all first‑born belonged to Yahweh. Since, however, the first‑born in Israel could not always maintain the purity necessary for the service of the sanctuary, the Levitea (q.v.) took their place (Num. iii. 39 aqq., viii. 16 sqq.). I. BENZINGER.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The beat single book is English covering the whole subject is E. Day, Social Life of the Hebrews, New York, 1901. Of high value are: G. M. Mackie. Bible Manners and Customs, London, 1898; Bensinger, Archdalogie; Nowaek, Arrhdologie; DB, i. 848‑850, ii. 341‑342, iii. 262‑277; EB. ii. 1498‑1505, iii. 2942‑51.
On the primitive institution: Smith, Kinship (the important book for Semites); idem, in Journal of Philology,, ix. 75 sqq.; J. F. McLennan, Primitive Marriage, in Studies in Ancient History, London, 1876; G. A. Wilken, Das Matriarchal bei den alten Arabern, Leipsie, 1884; C. M. Starcke, Primitive Family in its Origin and Development, London, 1889; E. Westermarck, Hist. of Human Marriage, ib. 1901 (the standard work).
On Hebrew marriage: J. Selden, Uxor Hebraiea, ib. 1546 (collects the Talmudic material); M. M. Kalisch, Matrimonial Laws of as Hebrews, in his Commentary on Levitiew, ib. 1872; C. Stubbs, Die Ehe im A. T., Jens, 1886; J. F. McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monuments, ii. 36‑77, New York, 1896; T. Engert, Ehe‑ and Familienrecht der Hebrtter, Munich, 1906; F. Wilke, Das Frauenideal and die Sc"zunp des Weibes im Allen Testament, Leipsic, 1907.
Consult also: G. M. Redelob, Die Levirate‑Ehe bei den Hebrdern, Leipsic, 1836; D. W. Amram, Jewish Law of Divorce according to the Bible and Talmud, London, 1897 (important); J. Simon, L'Eduoation des enfants dies ka ancient Juifs. Nimes, 1879; B. Straesburger, Ersiehunp bei den leraeliten, Stuttgart, 1885. For the Code of Hammurabi see the literature cited under $AMMDRARI AND Elm CODE.
FAREL, fa"rel', GUILLAUME: French Reformer; b. of noble family at Gap (46 m. sx.e. of Grenoble) 1489; d. at Neuchlltel, Switzerland, Sept. 13, 1565. After finishing his studies in Paris he taught in the college of Cardinal le Moine, which was part of the University, and was led to adopt the Reformed views by his teacher Faber Stapulensis (q.v.) In 1521 he went to Meaux and preached the new faith. Bishop Guillaume Brigonnet was personally favorable to these views, but Farel's preaching was so direct and unsparing that it gave great offense to the adherents of the old Church and the bishop silenced him, Apr. 12, 1523. Thus early he exhibited a zeal which, much greater than his discretion, was to involve him in continual

Fasel
Fast‑Day
trouble. After visiting Paris and Gap he wandered to Basel, where GJcolampadiua received him as an ally and where he participated in the religious conference of Feb., 1524, and discussed the thirteen theses which he had prepared. (For text cf. Herminjard, Correspondance, i. 194). But his speeches and publications were so outspoken and incendiary that the authorities were alarmed and abruptly expelled him at Whitsuntide. He is next heard from at various places in southern Germany and Switzerland, preaching the Word with great boldness to French‑speaking people and everywhere in imminent danger of his life. In Oct., 1532, he came to Geneva and was successful in inclining the authorities to adopt the Reformation by edict of Aug. 10, 1535. But he was not the man to conduct the difficult and delicate controversies, both religious and personal, which preceded and followed the adoption of the Reformation, as he was well aware. When, therefore, the rising theologian, John Calvin, in whom he divined the qualities which he lacked, came to Geneva, Farel laid hold upon him in a memorable interview in the latter part of July, 1536, and fairly compelled him to join in his work. But the opposition was too strong and they were both expelled from the city Apr. 23, 1538. Farel went to Neuch&tel and thence to Metz and the neighboring Gorze. In 1543 Gorze was attacked by the troops of the Cardinal of Lorraine and Farel barely escaped with his life. He went to Strasburg but soon after returned to Neuchftel and for the remainder of his life made it the center of his activities.
Farel's publications have only relative importance and there is no collected edition of them. Carl Schmidt gives a list in his life of Farel, p. 38, to which should be added Le rtssum6 des actes de la dispute de Rive, ed. by T. Dufour, Geneva, 1885.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: For Farel'e correspondence consult: the Opera Calvin%, vole. x. 2‑xx.; A. L. Herminiard's Correapo„da„ce dee RJformateura, 9 vole.. Geneva, 1878‑97. An Eng. tranal. of letters to him by Calvin is given from Bonnet's text (2 vols., Paris, 1854), 4 vole., Philadelphia [18581.
His biography was written first anonymously, prob‑
ably by Olivier Perrot, reprinted in G. E. von Hailer, Bibliothek der Schweizergeachirhte. iii., no. 781, 6 vole., Bern, 1785‑88. Modern lives are by M. Kirchhofer, 2 vola., Zurich, 1831‑33. Eng. transl., London, 1837: C. Schmidt, in Leben and auagewdhlte Schri/ten der idler . der reformirten Kirche, vol. ix.. Elberfeld, 1881;
W. Blackburn, Philadelphia, 1865; G. Junod, Neuehitel, 1885; G. Goguel, Montb6liard, 1873; F. Bevan, Lausanne, 1884, Eng. transl.. London, 1893.
FARFA: A Benedictine abbey situated on the river Farfa, about half‑way between Rome and Reate. It was established about the middle of the sixth century by Laurentius, bishop of Spoleto. Destroyed by the Lombards, it was restored by the priest Thomas of Maurienna in 681 and soon became one of the most famous monasteries of the Middle Ages. At the beginning of the tenth century, after a siege of seven years, it was destroyed by the Saracens. After lying desolate and deserted for forty‑eight years it was restored by Hugo of Burgundy about 950, and later became notorious for the licentiousness and dissipation of its monks. However, toward the end of the tenth century the reform of Cluny was introduced at Farfa, and
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
278
the monastery then gradually resumed its former importance. To this period belongs the Chronicon Farfense, written between 1105 and 1119 by Gregory of Catina, the librarian of the monastery. From the close of the fourteenth century the monastery
was held in commendam by cardinals and in 1842 Gregory XVI. annexed it to the cardinal‑bishopric of Sabina.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Original sources for a history are in MGH, script., xi (1854), b19‑590, and MGH, Poeto: Latin% av% Carol%ni, ii (1884), 854‑655, cf. L. A. Muratori, Rer. Ital. script., vol. ii., part ii., Milan. 1723. Consult: R. L. Poole. English Historical* Review, v (1890), 581‑b85; C. Mirbt, Die Publiziatik im Ze%talter Gregore VII., pp. 7578, Leipsic, 1894; Wattenbach, DGQ, n (1886), 195, ii
(1894), 220.
FARINDON, ANTHONY: Royalist minister; b. at Sunning (12 m. w. of Windsor), Berkshire, 1598 (baptized Dec. 24); d. in the country near London Oct. 9, 1658. He was educated at Trinity College, Oxford (B.A., 1616; M.A., 1620; B.D., 1629). In 1634 he was presented with the vicarage of Bray, and in 1639 with the divinity lectureship at the Chapel Royal, Windsor, but was deprived of both preferments during the civil war. In 1647, through the patronage of Sir John Robinson, he received the pastorate of St. Mary Magdalene's in Milk Street, London, which he probably held till Jan. 1, 1656, when sequestered preachers were forbidden to preach in public. He has been pronounced the best preacher of his day. Of his 131 printed sermons, thirty‑one were published by himself, XXX. Sermons; . . . to which is annexed a Sermon preached at the Funerall o f Sir G. Whitmore (London, 1657), the rest by his executors. There is a complete edition of his sermons with a Life by T. Jackson (4 vole., London, 1849).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Consult, beside the Life by Jackson, A. h Wood, Athenos Ozonienaea, ed. P. Bliss, iii. 457, 4 vole., London, 1813‑20; DNB, xviii. 205‑208.
FARLEY, JOHN MURPHY: Roman Catholic archbishop of New York‑ b. at Newton Hamilton, County Armagh, Ireland, Apr. 20, 1842. He was educated at St. Marcartan's College, Monaghan (1859‑64), St. John's College, Fordham, N. Y. (1864‑65), St. Joseph's Seminary, Troy, N. Y. (1865‑66), and the American College, Rome (1866‑
1870). He was ordained to the priesthood in Rome in 1870, and after being assistant rector of St. Peter's, New Brighton, Staten Island, in 1870‑72 was private secretary to Archbishop McCloskey until 1884, when he was appointed private chamberlain to Pope Leo XIII. with the title of monsignore, and in 1891 became vicar‑general of the archdiocese of New York. In 1892 he was made domestic prelate of the pope, and in 1895 was appointed
prothonotary apostolic and consecrated titular bishop of Zeugma and auxiliary bishop of New York. On the death of Archbishop Corrigan of New York in May, 1902, he was appointed administrator of the archdiocese, and five months later himself became archbishop.
FARMER, HUGH: Dissenting English minister
and theological writer; b. near Shrewsbury Jan. 20, 1714; d. at Walthamstow (7 m. n.n.e. of London), Essex, Feb. ,5, 1787. After studying five years (1731‑36) in Philip Doddridge's academy in North‑

279
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
ampton, he took charge of the congregation at Walthamstow in 1737, whose pastor he remained till 1780. In 1761 he removed to London, where he was afternoon preacher at Salter's Hall (1761‑72) and also one of the preachers of the " merchants' lecture " on Tuesdays (1762‑80). In 1762 he was elected a trustee of Dr. Williams' foundations and also a trustee of the Coward trust. His works, written in a vigorous style and characterized by more independence and freedom of thought than was usual in his day, exercised a decisive influence on current opinion. The principal ones are, An Inquiry into the Nature and Design o f Christ's Temptation in the Wilderness (London, 1761; 5th ed., 1822), in which he contends that our Lord's temptation was merely subjective, a divine vision; A Dissertation, on Miracles (1771); An. Essay on the Demonises o f the New Testament (1775), in which he maintains that demoniacs are only persons afflicted with certain diseases; and The General Prevalence o f the Worship o f Human Spirits in the Ancient Heathen Nations (1783).
BiBLIOGBAPHY: M. Dodson, Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Hugh Farmer, London, 1804; A. Kippis, Biographia Britannica, v. 664‑665, ib. 1793; S. Palmer, Nonconformists' Memorial, iii. 492‑493, ib. 1803; DNB, xviii. 211‑213.
	FARNOVIUS (FARNESIUS), STANISLAUS: Po
lish antitrinitarian; b. in the first half of the
sixteenth century; d. apparently after 1622. The
first event known in his life is that he was at Mar
burg in Mar., 1564, when Johannes Pincierius gave
him a letter of recommendation to Bullinger.
Two months later he matriculated at Heidelberg,
but was already an Arian and was accordingly
expelled. After the Synod of Lancut, Galicia, in
1567 he established and conducted a school in
Sandec in the same province, separating from the
Polish Unitarians who denied the preexistence of
Christ and becoming the impassioned leader of the
Arian Unitarians who asserted the preeminence
of the Father over the Son, but admitted the pre
existence of Jesus. He regarded the Holy Ghost
as a person, but opposed any invocation of this
member of the Trinity. In regard to the baptism
of adults by immersion, he was in complete sym
pathy with the other Unitarians of Poland. After
the death of Farnovius, his followers were absorbed
by the great body of Unitarians or by the Cal
vinists. 	(F. LooFs.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The early life is by: V. Smaleius (d. 1622), printed in G. Zeltner, Historia crypto‑8ociniomi, pp. 11581218, Leipsic, 1729. Consult: Stanislaus Lubieniecius, Mist. reformationia Polonicw, Freistadt, 1685; C. Sandius, Bibliotheca antitrinitariorum, Freistadt, 1684; J. G. Walch, Religionaatreitigkeiten aueaer der evangelischlutheriachen Kirche, iv. 142‑143, Jena, 1736; F. S. Book, Hiat. antitrinitariorum, i. 334‑340, Leipsic, 1774; H. Dalton, Beatrnge zur Geschichte der evangeliachen Kirche in Ruaaland, vol. iii., Berlin, 1898.
FARRAR, FREDERIC WILLIAM: Dean of Canterbury; b. at Bombay, India, Aug. 7, 1831; d. at Canterbury Mar. 22, 1903. He studied at King William's College, Isle of Man, King's College, Londo., (B.A., 1852), and Trinity College, Cambridge (B.A., 1854). He was ordered deacon in 1854 and ordained priest in 1857, and was assistant master in Marlborough College (1854) and Harrow
Farel
Fast‑Day
School (1855‑71), and head master of Marlborough College (1871‑76). He was select preacher at Cambridge in 1868‑69, 1872, 1874, and frequently afterward, honorary chaplain to the queen 18691873 and chaplain in ordinary after 1873, Hulsean Lecturer at Cambridge in 1870, and Bampton Lecturer at Oxford in 1885. In 1876 he was installed rector of St. Margaret, Westminster, and canon of Westminster; and in 1883 was appointed archdeacon of Westminster and rural dean of St. Margaret and St. John the Evangelist. In 1890 he became chaplain to the House of Commons and in 1891 examining chaplain to the bishop of Worcester. In 1895 he was made dean of Canterbury. In all these positions he won distinction. As a teacher he had the admiration of his scholars, and as an ecclesiastic he discharged his duties with peculiar efficiency. His sermons, though written hastily and marked by a somewhat exuberant eloquence, were listened to by thousands. His rare powers of advocacy were specially devoted to the improvement of public school education and the cause of total abstinence.
Dean Farrar's publications were numerous and in varied fields. The earlier of them dealt with pedagogy and philology and included three famous stories of English school‑life‑Eric (Edinburgh, 1858), Julian Home (1859), and St. Winifred's (London, 1862). He prepared the commentary on Judges (1883) for Bishop Ellicott's commentary, Kings (1893‑94) and Daniel (1895) for the Expositor's Bible, Wisdom (1888) for H. Wace's commentary on the Apocrypha, and Luke (1880) and Hebrews (1883) for the Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges and for the Cambridge New Testament. Probably his best known book was his Life and Work of St. Paul (2 vols., London, 1879), though his Life of Christ (2 vols., 1874) passed through many editions. With these may be mentioned The Early Days of Christianity (2 vols., London, 1882); The Messages of the Books (1884); Lives of the Fathers (1889); and The Life of Lives: Further Studies in the Life of Christ (1900). His Hulsean and Bampton Lectures were published under the titles respectively of The Witness of History to Christ (1871) and The History of Interpretation (1886). Of his many volumes of sermons the most important was Eternal Hope (1878), containing five discourses preached in Westminster Abbey in 1877. Herein and in Mercy and Judgment (1881) he defended the doctrine that though there may be for some an endless hell because they resist the grace of God beyond the grave, there is no hell of material fire, and for the great majority, through God's mercy and Christ's sacrifice, a complete purification and salvation.
BIBLLOeBAPHY: Reginald Farrar, Life of Frederic William'
Farrar, London, 1904 (by his son). A memoir by Dean William Lefroy of Norwich was prefixed to the Life of Christ, London, 1903. Consult also Three Sermons preached in Cathedral of Christ Church, Canterbury, March 28, 1803, by A. J. Mason and others, ib. 1903.

FAST‑DAY: A day specially appointed for penitence and prayer. Repentance is a demand of God upon humanity which has fallen into sin. It ever remains the duty of the individual as well as

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
of the Christian congregation, and has at all times been acknowledged by the people of God, who give public expression to it by observing general fast‑days, when the individual is reminded not only of his own sins, but also of the fact that his sin stands in the closest connection with. the sin of the whole," Whether one member suffer, all the members suffer with it " (I Cor. xii. 26; Eph. iv. 16).
In Israel the Day of Atonement (Lev. xvi.) was a general fast‑day and special fast‑days are mentioned (Judges xx. 26; 1 Sam. vii. b‑6, xxxi. 13; Joel i. 13‑14; Jonah iii.; Matt. xii. 41; see AToNNMaNT, DAY oF; FASTING, L). In the first centuries
of the Christian Church Wednesdays
Special and Fridays were fast‑days, and
Fast‑days. special seasons of fasting arose (see
FASTING, II.). In Protestant countries special fast‑days have been appointed and annual fast‑days have been instituted. For example, in Germany, the elector John George I. of Saxony ordered a day of general repentance and prayer in 1633 because of the misery following the Thirty Years' War, and at the outbreak of the Franco‑German War in 1870 the king of Prussia appointed a fast‑day for his realm. The number of annual fast‑days has varied from one to four., As early as 1852 the effort was made to have a common fast‑day for all Germany, and at present the Wednesday before the last Sunday after Trimtx is so observed in Prussia and in most States of North and Central Germany. (J. L. SoM‑H.)
The New England Fast‑day of the early settlers was an inheritance of Hebrew, Continental, and English custom, and has significance as indicating the recognition of divine providence in colonial affairs. The history of its observance naturally
falls into two periods: (1) The period
The New of special fasts, preceding 1694; (2)
England the period of regular annual fasts,
Fast‑days, since 1694 (in Massachusetts only to
1894). The story of New England fastdays begins at Plymouth, where a prolonged drought in the early summer of 1623 was the occasion of an order of the governor appointing July 16 (old style) as a bay of humiliation and prayer, an event followed almost immediately by refreshing showers. In 1636 a new law code at Plymouth provided for the civil appointment of both fast and thanksgiving days as occasion should demand. In the Massachusetts Bay colony the first fast‑days were church observances, and such were frequent in later history, entirely independent of civil appointment. The first fast‑day sermon now extant in full was that of John Wheelwright, preached Jan. 19, 1637, in the midst of the Antinomian Controversy. Connecticut observed special fasts almost from the beginning. Various causes produced these particular appointments, such as drought, devastation of insaot plagues or of epidemic diseases, Indian wars, earthquakes and religious indifference. The days were observed with scrupulous religiousness after the manner of the Puritan Sabbath, and after 1675 they were for some time made the occasion of a renewal of church covenants to Promote spiritual reformation.
880
In the later years of the theocracy the practise prevailed of observing an annual fast‑day in the spring. In Massachusetts this became fixed during the troublous years of charter alterations. In Plymouth it became regular after King Philip's War. In Connecticut it began even earlier. Out of deference to the Episcopal Church Connecticut made Good Friday the fast‑day of the State in 1795, and it became the regular custom. New Hampshire had followed the same practise a few times, but like Maine was influenced by Massachusetts to adopt the first Thursday of April. Rhode Island has never adopted fast‑day. The ministers of the colony were active in promoting the observance of the day; and after its appointment became purely a civil function, their influence remained in the manner of observance and often in the wording of the proclamation. The character of the annual
fast long remained religious. Until the nineteenth century two church services were held, occupying most of the day; and the people abstained from food until late afternoon. It was only later that they presumed to walk abroad, to visit, and even
to indulge in sports. With the passing of time it took on a more secular, and even political character, until at last it was abolished in Massachusetts by act of the legislature Mar. 16, 1894. Its religious obeerpance has been transferred in a measure to Good Friday, and its holiday features ,to Patriots' Day on Apr.'19. Fast‑day never enjoyed permanent national observance, though on special occasions it has received recognition.
HaNay K. Rows.
Brsrrooasra:: W. D. Love. Fast and Thanksgiving Days of New England, Boston. 1895 (oontaine bibliography of sermons delivered on those days): J• B• Felt, in L.
Coleman. Ancient Christianity Esmnplified. Philadelphia,
18691. A very valuable oolleotion of Fast and Thanksgiving Day Sermons is possessed by Union Theological Seminary, New York.
FASMIUS: One of the few literary representatives of the old British Church. Gennadius (De trir. ilL., Ivi.) says that " Fastidius, a bishop of the Britons, wrote a book on the Christian life to a certain Fatalie, and another on keeping widowhood sound in doctrine and worthy of God"; he places Fastidius between Pope Celeatine I. (d. 432) and
Cyril (d. 444). An extant writing De vita Christians is ascribed in one manuscript to Fastidius, in another to Pelagius, in others to Augustine (printed in MPL, xl. 1031‑46, as pseudo‑Augustinisn; in 1. 383‑402, as by Fastidius). The question of its authorship was first thoroughly investigated by C. P. Casgari (Briefs,, Ablaandlungen, and Predigten aus den zwei letzten Jahrhu>iderten des lcirchlichen
Altertums and dens Anfang den Mittelaltera, Chrietiania, 1890, 352 eqq.), who decides, because it is addressed to a woman and in other respects dote not follow the notice in Gennadiua, that the ascription to Fastidius can hardly be based upon this
notice. The ascription to Pelagiua has difficulties (Caspari, 371), and that to Augustine is out of the question. Morin (Revue bdrtEdidine, xv. 481‑490, 1898) has shown that the Vita was probably a work of Pelagius, that therefore Fastidius is the probable author of the five treatises attributed by Caspari to Agricola. The first of these is the Vita

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	7"t‑Day
Fasting
mentioned by Gennadius. Whether Fastidius really wrote two books, as Gennadiua says, must remain undecided. The Vita Christiana ispervaded byaPelagian spirit and mode of thought, but this could easily have escaped Gennadius,since the author" indicates and betrays his Pelagianism rather than speaks it out openly and directly " (Caspari, 360). It also has points of contact with the letters of the Pelagian Agricola (Caapari, 375 sqq.; see AaltlcoLA). The Epist. ad jaatidium of Fastidius is in Pitra, Anatecta, i. 134, aqq., Paris, 1888. (N. BONwE18CH.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Wharton, Hitt. de epiacopis et decanie Londinenaibua, p. 6, London, 1895; 11llemont, Mbmoires, article "S. Germain "; Kaastle, in TQ$, laaii (1900),193204.
FASTING.
	I. Hebrew.	The Fast Before Easter (f 3).
It. In the Church.	The Advent Fast (§ 4).
	Weekly Fasts (§ 1).	Other Fasts (§ 5).
	The Conception of Fast‑	Mode of Observance (¢ 8).
		ing ($ 2).	The Present Practise (4 7).
L Hebrew: The word commonly used in Hebrew to' express the idea of fasting is a common Semitic possession, is used by Arameans; Arabs, and Ethiopians, and appears in both the early and the late Old Testament writings (II Sam. xii. 16; Dan. ix. 3): In Isa. Iviii. 3 " fasting " is in parallelism with " afflict the soul," a phrase often used to express the idea (Lev. 8vi. 29, 31; Num. xxix. 7). The occasions of fasting among the Hebrews appear to have been three: (1) As a preparation for some religious duty. Thus Moses remained fasting on Sinai for forty days and nights when about to receive the tables of the decalogue (Ex. xxxiv. 28), and Daniel fasted for a considerable time before receiving his revelation (Dan. ix. 3, x. 2, cf. T. N61deke, Geachichte den Qorans, Gottingen, 1860). (2) As an accompaniment or manifestation of mourning. So the Jabeah‑Gileadites and David mourned Saul (I Sam. xxxi. 13, II Sam. i. 12). The fact that David did not mourn after the death of his child by Bathsheba caused surprise in his attendants, and this suggests the cuatomariness of fasting after a death. There was doubtless some religious significance in the act (cf. Wellhausen, Heidentum, p. 182). (3) As an act of self‑abnegation and humility to conciliate deity (I Kings xxi. 28; Jer. xiv. 12). Specific cases are: David, when he feared the death of his child (II Sam. xii. 16); Ahab, to avert the disaster predicted by Elijah (I Kings xxi. 27‑29); Nehemiah, over the sad condition of Jerusalem (Neh. i. 4); the whole people fasted in times of peril or misfortune (II Chron. xx. 3; Jer. xxxvi. 9; I Mace. iii. 47). In postexilic times the days on which disasters had occurred were celebrated as fast‑days (Zech. vii. 3), and it became a manifestation of consciousness of sin (Neh. ix. 1; cf. I Kings xxi. 9). The fast was also employed to secure a happy issue out of dangerous circumstances (I Sam. xiv. 24; Esther iv. 16). By the Law only one fast was ordained, that of the Day of Atonement (Lev. xvi. 29, cf. verse 21; see ATONaMHnlT, DAY OF). Accompaniments of the fast were ceremonies like the rending of clothing and placing of ashes on the head. The usual period of abstention was one day (I Sam. xxiv. 14), though it might be three days (Esther iv. 16) or
during seven days from morning till evening (I Sam. xxxi. 13). In postexilic times the tendency was to multiply fasts, in face of the clear Pronouncements of the prophets (cf. Isa. lviii. and Zech. vii. 5‑6). See SYNAGOGUE. (F. BURL.)
II. In the Church: The primitive Church took over the custom of fasting from Judaism. Jesus did not oppose the practise which he found prevalent (see above); he condemned only the ostentatious fasting of the Pharisees (Matt. vi. 16‑18). From Judaism also the Church took the oldest injiinetions concerning Christian fasting. The
Jews had observed Monday and Thursx. Weekly day as fast‑days, and whoever wished
	Fasts.	to fast did so on those two days, though
		there was no general command to fast.
There were also optional fast‑days. The Gentile
Chriatian Churches appointed Wednesday and Fri
day. That from the beginning two days were thus
distinguished shows the dependence, on Judaism,
although a protest is also evidenced by the change
of days. In the time of Paul no definite Christian
custom seems to have'existed (Rom. xiv. 5‑6), but
there was one by the time of the Didache (viii. 1).
In Tertullian's day the optional character of fast
days was still emphasized (De orations, . xvm.);
later they became obligatory, and all that was left
to the individual was the extent of the fast. It
usually lasted to the ninth hour. Fasting was based
in principle upon the suffering of Christ. The com
memoration of the death of Jesus on Friday seems
to be very old, and it is possible that from the
beginning (cf. Mark ii. 20), as the resurrection of
Jesus was commemorated every Sunday, so was his
death every Friday. For the observance of Wednes
day it was not so easy to find such a motive; and
the various artificial derivations of the usage from
the history of the Passion, designating it as the day
on which Jesus was betrayed, or on which the San
hedrin decided to kill him, are obviously later
justifications of the choice of a day. From the
beginning of the third century a third weekly fast,
on Saturday, was instituted in Rome. The expla
nation of this varies. The statement is clearly
legendary that Peter before his struggle with
Simon Magus induced the Church at Rome to fast
with him on Saturday, and that this practise had
been maintained ever since (Casaian, De inatitWis
corwbiorum, iii. 10). But it is not impossible that
the Saturday fast was considered a weekly repeti
tion of the fast before Easter, as Innocent I.
(Epist., xxv. 4) and Augustine (Epist., xxxvi. 21)
state. It is possible, . too, that an anti‑Jewish
temper may have led to the institution, and that
afterward, because the Jews celebrated Saturday as
a festival, the Christians dishonored it by fasting.
The Roman custom did not spread widely. The
East always declined to adopt it and from the end
of the fourth century considered Saturday as well
as Sunday a holy day. Even Milan refused to
adopt the Roman custom, and in Africa it was
observed Only here and there (Augustine, Epiat.,
xxxvi. 31). When in the West three fast‑days in
the week appeared too many, Wednesday, not Sat
urday, was given up. But the most important
and solemn fast‑day was always Friday.

Pasting	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG'
	The conception of fasting was the one generally
customary in antiquity. It was considered an
exercise of piety, not directly required by God but
		pleasing to him, like almsgiving and
z. The Con‑ prayer. Mechanical formalism was
ception of occasionally opposed by the remark
	Fasting.	that a devout life is more important
		than frequent fasting (Shepherd of
Hernias, Similitudo, v.). How accurately the per
formance was balanced may be seen from the
linguistic distinction between statio, " a half‑fast,"
jejunium,"a complete fast," and superpositio, "an
additional fast " (till the next day). And how
strictly the rule was adhered to may be seen from
the fact that it was even thought necessary to
abstain from the Lord's Supper on fast‑days (Ter
tullian, De orations, xix.). Every personal misfor
tune induced pious Christians to abstain from
food and drink, and in a general calamity, such as
a persecution, the bishops usually appointed a
fast‑day for the Church; in both cases the regular
days were usually chosen. The length to which
some went is seen from the prohibition of fasting
on holy days, on Sunday, and in the time between
Easter and Pentecost, on the ground that fasting
is a sign of sorrow and consequently incompati
ble with festal seasons. The connection between
alms and fasting was early emphasized by the
custom of giving to the poor provisions saved on
fast‑days.
Abstinence from eating and drinking before religious rites and sacred festivals springs from another conception. It is a very old and widespread belief that with food demons enter into the body of man. Hence he who wishes to have intercourse with God, must be abstemious in order to become a pure vessel of the Spirit.
3. The Fast For this reason the prophet prepares
	before	himself by fasting for the revelation
	Easter.	(Shepherd of Hermas, Visio, ii. 2,
		iii. 1, 10); and concerning exorcism
it is written (Matt. xvii.20) "This kind goeth not out
save by prayer and fasting." [This verse is omit
ted in the critical text, and the word " fasting " is
omitted in the parallel, Mark ix. 29]. Absolution
and ordination were preceded by a fast. In the
Didache (vii. 4) both the baptizer and the candi
date fast before baptism; and the Lord's Supper was
to be received fasting. Out of such ideas the fast
before Easter developed. Easter is the only very
ancient annual festival of the Church, and to ap
point a general fast before it was only to observe
a custom which was everywhere considered a
matter of course. The first clear evidence of the
custom occurs in the second century. Here only
the day before was observed as a fast‑day, there
two or more days; others again fasted for forty
hours (Eusebius, Hist. eccl., V., xxiv. 12‑13). Ap
peal was made to Matt. ix. 15 and this fast was re
garded as a sacred obligation of every Christian. On
the basis of the passage cited, the duration of the
fast seems to have been made coextensive with the
time of Christ's resting in the grave. On the night
before Easter the faithful assembled in the church.
With the moment at which Christ rose the fasting
ceased, and the Paschal Eucharist was celebrated
(Syriac Didascalia, xxi.). In the course of the third century the fast was extended to the six days of Holy Week, but the innovation was combined with the ancient custom by making the fasting on the last two days stricter. At the beginning of the fourth century, in the time of the great persecution, the forty days' fast was introduced, on the analogy of the forty days' fast of Jesus (Matt. iv. 2), of Moses (Ex. xxxiv. 28) and of Elijah (I Kings xix. 8). The oldest testimony for the Quadragesima is the fifth canon of the Council of Nicaea (325); in the West it is found first in the time of Ambrose. Again a combination of the new with the old was attempted by making Holy Week a special time of fasting. But it was don8 in different ways. Athanasius includes the " six holy and great days " in the Quadragesima, and makes Lent begin with the Monday after the first Sunday in Lent, all days, even Saturday and Sunday (except Palm Sunday), being fast‑days,so that he gets precisely forty days. Epiphanius, on the other hand, makes the forty days' fast precede the six days' fast, and, as with him Sundays are not fast‑days, Lent begins on Sexagesima‑Sunday, eight weeks before Easter (Hwr., lxxv. 6; De fide, xxii.). In the Apostolic Constitutions also (v. 13), the forty days precede the Passover fast; but the Saturdays too are excepted, so that only five days in the week remain. The distinction between the two seasons of fasting seems to have disappeared by the end of the fourth century, so that the forty days of Lent are the regular fast days before Easter. Though the custom of different churches varied in the fourth century, in the fifth a certain amount of harmony was reached by fixing the fast either at six or at seven weeks according as Saturday was treated as a faatday or a holy day (Sozomen, Hist. eccl., vii. 19). Rome observed six weeks, beginning with the Monday after the first Sunday in Lent. In the seventh century the fast was made to begin with the Wednesday after Quinquagesima, or Ash Wednesday. This is the present custom of the Latin Church. In the East the fast‑season was also extended in the seventh century from seven to eight weeks, which, with five fast‑days in each, makes up the total of forty. But a trace of the older custom is still visible in the treatment o£ the first or " Butter Week " [so called because in it butter, milk, and eggs are allowed] as a sort of preparatory fast. See ASH WEDNESDAY; HOLY WEEK; and LENT).
From the middle of the fourth century the birth of Jesus was celebrated on Dec. 25, first in Rome, and before the end of the century in the East also. It was but natural that, like Easter, the new high festival should also be preceded by a forty days'
		fast. The reckoning of the forty days
	4. The	differed in the East and the West, ac
	Advent	cording as Saturday was considered
	Fast.	a holy day or a fast‑day. Milan and
		the entire territory of the Galiican lit‑
urgy followed the East. The fast commenced there
with St. Martin's day, Nov. 11, and Advent was
therefore called Quadragesima Martini; nowadays
Advent commences in the East on Nov. 15. The
Roman custom appointed a shorter time and

283.	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Pasting
afterward reduced the original time still further to the present four weeks.
In the Greek Church there is another season of fasting preparatory to the feast of the apostles Peter and Paul on June 29. This also was originally intended to be a period of forty days; but since that would have conflicted with the feast of Pentecost, its beginning was fixed for the Monday after the octave of that feast, which reduces it in some years to only nine days. There is evidence of a fast after the long festal season from Easter to Pentecost from the end of the fourth century in different parts of the Church, Western as well as Eastern, apparently connected to some extent with the feast of the apostles, though no trace of it now remains in the West beyond the single day's vigil. A fast before Epiphany was customary in the fourth century within the domain of the Gallican liturgy, in northern Italy, France, Spain, so far as the ecclesiastical power of Milan then
g. Other reached. It seems to owe its origin
	Fasts.	to a rivalry with the Roman Christ
		mas festival; as the latter had its
fast, so it was thought necessary that the older
Epiphany festival on Jan. 6 must have its fast
too. The fast of the Virgin is the most recent of
the four great fasts of the Greeks. The festival of
the death of Mary, Aug. 15, was introduced by the
Emperor Maurice (582‑602); the fast lasts from
Aug. 1 to Aug. 15. On the other hand the ember
fast is a Roman custom. The quattuor tempora,
according to Leo I., occur before Easter, before
Pentecost, in September and in December. The
exact date has been differently fixed; since Urban
II. (1095), they fall in the weeks after the first
Sunday in Lent, Pentecost, the Exaltation of the
Cross (Sept. 14), and St. Lucy's day (Dec. 13).
They are observed by fasting on Wednesday, Fri
day, and Saturday, the three ancient Roman fast
days. The meaning seems to have been originally
that of supplication for a blessing on the fruits of
the earth. In some countries the second ember
season was referred to the corn‑harvest, the third
to the vintage, the fourth to the olive‑harvest, and
the first was omitted.
The mode of observing the fasts was various even in the oldest times. In considering the large number of fast‑lays observed in the first Christian centuries, it must not be forgotten that the population of the South, and especially that of the East is satisfied with meager and primitive food, and hardly knows any regular times for meals. None the less, the requirement of fasting during the whole of Lent seemed too difficult, and even in the
6. Mode of fourth century all Christians were not
Observance. enjoined to fast during the whole forty days. Most fasted two or three weeks (Chrysostom, Hom. xvi. ad popul. Antiochen.). By fasting was generally understood abstinence from all food till evening, or one meal a day; and this was to be as simple as possible. In the first centuries only bread, salt, and water was allowed. Afterward fruits and eggs, sometimes fish and even poultry were allowed, so that the fasting was finally limited to a prohibition of flesh and wine (Socrates, Hist. eccl., v. 22). To limit
thus the enjoyment of food to the barest necessities, or to refrain from certain designated articles of food constitutes " abstinence " in the technical sense. The injunctions were at first only of local or provincial authority. During the Middle Ages a vast system of casuistry developed in the Roman Church touching upon questions of permitted and forbidden food, indulgences and dispensations. In the fourth century (canons 1., li. of the Council of Laodicea, c. 360) ecclesiastical legislation made Lent a tempus clausum, by prohibiting anniversaries of martyrs, weddings, and birthday celebrations.
At present the laws of the Greek Church are stricter than those of the Roman. It still observes, besides the four great seasons of fasting, also the vigils of the Epiphany, St. John
7. The Baptist's day and Holy Cross dp,y, Present and the weekly fast on Wednesday
	Practise.	and Friday; so that half of the year
		is spent in fasting. The people are said
as a rule to observe the fasts with strictness, but the
educated classes have in large measure emanci
pated themselves from these regulations, and even
the clergy are not enthusiastic advocates of their
observance. In the Roman Catholic Church the
influence of changed social conditions and climate has
brought about a mitigation of the law of fasting.
Advent has partially lost its character as a season
of fasting, and the rules for Lent are generally
very lenient. The ember‑days are still observed.
Of the three weekly fast‑days Friday is retained,
though as a day not of strict fasting but of absti
nence from meat. The Church of Rome cares less
for the amount of fasting than for the act of
obedience performed by its members in observing
its rules on this point. [These vary considerably
in different places. Speaking generally, the obli
gation of fasting is not imposed upon any persons
under twenty‑one or over sixty; and those who are
bound to fast are allowed to take, besides the one
meal a day of the older use, a small piece of bread
with tea or coffee in the morning, and a light meal
or collation in the evening. The fast before com
munion, on the other hand, is absolute, not allow
ing even a drop of water from the preceding mid
night.]
In the Lutheran Church the fast‑seasons are continued in days appointed for penance and prayer (see FABT‑DAY). They are generally observed about the time of the old fast‑days, e.g., the ember‑days, or are specially appointed on account of public calamities, great wars, destructive storms, and the like. Lent is still spoken of as a season of fasting, and is considered by stricter Protestants as a time in which music, dancing, games, public amusements, and weddings are prohibited. In many places the people still abstain from eating and drinking before receiving the Lord's Supper; otherwise fasting is considered a Roman Catholic practise. [Calvin, whose views were generally adopted by the Reformed churches, commends the practise of fasting, if guarded against superstition; and the Westminster Confession says that " solemn fastings " are " in their times and seasons " to be used in a holy and religious manner.

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
vats", ~...
Fanstns of Riez
Thus in Scotland it was long customary to observe a yearly fast on some day in the week preceding the Communion Sunday: but the religious side of this observance has largely fallen into disuse, and the day has become merely a public holiday. For the history of the New England usage derived from the Puritans, see FAST‑DAY. The Church of England has a table of fasts in its Prayer‑book, including all Fridays, Lent, the ember‑days, and certain vigils, but merely enjoins a special measure of devotion and abstinence on these days, laying down no precise law for their observance.]
H. ACHEmB.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: I. Bensinger, Archdolopie, pp. 165 464, 477;
Nowack, Archdotogie, ii. 270 eqq•; Sch&er, Geachichte, ii. 489‑491 and consult the indexes of original and of Eng. trans].; Smith, Rel. of Sem., pp. 433‑434; BD, i. 854 855; EB, ii. 1505‑08; KL, iv. 1251‑52.
	1'I. A list of early treatises, mostly in Latin, is in
Hauck‑Herzog, RE, v. 770, and in J. E. Volbeding, In
dex diasertationu	‑120, Le pp. 119	ipsic, 1849. The beat
treatment of the subject is L. Duchesne, Christian Worship,
Eng. tranal., London, 1904. Consult: Bingham, Originea,
book xxi.; J. C. W. Augusti. Denkwfirdigkeiten, x. 309
420; H. Liemke, Die Quadragesim°l‑Fasten der Kirehe,
Munich, 1853; J. H. Blunt, Dictionary of Doctrinal and
Historical Theology, pp. 270‑275 London, 1870; A. Lin
senmayr, Entwicklung der kirchlichen Fadendiaziplin,
Munich, 1877; F. X. Funk, in KirchengeschichUichen
Abhandlungem pp. 241‑278, Paderborn, 1897; T. Zahn,
Skizzen Gus deco Leben der alien Kirche, pp. 359‑360, 368
373, Erlangen, 1898; W. E. Addis and T. Arnold, Catho
lic Dictionary, pp. 371‑373; DCA. i. 661‑665; KL, iv.
1241‑51.

FATALISM: The doctrine that all events are determined by fate, instead of by natural causes, and that nothing that man can will or do affects the course of events. While in the fatalistic view of the world everything is ruled by necessity, this is quite a different kind of necessity from that of Determinism (q.v.), with which fatalism is often confused. Indeed, fatalism and determinism are diametrically opposed to one another. The determinist, or necessitarian, says that events take place with necessity, but that they are made necessary by events immediately preceding, to which they stand in a relation of cause and effect. The fatalist, on the other hand, eliminates natural causes entirely. In his view the ultimate result will remain the same, no matter how much the antecedent causes be varied. For example, believing that a blind fate has decreed his death at a certain time, the fatalistic soldier goes into the battle with the firm conviction that he will not meet his death a moment sooner than if he had stayed at home. While fatalism bears a resemblance to predestination it is essentially a heathen view, and leaves no room for freedom of the will or for any personal relation between man and God the Father. Fatalism appears in Greek philosophy, and sometimes in modern pantheism, but it has found its fullest expression in the fanaticism of Mohammedanism.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Abbt: Plouquet, Examen du fataliame, Paris,
1757; A. Monod, Le Fatalisme, ib. 1858; B. Conta. Theorqe du fatalisme, Brussels, 1877; D. Bosurgi, IL Fata‑
lisrno e •	liberth morale, Catania, 1893; A. Lalande,
in Revue philoaophique, xlii (1896), 225 sqq.
FATHERS OF CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE. See CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE, SOCIETY OF.
284
FATHERS OF THE CHURCH. See CHURCH FATHERS; PATRIBTICB, PATHOLOGY.

FAUCHET, fo'shg', CLAUDE (Abby Fauchet): French bishop and revolutionist; b. at Domes (21 m. s.s.e. of Nevers), Department of Ni6vre, Sept. 22, 1744; executed in Paris Oct. 31, 1793. He devoted himself to the Church and soon became famous as an orator. He was grand vicar of the archbishop of Bourges, preacher to the king, and abb6 of Montfort‑Lacarre, in Brittany. In 1788 he was deprived of his office as preacher to the king on account of his revolutionary views; and on July 14, 1789 he was one of the leaders in the attack on the Bastile. He was a member of the Commune, and was chosen by that body to deliver an loge civique de Benjamin Franklin (Paris, 1790). His De la religion nationale (Paris, 1789), led to his appointment as constitutional bishop of Calvados in 1791. The same year he was elected deputy to the legislative assembly, afterward to the convention. At first a Jacobin, he was forced by the execution of the king, which he had opposed, to side with the Girondists. He was arrested on July 18, 1793, and guillotined with the Girondist deputies on Oct. 31. Besides publishing a number of revolutionary addresses, he edited La Bouche de Fer and the Journal des Amis. His (Euvres choisies are in J. P. Migne's Collection . . . des oratettrs saerds, Vol. lxvi.

FAUCHEUR, f'o''ahth', MICHEL LE: French Protestant preacher; b. at Geneva 1585; d. in Paris Apr. 1, 1657. At eighteen he began preaching at Dijon and early won a great reputation as an orator. He was pastor at Montpellier 1612‑32, and from 1636 till his death he preached at Charenton. In the interim he had been reduced to silence by Richelieu, who was trying to unite the two branches of the Church. Besides a large number of sermons, which are still worth reading, he published, Trains de la Cpne (Geneva, 1635); and Trttite de l'aetion de 1'oraleur (Paris, 1637). A translation of his sermon, " The Wages of Sin and the Reward of Grace " is found in Ingrain Cobbin's The French Preacher (London, 1816).

BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. Tallemant des Rsaux, Les Hiatoriettea,
	Paris, 1834‑35; A. R. Vinet, Hiat, de is 7nidication, Paris,
1860.
FAULHABER, faul‑h8'ber, MICHAEL: German Roman Catholic; b. at Heidenfeld (18 m. n.e. of W iirzburg) Mar. 5, 1869. He studied in W iirzburg (D.D., 1895), and after being prefect of the theological seminary in Che same city, 1893‑95, spent the years 1896‑98 in libraries in Rome and other Italian cities. He became privat‑docent in the University of W ilrzburg in 1899, and in 1903 was appointed professor of Old Testament exegesis in the University of Strasburg. He has written Die griechischen Apologeten der klassischen Vdterzeit, i., Eusebivs (Wiirzburg, 1896); Die Propheten,Catenen nach rbmischen Handschriften (Freiburg, 1899); Hesychii Hierosolymilani interpretatio Isaia; prophets; (1900); Hohelied‑, Proverbien‑ and Prediger‑Catenen (Vienna, 1902); and Die T'esperpsalmen tier Sonar urul F'eiertage (Strasburg, 1906).

286	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	FatsUsm
		Faustus of Ries
	FAULKNER, JOHN ALFRED: Methodist Epis
copalian; b. at Grand Pr6, N. S., July 14, 1857.
He was graduated at Acadia College, Wolfville,
N. S., in 1878 'and at Drew Theological Seminary
in 1881, supplementing his studies at Andover
Theological Seminary and the universities of Leip
sic and Bonn. He entered the Methodist Episcopal
ministry in 1883 and held pastorates at Beach
Lake, Pa. (1883‑84), Yatesville, Pa. (1884‑85),
Park Place, Scranton, Pa. (1885‑87), Taylor, Pa.
(1887‑92), Great Bend, Pa. (1892‑94), and Che
nango Street, Binghamton, N. Y. (1894‑97).
Since 1897 he has been professor of historical
theology in Drew Theological Seminary. He has
written The Methodists (New York, 1903), Cyprian
(Cincinnati, O., 1906), and Erasmus (1908).
	FAUNCE, WILLIAM HERBERT PERRY: Bap
tist; b. at Worcester, Mass., Jan. 15, 1859. He was
graduated at Brown University in 1880 and Newton
Theological Institution in 1884. He was instructor
in mathematics in Brown University 1881‑82, and
was pastor of the State Street Baptist Church,
Springfield, Mass., 1884‑89 and of tile Fifth Avenue
Baptist Church, New York City, 1889‑99. Since
1899 he has been president of Brown University.
He was elected president of the Religious Education
Association in 1906. He lectured before the
Divinity School of the University of Chicago in
1898‑99 and has been a resident preacher at Har
vard University. He has written Roger Williams
and his Doctrine o f Soul Liberty (Boston, 1902).
	FAUSSET, ANDREW ROBERT: Church of Eng
land; b. near Enniskillen (75 m. w.s.w. of Belfast),
county Fermanagh, Ireland, Oct. 13, 1821. He
studied at Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1843), was
ordered deacon in 1847, and oidained priest in
1848, and was curate of Bishop Middleham, Dur
ham, 1847‑59. Since 1859 he has been rector of
St. Cuthbert's, York, and has been canon of York
Minster since 1885. He was chaplain at Bex,
Switzerland, in 1870 and at St. Goar on the Rhine
in 1873. In theology he belongs to the Evangelical
school of the Church of England. He has written
Scripture and the Prayer Book in Harmony (London,
1854); Horse Psalmiece (1877); The Englishman's
Critical and Exposittmy Cyclopadia (London; 1878);
The Church and World (1878); The Millennium
(1880); The Signs of the Times (1881); Prophecy a
Sure Light (1882); The Latter Rain (1883); True
Science Confirming Genesis (1884); The Personal
Antichrist (1884) ; Spiritualism (1885); Critical and
Expository Commentary on the Book of Judges
(1885); and Guide to the Study , o f the Book o f Com
mon Prayer (1894). He has edited various classical
authors as well as the English translation of J. A.
Bengel's Gnomon Novi Testamenti (5 vols., Edin
burgh, 1857‑58), and A. R. Vinet's Homiletique
(London, 1858), and wrote the second and fourth
volumes of The Critical and Explanatory Pocket
Bible (4 vols. Glasgow, 1862), and the third, fourth
and sixth volumes of the Critical, Experimental, and
Practical Commentary (6 vols., London, 1871).
FAUSTINUS: Presbyter at Rome under Pope
Liberius (352‑366), prominent in the Luciferian
agitation (see LUCIFER OF CALARIS AND THE LUCIFERIANS). Conjointly with the otherwise unknown presbyter Marcellinus, he delivered to the emperor Theodosius at Constantinople in 383 or 384 a document (Libellus precum ad imperatores) entitled De confessions verse fidei et ostentatione sacrte communionis et persecutions adversantium veritatis (MPL, xiii. .83‑107; CSEL, xxxv. 5‑44), wherein he defended the Luciferians and entreated the emperor for protection against their adversaries. His deductions are largely overdrawn and partizan. The prtefatso to this memorial is not the work of Faustinus, but of an Ursinian (see URsINus, ANTIFOPE). Another work by Faustinus is the unimportant tract, De trinitate sive fidei adversus Arianos (MPL, xiii. 37‑80).
G. KM)t3ER.

BIHLIoaRAPHY: Gennadius, De vir. ill., chap. xvi.; Isidore
of Spain, De vir. ill., chap. xiv.; G. KrUger, Lucifer von
Calaris, pp. 62‑63, 82‑86, 94 sqq., Leipsic, 1886; G.
Rauschen, Jahrbiicher der chrdetlichen %irche unter . .
Theodosius, pp. 140, 199‑200, Freiburg, 1897; DCB, ii.
466.
FAUSTUS OF MILEVE. See MANICHEANS, § 14.

	FAUSTUS OF RIEZ (Lat. Reji; Faustus Rejenais):
Prominent representative of Semi‑Pelagianism in
the south of Gaul; b. between 405 and 410; d.
toward the end of the fifth century. He was
probably of British origin, according to the posi
tive assertions of Avitus and Sidonius; against
this there is nothing but the description of him
		as a Gaul by men at a distance like
	Life. Possessor and Facundus. He re
		ceived a good philosophical education,
and knew not a little of the Scriptures, but he was
neither an original thinker nor a thorough theolo
gian. At an early age he entered the monastery
of L6rins (q.v.), then in a very flourishing state
under Abbot Maximus, whom he succeeded in 433.
He kept his monks in strict discipline, and defended
the interests of his monastery against the bishop
of the diocese, Theodore of Frtjus, winning his case
when it came before a synod held by the metro
politan Ravennius (the Third Synod of Arles,
probably in 456). He was subsequently chosen
bishop of Riez (in Basses Alpes, 50 m. n.e. of Mar
seilles), not later than 46:?, in which year he appears
in Rome as a bishop; the date of his election is
probably between 458 and 460. He continued to
distinguish himself by his ascetic life, and became
known as a preacher. A synod was held at Arles
c. 475 to deal with the case of Lucidus, a teacher of
thoroughgoing predestinarianism, and another one
soon after at Lyons. Acting at the request of these
synods, Faustus succeeded in inducing Lucidus to
sign a fairly complete retractation, and also wrote
a large work De gratia in which be took a Semi
Pelagian position. He was also a prominent figure
in the Christological and Pneumatological contro
versies of his day. In 474, with other bishops,
be conducted negotiations in the emperor's name
with Euric, king of the Visigoths, and later, prob
ably by Euric's conquests, was driven into an exile
which apparently terminated in the year of Euric's
death, 485. His own death probably followed from
five to ten years later. The Church of his province

Faustus of Riez
Feasts and Festivals
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
honored him as a saint, although the title was not sanctioned by the wider body on account of his Semi‑Pelagian teachings.
	In his catalogue of authors Gennadius gives a
list, avowedly incomplete, of the writings of
Faustus [NPNF, 2 ser., iii. 399]. This in
cludes first a treatise in two books De Spiritu
		sancto, defending the divinity of the
	Writings.	Holy Ghost against Macedonius, and
		the two books De gratis, in the ex
tant text of which there are evident gaps; and
Bergmann brings forward, though unconvincingly,
the theory that it has suffered from interpolations
of an Augustinian tendency. Gennadius further
mentions " a small book against the Arians and
the Macedonians," which, in spite of various at
tempts at identification, may be taken as lost;
another " against those who say that there is
something incorporeal in creatures, affirming by
Scriptural and patristic testimony that there is
nothing incorporeal except God," which is extant
as the fourth epistle of Faustus‑ a letter addressed
" to a certain deacon named Graecus who leaving
the Catholic faith, went over to the Nestorian
impiety"; and " a religious epistle to Felix, the
pretorian prefect, exhorting to the fear of God,"
given by Engelbrecht as Epist. vi., and related to
his Epist. ix. Besides those mentioned by Genna
dius, there are other letters undeniably authentic
that to Paulinus of Burdegala (Epist. v. in Engel
brecht), that to Lucidus (Epist. i.), and five to
Ruricius (viii.‑xii.). Of special interest are the two
homilies on the baptismal symbol, which since Cas
pari's investigations have been generally attributed
to Faustus, although more recently W. Bergmann,
Studien zu einer kritischen Sichtung der siidgallischen
Predigtlitteratur der 5. and 6. Jahrhunderten, Leipsie,
1898, has contested this attribution, on grounds which
are worthy of notice if not conclusive. It remains to
mention a large number of sermons which are said
to have been current, although the obscurity which
still rests upon the whole question of early Latin
homiletical literature prevents the determination
of the exact extent of this activity. Engelbrecht,
indeed, asserts that there are extant two collec
tions of the sermons of Faustus, one of twenty‑two
in the ninth or tenth century manuscript known a Durlach 36 (now Carlsruhe 340), and seventy‑fou originally attributed to Eusebius (printed in th
Bibliotheca maxima,. VI. 618 sqq.). But this
assumption is hazardous. In the Durlach codex,
nine sermons bear the name of Faustinus, but it i
both uncertain whether this name points to Faustu and whether the remaining sermons are even b the same author, while both here and in the othe collection certain sections may be certainly identified as the work of Cxsarius.
The historical position of Faustus is conditioned
by, his support of the Semi‑Pelagian theology (se SEMI‑PELAGIANISM). According to him, all men
are born in original sin; but although
	Theology.	the freedom of the human will is
		weakened by sin, it yet remains an
integral part of human nature even in the sinner.
Grace cooperates with free will to establish good
in man; but man, through his freedom, takes the
s r
s
y r
_
e
initial step. In Faustus' mind grace connotes practically preaching with its promises and warnings; grace as an adjutorium divinum, in the Augustinian conception, an interior transforming power, is unknown to him. The passages which seem to recognize such a power are to be explained by the fact that Faustus regards the natural power of the will ae a gift of grace, or looks upon the leadinga of the circumstances of life in something of the same light, as in his treatment of the parable of the prodigal son. In spite of a casual mention (in the same sense) of gratis cooPerans or cooperans adjutorium, and of his strong condemnation. of Pelagius, he really takes a Pelagian position, further removed than Cassian from Auguatine. Predestination is made dependent on foreknowledge. God wills only what is just and right, but permits freedom to terminate in evil. In Trinitarian and
Christological questions Faustus adheres to the orthodox Augustinian formulas. (R. SEEBER(i.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The handiest ed. of the writings of Faustus is by Engelbrecht, in CSEL, xxi., Vienna, 1891; the most important are in MPL, Iviii. 783 sqq.; the letters of Faustus and Ruricius, ed. Kruach, are in MGM, Auct. ant., viii (1887). 265 aqq., cf. pp. liv. sqq.; for his exposition of the creed consult C. P. Caspari, Ungedruckte . Quetlen zur Geachichte sea TaufeZlmbols, ii. 183 sqq., Christiania, 1889; idem, Anecdota, i. 315 aq4., ib. 1883;
and the tract De aymbolo, ed. Caspari, is in Atte and Neue Quelten, ib. 1879. Consult: A. Koch, Der heiliga Fauatvs, Stuttgart, 1895: Tillemont, Memoirea, xvi. 408 sqq.; Hiafoire 1it0raire de la France, ii. 585 sqq.; Ceillier, Auteura sacra, x. 420‑437; A. Engelbreeht, Studien fiber die Schriften sea Biacho/a von Re7a, Faustus, Vienna, 1889; Zeitachrift far die dsterreichiachen Gymnasien. 1890. pp. 289 s44.. '181 aqq.. 677 sqq.; Morin, in Revue Unedietine, ix (1892), 49 eqq., cf. viii (1891). 97 sqq.; C. F. Arnold, Cdaariua von Arelate, pp. 324 sq4.. LeiPaic, 1894; Neander, Christian Church, ii. 706‑707 et passim; Harnack, Dogma, iv. 314, v. 252 eqq. et passim; KL, iv. 1279‑81.
FAVRE, fd'vr, PIERRE (PETRUS FABER):
Jesuit; b. at Villardet (now Villard, 3 m. w. of Beaufort), Savoy, Apr. 13, 1506; d. at Barcelona Aug. 1, 1546. He was one of the seven original associates of Ignatius Loyola (q.v.) , who took with him the solemn vow Aug. 15, 1534, in Paris. He was the first to gather followers in Germany,
and he educated them by the Exerci.tiu Spiri^ tttalia (q.v.) while he was attending the religious colloquies of Worms (1540) and Regensburg (1541).
During his residence at Cologne (1543‑44), as is
e clear from the first volume of his Cartas y otros
s escritos (Bilbao, 1894), he vigorously opposed Arch‑
bishop Herman of Wied (q.v.), who inclined to‑
e	ward Protestantism. He then began a successful
	propaganda in behalf of his order in Portugal and
	Spain, and was appointed to take part in the ses
	sions of the Council of Trent, but died at Barcelona
	on his journey thither. 	K. BENRATH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY; The " Letters and Literary Works " of
	d	Favre were published, 2 vols	Bilbao, 1894, vol. ii. con‑
tains also the Memorials, ed. M. Bouix. Paris. 1874. Con
sult. R. Comely, Leben des aetipen Petrua Faber, Frei‑
n	burg, 1873; E. Gothein, Ignatiua von Loyola, pp. 285
h	sqq., 863 sq4•. Halls. 1895.
FAVRE (FABER), PIERRE FRAftgOIS : Roman Catholic; b. at St. Barthelemi, canton of Vaud, Switzerland, in the beginning of the eighteenth century; d. at Assens in the district of Echallens, canton of Vaud, about 1780. He became priest at

287	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Faustuof Ries
		Feasts nd Festivals
	Lauden, in Lower Languedoc, and accompanied
	Franpois de la Baume, bishop of Halicarnassus, on
a tour of visitation to Cochin‑China, as his secretary
	and confessor. The bishop arrived at Macao in
	1738 and was detained and made a captive there,
	at the instigation of Portuguese Jesuits who re
	sented an investigation of their intrigues against
	the French missionaries. In Mar., 1739, the bishop
	was able to continue his journey and after two
	months landed in Cochin‑China. He admonished
	the missionaries to forget their quarrels and restore
	harmony. Complaints were brought against the
	Portuguese Jesuits who had excommunicated many
	on the pretense of Jansenism, and when the bishop
	opposed the Jesuits, he was accused of Jansenism
	himself and of disturbing the public peace. Letters
	from Rome, addressed to him, were intercepted
	and never reached him. As he saw that peace was
	impossible, he divided the provinces between the
	Jesuits, the French missionaries, and the Francis
	cans; but sorrow and ill treatment (or poison)
	caused his death in 1741. Favre took his place,
	and not being able to prevail against the Jesuits,
	went to Rome to give an account of his visitation.
	Thence he returned to his native country where he
	published in 1746 his Lettres 0diiantes et eurieuses
	sur la viaile apostolique de M. de la Baume d la
	Cochinchine en l'annee 17/,0, giving a report of
	Jesuit misdemeanors and intrigues. The book was
	condemned by the bishop of Lausanne and pub
	licly burned at Freiburg, and the Jesuits bought up
	every copy they could.	(J. PFOTENHAUER.)
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. Malbauer, Katholische Miseionen in
		Ostindien, pp. 171 aqq., 282 sqq., Freiburg, 1852; G.
		Warneck, Protestantische Beleuchtung der romischen An
		grife auf die eoanpelische Heidenmission, pp. 388 sqq
		Giitersloh, 1884‑85.
		FAWCETT, JOHN: English Baptist; b. at
	Lidget Green, near Bradford (10 m. w. of Leeds),
	Yorkshire, Jan. 6, 1740; d. at Brearley Hall, near
	Wainagate (14 m. s.w. of Leeds), July 25, 1817.
	Converted under George Whitefield's preaching at
	sixteen, he joined the Baptist Church at Bradford
	in 1759, and in 1764 entered the Baptist ministry.
	He settled in the parish of Halifax and remained
	there till the end of his life, preaching first at Wains
	gate, then at Hebden Bridge, where a new church
	was built for him in 1777. In 1772 he declined a
	call to London as the successor of Dr. John Gill
	(q.v.), and in 1793 the presidency of the Baptist
	Academy at Bristol. In addition to his work as
	a pastor and author, he conducted an academy
	at Brearley Hall, and also, for a short time, an
	institution for the training of Baptist ministers.
	Of his Hymns (Leeds, 1782), numbering 166, the
	best known are, " How precious is the Book divine,"
	" Thus far my God hath led me on," and " Blest
	be the tie that binds." He also published a number
	of works on practical religion, including, Advice to
	Youth (Leeds, 1786); and An Essdyon Anger (1787);
	also The Royal Devotional Family Bible (2 vols.,
	London, 1811).
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Fawcett, The Life, Ministry, and Wri
		tinge of . . John Fawcett, London, 1818 (by his son);
		DNB, :viii. 257‑258; S. W. Dufe d, English Hymns, pp
		73‑74, New York, 1886; Julian, HymnoWy, p. 373.
		FEAST OF THE ASS. SEE Ass, FEAST OF THE,
FEAST OF FOOLS. See FOOLS, FEAST OF.
FEASTS AND FESTIVALS.
1. Hebrew. Terms and Underlying Principles (§ 1). Provisions of the Priest Code (§ 2). Comparison of Other Codes (§ 3). Order of Development of the Codes (§ 4). Changes in Character of Festivals (§ 5). 11. Christian. Sunday and Sabbath (§ 1). Annual Feasts (§ 2). The Protestant Churches (§ 3).
	I. Hebrew: To express the idea of religious fes
tival, the Hebrew has two words, mo'edh and hagh
(Ar. #ajj). Mo'edh denotes a set time for coming
together, and can be employed for any festival
(Ezek. xlv. 17) except Sabbaths and new moons
(II Cbron. viii. 13; cf. Isa. i. 14). $agh means
particularly a festal dance, comes to mean festival
		in general, and is then applied to the
	r.	Terms three great feasts at which pilgrimage
		and was made to the great sanctuary, and
Underlying particularly to the feast of booths
	Principles.	(tabernacles) in autumn. No single
		principle determines the character of
feasts in the Old Testament. The feast of new moon
and perhaps the Sabbath are lunar, and upon the
Sabbath reckoning in larger cycles depend the
Sabbatical and jubilee years. The feasts of un
leavened bread, of weeks and of tabernacles are
determined by the season, at least on their agrarian
side. The Passover is a historical‑religious commem
oration, into connection with which the feasts of
unleavened bread and of booths are brought, and
in post‑Biblical times Pentecost was brought into
this circle. The same is true of Purim and the
feast of dedication. The day of atonement is
purely religious with no fast ties to any special
date. The festivals can be considered also in their
relations to the family, to sanctuaries, to commu
nities or to the central sanctuary.
For a historical review of the festal system the priestly document furnishes the basis, since it is the most developed. The classical passages are Lev. xxiii.; for the Passover Ex. xii. 3‑20, 43‑50; for the Sabbatical and jubilee years Lev. xxv.; the institution of the offerings is in Num. xxviii.‑xxix. The result of these enactments is as follows
Through the twofold daily offering each day becomes a religious festival and to this daily offering the special offerings of particular occasions are additions (Num. xxviii. 3 aqq.). The Sabbath (q.v.) is a day consecrated to God with absolute rest, convocation at the sanctuary, and special offerings (Num. xxviii. 9). The Passover is a house festival celebrated on the fourteenth day of the first month in commemoration of the immunity of the Israelites in the final Egyptian plague; the paschal lamb is eaten with unleavened
	a. Provi‑	bread and its blood is sprinkled on
sions of the the door‑posts. The feast of un
Priest Code. leavened bread begins on the fifteenth
		day of the first month and continues
seven days; during the whole period special offer
ings are made, and the first and last days are rest
days with special convocations. Ex. xii. 17
brings it into connection with the Exodus, Lev.

roasts and Testivsla
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
xxiii. 9‑14 connects with it the feast of first‑fruits, after which the new harvest might be enjoyed. Pentecost or the feast of weeks depends upon this, occurring seven weeks later, celebrated as a rest day and time of special offerings and convocation. The feast of tabernacles begins on the fifteenth day of the seventh month and continues eight days, the first and last of which are days of convocation, each day having its special offering. While this feast commemorates the sojourn in the wilderness, Lev. xxiii. 39 brings it into connection with the harvest. The new moons are celebrated with special offerings (Num. xxviii. 11‑15); the new moon of the seventh month is a teat day with convocation, blowing of the trumpet, and special offerings. The Day of Atonement, occurring on the tenth day of the seventh month, is an absolute rest day with convocation and its own ritual of offerings, a penitential festival with fasting and high‑priestly atonement for sin and impurity. The Sabbatical year occurs once in seven years, the land is not cultivated, and the products are common property. The jubilee year falls at the end of a cycle of seven Sabbatical years, therefore every fiftieth year. It begins on the day of atonement with the blowing of trumpets, involves s complete rest of the land, and the people recover their earlier possessions and Hebrew slaves their freedom. The basis of this is the idea that the land is Yahweh's, while his people are his guests, his servants, and therefore not man's servants. The religious interest is dominant throughout. Passover, unleavened bread, and the feast of tabernacles are commemorative. Especially closely connected with religious ideas are the day of atonement, and the Sabbatical and the jubilee year. All, with the exception of the Passover, are celebrated with convocations at the sanctuary with collective offerings, among which offerings for sin are constant excepting at the daily and Sabbath sacrifice. The times are fixed by the months, yet the feasts of unleavened bread, of Pentecost, and of booths are related to the seasons and to agriculture.
Ezekiel (xlv. 17‑xlvi. 15) omits Pentecost, and locates the Passover on the fourteenth day of the first month, with a seven days' use of unleavened bread, with daily sacrifice of burnt offerings, foodofferings, and sin‑offerings. And he places the feast of tabernacles on the fifteenth day of the seventh month, continuing seven days with special offerings. On the days of new moon and Sabbath, offerings are required, and a daily, morning offering consisting of burnt offering and food‑offering. On the first day of the first and of the seventh month the sanctuary is to be cleansed by the blood of a sinoffering. Thus Ezekiel is close to the Priest Code, though the prince makes the offerings in the name of the people, the feasts are fewer, atonement day appears to be semiyearly, and the g. Compsri‑household Passover is not mentioned.
	son of	The Deuteronomic passage is xvi.1‑17,
	ether	and deals with three great festivals at
	Codes,	the central sanctuary. .In the month
		of Abib occurs the Passover, not a
celebration at home, but at the central sanctuary
and for a single day, though unleavened bread is
ass
to be eaten for seven days in memory of the hurried flight from Egypt. Pentecost is celebrated seven weeks after the commencement of harvest at the central sanctuary with enjoyment of the gifts brought. The feast of tabernacles is loosely placed at the close of the harvest and vintage and is also celebrated at the central sanctuary. Thus Deuter onomy differs from the Priest Code and Ezekiel in not fixing exactly the time of celebration, the accompaniment of sin‑offering is lacking, and the offerings are not those of the community as a whole, but are. enjoyed as festal meals. The Sabbath celebration is provided for in the Deuteronomio decalogue, and the basis is humanitarian. There is no Sabbatical or jubilee year, though a release of Hebrew debtors and slaves takes place. The festival of new moon does not appear, still less the day of atonement or the double temple cleansing of Ezekiel. The exposition of the Yahwiatic Code is complicated by Deuteronomic redaction of the passages which deal with the festivals (Ex. xxiii. 10‑17, axxiv. 18‑‑26; cf. xii. 34, 39, xiii..eqq.). As they stand
these passages involve a seven days', festival of unleavened bread in Abib (commemorative), a harvest festival (of first‑fruits), and s feast of ingathering at the close of the year. The Sabbath has the same humanitarian basis se in Deuteronomy,
and the products of the land in the seventh year
are common property. Ex. xxxiv. • mentions again
these same three festivals, but the feast of weeks
bears the same name as in Deuteronomy, and
verses 25, 19‑20 indicate that the Passover did not
originate with Deuteronomy.
This review shows that the Priest Code and the
Yahwistic Code stand at the two extremes oP the
development, with Ezekiel and Deuteronomy com
ing in between; and, further, it is clear that the
order is JE, Deuteronomy, Ezekiel, and P. The
		historical writings confirm this result.
;. Order of Thus in Neh. viii. 14 eqq. mention is
	Develop‑ made of a festival of the Priest Code
meat of the (feast of booths) of which it is ea
	Codes. pressly said " since the days of Joshua
		. had not the children of Israel
done so." In .II Kings xxiii. 21‑23, is found an
other note of similar character, related to the cele
bration at the central sanctuary. The prophetical
writings are in connection with the Yahwistic Code,
and earlier history also accords with this. A
sacrificial feast in the city of Samuel is mentioned
in I Sam. ix. 12 eqq., and a family festival and
sacrifice in Bethlehem in I Sam. ax. 6. There are
pilgrimages also to sanctuaries where a festal meal
is eaten (I Sam. i. 3 sqg.; cf. Hon. ix. 4‑5). Men
tion occurs often of an ancient festival (Judges
gai. 19; I Kings. viii. 2), while a festival of the
northern kingdom is placed in the eighth month
(I Kings xii. 32) which is probably the retention
or reinstitution of an old custom, and has rela‑
tion to the feast of booths. Frequent mention
occurs of the Sabbath and the new moon, though
the latter was not. legislated for in the earliest
codes. I Sam. xxv. 2 sqq. and II Sam. aiii. 23
mention a festival of sheep‑shearing, the charac
teristic of which was a somewhat exuberant joy.
The ethical character of the religion of Israel per‑

289	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	Peseta and Festivals
haps led to the exclusion of this festival from the national observances.
Detailed examination leads to the conclusion that festivals of an agricultural character became religious observances, and at the same time the earlier character of family or local celebration changed and took a national form. The separation
from the natural circumstances of their g. Changes celebration is marked by exact deterin Charac‑ mination of dates, while new occasions ter of Fes‑ of purely religious significance came tivals. in, such as the two purifications of
Ezekiel and the day of atonement. Deuteronomy is the turning‑point, where the festivals still have as a motive rejoicing before Yahweh (xiv. 26, xvi. 11); but the first step toward the separation of the festivals from the environment of nature amid which they arose and the determination of a religious purpose was taken in the centralization of the cultus. Only in the case of the Passover the Priest Code breaks with Deuteronomy and Ezekiel and makes the celebration a home affair, and the lamb loses its sacrificial character. The festal character of these celebrations was not wholly lost under the Priest Code, as is shown by the feast of booths; and Lev. xxiii. still retains recollection of the connection of the three principal feasts with agriculture. The question whether these three, the feasts of unleavened bread, Pentecost and tabernacles, were instituted prophetically by Moses or arose among the Hebrews by adoption from the Canaanites has been variously answered. But Judges ix. 27 gives an account of a festival analogous to the feast of booths. No ground exists, however, for deriving from that source the celebration of the Sabbath (cf. Amos viii. 5). On the other hand the assertion that a Sabbath rest could not originate among a pastoral people is contradicted by facts from the life of the Arabs. The new moon festival probably arose under nomadic conditions, in spite of the silence of the earliest legislation. That the sheep‑shearing festival was pre‑Mosaic is clear from Gen. xxxviii. 13, and that the Passover had pre‑.Mosaic antecedents is shown by Ex. iii. 18, v. 3, viii. 21 sqq., etc. Just what its character was in its earliest form is not clear, except that the connection with the first‑born which it always had suggests that it was the occasion of presenting the first‑fruits to deity. An Arabic festival of the same purport existed.
Besides the festivals already mentioned, two arose in later times. One of these is Purim, the origin of which Esther purports to give, called in II Magic xv. 36 the Day of Mordecai. In Maccabean times arose the feast of the dedication of the temple, beginning on the eighth of Kislew, celebrating the purification of the temple after its defilement by Antiochus Epiphanes (I Mace. iv. 59; II Mace. x. 7, and doubtless the title of Ps. 30). See the articles on the different festivals; also SYNAGOGUE. (F. BUHL.)
II. Christian: The primitive Church apparently knew no special feast‑days at the first. With the abrogation of the Mosaic law, its feasts also ceased, and it passed for perverted Judaizing legality to retain them (cf. Rom. xiv. 5; Gal. iv. 9‑11; Col. IV.‑19
ii. 16). The original theory was that for a redeemed Christian every day was a feast‑day. At the same time, the need of common
I.	Sunday devotional festivals in which all could
	and take part led to the practise of keep‑
	Sabbath.	ing these on the day of the week which
		from the beginning enjoyed a cer
tain distinction as that of the Lord's resurrection
(see SUNDAY; cf. Acts xx. 7; I Cor. xvi. 2; Rev.
i. 10; Epistle of Barnabas xv. 9; Ignatius, Ad
Magnesios, ix. 1; Justin, I Apol., lxvii.). The
Sabbath too was observed to some extent, espe
cially in the East and among the Jewish Christians.
Yet it was secondary to Sunday; only the Apostolic
Constitutions demand the like solemnity for both.
In the Roman Church, fasting was observed on the
Sabbath; but Gregory the Great declared the pro
hibition of labor on the Sabbath to be the work of
Antichrist‑a decision which later contributed a
cause for ecclesiastical separation of East and West.
The early Church also came to observe Wednesdays
and Fridays as days of prayer and partial fasting
in commemoration of the condemnation and cruci
fixion of Jesus (see FASTING, II.).
There were also annually recurring feasts in the earliest time. Probably the paschal feast (see EASTER) was always celebrated in some way, preeminently by the Jewish Christians in connection with their former celebration of the
z. Annual Passover, for memorial of the cruci‑
	Feasts.	fixion and resurrection of Jesus. It
		was succeeded by a fifty‑day season of
rejoicing, from which afterward Ascension and
Pentecost (qq.v.) grew forth with peculiar solem
nity, and was preceded by a season of mourn
ing, attended with fasting of varying length and
observance. The institution of these festal cele
brations was held to be an affair of ecclesiastical
ordering, and often required special justification
in the light of New Testament liberty. The first
Christian festival which had no connection with
feasts of Israel is that of the Epiphany (q.v.). It
was fixed on a definite day of the year (Jan. 6)
and is thus an " immovable feast," unlike Easter
and the festivals dependent on it, which vary from
year to year (see CHURCH YEAR; EASTER), and
hence are known as " movable feasts." The
Epiphany was originally the festival of Christ's
baptism. The nativity festival (see CHRISTMAS)
first occurs in the West from the middle of the
fourth century. In the East, so late as the fifth
century, they still celebrated both the birth and
baptism of the Lord on Epiphany. In the sixth
century, the feast of the circumcision of Christ was
introduced as the octave of Nativity; preceding
that time, the first of January had been widely
observed as a penitential day, with attendant fast
ing, in order to restrain Christians from the pagan
new year festivities (see NEw YEAR FESTIVAL). The
Christmas feast was ushered in by a preliminary
festal season (see ADVENT), originally of longer
duration, but afterward restricted to four weeks;
this, too, was a season of penance and fasting in
the West (see FASTING, II.).
The three principal festivals, Easter, Pentecost, and Christmas, which with their preceding and

Feasts and lesUvals
Feine
following seasons gradually embraced the whole
year (see CHURCH YEAR), were supplemented, from
time to time, by many minor feasts, many of them
introduced only in particular districts, as appears
from ancient local calendars (see CALENDAR, THE
CHRISTIAN). Only the most important can be
mentioned here. The festival of the Trinity (see
TRINITY, FESTIVAL OF THE) was not appointed for
the Church at large until 1334. The feast of the
Blessed Sacrament (festum corporis Christi) occurred
in the diocese of Lifge from 1246, and was gener
ally adopted in 1264 (see CoRPUs CHRISTI). Cer
tain festivals of the cross originated in the East,
and two of them became current in the West also
(see CROSS, EXALTATION of THE; CROSS, INVEN
TION OF THE). Among the feasts of Mary, the
Annunciation (Mar. 25; see ANNUNcuTioN, FEAST
of THE) is no doubt the earliest. This and the
festival of the Purification (Feb. 2) were sometimes
regarded as feasts of Christ as well; they date from
the fifth century (for the Purification and the many
other feasts of the Virgin, see MARY, THE MOTHER
OF JESUS CHRIST). Apostles, evangelists, and other
New Testament characters all came to have their
days; and by degrees the practise grew up of ob
serving an annual commemoration of martyrs on
the day of their death, and especially at their
tombs (see ANNIVERSARIUB). This was extended
to confessors, virgins, and other saints, until nearly
every day in the year had its liturgical commemora
tion of some saint, event, doctrine, or sacred object.
	The large number of " holy days of obligation "
(i.e., in the Roman Catholic system, days which
must be kept by attendance at mass and abstinence
		from unnecessary servile work) ob
i. The Prot‑served in the countries of Western
	estant Europe in the latter part of the Middle
	Churches, Ages constituted a real economic
		difficulty, and there were many com
plaints of it. When the Reformation began, its
tendency was to sweep away the far greater num
ber of such observances. Luther was at first in
clined to think that Sunday alone should be kept;
but in 1528 he and Melanchthon recommended the
observance of Christmas, New Year's Day (Cir
cumcision of Christ), Epiphany, Easter, Ascension,
and Pentecost, and allowed, as feasts of the second
class, those which had Scriptural warrant. Ger
man custom often postpones the celebration of
secondary feasts to the following Sunday. The
Church of England retained the feasts just named
and certain others commonly called (from the old
rubricated printing of the prayer‑book) " red
letter" days, with special services, and kept a num
ber of " black‑letter " or minor festivals in the
calendar, with no provision for their observance.
The American Episcopal Church retained the red
letter days, and even added to them at the last
revision the Transfiguration of Christ (Aug. 6),
but omitted !the black‑letter days from the calen
dar.* In the Reformed churches as a rule all
rt According to the Anglican prayer‑books the feasts to be ob‑
served throughout the year are as follows. All Sundays; the
Circumcision (Jan. 1); the Epiphany (Jan. 8); the Converato
of St. Paul (Jan. 25); the Purification of the Blessed Virgin (Feb. 2); St. Matthias the Apostle (Feb. 24; in leap‑
THE NEW SCIiAFT‑FIERZOG
290
festivals except Sunday were abolished. Since the middle of the last century there has been a tendency to appoint new festivals; e.g., the German Reformation festival (end of October or beginning of November) and so called festival of the dead (on the last Sunday of the church year in memory of all who have died in course of the year), harvest festival, children's day, missionary Sunday, and the like.' National memorial days are often celebrated with religious services. The New England fastday (see FART‑DAY) and Thanksgiving (q.v.) deserve special mention. The custom of celebrating Easter and Christmas with floral decorations, special music, and Sermons on the events commemorated 's increasing among all non‑liturgical churches.
The tendency in the Roman Catholic Church since the Reformation has been constantly to add new saints' days and other feasts to the calendar, with liturgical observance, but on the other hand to diminish the number of holy days of obligation; thus in the United States at the present time there are none (outside of Sundays) but the Feast of the Circumcision (Jan. 1), the Ascension, the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin (Aug. 15), All Saints' Day (Nov. 1), the Immaculate Conception (Dec. 8), and Christmas.

BIBLIOGRAPHY; I. J. F. L. George. Die d1teren 1t2d'°chen Feats, Berlin, 1835; H. Ewald, De feriar'um liebroarum origins et rations, Gbttangen, 1841; idem, Alterthttmer, pp. 130 eqq: lbl eqq., 441 eqq, ib. 1888, Eng. tranal., pp. 89 eq9•. 113 eqq•. 334 eqq•. Boston, 1878: H. HuP_ feld, De Drimitiroa et sera festorum aPad Hebra°a rations, Halls, 1851‑4b: F. Bachmann, Die Feetpceetse den PantateucAa, Berlin, 1868: J. Wellhauaen, Prolegomena. pp. 83‑1?0: A. Ederaheim, Th. Temple: its Ministry and ,ger„,,eee, pp. 1q4‑300, London. 1874; B. $tade, Geschichte Israela, i. 498‑503, Berlin, 1884; W. H. Green, The Hebrew Easels in their Relation to Recant Critical Hypotheses, New York 1885 (antiaritienl); J. T. de Viseer, Hebreeutoaehe Archaeolopie. L 412 eqq., Utrecht, 1891; J. Robertson, Early Religion of Israel, passim, Edinburgh, 1892; H. Schultz, Ofd Testament Theology, i. 359‑369 et passim, ii. 87‑100, London, 1892; Bensinger, Archdolopia, PP. 388 stq• et passim; Nowack, Arrhaolopie, ii. 138203; Smith, Prophets, pp. 38, 68 384: idem, OTJC, passim; DD, i. 859‑883: EB, n. 1505 eqq•. 1509 eqq•: JE, v. 374‑378; ICL, iv. 1438‑47.
	lI. Bingham, Origin", book XX.; cf. XIII. ix. 8‑7;
J. C. W. Auguati, flandbuch der chrtstlichen Archuolopie,
i.	457‑595. Leipaio, 1838 (especially useful): R. Nelson,
Festivals and Fasts of the Church of England, reprinted
London, 1810; F. Creuser, 8ymbolik and Mythofopie der
alien V6lker, iv. 2, pp. b77‑814. Leipaia, 1821 (compares
Christian cycle of festivals with pre‑Christian celebrations);
A. J. Binterim, Denkw4rdipkeiten, v. 1, pp. 119 sqq.
Mains, 1829; A. Butler, Movable Feasts, Fasts . . o/
the Catholic Church, Dublin, 1839; J. H. Hobart, Festi
vals and Feasts. London, 1887: H. Grotefend, Zeit
redtnutty du 	n Mitkfaltera and der Neuzeit; Han‑

year Feb. 25 in the Roman Catholic Church); the Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin (Mar. 25); St. Mark the Evangelist (Apr. 25); St. Philip and St. James the Apostles (May 1): the Ascension; St. Barnabas the Apostle (June 11); the Nativity of St. John Baptist (June 24); St. Peter the/Apostle (June 29): St. James the Apostle (July 25); the Transfiguration (Au;. 8: in the American Episcopal Church only); St. Bartholomew the Apostle (Aug. 24); St. Matthew tine Apostle (Sept, 2t); St. Michael and All Angela (Sept. 29); St. Luke the Evangelist (Oct. 18); St. Simon and St. Jude the Apostles (Oct. 28): All Saints (Nov. 1); St. Andrew the Apostle (Nov. 30); St. Thomas the Apostle
e	(Dec. 211; the Nativity (Dec. 25): St. Stephen the Martyr
n	(Dec. 28); St. John the Evangelist (Dec. 27); the Holy In‑
nocents (Dec. 28): Monday and Tuesday in Easter‑week; Monday and Tuesday in WhiWUn‑week.

B81	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Feasts and Festivals
Felae
over, 1891‑98; L. Ducheene, Christian Worship, passim, London. 1904; J. G. Greenough, Christian Festivals, Manchester, 1908; DCA, i. 869‑871 and especially ii. 20542059, where a list is given; KL, iv. 1391‑1436; and literature under the articles on the several festivals, also under COMMON PRAYER, BOo% oF; CALENDAR, THE CHHIBTIAN.
FEATHERS' TAVERN ASSOCIATION: A society of English clergy and laymen formed in the later part of the eighteenth century to secure a revision of the English liturgy, named from the fact that the members held their meetings in the Feathers' Tavern in the Strand, London. An agitation for revision, started by John Jones with his anonymous Free and Candid Disquisitions (1749), had come to a head with the publication of Francis Blaekburne's The Confessional' (1766). As a corollary from Chillingworth's principle that the Bible is the religion of Protestants, Blackburne argued that Protestant ministers should not be required to subscribe to anything but the word of God. He would abolish subscription, not only to the liturgy and the thirty‑nine articles, but to the creeds as well. This work was published anonymously; but in 1771 Blackburne spoke out openly. On July 17 of this year he and his friends held their first meeting at the Feathers' Tavern to consider the drawing of a petition to parliament. The gist of the petition agreed upon, which was an extreme statement of Protestant individualism, was, that the damnatory clauses of the Athanasian Creed be stricken out, and that Protestants be allowed to interpret Scripture for themselves. This petition, opposed in a strong speech by Edmund Burke, was rejected by parliament by a vote of 217 to 71. The petition was signed by Deists, Asians, and Socinians; and of the 250 names it bore Blackburne's was the only one of much importance. Men like Bishop Edmund Law, Dr. Watson, and Dr. Paley, while in sympathy with the movement, declined to commit themselves. In 1773 and 1774 the subject was again brought up in parliament, but without any result. The Feathers' Tavern Association was short‑lived and accomplished nothing.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. A. Baxter, Church Hid. of England, p. 668, London, 1849; J. B. Marsden, His(. of Christian Churches and Sects, i. 314, ib. 1856; J. H. Overton and F. Melton, The English Church . . . 1714,‑1800, pp. 209‑211, 219, 252, ib , 1906.
FEATLEY, DANIEL: English controversialist and royalist; b. at Charlton (7 m. n.n.e. of Oxford), Oxfordshire, Mar. 15, 1582; d. at Chelsea, London, Apr. 17, 1645.. He studied at Corpus Christi College, Oxford (B.A., 1601; M.A., 1605), and soon became a power for Protestantism. From 1610 to 1613 he was in Paris as chaplain to Sir Thomas Edmondes, the English ambassador. He was domestic chaplain to George Abbot, archbishop of Canterbury, and afterward chaplain of Charles I. In 1619 he became rector of Lambeth, and in 1627 of Acton. He was provost of Chelsea College in 1630. During the Civil War his property was plundered, and on two occasions he narrowly escaped assassination. He was a member of the Westminster Assembly and was the last of the Episcopal members to withdraw from that body. Soon afterward he was imprisoned, but was re‑
leased a short time before his death. Among his voluminous works are, Aneilla pietatis, or the Handmaid to Private Devotion (2 pts., London, 1626), a favorite book with Charles I., and often reprinted, also in foreign languages; Mystica Clavis: a Key Opening Divers Difficult and Mysterious Texts of Holy Scripture (1636); Roma ruens, Rome's Ruin (1644), an anti‑Catholic work written at the request of parliament while he was in prison; and The Dippers Dipt (1645), the result of a controversy with four Baptists at Southwark, Oct. 17, 1642.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The early account of Featley is by John Featley, Featlai paiingeneaia. with a succinct Hid. of his Life and Death (London), 1660. Consult: D. Neal, Hid. of the Puritans, iii. 47, 58, 78‑79, 267‑269, 4 vols., London, 1732‑38, 5 vols., Bath, 1793‑97; A. iL Wood, Atheno Oxonienses, ed. P. Bliss, iii. 156‑169, 1254, London, 181320; DNB, xviii. 276‑280 (where a full list of literature is given).
FEBRONIUS, JUSTINUS, FEBRONIANISX See HONTHEIM, JoHANN NICoLAUs.
FECHT, feHt, JOHANNES: German Lutheran, an opponent of Pietism; b. at Sulzberg, in the Breisgau, Dec. 25, 1636; d. at Rostock May 5, 1716. He studied at Durlach and Strasburg, and in 1661 began a wandering student life of five years, visiting a number of German universities and residing for a considerable time at Wittenberg and Giessen. In 1666 he was recalled to Sulzberg, and in 1669 was appointed court chaplain and professor of theology. He was then superintendent in Durlach until the capture of the city by the French in 1689, when he fled to Calw, and met there the duke of Mecklenburg, who invited him to Rostock. He removed to that city in 1690 and remained there as superintendent and professor until his death, enjoying the utmost esteem and refusing flattering calls to other universities. He was a genuine representative of the conservative theology of the seventeenth century, and, despite his later reputation as an impassioned polemist, was at heart a man of peace in the eyes of his contemporaries. His opposition to Pietism was sincere, nor did he fail to respect its good qualities. He was a prolific writer, beginning with philosophy and classics,
	j and later touching every department of theology,
	although he gradually came to restrict himself to
	dogmatics and polemics. His principal works are:
	Historia eoloquii Emmendingensis (Rostock, 1694);
	Selectiorum ex universa lheologia controversiarum,
	recentiorum pr&ecipue, sylloge (1698); Philoealia
	sacra (1707); and the posthumous Lectiones theo
	logica (1722) and Compendiuni universm theologix
	(Zerbst, 1744). 	(B. SCHMIDT.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The " Life " of Fecht. by his son, was reproduced in Feehtii compendium, zerbst. 1740. Consult F. A. G. Tholuck, Lebeneaeupen der luthertachen Kirche
aus alien Stdnden. pp. 183 eqq., Berlin, 1859.
FEDERAL THEOLOGY. See COCCEIUS, JOHANNES, AND HIS SCHOOL.

FEINE, fai'ne, PAUL: Lutheran; b. at GoImsdorf (5 m. n.e. of Jena) Sept. 9, 1859. He studied in Jena and Berlin and, after teaching in a gymnasium in the former city (1884‑86), was private tutor in a noble family until 18S9. Then until

Felgnhauer
Felia and Feetne
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
1893 he taught in a gymnasium at GSttingen, and in 1893 became privat‑docent in the university of the same city. In 1894 he was appointed professor of New Testament exegesis in the Evangelical theological faculty at Vienna and in 1907 accepted a call to Breslau. He has written Eine vorkanonische UeberlieferungdesLukas imEvangeliumund Apostelgeschichte (Goths, 1891); Der Jakobusbrief (Eisenach, 1893); Das gesetzesfreie Evangelium des Paulus (Leipsie, 1898); Jesus Christus and Paulus (1902); Die Erneuerung des paulinischen Christentums durch Luther (1903); Der Romerbrief (G6ttingen, 1903); Das Christentum Jesu and das Christentum der Apostel in, ihrer Abgrenzung gegen die Religionsgeschichte (Stuttgart, 1904) ; and Paulus als Theologe (Berlin, 1906).
FELGENHAUER, fel'gen‑hauler, PAUL: Theosophist and pantheistic mystic; b. at Putschwitz (district of Podersam 45 m. w.n.w. of Prague), Bohemia, Nov. 16, 1593, old style; d. not before 1660. His father was a Lutheran minister of Putschwitz. He studied theology at Wittenberg and became deacon there in the Schlosskirche. Being obliged to leave Wittenberg soon afterward, he returned to Bohemia and circulated his remarkable views in writings, affirming in his Chronologie (1620) that the world was created 4,234 years before the birth of Christ, and that the end was immediately at hand. Persecutions of the Protestants compelled him to leave Bohemia. He was at Amsterdam in 1623, then is found in the vicinity of Bremen, again in Holland, and lastly at Hamburg as late as 1660. His manifold chiliastlc and mystical tracts, wherein he described the existingChurch as an obdurate Babel, were eagerly read by people of the lower classes. Theologians more than once attacked his doctrines, particularly Georg Rost, court preacher of Gustrow, and the clergy of Hamburg, Bremen, Labeck, and Uineburg. He was imprisoned for a time by the authorities of Celle
and Hanover. It is not known when or where h
died. A partial list of his numerous writings is i
Adelung, pp. 400 sqq. 	CARL BERTHEAU.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. H: Starke, Lubeca lutherano‑evangeliea. Hamburg, 1724; G. Arnold, Kirchen‑ and Ketzerhistorie
ii. 373 sqq., Schaffhausen, 1741; [J. C. AdelungJ Ge
achichte der menachlichen Narrheit, iv. 388‑407, Leipsic
1787; ADB, viii, 278‑279.
FELICISSIMUS. See CYPRIAN, § 2.
FELIX: The name of four popes and one antipope, who is sometimes counted as a fifth pope.
Felix I.: Pope 269‑274. He succeeded Di
nysius, becoming pope on Jan. 5, 269. The only
positive fact known of his pontificate is the state‑
ment of Eusebius (Hilt. eccl., VII., xxx. 19; cf. 23
that in the controversy in Antioch instigated b
Paul of Samosata (see MONARCHIANISM, 111.) t
Emperor Aurelian decided that the church building should be given to " those to whom the bishops of Italy and of the city of Rome should adjudge it." From this it is probable that Felix exchanged litterte communicationis with Domnus of Antioch, and that he expressed his opposition to Paul of Samosata at greater length in a letter to Maximus of Alexandria. The latter document was tampered
298
with in an Apollinarian sense at the end of the fourth
century, and in this shape was considered by the
Council of Ephesus (431). According to the
Depositio episcoporum (354) Felix died a natural
death, and was buried in the catacomb of St.
Calixtus, Dec. 30, 274. 	(H. BOHMER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Catalogue Liberianua, ed. T. Mommsen, in
	MGH, Auct. ant., ix (1891), 75; Liber Pontificalie, ad.
	Duchesne, i. 158. Paris, 1886; idem, ed. T. Mommsen, in
	MGH, Geat. Pont. Rom., i (1898). 37: Jaffd. Regeata, i.
	23; J. Langen, Geachichte der riimischen Kirche bia Leo 1.,
pp. 36b‑369, Bonn, 1881; DCB, n. 479‑480.
Felix B.: Pope 355‑358. When Liberius (q.v.) was banished at the end of 355 by the Emperor Constantius, whose policy he had opposed, the Roman clergy took an oath not to recognize another bishop as long as Liberius lived; but the oath was soon forgotten, and the Archdeacon Felix was persuaded to become bishop. He was consecrated by three Arian bishops, including Acacius of
Cxsarea, in the imperial palace, and, though not an Arian himself, he supported the policy of external union favored by Constantius and held communion with the Arians. The majority of the Roman clergy were won over by imperial favors to support Felix, but the people remained true to Liberius and refused allegiance to the former. Conatantiua on coming to Rome, Apr. 28, 357, found so much discord that he expressed his willingness to restore Liberius, after he had agreed to sign the third Sirmian formula of the summer of 358 and to rule jointly with Felix. But on the approach of Liberius to the city, Felix was driven out, and, after unsuccessful attempts to regain his position, died at Porto Nov. 20, 365. From the sixth century on a curiously inaccurate legend grew up about his name which made him a venerated saint and martyr. The oldest evidences for this are the Liber Pontificalis, the Acta Felicia, and the Acta Eusebii. Dbllinger thinks this the result of a confusion with
an African bishop and martyr of the same name,
e	whose remains were translated to the same spot
n	on the Via Aurelia where later the church named
	after Pope Felix was erected. (H. BtiHMER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: Faustinus and Marcellinus,
	Libellus precum ad imperatores, in MPL, xiii. 81; Atha‑
‑	nasius. Arian History, chap. 75, in NPNF 2 ser., iv. 298:
	Socrates, Hiat. eccl., ii. 37, in NPNF, 2 ser., ii. 61‑65;
	Sozomen, Hist. eccl., iv. 11 aqq:: m NPNF, 2 ser„ ii.
306 aqq.; Theodoret. 'Hint. eccl., n. 13, in NPNF, 2 ser.,
iii. 77‑79; Jerome, De vir. ill., chap. xcviii.; Liber Pony
tificalia, ed. Duchesne, i. 211, Paris, 1886; idem, ed. T.
Mommaen, in MGH, Geat. Font. Rom., i (1898), 80‑81.
Consult: J. Langen. Geach%ehte der rGmiachen Kirche bia
Leo 1., pp. 471 sqq., Bonn, 1881; DCB, ii. 480‑482;
Bower, Popes, i. 37; Milman, Latin Christianity, i. 104‑
Y	105. On the Felix fable consult the Acta Felicia, ed.
E. Baluze, Miscellanea, i. 33 eqq., Paris, 1761; J. J. I.
)	DSllinger, Die Papatfabeln des Mittelaltera, pp. 128‑145.
y	Munich, 1863. Eng. tranel., Fables, pp. 183‑209. New
he	York, 1872.
Felix III.: Pope 483‑492. He was the son of a Roman presbyter of the same name, and was probably attached as a deacon to the Church of St. Paul when, in the beginning of Mar., 483, with the assent of Odoacer, he was chosen pope. Appar‑
ently he had been married before this and had several children, from one of whom Gregory the Great was descended. His principal importance

298	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Felgenhauer
Feliz and Festus
as pope was the stand which he made against the Monophysite policy of the Emperor Zeno, f rom whom Felix, writing to announce his election, demanded the deposition of Peter Mongus, the moderate Monophysite set up by the emperor as patriarch of Alexandria (see MONOPHYSITES, § § 5 sqq. ). He wrote at the same time to Acacius, boldly summoning him to appear for judgment in Rome, and declaring in favor of the Council of Chalcedon. Zeno threw the Roman legates into prison, and Acacius worked on them until they agreed to hold communion with the representatives of Peter Mongus. When Felix heard of this, he deposed both them and Acacius (July, 484). There was a thorough breach between East and West, and in the former Felix's name was stricken from the diptychs. But the Easterns repented their hasty action. Before 489 some of them had opened negotiations with Felix, and, after the death of Acacius, Zeno agreed to the elevation of an orthodox prelate of the name of Flavitas to the patriarchal throne, and the notification of his election to Felix. The pope assumed an attitude of reserve, and even after the accession of a new emperor, Anastasius, he was still obliged to maintain a firm position, requiring the restoration of the decrees of Chalcedon to their rightful position, the deposition of the opponents of Rome, and the erasure of the names of Acacius and Peter from the diptychs. With equal energy he took up the cause of the persecuted orthodox Christians in the Vandal kingdom, and showed himself in every way a worthy successor of Leo the Great. He died at the end of Feb., 492, and is commemorated as a saint on Feb. 25.
(H. BOHMER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: L fiber pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, i. 92 sqq., Paris, 1886; idem, ed. T. Mommsen, in MGH, Gest. Pont. Rom., i (1898), 114‑115; Evagrius, Hist. eccl., iii. 14 sqq.; Victor Tonnennesis, Chronica, ed. T. Mommsen, in MGH, Auct. ant., xi (1893), 190‑191. Consult: R. Baxmann, Die Politik der P6pste, i. 15‑16, Elberfeld, 1868; J. Langen, Geschichte der r0mischen Kirehe, . . bie Nikolaw 1., pp. 140 eqq.; Bower, Popes, i. 271‑282; Milman, Latin Christianity, i. 328‑331; DCB, ii. 482‑485.
	Felix IV.: Pope 526‑530. He was a Samnite,
the son of Castorius, elected under the influence of
Theodoric after John I. had died in prison, and was
consecrated July 12, 526. After Theodoric's death
on Aug. 26 or 30, discontent with his high‑handed
methods broke out, and the senate sent an embassy
to Ravenna to ascertain the attitude of the new
ruler, Athalaric, toward Felix. Athalaric, however,
declared in Felix's favor, and he remained in un
questioned occupation of his see until his death,
the exact date of which is contested His pontif
icate is important only for the part which he took
in the Semi‑Pelagian controversy, by appro:•ing the
treatise of Caesarius of Arles on grace and free will,
and sending at the same time to the bishops of
Southern Gaul the celebrated capitula which were
promulgated as canons by the Synod of Orange,
July 3, 529 (see C&SARIUS OF ARLES; SEMI‑PELA
GIANISM). 	(H. BOHMER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Liber Pontiificalis, ed. Duchesne, i. 106, 279280, Paris. 1886; idem, ed. T. Mommsen, in MGH, Gest. Pont. Rom. 1 (1898), 138; Cassiodorus, Varia: viii. epistola. ed. T. Mommsen, in MGH. Auct. ant., xiI (1894),
246; R. Baxmann, Die Polilik der P6pste, 1. 30, Elberfeld, 1868; J. Langen, Geschichte der r6mischen Kirche, ii. 300 sqq., Bonn, 1885; Bower, Popes, i. 327‑331; DCB, iv.485‑486.
Felix V. (Duke Amadeus of Savoy): Antipope (or pope) Jan. 5, 1440‑Apr. 7, 1449. He was born Dec. 4, 1383, and as ruler in Savoy and the county of Geneva proved himself mild and successful, and won a reputation for piety. He abdicated in 1434 and retired to Ripaille, on Lake Geneva, where he lived in retirement with a few frielMs. His wife (Maria of Burgundy) was already dead. He was elected pope by the Council of Basel, Nov. 5, 1439, after it had deposed Eugenius IV. (see BASEL, COUNCIL OF). Although he had neither a theological nor a canonical education and must now for the first time study Latin, Amadeus accepted, called himself Felix V., and selected a curia which consisted mostly of Frenchmen. The majority of those whom he tried to make cardinals declined. When, on July 24, 1440, he was consecrated bishop by the cardinal of Arles and was afterward crowned with the tiara, for want of cardinals his two sons ministered at the mass. No country promised allegiance to him. Without ecclesiastical state and without income he resided at Lausanne and Geneva. No improvement in his position followed the death of Eugenius IV. (1449), and Germany acknowledged as the latter's successor Nicholas V. In 1449 Felix voluntarily resigned the pontificate and advised his followers to acknowledge Nicholas V. as pope. For this he received the title of Cardinal of Santa Sabina, the dignity of papal vicargeneral of all estates of the house of Savoy, the dioceses of Basel, Strasburg, etc. He again retired to Ripaille and died at Geneva Jan. 7,1451, regarded as a worthy old man. PAUL TSCHACKERT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. Voigt. Pius 11., vol. i., Berlin, 1856; Bower, Popes, iii. 229‑237; Milman, Latin Christianity, viii. 58‑102; Creighton, Papacy, iii. 22‑111; Pastor, Popes, i. 328‑330 et passim.
FELIX, SAINT: First bishop of the East Angles; d. 647. He was a Burgundian who came to England inspired by missionary zeal, and was sent by Honorius, archbishop of Canterbury, to East Anglia. The foothold of Christianity in the land was then very slight, but a Christian king, Sigbert, came to the throne about the time of Felix's arrival, and the two together soon accomplished the conversion of the people. Felix was consecrated bishop by Honorius in 631 and fixed his seat at Dunwich, a town on the Suffolk coast, long since washed away by the sea. He obtained teachers from Canterbury for a school founded by Sigbert, and, with the help of an Irish monk, Fursa (q.v.), introduced monastic life. Under Furs.‑'s influence Sigbert resigned his throne and retired to a cell. Felix's day is Mar. 8.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The one source is Bede, Hiat. eccl., ii. 15, Iii. 18. 20. Consult A. Jessopp, in the Diocesan Histories, Norwich. London, 1884; and Dr. Stubbs, in DCB, ii. 489‑
490.
FELIX AND FESTUS: Two Roman governors of Judea. According to the Book of Acts (xxiv. 10) the former had been ruling for many years at the time of the imprisonment of Paul in 58 or 59.

Felix end Fertue Felton
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
294
He was the husband of a Jewess by the name of Drusilla, and two years later was succeeded as procurator by Porcius Festus (Acts xxiv. 24, 27). Both Josephus (Ant. XX., vii. 1‑2) and Tacitus (Hilt., v. 9) state that Drusilla was the wife of Felix, the former making her a sister of Agrippa II. and the latter a granddaughter of Antony and Cleopatra, while according to Suetonius (Claudius, xxviii.), Felix was " the husband of three queens." Josephus (A It. XX., viii. 5) states that Felix was sent to JUQea as procurator by Claudius at the request of the high priest Jonathan after the deposition of Ventidius Cumanus in 52 or 53. Tacitus (Annales, xii. 54), on the other hand, dates his appointment much earlier, asserting that he was procurator of a portion of the province of Samaria together with Cumanus, and that he first gained entire control of Judea after the deposition of Cumanus by Quadratus. Whatever be the reconciliation of the conflicting accounts of the classic writers, the statement in Acts remains unimpugned. It is clear from other sources that Felix was the brother of the imperial favorite Pallas, and that he was a freedman, apparently of Antonia, the mother of Claudius. According to Schilrer, Felix seems to have been recalled in 60, while Festus died two years later; Harnack dates the former event in Oct. 55 or 56.
In the case of the Jewish persecution of Paul, Felix received the prisoner with a letter of the tribune stating that the charge was concerned solely with differences of religious opinions among the Jews (Acts xxii. 25‑30). This was fully confirmed by the trial before Felix (Acts xxiv. 1‑21), but Felix deferred decision on a frivolous pretext (verses 22‑23). Paul was accordingly imprisoned, and when Felix retired from office two years later, he left the apostle still in confinement. Festus resumed the case (Acts xxv. 1‑12) and, despite the absence of all proof of the prisoner's guilt, threatened to deliver him to the Jews, whereupon Paul saw himself obliged to appeal to the emperor. The motive of both procurators seems to have been the desire to curry favor with the Jews, Felix showing himself to be a common man of little character and Festus being represented as a frivolous cynic. The former, influenced by his Jewish wife, listened to a presentation of the Christian faith by Paul. Touched in conscience by the apostle's words, he devised a pretext to rid himself of his unflattering monitor, yet sought to induce his prisoner to offer bribes for release (Acts xxiv. 24‑25). Festus, on the other hand, cynically distorted the facts of the case in conversation with Agrippa (Acts xxv. 13‑21), and, humoring the king's curiosity, turned the trial into a farce for the amusement of his guests (verses 22‑27), declaring the apostle a madman (Acts xxvi. 24).
In the " War" (II., xii. 8‑xiii. 7) Josephus mentions merely the energetic opposition of Felix to revolutionary movements in Judea, but in the "Antiquities" (XX., vii. 1‑viii. 8), he makes no attempt to disguise the fact that in the suppression of the " robbers " Felix had not only been merciless in his cruelty, but had stooped to perfidy and assassination, thus preparing the way for the out‑
break of the Sicarii. Although his attitude in opposition to the " prophets " and the rebellious Jews of Cfesarea was irreproachable, it is evident that his administration was both immoral and illegal, so that after his retirement to Rome accusations were brought against him by the Jews, which were averted only by the intercession of his powerful brother. The unfavorable characterization of this procurator given by Josephus is confirmed by Tacitus (l.c.).
The statements of Josephus regarding Festua (Ant. XX., viii. 9‑ix. 1; War, IL, xiv. 1) are far more scanty, being confined to a recognition of his reckless energy against the rebellious Jews and to an agreement made by him with the Jewish king in opposition to the religious interests of the people. It is evident that the account of Luke regarding both Felix and Festus rests on personal knowledge and deep insight into their history, relations, and personalities. See GOVERNOR. (K. SCHMIDT.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The beat discussion and exposition is 8ch~7rer. C3eschiclUe, i. b71‑b82, 590, Eng. tranal., I. ii. 174‑187, 198, where further literature is given. Consult also: W. M. Ramsay, 3t. Paul the Traveller, pp. 308 eqq., New York, 1898; O. Holtamann, Neufeatamentliche Zeitpeaehiehte, TObingen, 1908; and the works on the life of the Apostle Paul.
FELIX AND REGULA: Martyrs, known as the patron saints of Zurich. According to the legend, they came to the neighborhood of Zurich on the advice of St. Maurice, and were persecuted by the emperor Maximian; after suffering frightful tortures, but encouraged to endure by a voice from the clouds, they were beheaded, and then carried their heads in their hands to the place where their bodies were to lie. This legend probably does not antedate the oldest manuscript in which it is given, of the early years of the ninth century, during which a foundation of canons grew up in connection with the church dedicated to the martyrs.
(EMIL EGLI.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The anonymous Paesio is in ASS, Sept.. iii. 783‑774. Consult: Furrer, in Theolopiaehe ZeiGehritt der Schweiz, vi. 1889: O. Beer, Die ZUrcher‑flesispen St. Fenix and Regina, Zurich, 1889. The legend is ed. by A. Liitolf, Die alauberiebotei der Schweiz oor 3t. Gallus, Lucerne, 1871; cf. Wattenbach, DGQ, i (1893). 272.
FELIX OF UItGEL. See ADOPTIONIBM.

FELL, JOHN: Dean of Christ Church and bishop of Oxford; b. at Longworth (9 m. w.a.w. of Oxford), Berkshire, June 23, 1625; d. at Oxford July 10, 1686. He was educated at Christ Church (M.A., 1643), and was an enthusiastic Royalist, being ejected from his studentship in 1648, the year after his ordination. At the Restoration he was made canon of Christ Church, in place of the ejected Ralph Button. He became dean four months later (Nov. 30, 1660), and also chaplain to the king. As dean of Christ Church, Fell was active in restoring the ritual banished by the Puritans and in rebuilding portions of his college. He was vice‑chancellor of Oxford in 1666‑69, and in 1675 was consecrated bishop of Oxford. Despite his multifarious duties, Fell was a prolific author and editor. Special mention may be made of his Interest of England Stated (London, 1659); Grantmotica ratiortis, slue inatitutiones logicta (Oxford,

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Felix and P'estua
Felton
1673); and The Vanity of Scoffing (London, 1674). His chief editions are those of Aratus and Eratosthenes (Oxford, 1672) and Cyprian (1682).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. b Wood. Athena Oxoniensee, ed. P. Bees, iv. 193, London, 1820; Burnet's History o1 My Own Time, Supplement. edited by Miss H. C. Foxcroft, pp. 47, 214, 464, 509 note, Oxford, 1902; DNB, xviii. 293‑295.
FEUER, fel'er or (French) f6"tar', FRANgOIS XAVIER DE: Belgian Jesuit; b. at Brussels Aug. 18, 1735; d. at Regensburg, Bavaria, May 23, 1802. He entered the order of Jesuits in 1754 and later held professorships at Luxemburg, Lioge, and Tyrnau, Hungary, whither he had gone on the expulsion of the Jesuits from France. In 1771 he returned to Belgium, residing in Lidge and Luxemburg. In 1794 he removed to Paderborn, and in 1796 to Regensburg. His works, including the Journal de Luxembourg (70 vols., 1774‑94) of which the wrote the greater part, number some, 120 volumes. The works by which he is best known appeared under the name Flexier de Rt:val, probably an anagram. They are, CaMchisme philosophique (Li6ge,1773); Dictionnaire historique et litteraire (8 vols., 1781; frequently reprinted, with additions, under the title, Biographic universelle (new ed., 8 vols., Lyons, 1860); and Coup d'wil sur le congas d'Ems (2 vols., Diisseldorf, 1789).
BIHLIodHAPHY: Notice our to vie et tee oxvrapea de Mr. t'AbbE de Fetter, Lidge, 1802; KL, iv. 1322‑23; C. A. Balder, Lexicon . . . baieriacher SchriftsteUer, 4 vole., Augsburg, 1824‑25.
FELLTHAM, OWEN: English author; b. at Mutford, Suffolk, c. 1602; d. at Great Billing (3 m. e.n.e. of Northampton), Northamptonshire, 1668. He was probably chaplain to the family of the Earl of Thomond, at Great Billing, and is known chiefly by his Resolves, Divine, Moral, Political (London, 1620?), a collection of 100 short essays. This work, subsequently greatly augmented, passed through numerous editions.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: An extended notice will be found in DNB. xviii. 30.3‑304.
FELTEN, PETER JOSEPH: German Roman Catholic; b. at Difren (18 m. e. of Aachen) Feb. 9, 1851. He studied in Bonn, Miinster, Wiirzburg (D.D.,1876), and Louvain. He was ordained priest in 1874, was professor of St. Cuthbert's College, Durham, England, 1877‑‑86, curate at Suchteln, 1886‑88, associate professor of New‑Testament exegesis at the University of Bonn 1888‑92, full professor since 1892. He has written Papst Gregor der Neunte (Freiburg, 1886); Robert Grosaeteste, Bischof van Lincoln (1887); Apostelgeschichte ubersetzt and erkldrt (1892); and Die Grandung and Ttitigkeit des Vereins vom Heiligen Karl Barromwua (Bonn, 1895).
FELTON, HENRY: English clergyman; b. in the parish of St. Martin‑in‑the‑Fields, London, Feb. 3, 1679 d. at Barwick‑in‑Elmet, near Leeds, Yorkshire, Mar. 1, 1740. He was educated at Westminster school, Charterhouse, and Saint Edmund Hall, Oxford M.A., 1702 ; B.D., 1709; D.D., 1712), of which he was made principal in 1722. On his admission to priest's orders in 1704 he left the university to preach in and about London. During 1708‑09 he was pastor of the English
Church in Amsterdam. On his return he became
domestic chaplain to the . duke of Rutland, retain
ing this office under three successive dukes. In
1711 he was presented to the rectory of Whitwell,
Derbyshire, and in 1736 to that of Barwick‑in
Elmet, Yorkshire. He was an eminent preacher
and his tracts and sermons received considerable
attention. His principal works are, A Dissertation
on Reading the Classics (London, 1711; 4th ed.,
1757), very popular in its day; The Resurrection o f
the Same Numerical Body and its Reunion to the
Same Soul (Oxford, 1725), an Easter sermon
preached at Oxford to refute Locke's idea of per
sonality and identity; The Christian Faith Asserted
against Deists, Arians, and Soeinians (Oxford,
1732), Lady Moyer lectures delivered at St. Paul's
in 1728‑29, forming his greatest work; and Ser
mons on the Creation, Fall, and Redemption of Man
(London, 1748), published, with a sketch of Felton,
by his son.
BIBLIoasAPHY: DNB, xviii. 305.
FELTON,JOHN: English Roman Catholic layman (d.1570). He was born of an old Norfolk family, inherited large means, and lived in the dissolved abbey of Bermondsey, near Southwark, on the Surrey side of the Thames (in present London). He was an ardent Roman Catholic, and his wife had been a maid of honor to Queen Mary. She was a child friend of Queen Elizabeth, and remained on friendly terms with her. When the papal bull excommunicating Elizabeth arrived in England he procured copies from the Spanish ambassador and circulated them. One of them he affixed to the gate of the palace of the bishop of London, then in St. Paul's churchyard, between two and three in the morning of Thursday, May 25th, 1570 (Corpus Christi Day). The bull is dated in Rome Feb. 25th, 1570. In the list of bulls it is called Regnans in excelsis, from its opening words. After a brief introduction, in which mention is made of the " One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church, out of which is no salvation," it asserts that heresy was introduced into England by Henry VIII., purged away by Mary, but reintroduoed by Elizabeth. It then specifies Elizabeth's offenses in abolishing the mass and other rites and ceremonies of the Roman Church, permitting heretical books to be circulated, and in depriving the Roman Catholic clergy of their positions and imprisoning many of them. It then goes on to say: " We make it known that Elizabeth, and as many as stand on her side in these matters, have run into the danger of our curse and to be cut off from the unity of the body of Christ. We also make it known that we have deprived her of that right which she pretended to have in the kingdom aforesaid, and also from all and every authority, dignity, and privilege of hers. We declare that all, whosoever by any occasion have taken oath to her, are forever discharged of such oath, and also from all fealty and service which was due to her by reason of her government, and we deprive the said Elizabeth of all legal claim to reign and of the allegiance of the abovesaid. We charge and forbid all and every one of her nobles, subjects and people, and others aforesaid, not to be so hardy as to obey her, or her will

Fenofau the Tables
Fdnelon	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	B98
or commandments, upon pain of a similar curse upon them." Then follows the‑order for the promulgation of the bull. Naturally such a bull was a great offense to all loyal subjects of Elizabeth, and he who had had the hardiness to promulgate it was considered a traitor. The culprit was quickly found out, arrested without opposition the next day, and conveyed to the Tower. On Friday, Aug. 4th, he was condemned at Guildhall on the charge of high treason, and sentenced to death. He remained in Newgate prison till Tuesday, Aug. 8th, when he was drawn on a hurdle to St. Paul's churchyard, hanged on a gallows opposite the bishop of London's palace, beheaded, quartered, and parboiled. He met his fate with courage, and won an honorable place among the Roman Catholic martyrs under Elizabeth. This position was officiallyestablished on Dec. 29, 1886, when Pope Leo XIII. proclaimed his beatification.
BIBLIoQ$APHY: For his trial see Cobbett's Complete Collection of State Trials, i. 1086‑87, London, 1809 eqq. For the text of the bull am Bishop John Jewel's Works, ed. for the Parker Society, iv. 1131‑32, with Jewel's racy comments and partial translation of the bull in his discourse entitled, A View of a Seditious Bull Sent into England from Pius Quintus, Bishop of Rome, the same, pp. 1133‑60. For Felton's beatification consult The Tablet (London) for.Jan. 15th, 1887, pp. 81‑‑82.

FENCING THE TABLES: A Scotch‑Presbyterian term for the address made at the table before the administration of the Lord's Supper, because in it the character of those who may and may not partake is described.

FENEEBERG, MICHAEL NATHANAEL: Roman Catholic; b. of peasant parents at Oberdorf (37 m. n.w. of W ilrzburg), Bavaria, Feb. 9, 1751; d. at VShringen (40 m. s.w. of Stuttgart), W ilrttemberg, Oct. 12, 1812. He was educated by the Jesuits at Augsburg, and joined the order on the advice of his friend the famous Johann Michael Sailer (q.v.). After completing his studies at Ingolatadt and Regensburg, he became teacher at the Regensburg Gymnasium in 1775, then engaged in practical church work in his native village. In 1785 he was appointed professor of rhetoric and poetry in the Augsburg diocesan gymnasium at Dillingen. Being on intimate terms with Sailer, Weber, and Zimmer, who taught at the University of Dillingen, he labored in Sailer's spirit, aiming mainly at true and sincere piety without emphasizing any confessional tendency. Sailer's views awakened the hostility of the Jesuits and their friends, and in 1793 a trial implicating the most prominent teachers of the University was held, at which Feneberg bravely defended his friends. Although the teachers were not condemned, Feneberg left Dillingen and took charge of the parish of Seeg. He held convictions regarding justification which approached rather closely to Evangelical teachings. The tendency of his view shows itself most prominently in the fact that he laid stress on personal communion with God, and especially with Jesus Christ as personal redeemer, with entire elimination of the Church. Feneberg, however, was so little conscious of his opposition to the dogma of the Roman Church that he honestly believed
he possessed the old Catholic faith. In 1797 he
was subjected to a trial, but‑was allowed to go back
to his old parish. In 1805 he removed to Vohrin
gen. There he completed a translation of the New
Testament (ed. and published by M. Wittmann,
afterward bishop of Regensburg, Nuremberg, 1808),
which for a long time was much used by German
Roman Catholics. 	(A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. M. Bailer. Aus Penebxrps Leben in Sdmmtticks Werke, vol. xxxix., Bulzbach, 1841; C. von Schmid,
Erinnerunpen Gus rneinem Leben, 4 vols., Augsburg 1853‑
57; V. Thalhofer, Beitrage sur Geachichts des Attermysti‑
cismus im Bisthum Augsburg, pp. 68‑69, Regensburg,
1857; $L, iv. 1324‑27.
FENELOH, FRANVOIS DE SALIGNAC DE LA MOTHE.
Early Life (§ 1).
Reputation for Tolerance Unearned (§ 2). Missionary Labors (§ 3).
Tutorship of Duke of Burgundy (¢ 4). Championship of Mme. Guyon (¢ 5).
Conduct of His Diocese (§ 6).
TdIdmaque (§ 7).
Estimate of His Character (1 8).
Franqois de Salignac.de la Moths F6nelon, the French prelate and educator, was born at the castle of Fdnelon in PErigord (the modern department of the Dordogne), Aug. 6, 1651; d. at Cambrai Jan. 7, 1715. He was the younger son of the Marquis of F6nelon, and was brought up in an atmosphere of strict piety. Under the guidance of a private tutor he laid the foundation of an excellent knowl‑
edge of the classics and after a short
:. Early stay at the University of Cahors he
Life.	went to Paris, where he devoted him‑
self to the study of philosophy and theology at the Jesuit CoWge du PWsis. Made an abU when only fifteen, he achieved distinction by his oratorical gifts; he later entered the seminary of St. Sulpice, where he spent five years in strict retirement, devoted primarily to the study of the Greek Fathers. He became a priest in 1675 and was soon made supervisor of the Nouvelles Converties, an association of women, chiefly of noble rank, whose object was to instruct women newly converted to Roman Catholicism, or those inclined toward conversion, in the principles of the Roman Catholic faith.
In his attitude toward Protestants F6nelon does not seem to have earned the epithet of " tolerant " which has been bestowed upon him not only by Roman writers but also by Protestant historians. He was certainly not free from the prejudices of his Church and his time. In his Dissertation sur la tol6rance he asserts that the Roman Church as opposed to the Protestants can not logically extend
toleration to dissidents, and in his
a. Reputa‑ sermon Pour la profession religieuse Lion for Tol‑ dune nouvelle convertie he character‑
erance	izes schism as the worst of crimes.
Unearned. Speaking of his old friend Mme.
Guyon he says " If it be true that she has attempted to disseminate the damnable teachings of Molinos, they ought to burn her and not admit her to communion, as the Bishop of Meaux has done.." Finelon employed pacific means, nevertheless, in his missionary work, and through his fine oratorical powers, his instructive cate‑

897
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
chetical addresses, and his eminently gracious personality, he succeeded in winning over large numbers from the Protestant faith; not that he omitted, indeed, to make use of the promise of pensions and other worldly rewards to facilitate conversion. Against obstinacy, moreover, he frequently resorted to force. Certain " stiff‑necked " members of the institution directed by him he caused to be imprisoned as criminals of state, and others were punished by incarceration in the loathsome HBpital GEneral. The results of his ten years' experience as director of the Nouvelles Converties he embodied in his work De l',sducdtion des fines [new ed., Paris, 1885, Eng. transl., The Education of Daughters, e. g. Dublin, 1841] a book characterized by deep psychologic insight into the mental life of the child, and one that has retained value to the present time. Starting out from the principle that education must content itself with following and supplementing the workings of nature, he lays it down that the exercise of love directed toward the confidence of the child, and the indirect form of imparting knowledge, are the true methods of the teacher, in opposition to the system of threats, punishments and categorical drill. At the same time he insists upon the importance of a solid grounding in religion, especially in Biblical history. In addition to instruction in religion, languages and history, the young girl should also be prepared for the various duties of domestic life.
After the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, Fdnelon was one of the noted ecclesiastics sent into the provinces " to effect the conversion of the few Huguenots remaining in the country. His labors lay in the districts of Saintonge and Aunis. When he took leave of the king, he begged to be allowed
to dispense with the usual military
3. Mission‑ escort, saying that, after the example
		arp of the Apostles, he wished to accom
	Labors. plish a work of peace and love.
Instead of combating heresy by acrimonious debate, he sought rather to attain his aim by the skilful and attractive exposition of the teachings of the Gospel, by the dissemination of Roman versions of the New Testament and missals, and by requiring the attendance of all children at Catholic schools. On the whole, however, he seems to have met with little success; and, impatient at the obstinacy of the heretics, he writes in Feb., 1686 to the secretary of state Seignelay: "The representatives of the king must in no way cease to keep a firm hand on those people, whom the slightest sign of conciliation renders so presumptuous;" then giving information of the different routes by which the Huguenots were escaping abroad, he insists that the frontiers shall be guarded closely; " to render their sojourn in the country as tolerable as possible and their flight as dangerous as possible is the task." F6nelon's system of converting heretics, like that of the Roman Church of his time, was that the clergy should labor among them by means of preaching and loving persuasion but invoke against the stubbornly recusant the " salutary pressure " of the worldly authorities.
V aing the Tables
	I	"Zdl.
	F
After six months' labor in the missionary field, FSnelou returned to his post at the Nouvelles Converties. His remarkable gifts had attracted attention before this, and in 1689, when the duke of Beauvilliers became governor to the grandchildren of Louis XIV., Fdnelon was made preceptor to the princes, the eldest of whom, the duke of
Burgundy, became his especial charge. 4. Tutorship For eight years Fdnelon gave himself of Duke of up with absolute devotion to the eduBurgundy. cation of the young duke, who, com‑
bining unusual talents with a character in the highest degree stubborn, insolent, and pleasure‑loving, offered an excellent opportunity for the exercise of FSnelon's splendid pedagogic talents. To train this child into a wise king (roi philosophe), a second St. Louis, was his aim. In combating the vices and supplementing the deficiencies of the lad, he displayed a remarkable resourcefulness that is evidenced especially in the different works he wrote for the young duke. His Contes et fables, his Dialogues des moms, his D4monstration de l'existence de Dieu, and his Direction pour la conscience d'un roi, all had a didactic purpose, which is present also in the most famous of his works, Les aventures de Telkmaque. F6nelon succeeded in gaining an absolute influence over his pupil and in transforming him into a learned, affable, and modest youth. F6nelon's praise was in every mouth for the wonder he had wrought. He enjoyed the highest favor at the court, and as a reward for his services Louis XIV. made him, in 1695, archbishop of Cambrai. Yet his obligations to the king did not prevent him from speaking out boldly in criticism of the policy of Louis XIV. In a letter, the authenticity of which has been demonstrated by the discovery of the original, Fdnelon attacks the monarch's vanity, worldliness, and love of power with a boldness that amounts to absolute temerity.
From his splendid position at court F4nelon fell suddenly as a result of the part he played in the conflict over the mystical doctrines of Mme. Guyon. When these were declared heretical by an in estigating commission which included Bossuet and Noailles, Fdnelon, dissenting from the majority in certain important reservations, published the Explication des max"" del saints, in which Mme. Guyon's fundamental principles were formulated in a sober and guarded manner. All
g. Cham‑ love of God, F6nelon laid down, which
pionship of was conditioned only by the fear of Mme. Punishment or by the desire of earthly Guyon. happiness was only an extremely imperfect copy of the pure unselfish love which consists in the adoration of God for his own sake. " Even though God‑indeed an impossible supposition‑‑should destroy the souls of the just or abandon them for eternity to the temptations and pains of this life or condemn them for all eternity to the pains of hell, these souls would none the less love him and serve him faithfully." The style in which this work is written is dry, dogmatic, without grace or unction; and as the principles laid down are frequently followed by contradictory explanations and qualifications, it contains much that is

7anelon	THE NEW SCHA FF HERZOG	$98
Ferdinand a
subtle and obscure. It created great excitement, almost every one taking part for or against it. Bossuet attacked it violently; Fdnelon answered with self‑restraint and dignity. Although Fdnelon had the support of the Jesuits, and in secret, that of Le Tellier, confessor of Louis XIV., most of the clergy adhered to Bossuet, upon whose side, too, the monarch ranged himself. F6nelon was banished to his see city of Cambrai, whereupon he appealed to the pope for judgment upon his book. After a long delay and urgent pressure from Louis XIV., decision was rendered, declaring several passages of his work erroneous (not heretical). Fdnelon publicly proclaimed the papal decision and caused as many copies of his book as he could obtain to be burned. It is open to question, however, whether his submission was sincere. That he held fast to his opinions at a later date is manifest from a letter to Le Tellier in which, speaking of his conflict with Bossuet, he says " He who was in error has conquered and he who was free from error is overcome." As a matter of fact the papal judgment, rendered so unwillingly and in so mild a form, did F6nelon no harm, but gained him sympathy and increased love and admiration.
	It is in the last period of his life, during eighteen
years of labor in his diocese (1697‑1715) that
Fdnelon showed himself in the noblest light.
Devoted to his pastoral duties, he made himself
thoroughly acquainted with conditions in every
part of his jurisdiction, giving himself up espe
		cially to the task of training worthy
6. Conduct priests and removing for this purpose of His the diocesan seminary from Valen‑
	Diocese.	ciennes to Cambrai where it enjoyed
		his personal supervision. A master
of pulpit oratory himself, he combated the pre
vailing taste for declamation, laying down as the
threefold object of the preacher to convince,‑ paint,
and persuade. During the war of the Spanish
Succession (1702‑13) his diocese was repeatedly
the scene of hostilities. In 1709, when the country
around Cambrai was laid waste by the enemy,
F6nelon turned his palace into a refuge for the in
habitants of entire villages, and gave his personal
care to the sick and wounded. He placed his
episcopal income at the disposal of the government
for the relief of famine. The nobility of his con
duct did not fail to impress even the foe, and Prince
Eugene and the duke of Marlborough established
guards for the protection of his personal property
during the occupation of the country by the allies.
In the Jansenist controversy F6nelon took an active part as an opponent of the teachings of the bishop of Ypres. He requested the pope to obtain from the king the dismissal of all dignitaries who should refuse to subscribe to the anti‑Jansenist formula, and their excommunication in case of obstinate opposition. He gave unconditional support to the bull Un~genitus directed against the Jansenists. On the other hand, to the Protestants of the country he maintained, according to some authorities, an attitude that went to the extreme of tolerance. His pastoral duties still left him time for literary activity. As a member of the French Academy his advice was called for in the work on
the great dictionary. As a judge in the conflict between the Ancients and the Moderns, he praised the classic writers because they depicted nature with power and grace, carried out their characters consistently, and attained harmony. At this time he brought together the different fragments of the T dldmaque into an orderly whole. The book achieved a tremendous success, not only in France, where it was speedily prohibited, but throughout Europe. F6nelon has been accused unjustly of intending this romance as a satire upon the government of Louis XIV., a view against which the author
	7. T61d‑	vehemently protested. Nevertheless
	maque.	the book itself contains echoes and
		images of the time. The work is
written in a highly attractive style and reveals a
sound knowledge of antiquity. What detracts
from it is the blending of Greek mythology with
Christian doctrine and ethics, of antiquity with
modern times, a process resulting in a general
impression of unreality. Although the king had
forbidden all intercourse between F6nelon and the
duke of Burgundy, the two remained in constant
communication through common friends. On im
portant occasions the young duke turned for advice
to his old teacher, and when the death of the Dau
phin (1711) made the duke heir to the throne, a
new career seemed about to open for F6nelon.
But if he entertained hopes of playing the part of a
Mazarin or a Richelieu, the death of the duke in
the following year dashed them to the ground. On
hearing the fatal news he remarked " My ties are
now severed‑nothing more binds me to earth."
The last years of his life were passed in partial
retirement and devotion.
	Fdnelon's	numerous literary, theological and
political writings offer abundant testimony to the
versatility of his talents and the wide extent of his
knowledge. Similarly many‑sided does his charac
ter appear. By nature mild, he was stern to him
		self and often severe to those who
8. Estimate differed from him in belief. With a of His strong bent for mysticism, he neverthe‑
	Character. less possessed remarkable insight into
		practical affairs and. conditions. In
sisting as a theologian upon " a pure and unselfish
love for God " and revealing as archbishop a spirit
of noble sacrifice and of devoted service toward the
poor and the suffering, he aspired at the same time
to power and dominion. An earnest champion of
authority and established doctrine in the Roman
Catholic Church and an opponent of all religious
innovations, he showed himself, in the field of
politics and social science an advocate of ideals
bordering on Utopianism. In an age when abso
lutism was regarded as almost a divine principle,
F6nelon was the first to speak of popular rights and
the popular welfare. In this manner his ideas
represent an anticipation of the eighteenth cen
tury, whose philosophers, notably D'Alembert,
praise him highly. On the whole, in spite of certain
defects, we may decidedly place him among the
noblest characters and most talented writers of his
day. 		(J. EHNIt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: An edition of Wnelon'e works, with Vie
	by Y. M. M. de Querbaeuf, was published. 9 vols., 1787‑

299
1792; another, containing his correspondence, was issued, in 19 vols., ib. 1826‑28; the Vies des ancienR Philo8ophee
and the T&maque have been translated often into most European languages; M. Masson edited the unpublished letters of Fdnelon to Madame Guyon, Freiburg, Switzerland, 1907. Lives have been written by L. F. de Bausset, Paris, 1809, Eng. transl., London, 1810; [H. L. Farrer,l ib. 1877 (an excellent work); E. de Broglie, Paris, 1884; P. Janet, ib. 1892, Eng. transl., London, 1893; R. Mahrenholz, Leipsic. 1896; Viscount $t. Cyrea, London, 1901; H. Druon, Paris, 1905. Consult also: E. O. Douen, L'Intolerance de Fdneion, Paris, 1872; G. Bizos, Fdnelon 6ducateur, Paris, 1886; E. K. Sanders, Fdnelon, his Friends and Enemies, London, 1901; M. Cognac. FeneIon, directeur de conscience, Paris, 1902. See also literature under GUYON, JEANNE MARIE BONIER DE LA MOTRE.
FENN, WILLIAM WALLACE: Unitarian; b. at Boston, Mass., Feb. 12, 1862. He was graduated at Harvard in 1884 and Harvard Divinity School in 1887. He was minister of Unity Church, Pittsfield, Mass., 1887‑91 and of the First Unitarian Society of Chicago 1891‑1901. Since 1901 he has been Bussey professor of systematic theology in Harvard Divinity School, of which he bas been dean since 1906. He was Shaw Lecturer on Biblical literature in Meadville Theological School 18921901 and preacher to Harvard University 18961898 and again since 1902. He has been American editor of the Hibbert Journal since 1902, and has written Lessons on Luke (in collaboration with H. G. Spaulding; Boston, 1890); Lessons on the Acts (1894); The Flowering of the Hebrew Religion (Chicago, 1894); and Lessons On the Psalms (Boston, 1900).
FENTON, FERRAR: Church of England layman; b. at Waltham (18 m. s.e. Of Hull), Lincolnshire, Dec. 4, 1832. He was educated privately, and until the age of twenty‑eight lived the life of a student. Financial reverses then compelled him to become an operator in a factory, where he eventually rose to be manager and overseer. He undertook various commercial enterprises, and amassed a fortune as the promoter of the De Beers Company for the development of the South African diamond mines after the panic of 1882, but in 1893 lost heavily through the dishonesty of a legal adviser. Since then, however, he has recovered much of his wealth. In theology he holds to the authenticity and divine origin of the Bible, and regards "the so‑called ` higher criticism' as either wild delusion or deliberate swindle." He has a knowledge of many languages and has written various pamphlets, linguistic works, and biographies, but his chief work is his Bible in Modern English witty Critical Notes (London, 1903; published first fn parts, 1883‑1903), an independent translation from the original languages.
FERDINAND II. AND THE COUNTERREFORMA. TION IN AUSTRIA. Early Progress of the Reformation (§ Reaction under Rudolph 11. (~ 2). Protestant Gains after 1800 (§ 3).
Forces working for the Roman Catholics lp gl,
Fe	II. His Measures in Inner Austria (15).
	Ferdinand Emperor 1619‑27 (¢ 6
The culminating poin
Counterreformation 0, cu
in the Austrian crown lan elsewhere in German,; t
curs	generation Hap‑burp
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
F6nelon
Ferdinand II
to the Reformation, does not appear before the first third of the Thirty Years' War, under the rule
of Emperor Ferdinand II. When in r. Early 1564 the Austrian lands passed from
progress of the hand of Ferdinand I. into the the Refor‑ hands of his three sons, Maximilian, motion. Ferdinand, and Charles, the Reforma‑
tion had made nearly equal progress in all these jurisdictions; on all sides it had been tacitly tolerated, and had accordingly gained such accretions that the complete transition to Protestantism appeared to depend only on its recognition by law and the creation of a church organization. The majority of all classes of society had adopted the new ideas. In Bohemia and Moravia, in Silesia and Lusatia, in Upper and Lower Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, and Gbr1tZ, nearly the entire population was filled with the new spirit. In Tyrol alone did the Roman Church continue securely predominant.
Maximilian IL, in Bohemia (with its dependencies, Moravia, Silesia, Lusatia) and Upper and Lower Austria, and Archduke Charles in Inner Austria (Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Gdrita) continued at first in the tolerant disposition of their father. There soon followed most important concessions to the Protestant territorial estates. In
Lower Austria, from 1568 to 1571, Maximilian granted religious freedom for the nobility and their subjects; the same concession was straightway claimed for themselves by the Upper Austrians, and it was not denied them, although it was never formally extended to them. The Bohemian nobility obtained the like religious freedom in 1575. In Inner Austria, from 1572 to 1578, Charles accorded the so‑called religious pacification, which allowed the lords and knighthood to profess the Augsburg Confession and tolerated Protestant schools and churches already existent; only for the crown cities and towns and for his own estates did the archduke retain express control of religion. Charles made these concessions with the utmost reluctance; nothing but need of money and the threatening danger from the Turks constrained him to do so. Indeed a similar external pressure was operative in the case of Maximilian IL; but his religious sensibilities suffered less by the concession, as he had considerable sympathy with the new views.
	The first lawful foundations for the development
of a Protestant Church were won through these
concessions but under the impulse of an energetic
reaction that was developing with new force in
Romanism, the successors of these princes, supported
		by the Jesuits and the Roman Catholic
s. Reaction remnant of the nobility, ,q,tl'OVe t0

	under	set the concessions aside. In 1578,
Rudolph IL Rudolph II. (eon of Maximilian II.,
		emperor 1576‑1612) been to expel all

the Protestant preaches from Vienna; but when he encountered strong opposition to his designs in
).	and	be set to work
t of the Reformation	Upper Austria,	more Prudently,
a full	Nevertheless he achieved a good deal during the
later following decade,‑ by legs[ proceedings, one church
ds of the	than after another was taken away from the Protestant
he decisive issue, adversely nobles of Lower Austria and restored to the Roman

Ferdinand II	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	Soo
Ferguson
	worship, while entire towns wereled back to the an
	cient faith, thus paving the way as far as possible
	for the party of Catholic restoration. The situation
	in Lower Austria stopped short of any formally
	compacted procedure on the side of the Protestant
	estates; but in Upper Austria the opposition against
	all these measures maintained itself till 1597, at.
	last flaming up into the peasants' insurrection of
	1595‑97, which had its origin in economic distress
	and the straits of the Church. With this insurrec
	tion the Protestant opposition was at the same time
	decisively suppressed by superior force of arms.
	A " reformation committee " thereupon began its
	relentless activity; the nobility, indeed, were still
	allowed the exercise of Protestant worship in their
	castles, but the citizens and peasants were so hard
	pressed in the course of a few years that by the
	beginning of the seventeenth century the dominion
	of the Roman Church in Upper Austria was out
	wardly restored. However, a large portion of the
population remained Protestant at heart.
	From about 1600, Rudolph II. was diseased in
	mind. The consequences of his condition were so
	disastrous, at last, for the govern
	3. Protes‑ ment of his dominions that in 1604
	tant Gains it seemed as though a collapse of his
	after i6oo. rule, and, with it, of the Hapsburg
	power, were imminent. The emperor's
	nearest kinsmen sought to obviate the danger by
	leaguing themselves against Rudolph and preparing
	to supplant him through his younger brother
	Matthias. Rudolph not being tractable, Matthias
	resorted to open conflict, and to strengthen his
	power he had to entreat the aid of the estates of
	Hungary and the crown lands and to fortify him
	self by concessions. In 1606 he promised the
	Hungarian Protestants free exercise of religion,
	and guaranteed the Moravian estates against all
	manner of religious persecution. It proved more
	difficult for him to make terms with the Austrian
	estates; these demanded, before the act of homage,
	complete religious freedom and new statutory
	rights for themselves. Nevertheless Matthias re
	luctantly yielded in the essential points, while the
	estates employed this time of independence in
	reorganizing the church on Protestant lines and
	in instituting public worship and schools on all
	sides accordingly. The same conditions favored the
	estates in Bohemia; as a condition of supporting
	the emperor against Matthias they first obtained
	provisional religious freedom, and then, on July 9,
	1609, the imperial brief in solemn acknowledgment
	of religious freedom and the ecclesiastical organi
	zation of the Protestants. Similar results were
	achieved for themselves by the Silesian estates.
	On succeeding to the crown lands and the empire
	in 1612, Matthias confirmed the grants by his
brother.
	The conflict between Rudolph and Matthias had
	much strengthened the position of the Austrian
	Protestants; apart from Tyrol and Inner Austria,
	the situation was now as favorable as at the close
	of the reign of Maximilian II. But there were
some weighty differences. Zealous and closely com
	pacted Roman mincrities stood side by side with
	the Protestant estates of the realm; the Roman
Church had gained internal strength; the Jesuits had founded settlements and schools in all the important centers, exerting an influence
¢: Forces over the coming generation; the uni‑
Working versity at Graz belonged to them outfor the right, and Vienna was transferred to Roman them in 1617; the Capuchins likewise
	Catholics.	exerted a fruitful activity. And still
		tenser than formerly had grown the op
position between the government and the Protestant
estates; ecclesiastical and political points of conten
tion had become inseparably interwoven, and Prot
estantism and " estatism " belonged together like
Catholicism and imperialism. The more the power
of the estates increased, and the more distinctly
the nobility strove for a federation of all the Bohe
mian and Austrian estates, just so much the more
hostile became the attitude of the monarchy toward
all rights and strivings of the estates. Matthias
at first allowed things to take their course; but
when he contrived, in 1617, to induce the estates
to " accept " Ferdinand of Styria as prospective
successor to the royal dignity, his courage rose in
the direction of Counterreformation measures. The
consequence was the Bohemian uprising, and
Bohemia's assertion of independence of the Haps
burg dynasty; a Protestant prince, Frederick V.
of the Palatinate, was elected king. But with the
suppression of the Bohemian insurrection, came
likewise the final, decisive defeat of Austrian Prot
estantism. Ferdinand II., the successor of Matthias,
became the restorer of Roman Catholicism for all
Austria, just as Matthias had been for Inner Austria
two decades previously (see INNER AUSTRIA, THE
REFORMATION 1N).
Ferdinand (b. at Graz July 9, 1578; d. in Vienna Feb. 15, 1637) had received a strictly ecclesiastical education, first at Graz, then at the University of Ingolstadt; his favorite reading, thanks to the influence of the Jesuits, was edifying tracts and legends of the saints. He succeeded his father, the Archduke Charles, in 1590 and began to reign actively in 1595, with the firm resolve to
5. Ferdi‑ help forward the Roman Church once nand II. His again to victory. At the end of June,
Measures	1598, he began to institute summary
in Inner measures throughout Inner Austria.
	Austria.	Protestant preachers and teachers were
		expelled, the Protestant churches were
closed, Protestant subjects were directed to choose
between return to Romanism and emigration; even
the nobility were forbidden the exercise of Prot
estant worship, their confession of faith being alone
left free. Later, when at the height of his success
in 1628, Ferdinand enjoined the nobility to return
to the Roman Church within a year at the latest.
So‑called " reformation committees " were active
throughout the country; the Jesuits now extended
their labors more widely than ever; while the pro
hibition of foreign schools restricted all aspirants
for education to the schools of the Society of Jesus.
Ferdinand allowed nothing to disturb him in carry
ing out his policy; neither the remonstrances of his
counselors, of the emperor, nor of the Protestant
estates of the realm, caused him to halt. The
opposition of his nobility, the vigorous resistance

301	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Ferdinand II
		Ferguson
of the people at large, frequently manifested, proved
all in vain; his own sovereign power, energetically
applied, showed itself strong enough to execute his
will with promptness. By 1602, the Counter
reformation was completed in the central Austrian
jurisdictions, though at the cost of a serious and
irretrievable decline of their prosperity, since many
of the stanchest and wealthiest inhabitants had
left home for the sake of their faith.
	When Ferdinand, after the death of Matthias in
1619, had been elected emperor, his first step, in
alliance with Maximilian of Bavaria and the League,
		was to put down the Bohemian in
6. Ferdinand surrection. Then from 1621 forward,
	Emperor	began the systematic execution of the
	0rg‑z7. Counterreformation in Bohemia, Mo
		ravia, and Upper and Lower Austria.
In Bohemia first the Protestant teachers and
preachers were expelled from the country, atten
dance at Roman Catholic worship was made com
pulsory, and the people were given the choice be
tween subjection and emigration; in this case the
property of emigrants was confiscated. In the
cities, Catholic municipal counselors were put in
office, and the Protestants were excluded from all
municipal and civil positions. Military billeting
helped to break the spirit of the recalcitrant, while
rewards were bestowed for transition to Romanism.
From 1624, measures were also prosecuted against
the nobility, and in July, 1627, there was issued an
imperial patent to the effect that nobody should
be tolerated in the land unless he were Roman
Catholic, and this irrespective of his rank or station,
the nobility being granted a term of six months for
making the change, and a corresponding term for
the sale of their properties in the event of disobeying
these orders. In the course of some years Protes
tantism was effectually suppressed in Bohemia.
Similar procedure was followed in Moravia and
Lower Austria, where, however, the nobility re
mained exempt from compulsory conversion; not
until 1641 were more severe measures inaugurated
against them, because they were alleged to stand
in alliance with the Swedes. In Upper Austria the
Counterreformation dated only from 1624, and was
virtually accomplished by 1626.
	The last active manifestations of Protestant
views in central Austria were set aside in 1628 by
the expulsion of the Protestant nobles, to the re
ported number of 800. In Silesia, too, notwith
standing earlier promise to the contrary, Protes
tantism was antagonized from 1627 onward;
although in this case only particular jurisdictions
came to be Romanized anew, which the fortunes of
war brought completely under the emperor's hand.
To carry the Counterreformation through in Hungary
was not in Ferdinand's power, but as time progressed,
the peaceable Counterreformation was directed by
Cardinal Peter Ptizmany (q.v.), archbishop of Gran,
and achieved such results that at all events the ma
jority of the nobility again became Roman Catholic.
As concerns the internal affairs of Austria, the vic
tory of the Counterreformation was likewise the
defeat of the estates and their policy; the princes
needed no longer to fear the claims of self‑willed
estates.	WALTER GOETZ.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. von Hurter, Geaehichte Ferdinands ll.. 4 vols., Schaffhausen, 1850‑64; F. Stieve, Politik Baierns, vol. i., Munich, 1878; idem, Der ober6sterreichiache Bauernaufstand des . . 16,26, ib. 1891; T. Wiedemann, Reformation and Gegenreformation im Lande unter der Enns, i.‑v., Prague, 1879‑86; J. Him, Erzherzog Ferdinand 11. von Tirol, Innsbruck, 1885; H. Ziegler, Die Gegenre(ormation in Schlesien. Halle, 1888; F. Seheiehl, Bilder ausderZeilderGegenre(ormation, Gotha, 1890; A. Gindely, GegenreformationinBohmen, Leipsie, 1894; J. Loserth, Die steirische Religionepaziflkation, Graz, 1896; idem, Reformation and Gegenre/ormation in den innerbsterreichischen Landern, Stuttgart, 1898; L. Schuster, Farattischof Martin Brenner, Graz, 1898; A. R. Pennington, The CounterRe/ormalion in Europe, London, 1899; Cambridge Modern History, vol. iii., Wars of Religion, pp. 568‑569, 572‑573, 575, 687, 689. 702, 714 aqq., 723 sqq., New York, 1905.

FERGUSON (FERGUSSON), DAVID: Scotch Reformer; b., perhaps at Dundee, c. 1525; d. at Dunfermline (16 m.n.w. of Edinburgh), Fifeshire, Aug. 13, 1598. He was a glover by trade, but later acquired an education, though there is no evidence that he ever attended a university. He was one of the earliest teachers of the Reformed doctrines, being chosen pastor at Dunfermline in the first appointment of ministers in Scotland in 1560. In 1567 he was also made pastor of Rosyth, for which Cumnock and Beith were substituted in 1574. He preached before the regent at Leith on Jan. 13, 1571‑72, protesting against the alienation of the estates of the Church for the personal use of the nobility or governmental purposes. This sermon received the approval of the General Assembly of the same year, and was heartily indorsed by John Knox. Ferguson was moderator of the General Assembly in 1573 and again in 1578, and for a number of years he was one of the assessors to the moderator. His acquaintance with James 1. as well as his ready wit, caused him to be repeatedly chosen one of the deputies of the General Assembly when it wished to bring matters to the attention of the king, and in Aug., 1583, he was one of the seven ministers cited by the king to attend a convention held at St. Andrews to answer for certain proceedings of the Assembly. At the meeting of the Synod of Fife at Cupar in Feb. 1597‑98, Ferguson was the oldest minister in Scotland, but was still able to protest vigorously against any measure which he considered conducive to the reintroduction of episcopacy into Scotland. The works of Ferguson were: An Answer to an Epistle written by Renat Benedict, the French Doctor, to John Knox (Edinburgh, 1563); the sermon already noted (1572); the posthumous Scottish, Proverbs (1641); and Epithalamium mystieum Solomonis regis, sine Analysis eritico‑poetics Cantici Canticorum (1677). His T;‑acts were edited at Edinburgh for the Bannatyne Club in 1860.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: John Row, Historie of the Kirk of Scotland (Wodrow Society publication), Edinburgh, 1842; Introductory notice to the Bannatyne Club's reprint of Ferguson's Tracts, ib. 1869; Hew Scott, Fasti ecclesiee Scotean'e, II., ii. 565‑566, 3 vols., ib. 1866‑71; DNB, xviii, 341‑342.
FERGUSON, FERGUS: Evangelical Union of Scotland; b. at Glasgow Sept. 6, 1824; d. there Nov. 3, 1897. At the age of fourteen he entered Glasgow University and was graduated (B.A.) at the end of six sessions (M.A., some years later).

Fersaeon	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	302
Ferrari
He then studied at the (Congregational) Glasgow
Theological Academy under Ralph Wardlaw until
1844, when, with eight other students, he was ex
pelled for not believing in the doctrine of uncon
ditional election and the special and irresistible
influence of the Holy Spirit. His studies were
completed in the Theological Hall of the Evan
gelical Union (q.v.) under James Morison (q.v.),
and he was ordained pastor of a newly formed
church of the Evangelical Union in Glasgow in
Mar., 1845. The church grew under Ferguson's
ministration and a new building was twice found
necessary. He became a leader of his denomination
and was professor of New Testament exegesis and
literature in the Theological Hall. His preaching
was popular and he was honored as one of the most
useful citizens of Glasgow. For some years he
edited the Evangelical Repository and he published
many popular volumes, including Bible Election
(Glasgow, 1854); Letters on the Principal Points
of a Calvinistic Controversy (1854); A Treatise on
Peace with God (1856); Holiness; or what we should
be and do (1862); Sacred Scenes; Notes of Travel
in Egypt and the Holy Land (London, 1864); The
History o f the Evangelical Union (1876; A Popular
Life of Christ (1878); From. Glasgow to Missouri
and Back (Glasgow, 1878); The Character of God
(London, 1881); The Patriarchs (1882).
		WILLIAM ADAMSON.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Life by William Adamson, London, 1900.
	FERGUSON, SAMUEL DAVID: Protestant Epis
copal missionary bishop of Cape Palmas and parts
adjacent; b., of African descent, at Charlestown,
S. C., Jan. 1, 1842. At the age of six he was taken
by his parents to Liberia, where he was educated
in the church mission schools and received his theo
logical training from the mission clergy. He was
ordered deacon in 1865 and priested two years later,
afte! which he was rector of St. Mark's, Harper,
Liberia, until 1885, being also a teacher in the
boys' boarding‑school at Cavalla 1862‑63 and mas
ter of Mount Vaughan high school 1863‑73. In
1885 he was consecrated missionary bishop of Cape
Palmas and parts adjacent, and was the first negro
to be elevated to the Protestant Episcopal episco
pate.
	FERMENTARII (FERMENTTACEI). See AzY
MITEB.
	FERRAR, NICHOLAS: English clergyman;. b.
in London Feb. 22, 1592; d. at Little Gidding
(10 m. n.w. of Huntingdon), Huntingdonshire,
Dec. 4, 1637. He studied at Clare Hall, Cambridge
(B.A., 1610; M.A., 1613). From 1613 to 1618 he
traveled and studied in Germany, Italy, France, and
Spain, and on his return to England devoted himself
till 1623 to the affairs of the Virginia Company, in
which his family was interested. In 1624 he was
elected to Parliament, and took part in the im
peachment of the Earl of Middlesex. But he soon
tired of public life, and, shrinking from the impend
ing political disorders, with his widowed mother, and
the families of his brother and his brother‑in‑law,
John Collet he settled at Little Gidding, and es
tablished there what the Puritans called his Prot
estant nunnery. In 1626 he was ordained deacon
by Laud, but would never consent to take priest's orders, and the most flattering offers of valuable benefices were not sufficient to tempt him from his life of religious devotion. Matins and evensong were said daily by Ferrar in the church of Little Gidding, the other canonical hours being said in the manor house. One room was set apart as an oratory for general devotions, and there were two separate oratories for the men and women at night. Vigils were kept throughout the night; and Ferrar himself, who slept on the floor, arose at one o'clock in the morning for religious meditation. Everything was done by rule, and there was some definite occupation for every hour. It was Ferrar's theory that everybody should learn a trade; and bookbinding was taught in his institution. Numerous elaborate volumes bound here are still extant, including a copy of Ferrar's Harmony of the Gospels (1635) made for Charles I., who held Ferrar in great veneration and visited him in 1642, and again in 1646. Ferrar also provided a free school for the children of the neighborhood, and served himself as teacher. The institution soon attracted the enmity of Puritanism. In 1641 it was unjustly attacked in a pamphlet entitled The Arminian Nunnery; and early in 1647 the manor and the church at Little Gidding were sacked by the Parliamentary army. The church was carefully restored in 1853.
BIRmOORAPH7: Two lives, by his brother John Ferrar and Dr. Jebb, are reproduced in Cambridge in the 17th Century, ed. J. E. B. Mayor, Cambridge, 1855; F. Turner, Brief Memoirs of Nicholas Perrar, London, 1837; P. Peckard, Memoirs o/ Nicholas Perrar, Cambridge, 1790, abridged London, 1852; T. T. Carter, Nicholas Perrar; his Household and his Friends, ib. 1892; DNB, xviii. 377380.
FERRAR, ROBERT: Bishop of St. David's; b. near Halifax (14 m. w.s.w. of Leeds), Yorkshire, before 1509; burned at Carmarthen, Wales, Mar. 30, 1555. He probably studied at Cambridge, afterward at Oxford (B.D., 1533), where he became a canon regular of the order of St. Augustine and a member of the priory of St. Mary's. He read Luther's works, became a Reformer, and in 1528 was compelled to recant. Later he aided Henry VIII. in suppressing the monasteries, and in 1540, a pension of eighty pounds a year was bestowed upon him, a large amount for those times. During the reign of Edward VI. he enjoyed the patronage of the Duke of Somerset, who employed him in carrying on the Reformation. He was elevated to the see of St. David's in 1548; but on his arrival in his diocese in 1549 he found serious difficulties awaiting him. Technical flaws were found in his commission, false charges were trumped up against him. Somerset, now in the Tower, could do nothing for him, and in 1551 Ferrar was thrown into prison and kept there till the accession of Queen Mary. He was deprived of his bishopric in Mar., 1554, condemned as a heretic a year later, and was burned at Carniarthen on Mar. 30, 1505. To a bystander who commiserated him he remarked, " If you see me once to stir while I suffer the pains of burning, then give no credit to those doctrines for which I die." He made good his assertion, for lie did not move till a blow on the head felled him in the midst of the flames.

803	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	F~,u°a
BIBLIOGRAPHY: John Fox, Acts and Monuments, ed. J.
Townsend, v. 428, vi. 146, 222, 553, 664, 705, vii. 1‑28, 8 vole., London, 1837‑41; A. b wood, Athenie Oxonienwa, ed. P. Bliss, ii. 759‑761, 4 vole., ib. 1813‑20; G. Burnet, Hiat. of the Reformation, ed. N. Pocock, ii. 127, iii. 350. 362, v. 197‑205, Oxford, 1865; DNB, xviii. 380‑382 (contains good list of sources).
FERRARA‑FLORENCE, COUNCIL OF: An assembly which met at Ferrara early in 1438 to consider proposals for union between the Greek and Latin Churches. The great danger threatening the Greek empire at the hands of the Turks led the emperor, John Pabeologus, to disregard the aversion generally felt in the East for Rome and to make proposals for a union of the two branches of Christendom to both the pope, Eugenius IV., and the Council of Basel, which was in session at the time. The pope was unwilling that the council‑with which his relations were anything but amicable(see BABEL, COUNCIL OF; EUGENIUB IV.) should share in the glory of a possible successful outcome of negotiations, and thought his purposes would be better served if its sessions were transferred to an Italian city. Toward the end of 1437 he directed it to meet at Ferrara on Jan. 8, 1438. A complete rupture between pope and council resulted, the majority of the latter remaining at Basel, where they deposed the pope. A minority, however, who were favorable to the pope met at Ferrara. Early in Mar., 1438, the Greeks, about 700 persons, arrived at Ferrara as guests of the pope; the emperor arrived on the fourth of the month, the patriarch of Constantinople on the seventh. Prominent among the Greeks were Besaarion, archbishop of Nicaea, afterward cardinal of the Church of Rome (see BF38ARION, JoHANNFS), a friend of union, and Markos Eugenikos (q.v.), metropolitan of Ephesus, whose one thought was to defend the peculiarities of the Greek peoples against the imperious papacy; it was mainly due to his influence that the dogmatic discussions on the doctrinal differences, especially on the procession of the Holy Spirit, held in 1438 were without result. Financial difficulties obliged the pope to transfer the council to Florence. Here the first session was held Feb. 26, 1439, and the metropolitan Isidore of Kief was especially conspicuous as friend of the Union. After much discussion it was agreed that the terms used by the Church Fathers ‑the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son, and from the Father through the Son‑are in the main identical (see FILIOQUE CONTROVERSY). By this the Greeks had actually acknowledged the authority of the ilioque; but in no case would they adopt it in their symbol; they declared, however, their willingness to unite with the Latins retaining their own rites. In the beginning of June, 1439 the discussions of the ilioque could be considered as closed; those on purgatory, the use of leavened or unleavened bread in the Eucharist, the sacrifice of the mass, etc., were relatively unimportant. But the whole union‑scheme threatened to become again doubtful when the question concerning the " papacy " came up for discussion. A formula was invented, however, which each party could interpret according to its own view (see below). In the midst of these negotiations the patriarch of Constantinople died, June 10, 1439, and a ter‑
mination of the discussions seemed more than ever desirable. On July 5 an agreement was arrived at, but Markos Eugenikos refused to sign it; another opponent to the union, the bishop of Stauropolis had already fled from Florence. It is noteworthy that the decree was signed by 115 Latins and by only thirty‑three Greeks. The union‑document was prepared in Latin and Greek by Ambrose Traversari, and corrections were afterward made here and there in the Greek by Bessarion. Both the Greek and Latin text may be considered authentic. On July 6, 1439, the solemn consummation of the union was celebrated in the cathedral at Florence. Cardinal Cesarini read the decree in Latin, Bessarion in Greek; after its general adoption Pope Eugenius celebrated public mass.
	As concerns the contents of the decree, the main
doctrinal difference was adjusted on paper, as
already stated; the Greeks acknowledged the
correctness of the ftlioque, without adopting it in
their symbol. The other points‑on the Eucharist,
purgatory, etc.‑were non‑essential. The Greeks
retained their whole ritual and marriage of the
priests. Regarding the pope, a formula was
adopted which the Greeks could and did interpret
as acknowledging his primacy " in the way which
is determined in the acts of ecumenical councils
and in the sacred canons." The patriarchs of
Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jeru
salem could thus imagine they had preserved their
privileges. The Latins, however, interpreted the
last clause as a confirmation of their claims and
read, the pope has the primacy in the church, " as
is determined in the acts of ecumenical councils
and in the sacred canons " (the original copy of the
decree with other copies is at Florence in the
Laurentian library). On Aug. 26, 1439 the em
peror left for Constantinople by way of Venice.
A real union had not been accomplished, the Greeks
would not " Latinize," the fall of Constantinople
was not prevented, and in 1472 a synod in Constan
tinople solemnly and openly renounced the union
of Florence. 	PAUL TBCHACKERT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources: The original protocols are lost, but the preliminary negotiations are brought together by E. Cecconi. Studi atorici sul concilio di Firenze, Florence, 1869; the Acts of the Council, compiled by O. Giustinisni, are in Mansi, Concilia, vol. xxxi and Labbe, Concilia, xiii. 825 aqq. (from the Latin standpoint); the Ada Grcera, by Dorotheus of Mitylene, are in Harduin, Concilia, vol. ix., and in Mansi, vol. xxxi (from the Greek standpoint); the " Great History " of the Greek Sylvester Syropulus, giving the views of a divergent Greek party, was published by R. Creyghton, London, 1660; the union decree appeared, ed. Milanesi, in Archivio atorico ltaliano. new ser., vi (1857), 219. The modern Latin point of view appears in Hefele, Conciliengeschirhte, vii. 659 sqq.; the Greek, by Gorski, in Hist. of the Council of Florence, ed. Neale, London, 1861. Consult further: A. Pichler, Geschichte der kirchlichen Trennunp zwiachen dem Orient and den Occident, Munich, 1864; T. Fromman, Kritische Beitrape zur Geachichte der Florentiner Kircheneinipungen, Halle, 1872; idem, in Jahrbacher for deutsche Theolopie, xxii. 4 (1877), 659 sqq.; J. Driiseke, in Z;VT, xxxvii (1894), 31 sqq.; Pastor, Popes, i. 315 sqq.; Creighton, Papacy, ii. 333‑341, 382‑384.
FERRARI, ANDREAS: Cardinal; b. at Pratopiano, diocese of Parma, Italy, Aug. 13, 1850. He was appointed in 1885 professor of dogmatic theology and rector of the Great Seminary of Parma.

THE NEW SCHAFF HERZOG
Later becoming vicar‑general of Parma, he was consecrated bishop of Guastalla in 1890, whence he was translated to Como in the following year. In 1894 he was enthroned archbishop of Milan, and in the same year was created cardinal priest of Sant'Anastasia. He is a member Of the congregations of Bishops and Regulars, Indulgences, and the Index.
FERRATA, DOMENICO: Cardinal; b. at Gradoli, diocese of Montefiascone (50 m. n.w. of Rome), Italy, Mar. 4, 1847. He studied at the Jesuit colleges at Orvieto and Montefiascone, and at the University of Rome. He was then professor of canon law at the Roman Seminary and also professor of church history, exegesis, dogmatic theology, and the institutes of ecclesiastical law at the Propaganda. In 1877 he became a member of the Congregation for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, and in 1879 was appointed auditor of the papal nuncio at Paris. After his return to Italy, he was made undersecretary of his Congregation and domestic prelate to the pope, and in 1884 he was president of the Pontificia Accademia dei Nobili Ecclesiastici. In 1885 he was preconized titular archbishop of Thessalonica and sent to Belgium as papal nuncio. On his return, he became secretary of his congregation, and in 1891 was nuncio at Paris. He was created cardinal priest of Santa Prisca in 1896. He is a member of the Congregations of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, the Council, Rites, the Inquisition, Studies, Indulgences, and Loreto, besides being a commissioner for the reunion of dissenting churches and for the apostolic visitation of the dioceses of Italy.

FERRER, VINCENTE. See VINCENT FERRER, SAINT.
FERRIER, far"ry6', JEREMIE: French Protestant; b. at Nimes c. 1560; d. in Paris Sept. 26, 1626. He was pastor of the Protestant congregation at Alais, afterward at Nimes, and in 1601 was appointed professor of theology at the academy at Nimes. On the occasion of his inauguration he defended publicly the thesis that Pope Clement VIII. was the Antichrist, and later he won a great reputation by his sermons against the Jesuits. Nevertheless, some doubt of his sincerity arose in 1611; and in 1612, suspected of having sold out to the Romanists, he was suspended for six years by the Synod of Privas. So strong was the feeling against him that in the rioting which followed, Ferrier barely escaped with his life. In 161'4 he went to Paris, abjured Protestantism, and subsequently became a counselor of state under Louis XIII. He published De l'AnteeArist et de ses marqum, contre les calomnies des ennemis de l'6glise catholique (Paris, 1615), in which he retracted his former anti‑Romanist utterances; and Le Catholique d'Otat (1625), a defense of Richelieu's policy.
BIHLIOGRAPHT: L. Mdnard, Hiat. . de Nimes, Vol. v., 7 vols., Paris, 175o‑‑58; A. Bowel, Hiet. de Nglise r6form6e de Niarnes, Ntmes, 1856; E. and it. Haag, La France yrote‑tame, ed. H. L. Bordier, Paris, 1577‑E6; Liehtenberger, EBR, iv. 712‑716.
FERRIS, ISAAC: American (Dutch) Reformed; b. in New York Oct. 9, 1799; d. at Roselle, N. J.,
804
June 16, 1873. He was graduated from Columbia College (1816) and the Rutgers Seminary (1820). He held pastorates in the Dutch Reformed Church at New Brunswick, N. J. (1821‑24), Albany, N. Y. (1824‑36), and the Market Street Church, New York (1836‑53), and was president of the New York Sunday School Union (1837‑73), also of the Board of Foreign Missions of the Dutch Reformed Church. In 1842 he was sent to Holland on behalf of American missionaries in the Dutch East Indies. He was chancellor of New York University (185‑70; emeritus 1870‑73), and throughout his connection with the University he was professor of moral science and Christian evidences, also acting professor of constitutional and international law 18551869. Through his efforts the heavy debt under which the institution had labored since its foundation was removed, several new departments were added to the course of instruction, and the standard of scholarship materially raised. He was also principal of the Rutgers Female Institute and president of its board of trustees. He published numerous occasional sermons and addresses, including Jubilee Memorial o f the American Bile Society; being a Review of its First Fifty Years of Work (New York, 1867), an address delivered at the Jubilee of the American Bible Society at New York in 1866.
FERRIS, JOHN MASON: Dutch Reformed; b. at Albany, N. Y., Jan. 17, 1825. He was graduated from the University of the City of New York (A.B., 1843) and the New Brunswick Theological Seminary (1849). He was pastor of the Reformed Church at Tarrytown, N. Y. (1849‑54), the Second Reformed Church at Chicago (1854‑62), and the First Reformed Church at Grand Rapids, Mich. (18625). In 1865 he was appointed corresponding secretary of tile Board of Foreign Missions of the Reformed Church in America, since 1883 has been editor of The Christian Intelligencer (New York), and treasurer of the Board of Foreign Missions since 1886.
FERRY, PAUL: French Protestant; b. at Metz Feb. 24, 1591; d. there July 28, 1669. He was educated at the seminary of Montauban and became pastor of the Reformed Congregation at Metz in 1612. Here he labored, as preacher and author, for fifty‑seven years. He was a very prolific writer; but most of his works still remain in manuscript. His principal work is the CatEchisme gmEral de la R~ formation de la Religion (S6dan,1654), in which he showed that the Reformation was a necessary result of the corruption of the Church. This book called forth a refutation from Bosauet, then canon and archdeacon of Metz. The disputation thus begun led to mutual esteem between the contestants, and in 1666 Ferry carried on a lengthy correspondence with Boasuct in the interest of a fusion of Protestantism and Catholicism, which was then being considered by the French government. He had already labored in vain to secure a union of the various branches of Protestantism, and had even induced John Durie (q.v.) to come to Metz in 1662 to discuss the subject with him. His Lettre aux ministres de Gen'‑ (in Biblioth6que anglaise, Vol.

805	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
		Faushism
ii.), in defense of a poor lunatic who was burned at Geneva for blasphemies against the Trinity in 1632, has been called his best piece of writing. Ferry was an eloquent preacher, a man of learning, and had great influence among both Protestants and Roman Catholics.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. M. Baird, Huguenot& and We‑Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, i. 359‑385, New York; Liehten‑
berger, ESR, iv. 717.
	FESCH, JOSEPH: French cardinal, half‑brother
of Laetitia, mother of Napoleon I.; b. at Ajaccio,
Corsica, Jan. 3, 1763; d. at Rome May 13, 183^.
He studied at the seminary in Aix and became a
priest before 1789. At the outbreak of the French
Revolution he took service in the army, and in
1796 was Napoleon's commissary of war in Italy.
When Napoleon was made consul he returned to
the Church, and became archbishop of Lyons in
1802. The following year he was made a cardinal
and sent to Rome as French ambassador. In 1804
he successfully negotiated for the coronation of
the emperor by the pope at Paris, and in 1805 he
was made Grand Almoner of France, Grand Cross
of the Legion of Honor, and a member of the
Senate. Although until now he had been ready to
further the interests of his illustrious nephew, he
had no intention of completely surrendering his
rights =s cardinal. The result was a break with
Napoleon; and in May, 1806, Fesch was recalled
from Rome. In 1809 he declined the archbishop
ric of Paris, a peace‑offering from Napoleon, and
also declined to declare Napoleon's divorce of the
same year valid. As president of the National
Ecclesiastical Council at Paris in 1811 he led the
opposition. Accordingly, the council was dis
solved, and Fesch fell into complete disgrace. He
retired to Lyons, and in 1814 to a nunnery he had
established at Gravina, Italy. After Napoleon's
return from Elba he was made a member of the
House of Peers. On the restoration of the Bour
bons he withdrew to Rome, leaving his bishopric
in the hands of a vicar for twenty‑four years. In
1856 Ajaccio, his native city, erected a monument
to his memory. 	(C. PFENDER.)
B133LIOGRAPHY: Lyonnet, Le Cardinal PeeeA, 2 vole., Lyons,
1841; A. du Cases, Hdat. des negociationa diplomatiquas, . la comeapondance inbdite de l'empxsur Napoldm aeea
Zs cardinal Fesch, 3 vole., Paris, 1855; HL, iv. 1383‑86.
FESTUS. See FELiR ANA FESTu8.
FETISHISM.
The Word and Its Employment (g 1). Primary and Secondary Fetishism (§ 2). Character of the Fetish ($ 3). Operation Aided by Suggestion (§ 4) Objects Employed and Area of Cult (§ 5). Cases of Reversion (§ 6).
Fetishism (Portuguese feitigo, "charm, talisman ") is a form of worship regarded as in itself superhumanly powerful in directing or assisting to the attainment of some desired end. The use of the word as denoting a religious cult goes back to C. de Brosses, Du eulte des dietw ftfiches (Paris, 1760), who rightly supposed that certain customs of the Africans constituted a form of primitive religion. The Portuguese term is the name given to the beads, medals, and crucifixes carried by IV.‑20
sailors, and supposed by them to afford protection when in danger and was applied to the fetishes of the Africans by these same sailors,
i. The from whom De Brosses obtained it. Word and in more modern treatises on religion Its Employ‑ the term has been used very loosely.
	ment.	Comte (Philosophic pOSitive, Paris,
		1830‑•12) made fetishism equivalent
to animism. Lippert' (Die Religionen der eurO
pdischen Culturvolker, Berlin, 1881) meant by it
the embodiment of departed' spirits in some tangi
ble or visible object. Miss Mngaley and Mr. Nas
sau cover by it practically the whole of African
religious life, though Miss Yingaley recognizes the
looseness of her own usage. A delimitation of the
term is necessary to abolish the confusion which
has developed in its use. The Neto English Dic
tionary defines a fetish as " differing from an idol
in that it is worshiped in its own character, not as the
symbol, image, or occasional residence of a deity."
Mr. Lang describes fetishism as " the worship of
odds and ends," a description which admirably
hits off the fortuitous selection of a fetish and the
apparent lack of intrinsic worthfulnew. in the
object chosen. Schultze regards it as " a religious
worship of material objects," a definition which
would suit many phases of animism. And Waits
defines a fetish as "an object of religious veneration,
wherein the material and the spirit within it are
regarded as one, the two being inseparable."
The difficulties of the subject and the resulting confusion are due to two circumstances, its affinities and connections with animism on the one side and with magic oil the other. In fetishism there is the same anthropomorphic conception of material objects as in animism; the most passive objects may be regarded as having volition and power to accomplish some end. A fetish is often used as the materials of magic are used and for similar purposes. But another cause of confusion is the fact that no distinction is made between a primitive and a developed variety. s. Primary Primitive fetishism is suggested by and Second‑ Mr. Lang's description. The original
ary Fet‑ fetish is an adventitious find of which ishism. care is taken, to which success in an undertaking is ascribed; and subsequent worship is accorded. The classic example is that of a Bushman who on leaving his but to transact some important business, trod on a stone which caused him some pain. He at once picked up the stone, regarding it as a fetish which had obtruded itself upon his notice for the purpose of forwarding his undertaking. His object was accomplished, and he thereafter paid the stone due homage. The adventitious meeting of this object at the moment of the inception of an enterprise was to the African an indication of its fetishistic character, and his success in the work proved for him its potency in that particular direction. Almost as classic is the case of the anchor cast up on the West African coast. A native broke off a fluke in order to utilize the iron, and soon after died. The natives thereafter on passing the spot always paid reverence to the anchof and frequently employed it as a destructive agent.

The sequence of perception, events, and thought
was the novelty of form of the object, the injury
done it by breaking off the fluke, the subsequent
death of the offender, and the inference that the anchor was a malignant fetish to be propitiated.
On this principle any object of peculiar form‑a deformed horn of a deer, the trigger of a gun, or any object dropped by a European, a queerly
shaped stone, a particolored feather, a tooth, etc.may become a fetish, the use of which may be indeterminate at the time but which is believed to
possess power in some particular direction by reason p
of its very strangeness. But resemblance to an
object or to the achievement desired plays no nec
essary part as it does in mimetic magic (see CoMPARA
TTvE RELIGION, VI. 1, a, 1 5). Secondary fetishism
shows a likeness to magic in that it is the result of
the exercise of primitive invention like that which
attempts to produce rain by simulating its fall. It is an attempt to force or create that which does not readily come to hand. Thus natives on the Guinea Coast take a joint of bamboo, a shell, or some similar object and fill it with oddly assorted materials; this they suppose furnishes a residence for a spirit which may be induced to enter the mass, make it its home, become one with it, and thus be available for assistance to the possessor. Or the home of the spirit may be a piece of wood carved into a rude resemblance to some object. In this case there is recognition of a distinction between the spirit and its home, a distinction which does not exist in primary fetishism, in which the stone, anchor, feather, etc., is itself a fetish. On another side the fetish is to be distinguished from charms, amulets and the like, by the fact that it is supposed to operate by its own inherent power, while charms work by virtue imparted from some higher power.
The fundamental character of a fetish is that the material object is itself the power and the object of worship and possesses personality and will. A second characteristic is that its power is not general, but is used for a definite end, usually material, and for a single kind of purpose. Hence for the
various purposes of life the worshiper 3. Charac‑ may accumulate a vast number of ter of the fetishes. A case is known where an
	Fetish.	individual had over 20,000, the use
		of each of which he professed to be
able to describe. The assumed value and power
of a fetish therefore depends upon accidental coin
cidence, upon the savage fallacy of post hoc propter
hoc. Success in an undertaking makes almost
certain the power of the fetish chosen for that par
ticular purpose. But the fetishist may recognize
after repeated failures that the object is worth
less for the end in view and may then discard it.
He will not, even then, admit its impotence but
will assert that its power does not lie in that direc
tion. The institution rests therefore upon a rude
empiricism. The first essay with a fetish is a test
which subsequent essays will either establish or
disprove. A series of successes may occur which
raise the value of the object so enormously that its
service is desired by a tribe, and in that case the
finder, who is supposed to know its peculiarities
becomes a sort of priest. And the repute of the
THE NEW BCHAFF‑HERZOG
SOB
the
fetish may grow to such dimensions that its use becomes intertribal, the result being enlarged power and possessions and influence to both possessor and
e home tribe.
While the individual use of the fetish is as various as the needs of man in the savage state, tribal and intertribal use of it is largely connected with a crude justice, with intertribal disputes, and with war. In cases of justice the operation is by means of suggestion or autosuggestion. Thus, in cases of suspected domestic infidelity or of theft the
rocedure is that of the Ordeal (q.v.). For example, where the lizard is fetish, in case of
;. Opera‑ crime or offense the animal is caught tion Aided and whipped, when the culprit, in by Sugges‑ terror of the vengeance of the fetish, tion. confesses .and makes restoration.
Much the same process goes on in the
case of intertribal disputes, while the tribe which has bought the aid of such a fetish for purposes of war is endowed with a confidence so bold as to be irresistible. Each success enhances the estimation in which the object is held. That out of this sort of fetish may have developed some of the great divinities found among savages is a possibility students of religion now recognize, and fetishism is regarded as one of the springs of polytheism. How it may contribute a priesthood is shown above. The qualities of humanity plus a superhuman power being attributed to the fetish, especially a jealous regard of its own prerogatives, it is an object of the highest care. It must be constantly conciliated. To please it, vows are undertaken which must be scrupulously performed. Thus vows are made for children during their infancy which enslave them for life to the service of the fetish whose protection is thus invoked. But failure to keep such a vow sets autosuggestion in operation, discouragement supervenes, and the death of the victim not seldom results from the terror excited. The same result often issues from the knowledge that an enemy has set a powerful fetish in operation against a man, especially where it is deemed impossible to utilize a still greater power. For fetishes are employed for all purposes for which magic is supposed to operate.
The objects employed as fetish are most wsrious. Nothing is too minute or too great, too repulsive
or too attractive to be soused. Stones,
g. Objects mountains, water, wind, fire, plants Employed and trees, animals, human beings and Area possessing exceptional characteristics of Cult. (such as albinos), refuse, parts of
animals or of corpses (particularly the eyes)‑in short, objects the most insignificant or magnificent are chosen. And there are clear traces that the moat diverse regions and ages have witnessed the operation of the institution. It can be traced in ancient Greece, India, China, Egypt, and Babylonia. It is practised in North America, in Oceanica, New Zealand, and Australia. But its garden is in Africa, so much so that in general the religion of Africans is often described as fetishism (see above).
Notice should be taken of a superstitious persistence of fetishistic practises and conceptions or

307	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	F°dt,
of a reversion to them among civilized nations, especially those which lag in the course of progress. Thus there can be no doubt
	6. Cases of that in Roman Catholic countries the
	Reversion. peasantry hold their medals, agni dei,
		and other religious emblems in fetishis
tic regard. A Russian mujik has been known, when
about to commit a crime, to cover the icon in the
room so that it might not witness the deed. And
within a generation the Bible has been fetishistically
	employed in Scotland by laying it on the doorstep
to keep out witches. 	GEo. W. GILMoRE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The fundamental work is that of De Brasses, ut sup., and next to that is F. Schultze, Der Fetichismue,
Lsipeic, 1871, Eng. trawl., New York, 1885. Consult also: T. Waits, Anthropolopie den Naturvelker, Leipsic, 1880; C. F. Keary, Outlines of Religion, chaps. i., iii., London, 1882; R. H. Codrington, The Melanesians, Oxford, 1891; G. Allen, Evolution of Idea of God, London, 1897; D..G. Brinton, Religion of Primitive Peoples, chap. iv., New York, 1897; Miss M. H. Kingsley, Travels in West Africa, London, 1898; idem, West African Studies, ib. 1899; A. Lang, Custom and Myth, pp. 212‑242, ib. 1884; idem, Making of Religion, chap. viii., ib. 1898; M. Gaston, in Folk‑Lore, xi., 1900; F. B. Jevons, Introduction to History of Religion, chap. xiii., London, 1902; E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, vol. ii., ib. 1903; R. H. Nassau, Fetichism in West Africa, New York, 1904; A. C. Haddon, Magic and Fetishism, London, 1906; G. Belueei, II Fetieismo primitivo in Italia, Perugia, 1907.
FEUERBACH, fei'erbaa, LUDWIG ANDREAS: German philosopher; b. at Landshut (39 m. n.e. of Munich), Bavaria, July 28, 1804; d. at Rechenberg, near Nuremberg, Sept. 13,1872. He attended the Gymnasium at Ansbach, and in 1822 entered the University of Heidelberg as a student of theology. Through the lectures of Karl Daub he became interested in Hegelianism, and in 1824 went to Berlin to hear Hegel. He soon gave up theology for philosophy, and in 1828 became docent in philosophy at Erlangen. Promotion to a professorship having been .made next to impossible by his Gedanken fiber Tod and Unsterblichkea (Nuremberg, 1830), in which he disposed of immortality on psychological grounds, he withdrew from the university to devote himself to literary work. He lived in Ansbach till 1836, then at the Castle at Bruckberg till 1860, when he moved to Rechenberg. His radical views made his name a watchword in the late forties, and in 1848‑19, by special petition of the students, he lectured in Heidelberg. Accepting the view of Hegel that the Absolute attains consciousness in the human mind, he went one step further and denied the existence of an absolute mind, explaining God as a subjective product of our conscious life. He regarded religion as psychological illusion, a purely subjective process; and God, heaven, and eternal life as desires of the heart realized by the imagination. In short, according to his naturalistic view, God did not make us after his own image at all; rather, we made God after ours; and thus theology becomes a matter of anthropology. Although Feuerbach is the author of that extremely materialistic formula, Der Mensch ist, tons er isst, °' man is what he eats," yet he can scarcely be called a materialist, since he approaches the problem from the psychological side. His principal works are: Daa Weaen des Christ‑du‑ (Leipsie, 1841; Eng. tranal., The
Essence of Chrid~ariity, by George Eliot, London, 1854); Das Wesen den Religion (1845); Dan Theogenie, oder van dem Ursprung den Glitter (1857); Gott, Freiheit, and Unsterblichkeit vom Standpunkt der Anthropologie (1866). His collected works in ten volumes appeared at Leipsic 1846‑86.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: O. Beyer, Leben and (laid: LuduaO Fauer
	back, Leipeio. 1873: W. Maccall, The Newest Materialism.
	London, 1873; K. Grfn, Ludwig Feuerbach in sasnesn
	Bria/weehaet and Nadlaas, Leipsio, 1874; W. Bolin, Lud
	wig Peuerbach, eein Wirken and seine Zeitpenossen, Stutt‑
gart, 1891. Consult also the works on the History of Philosophy by Windelband, Ueberweg, and Erdmann.
FEUILLABTS, fu'9yt1'li: Roman Catholic congregation taking its name from its place of origin, the Cistercian monastery, of Fulium (Feuillans, near Rieux, 25 m. s.w. of Toulouse). It was established as a Reformed body within the Cistercians about 1580 by Jean de la Barri6re, a scion of noble family born at St. Cbr6 (60 m. n.e. of Montauban) in 1544; d. 1600. Being appointed abbot in commendam of the monastery by a kinsman who had become a convert to Protestantism, De la Barri6re led a life of sensuality until, about 1575, twelve years after his appointment, he resolved to enter the Cistercian order. He was deserted by the majority of the monks, however, on account of the rigidity of his regulations, but those who adhered to him adopted a rule still more severe than the Cistercian system. He secured the sanction of Sixtus V., who. permitted him (1589) to establish additional monasteries and nunneries. Henry III. bf France requested him to send sixty monks to Paris, and founded for them in 1587 a monastery in the Rue St. Honor6, which in the French Revolution gave the name of Feuillants to the royalist party who met within its walls. The successor of De Barri6re enjoyed the title of ViearGeneral of the Congregation, and secured complete independence of the Cistercians. In 1595 new rules were approved by the pope, modifying the extreme stringency of De Barribre, which had proved injurious to health. The congregation increased rapidly. In the lifetime of their founder the Feuillants possessed, in addition to the mother house, the monastery at Paris, and two at Rome, one at Bordeaux and several in Piedmont, and in the reign of Henry IV., when they received the right of electing their own general, they had between twenty and thirty monasteries both in France and Italy. For purposes of discipline, Urban VIII. divided the congregation (1630) into the French Congregation de Not‑ Dame de Feuillana and the Italian Riformati di San Bernardo, each with its own general and general chapter. The congregation flourished until the Revolution, and among its men of note were Charles de St. Paul and Cardinal Bona.
There were also Feuillant nuns. In 1588 De la Barri6re established a nunnery at Montesquiou with fifteen sisters, but their cloister proving too small, they occupied a new convent at Toulouse in 1599. A third nunnery was erected at Poitiers in 1617 and a fourth at Paris in 1622. The rule of the nuns was the same as that of the monks, and they likewise were entirely independent of Cistercian control. Their convents were never numerous,

FIN"
Fidde.
however, and none of them survived the French
Revolution. 	(0' Z6CKLERt‑)
BIBLInaEAPHT: The Conatitu&nu were issued Rome, 1595 and Paris, 1834 the priroi~ and the ComPO"&uln ,y st grapiarurn Paris, 1828. Consult: M. RP . Henrion. Attgemeins Geschichte der
erb^°°~°n~ ed.
J. Fehr, Ttibinven. 1845' Heiyot. Ordree monattiques, v. 401‑420; Heimbuoher, ords^ and KonpreAabio~ i. 474 sqq ; KL, iv. 1470‑73; Currier, Rd'g'‑ mss, pD• 131‑132.

FIACRE, ft‑a'cr (FIACHRACH), SAINT: Irish hermit; b. in Ireland c. 610; d. at Breuil, near Meaux (27 m. e.n.e. Of Paris), c. 670. Seeking seclusion he went to France with a few companions and erected a small monastery in the woods near Meaux, and also a small dwelling‑house, in which he received his guests. No woman was allowed to enter his monastery. As early "the ninth century he had acquired great fame as a worker of miracles. He was thought to have effected wonderful cures merely by the laying on of his hands; and pilgrims flocked to his shrine, believing that his remains still possessed healing power. The shrine containing his remains, which was removed to the cathedral of Meaux in 1568, has been opened frequently, lastly in 1637, when some of the vertebrae were given to Carding Richelieu. Fiacre is the patron saint of gardeners and is commemorated on Aug. 30. In France his. name has been Perpetuated by the. fact that in 1640 a merchant in Paris who had carriages to rent placed the image of St. Fiacre over his door and called the establishment the Hdtel de St. Fiacre ; in course of time his carriages came to be known as " Fiatres," and the word passed into the French language as the common term for a public carriage.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: ASB, Aug., vi. 598‑‑62D; ASM am. II., 598‑802; A.. J. Ansart. Riot. de S. Fiaae. mss. 1782; Ramrd, La Vie et lee miradss de S. Fiaere, ib. 1885 (founded on the ASB); Cirandtrait, Vie de S. Fiacre, Meaux, 1881; DCB, ii. 509‑510.

FICHTE, ffa'te, IMMAMUELHERMANNN: German philosopher, son of Johann Gottlieb Fichte (q.v.); b. at Jena July 18, 1797; d. at Stuttgart Aug. 8, 1879. He was for many years a gymnasial professor at Saarbracken and DUsseldorf, and then professor of philosophy at Bonn 1836‑42 (ordinary professor after 1840), and at Tilbingen 1842‑63. In 1863 he retired from the university and soon afterward settled in Stuttgart. He edited his father's works, founded and edited the Zeitschrift for Philosophic und spokulative Theologie, and was a prolific writer on philosophy. In metaphysics his position was that of a mediator between the two conflicting views represented by Hegel and Herbart, and, too, in. the interest of theology. His great aim was to secure a philosophical basis for the personality of God. Taking the monadology of Leibnitz as the model of a system embracing unity in plurality and plurality in unity, he sought to fuse extreme spiritualistic monism and extreme pluralistic realism into what he called concrete theism. The more important of his independent works are, Beftrage zur Charakaristik der neuern Phtlosophie (Sulzbach, 1829‑ 2d ed., completely rewritten, 1841);, Religion u;i~ Philosophic (Heidelberg, 1834); Die speculati1v Theologie (3 parts,
THE NF
,W SCHAFF‑HERZOG
der Ethik (2 vols Leipsic, 1850‑53);
.Ystc. 	*; Schriften (2 vols.,
=p',S~logie (1856); Vermi8cht icht und ihre Be
1869~; Die theistische Weltans
rezht ung (1873); and Der neuere SPirituali8mu8 V (1878).
BIBLIOGRAPHY‑ m Fucken, in Zeils&rift I& ph""Ophid
U.d phiWophi‑he Kritik, ex (1897), 1‑7; E. von Hartnu GeschichtV der MdtaPhY&'k1 "' 367‑379'Leipsie'looo.
MR	I

FICHTE, j0HANX GOTTLIEB: German philosopher; b. at Rammenau, near Bischofswerds (20 m. e.n.e. of Dresden), May 19, 1762; d. in
Berlin Jan. 27, 1814. The son of a poor weaver, he attended the public school at Meissen and the charity school at Schulpforta. Later he studied at the universities of Jena and Leipsic. For a number of years he w,as private tutor in Leipsic, Zurich, and Warsaw. In 1792 he went to K6nigsberg to hear Kant, whose transcendentalism he had now adopted. Here he wrote in four weeks his Versuch einer Kritik aller Offenbarung (K6nigsberg, 1792), which
appeared anonymously and was taken for a work of Kant's. When the authorship of the book became known, Fichte's reputation as a philosopher was made. After a short residence in Zurich, he entered upon a professorship in philosophy at Jena in 1794. Here he published Grundlage der glesammten Wi8senschaftslehre (Jena, 1794), his new system of philosophy; Die Be8timmuftg des Gelehrten (1794); Grundlage des Naturrechts (2
parts, 1796; Eng, transl. The Science of Rights, Philadelphia, 1869, new e'd London, 1889); and 'System der Sittenlehre (171~; Eng. tranel., The Science of Ethics, London, 1897). Both his wri‑
tings and lectures made a deep impression; but they also created a suspicion of atheism. In 1798 he published a little emay entitled Ueber den Grund uncers Glaubem an eine g6ttliche Weltregierung, in which he declared that the moral order of the world is God, and that there is no other God. Despite Fichte's strenuous denial of the charge of atheism he was dismissed from the university a few months laten In June, 1799 he went to Berlin where, except for a summer at Erlangen in 1805 and a visit to K6nigsberg in 18W‑07, he spent the remainder Of his life. In this period falls Die Betimmug des Menschen (Berlin, 1800); Grundzilge des gegenwdrtig‑ Zeitalters (1806), lectures delivered at Berlin in 1804‑05; Ueber das Wesen des Gelehrten (18013), lectures delivered at the university of Erlangen in 1805; and Reclen an die deutsche Nation
(1808), a famous course of lectures delivered at Berlin in the winter of 1807‑08. He took a prominent part in the establishment of the Uni‑
versity of Berlin and was professor of philosophy in the new institution from its opening (1810) till his death. The fruits of his academic work there will be found in Die Wis8enschaftsiehre in ihrem allgemeinen Umrisse (1810; Eng. transl., The Science of Knowledge, Philadelphia, 1868, new ed.,
London, 1889); and in Die, Thatsachen des Beumsstseine (Ttibingen, 1817). Fichte's popular writing will be found in English translation in The Popular Works of J. G. Fichte (2 volB., London, 1848‑49; 4th ed., 2 vols., 1889), including, The Vocation of the Scholar, The Nature of the Scholar, The Vocation of Man, Characteristics of the Present Age, The Way

309
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
towards the Blessed Life, and Outlines of the Doctrine of Knowledge. Fichte's Sammtliche Werke (8 vols., Berlin, 1845‑46) were edited by his son I. H. Fichte. Fichte derives all philosophical knowledge from the one principle of the consciousness of the indivisible Ego, which posits its own being in distinction from a divisible non‑Ego. His ethics is based on the absolute freedom of this Ego as an intelligent being. Religion is by him reduced to faith in the moral order of the universe, and this leads to the positive assertion of immortality on the ground that no ego which by the act of consciousness has become real can ever perish. While Fichte's subjectivism was soon superseded by other metaphysical views, his influence as a moral reformer is felt in Germany even to‑day. See IDEALISM; RELIGION, PHILOSOPHY OF.
BIHmOOBAPHY: The authoritative life is by his son, I. H. Fichte, J. G. Fichte's Leben and litterarischer HrWweckset, Leipsic, 1862. Other accounts are by C. Kostlin, Tffbingen, 1862; L. Noack, Leipsic, 1862 (important); O. Pfleiderer, Stuttgart, 1877; A. Spir, Leipsic, 1879; W . Smith, in the Popular Works, ut sup.; ADS, vi. 761‑771. On various phases of his philosophy consult: W. Busse, Fichte and seine Beziehung zur Gepenwart des deutachen Volkae, Halle, 1848‑49; A. Schopenhauer, Aus A. Schopenhauer's . . . Nachlasa, ed. J. Frauenetadt, pp. 161‑189, Leipsic, 1864; F. Bowen, Modern Philosophy, pp. 310‑326, New York, 1877; F. Zimmer, J G. Fichte's Religimeaphilosophie, Berlin, 1878; A. Seth, The Development from Kant to Hegel, London, 1882; C. C. Everett, Fichte's Science of Knowledge, Chicago, 1884; Anna B. Thompson, The Unity of Pichte's Doctrine of Knowledge, Boston, 1895; I. F. Brown, Doctrine of Freedom of the Will in FirAte's Philosophy, Richmond, Ind., 1900; C. Ivanoff, Die Ethik J. G. Fichte, Leipsic, 1900; H. Lindau, J. G. Fichte and der neuere Socialismus, Berlin, 1900: Ellen B. Talbot, The Fundamental Principles of pichte's Philoaopky, New York, 1906; M. Raieh, Fichte, seine Ethik, and seine Stelle zum Problem des Individualismue, TGbingen. 1907.
FICINUS, MARSILIUS (MARSMIO FICINO): Italian scholar and Platonic philosopher; b. at Florence Oct. 19, 1433; d. at Careggi (3 m. n. of Florence) Oct. 1, 1499. He was the son of a physician of Cosmo de' Medici and had the patronage of the Medici's during three generations. He studied under Gemistos Plethon (q.v.), enjoyed the intercourse of the leaders of the Renaissance, became a teacher of philosophy and the head of the Platonic Academy established in Florence by Cosmo de' Medici, and numbered among his pupils such men as Pico della Mirandola, Reuchlin, and Sixtus IV. Convinced of the essential identity of Platonic philosophy and religion, since the truth and wisdom sought by the philosopher are only the truth and wisdom of God, he took orders in 1473, preached in Florence, and was promoted to a canonry in the cathedral. Through his Latin translations from Plato and the Neoplatonistd, Plotinus, Jamblichus, and Proclus, he gave a tremendous impetus to Platonic studies in Italy, and thus influenced greatly the development of European philosophy. His most important original work is, Theologia Platonica de animmurn immortalitate (Florence, 1482). The first complete edition of his works was published at Basel in two volumes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. G. Schellhorn, Ds vita, moribue cc scripas Marsilii Picini, in vol. i. of Amanitatss, Leipeic, 1730; K. Sieveking, Geschichte der platonischan Akademis au Florenz, G6ttingen, 1812; Archiroio storico Italiano, 1859 (by L. Galeotti) and 1865 (by A. Conti).
FICKER, PAUL GERHARD: German Protestant; b. at Thonberg, a suburb of Leipsic, Feb. 8, 1865. He studied at the University of Leipsic (1884‑89; Ph.D., 1889), the theological seminary of St. Pauli in the same city (1887,89), and the German Archeological Institute, Rome (1889‑90). After being assistant pastor and pastor at Sohland‑ander‑Spree, in 1892, he became privat‑docent at Halle in 1893. From 1903 to 1906 he was associate professor of church history at that university, and since 1906 has been full professor at Kiel. In 1900‑01 he made an archeological tour of Italy, Tunis, Spain, and France. He belongs to the historical school and has written Der Milralis des Sicardus nach seiner Bedeutung Nr die Ikonographie des Mittelalters (Leipsie, 1889); Studien zur Hippolytfrage (1893); Studien zu Vigilius von Thapsus (1897); Das ausgehende Mittelalter and rein Verhdltnis zur Reformation (1903); Die Petrusakten, Beitrage zu ihrem Veratandnis (1903); Bonifatius, der " Apostel der Deutschen " (1905); and Amphilohiana, part i. (1906), besides contributing a translation of the Acts of Peter to Hennecke's Neutestamentliehe Apokryphen (Tdbingen, 1904).
FICKER, PAUL JOHANNES: German Protestant; b. at Leipsic‑Neureudnitz Nov.12,1861. He studied at Leipsic (1880‑84; Ph.D., 1886) and the theological seminary of St. Paul's there (188486), and after travels in Italy and Spain became privatdocent for church history at Halls in 1890. In 1892 he was appointed associate professor of the same subject at Strasburg and full profeqsor in 1900. He has edited the Archdologische Studien zum christlichen Altertum and Mittelalter (1897‑99) and Studien iiber christliche Denkmdkr (since 1902), and has written Die narstellung der Apostel in der allchristlichen Kunst (Leipsie, 1887); Die altchristlichen Bildwerke im christlichen Museum des Lateram (1889); Die Konfutation des Augsburgischen Bekenntnisses (1891); Handschriftenproben des sechwhnten Jahrhunderts nach Strassburger Originalen (2 vols., Strasburg, 1902‑05; in collaboration with O. Winckelmann); and Evangelischer Kirchenbau (Leipsie, 1905).
FIDANZA, GIOVANNI DL See BONAVENTURA.
	FIDDES, fid'dez, RICHARD: English clergyman
and author; b. at Hunmanby (34 m. e.n.e. of York),
Yorkshire, 1671; d. at Putney (7 m. w.s.w. of St.
Paul's, London) 1725. He studied at Oxford,
first at Corpus Christi College (1687‑90), then at
University College (B.A.,.1691; B.D., 1713; D.D.,
1718), took holy orders in 1694, and in 1696 received
the rectory of Halsham, in Holderness. On
account of a bad throat he got leave of non‑resi
dence, and in 1712 settled in London as a man of
letters. His principal works are, A Body o f Divinity
(2 vols., London, 1718‑20); Fifty‑two practical
Discourses (1820); A General Treatise of Morality
(1724), in which he attacks Mandeville; and A
Life of Cardinal Wolsey (1724), for which, on ac
count of his disparagement of the Reformation, he
was accused of popery, particularly by the assail
ants of Atterbury.
BIBLIOOHAPHT: The one early life is by Thomas Birch in A New and General Biographical Dictionary, London.

Wlis Btli
1781‑87 (insocurate). Corrections of this must he m%de by reference to the prefaces and dedioatione of his works
(of. DNB, aviii. 39798)..
	FIDELIS, SAINT (MARKUS ROY): German Ca
puchin; b. at Sigmaringen (30 m. n.e. of Constance)
1577; d. at Seewis (32 m. s.e. of Schwyz) Apr. 24,
1622. He received a thorough education and stud
ied law at Freiburg until 1803, after which he trav
eled extensively, and in 1611 settled at Ensisheim
as a lawyer. In the same year, he entered the
Capuchin Order under the name of Pater Fidelia;
after his ordination he studied theology at the
monasteries of Constance and Frauenfeld. He then
became parish priest successively at Rheinfelden
and Freiburg, and finally guardian in the monas
tery of Feldkirch. When the Austrians and Span
iards seized a portion of the Swiss territories in
1620 and sought to reconvert them to the Roman
Catholic Church, the Congregation of the Proper
ganda placed Fidelis at the head of the Rhetian
mission. On the day of his death he preached in
the church of Seewis under the protection of a
detachment of soldiers, whereupon the desperate
peasants captured the church and routed the
troops, murdering the fleeing preacher in the
street. His corpse was first buried at Seewis and
later at Chur, while his head was interred at Feld
kirch. He was canonized by Benedict XIV. on
June 29, 1746. 	(E. BLgsCHt.)
BraLIOOSAAPH7: Sources for s life are in H. Murer, Helvetia
sancta. pp. 431 eqq., Lucerne, 1&18' F. 8precher von Berneok, Hint. motuum et beltorum, Geneva, 1829. Germ
tranel., i. 334, Chur. 1888. The beet modern life is i
A. Butler, Lives of the Fathers, i. 494‑496, London, 1857 consult also RL, iv. 1482‑88.
THE NEW BCHAFF‑HERZOG 	810
his edition of the fragments of Origen's Hexapla,
s work the erudition of which is universally recog
	zed. He was elected an honorary fellow of Trinity
College in 1875 and was a member of the British
Old Testament Revision Company. In theology he
avoided both the Evangelical and ritualistic ex
tremes. He edited the Greek text of Chryeostom'e
homilies on Matthew (3 vole., Cambridge, 1839)
and on all the Pauline Epistles (7 vole., Oxford,
1849‑62); Isaac Barrow's Treatise an the Pope's Su
premacy (London, 18b1); J. E. Grebe's text of the
Septuagint (Oxford, 1859); and Origenis Hexa
plorum gate auperaunt (2 vole., 1867‑74); and wrote
Otium Norarieerase (3 parts, 1864‑86; the third
part, Notes on select Passages of the Greek Testa
ment, reprinted with additions by the author and
edited by A. M. Knight, 1897). He also collab
orated on Payne Smith's Thesaurus Syriactte.
B1srtooaerav: His autobiography is in the preface to his
	edition of Orieen's Hexapla. Consult W. Aldie Wright.
	in CambridGe Rte. May 8. lib: DNB, aviii. 402‑40f*.
	FIELD, HENRY IIIARTYN: Presbyterian; b.
at Stockbridge, Mass., Apr. 3, 1822; d. there Dec.
29, 1907. He studied at Williams College (B.A.,
1838), East Windsor Hill (now Hartford) Theo
logical Seminary (1838‑41), and Yale Divinity
School (1841‑42), and was pastor at St. Louis, Mo.
	(1842‑47), and West Springfield, Mass (1850‑b4).
From 1854 to 1900 he was editor and proprietor of
°	The Evangelist, a Presbyterian weekly, published
in New York City. His travel‑sketches enjoyed
n	great repute. His published works include: The
.	Irish Confederates, and the Rebellion of 1798 (New
	York, 1851); Summer Pictures from Copenhagen
to Venice (1859); History of the Atlantic Telegraph
re(1866); From the Lakes of Killarney to the Golden
e	Horn (1876); From Egypt to Japan (1877); On
the Desert; with Review of Events in Egypt (1883);
e	Among the Holy Hills (1884); The Greek Islands
and Turkey after the War (1885); Blood Thicker
a$than Water: A Few Days among our Southern
f	Brethren (1886); Old and New Spain (1888); Gi‑
nsbraltar (1889); Bright Skies and Dark Shadows
7,(1890); The Story of the Atlantic Telegraph (1893);
e	and The Life of David Dudley Field (1898).
	FIELD, RICHARD: English clergyman and
theological writer; b. at Hemel Hempstead (23 m.
n.w. of London), Hertfordshire, Oct. 15, 1561; d.
at Windsor (23 m. w. of London) Nov. 21, 1616.
He attended the Berkhampatead school and in
1577 entered Oxford, studying successively at
Magdalen College, Magdalen Hall, and Queen's
College (B.A., 1581; M.A., 1584; B.D., 1592; D.D.,
1596). As a lecturer (1584‑91) at Magdalen Hall
he made himself famous for leis knowledge of
divinity and his ability as s disputant. In 1594
he became divinity lecturer at Lincoln's Inn, and
soon afterward rector at Burghclere, Hampshire.
1n 1598 he became a chaplain in ordinary to Queen
Elizabeth, in 1804 canon at Windsor, and in 1609
dean of Gloucester. He was also chaplain to James
L, who sent him to the Hampton Court Conference
in 1604 and called him to Oxford in 1605 to take
part in the Divinity Act. James held Field in
high esteem, delighted to discuss points of theology
century.
Military FIEF, ECCLESIASTICAL: A term used some‑
times ae equivalent to Benefice (q.v.), but more
properly designating an estate belonging to the
Church and conferred by feudal tenure. Milita
service was included in the obligations of a true
fief, even when held by a cleric‑but in this case
as the canons forbade him to bear arms, he w
allowed to provide a substitute. The practise o
granting church lands attained such proportions
during the Middle Ages that Pius V., in 156
prohibited say further grants, providing for the
immediate incorporation with the papal camera of any fiefs that fell in. On this principle Clement VIII. incorporated the duchy of Ferrara with the States of the Church in 1598, and Urban VIII. did the same with Urbino, Castro, and Ronciglione. Famous instances of countries held by their rulers as vassals of the pope were Aragon (1208), England (1213), the island of Sardinia (1295), Naples and Sicily down to the second half of the eighteenth
(O. MEJERt.)
BrsLroossrax: G. A. Jeniohen, Thesaurus iuri° teudds°, i. 990. Frankfort, 1750; G. L. B6hmer. Obserroatioau tune feudalia, no. 7. GtSttingen, 1784; Aechtstexikoa. vi. WIS eqQ.. Leipeic, 1848: RL, vii. b97‑800.
FIELD, FREDERICK: Church of England; b. in London July 20, 1801; d. at Norwich Apr. 19, 1885. He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge (B.A., 1823), and from 1824 to 1843 was fellow of his college. He was ordained priest in 1828, and was rector of Reepham, Norfolk, 1842‑63, resigning that he might be able to devote himself .entirely to

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
with him, and intended to raise him to the see of Oxford. On hearing Field preach for the first time, the king had exclaimed, " This is a field for God to dwell in." Thomas Fuller called him" that learned divine whose memory amelleth like a f'seld which the Lord hath blessed." Field's fame now rests upon his work entitled, Of the Church, Five Books (2 vole., London, 1606‑10; 2d. ed., Oxford, 1628; modern ed., 4 vole., Cambridge, 1847,52), which has taken its place with Hooker's Polity as one of the grandest monuments of polemical divinity in the English language.
BIBwoaBAPHY: N. Field, Some Short Memorials concerning the Life . . . of R. Field, published by J. Le Neve, London, 1716‑17; A. h Wood, Atheno Oxonienees, ed. P. Bliss, ii. 181‑186, 4 vole., London, 1813‑20; DNB, xviii. 411‑412.
FIELD SERVICE (Germ. Felddiakoniie): Service rendered to combatants on the field of war, prompted by the spirit of love and in its origin of the nature of Christian ministration, but influenced also by the spirit of secular humanitarianism. See WAR.
FIFTH MONARCHY MEN: Millenarian enthusiasts of the Commonwealth period in England who believed and taught that Christ was setting up " a fifth monarchy in the world," laid claim to the gift of prophecy, and wished to destroy all anti‑Christian " forms " (e.g., an Established Church). Early leaders were Vavasor Powell (d. 1670), a nonconformist minister, who with all his eccentricities seems to have been a man of ability and` worth, and Christopher Feake (not heard of after 1660), an irregular preacher. They were bitterly opposed to Cromwell, whom Feake called " the most dissembling and perjured villain in the world." Both were imprisoned by Cromwell, but were leniently treated and they were violent only in word. In Apr., 1657, one Thomas Venner, a cooper, headed a plot for a rising of Fifth Monarchy men in London. It was discovered and Venner was kept in prison till 1659. On Jan. 6, 1661, he set out with a considerable following to overthrow the government. They marched the streets with the cry " Long live King Jesus," until they were dispersed by the guards. Three days later the remnant of them was captured. Venner was hanged and quartered on Jan. 19.
BwLIoaBAPBm D. Neal, Limes of As Puritans, ii. 176‑22o of Harper'e ed., New York, n.d.; E. Rogers, Some Accoun9of the" Life andopinions" of aPifthMonanhyMan, from the Writings of John Ropers, London, 1867; J.* stoughton, Religion in England, ii. 57‑89, ib. 1881; DNB, xviii. 271‑272 (Life of Feake), xlvi. 249‑252 (Life of Powell), Iviii. 212 (Life of Venner).
FIJI or VITI ISLANDS: A group of two hundred and fifty islands in the Southern Pacific, comprising an area of nearly 8,000 square miles. The two largest islands are Vanua Levu ("Great Land "), which is one hundred miles long and has an area of 2,600 aqugre miles, and Viti Levu ("Great Viti or Fiji"), which is ninety by fifty miles and 4,250 square miles in extent. Some eighty of the islands are inhabited. They are of coral and volcanic formation, and have a pleasant climate. The islands were discovered by Tasman in 1643, and were visited by Bligh in
VideUm F1J1
1789, and by Wilson in 1797. The Fijians combine characteristics of the Melanesian and Polynesian types. Physically they are an ath‑
Descrip‑	letic, well‑formed race, and mentally
tion and they are far above the Papuans. The
	History.	population was divided up into tribes,
		and ruled by kings, until 1874, when
the islands were annexed to Great Britain. The
more powerful chiefs voluntarily proposed the
cession, and signed articles to that effect in
Oct., 1874. When Sir Arthur Gordon, the first
English governor, arrived in 1875 a pestilence had
carried off one‑third of the population, and the
islands were in a state of great poverty. Under
English rule the yearly revenues have increased
from 916,000 in 1875 to 2138,167 in 1903, a code
of laws has been adopted, and courts have been
established for the administration of justice. The
census of 1901 gave the population as 120,124, of
whom 2,459 were Europeans, 94,397 Fijians, 17;
105 Indians, etc. The steady extinction of the
native element is shown by the number of births
and deaths in 1903, 3,244 and 5,725 respectively.
The chief productions are yams, sugar‑cane, tea,
maize, copra, and bananas.
The native feligion included a belief in a future state and two classes of gods. Witchcraft was widely practised and taboo was in full force.
Polygamy prevailed and female inftative fanticide was practised. The wife
	Religion.	or wives were strangled at the death
		of the husband. Life was cheap, the
kings sacrificing men at the launching of a new
canoe, the inception of a campaign, or the erec
tion of a house. The islands were the headquar
ters of cannibalism although there were some natives
whom the missionaries found averse to eating
human flesh. The victims of war and shipwrecked
sailors were commonly eaten, and human flesh
was pronounced more palatable than pork. A
chief registered the number of bodies he ate by
atones and one of the missionaries counted 872 of
these stones.
	The first	missionaries were Messrs. Cross and
Cargill, who went to Fiji in 1835 from the Friendly
Islands. In 1839 they were reinforced by Messrs.
Lythe and Hunt, and by Mr. Williams and others
in 1840. The work was carried on amidst dis
couragements and pdrile during the first years, but
was rewarded with extensive revivals, and the
gradual conversion of nearly the whole population.
		Thokombau, the leading chief, after
	Missions,	resisting the missionaries for a number
		of years, was baptized in Jan., 1857,
giving up all his wives but one. The language was
reduced to writing; and the Bible, Bunyan's
Pilgrim's Progress, a Fijian‑English dictionary (by
Rev. David Hazlewood), and other books, have
been printed in the native language. Cannibal
ism has been given up except among a few remote
tribes and polygamy no longer prevails. Churches
are well attended. Many natives have proved
faithful preachers and catechists. The Sabbath
is observed and family‑worship is held in many
families. The dark side of the picture is furnished
by the constant decrease in the native population,

Filaland
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
their proneness to idleness, and the contaminating contact with the baser whites.
The English Wesleyans have been the only Protestants laboring in Fiji until recently ‑the Seventh‑day Adventists have entered the field. The Wesleyan churches in 1905 were divided into 12 circuits with 799 organized congregations, 17 European (or Australian) missionaries, 80 native ministers, 75 native catechists, 1,004 native teTchers, 3,411 native local preachers, and 5,999 native class leaders, 35,458 native church members, and 5,499 on probation. There were 1,163 Sunday Schools and 28,403 native teachers and scholars, 1,151 day schools with 18,130 scholars. The " attendants at public worship " numbered 86,005. The chief institution of higher learning is Navuloa where ministers as well as teachers are trained. There are also high schools for boys and girls. In 1905, 22 new church buildings were put up in the single circuit of Ra.
The Roman Catholics are actively engaged on the islands and in 1903 had 30 European priests and 20 nuns, 71 churches and chapels, 163 schools, and 1,880 scholars. All the schools on the islands are supported by the Wesleyans and Catholics, except two, which receive subsidies from the government. A large missionary problem is offered by the laborers transported from British India and numbering in 1905 26,000 with only two missionaries laboring among them. The Fijians also send out foreign missionaries trained at Navuloa.
D. S. SCHAFF.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. Williams, Fiji and the Fijians, and J. Calvert, Missionary Labours among the Cannibals, issued in one vol., London, 1870 (interesting and exhaustive); L. Forbes, Two Years in Fiji, ib. 1875; Miss C. F. G. Cumming, At Home in Fiji, 2 vols., ib. 1881; A. H. Johnston, Camping among the Cannibals, ib. 1884; W. Reed, Recant Wanderings in Fiji, ib. 1888; J. W. Alexander, The Islands of Ute Pacifc: a Sketch of Missions in the PaciAc, pp. a90‑", New York, 1895; Statesman's Year Book, 1905; Report of Ike MetAodist Missionary Society of Australia f%' 1905, Sydney, 1908.
FILIOQUE CONTROVERSY: A dispute which concerns one of the principal differences between the Eastern and the Western Churches, arising from the fact that the latter adds the word ftlioque to its creed. The Apostles' Creed has simply, " And in the Holy Ghost," to which the Conatantinopolitan creed (q.v.) added, " Who proceedeth from the father." There the Greek Church stopped, while the Latin Church, without the sanction of an ecumenical council, or even consultation with the Greek Church, added, " and the Son " (filioque). The Greek Church protested as soon as it discovered the addition; and attempts which have since been made to reestablish union between the two churches have been wrecked chiefly on this word.
The addition is met 'with for the first time in the acts of the Third Council of Toledo (589), in opposition to Arianism. From Spain it spread into France, where it seems to have been generally adopted at the time of Charlemagne. The Councils of Constantinople (681) and the Second Nicsea (787) did not notice it. In 809 two monks from the court of Charlemagne made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and were accused of heresy by the hermits of Mount Olivet for their use of
filioque. Charlemagne felt provoked; and the council which he convoked at Aix‑la‑Chapelle (Aachen, 809) sanctioned the use of the addition.
Pope Leo III., whose confirmation of the decision of the council was asked for by Charlemagne, refused formally to incorporate the filioque in the creed, though he admitted the justness and soundness of its doctrinal bearing; and this attitude of cautious reserve the pope endeavored to maintain so far as he could under the pressure of the steadily growing impatience of the East and the all but universal practise of the West. Toward the close of the century, however, this attitude became impossible. Photlus, in his encyclical letter, emphasizes the ftlioque as one of the gravest errors of the pope; and the Council of Constantinople anathematized it. Political circumstances compelled the pope to take up the challenge. Nevertheless, the first time a pope actually used the addition to the creed was in 1014; by Benedict VIII., at the crowning of Henry II. From that moment the pope himself appears as the defender of the practise of the Western Church, and at the Council of Ferrara‑Florence he seemed to have entirely forgotten that, at least historically, there was a flaw in his argument.
The doctrine in whose.statement the word filioque was destined to play so prominent a part is called the " Procession of the Holy Ghost." The term comes from John xv. 26, in which Christ speaks of the spirit of truth who " proceedeth from the Father." Inasmuch as nothing is said in this passage or in any other of the " double procession," i.e., from both the Father and the Son, the Greek Church holds to the single procession, and defends its position not only by an appeal to the text of Scripture and to the original form of the Nicene Creed, but also to the " monarchy " (Gk. monarchic) of the Father as the sole fountain, root, and cause of the deity. It distinguishes sharply between the eternal metaphysical procession of the Spirit from the Father alone, and the temporal mission of the Spirit by the Father and the Son (John xiv. 26, xvi. 7). The former belongs to the trinity of essence, the latter to the trinity of revelation, and begins with the Day of Pentecost. The Latin Church defends the double procession on the grounds of the double mission of the Spirit and the essential unity of the Son with the Father; so that, if the Spirit proceed from the essence of the Father, be must also.proceed from the essence of the Son, because they have the same essence. The Greek patriarchs declined to attend the Vatican Council of 1870, on the ground of the heresy of the Latin Church upon this point.
A compromise was suggested from the writings of John of Damascus', to say that the Spirit proceeds from the Father, through the Son. This was accepted by the conference held in Bonn (Aug., 1875) between the Old Catholics Orientals, and Anglo‑Catholics, in which the ftlioque was surrendered as an unauthorized addition to the Creed. See CON13TANTINOPOLITAN CREED.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Besides the literature on the Conetsnti‑
nopolitan Creed, consult. J. G. Watch, Historic con‑
am,d.sis , , . do processions Spiritus Sancti, Jena, 1751;

813	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	gud
J. M. Neale, Hist. of the Holy Eastern Church, i. 1093, London, 1850 ; E. S. Foulkes, Historical Account of the Addition of Pilioque to the Creed, London, 1867; A. P. Stanley, Lectures on the Hist. of the Eastern Church, p. 142 aqq., ib. 1869; K. R. Hagenbach, Hint. of Christian Doctrines, ii. 205, Edinburgh, 1880; C. Adams, " Filioque," ib. 1884; G. B. Howard, Schiam between the Oriental and the Western Churches, ib. 1892; Schaff, Christian Church, iii. 687 sqq.
FINAN, SAINT: Second bishop of Lindisfarne, where he died Aug. 31, 661. He was a monk of Iona, succeeded Aidan (q.v.) at Lindisfarne 652, and was ordained in Scotland. Aided by Oswy, king of Northumbria (642‑670) and brother of St. Oswald (q.v.), he extended his missionary labors, and baptized Peada, king of Mercia, and Sigbert, king of the East Saxons. He consecrated one of his priests, Diuma, as first bishop of Mercia, Cedd (q.v.) as bishop of Essex, and Cellach as Diuma's successor. He adhered to the old British date for Easter.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bede, Hist. ecd., iii. 17, 21, 22, 2b‑27; A. P. Forbes, Kalendar of Scottish Saints, pp. 348‑349, Edinburgh, 1872.
FINDLAY, GEORGE GILLANDERS: English Methodist; b. at Welahpool (18 m. s.w. of Shrewsbury), Montgomeryshire, Wales, Jan. 3, 1849. He studied at Wesley College, Sheffield (1865‑67), Richmond Theological College (1869‑70), and London University (B.A., 1868). He was assistant tutor at Headingley College 1870‑74; classical tutor at Richmond Theological College 1874‑81; and was appointed tutor in New Testament exegesis and classics in the Headingley branch of the Wesleyan Theological Institution, Leeds, 1881. He has prepared the sections on the Epistles to the Galatians (1888) and Ephesians (1892) in The Expositor's Bible (London); Epistles o f the Apostle Paul: Their Origin arid Contents (1892); Epistles of Paul the Apostle (1893); Church of Christ in the New Testament (1893); Christian Doctrine and Morals (1894); The Books of the Prophets in their Historical Succession (3 vols., 1896‑1907); Thessalonians in The Cambridge Greek Testament (Cambridge, 1897); and The Things Above (London, 1902). He edited A. M. Hillier's translation of L. A. Sabatier's L'Ap4tre Paul (London, 1891).
FINLAND.
Introduction and Progress of Christianity (¢ 1). The Reformation (¢ 2). Bishops Juueten and Erici (§ 3). The Seventeenth Century (§ 4). The Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries (¢ 5). Present Conditions ($ 6).
Finland is at present a grand duchy of Russia, bounded on the north by Norway, on the east by the Russian governments of Archangel and Olonetz, on the southeast and south by Lake Ladoga, the government of St. Petersburg, and the Gulf of Finland, on the west by the Gulf of Bothnia and by Sweden; area 144,000 square miles; population (1903) 2,850,000; capital Helsingfors. With the conversion to Christianity (see below) the country came under Swedish government, and so remained till 1809, when it was definitely ceded to Russia. The great majority of the people are Lutherans (98 per cent in 1900, when the number of Greek Orthodox was 46,466 and of Roman Catholics 755).
It is agreed that the Finns, a branch of the UralAltaic race, originated on the banks of the Yenisei River or Lake Baikal in Asia, and moved westward
in the course of centuries. The isor. Intro‑ lated position of Finland in the north, duction and between the Gulfs of Bothnia and Progress of Finland, explains the fact that it is Christianity. not mentioned in history till com‑
paratively late. It came into contact with the rest of Europe through Sweden as well as by connections with the apostolic see in Rome. About 1157, King Eric IX. of Sweden, whose coasts were harassed by Finnish pirates, undertook a war of conversion against Finland. An Englishman, Henry by name, accompanied him as missionary. The Finns were forced to accept baptism and Christianity, and at the same time had to submit to foreign rule. Henry remained in the country, but soon died, as martyr: A new crusade from Sweden was unertaken in 1249 by Jarl Birger, and a third followed in 1290, under the leadership of Torkel Knutson. The Christian Church began to take root in Finland. The bishop's seat was finally fixed in Abo, where it is still, and the entire spiritual and secular administration centered there. It was the bishop's task to organize the newly founded Church, to baptize, build churches, and accustom the barbarous people to Christian manners. The bishopric of Abo was filled by a number of efficient and powerful men, who, in the beginning, were Swedes; the first Finnish bishop was Magnus I. (1291‑1308). Other prominent bishops were Hemming (1338‑66), Magnus Olai Tavast (1412‑50), Conrad Bitze (14601489), and Magnus Stjernkors (1489‑1500). They possessed the best scientific culture of their time, having studied in Paris, Leipsic, and Bologna. The bishops of Finland had an influential position, not only in the Church, but also in politics. Swedish rulers took pains to win them for their cause. A supreme court, instituted by King Eric of Pomerania, counted the bishop and several priests among its members. The bishop was elected by the cathedral chapter, but the election had to be confirmed by the pope. He had to swear allegiance to the pope, to the Church, and to the king of Sweden. The chapter consisted originally of four and later of ten canons. In 1340 there was instituted the office of cathedral provost, and in 1389 an archdeaconry. Apart from the cathedral chapter, so‑called country‑provosts were appointed who were entrusted with the ecclesiastical supervision of certain districts, called provostahips. Before the Reformation, the Church of Finland attained its highest development underBishop Ma,gnus Tavast (1412‑50). The standard of morality among the priests was generally on a level with conditions in other countries. The Saw of celibacy, introduced in Sweden in 1248, was valid also for Finland, at least nominally. From the oldest times the people paid tithes. Now and then disputes occurred between the secular clergy and the orders, and a bull, issued in 1395 by Boniface IX., accurately defined the activity of the monks. Mendicant friars appeared in Finland as early as 1250. There were six monasteries‑two of the Dominicans

Vinland
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
in Abo and Viborg, three of the Franciscans in Abo, Raunao and K6ker, and one of the Brigittines in Nadindal. The brotherhoods of the Middle Ages also found admission into F5n‑
land; fifteen guilds are known to have existed. I There was no higher institution of learning.
The land suffered much, as it was always a bone of contention between Sweden and Russia.
For centuries there were continual battles between
the different tribes in the interior. The spiritual
culture of the people was neglected in these tur
bulent times, especially since the Roman Church
was never interested in the real education of the
people. At the Synod of Soderkoping in Sweden
(1441) it was decided that the Lord's Prayer, the
Ave Maria, and the Creed should be translated into
the mother tongue. Bishop Tavast participated,
and it may be assumed that these decisions applied
also to Finland. Before 1500 there were 120
churches in Finland. In 1504 the Swedish gov
ernment ordered the building of new churches since
the congregations were so large that some people
lived ninety miles from a church. No books for the
use of the people have been preserved from the
Middle Ages, but a Missals Aboense, published in
1483 at the instance of Bishop Bitze, for the use
of the cathedral of Abo, is known, and also a Manu
als Aboenae (1522) for the use of the Finnish Church.
	In consequence of the connection of Finland with
Sweden, the Reformation took the same course in
both countries. The first herald of the Reforma
tion in Finland was Peter S#rkilahti, who had
studied under Luther and Melanchthon. In 1524
he returned to his native country and began to
		preach the new doctrine. Owing to
s. The Ref‑ the isolated position of Finland, the
	ormation. people were not prepared for it and
		the Roman Church had a larger field
of usefulness than in Germany. The first Evan
gelical bishop of Finland was Martin Skytte, a quiet
and humble man. His activity was not revolu
tionary. The real Reformer of Finland was Michael
Agricola, son of a poor fisher of Perna, who received
his rudimentary education in the school of Abo and
studied in Wittenberg. There he adopted the
cause of the Reformation. Like the other Reform
ers, he immediately undertook a translation of
the Bible in order to gain a firm basis for his work.
In 1543 he published a primer and soon afterward
a catechism, in 1544 a book of prayer. The trans
lation of the New Testament, which he had begun
in Wittenberg, appeared in 1548. In the following
year he published a manual on baptism and in
1551 the continuation of his translation of the Bible,
the Psalms and part of the Prophets. Haggai,
Zechariah, and Malachi followed in 1552. Agricola
died in 1554. He is gratefully remembered and
highly esteemed by the Finnish people as the Re
former of Finland and the father of Finnish litera
ture. The Reformation was completed by Jacob
Finno. Agricola gave the Finns the New Testa
ment, Finno taught them to sing the Psalms. His
psalm‑book was published in 1583 at Stockholm.
The only copy in existence is defective and is
in the library of Upsala. On the whole the Reform
atory movement took a quiet course, without
into
great frictions. But a sect originated, tracing its origin to a certain Zechariah, a Jew of Novgorod, which. advocated the celebration of the seventh day as Sabbath and obedience to the law of Moses.
t was condemned at a council in 1504.
Under King Gustavus Vasa, Finland was divided
to two bishoprics. The eastern part of the
country was constituted a separate g. Bishops diocese with Viborg as cathed.‑sl town.
Juusten The first bishop there was Paul Juusten dad Erica. who also had studied at Wittenberg.
The church forms in Finland were modeled in general after the mother country Sweden. A church order was issued in 1571. Until that time there were no general church regulations. Some of the ecclesiastical positions were filled immediately by the king, others by the bishop and chapter. The men who influenced most deeply the culture of Finland after the introduction of the Reformation were Bishop Paul Juusten and Bishop Ericus Erici. Juusten became bishop in Viborg in 1554, and in Abo in 1563. He wrote the Capita remm synodicarum which formed the basis of discussions at a convention of priests in Abo in 1573 and which gives an insight into the ecclesiastical conditions of the time. He emphasized especially that the priests in their conduct should be models for the members of the congregation. For the guidance of priests he compiled a collection of sermons which, however, was never printed. The manuscript was burned m the great conflagration in Abo in 1827 when many other treasures perished. In 1574 he published a Finnish catechism in Stockholm and in the following year a manual. He also collected everything that was known of church conditions in Finland in the Middle Ages, under the title Chronicon episcoporum Finlandenaium (ed. H. G. Porthan, Abo, 1784‑1800; also, ed. C. Annerstedt, in Faut, Scriptores rerum Swcicarum, iii., section 2, Upsala, 1871, pp. 132135), and has been justly called the father of the church history of Finland. Not less important and influential was his younger contemporary, Ericus Erici. He was born in the middle of the sixteenth century, studied abroad, and after his return became rector of Gefie in Sweden (1578). In 1583 he was appointed bishop of both Finnish dioceses. He wrote an extensive catechism for the clergy and the first book of homilies in the Finnish language which was still read and loved in the beginning of the nineteenth century.
An important event in the intellectual and
. spiritual life of Finland was the foundation of the academy in Abo (1640). A gymna‑
4. The sium, founded ten years before, had Seventeenth shown itself insufficient for the in‑
. Century. creased demands of education; the population at that time had increased to about 400,000 persons. The number of professors in the academy was eleven, of whom three were in the theological faculty. While this concerned chiefly the higher circles of society, another event occurred a few years later, the effect of which was felt in the most distant parts of the land‑in 1642 the people received the whole Bible in a Finnish translation (see BIBLz Vefmorrs, B,V.). School

816	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Finland
affairs were regulated by an order, issued by Queen Christina in 1649, according to which there were to be three kinds of educational institutions
academies, gymnasia, and schools.
After the vigorous period of the Reformation theology degenerated into dead orthodoxy. One of the most zealous defenders of the Lutheran doctrine was Professor Enevald Svenonius in Abo who in his zeal for pure doctrine caused the deposition of Bishop Terserus, a deserving man, for alleged syncretistic views. The extreme desire for pure doctrine manifested itself also in the notorious trials for witchcraft at that time. Numerous persons were burned at the stake or beheaded after disgraceful trials, in Sweden as well as in Finland. Even the most intelligent men of the time labored under that delusion. The Pietistic movement has an honorable place in the annals of Finnish church history. The most noteworthy representatives of Pietism were Johannes Wegelius the Elder and Johannes Wegelius the Younger. The older Wegeliue corresponded with Spener; the younger Wegelius published a book of homilies Se evangelium0inen Volgems (" The Evangelical Light ") which went through three editions. The latter decades of the seventeenth century may justly be called the period of the two bishops, father and son, each named Johannes Gezelius. They were conservative in theology and made it their principal task to educate the common people (see GEZELIUs, JoHAN‑
tZs).
	The end of the seventeenth century was a time
of great distress and suffering for Finland. A
hundred thousand persons died of hunger. King
Charles XII. of Sweden led his people from war to
war, and extreme poverty was the natural conse
quence. The new century also began with tumult
of war and shedding of blood. The great Northern
War sacrificed thousands of Finns. For a quarter
of a century suffering increased from year to year
		in an incredible degree. The period
	5. The from 1713 to 1721 is called the time
	Eighteenth of great discord in the history of
	and Finland. It seemed as if all life
	Nineteenth ceased to pulsate. The peace of
	Centuries. Nystod in 1721 put an end to the
		bloody days of war, but a long
time passed before order was restored. Rus
sia took possession of a considerable portion of
eastern Finland, and the rest of the country under
went a new development. The cathedral chap
ter of the East was transferred from Viborg to
Borgo where it is still. As the war had exhausted
almost all material resources, the interests of the
Church naturally suffered. The new spirit of the
nineteenth century which governed all Europe
even entered Finland. The free thought of France
pervaded the court of King Gustavus III. in Stock
holm, and thence spread among the lower classes
of society. The Church of Finland presented the
same picture of stupor and indifference as the rest
of Protestant Christianity. A barren moralism
took the place of a vivid faith; but in this time of
need God sent a powerful awakening,‑a new Piet
ism originated in Finland. Its author was Paavo
Ruotsalsinen, a peasant. A great numder of
younger clergymen joined the movement, while the older clergy showed more conservative sentiments. F. G. Hedberg separated from the movement, taking a more Evangelical course, and found many adherents (see BORNHOrmmHB). There are today two main tendencies in the Finnish Church‑one keeping more strictly to the Law, whose adherents gathered later around the doctrinal system of J. T. Beck, the well‑known theologian of Tubingen (see BEcx, JOBANN TomAs), and a more Evangelical one whose acknowledged leader was Hedberg. Many Christian sects have also made propagandaBaptists, Methodists, Adventists, and others. Free.. churchism has its workers here and there. For some decades the sect of the Laestadians, called after Provost Lars Levi Laestadius, has been active in northern and southern Finland.
In 1850, Finland was divided into three diocesesAbo, Borgo, and Kuopio; in 1897 Nyslott was added as a fourth. Since 1817 the bishop of Abo has been archbishop and thus primate of the Fin‑
nish Church. From 1839 to 1843 a
6. Present theological periodical was published at
Conditions. Abo, the Ecklmiastikt Latteraturblad.
Bishop Schauman edited for some years (1869‑72) Sanningavittnd (" Witness of truth "). Professor Raboergh, who later became bishop, edited a valuable periodical for theology and Church. At present there are two periodicals: Theologisk tidakrift and Wartija ("Watchman"). The new church law, enacted on July 1, lg70, was of great importance. According to it, representatives of the laity have the right of decision in ecclesiastical questions. A general convention of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Finland meets every tenth year, or oftener, if necessary. It discusses vital questions of the Church, such as changes in church law, introduction of new church books, catechisms, Bible translations, etc. Another event of the most vital importance was the separation of Church and school, in 1870. At present, there are 1,273 elementary schools. As Finland does not yet possess any civil lists, the church registers of the congregations are the only official documents upon which the census is based. Consequently is it the duty of pastors to keep registers of crimes, vaccination, and lists of men subject to military duty. Since the church convention of 1886 Finland has had a new hymn‑book, catechism, and collection of pericopes. A Bible committee is preparing a new translation of the Bible which is necessitated by the national awakening of the last decades and the development of the language. After the great conflagration at Abo in 1827, the university was removed from that city toHelsingfors. The teaching force of the university has been doubled since 1640, but the theological faculty consists of only four ordinary profeeore. A candidate of theology must have been two years in service before the respective cathedral chapter admits him to the official examination which gives him the privilege of applying for a pastorate. There are consistorial and imperial pastorates. In the former case the preacher is elected by the congregation and confirmed by the cathedral chapter, in the latter case the confirmation comes

from the government. Since 1842 the Finnish
Church has had a widows' or pension fund from
which widows and orphans of preachers and teachers
receive annual pensions. On the whole, the Fin
nish people are= to the Church. The in
crease of merely external education among the
common people has to a certain degree loosened
their attachment, and some school teachers are
hostile to the Church. Moreover, the antieccle
siastical press has tried to sow discord and estrange
people from the Church, but so far without success.
See SWEDEN. 	(J. A. CEDERBERG.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The literature, mostly in Finnish and Swedish, is given in Hauck‑Herzog, RE, vi. 68. Sources are: M. P. Juusten, Chronieon evisco~orum Pinlandensium, ed. H. G. Porthan, Abo, 1784‑1800; H. G. Porthan, Opera selects, 5 vols., Helsingfors, 1859‑73; Regw trum ecclesio: Aboensis, ib. 1890. Consult, M. J. Alopsrus, Borga gymnasia historia, Borga, 1804; Finnland and die eoangeliach‑lutheriache %irehe, Berlin, 1888; Finland in Ode Nineteenth Century, Helsingfors. 1894; J. R. Fisher, Finland and the Tsars, 1809‑99, London, 1899; Dwight, Tupper and Bliss, Encyclopedia of Missions, pp. 230‑237, New York, 1904.
FINLEY, SAMUEL: American Presbyterian, fifth president of the College of New Jersey (Princeton); b. in County Armagh, Ireland, 1715; d. in Philadelphia, Pa., July 17,1766. Having received a good education from his parents, who were of Scottish descent, he came to Philadelphia in 1734, and studied for the ministry. He was ordained by the New Brunswick presbytery in 1742 and sent to Milford, Conn., in 1843, but for preaching to the Second Society at New Haven, in violation of the statute forbidding itinerant ministers to preach in any parish without the consent of the pastor, he was expelled from the colony as a vagrant a few months later. In 1744 he accepted a call to Nottingham, Md., where he established an academy which acquired considerable fame. He remained at Nottingham till 1761, when he succeeded Samuel Davies as president of the College of New Jersey. Though he never published anything but occasional sermons he enjoyed a great reputation as a scholar, and in 1763 received the degree of D.D. from the University of Glasgow. Among his sermons may be mentioned, Christ Triumphing and Satan Raging (1741), The Curse of Meroz (1757), and On the Death o/ President Datries (1761).

FINNEY, CHARLES GRANDISON: Congregationalist, revivalist, theologian and president of Oberlin College; b. at Warren, Litchfield County, Conn., Aug. 29, 1792; d. at Oberlin, 0., Aug. 16, 1875. When he was two years old his parents removed to Oneida County, N. Y., thus placing him beyond the reach of more than a common school education. When about twenty he went to New Jersey, where he attended a high school and taught. In later years he acquired some knowledge of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. In 1818 he entered a law office in Adams, N. Y. At that time, he says, he was " almost as ignorant of religion as a heathen " (Autobiography, p. 7). His curiosity was excited by quotations from the Bible in his law books, and he purchased the first copy he had ever owned, and began to attend prayer‑meeting and church.
His conversion in 1821 was remarkable for its
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
suddenness, thoroughness, and the definitely marked stages of his experience. After great mental agony, in which he prayed long and fervently, suddenly, he says, " the Holy Spirit descended upon me in a manner that seemed to go through me, body and soul. I could feel the impression like a wave of electricity going through and through me " (Autobiography, p. 20). Feeling an immediate call to preach, he forsook the law, was Conversion received under care of nresbyteFy
and Ac‑ (1822), and licensed to preach (1824). five Life. He at once turned his attention to revival labors, which were continued, with few interruptions until 1860, when he was forged to give up the work of an itinerant evangelist on account of age. These labors, beginning in western and central New York, were extended to Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and other cities of the East, and reached to England in 1849 and 1858. In 1832 he accepted a call to the pastorate of the Second Free Church of New York City, and in 1834 another to the recently organised Congregational Church in the same city, known as the Broadway Tabernacle. In 1835 he went to Oberlin as professor of theology, and he continued to labor till the time of his death as instructor, pastor, and college president (1852). During his residence at Oberlin he continued, as before, to hold revival meetings.
As preacher Finney had rare gifts. Wherever he went extensive revivals prevailed. His manner was dramatic, direct, and personal. He used simple language and illustrations. His presentation was clear and strictly logical. He directed his appeals to the conscience, rather than to the emotions, and made it tremble and quake by his searching analysis of the motives of action. As Revival‑ He chose for themes passages which ist, Preach‑ delineate the sinner's condition as
er, and one of conscious alienation from God, Teacher. and sinning against him. He dwelt upon the enmity of the carnal mind, the want of holiness, and the certain destruction of the impenitent. He called upon his hearers to come to an immediate decision and submit to God. " Instead of telling sinners," he says, " to use the means of grace, and pray for a new heart, I called on them to make themselves a new heart and spirit, and pressed the duty of immediate surrender to God " (Autobiography, p. 189). These meetings were often accompanied by violent bodily manifestations; and Finney was in the habit of calling upon the audiences to go forward to the anxious‑bench, or to rise in attestation of new resolutions. These methods, his directness and calls to repentance, his departure from the ‑doctrine of imputation and other features of the Calvinist theology early evoked criticism and strong opposition from religious associations and such church leaders as Asahel Nettleton and Lyman Beecher (qq.v.). In 1827 a convention was held at New Lebanon attended by Dr. Hawes of Hartford, Justin Edwards of Andover, Lyman Beecher of Boston, Dr. Beman of Troy, and others, to consider the matter. In course of time the opposition decreased (Autobiography, pp. 210‑226).

317	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	t
Finney's preaching reached all classes, but especially lawyers and educated men, notably in Rochester and other towns of western New York. During the first twelve years of his ministry he wrote no word of his sermons and often went into the pulpit without knowing the text from which he would preach; he ascribed his speech to the suggestion of the Holy Spirit (Autobiography, p. 95).
As a teacher at Oberlin, Finney's influence was also great. He was an original thinker and very positive in,his convictions. His Lectures on Systematic Theology (2 vols., Oberlin, 1846; new ed., by J. H. Fairchild, 1878) define his theological position. He held to the plenary ability of the sinner to repent, the voluntary and total moral depravity of the unregenerate man, the necessity of a radical change of heart through the truth by the agency of the Holy Spirit, and the sufficiency of the vicarious atonement for the needs of all mankind. He regarded happiness as the chief aim, and explained regeneration (which he did not clearly distinguish from conversion) to consist of an act of the will, rather than an act of the Holy Spirit. He exerted a shaping influence over the minds of his students; and his theology, in a modified form, had a wide acceptance in his own denomination. His works, bide the Lectures on Theology already mentioned, were Lectures on Revivals (Boston, 1835; many later editions); Lectures to Professing Christians (Oberlin, 1836); and Sermons on Important Subjects (New York, 1839).
D. S. SCHAFF.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Memoirs of Charles G. Finney, being an Autobiography, New York, 1876. His life was written also by G. F. Wright, Boston, 1891; and A. M. Hills, Cincinnati, 1902. Consult also F. G. Beardsley, Hiet. of American Revivals, pp. 118‑152, New York, 1904.

FINNIAN, SAINT, OF CLONARD : The chief of the " second order of Irish saints "; b. in Leinster; d. at Clonard (in the southwest corner of County Meath, about 30 miles from Dublin) Dec. 12, c. 550. He is said to have visited Tours, to have spent several years in study at Menevia (St. David's) in Wales, and to have become acquainted there with David, Gildas, and Cadoc. He founded many monasteries and churches in his native land, of which Clonard (founded about 520) became the most famous of all the great Irish schools of the sixth century. Scholars came there from all parts of Ireland and their number is said to have reached three thousand. Finnian acquired the title of " tutor of Erin's saints " and certain of his disciples, chosen by him and including Brendan, Ciaran of Saigir, Ciaran of Clonmacnoise, and others with himself were known as the " twelve apostles of Ireland."
BIBLIOGRAPHY: ASB, March, ii. 445‑447; C. do Smedt and J. de Backer, 'Acts Sanctorum Hibernia, pp. 189‑210, Edinburgh, 1888; Lanigan, Eccl. Hist., i. 464‑489; ii. 2122; Whitley Stokes, Lives of Saints from as Book of Lismore, pp. 75‑83, 222‑230, 342‑346 Oxford, 1890; J. Healy, Insula eanctorum, pp. 188‑208, Dublin, 1890; DNB, xix. 39‑41,
FINNIAN, SAINT, OF MOVILLE: Irish saint of the " second order "; d. at Moville (at the head of Strangford Lough, 10 m. e. of Belfast), Sept. 10, c. 579. He is said to have been of a noble family, living
near Strangford Lough. After studying in his own land, he went to Candida Casa in Galloway (see NINIAN, SAINT), then to Rome. Returning to Ireland he founded the monastery at,Moville about 540. It was long a famous and prosperous school, representing North British traditions with those of Rome added, as the foundation of the other Finnian represented Welsh teachings. It is said that he brought from Rome a copy of the Vulgate and from this his disciple Columba transcribed the Psalter. Finnian then claimed the transcription because made from his book, while Columba insisted that it was his because it was his work. The dispute led to a battle and was one of the causes which sent Columba to Scotland (see COLUMBA).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lanigan, Eccl. Hist., ii. 25‑28; J. Healy, Insula sanctomm, pp. 245‑257.
FINTAN, SAINT, known also as Munnu: Irish saint; d. at Taghmon, County Wexford (10 m. w. of Wexford), 635. He was a disciple of Comgall of Bangor. Having finished his studies, he applied for admission at Iona, but was rejected by the abbot, Baithene, who said he was acting as directed by Columba. Fintan then lived at many places in Ireland, but finally settled at Taghmon, where he became the leader of the opposition in South Ireland ‑to the Roman Easter and other Roman customs. At the second of the two synods held to consider the matter he proposed to submit the question to the ordeal by fire and water or to a contest in miraculous power, and, when this was refused, suggested, it is said, that every one should follow hiss own conscience. Many stories are told illustrating his rugged character. He was impulsive, wilful, and combative, but also generous and faithful, and was highly venerated in Ireland and Scotland. His day is Oct. 21.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: ASB, Oct., ix. 325‑342; C. de Smedt and J. de Backer. Ads sanctarum Hibernia, pp. 393‑414, 489‑504, Edinburgh, 1888; Lanigan, Beet. Hist., ii. 404‑409; DNB, xix. 42‑43; DCB, ii. 520.

FIRE‑WORSHIPERS. See ZoBOABTEB, ZOIeOASTRIANISM.
FIRMICUS. See MATExxvs, JuLIus FIRMICUB.
FBMILIAN: Bishop of Cmsarea in Cappar docia; d. at Tarsus in GSlicia 264, while on the way to the synod in Antioch against Paul of Samosata He became bishop of Csesarea in 232 (Eusebius, Hist. eccl., vi. 26), and with Dionysius of Alexandria (q.v.) ranked as one of the most eminent churchmen of his time in the East. He was a friend of Origen (Eusebius, vi. 27), and an opponent of the Novatians (Eusebius, Hist. eccl., VI., xlvi. 3; cf. VIL, v. 1). He is especially known for his antagonism to Pope Stephen I. in the strife over baptism by heretics (see HERETIC BAPTIsm). In a long letter to Cyprian of Carthage, preserved in Latin translation among Cyprian's letters Oxxv. [lxxiv]; Eng. tranal. in ANF, v. 390‑397), he emphatically maintains that heresy lacks the Spirit, and that a heretic baptism is invalid. He also speaks of the °"audacity, insolence," and " pride" of the Roman bishop, and, under cover of reference to the paschal controversies, deduces the conclusion that Rome by no means invariably appeared as the custodian

Wvora	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
of true tradition. This letter is his only extant	in a class by themselves, somewhat analogous to
work. Of its genuineness, once contested in Roman	the cattle, were young fruit‑trees of which not the
Catholic quarters, there should be no doubt; and	first‑fruits as such, but those of the fourth year were
Ritschl's assumption of interpolations is to be	brought, the first three years' produce being re
rejected. Firmilian is celebrated in the Oriental	garded as unclean and neither gathered nor eaten
Church on Oct. 28. G. KRCGER.	(Lev. xix. 23‑‑25). First‑fruits of the field, and of
BisLioaaArav: 0. Ritschl, Cvprian von Karthavo, pp. 126‑	the vineyards and olive‑groves were to be brought
134, GSttineen, 1885; Harnack, i;itteratur, i. 407 sqq.;	yearly; the former, it was decreed, should be
J. Ernst, in ZKT, xviii (1894), 2DD‑259 (On the genuine‑	brought voluntarily and early (Ex. xxii. 29; xxiii.
new of the letter); E. w. Benson, Cupr:on, his L:t°.	19 [Book of the Covenant]; asxiv. 26 [J] and ac
Timeeand Work, pp. 387‑398, London, 1897; DCB, ii. cog to Deut. xxvi. 1‑2 [D])
621‑522.	in a basket; the
FIRST‑BORN. See FAxmy A" MARRIAGE RE‑	Test of the firstlings was used for a meal (cf. Dill
	mann on Deut. xxvi. 11 and Nowack, Archdologie,
L~TIONa, HEBREW, § 16.	Freiburg, 1894, ii. 256). As the first‑fruits fur
FIRST‑FRUITS‑1. In the Old Testament: In	nished the income of the priests they were later
common with other nations of antiquity the He‑	gathered in the store‑rooms of the temple, to be
brews consecrated the first proceeds of field or	used as required (II Chron. xxxi. 5, 11; Neh. x.
flock (Gk. aparchdi, Lat. primitim) to the deity;	37, 39, xii. 44, xiii. 5; Mal. iii8, 10). The range
this is the essence of the sacrificial cult (cf. Dillmann	was later extended to sheep's and goat's wool
on Lev. xxiii. 14, and Smith, Rel. of Sem., pp. 443 (Deut. xviii. 4) and honey (11 Chron. xxxi. 5).
sqq., 104, 210, 220 sqq.). The general term for	•s the Old Testament law gives no instruction as
first‑fruits in Hebrew is re'shith ("the first of";	to quantity or quality, or the place and manner of
applied to land, Deut. xxxiii. 21; to the harvest,	delivery, this was added in the Mishnah‑tracts
Lev. xxiii. 10; to fruit,~Deut. xxvi. 2, 10; Ezek.	Bikkurim and Terumoth and may have been
xliv. 30); whereas bikkurim is a special term (used	really observed later; wine and oil were to be
of new grain and fruit, Lev. xxiii. 20; Ex. xxiii. 16,	no less than one‑sixtieth of the harvest (one
xxxiv. 22; Num. xviii. 13; Neh. x. 35, xiii. 31; of	thirtieth or one‑fortieth was considered highly
figs [Neh. iii. 12]; of grapes, Nun. xiii. 20; etc,);	liberal, Terum. iv. 3); the bikktcrim proper were
the term applied to animals (firstlings) and man	limited to the seven products of Deut. viii. 8
(first‑born) is prefer rehem (Ex. xiii. 2, 15, xxiv. 19;	(with dates in place of honey). These regula
Nun. iii. 12, xviii. 15; Ezek. xx. 26) or simply	tons apply only to Palestine; Jews remote from
peter (Ex. xiii. 20‑21, xxxiv. 20; but of. in poetic Jerusalem may bring their offerings dried.	The
diction, Gen. Aix. 3; Deut. xxi. 17; Pa. lxxviii.	ceremony of delivery is described (for a vivid
51). As the firstling belonged to the holy	picture of a Bikkurim‑procession of. Delitzsch,
taxes (see TAxATiGN, HEBREW), so the expression	Jfid'schm Handwerkerleben zur Zeit Jeau, Erlangen,
terumah (" lift " or " heave4offering] ") includes,	1875, 66; Eng. transl., London, 1877, 94), and the
if used in its general sense (Lev. xxii. 12; Nuzl. v.	time was set not before Pentecost nor after the Feast
9), besides the first‑born, the tithe, the " ban,"	of Dedication (Bikkurim, i. 3). The temmoth proper
and plunder, also the firstlings (Num. xv. 19, xviii. were to be delivered " to the priests	in their
11, xxxi. 41).	cities (Bikkurim, ii. 4) and included products from
As an expression of gratitude to him who had	Jewish farms abroad (cf. Josephus, Ant. XVI.,
given both land and harvest there were at the feasts	vi. 7; Philo, ii. 568); direction is given how and
in the name of the whole people (1) the waving of	by whom they are to be eaten, and how the lay
the first sheaf, of barley, on the Sunday of the Maz‑	man, who consciously or unconsciously eats of the
zoth‑week (16th of Nisan; cf. Dillmann on Lev. mth is to be punished.	(VicToR RyssELt.)
xxiii. 11), when other sacrifices were also offered 2• Ecclesiastical.	See TAxATmN, EccLEarAs
(Lev. xxiii. 10‑14); (2) seven weeks later, the two T1cAL.
" wave "‑loaves, baked out of leavened dough (of	BmLIOaaArsi: The commentaries on the psweges cited in
two‑tenths of an ephah of new flour), offered as a	the text; Schamr, Guehichta, ii. 244‑284, Ene. trand.
	11. i. 237‑242; DB, ii. 1V‑11; EB, ii. 1525‑26; JR, v,
peace offering with two yearling lambs (Lev. xxiii. 398‑400.
15‑21; cf. Dillmann on vs. 18).	FISCH, GEORGES: Swiss Protestant; b. at
Besides these national offerings every individual	Nyon (14 m. n. of Geneva), Switzerland, July 6,
brought his first‑fruits, though the quantity was	1814; d. at Vallorbe (30 m. n.w. of Lausanne)
optional. These were in their natural state, as	July 3, 1881. After finishing his theological
grain, fruit, honey, wool (first‑fruits of the field);	studies at Lausanne he was pastor of a small
or partly refined as wine (first‑fruits of the vine‑ German church at V6vay for five years.	In 1846
yard), as oil (first‑fruits of the olive‑groves), as	he went to Lyons, France, as assistant to Adolphe
bread or cake (first‑fruits of flour). All these were	Monod (q.v.) of the Free Church, whom he suc
perquisites of the priest, who alone might eat them	ceeded. In 1855 he was called to Paris to succeed
(Num. xviii. 11‑13 [P]; Deut. xviii. 4 [D]; Ezek.	Louis Bridel. He was warmly attached to the
xliv. 30) though a part was used in the sacrificial	cause of the Free Churches, took part in the con
meal (Deut. xxvi. 1‑2; of. xii. 16). From Prov.	stitutional synod of 1849, and was president of the
iii. 9‑10, Mal. iii. 8, Job i. 6, Ecclus. xxv. 10, 1	Synodal Commission from 1863 till his death. He
Mace. iii. 49 it may be inferred that the " first‑	was the chief support of the Evangelical Alliance
fruits " enjoyed popular approval, which " tithe "	in France and attended the conferences at London,
and " first‑born " lacked (cf. 11 Kings iv. 42).	Paris, Berlin, Geneva, Amsterdam and New York.
SIB

819	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
He was an active member of various home and foreign missionary societies. His principal publications are, Union des 6glises dvangdliques de France (Paris, 1882); and Les Mats‑Unis en 1861 (1802).

FMCHER, ANTON HUBERT: Cardinal; b. at Rilich (15 m. n.e. of Aachen), Germany, May 30, 1840. He studied in Bonn and Munster, and was ordained to the priesthood at Cologne in 18&3. After being instructor in religion at the gymnasium of Essen 1864‑88, he was consecrated titular bishop of Juliopolis and suffragan bishop of Cologne. In 1903 he became archbishop of Cologne, and in the same year was created cardinal priest of Santi Nereo ed Achilleo, Rome. He has also been canon of Cologne Cathedral since 1888 and dean of the chapter since 1894, while in 1904 he was nominated to the Prussian House of Lords. Among his writings mention may be made of his De salute in fidelium, (Essen, 1886).
FISH.‑1. Inthe O1dTestament: In the Old Testament fish are not mauled by species. The large aquatic animals, including the crocodile, are designated as tannin (see DRAGON). The food‑law (Lev. xi.9‑12), aiming ostensibly at a classification of fish, divides all things that move in the water into those that have scales and fins and those that have not, the former being clean, the latter unclean. Almost all fish belong to the first class. In Palestine fish abound in the Jordan, the Sea of Galilee, and in perennial brooks. The Sea of Galilee has a few varieties not found elsewhere, except in tropical waters like the Nile.
There is seldom mention of fish as food in early Biblical times. After the Exile, and with the advance of the art of cooking, fish became a mole important article of diet. The Tyrians marketed their fish, dried and salted, in Jerusalem (Neh. xiii. 16), where a city‑gate near the fish‑market was called the " fish‑gate " (Neh. iii. 3, and elsewhere). Salt fish (Gk. tarichE) was imported from Egypt. The name of the town Tarichese on the Sea of Galilee and the frequent mention of brine in the Mishnah show that the custom of pickling fish obtained in Palestine. In the time of Jesus fish was a common article of food (Matt. vii. 10, xiv. 17, xv. 34; Luke xxiv. 42).
No account of the catching of fish has come down from the older Biblical period; but figures of speech employed by the prophets show that fishing was generally known (Amos iv. 2; Jer. xvi. 16; Ezek. xxix. 4; and elsewhere). In the New Testament professional fishers lived near the Sea of Galilee (Luke v. 1‑2, and elsewhere). As regards fishing tackle, various nets are mentioned in the New Testament; the large drag‑net (saglne, Matt. xiii. 47), as well as the casting‑net (diktyon ‑the small, amphiblestron=ethe large casting‑net, Matt. iv. 18‑20) were certainly in use in the older period (Is. xix. 8; Hab. i. 15). Fishing‑hooks (Job xli. 1; Amos iv. 2; Matt. xvii. 27) and spears or harpoons are also mentioned (Job xli. 7). Fishing was carried on chiefly by night. 1. BENzaxom.
2. As a Symbol and in Christian Art see syMHOLISM.
Biawoassrsr: The best treatment is in H. B. Tristram, Survey o/ Western Palestine, Lhe Fauna and Flora, London, 1884. A comprehensive discussion may be found in EB, ii. 1528‑31, of. i. 519‑523 (on " Behemoth and' Leviathan "). Consult also: DB, ii. 11‑12; J. (3. Wood, Bible Animals, New York, 1883; Bensinger, ArehdolWie, pp. 39, 91, 9A, 205.
	FISH, HENRY CLAY: American Baptist; b.
at Halifax, Vt., Jan. 27, 1820; d. at Newark, N. J.,
Oct. 2, 1877. He received an academic education
and, after teaching two years in Massachusetts,
entered Union Theological Seminary, New York,
where he was graduated in 1845. He was pastor
of the Baptist church at Somerville, N. J., from
1845 till 1851, and of the First Baptist Church of
Newark from 1851 till his death. During the Civil
War he supported the Union, and on being drafted
in June, 1864, he insisted on going to the front, but
finally agreed to send a substitute. He was an
ardent and efficient worker in extending the Bap
tist Church, and also did much to popularize life
insurance, publishing several works on the subject.
His numerous religious writings and compilations
include, Primitive Piety/ Revived (Boston, 1855);
History and Repository of Pulpit Elaquena (2 vols.,
New York, 1856); Pulpit Eloquence of the Nine
teenth Century (1857); Handbook o f Revivals (Bos
ton, 1874); and Bible Lands Illustrated (Hartford,
1876), the result of eight months spent abroad in
1874.

	FISHER, GEORGE PARK: Congregationalist;
b. at Wrentham, Mass., Aug. 10, 1827. He studied
at Brown University (B.A., 1847), Yale Divinity
School, Andover Theological Seminary (from which
he was graduated in 1851), and in Germany. He
was professor of divinity and college preacher in
Yale College 1854‑61 and professor of ecclesiastical
history in the Yale Divinity School 1861‑1901.
He has written: The Supernatural Origin of Chris
tianity (New York, 1865); Life of Benjamin Silli~
man (1866); History of the Reformation (1873; new
ed., 1906); The Beginnings of Christianity (1877);
Faith and Ralionallam (1879); Discussions in
History and Theology (1880); The Christian Relig
ion (1882); The Grounds of Theistic and Christian
Belief (1883); Outlines of Universal History (1885);
History of the Christian Church (1888); Manual of
Christian Evidences (1890); Nature and Method of
Revelation (1890); Colonial History of thhe United
States (1892); Manual of Natural Theology (1893);
History of Christian Doctrine (1896); Brief History
o f the Nations (1896); and Edwards on the Trinity
(1903).
FISHER, JOHN: Bishop of Rochester; b. at Beverley (9 m. n.n.w. of Hull), Yorkshire, 1459; d. in London June 22, 1535. He was educated in his native town and at Michaelhouse, Cambridge (B.A., 1487; M.A., 1491), of which he became master in 1497. In this same year he was appointed confessor of Margaret, Countess of Richmond and mother of the king. Four years later he was elected vice‑chancellor of his university, and in 1503 he was appointed by Margaret to her newly established professorship of divinity, and in 1504 was chosen chancellor of Cambridge, being reelected annually until 1514, when he was ap.

Fisher	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
Flsoins
	pointed for life. In 1504 he was consecrated to the	for the cause of missions, he sailed from Boston for
see of Rochester, but his interest in his university	=the Nov. 3, 1819, accompanied by Parsons
w~ undiminished, sad he was active in the foun‑	During the next five years he traveled extensively
	wasion both of Christ's College and of St. John's	in Greece, Egypt, Palestine, and Syria, learning
	College, in addition to holding the presidency of	languages, particularly Greek and Arabic, and dis
	Queen's College from 1505 to 1508. Though he	tributing tracts and Bibles. In May, 1825, he
	induced Erasmus to visit Cambridge' Fisher was a	joined the mission at Beirut. He preached in
	faithful adherent of Roman Catholicism, and	Italian, French, Greek, and Arabic, published a
	assailed the teachings of Luther in his Confutatio	number of papers in the Missionary Herald, and
	assertions Lutheranor (Antwerp, 1523) and other	on the day before his death completed an ~ng~ish
	treatises, criticizing as well iEcolampadius and Arabic dictionary.
	Velenus‑the latter maintained that the Apostle	BIRLIooRAPHT: A. Bond, Memoir of P. Flak, Boston, 1828;
	Peter never was in Rome.	R. Anderson, IlietorV of the Mi8ei°m of the Ann
	Fisher lost the royal favor by his opposition to Board, Oriental Missions, vol. ii., ib. 1872.
	Henry's claim to spiritual supremacy and to the FISK,	,BUR: First president of Wesleyan
	divorce of Queen Catherine, whose confessor he was.	University (Corm.); b. in Brattleboro, Vt., Aug. 31,
	His unpopularity was increased by his unfortunate 1792; d. at Middletown, Conn., Feb.	2, 1839.
	belief in the impostures of Elizabeth Barton (q.v.),	After his graduation from Brown University (1815)
	the Maid.of Kent, who named him one of her	he studied law, but became an itinerant minister in
	confederates. Early in 1534 he was sentenced to	the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1818. He held
	be attainted of misprision, to be imprisoned at the	pastorates at Craftsbury, Vt., and Charlestown,
	king's pleasure, and to forfeit all his goods, although	Maw., and was presiding elder of the Vermont dis
	he was. released on the payment of £300. On Apr.	trict 1823‑27, when he was placed upon the super
	13, however, he was cited to appear at Lambeth	annuated list. For a time he was agent of the New
	to take the oath of compliance with the Act of	market (N. H.) Academy, where he was chosen to
	Succession, but though he and Sir Thomas More	make the address of welcome to Lafayette in 1824.
	were willing to admit the succession of the children	He was chaplain of the Vermont legislature in
	of Henry and Anne Boleyn, both refused to declare	1826 principal of the Wesleyan Academy at Wil
	the children of Catherine and the king illegitimate.	braham, Mass., 1826‑31, and president of Wesleyan
	Three days later Fisher was committed to the Tower,	University 1831‑39. He had aided materially in
	and with the passage of the Act of Supremacy in	the organization of the university, and under his
	Nov., 1534, both Fisher and More were again	direction it became the most influential educational
	attainted of misprision of treason and the see of	institution of the Methodist denomination in Amer
	Rochester was declared vacant from Jan. 2, 1535.	ica. While traveling in Europe in 1836 he was
	Fisher's doom was sealed by the inadvertent act	elected bishop, but declined the office. In 1828
	of Paul III., who on May 20 created him cardinal	he had declined the bishopric of the Canada con
	priest of, St. Vitalis, not knowing the extreme dan‑	ference. Besides occasional sermons and lectures,
	ger in which the biehop stood. Henry, in fury, for‑	he published The Science of Education (Middletown,
	bade the hat to be brought to England, and Fisher	1831; New York, 1832), the inaugural address on
	was trapped into statements which were twisted	the opening of Wesleyan University; The Calvin
	into treason. On June 17 be was condemned to be	istic Controversy (New York, 1837); and Travels in
	executed at Tyburn as a traitor, but the sentence Europe (1838).
was changed to decapitation at Tower Hill, where	BmwooakrHT: J. Holdich, Life of W Fisk, New York,
	it was carried out a fortnight before the execution	1842; D. D. Whedon, A Tribute to the Memory of Presi
	of More. The chief works of Fisher were his Dedens Fisk, i. 1839.
unica Magdalena (Par s, 1519) and his De eueiuH
ristia contra Johannem (Ecolampadaum (Cologne,
1527); the greater part of his Latin writings were
collected and published at W iirzburg in 1597. A
volume of a projected edition of his English works
was edited for the Early English Text Society by
J. E. B. Mayor (London, 1876), and a few other
writings by him are extant in manuscript.
BIHLIoaRAPH1: The Life was first written ostensibly by
	Thomas Bailey, really by Richard Hall, London, 1655,
	republished, 1835. Consult also: John Lewis, Life et
	Dr. John Fisher, 2 vols., ib. 1854; J. Gillow, Bibliograph‑
	ical Didionarv of Bn91ia. Catholics, ii. 262‑270, ib., 1885;
	DNB, xix. b8‑83.
	FISH;, PLINY: American Congregationalist, mis
sionary in Syria; b. at Shelburne, Mass., June 24,
1792; d. at Beirut, Syria, Oct. 23, 1825. He was
graduated from Middlebury College in 1814 and
Andover Theological Seminary in 1818, and with
Levi Parsons (q.v.) was appointed by the Amer
ican Board to the Palestine mission in Sept., 1818.
After traveling in the South for a year, raising funds
FISTULA: A tube, usually of gold or silver, through which the consecrated wine of the Eucharist was administered to the communicant. Its use came up in the sixth century, when the particularly holy character of this wine was generally recognized. The priests had never used it themselves, and so, when the cup was withdrawn from the laity, the fistula. was entirely laid aside, except in the papal masses, where to‑day the pope receives the Eucharistic wine through a golden fistula.
FITZGERALD, JAMES NEWBURY: Methodist Episcopal bishop; b. at Newark, N. J., July 27, 1837; d. at Hongkong, China, Apr. 3, 1907. He was admitted to the New Jersey bar in 1858, but in 1862 gave up his practise and entered the Methodist ministry. After holding various pastorates in the Newark Conference he was recording secretary of the Missionary Society of‑the Methodist Episcopal Church, from 1880 till in 1888 he was elected bishop. Besides being presiding elder of the Newton, New‑

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
ark, and Jersey City districts and secretary of the Newark Conference for eleven years, he was a member of the General Conference in 1876, 1880, 1884, and 1888.

FIVE MILE ACT: An Act of Parliament passed in 1665, and completing the system of measures intended to repress the non‑conformists known as the Clarendon Code. By its provisions no clergyman who had been expelled from his living by the Act of Uniformity of 1662 was to come within five miles of a city or corporate town, or of any parish where he had formally preached, unless he declared that he would not " at any time attempt any alteration of government either in Church or State," under a penalty of forty pounds; and no one who had not taken the oath of passive obedience and conformed was to teach in any school or take pupils in his house. As the Puritan congregations were mainly in the towns, this act cut them off from the ministrations of their chosen leaders and in most cases from even private education, and hastened the decline of Puritanism throughout England.
BrBweoBAFBY: The text is printed in Gee and Hardy, Documents, pp. 6211‑623. Consult: D. Neal, History of the Puritans, ii. 255 sqq. of Harper's ed., New York, n.d.; J. H. Overton, Church %n England, ii. 143, London, 1897.

FIVE POINTS OF CALVINISM: The five characteristic tenets of Calvinism as opposed to Arminianism, defended by the Synod of Dort (1618‑19) in answer to the Five Articles of the Arminians or Remonstrants, put forth in 1610. They are particular predestination, limited atonement, natural inability, irresistible grace, and the perseverance of saints. See ARMINIUB, JACOBUS, AND ARMINIANISM; CALVINISM; REMONBTRANTs.

FLACIUS, MATTHIAS.
Early Life (§ 1).
In Wittenberg. Opposition to Melanchthon (§ 2).
In Magdeburg. The Adiaphoristic Controversy (§ 3).
The Majoristie, Osiandrian, and achwenekfeldian Controversies (§ 4).
Fruitless Attempts at Reconciliation (§ 5).
Flacius Professor in Jena (§ 6).
The Synergistic Dispute (§ 7).
Flacius a Wanderer (§ 8).
Last Days at Frankfort (§ 9).
Flacius' Literary and Scholarly Work (§ 10).
Flacius (Latinized from Vlacich, or Francovich)
was born at Albona (42 m. s.s,e. of Trieste), Istria,
Mar. 3, 1520, and died at Frankfort‑on‑the‑Main
Mar. 11, 1575. From his birthplace he was sur
named ZRyricus. His father, a prominent citizen
		of Albona, died when Flacius was a
	x. Early mere boy. He received his early
	Life, education from the celebrated human
		ist. Baptists Egnatius in Venice.
Baing a good Catholic he decided to become a monk,
study theology, and preach, but his uncle, Baldo
Lupetino, provincial ( f the Minorites, commended
Luther to him as a restorer of the true Gospel and
sent him to Germany in 1539. He now continued
his studies at Basel, but went to Tubingen in 1540,
and to Wittenberg in 1541, where he was favorably
received and assisted by Melanchthon. After an
inner conflict that lasted three years, Bugenhagen
IV.=21
Fisher
Flaoius
directed him to Luther and it was through him that Flacius attained peace of soul by accepting the free grace of God. He had personal experience of the consolation of the Evangelical doctrine of justification by faith alone, and henceforth the defense of this doctrine in its purity and inviolability became the guiding star of his life.
In 1544 he accepted the chair of Hebrew at the university, in 1545 he married, and in 1546 received the master's degree. His extraordinary gifts excited great expectations with Luther and Melanchthon. He lectured on the Old Testament,
2. In Wit‑ epistles of Paul and on Aristotle; but
tenberg. his activity was suddenly interrupted
Opposition by the outbreak of the Schmalkald to Melanch‑ War. In 1547 he fled to Brunswick,
	thon.	where he lived by teaching. After
		a few months, however, he was able
to return to Wittenberg, but the time of rest was
now over for him. After the Augsburg Interim in
1548 the Elector Maurice of Saxony entered into
negotiations with the theologians and estates of his
realm which resulted in the Leipsie Interim (see
INTERIM). It was then that Flacius as a strict
Lutheran protested against the concessions of
Melanchthon and the men who shared his views.
From now on his relations with the head of the
conciliatory party became more and more strained
and his position at Wittenberg untenable. After a
short sojourn at Hamburg he settled in 1549 at
Magdeburg, where printing and publication were
still free.
	In Magdeburg he developed a comprehensive
literary activity against the Melanchthonians, and
now those unfortunate and often petty quarrels
arose which injured the Evangelical cause more
than the opposition of the Roman Catholics. The
fault was not altogether on one side. In Witten
berg Flacius' departure was ascribed to the most
unworthy motives. Flacius contributed not a little
		by his arrogant and obstinate char‑
3. In Mag‑ acter and by assuming the role
deburg.	of dictator. He published treatises
The Adi‑ against the Interim, and the Adi‑
	aphoristic	aphora (q.v.) and their defenders.
Controversy. His criticism was sweeping, and it was
		due to him more than to any one else
that public protest made the execution of the In
terim impossible, and thus Luther's great work
was saved. From that point of view he rendered
inestimable services to the Evangelical. Church;
especially in his fight against the Adiaphora he
proved himself to be on the right side and Melanch
thon had to acknowledge his victory. When Magde
burg fell into the hands of the elector Maurice (1551)
attempts were made to reconcile the two opposing
parties, the Magdeburg and the Wittenberg circles.
In the absence of Flacius, Gallus and his associates
agreed to negotiate under the condition that no
compromise with the pope should be made. Cer
tain articles were drawn up, but Flacius, full of
suspicion, declared them unsatisfactory and so the
pacificatory work was disrupted. .
The adiaphoristic dispute was followed by that concerning Georg Major (q.v.), Who in a sermon preached at Eisleben had maintained the necessity

gisoiw	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
F~,,gellatioa		822
	‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑

	of works for salvation. This controversy was	against the Romanists, but nothing was achieved
	carried on with the same relentless, cruel, and bitter	at this conference because the Evangelicals
personal insinuations.	In 1552 the	themselves did not agree. This was owing, of
4. The	Osiandrian dispute arose (see Osi‑	course, chiefly to Flacius. His conduct was gen
	Majoriatic, ANDER, ANDREAs). Osiander taught	erally criticized, and he incurred the displeasure
	psiandrian, that justification is attained by the	of many who had hitherto aided him. The so
and	indwelling of the essential justice of	called Frankfort Recess (q.v.), convoked in 1558 by
	Schwenck‑ Christ through faith. In this case	the leading Evangelical princes, was no more suc
	feldisa Con‑ Flacius put himself on the side of the	cessful than the other attempts at unity. Then
	troversies. Melanchthonians, showing thereby that	Flacius proposed a synod and fifty prominent theo
	the fight against his former teachers	logians signed the Supplicatio pro libera, christiana
	was not personal. Again as a strict Lutheran, he	et legitirna synodo, but all was in vain. A similar
	developed clearly the doctrine of forensic satis‑	outcome resulted from the Naumburg Convention
	faction. In 1553 he attacked the mystic subjec‑	(q.v.) of 1561.
	tivism of Caspar Schwenckfeld, who made a dis‑		In. the mean time the Synergistic dispute had
	tinction between an inner word of God and the	arisen in Jesus (see SYNER(n6M). Victorinus
	letter in Holy Scripture, and here also Flacius pre‑	Strigel (q.v.) and Superintendent Hilgel of Jena
	pared the way for Lutheran orthodoxy as laid down	criticized Flacius' doctrine concerning free will,
	in the Formula of Concord by maintaining the	and Duke John Frederic immediately imprisoned
	identity of the external word and the word of God.			them. In 1560 a disputation be
	In the mean time further attempts were made to		7. The	tween Flacius and Strigel took place
	assuage the dissensions of the Magdeburg and		Synergistic at Weimar, the result of which was that
	Wittenberg circles for the sake of concord in the		Dispute. the duke confirmed the orthodoxy
	Evangelical party. As early as 1553 Flacius and			of Flacius' doctrine. John Frederic,
	Gallus desired to have a committee of arbitration	however, becoming tired of these perpetual con
	appointed, but Melanchthon was silent	troversies, instituted a consistory which possessed
	g. Fruitless in the matter; then Duke Christopher	the right of excommunication and of censorship
	Attempts of Wittenberg proposed a convention	in regard to theological treatises. Flacius pro
	at Recon‑ of theologians, but the Thuringian	tested against this procedure as an act of violence,
	ciliation. theologians Amsdorf and his asso‑	and thereupon he was deposed together with others
	ciates were not in favor of it and re‑	in 1561.
	quested the Wittenberg circle to condemn their		He left Jena in 1562 with the bold idea of found
	heresies publicly. Jena in those days was the strong‑	ing a Lutheran academy of learned men at Regens
	hold of Lutheran orthodoxy against the unionistic	burg. Gallus received him kindly. From here
	tendencies of Wittenberg. Several other attempts	he continued with untiring zeal his fight against
	to unite the dissenting parties also failed. Now	Strigel and the Calvinistic tendencies, against the
	Flacius published his treatise Von der Einigkeit in	arrogance of secular authorities in encroaching upon
	which he addressed himself to the whole Church,	the rights of the Church, and many other antago
	attempting to justify his character against sus‑	nists. With these polemical treatises hatred against
	picions and indicating the necessary steps to be	him grew and his travels began to become danger
	taken for the insurance of peace. Shortly after‑			ous. The Elector Augustus of Saxony
	ward he wrote a letter to Melanchthon in spite of		8. Flacius especially persecuted him, and the
	the fact that the latter had written some verses	a Wanderer. Council of Regensburg found it im
	accompanying a picture which represented Flacius			possible to protect him longer. In
	as an ass crowned by other asses. With relentless	Antwerp William of Orange had allowed at this
	severity Flacius exposed in this letter his oppo‑	time to the Lutherans as well as the Calvinists the
	nent's shortcomings concerning Adiaphorism and	public exercise of their religion. The Lutheran
	admonished him to relieve his conscience by con‑	congregation, needing the counsel of experienced
	fession of defeat. This Melanchthon professed to	German theologians, called Flacius. He arrived in
	be willing to do, yet he rejected the articles of peace	1566, but the following year he had to leave the
	proposed by Flacius. The latter was not satisfied	country before the progress of the Spanish army.
	with this informal confession; again and again he	He attempted now to settle at Frankfort‑on‑the
	requested written statements, official declarations,	Main and then at Strasburg, but the cruel hatred
common signatures of articles and public revoca‑		of the Elector Augustus reached him even here;
	tions. In this way the breach became irreparable.	in 1569 the elector sent an envoy to Strasburg
	The friends of Flacius spoiled matters by treating	with the commission to capture Flacius. He fled to
	Melanchthon as an impenitent sinner and the	Basel, but was not allowed to remain, so he returned
	younger Philippists not less by their insolent trea‑	to Strasburg and in spite of the pressure exerted
	tises against Flacius. In 1557 Flacius was called	by the elector was tolerated. But now he spoiled
	to Jena as professor of the New Tes‑	his good relations with the Strasburg clergy by his
	6. Flacius tament and superintendent. Shortly	opposition against the efforts at union made by
	Professor after his arrival a colloquy took place	Jacob Andrei! (q.v.) and by his doctrine concerning
	in Jena. in Worms (see WORMS) at which it	original sin; for he was accused of the Manichean
	was proposed to array Melanchthon	heresy. In 1573 the Council of Strasburg decreed
	and his associates together with the Thuringi‑	his expulsion.
am and other theologians of the stricter school			In a treatise De pewati originalis out vderis

323	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Placing
		Flagellation
Adami appellationibus et essentia Flaeius main
tained that original sin is the substance of man him
self and not an accident as Strigel taught. This
doctrine was chiefly aimed at the Synergists.
Flacius was altogether orthodox on this point.
The whole controversy amounted to nothing since
he attached to the word substantia two different
meanings, it was a mere quibble of words, and yet
there were men like Hesshusen (q.v.) who absurdly
believed that Flacius considered the devil as the
creator of substance.
	After his expulsion from Strasburg he settled at
Frankfort, where he was ably protected by
				Catharina von Meerfeld, prioress of
		g. Last	the nunnery Zu den weissen Frauen,
	Days at although the Council of the city had
	Frankfort. not given him permission to remain.
				Thanks to entreaties and interces
sions his order of banishment was deferred from
time to time until his death.
	In spite of all quarrels and turbulences of his
life Flacius possessed such a tenacity and deter
mination that he found time for scientific works
which required the most extensive preparation and
				gradual ripening. He was not only
Io. Flacius' the most learned Lutheran theolo
	Literary	gian, but also the promoter and foun
			and	der of theological disciplines. He was
	Scholarly chiefly prominent in the sphere of
		Work.	church history. In Magdeburg he
				conceived the great plan of two his
torical works in which he could deal heavy blows
at Romanism. He undertook a catalogue of all
those who before Luther had combated the heresies
of the papacy, and in this way originated his
Catalogue testium veritatis, qui ante nostram eetalem
reclamarunt Papte (Basel, 1556) and its complement
Varia doctorum pwrumque virorum de corrupto
ecclesitv statu poemata [(1557) in which for the
first time was printed Bernard of Cluny's De
contemptu mundij. Still more important was his
other plan to write a church history from the
original sources which should show how the Church
of Christ had deviated from her right course since
the time of the apostles, and include a history of
antichristianity from its beginning to the develop
ment of its highest power and to the restitution of
true religion in its purity by Luther. The out
come of this plan was the so‑called " Magdeburg
Centuries " (Basel, 1562‑74; see MAGDEBURG CEN
TURIES). Flacius found many patrons who aided
his great undertaking financially and he also made
extensive travels in Germany, searching for sources
and documents. Many assistants helped him.
Many manuscripts and books were bought or do
nated by patrons. The Magdeburg Centuries
denotes a great progress in the science of Church
history, not only on account of its extensive
tracing of the sources, but also on account of its
method. The anti‑Roman interest had sharpened
the vision and made it capable of critical achieve
ments that marked a new epoch. [In reply Baro
nius produced his superior "Annals."] Finally
Flacius produced two works of importance in
the sphere of Biblical science: his Clovis seriP
turtB sacra seu de sermons sacraruin literarum
(1567) and Glossacompendiaria in Novum Testamentum (1570).
	Flacius compels admiration by his learning and
extraordinary scholarly achievements, his inde
fatigable capacity for work, his indomitable zeal
in defense of pure doctrine, but it is impossible to
overlook certain grave defects in his nature, such
as arrogance, obstinacy, and even malice‑in
fact an entire inability to appreciate the rights of
others and their motives. [It is more charitable
to suppose that he was mentally slightly unbal
anced.] 	(G. KAwERAU.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Some of his letters are in CR, viii. and ix. and the Supplementum. His merits were long insufficiently appreciated and his rehabilitation is largely due to A. Twesten, Matthias Flaccius Illyricus, eine Vorlesung, Berlin, 1844, and W. Preger, Matthiae Placcius Myricw and seine Zeit, 2 vols., Erlangen, 1859‑61 (a list of his many publications is given ii. 539‑572). Consult also J. J. I. D611inger, Die Reformation, ii. 224 sqq., Regensburg, 1848; A. Ritschl, Theologie and Metaphysik, pp. 52 sqq., Bonn, 1881; ADB, vii. 88 sqq.

FLAGELLATION, FLAGELLANTS.
I. Flagellation.
Corporal Punishment as a Penalty of the Church (§ 1).
Self‑scourging or Flagellation (§ 2). II. Flagellants.
The Flagellants of 1260. Venturinus of Bergamo, 1334 (§ 1).
The Flagellants of 1348‑49 (§ 2).
The Albati or Bianchi of 1399 (§ 3).
Flagellants in Thuringia about 1360. Konrad Schmid (§ 4).
Later Italian Brotherhoods (§ 5).
Later Manifestations and Developments (§ 6).
I: Flagellation: Corporal chastisement as an ec‑
clesiastical corrective pena4y for clerics appears
in the Western Church as early as the fifth century
		transferred from the Roman penal law,
I. Corporal but resorted to only in rare instances.
	Punish‑ From the Merovingian times onward,
ment as a it became more widely diffused, and so
Penalty of late as the seventeenth century was
the Church. appointed as a punishment in cases of
		blasphemy, simony, concubinage, and
other offenses committed by the clergy. In
corrective establishments of the Church, corporal
chastisement has continued in practise against
clerical delinquents confined in the same, down to
the present time. Flagellation as a monastic pun
ishment for misdeeds of monks dates back to the
earliest period of monasticism, and the rule of Bene
dict of , Nursia makes extensive use of corporal
chastisement. The congregations which had their
origin in the Benedictine Order, as well as the other
monastic orders, sisterhoods, and knightly orders
founded in the twelfth century and later, adopted
flagellation; but various orders which arose after
the Council of Trent did not include this penalty
in their rules. For certain offenses of laymen, too
(desecration of Sunday, fortune‑telling, etc.), the
Church from the sixth century prescribed cor
poral chastisement as the penalty, and flogging in
particular teas threatened against such offenses
until the eighteenth century. Lastly, the Inqui
sition applied flogging and flagellation as one of the
lightest penalties in case of the voluntary recanta
tion of heresy. In penitential discipline, corporal
chastisement and particularly flagellation came to

B'lsgellation
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
have a rapidly increasing importance after the beginning of the tenth century. Corpora, chastisements in this connection are first mentioned (evidently as something newly in vogue) in the collection of canons of Regmo of Prism (c. 960); they appear as a substitute for public penance, and at first were doubtless always executed by some outside hand, mostly by the priest. The sermons of the well‑known crusade‑preacher Fulco of Neuilly (q. v.) so intensified ascetic zeal in Paris about 1195 that great throngs of the penitent submitted their bared bodies to Fulco's chastising.
The beginnings of ascetic self‑scourging, or flagellation proper, are still obscure. It is supposed to have originated about 1000 among certain Italian hermits, whose glowing penitential fervor became heightened into visionary and ecstatic enthusiasm, and started a religious movement which spread
throughout all Italy. The hermit s. Self‑ Marinus, who lived on an island of the
Scourging Po, and his pupil Romuald (d. 1027),
or Flagel‑ as well as the latter's disciples on
lation.	Monte Sitrio, mutually chastised one
another with rods and lashes. Flagellation at their own hands was a customary practise, in the first half of the eleventh century, among the monks of Fontavellana (near Faenza) in Umbria, a foundation of the miracle‑working hermit and penitential preacher Dominic of Foligno (d. 1031); likewise among the hermits of Luceoli in Umbria, who styled themselves disciples of St. Romuald. In both places the monk Dominicus Loricatus (d. 1060) distinguished himself by his severe self ‑caetigations, and they found an enthusiastic admirer and imitator in Peter Damian (q.v.), who entered the cloister of Fontavellana about 1035. To the far‑reaching influence of Peter Damian, who also became prominent as the literary
a‑'0 t of Ila! tion it" rapid extension then and
P Zd is p Ltinen'tly
afterw 	due.
The monastic reform movement which emanated from Cluny with the more acute sense of sin awakened by Bernard of Clairvaux, and especially the ascetic enthusiasm propagated among the people by the mendicant orders and their preaching of Christ's Passion speedily made flagellation a most widely extended and impressive means of penance and expiation. Many of the monastic orders and sisterhoods adopted the provision of systematic self‑castigation, or flagellation, in their rules. No doubt, mainly through the influence of the two great mendicant orders, this ascetic practise was then further popularized in the ranks of the laity. With most of the stricter orders (among others the Trappists, Carthusians, Priests of the Oratory, Fathers of Christian Doctrine, Discalced Carmelites, Capuchins, Redemptorists, Brothers of Charity), flagellation has continued in practise down to this day. It is exercised for the most part as a devotional act, usually once or several times in the week, according to a definitely prescribed ritual. The opposition to the practise incited by the monastic reformer Jan Busch (q.v.) is an incident without parallel.
II. Flagellants: The great flagellant pilgrimage of the year 1260 was the first of its kind. A sig‑
S84
nificant prelude thereto was the powerful religious movement called forth in Italy in 1223 by the preaching of repentance and pardon by a num‑
ber of mendicant monks, particularly r. The the Dominican Giovanni da Vicenza.
Flagellants Deeper causes of both movements were
of :260. the religious excitement and peni‑
Venturinus tential disposition of the populace of Bergamo, consequent upon the phenomenal
1334•	activity of St. Francis; the extreme
i	tension of feeling because of the pas‑
sionate conflicts between papacy and empire; and
the general disorder and ruin induced by these
factional contests. The situation, again, was aggra
vated in 1259 by the outbreak of a violent epi
demic; and above all by the expectation that was
widely propagated by the adherents to the teach
ing of Joachim of Fiore (q.v.), that in the year 1280
there would occur a general revolution of things,
especially a purification and renovation of the
Church. The direct occasion for the flagellant
crusades of that year was furnished by the advent
of the venerable hermit Raniero Fasani, who as
early as 1258 is alleged to have founded the first
flagellant fraternity in Perugia, proclaiming that
an impending visitation of judgment had been
revealed to him. In the autumn of 1260 the move
ment overflowed all of Central and Upper Italy,
still in the same year crossed the Alps and spread
itself over Upper Germany and the neighboring
Slavic domains. In GermanYvhowever, both spiri
tual and temporal powers, as they perceived in
the movement elements hostile to ecclesiastical
and civil order, very decidedly opposed it as early
as 1261; and with the exception of Southern France,
public flagellationa and flagellant crusades north
of the Alps in the period between 1261 and 1349
manifested themselves only in quite isolated in
stances. In Upper Italy, however, the peniten
tial sermons of the Dominican Venturinue of Ber
gamo gave occasion, in 1334, to an extensive new
flagellant movement which came to a standstill in
the very next year.
The great flagellant movement of the years 13481349 is very closely connected with the apparition of the terrible pestilence known se the black death.
Originating in the East, by 1347 the a. The plague had found entrance into DalFlagellants matia, Upper Italy, and Southern
of r 348‑49• France, and from these three centers of
contagion it spread toward Central Europe in 1348. Probably attempts to avert the threatening disaster by organizing flagellant processions were first made in Italy. . From Upper Italy the movement then took its course, as precursor of the plague‑, by way of Hungary into Germany, then into Holland; Bohemia, Poland, Denmark, and even England, and reached its climax in the summer of 1349. The populace was already highly stirred up by apocalyptic expectations, and the plague was regarded as the premonitory sign of the great revolution of all things. Flagellation seemed the fitting preparation for the coming kingdom of God, and a substitute for the clergy, grown faithless to their charge. An apocryphal letter of Christ, originating in a much earlier age,

$ea
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
and purporting to have fallen to the earth at Jerusalem, which with menace of frightful vindictive judgment called men to repentance, was everywhere read aloud by the wandering flagellants, and appears to have been one of the most effective instruments in their hands for extending their doctrine of penance by flagellation. In more than one instance the flagellants took a hostile stand against the clergy. They also were active in the persecutions of the Jews in 1348‑49, though these, indeed, were already incited before the flagellants' appearance. Probably here also apocalyptic anticipations of a general social convulsion were a contributing factor.
As in 1260, so again in 1348‑49 the flagellants formed themselves into fraternities, which usually bound their members to a penitential season of thirty‑three days and a half. At such times they generally wandered far away from their homes in extended processions. Admission to the brotherhood had to be preceded by an act of general confession, reconciliation with enemies, and formal promise of unconditional obedience to the fraternity superior. All intercourse, even all conversation, with women was forbidden in most of the fraternities. The flagellants generally wore white undergarments, with mantles and hats marked with red crosses; whence they were commonly known in Germany as Kreuzbruder (" Brethren of the Cross "; Crucifratres, Cruciferi). Selfeastigation was performed twice a day, preferably in public squares, amid the intonation of hymns and according to a definitely prescribed ceremonial. Their hymns especially attracted the attention of their contemporaries. Quite a number of those of the German flagellants are recorded in the chronicles of Hugo von Reutlingen and Fritsche Closener, as well as in the Limburger Chronik (cf. P. Runge and H. Pfannensehmied, Die Lieder and Melodien der Geisaler des Jahres 13.1,9, Leipsic, 1900). There does not appear to have been a very close connection between the hymns of the Italian flagellants and those of their German brethren; but the German flagellant hymns became the basis of the hymns of the Bohemian, Polish, and Walloon flagellants. Beside the pilgrim flagellants, there also arose penitential associations which bound their members to the act of self‑castigation at the brotherhood's abode. In the Netherlands there were penitential associations, organized according to parishes, which practised flagellation on Sundays and festivals, and attended to the burial of the dead (see ALEXIANS).
The effect of the movement of 1348‑49 was powerful. In many towns for several weeks running, and almost daily, there would appear new companies of pilgrims to the number of several hundred persons. At last processions of flagellant women and children appeared. For the Church, whose influence over the multitudes for the time being was completely paralyzed by the flagellation movement, it became a simple act of self‑defense to oppose the movement with the sharpest weapons. On Oct. 20, 1349, Pope Clement VI. issued a bull, condemning the Flagellants and their cause in the severest terms and demanding
Flagellation
their suppression; self‑castigation was to be tolerated only within bounds of ecclesiastical regulation. The popular ferment subsided as suddenly as it had risen. By the early fifties of the same century, flagellation in Germany was nearly everywhere suppressed, and such as remained loyal to the cause were driven back into privacy as proscribed sectaries.
In 1399, a new flagellation movement of wide extent broke out in the Romance countries in
the appearance of the so‑called
3. The " Whites " (Albat%, Bianchi); from
Albati or Provence the movement spread over
Bianchi France, Spain, and Italy. The im‑
of 1399. pulse in this case was given by fic‑
titious revelations of future divine judgments, and the alleged command of the Virgin Mother. The movement was much enhanced by the advent of the well‑known Spanish Dominican and popular saint, Vincent Ferrar (q.v.), who prophesied the immediate approach of the end of all things. Endless throngs of flagellants followed him in the wanderings through France, Spain. and Upper Italy in the years between 1400 and 1417. These flagellant crusades filled the Council of Constance with no small anxiety; Jean Gerson, in 1417, presented to the Council a memorial in which he pronounced decidedly not only against the flagellant processions, but also against self‑castigation for the laity in general.
The procedure of the Church against the German flagellant brotherhoods in the period after 1349 had its equal in the fact that out of these associations there grew up a heretical flagellant sect, the combating of which occupied the Church till the end of the Middle Ages. This sect possessed an espe‑
cially strong organization in Thuringia
4. Flagel‑ about 1360 through the apocalyptical
lants in Konrad Schmid. He calculated the
Thuringia date of the final judgment as the about i36o. year 1369, and his numerous adherents
Konrad undertook to prepare themselves for
Schmid. the event by penitential flagellation.
It is probable that Schmid and his followers were also strongly influenced by the doctrines of the Waldenses, which were widely disseminated in Thuringia. The Thuringian flagellants are alleged to have rejected all sacraments and the entire ceremonial and hierarchical system of the Church; there was to arise instead a chiliastic kingdom, to whose government Schmid believed himself called. In 1369 many flagellants, among them Schmid himself, were burned at the stake. But his followers thenceforth identified him with Enoch and Elijah, and expected him shortly to hold the final judgment in place of Christ. From the close of the fourteenth century the Church repeatedly interposed with sanguinary severity against the Thuringian flagellants; but they furtively held their ground until the end of the fifteenth century.
The Italian flagellant associations, after their first appearance in 1260, complied in all points with the rules of the Church, and experienced no small measure of Church favor. Flagellant associations were organized in nearly all the cities of Italy; in

Flagellation	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
Flavian of Conatantinople
	many cities, as for instance, in Gubbio, Perugia,	public maintained itself to the nineteenth century
	and Fabriano, no fewer than three, in Padua six,	and in some cases to quite recent date, in East
	existed side by side at the same	India, the Azores and the Canary Islands, Italy,
	5. Later time. The direction of a number of	and the southern Tyrol. Flagellation of laymen
Italian	these brotherhoods, though not of all,,	in private at present is confined to somewhat narrow
	Brother‑ was vested in the mendicant orders.	circles; thoroughgoing directions with regard to
hoods.	A good many of them devoted them‑	the most suitable kind of flagellation and the in
	selves also to the care of the poor and	struments to be applied are given by C. Capellmann
' ls. The Italianin his Pastoralmedicin (12th ed., Aachen, 1898, p.
osition in the his‑ 175). In the Greek Church flagellation has ap
ors of the popularpeared only here and there in certain monastic
drama. Even thecircles. Some Russian sects, however, are said to
g religious hymnspractise it in their so‑called services after a fashion
Subsequently the reminding of the dervishes. HERMAN HAUPT.
zealously‑ cultiva‑BIBLIOGRAPHY: I. E. G. F&rstemann, Die christiichen
more and .pore	Geisalergesellachaften, Halle, 1828 (antiquates most of the
d soon becoming	earlier literature); J. Morinus, Commentaries hiatoncaa de
discipline in administrations . . pornitentim • • ob‑
form in the	tobook vii chap 14 pp. 471 sqq•, Antwerp. 1882;
s,
ra
the sick, and maintained hospita
flagellants occupy an important p tory of Italian literature as treat
religious lyric and the spiritual
early flagellants of 1260 had sung
in the popular speech (laude). vernacular spiritual song was
tad in the flagellant brotherhood crowding out the Latin hymns, an
the most richly developed litery
Italian language. At an early period certain dramatic elements found their way into the spiritual popular song, the singers, for instance, turning with appeals and questions to Christ or Mary, and receiving answers from them. From this point it was but a alight step to complete dramatization of the laude, and the creation of the popular religious play. The stage presentation of these dramatic laude, whose theme, of course, purported to be first and foremost the history of the life and Passion of Christ, is to be rated henceforth among the principal services of the Italian flagellant brotherhoods. See RELIGIOUS DRAMAS.
From the sixteenth century onward, the Society of Jesus wrought with impassioned zeal toward the diffusion of self‑castigation, especially in the Marianite sodalities under Jesuit direction. In close touch with the Jesuits were also the French penitential and flagellant brotherhoods of the six‑
teenth century, which had much in6. Later fluence in the political life of France Manifests‑ under King Henry III (1574‑89).
tioas and In Germany, too, owing mainly to the
Develop‑ influence of the Jesuits and Capuchins,
	meats.	the self‑castigation of laymen was
		again widely espoused in the sixteenth
century. The most notable German scholar of the
Jesuit Order, Jacob Gretscher (q.v.), compiled
(1806‑13) a comprehensive history and vindication
of self‑castigation, with a view to promoting its
diffusion as widely as possible. Thanks again to
the Jesuits' propaganda, flagellation celebrated
brilliant triumphs, after the sixteenth century, in
parts beyond Europe; especially in India, Persia,
Japan, the Philippines, and particularly in the
American provinces of Spain. Indeed even to the
present day flagellation has stoutly asserted itself
in South America, Mexico, and in the southwestern
portion of the United States‑ the brotherhoods
(Ht;rmanos pen.itentes) of New Mexico and Colorado
recently numbered their members by thousands,
and pushed their fanaticism to the point of cruci
fying their members, insomuch that Leo XIII. felt
prompted to interpose against their processions.
In South America. flagellation of laymen is still in
many places a customary and regular practise, in
specified churches, and according to ritual forms.
In like manner the practise of self‑castigation in
aerva	•• 	•
L. Holster and M. Brockie, Codes regularum monaaticarum et canonicarum, ii. 329, v. 98, 967, vi. 97, 181, 258, 278, 340. 523, Augsburg, 1759; Kober, in TQ, Ivii (187b), 3 sqq., 355 eqq.; P. Hinschius, System des katholiachen Kire)terarechta, iy. 737, 803, 814, v. 78, 547, 824, Berlin, 1887; H. C. Lea. Hint. of inquisition, i. 272, 484, ii. 381 sqq., New York, 1906; idem, H%st. of Auricular Confession
ii. 152‑153, London, 1898; U. Zockler, Askew and MSnchthum, Frankfort, 1897; W. M. Cooper, Flagellation and as Flagellants, London, 1898; A. Cabarbs. La Flagellation dons fhiatoire et la littErsture, Paris. 1899; h`'tuda our la Flagellation, ib. 1899 (includes religious and primitive uses); J. Holmes, Memoirs of Private Flagellation. ib. 1899; A. Eulenberg, Sadiamua and Maaochdamua, New
York, 1902; H%et. of Flagellation among Different Nations, ib. 1904; Heimbucher, Order and Xonpregationen, ii. 221,
iii. 263; KL, iii., 1819 sqq•. 1532 sqq.
II. Helyot, Ordrea monaatiques, vol. viii.; G. Lami,
Lezioni di antich%th toscane. pp. 813‑671 Florence, 1788; G. B. Vermiglioli, Stories a constituzwni dally confraternity
dad Nob%li dells Giustizia, Perugia, 1848; A. Stumpf, Hietoria ftagel7antium, Halls, 1838; J. J. I. von D6llinger, in H%atoriachea Taschenbueh, 1871, pp. 322 eqq.; E. Monaci, in R%viata d% fiiologia Romanzs, i (1872). 235 eqq.;
R. Rehricht, Bibliographiache Beitrdtge our Geachishte der Geissler, in ZKG, i (1877), 313 aqq.: H: Haupt, Relipitlse Sekten in Franker, W iirzburg, 1882; Idem, in ZKG, ix (1888). 114 eqq.; R. Ilemger. Der Schwaru Tod in Deutschland, Berlin, 1882; C. Lechner, in Hiatoriaches Jahrbuch der Gorreageaellachaft, v (1884), 438 eqq.' idem, Die groese Geiaselfahrt des . . 13.49, ib. v. 437‑482; A. Gaspary. Geachichte der italieniachen Litteratur, i. 141 eqq., Berlin, 1885; F. Haseaurek, Vier Jahre enter den SpaniahAmerikanern, pp. 141 aqq., Dresden, 1887; P. Fredericq, Corpus documentorum %nquisitionda . . Neerlandica, i. 190 eqq., ii. 98 eqq., Ghent, 1889‑98; idem, Geachiedan%a der Inyuisitie in de Nederlanden, ii. 8 eqq., 1897; A. D 'Ancons, Origini dal teaCro italiano, vol. i. passim, Turin, 1891;
G. de Gregorio, Capitoli dells prima compagn4a di diecdplina d% San N%colb di Palermo, Palermo, 1891; W. Creisenach, Geschichte des neueren Dramas, i. 304 eqq., Halle, 1893; G. Mazzatinti, Coatituzion% dei diseiplinati d. 3. Andrea di Perugia, Forli. 1893; P. Fags, Hint. de S. Vincent Ferrier, 2 vols., Paris, 1894; E. Michael, in ZKT, xxiii. (1899) 180‑181; F. Rungs, Die Lieder and Melodien der Geissler, Leipsic, 1900; G. Galli, Diaciplinanti dell Um‑
bria dal 1880 ale Zoro Laud%, supplement to Giornale atorico delta letteratura Italians, Turin. 1908; P. Flade, in
Beitriige zur aocha%achen Kirchenpeach%chte. g. 81 eqq.; G. B. Menapaee. Notizie stories intorno a% battuti dal TrenClno, in Archivio Trentina, vole. ix.‑a.; Nea>1der,
Christian Church, v. 412; Schaff, Christian Church, iv. 788 eqq., v. 1, pp. 875 sqq.
FLATT, JOHANN FRIEDRICH. See Tt1s>rraEx
SCHOOL, THE OLDER.
FLATTICH, JOHANN FRIEDRICH: Swabian
preacher and pedagogue; b. at Beihingen near Ludwigsburg (8 m. n. of Stuttgart) Oct. 3, 1713;

327
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
d. at Manchingen (7 m. n.w. of Stuttgart) June 1, 1797. He went through the usual course of study of the Wurttemberg theologians, became preacher in Hohenasperg in 1742, in Metterzimmern in 1747, and in Manchingen in 1760. Though he always remained a simple country parson, he possessed a marked personality, an original wit ,and a clear perception which in its judgment of men and things was remarkably accurate. He was sincere, upright, and courageous enough to tell the truth to the reigning duke and his courtiers. His theological position was that of Bengel, whose disciple he was, and he was as mild as his teacher and avoided all theological Sad churchly extremes, both of Pietism and of rationalism.
	He is chiefly known as a teacher. Even while a
student he began to instruct young people from
pure love, and continued this activity until his
old age. He usually had fifteen to twenty pupils
in his home, children and youths from every class
and destined for the most different vocations.
His methods of teaching were entirely original.
By the influence of his vital Christian personality,
by the power of his forbearing, active, supplicating
love, he made efficient men even from the most
cankerous material. 	(H. MOSAPP.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: K. F. Ledderhose, Leben and Schrsften room
J. F. Flattich, Heidelberg, 1873; idem, Z9pe Gus dam Lebm lee . . . J. F. Flattich, Stuttgart, 1873; C. Schafer, Flatr"'s pddagopiachea System, Frankfort, 1871; P. Paulus, J. F. Flattieh, sin Sokrates unserer Zeit, Stuttgart, 1875; G. Weitbreht, J. F. FlattdWs psydolopiache Beitrdpe aw Gymnasialpddapopik, ib. 1873.
FLAVEL, JOHN: English Presbyterian; b. At Bromsgrove (12 m. s.s.w. of Birmingham), Worcestershire, c. 1630; d. at Exeter, Devonshire, June 26, 1691. He studied at Oxford and in 1650 became curate of Diptford, in Devonshire. In 1656 he removed to Dartmouth. On being deprived of his living in 1662 by the Act of Uniformity, he continued to preach privately until the Five Mile Act (1665) drove him from Dartmouth. He then retired to Slapton, five miles away, where he continued to preach. bn the granting of the indulgence of 1671 he resumed his services at Dartmouth. Later the privilege of preaching was withdrawn from him and he was forced to seek safety in London. Afterward he returned to Dartmouth and met his people nightly at his own house, until in 1687, on the relaxation of the penal laws, they built a meeting‑house for him. Flavel was a voluminous writer of popular works strongly Evangelical in sentiment, including, Husbandry Spiritualized (London, 1669); Navigation Spiritualized (1671); A Saint Indeed (1671); The Fountain of Life Opened (1672); The, Seaman's Companion (1676); and An Exposition of the Assembly's Catechism (1693). There have been several collected editions of his works (new ed., 6 vols., London, 1820), and some of his writings are still reprinted as tracts.
BIHLIOaaAP87; The Life is prefixed to the collected edition
of his Works. Consult: A. b Wood, Athena: Oxonisnaea, ed. P. Bliss, iv. 323‑326, London, 1820; S. Palmer, Non. conformists' Memorial, ii. 18‑22, London, 1778.
FLAMM: The name of two bishops of Antioch. 1. Patriarch 381‑404; b. in the early part of the fourth century; d. in Antioch June, 404.
Fiat;ellation
Flavian of Constantinople
of the sixty years of his life before he was consecrated bishop of Antioch in 381 little is known; Chrysostom states that he was the child of wealthy parents who died while he was still young. Despite his wealth he remained faithful to the ascetic ideal, and as an adherent of the Nicene party, to which he may have been converted by Eustathius (see EUSTATHIBs OF ANmOCH), whose last sermon he heard, was one of the Successful opponents of the Arianism of Bishop Leontius (344‑357). At that period he evidently sided with the partizans of Eustathius, but after the formation of the neo‑Nicene party Flavian joined it and during the banishment of Meletius (see MELETius of ANTZocH) he and his friend Diodorus (q.v.) directed the fortunes of the neo‑Nicenes of Antioch with wise resistance to Arian teachings. In 378 Diodorus was consecrated bishop of Tarsus, and three years later Flavian accompanied Meletius to Constantinople, only to be chosen, after the sudden death of this bishop, his successor by the neo‑Nicene majority in the First Council of Constantinople. This 'choice, however, resulted in many dissensions, the primary consequence being a revival of the Meletian schism (see MELwTIUs OF ANTlocn). Apart from this there is but scanty knowledge of his episcopate. He ordained both Chrysostom and Theodore ‑ of Mopsuestia to the priesthood, the former in 386, while in the following year he hastened to Constantinople in a successful endeavor to appease £he emperor's anger at the affront shown him by the riotous citizens of Antioch who had mutilated the imperial statues. He emphasized the honor due to the saints, and was eager that they should be interred far from heretical graves. Flavian convened a synod of three other bishops and thirty priests and deacons to oppose the Messalians (q.v.), and Adelphins, one of their leaders, was condemned, with his followers, and excommunicated. He was still able to travel to Constantinople in 394. The precise day of his death is unknown, but it certainly was not Sept. 27, his festival in the Greek Church.
Except for an allusion of Photius to two letters of Flavian against the Memalians, one to the inhabitants of Osrhoene and the other to an Armenian bishop, only nine brief citations from nine homilies are known, seven of these being found in the Eranistea, of Theodoret and two in Leontius of Byzantium. These fragments are sufficient, however, to show that he was Antiochian in dogmatics. The oration ascribed to him by Chrysostom as delivered before Theodosius is in great part, if not entirely, the invention of his pupil.
2. Bishop 498‑512. See MoNoPHysITES.
(F. LooFs.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources of knowledge are the $isL sod. of
	Theodoret and the writings of Chryeoetom. Consult:
	Tillemont, M6moires, vol. x.; idem, Histoirs des empereurs,
	vol. a. L.; E. Dupin, Nouvelle bibliothkw lee auteurs
	sodhiaa"iii. 6‑7, Paris, 1893; Ceillier, Auteurs saerbs,
	vi.3 10‑318 et passim; DCB, ii. 527‑531; %L, iv. 1544‑46.
FLAVL43 OF CONSTANTINOPLE: Bishop of Ccnstantinople; b. in the second half of the fourth century; d. at Hypepe in Lydia, 449. Little is known concerning him except his part in the Eutychian controversy (Bee EuTycHiAN‑

F16ohier Flesh
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
ism), although Theophanes and Nicephorus, ap
parently basing their statements on reliable tra
dition, say that before his consecration he was
a presbyter and skmophylax in Constantinople.
Where he received his education is unknown, nor
is his theological position absolutely determined
either by the attacks made on him by Dioscurus of
Alexandria, which were not necessarily theological
in origin, or by his own opposition to Eutyches,
which seems to have been inspired by Eusebius of
Dorylseum. He was apparently Antiochian in his
dogmatics, thus explaining the hostility of Chrysa
phius, the Alexandrine favorite of the emperor.
Flavian was finally condemned and deposed for his
share in the Eutychian controversy by the " Rob
ber Synod " of Ephesus in 449 and died shortly
afterward. There is no evidence, however, that
his death was other than natural, although the
Greek Church reckons him a martyr, and celebrates
his festival on Feb. 18. 	(F. Lo°rs.)
BIBLIOa8AP87: Two of Flavisn'e letters again‑t Eutychee are printed in the Acts of the Synod of Ephesus. Consult: ASB, Feb., iii. 71‑79; DCB, ii. 532; AL, iv. 16421544; Ceillier, Auteura sacrie, vol. x., passim.
FLECHIER, ESPRIT: Bishop of Nimes; b. at Pernes (10 m. n.e. of Avignon), in the county of Avignon, June 10, 1632; d. at Montpellier Feb. 16, 1710. His uncle, the learned monk Hercule Audiffret, educated him from 1648 to 1658 in the college of the Congr6gation des Doctrinaires, of which he was director. After the death of his uncle Fldchier went to Paris and devoted himself to the art of poetry. He attracted some attention by a Latin poem on a grand tournament held by Louis XIV., but the lack of an influential patron forced him to take the position of a teacher in the country. Later he returned to Paris where he was active as pulpit orator and author. He attracted the attention of Louis XIV. and won his permanent favor. He became a rival of Bossuet, but his orations were at times too artificial and lacked great and high thoughts. He won lasting fame only by his funeral orations, that on Marshal Turenne (1676) being his masterpiece. In 1673 he became a member of the Academy, together with Racine. In 1685 he was made bishop of Lavaur, and in 1687
of Nimes. As bishop he was greatly beloved, eve by the Protestants who hid i* his diocese, on accoun
of his mildness and great benevolence. Besid
his funeral oration on Turenne may be mentioned
those on Lamoignon, president of the chamber
(1679), on Queen Maria Theresia (1682), on Chan
cellor Le Tellier (1686), on Marie Anna, Dauphine
of France (1690), and on his friend the Duke of
Montausier (1690). He also wrote biographies of
the Emperor Theodosius (Paris, 1679) and of Car
dinal Ximenes (1693). Inferior in value are
twenty‑five orations on Advent and eight mission
ary and synodical speeches. His (Euvres comylUes
were published in ten volumes at Nimes, 1782, and
at Paris, 1828. 	(C. I~MNDXx.)
BIHmoGaAPHY: A. Delacroix, Hint. da Plichier, Paris. 1865: Lichtenberger. RSR, iv. 767‑773 (elaborate): valuable material is found in the prefaoee to his (Suvras complNes•
FLEET MARRIAGES : The name applied to a class of clandestine and more or less irregular
8$$
n
marriages performed by chaplains of the Fleet
Prison in London during the seventeenth and first
half of the eighteenth centuries. In order to regu
late the disorders in regard to marriage which the
Reformation had introduced, a law was passed
under the Commonwealth (1653) permitting civil
marriage before a justice of the peace. At the
Restoration the earlier law was reestablished and
strictly enforced; but clandestine marriages, avoid
ing the regular alternatives of banns or license,
were still possible, since there were a number of
churches in which on the plea of exemption from
episcopal jurisdiction, the law could be disregarded.
The Fleet Prison, or the territory legally held to
belong to it, was a favorite place for them marriages.
Disreputable clergymen here made a trade of
marrying all comers, without respect to the ful
filment of any necessary conditions, and shameless
competition among them led to the greatest
lsaity. From 1666 various attempts were made
to suppress the evil, but it rather increased, until
it was possible for one abandoned man, named John
Gayhan, who was technically a prisoner there
from 1701 to' 1740, to boast that during that time
he had performed 36,000 marriages. Finally in
1753 a bill was introduced into the House ef Lords
by Hardwicke, the Lord Chancellor," for the better
preventing of clandestine marriages," and became
a law on June 6. Its working was not altogether
satisfactory in detail, and later enactments, espe
cially in 1823, were required to amend it, until a
final settlement of all difficulties was made under
William IV. in 1834 and 1836.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. 8. Burn, The Fleet Registers, Comprising
	the History of Fleet Marriages, London, 1834: H. B. Op
	penheim, in ZICR, i (1881), 8‑9; E. Friedberg, Dw Racht
	der Rluechiiessunp. aoe‑31o, 335‑s36, l.eipeio, lass:
	J. Ashton, Flat River, Prison, and Marriages, London.
	1888.
	FLEETWOOD, JOH1(: The name, probably
assumed, under which was issued The Life of .
Jesus Christ . . . together with the Lives and Suf_
ferings of his Holy Apostles, Evangelists, and Other
Primitive Martyrs (London, 1767 and often), a
work which enjoyed great popularity until it was
superseded by modern and more scholarly lives of
Jesus. Two other volumes, The Christian's Prayer
Book or Complete Manual o f Devotions (London,
t	1772) and The Christian's Dictionary (1775) are
	attributed to the same author.
	FLEETWOOD, WILLIAM: English prelate; b.
in London Jan. 1, 1656; d. at Tottenham (6 m.
n.n.e. of St. Paul's, London) Aug. 4, 1723. He
studied at Eton, and at King's College, Cambridge
(B.A., 1679; M.A., 1683; D.D.,1705). Soon after
taking orders he won renown by a sermon delivered
before King's College, Mar. 25, 1889, in commem
oration of Edward VI., the founder of the college.
He was given a fellowship at Eton, the chapter
rectory of St. Augustine and St. Faith's, London
(Nov. 26, 1689), and soon afterward the lecture‑
ship of St. Dunstan's‑in‑the‑Nest. He held liberal
political views and favored the revolution. Shortly
after the accession of William and Mary he was
appointed chaplain to the king, and in 1702 canon
of Windsor. In 1705 he exchanged his London

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
829
preferments for the living of Wexham in Buckinghamshire. Despite his opposition to her favorite political party, Queen Anne made him bishop of St. Asaph in 1708; and in 1714 Geo. I. translated him to the see of Ely. For his attacks on the Jacobite tendencies of the Tory government in 1712 he was threatened with impeachment and the House of Commons voted that the preface of a volume of sermons he had just published be burned by the public hangman. Besides a number of sermons and charges to the clergy, Fleetwood's works include, Inscriptionum antiquarium sylloge (London, 1691), a collection of Christian and pagan inscriptions; An Essay on Miracles (1701); and Chronieon pretiosum (1707), an investigation of the value of money and commodities for the previous six centuries. His sermons may be found in his Works (London, 1737; new ed., 3 vols., Oxford, 1854).
BIBwoaaAPBY: A Memoir, by Fleetwood's nephew, W . Powell, is prefixed to his Works. Consult: J. H. Monk, Life of Dr. Iiidard Bentley, i. 387‑370, ii. 88, 247, London, 1833; Biopmphia Britannica, vol. ii., ib. 1750; DNB, uz 289‑271.

	FLEXING, DAVID HAY: Scotch Presbyterian;
b. at St. Andrews, Scotland, May 9, 1849. He
studied at Madras College, St. Andrews, 185446,
and then engaged in business until he retired in 1883
to devote himself to the study of Scotch history. In
1904‑06 he was lecturer on church history in New
College, Edinburgh. In theology he is an old
school Presbyterian and a stanch Calvinist.
Among his writings those of theological interest
are The Martyrs and Confessors of St. Andrews
(Cup‑Fife, 1887); Mary Queen of Scots from her
Birth to her Flight into England (London, 1897); The
Scottish Reformation (Edinburgh, 1903); and The
Story o f the Scottish Covenants in Outline (1904).
He has also edited Register o f the Ministers, Elders,
and. Deacons of the Christian Congregation of St.
Andrews, Comprising the Proceedings of the Kirk
Session and of the Court of the Superintendent of
Fife, Fothrik, and Strathearn, 1669‑1600 (2 vole.,
Edinburgh, 1889‑90); A. F. Mitchell's Scottish Ref
ormation (Baud Lectures for 1899, 1900); and
Patrick Walker's Six Saints of the Covenant (2 vols.,
London, 1901).

FLEXING (less correctly Flemming), PAUL: German poet; b. at Hartenatein (9 m. s.e. of Zwickau) in the Saxon Vogtland, Oct. 5, 1609 (old style); d. at Hamburg Apr. 2, 1640. When about twelve years of age, he entered the Thomasachule at Leipsic, and in 1628 began his studies at the university. Along with his professional course in medicine, he occupied himself with dialectics, rhetoric, and poetics; and in 1633 became doctor of philosophy. In 1633‑39 he made a journey to Persia, as attach6 of an embassy despatched by Duke Frederick III. of Holstein. The travelers' remarkable experiences were described by Oleariua in his Beschrerbung der neuen orientalischen Reise (Slezwick, 1647). After his return, Fleming was graduated in Leyden as doctor of medicine. On the way thence to Reval, where he was intending to settle as physician, he fell ill and died at Hamburg, probably in consequence of hardships endured on
V16ohier Flesh
the journey. He is buried in St. Catherine's Church at Hamburg.
Fleming is one of the most noteworthy German poets. His style is influenced by Opita (whom he knew personally at Leipsic), but he is perfectly independent in the contents of his poems. These refer, for the most part, to his personal experiences, and are the natural expression of his deep and genuine sensibilities. They enable us to accompany him through his brief and stirring life, and reveal him as a believing Christian and highly cultivated noble man. He wrote in the Latin language quite as aptly and freely as in his mother tongue. The beat known of his poems is the hymn, In allm meinen Thaten lass ich den H6chsten rathen (Eng. travel. by Miss Winkworth, " Where'er I go, wbate'er my task), which he composed prior to departing for Persia. The edition of Fleming's poems prepared, at his own request, by Olearius after his death (Hamburg, 1641) contains only a small selection of the German poems. So, too, an edition that appeared at Liibeck in 1642 is very defective. The first accurate edition is by J. M. Lappenberg, Paul Flemings lateinische Gediehte (Stuttgart, 1863). and Deutsche Gedichte (2 vole., 1865).
CARL BimTmuv.
BrswouaAPaZ: J. Moller, Cimbria literate, ii. 193 sqq., Copenhagen, 1744; C. H. Jardene, Lexikon dsuteiier Did6sr, i. 544 aqq., v. 97 aqq., 8 vole., Leipsic. 1806‑11; K. A. Varvhagen von Eves, Biopraphieche Denkmala, iv. 1188, Berlin, 1848 (gives account of Fleming's travels); J. M. Lappenberg, Paul Flemings lateinische Gedirhts, Stuttgart, 1883; idem, Deuteehe f)edirhte, ii. 851‑894, ib. 1885 (the basis of 71ttmann); J. Tittmann, Gediichde von Paul Fleming, Leipsie, 1870; E. E. Koch, GssahidW des R%rchsalieds and Kirrkenpesanp, iii. 73‑82, 8 vols., Stuttgart, 1888‑77; ADB, ui.115 eqq.; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 378‑379.
FLESH.
Biblical Usage. The Problem of Interpretation (1 1). The Hebrew Basar (§ 2).
•' Flesh " Equivalent to " Man " (§ 3). Jewish Usage (5 4). . New Testament Usage (¢ 5). Paul (4 6).
	The Bible has different representations of man's
material nature: The term " flesh " is always
used with reference to man's body; so that Chrya
oatom's comment on Gal. v. 16 is anything but
precise‑" The flesh (Gk. sarx) is not the body, nor
the essence of the body, but the evil disposition,
		the earthly, lustful, and lawless rea
	:. Biblical son." The same is true of Julius
Usage. The Milller's definition,‑" The flesh is the
Problem of tendency or inclination of human life
	Interpre‑ turned away from God, the life and
	tation. movement of man in the midst of the
		things of this visible world." The
flesh is regarded as endowed with mind (Gk.
per, Rom. viii. 6), desire or lust (epithymia,
Gal. v.16; I John ii. 16), will (thelima,Eph. ii. 3), ate.,
and can not, therefore, stand for a disposition of the
will. Sari designates, not a tendency or disposi
tion of the flesh, but the flesh itself with that dis
position. But a problem arises,‑how can aarx
be considered the subjective cause‑of‑such disposi
tion while usually kardia (°' heart ") is looked upon
as the seat of the will (Matt. xv. 10; Rom. i. 24)P

Ms,
This difficulty can not be solved by the perception that man himself as the subjective cause of such disposition may be designated as flesh because he is represented in it; for 8arx does not in the Bible always mean man himself, but that which shapes him, his guiding principle (ef. Rom. vii. 14, with verses 18 and 25); this observation, however, leads to a correct understanding of the difficulty.
	It is necessary to go back to the Old Testament
baaar, and	y to basar in the sense of sarx,
	in which it is used only of the flesh of man, while
	it is used in the sense of kreas only with regard to
	animals (i.e., the flesh of sacrifice). In
s. The this special application to man briar Hebrew means in the first place the substance
	Briar.	of the body. The bones or blood are
		sometimes mentioned with flesh, as
constituting the body (Luke xxiv. 39; 1 Cor. xv.
50). By synecdoche flesh is used for the body
(Ps. xvi. 9; Cor. x. 3). This use of the term is
a Hebrew idiom, foreign to the Greek; so that the
Septuagint often translates the Hebrew briar by
soma (" body "). The expression " all flesh " is
sometimes used for the race in its totality (Gen.
vi. 17), but usually for the race as human (Gen.
vi. 12; Luke iii. 6, etc.).
This leads to the peculiarity of the Biblical use of the word. It designates man because man appears through it, and manifests his nature by it; in the flesh man has his life‑he is flesh.
3. "• Bleslt" This attribute he shares with the
Equivalent whole living universe. Flesh is the
to 'tlle<an.'s condition and outward expression of its existence; by the flesh it manifests its solidarity. 'Thus; as flesh, it is weak and frail (Pa. lxxviii. 39). Flesh is not spirit, nor vital power (In. xxxi. 3), but stands in living and moral contrast to spirit, the spirit of God (Dent. v. 26).
Thus in the Old Testament the term "flesh" connects itself with the conception, of impotence, need of salvation, and sinfulness f man whose distinction from God is the distinction between flesh and spirit. The development of the term in the New Testament and especially in Paul may be traced directly tb this Old Testament conception, while the development of the term in the synagogue was quite different.
The most significant traits of the Old Testament representation practically disappear in the Apocrypha. Sarx is spoken of as the substance of the human body (Sirach xix. 12, xliv. 20;
4. Jewish Judith xiv. 10 etc.). Pass sarx oc‑
	Usage.	curs with the same meaning as in the
		Old Testament (Sirach i. 8, xiii: 15;
Judith ii. 3; etc.). But the idea of lowliness and
frailty disappeared almost altogether, likewise the
idea of distinction from God. The same may be
said of the Pseudepigraphs and the remaining
post‑Biblical literature of the synagogue. Alex
andrianism accepted the Old Testament meaning as
little as did the theologians of the synagogue. The
Septuagint perverted in important passages (Num.
xvi. 22; lea. xxxi. 3) the relation of spirit or God
and flesh into the distinction between spirit and
matter. Philo uses sarx in the sense of evil dis‑
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
position. This is not a translation of Biblical views into Alexandrinian philosophy, but it is most clearly a translation of the synagogal view of the yeger ha‑ra', the evil disposition, the disposition toward the sensual from which the real evil has procPxded.
On this account it is the more peculiar that the writers of the New Testament‑‑Paul not exceptedhave not built on this later foundation, but have gone back to the Old Testament. In the synoptic
Gospels and in Acts sarx designates g. New the substance of the body (Luke
Testament xsiv. 39; Acts ii. 26, 31), man and Usage, humanity (Matt. xix. 5, 6; Mark a. 8;
etc.). It denotes the distinction from God and that not in the physical sense, hence the incongruous, relation of 8arx to the divine principle of life in the heart of man‑ (Matt. xxvi. 41; Mark xiv. 31). The writings of Jon and Peter, the Epistle of Jude, and the Epistle to the Hebrews do not add any essential features except that " flesh " also indicates the peculiarity of man's external nature. Thus it is opposed to pneuma, or spirit (Col. ii. 1, 5).
In the writings of Peter the contrast between sarx and gmeuma appears as s contrast of 8arx and the spirit of God (I Pet. iii. 18), and as a contrast of sarz and the human pnevma (I Pet. iv. 6). The same contrast between God or the spirit of God and the flesh dominates the use of the word in the writings of John. Here the expression " The Word was made flesh " (John i. 14) has its force from the contrast with (verse 1) " The Word was God." The same contrast appears in Ps. lvi. 5, 2; Chron. xxxii. 8; II Cor. xiii. 4. Sarx in distinction from God and his spirit denotes frailty, helplessness, need of salvation.
The sinfulness of the flesh is emphasized by Paul (Rom. viii. 3). In this sense he calls the body " a body of the flesh" aama tea aarkos (Col. ii. 11), and life a " walking in the flesh " (II Cor. x. 3). Corresponding to the peculiarity of the New Testament revelation of salvation, the Old Testament contrast between God and man, flesh and spirit, has developed into the contrast between 8arx and the Pneic»ea hagion. In connection with the latter contrast Paul defines the relation between sarx
and sin in so far as with the former 6. Paul and through it there adheres to man
an evil disposition, a being sold unto sin (Rom. vii. 14). Man is dominated by sin; it lives in and through him. It was therefore easy for Chrysoetom to identify sari with an evil disposition or for Neander to define it as " human nature in its alienation from God." In a similar way Holstea maintained that for Paul aarz was.the material, sensual substance in contrast with pneuma as the immaterial, spiritual and Divine substance. In the sarx and lmeuma of Paul there is, according to Holaten, the opposition of the finite and the infinite, evil and good, so that in Pauline theology sin was a necessity. The whole Pauline view of the world, according to him, forms a dualism which has its root in the Jewish and Hellenistic view of the world. But it has been shown above that the thoughts of Paul as well as the other writings, of the New Testament are in no way dependent upon the

331	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Flesh
		Fletcher
development in the later synagogue or Alexandrian
philosophy, but have developed directly from the
old Testament. This phenomenon shows itself also
in other important points of the New Testament
dispensation and compels the assumption of a double
tendency in religious thought,‑the one represented
and influenced by the synagogue as a theological
school and its mode of expression, laid down in the
Old Testament Apocrypha, Pseudepigrapha, and
the Talmudic writings as well as in Philo, the other
starting directly from the O1dTestament and known
through the New Testament.
	If this be conceded, much has been gained for the
decision of the question. Passages like Rom. vii.
14‑15 show the strongest contrast to the later
synagogal conception of sarx. Whenever Paul
speaks of sari, he means present reality, and does
not denote by it the source and cause of sin in
the world. The sarx is the seat of sin and not the
cause of its existence; it is chained to life and prop
agates itself through it and with it in a way which
has originated not through God, but through the
fall. Therefore with life impotence and death
propagate themselves and with them the inability
to lead a life pleasing to God and the tendency to
ward the contrary, " ° enmity against God " (Rom.
viii. 7, 8). We are what we are and as we are
through the flesh, we are in the flesh, in its power
instead of in that of the Spirit, we are flesh.
But this evidently does not mean that flesh is the
source of sin, it does not even mean that the flesh
in distinction from the other parts of the human
being is the seat of sin; for everything, even the
heart, the seat of the origin of sin,‑pertains to man
through the flesh, or, as we might say, to the flesh
itself. Since sin is in the world, there are only sin
ners born by the flesh, and thus the apostle may
distinguish between noun and sari as he does in
Rom. vii. 25.
	Thus there is no reason why sarx shduld mean
human nature. It rather means the flesh in its
peculiar nature as it has been implanted into
man by the fall. Even Christ appeared " in the
likeness of sinful flesh " (Rom. viii. 3), an expres
sion which denotes not the difference but the agree
ment with our case. He entered into the flesh with
all the consequences of sin or the fall (Col. i. 22;
Heb. ii. 14); but his own spiritual nature overcame,
so to speak, at the very beginning, its disposition to
sin. See SOUL AND SPIRIT.	(H. CREMERt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Delitzseh, System der bibiischen Psycho
	lopie, Leipsic, 1855, Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1867; J. J.
	van Oostersee, Christian Dogmatics, ii. 365, 398, 659,
	New York; 1874; H. H. Wendt, Die Beprife Fleisch and
	Geist in biblischen Sprachpebrauch, Goths, 1878; B. Weiss,
	Biblical Theology of the New Testament, §§ 27, 67, 68, 86,
	100, 115, 124, 128, 139, 145, Edinburgh, 1882‑83; W. P;
	Dickson, St. Paul's Use of the Terms Flesh and Spirit,
	London, 1883; 0. Z6ekler, HandMuh der theolopischen
	Wiseensclwften, i. 342 sqq., 347 sqq., iii. 307, 531‑532,
	NSrdlingen, 1889, Munich, 1890; O. Pfleiderer, Der Paul
	inismus, pp. 60‑78, Leipsic, 1890; H. Schultz, Old Testa
	ment Theology, i. 399, ii. 112, 242 sqq., 300‑301, 314
	315, Edinburgh, 1892; J. Laidlaw, Bible Doctrine of Man,
	pp. 109‑120, 270‑274, ib. 1895; W. Beyschlag, New Tes
	tament Theology, i. 88, 91, 228, ii. 28, 38, 42 eqq., ib.
	1896; G. B. Stevens, Theology of the New Testament, pp.
	189‑190, 338‑339, New York, 1899; A. B. Davidson,
	Theology of the Old Testament, pp. 188‑192, ib. 1904; and
	the lexioons.
FLETCHER, GILES (called the Younger, to distinguish him from his father‑b. about 1549; d. 1611‑also known as a poet): English divine and religious poet; b. in London c. 1588; d. at Alderton (11 m. e.s.e. of Ipswich), Suffolk, 1623. He was educated at Westminster School and Trinity College, Cambridge (B.A., 1606), where he became a minor fellow in 1608, reader in Greek grammar in 1615, and reader in the Greek language in 1618. Soon afterward he left the university and became rector at Alderton, Suffolk. Fletcher is known principally by the poem, Christ's Victory anal Triumph in Heaven and Earth over and after Death (2 parts, , Cambridge, 1610; modern editions, London, 1869, 1876, by A. B. Grosart, 1888, 1899, etc.) which has been called one of the most remarkable religious poems in the language: It undoubtedly furnished Milton with valuable suggestions, which he utilized in Paradise Regained. Fletcher published also The Reward of the Faithful (London, 1623), a theological treatise in prose.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Consult the Preface by A. B. Grosart to
his edition of the Poems, London, 1876; DNB, xix. 302.

FLETCHER, JOHN WILLIAM (FLETCHER OF MADELEY) : Associate of John ,.Wesley and one of the most pious and useful ministers of his generation; b. at Nyon (on the Lake of Geneva, 21 m. s.w. of Lausanne), Canton of Vaud, Switzerland, Sept. 12, 1729; d. at Madeley (13 m. e. s.e. of Shrewsbury), Shropshire, Aug. 14, 1785. His name was originally Dela lildch&e. He was a fine scholar in his youth, and took all the prizes at the school in Geneva which he attended. He was designed
Early	by his parents for the ministry, but
	Life.	preferred the army. Against their
		wishes he went to Lisbon and enlisted,
but was prevented from going to Brazil by an acci
dent which confined him for some time to his bed.
The vessel was lost at sea. Fletcher returned to
Switzerland, but, not disheartened, went to Flan
ders at the invitation of his uncle, who promised
to secure a commission in the army for him. The
sudden death of his relative, and the termination
of the war, again interfered with his plans. He
then went to England, and became tutor in the
family of Thomas Hill, of Shropshire, in 1752.
A new period soon began in Fletcher's history. He heard the Methodists. Their language about faith was a new revelation to him, and in 1755 he united with one of their societies. In 1757 he was ordained priest by the bishop of Bangor. During the next few years he preached occasionally for John Wesley and others, and became known as a public supporter of the great religious revival. In 1760 he accepted the living of Madeley, against the advice of Wesley, with whom, however, he preserved a lifelong friendship.
For twenty‑five years, with the exception of the interval between 1776 and 1781, when ill health forced him to take a respite from
Vicar of work, Fletcher labored at Madeley
	Madeley.	with singular devotion and zeal. He
		preached with great fervor the plain
truths of the Gospel, and labored incessantly
during the week to awaken sinners. It was his

Pletoher	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	389
Fuedner
custom to rise at five o'clock Sabbath morning, and
go through the neighborhood ringing a bell, that
no one might be able to give as an excuse for non
attendance at church that he was not aroused in
time. He visited worldly entertainments, and with
the fearlessness of John Knox preached to the
astounded revelers upon the folly of forbidden
pleasures. Great and blessed results followed
such fidelity. In 1768 he was called to preside over
Lady Huntingdon's College at Trevecca, Wales, and
accepted, the call requiring only occasional visita
tion, not continuous residence. The discussion
over Calvinism and Arminianism among the Meth
odists led him to resign in 1771.
	As a preacher, Fletcher directed his appeals to
the conscience. He was well trained, and had a
fine voice. As a man, he was characterized by
saintly piety, rare devotion, and blamelessness
of life. In the judgment of Southey, " no age
ever produced a man of more fervent piety,
or more perfect charity, and no church ever
possessed a more apostolic minister," and Wesley
characterized him as the holiest man he had ever
met, or ever expected to meet " this side of eter
nity."
	In theology, Fletcher was an Arminian of
Arminians. Most of his writings are directed
against Calvinism, were written to defend Wesley,
			and grew out of controversies with
		His	Toplady and Rowland Hill. Some
	Theology of these works are still extensively
		and	circulated, and are authoritative in
	Writings. the Methodist churches. However,
			controversial as his writings are,
Fletcher was not a polemist, but always treated his
opponents with fairness and courtesy, and in this
presented a marked contrast to Toplady and to John
Wesley. He was also a millenarian (cf. his letter
to John Wesley, Nov. 29, 1755). He sympathized
with Wesley's views concerning the revolt of the
American colonies and wrote two tracts to show
that " the right of taxing subjects, with or without
their consent, is an inseparable appendage of supreme
government," viz., A Vindication of Mr. Wesley's
" Calm Address to Our American Colonies " (Lon
don, 1776) and American Patriotism Farther Con
fronted with Reason, Scripture, and the Constitution
(Shrewsbury, 1776). These writings were read at
court and opened the way to high preferment,
which he refused to consider. His principal works
were Checks to Antinomianism, called forth by the
dispute in 1771, and The Portrait of St. Paul, or
the True Model for Christians and Pastors, trans
lated from a French manuscript after Fletcher's
death, with a notice of the author (2 vols., Shrews
bury, 1790). The first complete edition of his
works appeared in London, 8 vols., 1803; there is
a four‑volume edition issued by the Methodist Book
Concern in New York. 	D. S. SCHAFF.
Brsr.roanerar:The principal biography is by J. Benson,
4th ed.. London. 1817. Other lives are by L, Tyerman,
ib. 1882; F. W. Macdonald, ib. 1885; J. Marratt, ib. 1902;
DNB, six. 312‑314. Consult also: A. Stevens, History . , . Methodism. 3 vole., New Fork, 1858‑81: J. C.
RYIe. Christian Leaders of the Last Century, pp. 383‑423.
London, 1889; F J. Snell, Wesley and Methodism. Edin‑
burgh, 1900.
FLETCHER, JOSEPH: English independent; b. at Cheater Dec. 3, 1784; d. at Stepney, London, June 8, 1843. He attended the grammar‑school at Cheater, then studied at Hoxton, and at the University of Glasgow (M.A., 1807; D.D., 1830). He was pastor of the Congregational Church at Blackburn 1807‑23, and at the same time (after 1816) tutor in theology at Blackburn College. In 1823 he became pastor at Stepney. He was chairman of the Congregational Union in 1837. Fletcher was a voluminous writer and a regular contributor to the newly established Eclectic Review. His works include: Spiritual Blessings (13lackburn, 1814; 6th ed., London, 1891); Principles and Institutions of the Roman Catholic Religion (London, 1817), which received generous praise; Personal Election and Divine Sovereignty (1825), also favorably received; and Poems (1846), in collaboration with hi9 sister, Mary Fletcher. His Select Works and Memoirs (3 vole., 1846) were edited by his son, Joseph Fletcher of Hanley.

FLEURY, ABBEY OF: Formerly a celebrated Benedictine abbey at Fleury‑aur‑Lobe in the diocese of OrlEans and 20 m. e.a.e. of the city. It was founded by Abbot Leodebod of St. Anian, later bishop of Ormana, in the early part of the reign of Clovis II (638‑657). The body of St. Benedict was brought here about 653, and this obtained many privileges for the abbey and made it a center of pilgrimage from all parts of Europe. The community was reformed by Odo of Cluny, and it became a famous seat of discipline and learning, which contributed not a little to the support of Dunstan's reforms in England. The school remained in great esteem until the sixteenth century, sometimes having as many as 5,000 pupils, and the library was exceedingly valuable until it was in part scattered by the zeal of the Huguenots (1561). Many of the manuscripts are now preserved in the municipal library of Orleans. Ultimately the monks associated themselves with the congregation of Saint Maur (q.v.).
BIHLIOaRAPHr: Chronicon Floriaunee, in A. lhrohesne, Hisforim Francarum script., iii. 355 eqq., Paris, 1840, abbreviated in M(iH., Script., ii (1829), 264 eq9via Christiana, viii. 1538; Cuieeard‑Gaueheron, R.I. de Fieury‑aur‑Loire, in M~naoirea de is aociktk arch6olagique de t'Orl€a.nais, aiv (1875), bbl eqq.; AL, iv. lbb4‑57.

FLEURY, CLAUDE: French historian and ecclesiastic; b. at Paris Dec. 6, 1640; d. there July 14, 1723. He was educated at the college of Clermont, studied law, and for nine years practised as an advocate at Paris, where in 1674 he published his Histoire du droit frangais. Following the bent of his contemplative nature, however, and influenced by such men as Boeauet, he took orders, and was appointed tutor to the princes of Conti (1672), the count of Vermandoia (1680), and the dukes of Burgoyne, Anjou, and Berry (1689). In 1683 he received the Cistercian abbey of Locdien in Rhodes, and was elected to the Academy in 1696 as the successor of La Bruy&e. He declined the proffered see of Montpellier, but in 1706 accepted from Louis XIV. the priory of NBtre Dame d'Argenteuil, where he remained until 1716, when he was recalled to court as the confessor of Louis XV. This position

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
333
he resigned in 1722, the year before his death. Fleury's reputation rests chiefly upon his Histoire eceldsiastique (20 vols., Paris, 1691‑1720), a history of the Church to 1414, written with much detail and moderation of tone from a standpoint of pronounced Gallicanism, but marred by a lack of critical acumen. It was continued to 1778 by Jean Claude Faber and Alexandre la Croix, though with less happy results. In the middle of the nineteenth century the manuscript of Fleury's own continuation to 1517 was discovered at Paris and published in the latest edition of the entire work (Histoire meldsiastique par l'Abbd Fleury, augmentde de quatre livres, 6 vols., Paris, 1640), but is far inferior in value to the preceding part of the work.
For his pupils, Fleury wrote Les Maurs des Israklites (Paris, 1681; Eng. transl., The Manners of the Christians, . . . with Biographical Notes, Oxford, 1872); Las Masum des Chrdtiens (1682); and Grand catdchisme historique (1679). His Institution au droit eccWiatique (Paris, 1692), like his Discours sur lea libertds do l'dglise gallicane (1690), is permeated by a spirit of firm Gallicanism. His pedagogical system was developed in his Traitd du choir et de la mdthode des dtudes (1675). The minor works of Fleury were collected in his Opuscules (5 vols., Nimes, 1780‑81). (EUOI~NE C11018Y.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nicdron, Mt"nwires, vol. viii.; L. E. Dupin,
	Nouvelle bdbliodaque des auteurs ecelaiaetiques, vol. xviii.,
	35 vols., Paris, 1689‑1711; F. R. Guetv6e, Histoire de
	1'eglim de France, vols. x., xi., 12 vols., Paris, 1847‑56;
	L. Genay, Un P6dagogue oublih du xviie a0cle, Paris, 1879.
FLICKINGER, DANIEL ~$UMLER: United Brethren in Christ; b. at Sevenmile, 0., May 25, 1824. He was educated at Germantown Academy and was elected corresponding secretary of the United Brethren Church Missionary Society in 1857, being reelected quadrennially until 1885, when he was chosen foreign missionary bishop. lie has been to Africa twelve times and to Germany five times on missionary tours, and has done much work upon the frontiers of the United States, and also among the Chinese. He is the author of Off‑hand Sketches in Africa (Dayton, 0., 1857); Sermons (in collaboration with Rev. W. J. Shuey; 1859); Ethiopia: or, Twenty‑six Years of Missionary Life in Western Africa (1877); The Church's Marching Orders (1879); and Our Missionary Work from 1863 to 1889 (1889).
BIBLIOGBAFBM D. K. Flickinger, Fifty‑five Years of Active Ministerial Life; Preface by Bishop G. M. Mathews, Dayton, 1907.
FLIEDNER, flid'ner, FRITZ: The "apostle of the gospel in Spain," son. of Theodor Fliedner (q.v.); b. at Kaiserewerth on the Rhine, June 10, 1845; d. at Madrid Apr. 25, 1901. He studied at Halle and Tiibingen, and became teacher in a school at Hilden 1868 and chaplain to the legation of the German Empire at Madrid and evangelist in Spain 1870. Besides editing Bldtter Gus ,Spanien, Revista Christians, and Amigo de la infancia, he published. (in Spanish.) lives of Livingstone, Luther, his father, John Howard, Elizabeth Fry, a hymnbook for Sunday Schools, and various other books of Spanish Christian literature. He also published
Pletcher
FUedner
BMttter and Bluthen, poems (Heidelberg, 1885‑97), Romische Missionspraxis auf den Karolinen (1889); Erzahlungen aua Spanien (1895), Aus meinem Leben, Erinnerungen and Erfahrungen (Berlin, 1900).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Consult. besides the last work mentioned above, F. G. J. Grape, 8panien and des Evangelium,
Halle, 1896.
FLIEDNER, THEODOR: German philanthropist, founder of the Kaiserswerth Deaconesses' Institute and the modem Protestant order of deacon eases (see DEAcoNEss, III., 2, a); b. at Epstein (7 m. n.e. of Wiesbaden), in Nassau, Jan. 21, 1800; d. at Kaiserswerth (on the Rhine, 6 m. n.n.w. of Dosseldorf) Oct. 4, 1864. He was the son of a clergyman and was himself a plain, unpretending German pastor, of great working power, indefatigable zeal, fervent piety, and rare talent of organization. He studied at Giessen, Gdttingen, and Her born and for a year was tutor in a family at Cologne and had begun to doubt his fitness for the ministry, when he received and accepted, in Nov., 1821, what he considered a providential call, from a small Protestant colony at Kaiserswerth, then a Roman Catholic town of 1,800 inhabitants. The failure of a silk manufactory, upon which the town de= pended largely for support, led him to undertake, in the spring of 1822, a collecting tour to keep his struggling congregation alive. By the end of a week he returned with 1,200 thalers. This was the beginning of much greater thihgs. By experience and perseverance he became one of the greatest beggars in the service of Christ. In 1823 he made a tour of Holland and England, which not only resulted in a permanent endowment of his congregation, but suggested to him the idea of his benevolent institutions. " In both these Protestant countries," he relates, " I became acquainted with a multitude of charitable institutions for the benefit both of body and soul. I saw schools and other educational organizations, almhousm, orphanages, hospitals, prisons, and societies for the reformation of prisoners, Bible and missionary societies, etc.; and at the same time I observed that it was a living faith in Christ which had called almost every one of these institutions and societies into life, and still preserved them in activity. This evidence of the practical power and fertility of such a principle had a most powerful influence in strengthening my own faith."
Fliedner made two more journeys to Holland, England, and Scotland (1832 and 1853), in the interest no more of his congregation, but of his institutions. He also visited the United States in 1849 and assisted in founding the Deaconesses' Institute in Pittsburg with Dr. Passavant at its head (see DEACONESS, III. 2, d, 1 1; PASBAVANT, WILLIAM ALFRED). Twice he traveled to the East, in 1851 to aid Bishop Gobat in founding a house of deaconesses in Jerusalem, and again in 1857, when he was, however, too feeble to proceed farther than Jaffa. King Frederick William IV. of Prussia and Queen Elizabeth took the most cordial interest in his labors for the sick and poor, furnished him liberally with means, and founded in 1847 the Bethany hospital with deaconesses at Berlin after the model of Kaiserswerth. In the

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
384
rUesteden
Florian
parsonage garden at Kaiserawerth there still stands	old gave him the position of keeper of. the records in
the little summer‑house, with one room of ten feet	the church of Reims. In 751 he was entrusted with
square, and an attic over it, which was the first	a mission to King Otho I.; in 952 he was appointed
refuge for released female prisoners and magdalen	bishop of Tournay, but owing to unfavorable
asylum, the humble cradle of all Fliedner's institu‑	conditions could not enter his new position. In
tions. In 1849 Fliedner resigned his pastorate to	963 he retired into the monastery of St. Basle.
devote all his time to his institutions. One of his	During his stay at Rome Flodoard was induced
last acts was to consecrate nineteen sisters, the	to write a hexameter poem in three parts on the
largest number up to that time to go out from	" Triumphs of Christ and the Saints," which with
Kaiserswerth in a single year. At his death the	much show of learning and piety tells of the spread
number of deaconesses connected with Kaisers‑	of Christianity and the history of the popes. He
werth and its daughter institutions exceeded 400	compiled a chronicle (Annaks; in MGH, Script.,
(see DEACONESS, III., 2). Fliedner's most impor‑	iii., 1839, pp. 363‑407; also, ed. P. Lauer, Paris,
tant publications were several books descriptive of	1906) of his own time, from 919 to 966, which
his travels and Des Buch der Mdrtyrer der even‑	is a source of valuable information for the history of
gelischen Kirche (4 vols., Kaiserswerth, 1852‑60).	Lorraine and the relations between the French
He founded the Christlicher Volkskalender, which	and Germans of that time, and is indispensable for
was widely popular.	dates of numerous events. He also wrote a reliable
		(PHILIP ScaAFFt.) D. S. SCHAFF.	and extensive Historia Remensis (in MGH, Script.,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The chief "Life" is by his eon, G. Flied‑	xiii., 1882, pp. 40rr599) up to~ 948.
	ner, T. Fliedner, kurser Abrias seines Lebens and Wirkena,			~11 ILHELM ALTMANN.
	3d ed., Kaiserswerth, 1892. Consult: P. Sehaff, Ger‑	BIBLIOGRAPHY: A3M, v. 325‑332' Hoatoore LittEraore de la
	,Bang, its Universities, Theolo~v, and Religion, chap.		France, vi. 313 Paris. 1742 J. C. F BBhr, GeaaAddad der
	aaxund,Pheladelphia. 1857; Dr. T. Fliedner, eon Fharak‑		r6mischen Litteratur im karolingiaden Zeitalter, p• 274,
	ter‑ and ~eoensbtld, Barmen, 1885; Life of Pastor ~hedner		Carleruhe, 1840; Wattenbaeh, DGQ, i (1885), 378‑380,
	of ~aiearan t1°a7. from the Germ. by Catharine		ii. 490, i (1893), 409‑411; P. Scheffer‑Boichoret in Mit
	worth, London, 1887; T. Schafer, Weobliche ~iakonie, 3		theilungen des Institute fur baterreich'Geachirhufor‑
vols., 2d ed., Stuttgart, 1887‑94.	s	,tp,	1887.Consult also R.
FLIESTEDEft, PETER. See KLARENBACH, ADOLF.

FLINT, ROBERT: Scotch Presbyterian; b. at Dumfries, Scotland, Mar. 14, 1838. He was educated at Glasgow University (1852‑59) and was parish minister at East Church, Aberdeen (18591862), and at Kilconquhar (1862‑64). He was professor of moral philosophy and political economy at St. Andrews University (1864‑76) and professor of divinity at Edinburgh University (18761903). He was also Baird Lecturer (1876‑77), Stone Lecturer at Princeton (1880) and Croall Lecturer at Edinburgh (1887‑88). He has written: Christ's Kingdom on Earth (Edinburgh, 1865); Philosophy of History in Europe (1874); Theism (1877); Anti‑Theistic Theories (1879); Vico (1884); Historical Philosophy in France, Belgium, and Switzerland (1894); Socialism (London, 1894); Sermons and Addresses (Edinburgh, 1899); Agnosticism (1903); Philosophy as Scientia Scientiarum and History of Classification of Science (1904); and On Theological, Biblical, and other Subjects (1905).

FLODOARD, flo"do"br', OF REIMS: French writer of the tenth century; b. at Apernay (17 m. s.s.e. of Reims) 893 or 894; d. 966. He studied in Reims, which in the tenth century formed the center of French politics and of the higher studies of Lorraine, and under Archbishop Herivaeus (90(1‑922) became canon in the cathedral. Owing to political disturbances, he lost his position and joined Bishop Artold (932‑961). The latter sent him in 936 to Rome where he was favorably received by Pope Leo VII. and consecrated priest. When Artold lost his bishopric, Flodoard fled with him to Archbishop Rotbert of Treves (931‑956). Flodoard took part in the Synod of Ingelheim in 948, at which Artold was reinstated by Pope Agapetus II. As a recompense for his faithfulness Art‑
chu	viii. 423‑430, Innsbruck,
Ceillier. Auteura aacr€a, xii. 841‑844.
FLORENCE, COUNCIL OF., See FERRARA‑
FLORENCE, COUNCIL OF.
FLOREftSIANS (Ordo Florensis; Order of Flore): A Roman Catholic order established at Flore (the modern San Giovanni in Fiore, 90 m. s.w. of Taranto) by the Cistercian abbot and prophet Joachim (see JOACHIM of FIORE) about 1192, some three years after he had exchanged the administration of his monastery of Corazzo for the life of a hermit in Mount Sila. For the inmates of his monastery of St. John, Joachim formed rules which were similar to those of the Cistercians, although independent and constituting a stricter Benedictine reform. This rule received the sanction of Celestine III. on Aug. 25,1196, and there were also secular patrons, such as Henry VI. and his wife Conatantia. The order gradually received several monasteries in Naples and both Calabrias, although it was exposed to persecution, since its founder was suspected of heresy. The miracles believed to be wrought at the tomb of Joachim gave a speedy impetus to the Florenaians, so that they soon had thirty‑four houses, including four nunneries, the most important at St. Helena near Amalfi. In 1227 Gregory IX. forbade the Cistercians to admit Florensiana into their order on account of the comparative laxity of the Cistercian rule, thus rousing the envy, and enmity of the monks of Cftesux. The Florensians maintained their high position, however, until the appointment of abbots in commendam, the first in 1470. The order then declined, and the majority of its monasteries, like the mother house in 1505, became incorporated with the Cistercians, although a few joined the Dominicans and Carthuaians. The habit of the Florenaiana was of coarse gray cloth and closely resembled that of the Cistercians. The monks went barefoot, and in choir
wore a cowl over their habit.(O. ZIICSLERt.)

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Helyot, Ordres monastiquea, v. $92 eqq.; Heimbueher, Orden and %onpreoationen, i. 267‑288.
FLORENTIUS RADEWYNS, r8'dt‑wins: One of the founders of the Brethren of the Common Life (q.v.); b. at Leerdam (13 m. a. of Utrecht), Holland, in 1350; d. at Deventer March 24, 1400. The son of educated, wealthy parents, he studied at the University of Prague from 1375 to 1378, when he received the degree of licentiate. On his return to Leerdam he heard Geert Groote (q.v.) preach, and the two became friends about 1380. He then exchanged his canonry at Utrecht for a vicarage at Deventer that he might be able to accompany Groote in his travels, and was ordained priest. A band of earnest thinkers gathered around the pair, and Florentius's vicarage became their home. After Groote's death in 1384, Florentius became the head of this community. In 1391 the brethren moved into their own house and their number increased, although the plague of 1398 deprived them of many members. They accordingly moved to Amersfoort, only to return after a year. The community controlled by Florentius was, as Thomas b, Kempis says in his Vita, a mirror of holiness and an ornament of morals, a refuge of the poor, a convent of the clergy, a school of life for the worldly, and a helper of poor scholars. The directions of Florentius became authoritative for all later foundations. After his conversion he was a harmonious picture of modern piety, which, rooted in humility, did not withdraw from the world, but by self‑denial sought to win all men for the higher life. At 3 A.m. he began to prepare the work of the brethren and during the day the needy sought his help. No work of charity was too great or too small for him. He bathed the sick himself, and whoever met him once never forgot the deep impression of his personality. He encouraged severe self‑examination, and gave prudent advice: " First think, and then act, but do not atop; never work mechanically; never seek thyself." The literary activity of Florentius was scanty, and he restricted himself to matters concerning humility and the fear of God. His principal works are as follows: a letter written at the request of Henricus de Balueren, included' by Jan Busch (q.v.) in his Chronicon Windeshemense, and appended in complete form to the life of Florentius by Thomas i; Kempis; Tradatulus devotus de exstirpatione vitiorum et passionum et acquisitions verarum virtutum et maxims caritatis Dei et proximi et verm unionis cum Deo et proximo, aeu traetatulus de apirilualibus exercitiis (ed. H. Nolte, Freiburg, 1862); Puncta quodam seaundum quee actus suns volebat moderari, quo: quis tegens poterit diqualiter cognoscere interiors ipsius, appended to the life by Thomas h Kempis, and commonly called bona puncta. Tklia latter work reflects the ideal of a man of benevolence and contains the conclusa et proposita prepared by Groote, but collected and enlarged by Florentius. It agrees, for the most part, with the Tractatulus. and is extant in many manuscripts and recensions of his pupils, but the most original form is given by J. B. Malon, in his Recherches historiques et critiques sur le veritable auteur du Livre de p1mitation de Jesus‑Christ (3d ed., Paris, 1858). Meditation
Fliesteden Florian
upon the principles of Florentius inspired the
writings of his pupils, Thomas i! Kempis, Theodore
of Herzen, and Zerbold of Zutphen. A work of
this character, reflecting the spirit of Florentius,
was discovered by J. M. Wiistenhoff in a Berlin
manuscript and reprinted by him under the title
Parvum et simplex ezercitium ex consualudine
humilis patria domini Florentii et aliorum denotontm
(Archief tbor nederlandaoAe Kerkgeschiedenis. The
Hague, 1894, 80 aqq.). 	L. SenuLzz.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Chief sources for a life are the Vita by Thomas h Kempis in the latter's Opera, ad. Sommaliue, Antwerp, 1600, Eng. travel. in The FoaHdsrs cif the New Devotion, pp. 81‑164, London, 1905; R,. Dier, 8eriptura,
. G. Grote . . . et multis alas fratribua, in G. Dumbar, Arwlecta, 3 vols., Deventer, 1719‑22. and Dumbar's Hot kerkelyke en werentlyke Deventer. 2 vole., ib. 1732‑38. Consult: K. Grubs. Gerhard Groot and seine Stiftunpen, pp. 66 sqq., Cologne, 1883; BL, ix. 728‑729; ADB, vii. 130; and literature under C010IOH LIPS, BBBT88EH or Tea.
	FLOREZ, HENRIQUE: Spanish priest; b. at
Valladolid Feb. 14, 1701 (P); d. at Madrid May 5,
1773. He was an Augustinian friar, and became
teacher of theology at the University of Alcala,
rector of the royal college at the same place, theolog
ical adviser for the supreme council of Castile and
finally general assistant of his order for the Spanish
provinces. He wrote a number of works, of which
the most important is the Espaaa Sagrada, theairo
geogra fco‑historico de la igleaia de Espafia; the first
volume appeared at Madrid in 1747, and the work
was carried on by Floret to the end of vol. xxix
(1775); a continuation, vols. xxx: xlviii (1775
1862), was made by his fellow Augustinians, Manuel
Risco, Antonio Merino, Jose de la Canal, and the
town librarian, P. S. de Baranda. The work
contains a historical and statistical presentation of
the Spanish bishoprics, with their respective chap
ters and monasteries, and a catalogue of their
bishops, martyrs, famous men, etc.
(A. HAUCS.)
BIBLInaaAPH;: H. Hurter, Nomenelatar Uterarius, vot. iii., Innsbruck, 1895. A list of his works is given in HL, ire
1578‑79.
FLORMN, SAINT: The patron saint of Upper Aus. tria, said to have suffered martyrdom by drowning in the Enna at Laureacum (Loreh or St. Lorenz, near Enna, 10 m. s.e. of Linz) during the Diocletian persecution. His Passio, however (ed. B. Krusch, MGR, Script. rer. Merov., iii., 1896, 65‑71), is a last of the Passio Irenmi Sirmii and of no value. The saint is first mentioned in the eighth century, when his relics are said to have been worshiped ad puoche ( = Buche, " the beech‑tree," the site of the present abbey of St. Florian, 5 m. w.s.w. of Enna). There was probably a monastic settlement there as early as the eighth century under Otkar, an itinerant bishop. Charlemagne gave the cloister to Passau. In the beginning of the tenth century it is mentioned as a congregatio clericoram. Then it was destroyed by the Hungarians, but in the last quarter of the tenth century it was rebuilt,. without, however, regaining its former flourishing condition until Bishop Altmann of Passau made it a foundation of regular canons ire 1071, under an able leader, Hartmann. Since then its existence has never been shaken, but the relics of Florian are lost.
(A. HAuC8.)

B'lorns
Pon*"&
THE NEW f$CHAFF‑HERZOG
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Krusoh'e introduction in MGM, at SUP.; BL, iv. 1576‑77.
gLoRQS: Deacon of Lyons; b. in the vicinity of Lyons (according to others, in Spain) in the latter part of the eighth century; d. at Lyons about 860. He was probably educated in Lyons, but despite his reputation for learning, never rose above the rank of deacon, or, according to some accounts, of subdeacon, the capacity in which he officiated under the archbishops Agobard (816‑$40) Amolo (841‑852), and Remigius. He was a firm advocate of the independence of the clergy and the autonomy of the Church of Gaul, so that he appears as a modest opponent of Amalarius, especially in his De diroinn pealmodia, although his defense of the ancient liturgy was not completed until Agobard, after his return from exile, yvrote his De corredione Antiphonarii. In his De elediontvws epiem, he advocated the canonical choice of bishops, and when Moduin, the bishop of Autun, inspected the diocese of Lyons at the command of the emperor Louis the Pious in 834, Florus assailed him both in prose and verse, moved not only by his affection for Agobard, but also by his devotion to the independence of his diocese and Moduin's attachment to, Louis. In the, dogmatic controversies of his time he was an opponent of Paschasius Radbeh tus (q.v.)., teaching that the only participation in the body and blood of Christ is that of faith, and accordingly calling the bread the mystical body of the Lord. He set forth his views in his Expoaitio mWste, a work written previous to 834 and consisting for the most part of excerpts from Cyprian, Ambrose, Jerome, and others. He also took part in the controversy on predestination in his Sermo de pro=destinations, while the Advereue cujuedam . . . , emores de prtedmindiotte, written in the name of the Church of Lyons against Johannes Scotus Erigena, also seems to have been composed by him. Among his other works special mention may be made of his commentary on the Pauline Epistles, his revision of the Martyrologium of Bede, and of his hymns, in all of which he shows wide reading and much skill in composition.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Carmine, ed. E. DOmmler, are in MGM, Poets, Let. avi Carob, ii (1884). 507‑580; Part of his Pr
duetions are in J. Mabillon, Vetera andeeta, i. 388 eqq. Paris, 1723; Bouquet, 1. vi. 282‑283, vu. 301‑304
MPL, can. Two Poems are printed for the first time b
F. Patetta in AW of the Academy of Turin, xavii (18911892), 123‑129. Consult: ASB. June, vi., PP. siii•‑avi.
J. C. F. Bbhr, oeechichte der rt~nischea Littratur im kar
linpischea Zsitalter. PP‑ 108‑109. ‑ 447‑463. Carleruhe 1840; E. DOmmler, in NA, tv (1879), 296‑301. 518, 581 830; A. Ebert, Augeneine Gesebickte der Literatur de MiudaUsrs, ii. 268‑272, LeiPsie, 1880; Wattenbac
DQt;, i (1885), 5g, 199. 263, i (1893),60, 211, 280.
FLORUS, GESSIUS: Last Roman procurator of Judea (84‑6 A.D.), successor of Albinus. He was a native of Clasomensa (on the south side of the Bay of Smyrna) and obtained his office through the .friendship of his wife, Cleopatra, with the empress, Poppma. His cruelty, tyranny, and shameless corruption surpassed that of all his predecessors and led to the final revolt of the Jews, which cost them their national independence. Suetonius (Yeapmian, iv.) says he perished in the revolt, but
‑
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑
Joeephus (Life, vi.) says merely " he was beaten, and many of those with him fell."
BIBLIOGRAPHY: JoeePhu0. Ant XVIIL, i. 8, XR., s. 1; War, IL, uv. 2, 4, xv. 1. 2, ztn. 1; Taoitna. Hint.. v. 10; H. Greets, Geathidvta der Judea: iii. 445‑446. 450 mlq•. LeiPeic. 1888: SchOrer, oeschichta, i. 585, 801 eq9.. Eng. travel., L, ii. 190‑191. 208 edq.

FLUE (FLUE$E), NIKOLAUS VON (DER), commonly known as "Brother Klaus": Swiss hermit; b. at FtBeli (Fliihli, 12 m, a. of Lucerne), in the canton of Unterwalden, Mar. 21, 1417; d. in his hermit's cell at the Ranft, in the ravine of the Melchaa, below Flileli, Mar. 21, 1487. He descended from a distinguished family, and at first devoted himself to the management of his inherited property. He also served his country well, both in the army and in civil life. In 1482 he appeared in Stags as representative of Obwalden (the western part of Unterwalden) is settling a dispute between the monastery of Engelberg and the church of Stana. He married in 1450, and was the father of five sons and five daughters when he resolved in 1487 to renounce his worldly life. He left his home and passed over the Jura Mountains until he came to the region of Liestal; but a vision and the counsel of a peasant induced him to return to Obwalden. At first he settled in the mountains near Melchthal, but later approached more closely to his home and settled in the Ranft, a desolate place in the mountains, about a quarter of an hour from the home of his family. The congregation of f3achseln built him a small cell and beside it a chapel. In 1482 Brother Klaus founded here partly from his own property a chaplaincy and sacristy. But be did not always remain in his isolation; he wandered about in the neighborhood, and undertook pilgrimages to Einaiedeln and Engelberg. He went about barefooted and bareheaded, his only garment a long gown of coarse gray wool. He renounced all comforts of life, sleeping on the floor of his cell and eating hardly any food. Owing to his severe fasts, people thought that he lived with= out other food than the sacramental elements and his widespread fame originated undoubtedly in this belief. Prominent visitors from afar came to his remote cell, among them Johann Geilerof Kaisersberg, the famous Strasburg preacher, in 1472; the Saxon nobleman Hans von Waldheim, coun‑
t'	cilor of Halls in 1474; and Albrecht von Bonstetten, dean of Einaiedeln in 1478, who, in 1479, recorded
o‑	his impressions in a book. People came in such
crowds that the famous hermit had to ask the authorities of Obwalden for relief. They were attracted by the miraculous halo of the reputed saint, but also by his earnest admonitions and his striking utterances, which exhibit knowledge of life
and intelligent observation.
The hermit obtained his greatest fame by his successful arbitration in the dissensions of the confederate states of Switzerland, which threatened to bring on a civil war. In 1477 five cities; Zurich, Bern, Lucerne, Solothurn, and Freiburg formed a league to protect themselves against the tumultuous gatherings of rural communities.. But Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, and Zug, the seats of these insurrectionary gatherings, protested against the ad‑

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
337
mission of Lucerne into the new league because there had existed since .1332 an agreement between them and that canton that it should not enter a new league without their consent. They also protested against the admission of Solothurn and Freiburg to guard against a preponderance of the cities over the rural element. In the time from 1478 to 1481 the dissensions approached their climax. A last meeting was held in Dec., 1481, in Stans, and it was almost dissolved when Heini am Grund, preacher of Stans, rushed in with a message from Brother Maus which restored peace among the dissenting parties. The .noble deed of the hermit was greatly esteemed and honored all over the country. Six years afterward he was buried in Sachseln. In 1600 a chapel was built over his grave beside the church of Sachseln.
	The veneration of the hermit increased after his
death, and legends began to cluster around the
history of his life. Bullinger expresses true ad
miration for him in his history of the Reformation,
and Luther published in 1528 in union with Spera
tus a vision of Bruder Clausen in Sehwytz. In
1590 the Roman Catholics of Switzerland asked
the pope to canonize the hermit; but the pro
ceedings instituted to this end in 1591 were not
successful; they were reinstituted a second and a
third time, also without success. In 1669 nothing
more than a beatification could be obtained from
Clement IX. In 1887 the four hundredth an
niversary of the death of Nikolaus was solemnly
celebrated. 	(G. MEYEa vON KNoNAu.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A list of the voluminous literature on
Nikolaus up to 1875 is found in E. L. Rochholz, Schurei
zerlegende von Bruder Klaus, pp. 255‑309, Aarau, 1875.
Consult: J. Ming, Der aelige Bruder Nikolaus von Flae,
3 vols., Lucerne, 1861‑71; J. 1. von Ali, Des . . . Ein
eiedlera Nikolaus von FlQe Leben and Wirken, Einsiedein,
1887; F. X. Wetzel, Der aelige Nikolaua von Flits, ib. 1887.
FOAKES ‑ JACKSON, FREDERICK JOHN Church of England; b. at Ipswich, Suffolk, Aug* 10, 1855. He studied at Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge (B.A., 1879), and was ordered deacon in 1879 and ordained priest in 1880. In 1882 he was appointed divinity lecturer' in Jesus College, Cambridge, and was elected fellow in 1886. Since 1895 he has been dean in the same college, as well as assistant tutor since 1896. He was curate of Ottershaw, Surrey, 1879‑81, of St: Giles, Cambridge, 1882‑84, and St. Botolph, Cambridge, 1884‑90. He has been examining chaplain to the bishop of Peterborough since 1897 and honorary canon of Peterborough since 1901. He was also select preacher at Cambridge in 1885, 1887, and 1902, and Hulsean Lecturer in 1902 and has written: History of the Christian Church to A.D. 337 (London, 1891); Christian Difficulties in the Second and Twentieth Centuries (Hulsean Lectures for 1902; 1903); A Biblical History o f the Hebrews (Cambridge, 1903); and Christ in the Church (London, 1905).

FOLMAR OF TRIEFENSTEIN: Provost of the chapter of Sts. Peter and Paul at Triefenstein (on the Main below Wiirzburg) from the middle of the twelfth century; d., according .to Kattner, 1181. Belonging to the dialectic school in theology, he had his own opinions on the dogma of the Lord's Supper.
IV.‑22
Florus
Pongees,
They proceeded from the prevalent view that after the ascension of the Lord .his body is locally circumscribed in heaven. From this Folmar logically concluded that Christ had never since been on earth and furthermore, as regards the Lord's Supper, that he is not corporaliter in the sacrament. But far from being another Berengar (see BERENQAR of Touxs), for Folmar the doctrine of transubstantiation is rather the presupposition of his theory. The peculiarity of his view consisted only in his belief that the Christian drinks the blood simply and purely without the flesh,. and eats the flesh of Christ simply and purely without the bones and limbs of the body. It is evident that there is taught here on the one side the transformation into the substance of the body and blood and repudiated on the other aide the transformation into the historical body of Christ. Folmar was vehemently opposed by his Bavarian brethren, especially by Gerhoh of Reichersberg (q.v.). Bishop Eberhard of Bamberg convoked a conference: at Bamberg where be convinced him of his heterodoxy.
Gerhoh attacked also Folmar's Christology, and the latter defended himself by a treatise, De carne et anima verbi Dei, which unfortunately is lost. Folmar made a sharp distinction between the two natures of Christ, teaching that Christ in so far as he is man is not the proper and natural son of God. Only in so far is Christ equal to the Father as he is one with him in essence. Folmar's treatise excited the wrath of the Salzburg theologians. It was just before .the great papal schism. Gerhoh as a follower of Alexander III. attempted .to secure Folmar's condemnation at the .papal court, but Alexander wished to hear both parties. That, however, was impossible because Eberhard of Bamberg and, in all probability, Folmar also, recognized Victor IV. as pope. But Alexander had no desire to make matters worse by a dogmatic dispute. So he urged Gerhoh to be silent.
(A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Letters by and to Folmar are in MPL,
exciv. 1481‑90. Consult: Gerhob's letters, v., vii., xiii.,
xv., xx., in MPL, cxciii. 494‑575, and De 9loria e! honors,
xiii. 1 aqq., in MPL, exciii. 1117‑1125: the ApolopeEicua
of Arno of Reiehersberg; J. Bash, Dopmenpeaeh%chte des
Mittclaltera, i. 398, ii. 431, Vienna, 1873‑?5.

FONSECA: The name of three noted Roman Catholics.
1. Pedro da Fonseca, Portuguese Jesuit; b. at Cor tizada, Portugal, 1528; d. at Coimbra (110m. n.n.e. of Lisbon) Nov. 4,1599. On M%r.17,1548 he entered the Society of Jesus as a novice, and three years later attended the University of.Evora, where he soon became professor and,won the title of the " Portuguese Aristotle." After obtaining his doctor's degree in 1580, he gained rapid promotion, being appointed successively assistant to the general of the order, provincial visitor, and head of the house of the professed. Philip II. of Portugal appointed him on a committee for the reform of Portugal and Gregory XIII. entrusted him with affairs of the utmost importance while Lisbon owes to him, among other things, the establishment of the Irish College and the convent of St. Martha. The chief works of Da Fonseca are his Institutiones dialecticte (Lis‑

Font	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	338
Foot‑Washing
bon, 1564) and his Commentarii in libros metaphysi
corum Aristotelis Stagiritce (4 vols., Rome, 1577‑89).
He originated the theory of the " mediate knowl
edge of God," or the knowledge of the potential or
what might have occurred either by itself or under
certain conditions, but did not‑a theory later
developed by his fellow Jesuit, Luis Molina (q.v.).
	2. Antonio da Fonseca Soares: Portuguese Fran
ciscan, poet and devotional author; b. at Vidigueira,
(13 m. n.e. of Beja) June 25,1631; d. Oct. 29,1682,
as rector of the theological seminary of Torres Vedras
(25 m. n.w. of Lisbon).
	3. Josh Maria da Fonseca: Portuguese Francis
can historian; b. at Evora (75 m. s.e. of Lisbon)
Dec. 3, 1690, founded the library of the monastery
of Ara Caeli, continued L. Wadding's Annales Mino
rum from 1731 to 1740 and died as bishop of Porto
in 1752. ~ 	(O. ZbcgLi•;Rj'.)
	FONT. See BAPTIBTExY.
	FOR TAftUS, JOHANNES: Reformed preacher;
b. at Zoller, in 'the duchy of Jiilich, 1545; d. 1615.
He studied theology at Heidelberg, especially under
Zacharias Ureinus, who Latinized his name Piits,
into Fontanus. In his twenty‑third year he fin
ished his studies and became teacher and preacher
in the seminary of Neuhausen near Worms, but
after the death of Elector Frederick III. was ex
pelled by Ludwig VI., who was a Lutheran. Count
John the Older of Nassau‑Catzellelabogen re
ceived him into his country, with other preachers
exiled from the Palatinate, and made him preacher
in Keppel in the principality of Siegen. But
Fontanus remained here only a short time. When
in the beginning of 1578 the estates of the province
of Geldern and of the county of Ziitphenelected
Count John as their viceregent, he took Fontanus
along; and under the count's protection the latter
organized a Reformed congregation in Arnhem and
became its pastor. It grew rapidly under his able
direction; and the influence of Fontanus extended
over the Church of the whole province, and even
beyond its borders. At the first general synod of
the whole Reformed Church in the three principali
ties of Jiilich, Cleves, and Berg, held at Duisberg
in 1610, with Dr. Abraham Scultetua, court preacher
of Elector Frederick V. of the Palatinate, he ad
vised on the organization of the congregations.
When, in consequence of the Arminian movement,
the secular authorities tried to interfere with the
inner affairs of the Calvinistic Church, Fontanlta
stood with great energy for the autonomy of the
Church. He was also influential in bringing about
a meeting of the strictly Reformed pastors in 1615
at Amsterdam to pass resolutions against the ad
herents of Arminius, whom the government pro
tected. He established a high school at Haderwyk
and was its curator for fourteen years.
		(F. W. CuNOt.)
BIBI.rndalPnY; J. W . Staats fivers, J. Fontanua, Arnhem's
	Berate Predikant, Arnhem, 1882; A. J. van der As, Bio
	praphiaeh T‑‑VoordenGoek, vi. 159 sqq., Haarlem, 1859; G. G.
	van Prinsterer, Archives ou Correapondance dnFdite de to
	Maiaon d'Oraage Nassau, lat ser., vola. vu., viii., 14 voh.,
	Utrecht, 1835‑62.
	FONTEVRAULT, ORDER OF (ORDO FONTIS
EBRALDI): A Roman Catholic order, founded to
the closing years of the eleventh century by Robert d'Arbrissel, who was born at Arbrissel (the modern Arbreaec, in the diocese of Rennes) about 1047 and died in 1117. He was educated at Paris, and at the age of thirty‑eight was appointed by Sylvester, bishop of Rennes, vicar‑general for the administration of the diocese. Resigning from this office, he taught theology at Angers for a time, and finally retired to a hermit's life in the forest of Craon (Department of Mayenne). He gathered a band of followers, whom he formed, about 1094, into a community of canons regular. Robert built a number of cloisters, of which the most important was that at Fontkvrault (8 m. s.e. of Saumur), consisting of a " great minater," dedicated to the Virgin and containing accommodations for 300 widows and virgins; an infirmary dedicated to St. Lazarus and receiving 120 sick or lepers; and a home for magdalens. A monastery with 200 monks was built beside the " great minater," but was subordinate to it, while the great church, dedicated by Calixtus II. in person in 1109, was for the entire community. In 1106 the order was confirmed by Paschal IL, and in 1113 was withdrawn from the jurisdiction of the ordinaries, whereupon Robert appointed Petronella de Craon‑Chemill6 first abbess and prepared a rule. The members of the Order, who were called pauperes Christi, were subject to restrictions of extreme asceticism, but the distinctive characteristic was the union of nunneries and monasteries under the control of an abbess, together with the most rigid separation of monks and nuns. The Order was under special protection of the Virgin. At the death of Robert, Fontkvrault is said to have contained 3,000 nuns, while in the cloister were the tombs of several of the Plantagenet kings of England.
	The Order of FontAvrault never spread widely
outside of France, although it included fifty‑seven
priories in four provinces at the beginning of the
eighteenth century. _ The congregations of Savigny,
St. Sulpice, Tiron, and Cadouin had been formed as
early as the twelfth century, and drifted away from
the Order, which was not altogether free from
disputes between the abbesses and the heads of the
subordinate monasteries. The French Revolu
tion annihilated the Order, and the last, abbess,
Julie Sofie Charlotte de Pardaillan, died in desti
tution in Paris in 1799, while the cloister was turned
into a prison. 	(O. ZOCKLERt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Helyot, (7rdres monaetiquea, vi. 83 aqq.
Heimbueher, Orden and Kougreeationen, i. 417‑419; O.
ZSCkler; Aakeae and Monchtum, pp. 419‑422, Frankfort,
1897; Hauck‑Herzog, RE, vi. 125 gives a list of the older
literature on the order. The Life of Robert d'Arbrisael,
by Roberta von Beda Plaine, is in the biemoirea of the Association bretonne, 1876, and a Vita is in Mittheitungen aua den Benediktina‑ and Cisterciena‑0rden, vi (1886),84 eqq.
FONZI0, BARTOLOMEO. See ITALY, Tat; RExORMATION IN, § 3. ‑
FOOLS, FEAST OF (Festum stultorum, fatuorum, Jollorum; F(Ate des foux): A Christian survival of the old Roman Saturnalia. In the early Church participation in all heathen festivals was strongly interdicted, but there is evidence that about the year 200 there were Christians who still longed for the amusements of this season (Tertullian, De idololatria, xliv.). By the fourth century it was

ggg	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Foot‑Washing
widely observed by Christians. It was opposed by Chrysostom and Asterius of Amasia in the East, and by Augustine, Maximus of Turin, and Petrus Chrysologus of Ravenna in the West. Here an effort was made to remove the heathen character of the feast by making Jan. 1, and occasionally the next following days church festivals (see NEw YEAR'S FESTIVAL). Such measures, however, were in vain. The heathen observance persisted, and in the sixth and seventh centuries it was taken up by Christians among the West Goths, the Franks, and the Anglo‑Saxons. Despite the opposition of the Church the Saturnalia continued to be generally celebrated by Romans, Franks, and the various Germanic peoples till into the eleventh century. The festival seems then to have been gradually forgotten by the populace.
Though the Church had fought the custom all along, it was the clergy by whom it was revived. It was now made a regular religious festival. Each of the clerical groups had long had its special day: the deacons, St. Stephen's day (Dec. 26); the priests, St. John's day (Dec. 27); the boys, Holy Innocents' day (Dec. 28); the subdeacons, New Year's day or Epiphany, Jan. 6. Later the festivals of the subdeacons and the children became especially popular, and the latter developed the unseemly performances of the "Boy‑bishop" (q.v.). Similar extravagances and excesses are found in the festivals of the priests, deacons, and subdeacons as early as the twelfth century. The latter, like the boys, elected a bishop, whom they accompanied to the church in festive procession. Here a parody on the mass was held, which was enlivened by jokes and ribald songs, sometimes by bloody brawls.
The first attempt to suppress these extravagances was made in Paris in 1198 by the papal legate, Peter of Capua. In 1210 Innocent III. forbade the festivals of priests, deacons, and subdeacons, and in 1246 Innocent IV. made such observances punishable with excommunication. Nevertheless they continued, and in the fourteenth century there were even rituals for the ceremonies. Often the fool‑bishop was required to give the usual banquet " in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost." At the end of the fourteenth century the clergy appeared in the churches masquerading as animals, women, and mountebanks. Instead of incense, sausage, or pieces of old shoes were burned; instead of the responses, songs of doubtful character were sung; and instead of the holy wafer, sausage was eaten. There were also dancing and games, such as throwing of dice. The processions, in which nude boys amused the rabble with suggestive gestures and speeches, were even worse.
Through an encyclical addressed to all bishops in France by the University of Paris, May 12, 1444, and made effective by an order of Charles VII., Apr. 17, 1445, these sacrilegious practises were finally stopped, at least in France, where they had been most common. The children's festival, though often opposed and forbidden by the Council of Basel (1431), was less objectionable and survived into the sixteenth century. In Cologne the
custom continued till the seventeenth, and in Reims and Mainz till the eighteenth century.
. 	(H. BOHMER.)
BIBLIOGRAPRl': C. Du Cange, Glossarium media, et inflmas latinitatis, s.v. " cervala," ii. 277‑278, Berlin, 1883; J. B. Lucotte du Tilliot, Memoires pour serhir h l'histoire de la ate des four, Lausanne, 1741; A. Schmidt, Thesaurus iuris ecrlesiastici, iii. 58‑83 Bamberg, 1744; E. Marthne,. De antiquis ecclesim ritibus, chap. xiii., nos. 3‑11, 4 vols., 1788; Zeitschrift fur Philosophie and katholisehe Theologie, xi. 2 (1850), 161‑180; A. Springer, Paris im 13. Jahrhundert, pp. 66 sqq., Leipsie, 1856: M. E. C. Waleott, Sacred Archa'ology London, 1868; A. Tille, Die Geschichte der deutschen fireihnacht, ib. 1893, Eng. transl., London, 1899; KL, iv. 1398‑1403.
FOOT‑WASHING: A religious ceremony practised at various times in different branches of the Church. The use of sandals among the Eastern natives required frequent washing of the feet, and to perform this office for others was considered a mark of hospitality. At the Last Supper Jesus washed the feet of his disciples (John xiii. 5‑10) to indicate that he who was not purified by him had no part with him. The postapostolic age understood the example thus given to be mandatory. Augustine (Epist. ad Januarium) testifies that it was followed on Maundy Thursday by the Church of his day. St. Bernard in his sermon De ccena Domini recommends foot‑washing as " a daily sacrament for the remission of sins." In the Greek Church also it was regarded as a " mystery." Yet it nowhere became a general, public, solemn, ecclesiastical act. It is still, however, solemnly performed in certain places as by the pope, the emperors of Austria and Russia, the kings of Spain, Portugal, and Bavaria, and a number of bishops and monastic superiors, the subjects being twelve poor old men invited for the purpose, or twelve priests. Many minor Baptist bodies also observe the custom (see ADVENTISTS, 2; BAPTISTS, II., 4, d, g, h; DUNKERS, II, § 3).
The Reformers, especially Luther (cf. his Maundy Thursday sermon concerning foot‑washing in the Hauspostille), opposed " that hypocritical footwashing, in which one stoops to wash the feet of his inferior, but expects still more humility in return." The Evangelical Church has endeavored, therefore, to impress the meaning of Christ's act on the hearts of men by diligently proclaiming his Gospel. At Schwabisch Hall (in Wdrttemberg), on Wednesday before Easter every year, a special Fusswaschungspredigt is still delivered in St. Catherine's Church. The Church of England at first carried out the letter of the command; but the practise afterward fell into disuse. The Anabaptists declared most decidedly in favor of foot‑washing, appealing to John xiii. 14, and also to I Tim. v. 10, considering it as a sacrament instituted by Christ himself, '1 whereby our being washed by the blood of Christ and his example of deep humiliation is to be impressed upon us " (Confession of the United Baptists or Mennonites, 1660). The Moravians with the love‑feasts revived also the footwashing, yet without strictly enforcing it or confining it to Maundy Thursday. It was performed not only by the leaders toward their followers, but also by the latter among themselves, during the singing of a hymn explanatory of the symbol. This prac‑

Forbem
Formorua
tile was finally abolished by the Moravian Synod
in 1818. In the Lutheran Church, during the
period of orthodoxy, foot‑washing was considered
as '‑ an abominable papal corruption." In the
year 1718 the Upper Consistory at Dresden con
demned twelve Lutheran citizens of Weida to pub
lic penance for having permitted Duke Maurice
William (at that time still a Roman Catholic) to
wash their feet. 	PAUL TscaAcgxaT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Marthne, De antiquia exleeiss ritibus, IV., xltii. 8, 4 vole., Baeeano, 1788; J. Goar. Bucholopium, pp. 591‑596, Paris, 1647; G. Catalani, Ceremonials e0aoopomm . . . commentariis Qusbatum, ii. 286‑272, Rome,
1744; W. F. Gees. Die Fusewaschunp Jesu, Basel. 1884; F. Kattenbuech, Lehrbuch der romgleichenden Confessionkunde, Freiburg, 1890; AL, iv. 2146‑48.
FORBES, ALEXANDER PENROSE: Bishop of Brechin; b. at Edinburgh June 6, 1817; d. at Dundee (37 m. n.n.e. of Edinburgh) Oct. 8, 1875. He studied at the University of Edinburgh, Haileybury College, and Brasenose College, Oxford (B.A., 1844; M.A., 1846; D.C.L., 1848), where he came strongly under the influence of the Oxford movement. Before entering Oxford he was in the civil service in India. He was curate at Aston Rowant, near Oxford, 1844, and at 8t. Thomas', Oxford, 1845. In 1848 he became the incumbent of Stonehaven, Kincardineshire, in May, 1847, vicar of St. Saviour's, Leeds, a church built expressly to further the tractarian doctrine. Later in the same year he was appointed bishop of Brechin. He removed the headquarters of the bishopric to Dundee and added to his duties as bishop those of vicar of 8t. Paul's,‑ Dundee. For inculcating the doctrine of the ~ real presence in his primary charge to the clergy, Aug. 5, 1857, he was formally tried for heresy. He was finally acquitted with an admonition and censure in‑ Mar., 1860. Bishop Forbes published numerous sermons, commentaries, translations, etc.; his principal works are, A Short Explanation of the Nicene Creed (Oxford, 1852; 2d ed., enlarged, 1866), a handbook of dogmatic theology; An Explanation of the Thirty‑Nine Articles (2 vole‑., 1887‑68); and Kalendars of Scottish Saints (Edinburgh, 1872).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. J. Mackey, Bishop Forbes, a Memoir, London, 1888; S. M. F. Slkene]; Meter of Alexander Bishop of BrwAin, ib. 1876.
FORBES, JOHN: Scotch theologian; b. May 2, 1593; d. at Corse (19 m. w. of Dumfries), Kirkcudbrightshire, Apr. 29, 1648. He studied at King's College (Aberdeen), and at Heidelberg, Sddan, and other Continental universities, and in 1619 was ordained at Middelburg, returning in the same year to Aberdeen, where his father was bishop. In 1620 he was appointed professor of divinity is King's College, Aberdeen, where he was conapicuous for his defense of episcopacy. He succeeded to his father's estate of Corse in 1635, and two years later was an advocate of the project to unite the Reformed and Lutheran churches. In 1638, however, he refused to sign the National Covenant, and despite the protests of the synod was ejected from his professorship by the General Assembly
He accepted the Presbyterian form of government,
but the Solemn League and Covenant, sanctioned
in 1643, forced him to leave Scotland, and from
THE NEW fiCHAFF‑HERZOG
340
1644 until 1648 he resided in Holland. He then returned to his native country, and spent the remainder of his life at Cores. Forbes, who was irenic in temperament, was the author of Irenicum amatort'bus veritatis et paGia in Ecclesia Scoticana (Aberdeen, 1629) and Irratitutianes historico‑theodogicce de dodrina Christians (Amsterdam, 1845), as well as of a number of minor writings. His complete Latin works, including several posthumous treatises and a Latin translation of his diary, were edited by G. Garden (2 vole., Amsterdam, 1702‑03).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A Life by Dr. Garden was prefixed to the Works, ut sup.; DNB, ai:. 402‑404.

FORBES, PATRICK: Bishop of Aberdeen; b. probably at Come (30 m. n.w. of Aberdeen), 1584; d. at Aberdeen Mar. 28, 1835. He studied at the universities of Glasgow and 8t. Andrews under his kinsman Andrew Melville (q.v.). In deference to his father's wishes, he declined a professorship in theology, and did not take orders till 1612, though for years he had been preaching privately at Cores. Prior to his ordination he had begun to hold services in the parish church, but these public ministrations were stopped by royal order. He held the pastoral charge of Keith 1612‑18. In 1618 he took a prominent part in the General Assembly, and was placed upon a commission to revise the confession of faith, liturgy, and rules of discipline. In 1818 he was appointed bishop of Aberdeen. He was conspicuously successful is the administration of his diocese, did much to put down existing feuds, and raised the University of Aberdeen to a condition of prosperity. His principal work is An Ezquisite Commentary upon the Revelation of St. John (London, 1613; Middelburg, 1614; Lat. trawl., Amsterdam, 1648), which is directed against Romanian.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Funeral of Patrick Forbes .... consisting o/ , Orations, Epitaphs, and other. Pisces on the Death of the Rood BHP. Aberdeen. 1635, reprinted by C. F. Shand for the Spottiewoode Society, Edinburgh, 1845; DNB, uZ. 407‑409.

FORBES, WILLIAM: Bishop of Edinburgh; b. at Aberdeen 1585; d. there Apr. 12, 1834. He studied at Marischal College (M.A.,, 1801), where he held the chair of logic for several years. He
traveled on the Continent 1808‑11, visiting several Dutch and German universities and making the acquaintance of Scaliger, Grotius, and Vossius. Soon after his return to Britain‑he entered the min‑
istry, having declined a professorship in Hebrew at Oxford. In, 1616 he was appointed one of the ministers of Aberdeen, and at the assembly at Perth in 1818 he was chosen to defend the article enjoining kneeling at the communion. In 1621 he was chosen one of the ministers of Edinburgh, but, owing to the unwelcome reception which his Romanism encountered here, he was glad to return to his former charge at Aberdeen is 1826. In 1833
be preached at Holyrood before Charles L, who was so delighted with ;the sermon that he made the
preacher bishop of Edinburgh. Forbes wan consecrated in Feb., 1834. His only published work is the posthumous Conaideraxiones modeato? et pa‑
d tificte corttroversiarxcm de justifications, purgatorio
m invocations aanctorum Chriato mediators et exicha‑

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
ristia (London, 1858; HelmstAdt, 1704; Frankfort, 1707; new ed., with Eng. transl., 2 vols., Oxford, 1850‑58, forming part of the Anglo‑Catholic Library).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A Vita audoria is prefixed to the Considerationes. Consult DNB, xix. 411‑412.
	FOREIRO, FRANCISCO (FRANCISCUS FORE
RIUS) : Portuguese Dominican and theologian; b.
at Lisbon about the beginning of the sixteenth
century; d. at /Almada (2 m. s. of Lisbon) Jan. 10,
1581. He was educated in his native city and at
Paris,,and shortly after his return about 1540 was
appointed censor and court‑chaplain. He was a
royal delegate to the Council of Trent in 1581, and
was appointed, together with Marino, archbishop
of Lanciano, and Foscarari, bishop of Modena, to
prepare a catechism and to revise the Missal and
Breviary; he was also secretary of a committee to
continue the Index ltbrorum prohibitorum. He re
turned to Portugal in 1588 and was made prior of
his monastery, and shortly afterward provincial,
but in 1571 he retired to the monastery at Almada,
where he lived in strict seclusion for the remainder
of his life. His chief works are Isaite prophette
vdus et nova ex Hebraico mrsio, cum cammentario
in quo omnes loci qutWus sans docnrina adverstcs
heeretieos atque Judwos eon irmari poteit surnmo
studio ac diligentia explicantur (Venice, 1583); and
the unpublished Commentaria in omnes liibras
prophetarurn ac Job, Davidis et Salomonis and Lu
cubrationes in eroangelia qute per totum anni curricu
lum leguntur. 	(O. ZSexLERt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. Simon, Hietoire critique du Vieux Testament, i. 3, chap. xv., Pads, 1875, Eng. transl., Critical History of as O. T., London, 1682; J. Qudtif and J. Eohard, Script, ordinis pradimtorum, ii. 281 eqq., Paris, 1721; H. Hurter, Nomenclator literariw; i.159‑181, Innehruolc, 1892; %L. iv. 1800‑1801.
FORMATAS LITER. See COMMENDATORY LETTERS.
FORMOSUS: Pope 891898. He was born at Rome c. 818, was elevated to the office of cardinal bishop of Porto in 864, and was employed by various popes on important missions: Nicholas 1. sent him to the Bulgarians in 866, when Prince Bogoris Asked for Roman missionaries (see BuLGARIAN6, CONVERSION OF THE). Adrian II. sent him to Gaul in 889, to negotiate with the Frankish clergy concerning the divorce of Icing Lothair, and to Trent in 872 to take part in the conferences between the Empress Engelbecga and Louis the German respecting the transfer of Italy to the latter°s eldest son. John VIII. also honored Formasus at the outset, in 875 sending him as envoy to Charles the Bald. Soon afterward, however, there set in a complete reaction in this pope's opinion of Formosus. As opponent of John's West Frankish policy, he was summoned by the pope before a Roman synod; and on failing to present himself within the appointed term, he was sentenced, at a second synod, June 30, 876, to deposition and excommunication. This severe sentence was based on allegations that Formosus had aspired to the archiepiscopate in Bulgaria; that he had created a party for himself in Rome with designs upon the apostolic see; and that he had once forsaken his
Forbes
Formoslns
diocese ten weeks, when it was menaced by the Saracens. The fact is that Formosus fell a victim to political opposition. The excommunication was repeated at the Synod of Troyes in 878. Foimosus then submitted himself to the pope and gained reinstatement in the Church, but only under sworn promise never again to return to Rome, or to strive to recover his diocese. Till the death of John VIII. Formosus lived in the West Frankish kingdom pat Sens. But John's successor, Marinus, absolved him from the compulsory oath, permitted him to return to Rome, and restored to him the diocese of Porto. In this episcopal capacity he bestowed consecration upon Stephen V., in 885. In 891 he himself ascended the papal throne.
As pope Formosus had opportunity to display energy in several directions. He showed great strictness toward the Eastern clergy, and rejected the appeal for the reconciliation of the priests ordained by the Patriarch Photius, being ready to receive them into the fellowship of the Church merely as laymen. In the strife between Archbishop Hermann of Cologne and Archbishbp Adalgar of Hamburg‑Bremen about the relations of the dioceses of Bremen and Cologne (see ADALAAR; HAMBuRa, ARCHBisH0pRIC OF), Formosus, conformably to the synod held at Frankfort in 892, under the presidency of Archbishop Hatto of Mainz, decided that Bremen should remain united with Hamburg; only the. archbishop of Hamburg, either in person or by deputy, must be present at the provincial synods in Cologne. In the strife between Count Eudo of Paris and Charles the Simple for the throne of the West Franks, Formosus upheld the latter, and summoned to his support the German king Arnulf. The dissolution of the Frankish kingdom was a matter of great mowent for the apostolic see. At the outset, For mosm was compelled to ally himself with DukeVido of Spoleto, but the latter's aggressive attitude proved‑so formidable that even by 893 he called Arnulf to help. He invested the latter with the imperial crown in 898. Formosus died Apr. 4, 896.
The name of FormoaW, however, owes its renown not so much to his deeds as pope, as to the crimes committed against his dead body, and to the dogmatic confusions therewith connected. Under Stephen VI. (896,897), the Spoletan party again came into ascendancy at Rome, and used its power to make a repulsive exhibition of its hatred for the deceased pope on account of his German sympathies. Stephen VI. convened a synod, the corpse of Formosm was exhumed, and, arrayed in pontifical state, it was enthroned on St. Peter's cathedra,* thereupon complaint was lodged against the departed pontiff, charging him with uncanonical usurpation of the papal see; the synod pronounced him deposed, and all the consecrations he had performed null and vo(d; they tore from his body the apostolic vestments, cut off the three oath‑fingers from his right hand, and buried his body in a remote place; it was afterward sunk in the Tiber. In 897 Pope Theodore II. repealed the decisions of the synod; and in the following year John IX. expressly proclaimed, through two syn‑

Formula of Concord
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERWG
ods, the validity of the consecrations dispensed by Formosus. Nevertheless the infatuation of the anti‑German party was such that Sergius III. (904‑911) surpassed the decisions of that scandalous synod, compelling the clergy ordained by Formosus to undergo a second consecration.
CARL MIRBT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Epietolce of Formosus are in Bouquet,
Recueil, ix. 202‑204, and, with the Pravilegia and notes, in MPL, cxxix. 837‑854. Sources are: Lindprand, Antapodosis, i. 28 in MGH, Script., iii (1839), 282‑283; Chroniea S. Benedicti, ib. p. 204; Attnales Fuldenses, ib. i. (1826) 409 sqq.; Maraani Scotti chronicon, ib. (1844) 553; Flodoard, Hist. Remensis ecclesia, ib. xiii (1881), 559560; the writings of Auxilius and Vulgarius in defense of Formosus, in E. Diimmler, Auxilius uml Vulgarius, Leipsic, 1866. Consult: Jaff6, Regesta, i. 435‑439; E. Dummler, Geschichte des oatfrdnkischen Reichs, vols. ii.iii., Leipsie, 1887‑88; J. Langen, Geschichte der romischen Kirche . . Us Gregor VIZ., pp. 295 sqq., Bonn, 1892; F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, iii. 126‑232, London, 1895; Milman, Latin Christianity, iii. 93‑114; Bower, Popes, ii. 297‑299.

FORMULA OF CONCORD.
Preliminary History (§ 1). Mediation of Jakob Andrea (§ 2). The Formulas of Maulbronn and Torgau (6 3). The Formula of Concord (¢ 4).
	The Formula of Concord is the last of the six con
fessional books of the Lutheran Church, forming
the close of the Book of Concord. The Lutheran
Church, from the beginning, has stood for pure doc
trine; i.e., the doctrine of the three symbols of the
		ancient Church, of the Augsburg Con
	I. Prelimi‑ fession (or more precisely of Luther,)
	nary His‑ and of the church and school of
	tory. Wittenberg. Melanchthon dogmatized
		and thus externalized the authority of
Luther; but he departed from LLther's doctrine.
Thus, after Luther's death dissensions arose, and two
opposite tendencies were developed. Both parties
the Melanchthonians or Crypto‑Calvinists (see PHI
LIPPISTS) and the Gnesio‑Lutherans such as Flacius
,q.v.)‑fell into extremes and exaggerations. Among
the questions in dispute may be mentioned the In
terim and the matter of adiaphora (after 1547);
Osiander's doctrine of justification (after 1550); the
Majoristic controversy (see MAJOR, GEGRG) over the
assertion of Major and Menius that good works are
necessary for salvation and the opinion of Amsdorf
that they are an obstacle to salvation (after 1552), and
in connection with it the antinomistic controversy;
the controversy on the Lord's Supper (after 1552);
the synergistic controversy (after 1555); and the
Christological controversies, which began in the
early sixties. The idea of effecting an agreement
between the two contending parties arose at an
early time. In 1556 Flacius issued " lenient prop
ositions " in that direction, but made them de
pendent upon a public confession of those who had
erred. Melanchthon acknowledged his fault in regard
to the Interim, but excused his attitude. The serious
nessof the situationwas generally felt at the Relig
ious Colloquy of Worms in 1557 (see WORMS), when
the Saxon theologians (i.e., the party of Flacius)
questioned the right. of their Philippist opponents
to appeal to the Augsburg Confession. The Prot
estant princes tried to establish peace by the Frank
fort Recess (q.v.) in 1558, at which the introduc‑
s42
tion of an official censorship of writings of a religious nature was decreed; but the adherents of Flacius successfully resisted all such attempts. At the Diet of Naumburg (1561), where an open Calvinist like Frederick III. of the Palatinate was the leader, the divergence in doctrine regarding the Lord's Supper became more evident than ever. It was felt that. the Augsburg Confession was not a sufficient confessional basis. A convention at Liineburg, for instance, demanded a corpus doctrincewhich should comprise, besides the Augsburg Confession, the Augsburg Apology, the Schmalkald Articles, and Luther's catechism, as well as his other writings. Such corpora doctrines arose now in different parts of the country. The Melanclr thoniana also produced a Corpus doctrince christiante (Leipsic, 1560), in which they embodied
chiefly works of Melanchthon. In this way fixed norms of doctrine were established. The next task was to establish a common corpus doctrinte for the whole Lutheran Church of Germany. It was solved by the " Book of Concord " [the title of the Formula concordice in the editio princeps, 1580;
this name was afterward reserved for the collec
tion of all the Lutheran symbols], in which the dif
ferent corpora doctrince found their consummation.
	The different collections of confessions, however,
did not wipe out the old controversies on the Phil
ippist errors. The need of a new confession as the
only satisfactory solution of the difficulty was felt
more and more. In June, 1567, Landgrave Will
	iam IV. of Hesse‑Cassel and Duke
	a. Media‑	Christopher of Wiirttemberg com
	tion	missioned Jakob Andrea to draw up
	of Jakob	a formula which could be accepted by
	Andrea.	all theologians of the Augsburg Confes
		sion. It bore the title, Bekenntnis and
kurze Erklarung etlicher zwieeptlltiger Artikel, riach
welcher sine christliche Einigkeit in den Kirchen, der
Augsb. Konfession xugethan getroffen and die arger
liche, larrgwierige SPoltung hingelegt werden mochte.
It related chiefly to the five articles of justification
by faith, good works, free will, adiaphora and the
Lord's Supper. But the time was not yet ripe for
the success of the plan. Duke Christopher, the
originator of the idea, died, and Landgrave William
of Hesse‑Cassel conceived the impracticable scheme
of applying the intended agreement not only to all
elements of German Protestantism, but also to the
Reformed Churches outside of Germany. In
Electoral Saxony Philippism still flourished, and
the theologians of Ducal Saxony still clung to their
ultra‑Lutheran views. Andrea's journeys to Sax
ony in 1569 and 1570 did not alter the situa
tion. After the death of Duke John William of
Saxony the ultra‑Lutheran party was dispersed
under the protectorate of Elector August, and the
eyes of the elector, who had always regarded him
self a good Lutheran, were opened to the Crypto
Calvinism existent in his own country. In 1573, be
fore the overthrow of Crypto‑Calvinism in Electoral
Saxony, Andrea had published Sechs christliche
Predigten (Tiibingen, 1573), in which he tried to
settle the controversies not by theological investi
gations, but by the catechism. The sermons
openly showed his Lutheran convictions. He had

343
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
changed his position; there was no attempt any longer to conceal anything that might be disagreeable to the Philippists. The original thought of reconciling Lutherans and Philippists by a formula of compromise had been abandoned as impossible. The plan now was to draw up a formula that should consolidate all Lutherans against Philippists and Calvinists. Through the mediation of the theological faculty in Tabingen, the sermons of Andrea were not unfavorably received in North Germany by leaders like Martin Chemnitz of Brunswick, Joachim Westphal of Hamburg, David. Chytreus and the theological faculty of Rostock. Andrea was asked to put his sermons in the form of articles. Thus originated the so‑called Swabian Concordia, which showed great similarity to the later Formula of Concord. It was signed by the theologians in Tfbingen and the members of the consistory in Stuttgart, and in Mar., 1574, was sent to Duke Julius of Brunswick and to Chemnitz, that they might enter into negotiations with the churches of Lower Saxony.
After the overthrow of Philippism in Electoral Saxony, the elector himself felt the need of ending the disastrous controversies by a generally accepted formula. In Nov., 1575, at the instance of Count George Ernest of Henneberg, Duke Louis of W iirttemberg and Margrave Charles of Baden, Lucas
Osiander, court preacher of Warttem‑
3. The berg, Balthasar Bidembach, provost Formulas of at Stuttgart, and Abel Scherdinger,
Maulbronn court preacher of Henneberg, with and several theologians of Baden, com‑
Torgau. posed the Formula of Maulbronn,
which was signed in the monastery of Maulbronn Jan. 19, 1576. This formula agreed with the Swabian Concordia in content, but departed from it in that it preserved the order of articles in the Augsburg Confession. Both formulas were sent to Elector August, wlio asked Andrea for an opinion on them. Andrea gave the preference to the Formula of Maulbronn and at the same time induced the elector to convoke an assembly of theologians for the purpose of establishing a common corpus doctrince. The time was favorable, as many of the old polemical agitators had died. In Feb., 1576, there was a convention at Lichtenberg, and from May 28 to June 7 at Torgau. The leading theologians were Nicolaus Selnecker, Andrea, Chemnitz, Chytraeus, and Andreas Musculus. On the basis of the Swabian and Maulbronn formulas there was established a third one acceptable to all parties, the Book of Torgau, of which Elector August sent copies to most of the Evangelical estates of Germany. As Landgrave William and others criticized the prolixity of the Book of Torgau, Andrea made an epitome (Kurzer summariseher Auszug der Arlikel, so zvrischen den Theologen augsburgischer Konfession I Jahre slreitig, zu Torgau durch die daselbsl versammelten and untersehriebmen Theologen im Monat Junio 1676 ehristlich verglichen worden).
By Feb‑, 1577 most of the requested criticisms on the Book of Torgau had been sent to Dresden. Elector August then commissioned Andrea, Chemnitz and Selnecker to come to an agreement on the
Formula of Concord
final form of the confession. After having been joined later by Andreas Musculus and Christof
Kbrner of Electoral Brandenburg, and
4. The by David Chytr~eus of Rostock, they
Formula of began their meetings at Bergen, near Concord. Magdeburg; and on May 28, 1577, there was laid before the elector the Book of Bergen (Bergen Formula), which is identical with the Solids declaratio of the Formula of Concord. At the same time Andrea's epitome of the Book of Torgau was carefully read, article by article, and approved. The electors of Saxony and Brandenburg now sent copies of the Book of Bergen for approbation and subscription to all estates whose consent to the new plan was undoubted. It is not strange that the confession was not received everywhere with the same willingness. Churches which had gone through a different process of confessional development and had adopted the later doctrines of Melanchthon, in order to retain their connection with the Calvinistic Church, rejected the confession of Bergen and were driven to the Reformed confession. At the instigation of Queen Elizabeth of England, Count Palatine John Casimir, an adherent of the Reformed faith, attempted to obstruct the acceptance of the Formula of Concord by forming a counterunion of all the Reformed Churches at the Convention of Frankfort (1577), but without success.
The " Book of Concord " was published, in German, on the fiftieth anniversary of the Augsburg Confession (June 25, 1580). The first authorized Latin text appeared in 1584, in Leipsic. The confession was signed by three electors, twenty dukes and princes, twenty‑four counts, four barons, thirty‑eight free cities, and nearly eight thousand preachers and teachers. It was rejected by Hesse, Anhalt, Pfalz‑Zweibrucken, Brunswick, SchleswigHolstein, Denmark, Frankfort‑on‑the‑Main, Danzig, Bremen, Speyer, Worms, Nuremberg, Strasburg, Magdeburg, and Nordhausen. Silesia did not take part in the negotiations. Some of the dissenting State Churches accepted the Formula of Concord at a later time. Although it does not and can not speak the last word of the religious knowledge of Lutheranism, it was a historical necessity. The doctrinal differences produced by Melanchthonian ideas necessitated a separation of churches. The more Philippism approached Calvinism and GnesioLutheranism stepped out of the limits of a party, the less possible was a union. Andrea perceived this at the right moment. A concord among the friends of Lutheranism and the establishment of a uniform corpus doctrince was possible only if the extreme Philippists together with the Calvinists were excluded. The great importance of the Formula of Concord and of the Book of Concord lies in the fact that by them the Lutheran Church maintained its independence over against Calvinism. It must not be imagined that a theological party had here merely obtruded its views upon the Lutheran Church; in the Formula of Concord there have come to their full development the germs of a really existing consensus of belief. Not only the extremes of Philippism, but also those of the Gnesio‑Lutherans, such as Flacius, Amsdorf, and

Foil natus	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	844
Osiander, were cut off. Thus the Formula of Concord brought peace to the Lutheran Church, and for along time gave direction to the efforts of the Church in the sphere of dogmatics.
(R. SEEBEnG.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. T. Muller, Die eymbolisehen Bilcher der
	evangeliach‑lutheriaehen Kirche, Gatersloh, 1877 (text and
	introduction); Schaff, Creeds, i. 258‑340 (history and
	discussion, list of literature), iii. 93‑180 (text); H. E.
	Jacobs, The Book of Concord, i. 487 sqq., ii. 245 sqq.,
	Philadelphia. 1893. Consult: J. G. Planck, Geed tichts
	der Entatehung . . proteatantisdhen Lehrbegriffa, vols.
	iv.‑vi., 8 vols., Leipsic, 1791‑1800; H. L. J. Heppe, Ge
	achichle des deutadhen Protestantismus, 1666‑1681, 4 vols.,
	Marburg, 1852‑58; K. F. GSsehel, Die Concordienformel
	nach Arer Geachichte, Leipsie, 1858; F. H. R. Frank, Die
	Theolagie der Concordienformel, 4 vols., Erlangen, 1858
	1865; G. Frank, Geschidete der proteatantischen Theologie,
	pp. 330‑374, Leipsie, 1862; C. P. Kmuth, The Conserva
	tive Reformation and its Theology, pp. 288‑328, Phila
	delphia, 1872; G. Wolf, Zur Geachidhts des deutschen
	Proteatantiemm, 1666‑69, Berlin, 1888; and in general
	the works on the church history of the period.
FORNEY, CHRISTIAN HENRY: Church of God; b. at West Hanover, Pa., Oct. 17, 1839. He studied at Oberlin College, but left before taking a degree, and was ordained to the ministry in 1860. After being professor in Mount Joy Academy, ^a., and also pastor of the church of his denomination in the same village 1860‑63, he held pastorates at Chambersburg, Pa. (1863‑‑66), Fourth Street Church, Harrisburg, Pa. (1866‑68), and Lancaster City, Pa. (1868‑70). He was assistant editor of The Church Advocate, the organ of his denomination, 1866‑69, and has been editor‑in‑chief since 1869. He was first chaplain of the Pennsylvania Houei of Representatives in 1868‑69, and since 1866 has been president of the General Eldership of the Church of God, besides being a member of many boards and committees of the same denomination. He describes himself as " orthodox, evangelical, postmillenarian, antidenominational, three monumental ordinances‑baptism, washing the saints' feet, and communion‑Arminian in theology." Besides revising and editing J. Winnebrenner's Brief View of the Church of God (Harrisburg, Pa., 1885) and Sermon on Baptism (1885), and M. P. Jewett's The Mode and Subjects of Baptism (1905), he has written The Christian Ordinances (1883) and Philosophic Basis of Ordinances and Bible Doctrine o f Sanctification (1905).
FORREST, DAVID WILLIAM: United Free Church of Scotland; b. at Glasgow May 16, 1856. He studied at the University of Glasgow (M.A., 1878), the United Presbyterian College, Edinburgh (1877‑80), and the University of Leipsic (1880). He has been minister of Saffronhall Church, Hamilton (1882‑87), United Presbyterian Church, Moffat (1887‑94), Wellington Church, Glasgow (1894‑

* The Formula of Concord consists of two parts, the Epitome and the Solida repetitio et declaratio, each divided into twelve articles, as follows: i., of original sin; ii., of free will; iii., of justification by faith; iv., of good works; v., of the Law and the Gospel; vi., of the third use of the' Law; vii.. of the Lord's Supper; viii., of the person of Christ; ix., of Christ's descent into hell; x., of church usages and ceremonies called adiaphora; xi., of God's foreknowledge and election; xii.. of several heresies and sects. The second part repeats at greater length what is concisely stated in the Epitome with confirmatory quotations.
1899), United Free Church, Skelmorlie, Wemyss Bay (1899‑1903), and North Morningside United Free Church, Edinburgh (since 1903). He was Kerr Lecturer at Edinburgh in 1897 and a lecturer at Yale in 1901. He has written The Christ of History and of Experience (Kerr Lectures; Edinburgh, 1897) and The Authority of Christ (1906).

FORSANDER, NILS: Lutheran; b. at Gladsax, Sweden, Sept. 11, 1846. He emigrated to the United States in 1870 and completed his education at Ai1gustana College and Theological Seminary, Rock Island, 111. (B.A., 1872). He was ordained to the ministry in 1873 and was pastor at Sagetown, Ill., 1873‑75, Kingston, Ia., 1875‑80, and Bettresda, Ia., 1880‑89. Since 1889 he has been professor of theology at Augustana College and Theological Seminary. He was secretary of the Evangelical Lutheran Augustana Synod 1886‑90, and in theology is a strict evangelical member of his denomination. He has been editor of the Augustana Theological Quarterly since 1900, and has written Augsburgiska bekdnnelsen med 1tirklaringar (Rock Island, Ill., 1899) and Var lutherska kyrkas stallning till andre kyrkosamfund (1906).

FORSTER, CHARLES: English clergyman and author; b. 1790; d. at Stisted (35 m. n.e. of London), Essex, Aug. 20, 1871. He studied at Trinity College, Dublin, and was perpetual curate of Ash, Kent, 1834‑38, rector of Stisted, near Braintree, Essex, 1838‑71, and also one of the six preachers in Canterbury Cathedral 1835‑71. He opposed Biblical criticism and aimed in a number of works, now sought as curiosities, to justify the strictest literal interpretation of Scripture. Among other things he published, Critical Essays on Genesis chap. xx. and on St. Matthew chap. ii. 17, 18, (Dublin, 1826); Mahometanism Unveiled (2 vols., London, 1829); The Life of John Jebb (2 vols., 1836); The Historical Geography of Arabia (1844); The One Primeval Language (3 parts, 1851‑54), and Sinai Photographed, or Contemporary Records of Israel in the Wilderness (1862).

FORSTER (FOERSTER, VORSTER, FORSTHEMIUS), JOHANN: 1. Lutheran theologian and Hebrew scholar; b. at Augsburg July 10, 1496 (or 1495); d. at Wittenberg Dec. 8, 1558. In 1515 he entered the University of Ingolstadt where he became the most studious and capable Hebrew scholar of Reuchlin; on account of a pestilence he removed in 1521 to Leipsic, and became a pupil of P. Mosellanus, through whose influence, probably, he received in 1522 a position as teacher of Hebrew at the Greek‑Latin school in Zwickau. In 1529 he resigned, and in 1530 became a student at the University of Wittenberg, where he remained as preacher about six years. He assisted Luther in the translation of the Bible, and became one of his most devoted pupils and friends. In 1535 he received a call to Augsburg, where he became involved in controversies with his Zwinglian colleagues. In 1539 he became professor of Hebrew at Tubingen, on the recommendation of Luther and Camerarius. The question whether the Reformation should proceed according to

345	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Forney
Fortunatus
Saxon or Swiss principles and doctrines was then a burning one, and Forster lost his position in this struggle because he did not side with the Zwinglians. In 1542 he became provost of St. Lawrence at Nuremberg, and thence extended his reformatory activity, first to Regensburg in 1542 and in the following year to the county of Henneberg. In unselfish devotion to the cause of the Reformation he sacrificed his position at Nuremberg, but as his plans of church discipline were not carried out, he went into voluntary retirement after three years. After some vain efforts of Melanchthon and his friends to find a position for him, Prince George of Anhalt called him as superintendent to the bishopric of Merseburg, and subsequently Duke Augustus provided him with a capitular prebend. After Cruciger's death in 1549, he was called to Wittenberg as professor of Hebrew and preacher at the Castle Church. In 15‑14 he took part in the convention of Naumburg on the side of Melanchthon. The last decade of his life may be designated as the Melanchthonian period, since be became more lenient in church discipline and expressed himself in a more conciliatory manner on the doctrine of the Lord's Supper. The principal work of his life is a great Hebrew‑Latin dictionary, Dietionarium hebraicum novum, non ex rabbinorum commentis nee ex nostratium doctorum stulta imitatione descriptum sed ex ipsis thesauris S. Bibliorum et eorundem accurata collatione depromptum (Basel, 1557; 2d ed., 1564).
2. Not to be confounded with the above is the younger Johann Forster; b. at Auerbach (15 m. S.W. of Zwickau), Saxony, Dec. 25, 1576; d. at Mansfeld (38 m. s. of Magdeburg) Nov. 17, 1613. He was preacher at Leipsic, 1593, rector in Schneeberg, 1601; chief preacher of Zeitz, professor of theology in Wittenberg 1609 and finally general superintendent at Mansfeld He was the author of various theological and devotional writings.
(W. GERMANNt.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Germann, Johann Forster, der Henneberger Re/ormator, Meiningen, 1894; FSrster, in ZHT, 1869, pp. 210 sqq.; L. Geiger, Das Studiumderhebrdiechen Sprache in Deutschland, pp. 97 sqq., 136, Breslau, 1870; KL, iv. 1625‑26.
FORSYTH, NATHANIEL: Missionary to India. See INDIA, II., § 2.

FORSYTH, PETER TAYLOR: English Congregationalist; b. at Aberdeen, Scotland, May 12, 1848. He studied at the University of Aberdeen (M.A., 1869), the University of Gottingen, and New College, London, and after being assistant to the professor of Latin at the University of Aberdeen was pastor at Shipley, Yorkshire (1876‑79), St. Thomas' Square, Hackney (1880‑85), Cheetham Hill, Manchester (1885‑89), Clarendon Park, Leicester (1889‑94), and Emmanuel Congregational Church, Cambridge (1894‑1901). Since 1901 he has been principal of Hackney Theological College, Hampstead, London, as well as a member of the 'theological faculty of London University. In 1905 he was elected chairman of the Congregational Union of England and Wales. In theology lie is Evangelical, positive, modern, and social. He
has written Pulpit Parables (sermons for children, in collaboration with J. A. Hamilton; Manchester, 1886); Religion in Recent Art (1889); The Charter of the Church (London, 1896); The Holy Father and the Living Christ (1897); Christian Perfection (1899); Rome, Reform, and Reaction (1899); and The Taste of Death and the Life of Grace (1901).
FORTUNATUS, VENANTIUS HONORIUS CLEMENTIANUS: Bishop of Poitiers and Christian poet; b. near Treviso, in Upper Italy, c. 535; d. in Poitiers in the beginning of the seventh century. He studied grammar, rhetoric, and jurisprudence in Ravenna, left Italy about 564, went through Germany to Gaul, lived for some time at the court of Sigbert of Austrasia, then went to Tours, and later to Poitiers. Here he became acquainted with Radegunde, a Thuringian princess, the divorced wife of Lothair I., who with her adopted daughter, Agnes, lived in the convent of the Holy Cross. The intercourse with these two women induced the poet to desist from his migratory life and to become presbyter in Poitiers. Thenceforth he lived in close connection with all prominent personalities of the country, wrote poetical eulogies, and grew in authority and fame as a poet., especially after he had collected and published his poems, at the instigation of Gregory of Tours. Shortly before his death he became bishop in Poitiers.
The poetical productions of Fortunatus are very numerous, most of them written for special occasions. He may indeed be called a court poet. Hospitality which he had enjoyed, the celebration of a wedding, a funeral‑everything was put into easy verse. His poetic gifts were by no means slight; leis language is picturesque and full' of thought; his hexameters and pentameters surprise by the purity of their rhythm. But there is also not lacking a certain bombast and artificiality of expression, characteristic of the time, and still more faulty is the base flattery in his eulogies which reflects unfavorably upon his character. Since Fortunatus eulogized quite a number of eminent personages, his poems are valuable also for the historian. His descriptions of nature are excellent, as, for instance, his representation of a journey on the Moselle from Metz to Andernach, which he had undertaken in the suite of the king of Austrasia, likewise a poem on the castle of Bishop Nicetius of Treves. Still more valuable are three elegies composed under the inspiration of Radegunde; one represents the tragic fate of GaIsvintha, daughter of a West Gothic king; a second is intended to con‑
sole Amalafried, cousin of Radegunde, the last Thuringian heir; the last is to console Artachis, a relative of Amalafried, on the death of the latter. The greatest fame of Fortunatus, however, rests
upon his religious hymns, as Vexilla regis prodeunt (transl. by J. M. Neale, The royal banners forward go), and Pange lingua gloriosi proelium certaminis (transl. by Neale Sing, my tongue, the glorious battle), hymns on the Passion; and Quem terra pontus cethera (transl. by Neale, The God whom earth
and sea and Sky), a hymn on Mary. Fortunatus also wrote a comprehensive epic poem on the life of St. Martin (De vita Martini), and some lives of saints in prose, Albinus, Marcellus, Germanus, and

Foscarari	THE NEW SCHAFF=HERZOG	846
Foster
others. He was the last great poet of the period
before Charlemagne.	(K. LEIMBACHt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Opera, ed. M. A. Luchi, Rome, 1786
	1787, and, ed. F. Leo and K. Krusch, in MGH, Auct. ant.,
	iv. 1, 2, 1881‑85. Consult: F. Biihr, Geschichte der r6mi
	achen Litteratur i»t karolingischen Zeitalter, pp. 145‑161,
	Carlsruhe, 1840; F. Hamelin, De vita et operibus Venantii
		. Fortunati, Rennes, 1873; D. Leroux, Le Poete S. V.
	Fortunat, Poitiers, 1885; .Wattenbach, DGQ, i (1885),
	87‑89, ii. 489, i (1893), 91, 92, 113; S. W. Duffield, Latin
	Hymn‑11'riters, pp. 88‑96 et passim, New York, 1889;
	A. Ebert. Geschichle der Literatur des Mittelalters, pp. 518
	542, Leipsic, 1889; C. Nisard, Le PMe Fortunat, Paris,
	1890; W. S. Teuffel, Geschickte der romischen Literatur,
	pp. 1278‑83, Leipsic, 1890; M. Prou, La Gauls m6ro
	vingienne, pp. 225‑235, Paris, 1897; Ceillier, Auteurs
	sacrie, xi. 306, 315‑316, 384, 402‑414; Schaff, Christian
	Church, iv. 422; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 383‑384; DCB,
	ii. 552‑553.
	FOSCARARI, EGIDIO: Italian Dominican, bishop
of Modena; b. at Bologna Jan. 27, 1512 ; d. at
Rome Dec. 23, 1564. After officiating as lector in
various monasteries, he became magister sacri
palatii at Rome in 1546. Four years later Julius
II. appointed him bishop of Modena, and in this
capacity he attended the sessions of the Council of
Trent in 1551. When the council was suspended,
he returned to his diocese, where he performed his
duties in an exemplary manner, but was suspected
of heresy by the Inquisition in 1558 and was im
prisoned by Paul IV., like his predecessor Gio
vanni de Morone (q.v.). Although his heterodoxy
could not be proved, he did not receive formal ab
solution until it was granted him by Pius IV. in
1560, whereupon he was permitted to return to his
see amid the rejoicings of the people. He was
present at the concluding sessions of the council,
and was a member of the committees which, after
the close of the council, prepared the Index libro
rum prohibilorum, and the Catechismus Romanus,
and revised the breviary and missal. .
				K. BENRATH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Qu6tif and J. Echard, Script. ordinia
	Pradicatorum, ii. 184‑185, Paris, 1721; KL, iv. 1636‑37.
	FOSS, CYRUS DAVID: Methodist Episcopal
bishop; b. at Kingston, N. Y., Jan. 17, 1834. He
studied at Wesleyan University (B.A., 1854), and
after being instructor and principal at Amenia
Seminary, Amenia, N. Y., 1854‑57, entered the.
ministry in the New York conference, being sta
tioned at Chester, N. Y., in 1857‑59. He was then
transferred to the New York East conference, and
was pastor of churches in Brooklyn (1859‑65) and
New York (1869‑75). From 1875 to 1880 he was
president of Wesleyan University, and in 1880
was elected bishop. He was fraternal delegate to
the General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal
Church, South, in 1878, and to the British Wes
leyan Conference in 1886, while he made an official
tour of the Methodist Episcopal missions in Europe
in 1886, of Mexico in 1893, and of India and Ma
laysia in 1897‑98.
	FOSSARIAN (Lat. fossarius, fossor; Gk. kopien,
kopiates): The designation of the grave‑diggers of
the early Church. In primitive times the burial
of the poor was one of the services of love which
the wealthier Christians voluntarily undertook for
their needy brethren. Later the congregations had
special cemeteries, and burial was entrusted to professional grave‑diggers, which must have been the case in the third century and possibly even in the latter part of the second. The oldest document showing the existence of fossarians is the Gesta apud Zenophilum, which dates from 303 and is printed as an appendix to the editions of Optatus. In this work, as elsewhere, fossarians were reckoned among the clergy, but this was not invariably the case, as, for instance, in Rome. Fossarians are frequently represented in the paintings of the Roman catacombs, and it is clear from the inscriptions that they controlled the sale of graves. See CEMETERIES, II., 4, § 1. H. ACHELIs.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. B. de Rossi, Roma sotterranea, iii. 533 sqq.. Rome, 1877, Eng. ed. by Northcote and Brownlow, Roma Sotterranea, i., chap. vii., pp. 205‑216, London, 1879; J. A. Martigny, Dictionnaire des antiquit6s;'chrctiennes, p. 281, Paris, 1877; DCA, i. 684; KL,1638‑40 (valuable).
FOSTER, FRANK HUGH: Congregationalist; b. at Springfield, Mass., June 18, 1851. He studied at Harvard (B.A., 1873), Andover Theological Seminary (graduated in 1877), and the University of Leipsic (Ph.D., 1882). He was assistant professor of mathematics in the United States Naval Academy 1873‑74, and pastor of the Congregational church in North Reading, Mass., 1877‑79. After his return from Germany he was professor of philosophy in Middlebury College, Middlebury, Vt., 1882‑84, professor of church history in Oberlin Theological Seminary 1884‑92, and professor of systematic theology in Pacific Theological Seminary, Berkeley, Cal., 1892‑1902, as well as pastor of the Second Congregational Church, Oakland, Cal., 1896‑97, and acting professor of systematic theology in the San Francisco Theological Seminary (Presbyterian) 1901‑02; pastor of the college and village church at Olivet, Mich., 1904‑07; and since 1907 professor of history in Olivet College. He was moderator of the General Association of Congregational Churches in Northern California in 1895, and Stone Lecturer at Princeton Theological Seminary in 1900. In theology his article on the New Testament miracles (AJT, 1908) shows him to have passed from the Evangelical to the purely non‑supernatural or rationalistic standpoint. He was for several years editor of the Bibliothew Sacra, and has written Seminary Method of Study in the Historical Sciences (New York, 1888); Fundamental Ideas of the Roman Catholic Church (Philadelphia, 1899); Christian Life and Theology: The Contribution o f Christian Experience to the System of Evangelical Doctrine (New York, 1900); The Teaching of Jesus concerning his own Mission (1903); and A Genetic History of the New England Theology (Chicago. 1907); and has translated Hugo Grotius' Defence of the Satisfaction of Christ (Andover, 1889).
FOSTER, GEORGE BURMAN: Baptist; b. at Alderson, W. Va., Apr. 2, 1858. He was graduated at the University of West Virginia in 1883, Rochester Theological Seminary in 1887, and studied in Gbttingen and Berlin 1891‑92. After being pastor of the First Baptist Church, Saratoga Springs, N. Y., 1887‑91, he was appointed profes‑

347	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Fosoaraxi
		Foster
sor of philosophy at McMaster University, Toronto,
and, in 1895, professor of systematic theology
in the Divinity School of the University of Chicago.
In 1905 he was transferred to the professorship of
the philosophy of religion. He is the author of
The Finality of the Christian, Religion (Chicago,
1906).
	FOSTER, JAMES: English dissenting minister;
b. at Exeter Sept. 16, 1697; d. in London Nov. 5,
1753. He was educated at the free school, and at
an academy, in Exeter, where he began preaching
in 1718. After holding several obscure and pre
carious charges he came to London in 1724 as the
colleague of Joseph Burroughs at the chapel in the
Barbican. In 1728 he became Sunday evening
lecturer at the Old Jewry and in 1744 pastor of
the independent church at Pinners' Hall He
took part in a number of theological controversies
and enjoyed a great reputation as a pulpit orator.
He is mentioned by Pope in the epilogue to the
Satires, and it was a proverbial saying that "those
who had not heard Farinelli sing and Foster preach
were not qualified to appear in genteel company."
Though Foster defended the historical evidences
of Christianity against the views of Tindal, he was
himself essentially a deist and rationalist. Besides
numerous sermons, included in a collected edition,
Sermons (4 vols., London, 1755), he published, An
Essay on Fundamentals (London, 1720), in which
he maintained that the doctrine of the Trinity is
not essential; The Usefulness, Truth, and Excel
lency of the Christian Revelation (1731), a reply to
Tindal; and Discourses on All the Princspal
Branches of Natural Religion and Social Virtue (2
vole., 1749‑52), which had 2,000 subscribers.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Wilson, Dissenting Churches, ii. 270
	285, 4 vols., London, 1808‑14; J. Ivimey, Hist. of the
	English Baptists, iii. 215, 399‑404, ib. 1823; J. Sparks,
	Collection of Essays, v. 171‑185, 6 vols., Boston, 1823‑26;
	DNB, xx. 54‑55.
	FOSTER, JOHN: English Baptist; b. at Wads
worth Lane, parish of Halifax (14 m. w.s.w. of
Leeds), Yorkshire, Sept. 17, 1770; d. at Stapleton
(a suburb of Bristol), Gloucestershire, Oct. 15,
1843. He was the eldest son of a farmer and
manufacturer. Up to his eighteenth year he was
occupied chiefly with factory work, but had en
joyed some educational advantages and had read
largely in Puritan theology. Serious and medita
tive, he cared little for society or sport and was en
tranced with the beauties of nature. When seven
teen years of age he experienced conversion and
was baptized into the fellowship of the Calvinistic
Baptist church at Hobden Bridge. Under the in
fluence of Dr. Fawcett, his pastor, he entered the
school of the latter (Brearly Hall) to study for the
ministry. Here he not only pursued with enthu
siasm and success the classical and literary courses
offered, but read extensively in theology and be
came master of an elegant literary style. After
three years of preparatory study he proceeded to
the Baptist college at Bristol, where in scholarship,
depth of thought, and literary skill he surpassed
all his fellow students, but proved remarkably
lacking in preaching power. With a most intense
desire to use his gifts and attainments for the edi‑
fication of saints and the conversion of sinners, his abstract and overelaborate way of sermonizing, his deficiency in popular touch, and a chronic throat trouble that made his voice ineffective, resulted at Newcastle, Dublin, Chichester, Battersea, and Downend, where he successively ministered, in the dwindling of the congregations and the closing of the chapels. While ultra‑Calvinistic in his predestinarianism, he early became almost Arian in his Chlystology. The latter made him unacceptable to the Particular Baptists, and the former to the General Baptists. For a time he gave instruction to certain African youths who had been brought to England to he educated for missionaries.
While still engaged in pastoral effort Foster published (1805) a volume of Essays, including his famous essay On Decision of Character, which attracted much attention. From 1808 he was a regular contributor to the Eclectic Review. His articles published in this periodical are said to have numbered 185. His essay on the Evils of Popular Ignorance (1819), originally an address before a benevolent society, added greatly to his fame. He had an invincible aversion to the Established Church and to the special privileges of the British aristocracy; and the evils of the time in Britain and her colonies he was never weary of attributing to the unchristian and antisocial elements in Church and State. In arraigning the religious and social evils of the time he assumed a somewhat pessimistic tone, but exerted a wide‑spread influence in favor of reform. Among his other writings are An Introduction to Doddridge's `Rise and Progress' (Glasgow, 1825), and Lectures Delivered at Broadmead Chapel (1844‑47). Among the points on which he differed from his Baptist brethren was his denial of eternal punishment, which he was unable to reconcile with his conceptions of the benevolence and the righteousness of God.
ALBERT H. NEWMAN.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. E. Ryland, Life and Correspondence o/
John Foster, 2 vols., London, 1846; DNB, xx. 57‑59.
FOSTER, ROBERT VERRELL: Presbyterian (formerly Cumberland Presbyterian); b. near Lebanon, Tenn., Aug. 12, 1845. He was graduated at Cumberland University, Lebanon, Tenn., in 1870 and Union Theological Seminary in 1877. He was professor of mathematics in Cooper Institute (near Meridian, Miss.) 1871‑75, and in Waynesburg College, Waynesburg, Pa., 1877, professor of English, ethics, psychology, and logic in Cumberland University 1877‑81 and also of Hebrew and New Testament Greek 1877‑93. Since 1893 he has been professor of systematic theology in the Cumberland Presbyterian Theological Seminary in the same institution. In theology he is a Calvinist, although he believes that in the vicarious atonement of Christ propitiation is made for the sins of the whole world, and that for this reason the Gospel is freely and sincerely offered to all men for their acceptanee or rejection. He prepared com‑
mentaries on the International Sunday‑school Lessons from 1881 to 1895, edited The Theological Quarterly Review 1891‑92 and has written Introduction to the Study of Theology (Chicago, 1889);
Old Testament Studies: Being an Outline of Old

wvler
oz	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	348
Testament Theology (1890); Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans (Nashville, Tenn., 1891); Brief History of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church (New York, 1894); Our Doctrines (Nashville, Tenn., 1897); and Systematic Theology (1898).

FOWLER, CHARLES HENRY: Methodist Episcopal bishop; b. at Burford, Ontario, Canada, Aug. 11, 1837; d. in New York Mar. 20, 1908. He was graduated at Genesee College (now Syracuse University) in 1859, and at Garrett Biblical Institute, Evanston,Ill., in 1861. He studied law, but never practised. He held various pastorates (in Chicago 1861‑72), and from 1872 to 1876 was president of Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. He was editor of the New York Christian Advocate 1876‑80 and corresponding secretary, of the missionary society of his denomination 1880‑84. In 1884 ne was elected bishop and for eight years resided on the Pacific Coast, later living in Minneapolis, Minn., Buffalo, N. Y., and New York City. He was a delegate to the General Convention in 1872, 1876, 1880, and 1884, and a fraternal delegate to the General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, in 1874, as well as the Wesleyan Conference at London in 1898. He made extensive official tours; visiting South America in 1885, and Japan, China, and Korea in 1888, also a tour of the world, visiting the Methodist Episcopal missions in Malaysia and India. He was extremely active in the cause of education, being the founder of the Maclay College of Theology in southern California; the Wesleyan University of Nebraska at Lincoln, Neb., Peking University at Peking, China, and Nanking University in central China. He also founded missions of his denomination in South America and established the first Methodist Episcopal church in St. Petersburg, Russia. He wrote The Fallacies of Colenso Retrieaaed (Cincinnati, O., 1861); Wines of the Bible (New York, 1878); and Missions and World Movements (1903).
	FOWLER, EDWARD: An English clergyman
connected with the liberal school in the Church of
England and with the " Cambridge Platonists "
(q.v.); b. at Westerleigh (8 m. e.n.e. of Bristol),
Gloucestershire, 1632; d. at Chelsea Aug. 26, 1714.
He studied at Corpus Christi College, Oxford (B.A.'
1653), and then migrated to Trinity, Cambridge
(M.A., 1655). He was for a while Presbyterian
chaplain to the Dowager Countess of Kent, and
rector of $orhill, Bedfordshire, from 1656. On
the passing of the Act of Uniformity, he hesitated
for a while, but finally conformed, and, besides
two London livings, received a prebend at Glouces
ter in 1676, and became bishop of that see in 1691.
He is related with the Cambridge school by his
correspondence with More, especially on ghost
stories, from 1678 to 1681, and by his defense of
their doctrines, published anonymously as a " Free
Discourse " on the Principles and Practice o f cer
tain Moderate Divines . . . called Latitudinarians
(London, 1670). Its better‑known sequel, The
Design o f Christianity (1671), vigorously attacked
by Bunyan, and the Libertm Evangelica (1680),
may also be mentioned. Influenced as he was by
the Platonic school, he yet does not strictly belong to their ranks. His type of latitude was that characteristic of the Revolution period, when the movement had largely ceased to occupy itself with higher philosophy and had become practical, political, and ambitious.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. & Wood, Athenm Osonienne, ii. 780, 790, 888, London, 1692; E. Calemy, Historiml Account of my Own life, pp. 90, 95, 330, 494, ib. 1713; Biopraphia Britanniaz, iii. 2012, ib. 1784; J. Tulloch, Rational Thwlopy . in 17th Century, ii. 35, 437 eqq., Edinburgh, 1882;
DNB, zz. 84‑86 (contains list of his work. and full refer. ones to souroes).
FOWLER, JOSEPH THOMAS: Church of England; b. at Winterton (12 m. s.w. of Hull), Lincolnshire, June 9, 1833. He was educated at St. Thomas' Hospital Medical School, London (M.R.C.S., L.S.A., 1856), and Bishop Hatfield's Hall, Durham (B.A., 1861), and was house surgeon at St. Thomas' Hospital 1856‑57 and at the Bradford Infirmary 1857‑58. After the completion of his theological studies he was curate of Houghtonle‑Spring, Durham, 1861‑63, chaplain and precentor at St. John's College, Hurstpierpoint, 18641869, and curate of North Kelsey, I.incolnehire,1870. Since 1870 he has been vice‑principal of Bishop Hatfield's Hall, Durham, and university lecturer in Hebrew since 1871, as well as university librarian from 1873 to 1901. He was public examiner in theology 1874‑75, senior proctor 1876‑77 and 1899‑1901, and junior proctor 1882‑87. He was keeper of Bishop Cosin's library in 1889 and has been honorary canon of Durham since 1897. He has been for many years local secretary for Durham of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of London, and vice‑president of the Surtees Society since 1873. In theology he is an orthodox Churchman, inclining neither to Protestantism nor Roman Catholicism. He has edited for the Surtees Society Acts of the Chapter of Ripon (Newcastle, 1875); The Newminster Cartulary (1878); Memorials of Ripon (3 vols., 1882‑88); Metrical Life of St. Cuthbert (1891); Durham Account Rolls (3 vols., 1898‑1901); and Rites of Durham (1903); for the Yorkshire Archaeological Society Cistercian Statutes (London, 1890); for the Yorkshire Record Society Coucher Book of Selby (2 vols., Worksop, 1891‑93); and also Adamnani Vita Sancti Columbce (Oxford, 1894). He has written Life and Letters of John Bacchus Dykes (London, 1897); Durham Cathedral (1898), and Durham University (1904).
	FO%, GEORGE: Founder of the Society of
Friends; b. at Dmyton‑in‑the‑Clay (Fenny Dray
ton, 15 m. s.w. of Leicester), Leicestershire, July,
1624; d. in London Jan. 13, 1691. His father,
Christopher Fox, was a weaver, called " righteous
Christer " by his neighbors; his mother, Mary
Lago, was, he tells us, " of the stock of the Mar
tyrs." From childhood, Fox was of a serious, re
ligious disposition. " When I came to eleven
		years of age," he says (Journal, p. 2),
	Early " 1 knew pureness and righteousness;
	Life. for, while I was a child, I was taught
		how to walk to be kept pure. The
Lord taught me to be faithful, in all things, and to
act faithfully two ways; viz., inwardly to God, and

849	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bowler
outwardly to man." As he grew up, his relations " thought to have made him a priest "; but he was put as an apprentice to a man who was a shoemaker and grazier. In his nineteenth year the conduct of two companions, who were professors of religion, grieved him because they joined in, drinking healths, and he heard an inward voice from the Lord, " Thou seest how young people go together into vanity, and old people into the earth; and thou'must forsake all, both young and old, and keep out of all, and be as a stranger unto all." Then began a life of solitary wandering in mental temptations and troubles, in which he " went to many a priest to look for comfort, but found no comfort from them." At one time, as he was walking in a field, " the Lord opened unto " him " that being bred at Oxford or Cambridge was not enough to fit and qualify men to be ministers of Christ," but that a spiritual qualification was necessary. Not seeing this requisite in the priest of his parish, he " would get into the orchards and fields " by himself with his Bible. Regarding the priests less, he looked more after the dissenters, among whom he found "some tenderness," but no one that could speak to his need. " And when all my hopes in them," he says, " and in all men, were gone, so that I had nothing outwardly to help me, nor could tell what to do, then, ohl then, I heard a voice which said, `There is one, even Christ Jesus, that can speak to thy condition."'
In 1648 he began to exercise his ministry publicly in market‑places, in the fields, in appointed meetings of various kinds, sometimes in the " steeple‑houses," after the priests had got through.
His preaching was powerful; and His many joined him in professing the
Ministry‑ same faith in the spirituality of true
The So‑ religion. in a few years the Society
ciety of of Friends had formed itself sponta.
Friends. neously under the prebching of Fox and
his companions (see FHIzNDS, Boclwx or, I., § 1). Fox afterward showed great powers as a religious legislator, in the admirable organization which he gave to the new society. He seems, however, to have had no desire to found a sect, but only to proclaim the pure and genuine principles of Christianity in their original simplicity. He was often arrested and imprisoned for violating the laws forbidding unauthorized worship, for refusal to take an oath, and for wearing his hat in court. He was imprisoned at Derby in 1650, Carlisle in 1653, London in 1654, Launceston in 1656, Lancaster in 1660 and 1663, Scarborough in 1666, and Worcester in 1674, in noisome dungeons, and with much attendant cruelty. In prison his pen was active, and hardly less potent than his voice.
In 1669 Fox married Margaret Fell of Swarthmoor Hall, a lady of high social position, and one of his early converts. In 1671 he went to * Bar bados and the English settlements in America, where he remained two years. In 1677 and 1684 he visited the Friends in Holland, and organized their meetings for discipline.
Fox is described by Thomas Ellwood, the friend of Milton, as " graceful in countenance, manly in
personage, grave in gesture, courteous in conversation." Penn says he was "civil beyond all forms of breeding." We are told that he was "plain and powerful in preaching, fervent in prayer," " a discerner of other men's spirits, and very much master of his own," skilful to " speak a word in due season to the conditions and capacities of most, especially to them that were weary, and wanted soul's rest; " " valiant in asserting the truth, bold in defending it, patient in suffering for it, immovable as a rock." ISAAC Saearrsss.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The original MS. of Fox's Journal is in Devonshire House, Biebopegate W., London; it was published 2 vole., London, 1694‑98, and contains the RpisUea, Letters and Testimonials, bicentenary edition, 1891; selections from it, edited by R. M. Jones with title &eorpa Fox, as AuWlriopraphb, were published, Philadelphia, 1903. Lives have been written by S. M. Janney, Philadelphia, 1862; J. S. Watson, London, 1860; T. Hodgkin, ib. 1898. Consult also: Maria Webb, The Palls of Swatthmoor Hall and their Friends, London, 1865; W. Tallaek, George Fox, the Friends, and Early Baptists, London, 1868; B. Rhodes, Tree Apostles of Quakerism, ib. 1884; Jane Budge, Glimpses of Fox and his Priendl<, ib. 1893; E. E. Taylor, Cameos from the Life WGeorpe Fox, ib., 1998; DNB, xx. ~117‑122, and, in general, the literature under FRIENDS, SOCIrrr OF.

FOX (FOXE), JOHN: Author of the Book of Martyrs; b. in Boston (100 m. n. of London), Lincolnshire, 1516; d. in London Apr. 15, 1587. He studied at Oxford, and became fellow of Magdalen College, where he appl'ed himself to church history. Dean Nowell, Hugh Latimer, and William Tyndale were among his intimate friends and correspondents. For his Protestant sentiments he seems to have been expelled from his college: He became tutor in Sir Thomas Lucy's family, and then to the children of the Earl of Surrey for five years. During this period he issued several tracts and a Sermon of John Oecolampadiua to Yong Men aced 'Sermon (London, 1550?). .After the accession of Mary he was obliged to seek refuge from persecution on the Continent. He met Edmund Grindal at Strasburg and saw through the press in that city a volume of 212 pages on the persecution of Reformers from Wyclif to 1500, entitled Commentarii rerum in ecelesia gestarum masitmarumque per totem Buropam persecutwnum a Vuwleut temporibus ad hanc =qua otatem descriptio (1554). He went to Frankfort and sought to be a mediator in the differences between Dr. Cox and John Knox and removed from there, on Knox's departure, to Basel. Poverty forced him to apply himself to the printer's trade. Encouraged by Grindal (Remains, ed. W. Nicholson for the Parker Society, Cambridge, 1843, pp. 223 aqq.) he labored diligently on his great work on the martyrs, which appeared in Latin at Basel, 1559, and was dedicated to his former pupil, now the duke of Norfolk. Returning to England he spent much time under the roof of the duke, and attended hint to the scaffold, when at the age of thirty‑six be was executed for conspiring with Mary Queen of Scots. He received a prebend in Salisbury Cathedral but remained poor all his life although an annuity from the duke of Norfolk of £20 kept him from want. Called by Archbishop Parker to subscribe ‑to the canons, he refused, and, holding up a Greek Tests‑

Fox
France	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	360
ment, said, " To this will I subscribe." He was fearless in the avowal of his convictions, and petitioned the queen earnestly but unsuccessfully to spare the lives of two Dutch Anabaptists.
Fox's title to fame rests upon the Book of Martyrs, in the compilation of which he had the assistance of Crammer and others. The first complete English edition appeared in London, 1563 (2d ed., 1570; 3d, 1576; 4th, 1583; etc.), with the title Aetes and monuments of these latter and perillous dayes, touching matters of the Church . . . from the yeare of our Lorde a thousande, to the tyme now present, etc. Of the numerous later editions mention may be made of those of S. R. Cattley, with dissertation by J. Townsend (8 vols., London, 1837‑49) and J. Pratt, with introduction by J. Stoughton (8 vols., London, 1877). The work has been often abridged as by M. H. Seymour (London, 1838). For list of other writings by Fox, cf. the Lives of the British Reformers (London, 1873). By order of Elizabeth a copy of the Book of Martyrs was placed in the common halls of archbishops, bishops, deans, etc., and in all the colleges and chapels throughout the kingdom. It exercised a great influence upon the masses of the people long after its author was dead. Nicholas Fermr (q.v.) had a chapter of it read every Sunday evening in his community of Little Gidding along with the Bible. The Roman Catholics early attacked it, and pointed out its blunders. Fox was not in all cases accurate or dispassionate, but he was a man of wonderful industry. His book was a book for the times and produced a salutary impression.
D. S. SCHAFF.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The earliest and popular life, the authorship of which is not known, is unreliable and not selfconsistent; it was prefixed to vol. ii. of the Actes and Monuments, edition of 16441; biographical notes of value were prefixed by Richard Day in his edition of Christus Triumphana, 1579; G. Townsend, Life and Defence of J. Foxe, London, 1841 (prefixed to the 1841 edition of the Actes and Monuments. careless and incorrect, bettered in the 3d ed. by J. Pratt, 1870). An elaborate memoir, with indefinite reference to sources, is in DNB, xx. 141150.
FOX, JOHN: Presbyterian; b. at Doylestown, Pa., Feb. 13, 1853. He was graduated at Lafayette College, Easton, Pa., in 1872 and Princeton Theological Seminary in 1876. He held pastorates at Hampden Presbyterian Church, Baltimore, Md., 1877‑82, North Presbyterian Church, Allegheny, Pa., 1882‑93, and Second Presbyterian Church, Brooklyn, 1893‑98. Since 1898 he has been corresponding secretary of the American Bible Society. He is also a member of the board of directors and board of trustees of Princeton Theological Seminary and of the board of foreign missions of the Presbyterian Church. In theology lie is a conservative Calvinist, and emphasizes his belief in the plenary and verbal inspiration of the Scriptures.

FOX, NORMAN: Baptist; b. at Glens Falls, New York, Feb. 13, 1836; d. in New York City June 23, 1907. He was graduated at the University of Rochester in 1855 and Rochester Theolob ical Seminary in 1857. He was pastor of the Baptist church at. Whitehall, N. Y., 1859'12, and chaplain of the Seventy‑Seventh New York Volun‑
teers, Army of the Potomac, 1862‑64. In 1868‑69 he edited the Central Baptist (St. Louis, Mo.), and from 1869 to 1874 was professor in the school of theology in William Jewell College, Liberty, Mo. After 1874 he was engaged in literary and religious work, being temporary editor of The National Baptist in 1881, assistant editor of The Independent in 1884‑85, and editor of the Colloquium (New York) in 1889‑90. He wrote A Layman's Ministry (New York, 1883); Preacher and Teacher: A Life of Thomas Rambaut, LL.D. (1892); and Christ in the Daily Meal (1898).
FOX (FOXE), RICHARD: English statesman, bishop of Winchester; b. at Ropesley, near Grantham (23 m. s.s.w. of Lincoln), Lincolnshire, c. 1448; d. at Winchester Oct. 5, 1528. He was educated at Winchester, at Magdalen College, Oxford, and at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, and afterward studied theology and canon law in Paris, where he became a favorite of Henry, Earl of Richmond, then in exile. Henry entrusted him with the conduct of negotiations with the French court in the interest of an invasion of England, and, on his accession to the throne as Henry VII., conferred on him the offices of principal secretary of state and lord privy seal, and in 1487 appointed him bishop of Exeter. In 1492 Fox was translated to the see of Bath and Wells, in 1494 to that of Durham, and in 1501 to Winchester. Throughout the reign of Henry VII. his influence was supreme in affairs of State. He negotiated several important treatises with Austria, France, and Scotland, and arranged for the marriage of Princess Margaret with James IV. of Scotland. He was also chancellor of the University of Cambridge (1500), master of Pembroke Hall (1507‑19), and one of the executors of Henry VII. Under Henry VIII. he was gradually succeeded, both in royal favor and political influence, by his former prot6g4, Thomas Wolsey. In 1516 he resigned the custody of the privy seal and retired to his diocese. Besides making liberal donations to numerous churches, hospitals and colleges, including Magdalen College, Oxford, and Pembroke College, Cambridge, he established and endowed schools at Taunton and Grantham, and founded (1516) Corpus Christi College, Oxford, which was the pioneer college of the Renaissance in the English universities. He established in the new institution a lectureship in Greek, which until then had not been officially recognized at either Oxford or Cambridge, brought over the Italian humanist, Ludovicus Vives, as reader of Latin, and required the reader of theology, in his interpretations of Scripture, to give the preference to the Greek and Latin Fathers rather than to scholastic commentators. Fox contributed to a little book entitled, A Contemplation of Sinners (London, 1499), edited the Processional (Rouen, 1508), and translated the rule of St. Benedict (London, 1517).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Register of Richard Fox, ed. by E. C. Batten, . with a Life of Bishop Fox, London, 1889 (only 100 copies printed); DNB, xx. 150‑156 (where other sources are indicated).
FOX, WILLIAM JOHNSON: English Unitarian; b. at Uggeshall Farm, Wrentham (20 m. s.e. of

351	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	FOX
		France
Norwich), Mar. 1, 1786; d. in London June 3,
1864. He attended the Independent College at
Homerton (a northeast suburb of London) under
John Pye Smith, 1806‑09, but was chiefly self
educated; was pastor at Fareham, Hampshire
(1809), at Chichester (1812), and in London (1817
1852), where a chapel was built especially for him
(1824) in Finsbury. His great aim was to benefit
the working classes, from which he had himself
sprung, and he ultimately gave more time and
effort to social and political questions than to the
ology, and made preaching subordinate to jour
nalism and agitation. He was one of the chief
orators of the Anticorn Law League, and was Mem
ber of Parliament, 1847‑52, 1852‑57, 1857‑63. He
was one of the editors of The Monthly Repository,
the leading Unitarian periodical, and from 1831 to
1836 as sole editor and proprietor made it the
medium of expression for his social and political
views, combined with literary criticism. His
Works were collected in a Memorial Edition, ed.
W. B. Hodgson and H. J. Slack (12 vols., London,
1865‑68).
BIHLIO0HAPHY: A memoir is prefixed to vol. xii. of his
	Works (ut sup.). Consult DNB, xx. 137‑139.
		FRANCE.
I. The Roman Catholic Church. Concordats, Organic Articles (§ 1). Organization (§ 2). The Clergy (§ 3). Religious Orders (§ 4). Separation of Church and state (§ 5). Effect of Separation on Clergy (§ 6). II. Protestant Churches.
1. The Reformed Church.
2. The Lutheran Church.
3. Evangelical Work in France.
France is a republic in the west of Europe with an area of 207,054 square miles and a population (legal, 1906) of 39,252,245. There has been no religious census since 1872. The Roman Catholics have been estimated to number from 36,000,000 to 37,500,000; the Protestants 600,000 to 2,000,000; the Jews about 86,000; and there are about 150,000 of other religions.
I. The Roman Catholic Church: From about 1813, the year of the Fontainebleau Concordat with Napoleon I., till about 1880, the
r. Concor‑ Church had a tranquil development, dats, Organ‑ which was only very transiently dis‑
	ic Articles.	turbed (see CONCORDATS AND DE
		LIMITING BULLS, VI., 1). The Con
cordat of 1813, to be sure, was modeled after that
of 1801; but it alleviated in a great measure the
executive rulings added to the former by Napoleon;
because the pope abandoned the temporal power
of the Church. The Concordat of 1801 (see CON
CORDATS, ut sup.) was published at the same time
as the Articles organiques, which were arbitrarily
formulated by Napoleon. The seventy‑seven Or
ganic Articles practically enforced a progressive
application of the Gallicanism of 1682 (see GALLI
CANISM), which the professors were expressly bound,
under art. 24, to teach in their seminaries. The
State's placet, in relation to all documents of the
curia designed to be operative in France, was dis
tinctly set forth in art. 1; the State's authorization
with reference to every representative of the pope in the land was emphasized in art. 2; art. 20 forbade a bishop to leave his diocese without the State's permission; art. 58 ordered that there should be an organization of ten archbishoprics and fifty bishoprics, and arts. 65‑66 provided for their modest allowance of 15,000 and 10,000 franca, which remained the same amount until 1906. The parochial clergy's allowances as well were regulated in art. 66. Through the Organic Articles the magisterial power of the State as affecting the Church came to be operative to the widest extent; though upon the restoration of the monarchy the State allowed most of the enactments which were burdensome to the Church to lapse into oblivion. Hence the complete independence of the bishops from one another, each dealing directly with the pope. After 1822, however, the suffragan relationship was gradually restored. Likewise, written correspondence between the curia and the bishops was carried on independently of the State. The nomination of bishops usually took place in accordance with the recommendations of the cathedral chapters and the archbishops, just as chaplains were appointed for public institutions and in the army on the recommendations of the bishops. The Gallicanism formulated in 1682, however, succumbed more and more, in the clerical seminaries and among the clergy, to the persistent antagonism of literature and of the bishops.
Since the Concordat of 1801 the bishops have greatly increased in number. The present organization of the Church is as follows: archbishopric
of Aix (founded before 409; vacant z. Organi‑ 614‑794), with the suffragan bishopzation. rics of Ajaccio (c. 313), Digne (c. 364),
Frt;jus (c. 374), Gap (before 430), Marseilles (before 314), and Nice (before 253); archbishopric of Albi (before 406; raised to archbishopric 1678), with the suffragan bishoprics of Cahors (c. 250), Mende (before 314), Perpignan (see at Elne, 571‑1602), and Rodez (before 506); archbishopric of Auch (before 396; raised to archbishopric 879), with the suffragan bishoprics of Aire (c. 506), Bayonne (c. 980), and Tarbes (c. 394); archbishopric of Avignon (before 353; raised to archbishopric 1475), with the suffragan bishoprics of Montpellier (see at Maguelone c. 585‑1527), Nimes (c. 394), Valence (c. 344), and Viviers (before 432); archbishopric of Besanpon (c. 180), with the suffragan bishoprics of Belley (c. 412), Nancy (1777), St. Dit; (1777), Toul (c. 338; united to Nancy 1801), and Verdun (c. 346); archbishopric of Bordeaux (c. 314), with the suffragan bishoprics of Agen (before 358), Angouleme (before 406), La Rochelle (see at Maillerais 1317‑1648), Luton (1317), Pt;rigueux (before 356), and Poitiers (before 350), also in the French colonies the three bishoprics of R6union (St.. Denis; 1850), Guadeloupe (Basse‑Terre; 1850), and Martinique (St. Pierre; 1851); archbishopric of Bourges (before 280), with the suffragan bishoprics of Clermont (c. 250), Le Puy (before 451), Limoges (before 73), St. Flour (1318), and Tulle (1317); archbishopric of Cambrai (580; raised to archbishopric 1559; bishopric 1801‑41), with the suffragan bishopric

France
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
of Arras (c. 500; vacant 545‑1093); archbishopric of Chamb6ry (1775; raised to archbishopric 1817), with the suffragan bishoprics of Annecy (1822), St. Jean‑de‑Maurienne (c. 577), and Tarentaise (see at Moutiers; c. 420); archbishopric of Lyons (c. 150), with the suffragan bishoprics of Autun (c. 270), Dijon (1731), Grenoble (381), Langres, (before 220), and St. Claude (1742); archbishopric of Paris (c. 100; raised to archbishopric 1622), with the suffragan bishoprics of Blois (1697), Chartres (before 390), Meaux (before 549), Orl6ans (before 344), and Versailles (1802); archbishopric of Reims (c. 290), with the suffragan bishoprics of Amiens (c. 303), Beauvais (c. 250), Chfilons (c. 290), and Soissons (c. 290); archbishopric of Rennes (358; raised to archbishopric 1859), with the suffragan bishoprics of Quimper (c. 444), St. Brieuc (8G0), and Vannes (c. 448); archbishopric of Rouen (c. 250), with the suffragan bishoprics of Bayeux (c. 390), Coutances (c. 429), Evreux (c. 412), and Suez (2d century); archbishopric of Sens (c. 275), with the suffragan bishoprics of Moulins (1817), Nevers (c. 505), and Troyes (before 344); archbishopric of Toulouse (c. 257; raised to archbishopric 1317), with the suffragan bishoprics of Carcassonne (before 589), Montauban. (1317), and Pamiers (1295); and archbishopric of Tours (c. 250), with the suffragan bishoprics of Angers (before 372), Laval (1855), Le Mang (before 451), and Nantes (before 374). [The above dates have been supplied by the editors from P. B. Gams, Series episcoporum ecclesite catholica (Regensburg, 1872), and in many cases they are too early, especially those for Limoges and Paris both of which were probably founded about 250. Fifty‑seven sees, not included in the list given above were suppressed by Napoleon in 1801; and a few others have gone out of existence at various times.]
The qlergy subordinated to the bishops, apart from the cathedral chapters, were variously graded
with respect to their official powers 3. The and the State allowances. The numClergy. ber of vicars‑general in 1904 was 185;
and these were paid by the State 2,500 francs a year (18 were paid 3,500 francs); the canons received, until 1885, a State stipend of 1,000 francs each. Among the parochial clergy, the majority of those officiating in dependent churches were distinguished, by the State's request, from the parish priests, or curs, as desseruants (see CnApi.anv) and vicaires (curates). In 1904 there were 31,000 of these clerical assistants, of whom 18,420 were paid 900 franca, while those over sixty years of age received 1,000 to 1,300 francs. Those incumbents who by the Concordat's terms were designated as priests of the first class (1,121) received an allowance from the State of 1,500 and 1,600 francs; and priests of the second class (2,530) 1,200 francs. The pr&res habituels (about. 4,000), employed more and more frequently in the cities, received smaller amounts. These regulations and the State allowances continued.in force until 1906.
The repeal of the Concordat on the side of the State, and the separation law of December 11, 1905, radically altered the situation of the Church. Besides the public instruction law of 1886 had already
352
begun to drive the clergy out of the schools, and
the so‑called association law of July 1, 1901, had
		nearly done away with the congrega
4. Religious tions and religious orders. The law of
	Orders 1886 decreed that all public instruction
		should be given only by teachers out
side of the clergy; so that no priest can set foot in
the schools to give religious instruction, which here
after can be given only in premises belonging to the
Church, and only privately to voluntary pupils.
Despite all this, the continued maintenance of
schools under church administration, with clergy or
sisters as teachers, was still possible, since free in
struction under State supervision was not forbidden.
Accordingly, on January 1, 1899, the ratio of such
schools to State schools was as three to four. The
statistical compilation of these facts was promoted
by the law of 1901, which was aimed particularly
against the existence and the educational activity
of religious orders. Even as far back as 1880 the
Jesuits had been banished from France, though the
measure was not completely carried out; bat in
1901 all orders not approved by the State were for
bidden to teach in the schools. There were sanc
tioned only five male orders: the Congregations for
Foreign Missions, the Lazarista, the Fathers of the
Holy Ghost, the Sulpicians, and the Brothers of the
Christian Schools. The latter alone were a brother
hood for teaching and, like the rest, had in law the
rights of a person. These rights were not accorded
to the female congregations; but their localestab
liahmenta had received specific authorization.
Hence there were 905 congregations of women
which were approved by the State. 1n 1890 the
membership of female congregations amounted to
about 130,000. While there were only some twenty
actual congregations of women, with numerous es
tablishments scattered through the country, the
number of unauthorized associations far exceeded
the 905 approved ones. The external motive for the
		Law for the separation of the Church
	g. Separa‑ from the State, passed Dec. 11, 1905,
	tion of and in force since Jan. 1, 1906, lay in
	Church the disputed construction of the State's
	and State. right to nominate bishops, and in the
		application of art. 20 of the Organic
Articles to episcopal attendance before the pope in
Rome. Only rarely in the days of the monarchical
governments had any difference of opinion occurred
in relation to a bishop, and in 1884 the pope effect
ually refused recognition of a bishop nominated
by the government. Not until 1903 was it defi
nitely demanded by the State that the nomination
be recognized as an episcopal appointment.. The
law of separation first of all repeals all State and
municipal appropriations for public worship. Es
tablishments of worship are declared to be abro
gated and are to be reconstructed as religious asso
ciations (.Law of July I, 1901), to which the property
of the abrogated ecclesiastical establishments be
comes transferred. . For the organization of such as
sociations there is needed a quorum of but seven per
sons in communities of less than 1,000 inhabitants;
fifteen in communities of 1,000 to 20,000, etc.; and
ordy twenty‑five in communities with mere than 200,
000 inhabitants. The churches and chapels, epis‑

363	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Frsaoe
copal palaces. and parsonages are declared the property of the State and the communes, and are loaned to the religious associations for a term of two to five years. These associations have to furnish, on occasion of general annual conventions of their members, exact financial reports with respect to their economic activity. Should no religious association be organized in places where church property existed, the latter is transferred to the communal institutions for charitable purposes. The use of churches for divine service is permitted only by virtue of annual notifications to the civil authorities pending the term of their use. Religious insignia or symbols on buildings or on any public site are forbidden. Incumbents who had served upward of twenty years are allowed a pension; the others, proportional allowances of their former stipend, for a term of four years.
The entire law ignores the Church as such, and treats religion as a concern for voluntary associations on the part of the citizens. On the 6. Effect of other hand, the Church has complete Separation freedom on the side of its organization, on Clergy. its hierarchy, discipline, and liturgical arrangements (except as regards the announcement of the appointed times of divine service).
	The pope, in a proclamation to the French epis
copate, declared it to be incompatible with the
canonical regulations of the Church to comply with
the law of separation; so that some other plan must
be devised for the execution of the law, if it is to be
carried out without too prolonged disturbances of
domestic and ecclesiastical peace. The question of
financial provision will the more pressingly assert
itself with reference to the parochial clergy; seeing
that the. cathedral chapters and the scholastic es
tablishments for the clergy had to be supported
from the episcopal revenues for the last twenty years.
In 1885 the theological faculties attached to the
universities were likewise abrogated; and only the
vicars‑general continued to draw an actually sig
nificant State allowance (3,000 to 5,000 francs).
Henceforward, indeed, the bishops alone will nomi
nate all their provincial dignitaries, whereas hitherto
the so‑called titularies of the cathedral chapter were
named by the State; while only the remainder, the
honoraries, obtained the canonical rank pursuantly
to the episcopal election. As a matter of course,
the bishops also received power to make all parochial
appointments; although in this connection the dis
tinction as to desservants is no longer observed.
The dissolution of the religious congregations occa
sioned much concern for the bishops, as the admin
istrative activity of these societies came to an end;
although many individual fraternity clerics contin
ued their labors. 	WILHELM GOETZ.
	II. Protestant Churches. ‑1. The Reformed
Church: Until 1906, when Church and State
were separated, the legal status of the Reformed
churches in France rested on the law of April
8, 1802 (afterward altered and extended by the
law of March 26, 1852). Each congregation
was to have its presbytery, chosen by general
vote, over which was to be the consistory, usu
ally including several congregations, and five con
		IV.‑23
sistories were to form a provincial synod (these synods, however never came into existence). Up to 1872 the Church had no power to summon a general synod; at its head was only an advisory commission, the Conseil central, which was by no means equal to a synod. From the beginning of the nineteenth century there were two parties in the Church, the orthodox and the liberal, that at first lived together in peace, but at last the peace was broken by the liberals. The famous preacher Adolphe Monod (q.v.) was removed from office because of a bitter sermon against the despisers of the Lord's Supper (April 15, 1831). However, at that time the liberals had not abandoned all positive belief. They still believed in historic Christianity and in miracles. This was soon changed under the influence of the new school of theology, and gradually even the orthodox party deserted the old doctrines and laid stress on only the chief dogmas and on the facts of Bible history. The liberals went still further, attacked the authority of the Bible, and denied not only the divinity, but even the sinlessness of Christ. The founding of the Union Protestante Lib6rale and Renan's Vie de Jesus (Paris, 1863) hastened the crisis. The split was widened at the conferences of pastors held in Paris every year, and at the one in the year 1864 Guizot proposed and carried a declaration of faith in the immanence of God in the world, the inspiration and authority of Scripture, the divinity, the immaculate conception, and the resurrection of Christ. The liberals took revenge at the conference of Nimes; and 121 men were compelled to separate themselves and form the Conf6rence Nationale tvang6lique du Midi, which subscribed to the declaration of Guizot. The strife was renewed the next two years; another declaration of belief in the Apostles' Creed and the authority of Scripture was made, so that the liberals were forced to secede. From now on the orthodox party worked for the calling of a genehal synod, in which they were opposed by the liberals. Finally Thiers decreed the summoning of a general synod, which met June 6, 1872. In the synod straightway appeared four parties: Right, Right Center, Left, and Left Center. The synod, which sat for a month, chiefly split upon a creed, which was finally accepted. Forty‑one liberal consistories protested against the decisions of the synod; there was also a middle party which worked for the formation of an orthodox and a liberal church. The orthodox party won the day with the government, and a synod was called to publish the creed, which the liberals did not attend (Nov. 20, 1873). New elections were held for the consistories in which the liberals refused to take part. At last in 1877 there were again new elections in which the liberals did take part, since the government allowed them to treat the decrees of the synod according to their conscience. The liberals and the orthodox then lived under the r6gime of the official union with common consistories. The orthodox part of the Church grouped the consistories that accepted the creed of 1872 into twenty‑one provincial synods, over which was placed a formal general synod entrusted with the direction of the Church. The liberal part of the Church was represented by a

France
Francis, Saint
THE NEW BCHAFF‑HERZOG
committee, the D616gation Lib6rale. On Doe. 11, 1905, Parliament voted and promulgated a law which decreed the separation of Church and State. The two parties, the orthodox and the liberal, are now utterly separate. A third party, the Center, which had at first tried in vain to unite the two others, forms now a third church. The three churches are called: the Agliee. R6form6e Avang6lique (orthodox), the Union d'l~glises R6form6eB de France (Center), and the Aglises11kform6es Unies (liberal).‑In 1848 Fr6d6ric Monod (q.v.) and others seceded from the State Church and in 1849 formed the Union den Aglises Avang6liques, generally called the Free Church. At first it numbered fifty congregations, but subsequently many returned to the State Reformed Church. See the articles GALLICAN CONFF$BION; Huauwon; and FRENCH RIcvoLuTION.
	9. The Lutheran church: Before 1908 the status
of the Lutheran Church also depended upon the
laws of 1802 and 1852. The conaistories, however,
were to form an inspection, and the inspectors were
chosen for life. The Church had a central govern
ing body, the head consiatory, in two divisions, one
legislative and one administrative. This state of
affairs lasted until the Franco‑Prussian war, when
the loss of Alsace‑Lorraine, which contained six of
the eight inspections, shook the Lutheran Church of
France to its foundations and compelled it to enter
upon a struggle for existence. The two inspections
which were left (Montb6liard and Paris [including
Algeria]) were at first suspicious of each other, and
that of Montb6liard wished to join the Reformed
churches. A general synod, summoned July 23,
1872, brought peace; and a proposition for union
with the Reformed Church was voted down, like
wise a creed submitted by the Pietistic minority.
They passed, however, a project for reorganization
of the Church, brought forward by the minority.
The head consistory was given up and the Church
was divided into two synodal districts, Montb6liard
and Paris, almost wholly independent of each other.
The inspectors were named for only nine years. There
was a general synod constituted for the government
of the Church, to meet alternately at Paris and at
Montbdliard. The theological faculty at Strasburg
was replaced by one at Paris. Owing to the dis
turbed condition of France after the war, this
scheme was not sanctioned by the two chambers
and carried into effect until 1880. At the separa,
tion of Church and State in 1905, the synod adapted
the constitution of the Church to the law of separa
tion, and named the Church the #glise tvang6lique
Luth6rienne de France. The parishes became
Associations cultuelles. 	C. PFENDER.
S. Evangelical Work in France: Samuel Vincent says, " After the Revolution the French Protestants experienced a profoudd tranquillity very much like indifference. Religion possessed little interest for them, as it did for most Frenchmen; for them as for many others the eighteenth century was still in existence. The law of 1802 insured tranquillity and so relieved them and their pastors from all anxiety for the support of their form of worship, but at the same time that it removed the chief cause of unrest it also did away with that of awakening.
The pastors preached their sermons, the people
heard them, the consistoriea met,	the service re
tained all its forms, but no one was interested or
troubled about it; religion was outside the sphere
of every one's daily life." This condition of things
lasted until the third decade of the century when
the religious awakening came from Switzerland into
France and gave new life to the Church. It roused
especially a glowing zeal for missions, and Evan
gelical work of all kinds was‑ undertaken with great
eagerness. The famous society of Evangelical mis
sions among the heathen was founded in 1822,
Bible societies were formed (see BIBLE Socnrrlas,
I1., 2), also several other societies	for Evangelical
work in France. This great display of missionary
zeal, however, has another side: French Protestant
ism up to the middle of the last century produced
nothing noteworthy in theology.	But since then
matters have improved, societies have been formed,
periodicals have been begun, and	many learned
works have been written. In this work the Lutheran
Church has had its share; and the	church at Paris
especially has become a spiritual force. Since
1896 the Lutheran Church has maintained a mis
sion in Madagascar. The . Methodists in France
have twenty‑five parishes, the Baptists twenty‑nine.
	C. PFRNDEM.

BIHwoa$APH7: On the Catholic Church in general consult: Gallia Christiana, 18 vole., Paris, 1715‑1885; J. H. AIbanbs, Gallic Christiana nooissima, vol. i.. Valence, 1899; W. H. Jervis, The Gallican Church 1618‑1788 2 vole., Edinburgh, 1872; idem, The Gallivan Church and the Revolution London, 1882; E. de Presee , L'Aplise de France pendant la rivolutiorN Paris, 1890; ~ V. Maumus. La Republiqus et la politique do l'iplise, Paris, 1892; C. F. Ballet, Lee Oripines des 4plisee de France et lea tastes ipiscopauz, ib. 1898; E. BirE, Le Clergb de Franca pendant Is resolution, 1789‑1798, Lyons, 1901; L. Bourgain, L'Apliss de France. at 1'iW au 19 eiicle, 2 vole., Paris, 1901; W. M. Sloane, The French Revolution and Religious Reform, 1789‑180;, London, 1901; Archives de Mist. religiswe de la France, Paris, 1902 sqq.; F. V. A. Aulard, La Revolution fransaise et lea eonpripations, ib. 1903; L. Launay. Hint. de 1'ielim pauloise' jusqu'd la conquite franque, 611, 2 vole., ib. 1908.
On the aonoordate consult: J. Baisew, Le Concordat de 1801 et lea articles orpaniques, Paris, 1902; A. Body, Le Concordat; son histoire 1801‑1803, Lyons, 1903; F. D. Matthieu, Le Concordat de 1801, Paris, 1903; A. Baudrillart, Quatra cents an* de concordat, ib. 190.5; E. Sdveetre, L'Histoire, k texts at la destines du concordat de 1801, ib. 1906.
On the clergy and the orders consult: Rwueil des aetea, titres et m6moiraa concernant lea afaires du cleroi de France, 12 vols., Paris, 1718; E. Marie, Le Clerpi at les temps nouveaux, ib. 1892; A. Deeeaine, Le Clergi /ranvais au 20. sitde, ib. 1897; S. Grenier, Noa iviquee, ib. 1900; E. Leone. La Hierarchic 6piscopale an Gaul@ et Germane, 742‑882, Lille. 1905; Le Clerpi franraia (annual); E. Keller, Les ConprApations reiipituses an France, Paris, 1880; L. A. R dmondibre, Lea Congregations religicusss, is fiac, Is parlemsnt at is cow de caaaation, ib. 1892; G. Surugue, Regime legal des oonpr*ahone reiigeeueta en France, ib. 1898; Besunier, La France monastique, new ad., ib. 1905; Helyot, Ordrea monaetiques; Heirnbucher, Orden and Konprepationen.
On the separation of Church and State and its consequences consult: J. A. C. Sykes, The New Reign o/ Terror in France, London, 1903; J. L. E. Combes, fine campapne laique, 1800‑03, Paris, 1904; G. Berry, Une page d'hist.; la separation den eplisse et de 1'itat i1 la chambre des diputds, ib. 1905; A. Briand, La Separation des iplina et de Md. Rapport au nom de la commission de la chambre des diputis, ib. 1905; P. Grunebaum Balfin, La Separation des Mime a de Mal, ib. 1905; J. Roche, La Separation de l'ipliee et de lWQt, ib. 1883; Berard, Essai his‑

torique our la siparation de 1'6plies et do 1'6tat pendant la
r6roolution, ib. 1905; A. Debidour, L'Itplias ootholique et
1'f4 1870‑88, vol. i., ib. 1908; R. Bertin et J. Charpen
tier, Manuel des associations d&lar&a, ib. 1907; J. E. C.
Bodley, The Church in France, London, 1908; A. Galton,
Church and State in Franc, 1300‑1807, London, 1907;
E. Barbier, Le Proprta du libtralisme oatholiqua en Francs
sow . . . Lion XIII., 2 vols., Paris, 1907; J. N. Brod
head, The Religious Persecution in France, 1800‑OB, Lon
don, 1907; E. Lecsnuet, L'Aplise de Franc sow 1a boi
sihme ~r6puUique.
Paris, 1907. See also under Cauwa AND BTATm.
On Protestantism in France consult: T. Bees, Hint. ecclhiastique de Franc, ed. P. Vessor, 2 vole.. Toulouse, 1882: D'Huismau, La Discipline due Aplisee r.1fonn* de France. Geneva, 1f86: G. de Fdlioe, Hist. do synodes nationaux do l*lise r6formie do Francs, Paris, 1884; idem, Hint. do proteatanta do Franc, Toulouse, 1580; idem, lea Protestants d'autrs foia, 4 vole., Paris, 18971902; G. Weber, Ouchichtliche Darstellunp des Calviniemue in Prankrcich bin sur Aufhebunp den Edikta von Nantes, Heidelberg, 1835; A. L. Herminiard, CoRSspondance des r4formateura, 9 vole., Geneva, 1888‑‑97; E. Bersier, Hint. du synods p6gralh do 7'Miae rbform6e de France, 2 vole., Parie, 1872; E. and 1t. Haas, La France proteatante, ed. H. L. Bordier, Paris, 1877 eqq.; L. Aguesse, Hut. do l'6tabliasemant du protestantjsms en France, 4 vols., ib. 1882‑80; A. Lode, La LApidation do eultae protestanfe 1787‑1887, ib. 1889; N. A. F. Puaux, Hist. du proteatantisms en Franc, ib. 1894: J. B. Marsval. Le Protestantism au 16. et 19. siicle, Albi, 1900; E. Belleroohe, Successive Events that finally Led to the Edict of Nantes, New York, 1901; C. Durand, Hint. du protcetantiame frangais pendant la rivolution et 1'empirs, Paris, 1902;
FRANCIS, SAINT, OF ASSISI,
I . Life of Saint Francis.
Boyhood and Early Manhood (§1).
The Winning of the Brotherhood (§ 2).
Work and Extension of the Brotherhood (§ 3).
The Last Years of Francis (§ 4).
II. The Three Rules of the Order and the Testament of Saint Francis.
The First Rule (§ 1).
The Rule of 1221 (§ 2).
The Third Rule (§3).
The Testament (§ 4).
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
France
Francis, Saint
C. Coignet, L'tvotu#ms du protaatantisms Jrnngats au 18. siJcie, ib. 1907; Bulletin hiatorique et Litlfrairs de la aoci.. 6t6 de Mist. du Protestantism franpaia (a monthly): Ades et d6asrnne du synods. den 6glisEa r6/ormbes de France; E. Davsine end A. Lode, Annuaire du proteefantiame fra. Paris, 1892 eqq.: $‑ Besu7our, L'Aplise r6form6s do Franc uni6 d l'6tat, eon organisation todifi6s, lC~a~en, 1883; and the literature under such articles as WLIaNI; HDaDE'NOTB; J•NaENIaIr, and NANTHs, EDICT or. For the Lutheran Churches consult W. Jackson, Recueii do documents relatifa d 7a r6orpaniaation de l'6plise de la confession d'Aupebo,ap, Paris, 1881; L'Aplias luth6rienna do Pons pendant la r6volution, ib. 1892.

FRANCE, CONGREGATION OF. See GzNzv>wE,
SAWT, ORDERS OF, 1.

FRANCICA‑NAVA DI BONTIFE, fran"chf"ca'na"vii' df ben"tl"f2', GIUSEPPE: Cardinal; b. at Catania (b4 m. n.n.w. of Syracuse), Sicily, July 23, 1848. After the completion of his studies and a successful career as a priest, he was consecrated titular bishop of Alabenda in 1883, and six years later was made titular archbishop of Heraclea end appointed papal nuncio to Brussels. He was then nuncio at Madrid, and in 1895 was enthroned archbishop of Catania. He was created cardinal priest of Santi Giovanni a Paolo in 1899, and is a member of the Congregations of the Council, Index, Studies, and Ceremonial.
AND THE FRANCISCAN ORDER.
III. Development of the Order after the Death of Frantic.
Dissensions During the Life of Francis (§ 1)•
Development to 1239. The Lazer Party (§ 2).
To 1274. Bonaventms (§ 3).
To 1300. Continued Dissensions (§ 4).
Temporary Success of the Stricter Party, Persecution (§ b).
Renewed Controversy on the Suction of Poverty (16).
From the designation Frtttrea minorea the members of the Franciscan order were called Minorites, and in England they were popularly called Grey Friars from the color of their dress.
I. Life of Saint Francis: Giovanni Bernardore, commonly known as Francesco, the founder of the Franciscan order, was born in the little town of Assisi, in Central Italy, between Perugia and Foligno, in 1182. His father Pietro, a well‑todomerchant;gave the boy a good education. The 1. Boyhood tee, of Francesco ("the French‑
	and Early	m >> bY .which his baptismal name
		was soon altogether replaced, is said
		to have been given him soon after his
birth by his father, returning to Assisi from a trip
to France; according to another account it was
due to his early acquisition of the French language.
Francis showed little inclination to concern him
self with his father's business, but lived a gay life
with the young men of his own age. In 1201 he
joined a military expedition against Perugia, was
taken prisoner, and spent a year as a captive. It
is probable that his conversion to more serious
thoughts was gradual. It is said that when he
began to avoid the sports of his former compan‑
ffepoaste Congrotgtione (§ 7).
Unsuccessful Attempts Ust(I7) Unite the
	order <§ s).
IV. Spread of the Order in Modern Times.
New Congregations ($ 1).
Present Status (12).
Distinguished Names (§ 3).
V. The Clsrissee or Poor Clsles.
VI. The Third Order.
Origin and Rule (§ 1).
New Arrangements of Leo XIII.
ions, and they asked him laughingly if he were thinking of marrying, he answered " Yes, a fairer bride than any you have ever seen "‑meaning his " lady poverty," as he afterward used to say. He spent much time in lonely places, asking God for enlightenment. By degrees he took to nursing the moat repulsive victims in the lazar‑houses near Assisi; and after a pilgrimage to Rome, where he begged at the church doors for the poor, he had a vision in which he heard a voice calling upon him to restore the Church of God which had fallen into decay. He referred this to the ruined church of St. Damian near Assisi, and sold his horse together with some cloth from his father's store, giving the proceeds to the priest for this purpose. Pietro, highly indignant, attempted to bring him to his senses, first with threats and then with corporal chastisement. After a final interview in the presence of the bishop, Francis renounced all expectations from his father, laying aside even the garments received from him, and for a while was a homeless wanderer in the hills around Assisi. Returning to the town, where he spent two years at this time, he restored several ruined churches, among them the little chapel of St. Mary of the

Francis, Saint	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	356
Angels, just outside the town, which became later his favorite abode.
At the end of this period (according to Jordanus, in 1209), a sermon which he heard on Matt. x. 9 made such an impression on him that he decided to devote himself wholly to a life of apostolic poverty.
Clad in a rough garment, barefoot, and, 2. The Be‑ after the Evangelical precept, without ginning of
the Broth‑staff or scrip, he began to preach erhood. repentance. He was soon joined by a
prominent fellow townsman, Bernardo di Quintavalle, who contributed all that he had to the work, and by other companions, who are said to have reached the number of eleven within a year. The brothers lived in the deserted lazarhouse of Rivo Torto near Assisi; but they spent much of their time traveling through the mountainous districts of Umbria, always cheerful and full of songs, yet making a deep impression on their hearers by their earnest exhortations. Their life was extremely ascetic, though such practises were apparently not prescribed by the first rule which Francis gave them (probably as early as 1209), which seems to have been nothing more than a collection of Scriptural passages emphasizing the duty of poverty. In spite of the obvious similarity between this principle and the fundamental ideas of the followers of Peter Waldo, the brotherhood of Assisi succeeded in gaining the approval of Pope Innocent IIi. Many legends have clustered around the decisive audience of Francis with the pope. The realistic account in Matthew of Paris, according to which the pope originally sent the shabby saint off to keep swine, and only recognized his real worth by his ready obedience, has, in spite of its improbability, a certain historical interest, since it shows the natural antipathy of the older Benedictine monasticism to the plebeian mendicant orders.
It was not, however, a life of idle mendicancy on which the brothers entered when they set out in 1210 with the papal approbation, but one of diligent labor. Their work embraced devoted service in the abodes of sickness and poverty, earnest
preaching by both priests and lay 3. Work and brothers, and missions in an ever Extension of widening circle, which finally included
the Broth‑
erhood. heretics and Mohammedans. They
Broth‑

erhood. came together every year at Pentecost in the little church of the Portiuncula at Assisi, to report on their experiences and strengthen themselves for fresh efforts. There is considerable uncertainty as to the chronological and historical details of the last fifteen years of the founder's life. But to these years belong the accounts of the origin of the first houses in Perugia, Crotona, Pisa, Florence, and elsewhere (1211‑13); the first attempts at a Mohammedan mission, in the sending of five brothers, soon to be martyrs, to :Morocco, as well as in a journey undertaken by Francis himself to Spain, from which he was forced by illness to return without accomplishing his object; the first settlements in the Spanish peninsula and in France; and the attempts, unsuccessful at first, to gain a foothold in Germany. The alleged meeting of Francis and Dominic in Rome at the time of the
Fourth Lateran Council (1215) belongs to the domain of legend; even Sabatier's argument to show that such a meeting actually took place in 1218 is open to serious objection. Historical in the main are the accounts relating to the journey of Francis to Egypt and Palestine, where he attempted to convert the Sultan Kameel and gave fearless proofs of his readiness to suffer for his faith; the internal discord, which he found existing in the order on his return to Italy in 1220; the origin of his second and considerably enlarged rule, which was replaced two years later by the final form, drawn up by Cardinal Ugolino; and possibly the granting by Pope Honorius III. (in 1223) of the Indulgence of the Portiuncula‑a document which Sabatier, who formerly rejected it, has recently pronounced authentic on noteworthy grounds.
Francis had to suffer from the dissensions just alluded to and the transformation which they operated in the originally simple constitution of the brotherhood, making it a regular order under strict supervision from Rome. Especially after Cardinal
4. The Last Ugolino had been assigned as proteoYears of for of the order by Honorius III.‑it
	Francis.	is said at Francis' own request‑he
		saw himself forced further and further
away from his original plan. Even the independ
ent direction of his brotherhood was, it seems,
finally withdrawn from him; at least after about
1223 it was practically in the hands of Brother
Elias of Crotona, an ambitious politician who sec
onded the attempts of the cardinal‑protector to
transform the character of the order. However,
in the external successes of the brothers, as they
were reported at the yearly general chapters, there
was much to encourage Francis. Ca;sarius of
Speyer, the first German provincial, a zealous ad
vocate of the founder's strict principle of poverty,
began in 1221 from Augsburg, with twenty‑five
companions, to win for the order the land watered
by the Rhine and the Danube; and a few years
later the Franciscan propaganda, starting from
Cambridge, embraced the principal towns of Eng
land. But none of these cheering reports could
wholly drive away from the mind of Francis the
gloom which covered his last years. He spent
much of his time in solitude, praying or singing
praise to God for his wonderful works. The can
ticle known as Laudes creaturarum, with its child
like invocations to Brother Sun, Sister Moon with
the stars, Brother Wind, Sister Water, Brother
Fire, and finally Sister Death, to raise their
voices to the glory of God, dates from this period
of his life. The hermit stage which opened the
career of many monastic founders was reserved
for the end of his who had once been so restless in
his activity. He spent the short remainder of his
life partly on Monte Alverno on the upper Arno,
where he fasted forty days and longed for union
with God, to be demonstrated by the impression
on his body of the wounds of Christ (see STIGMA
TrzATroNr); partly at Rieti under medical treat
ment; and partly in his beloved Portiuncula at
Assisi waiting for his deliverance from the flesh.
He died Oct. 3, 1226, at Assisi, and was canonized

357	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Francis, saint
two years later by Pope Gregory IX., the former cardinal‑protector of the order.
II. The Three Rules of the Order and the Testament of Saint Francis: The oldest rule, referred to above, no longer preserved in its original form, seems to have contained not much more than the three Scriptural commands in Matt. xix. 21; Luke
1. The First ix. 3; and Matt. xvi. 24. The at‑
	Rule.	tempted reconstruction by Mfiller as
		cribes to it too extensive a content,
though Sabatier goes too far in the other direction
when he limits it to these three sayings of Christ,
which, according to Celano, formed the kernel of
the rule, surrounded by certain other more detailed
prescriptions. Sabatier's theory that these were
gradual accretions, depending especially on de
cisions of the yearly general chapter, needs further
evidence to confirm it; the oldest biographers say
nothing of any intermediate stage between the
primitive rule and that. of 1221. The former, based
upon the idea of poverty and self‑denying labor in
the cause of Christ, was intended fo: an associa
tion of a similar kind to the Pauperes Catholici or
" Poor Men of Lyons." It had little or nothing in
common with the older monastic rules, Benedictine
or Augustinian.
The rule of 1221 is more adapted to the needs of a monastic order intended to further the general ends of the Church and based upon the three usual vows, but laying special stress on that of poverty. It was drawn up by Francis himself, but under the influence of Cardinal Ugolino, as well as of the
2. The Rule learned and practical Caesarius of
	of 1221.	Speyer and apparently of Brother
		Leo, who from 1220 on was the con
stant companion of the founder. The matter of
the primitive rule was included in it, but scattered
among a large part of detailed directions, besides
many edifying thoughts and pious outpourings of
the heart, probably the work of Francis. But
there is much in the new rule which breathes a
different spirit. The humble founder, though re
fusing the title of general of the order, and appear
ing simply as " minister‑general," sometimes with
the addition " the servant of the whole brother
hood," appears now at the head of a regular mo
nastic hierarchy, consisting of provincial ministers
over the provinces, custodes over smaller districts,
and guardians over single houses. Definite rules
for the novitiate, the habit, hours of prayer, and the
discipline of the houses were modeled after the
older monastic tradition. In place of the informal
yearly gatherings of the brotherhood, there are
now regular chapters at fixed times. Of special
interest are the provisions for apostolic poverty
and the ascetic life in general, which show this rule
to be essentially a development of the older disci
pline, with the obligation of poverty made more
strict while that of other ascetic practises was miti
gated, partly for the reason that the new Fratres
minores were expected to be diligently occupied
in exhausting labors.
The third rule, confirmed by Honorius Ill. on Nov. 29, 1223, has still less of Francis' own work in it. The edifying tone, the citation of the Scriptural texts, have disappeared from it. Instead of
the strong emphasis upon Christ's admonitions to his disciples with which the rule of 1221 had begun, 3. The Third the ,enumeration of the three tradi‑
	Rule.	tional monastic vows is here substi
		tuted. The character of the order as a
mendicant order, pledged to an ideal of the strict
est poverty, comes out here, it is true; but these
concessions to the spirit of the earlier rules are in
termingled with a number of other prescriptions
which clearly show the externally official character
of the new statutes, framed in the interest of the
papacy and in conformity with the other organs
of the hierarchy. A cardinal appointed. by the
pope as protector of the whole order was to super
vise its activity. The conditions for entrance axe
more definitely laid down; the Roman Breviary
is expressly named as the obligatory basis of the
daily devotions of priests belonging to it; and the
preaching brothers have a more dependent position
than before. In a word, the life here regulated is
no longer the old free, wandering life of the first
years, marked by apostolic poverty and loving,
simple‑hearted devotion to the Lord, but rather a
carefully arranged quasi‑monastic system, shorn
of much of its original freedom.
Francis, as may be seen from more than one passage in the accounts of his last years, was unhappy about these changes. As a demonstration against them, he left what is called his " Testa4. The Tes‑ ment," whose occasional reading to‑
	tament.	gether with the rule was enjoined on
		the brethren. Its tone is rather plain
tive than angry; it looks back in a spirit of regret
to the primitive days of the first love. It urges
unswerving obedience to the pope and the heads
of the order, but at the same time emphasizes the
necessity of following its principles, especially the
imitation of the poverty of Christ. The brethren
are commanded to oppose the introduction of any
future secularizing influences, and at the same time
are forbidden to ask for any special privileges from
the pope. In spite of the direct command in the
"Testament" against considering it as a new
rule, the Observantist section of the Franciscans
practically regarded it as even more binding than
the formal rule, while the advocates of a less strict
observance paid little attention to it, especially to
its prohibition of asking for ecclesiastical privileges.
III. Development of the Order after the Death of Francis: The controversy about poverty which extends through the first three centuries of Franciscan history began in the lifetime of the founder. The ascetic brothers Alattliew of Narni and Gregory of Naples, to whom Francis had
1. Dissen‑ entrusted the direction of the order lions Dur‑ during his absence, carried through ing the Life at a chapter which they held certain of Francis. stricter regulations in regard to fasting and the reception of alms, which really departed from the spirit of the original rule. It did not take Francis long, on his return, to suppress this insubordinate tendency; but he was less successful in regard to another of an opposite nature which soon came up. Elias of Crotona originated a movement for the increase of the worldly consideration of the order and the adaptation of its

Francis, Saint	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	3688
system to the plans of the hierarchy which conflicted with the original notions of the founder and helped to bring about the successive changes in the rule already described. Francis was not alone in opposition to this lax and secularizing tendency. On the contrary, the party which clung to his original views and after his death took his " Testament " for their guide, known as Observantists or Zedanti, was at least equal in numbers and activity to the followers of Elias. The conflict between the two lasted many years, and the Zdanta won several notable victories, in spite of the favor shown to their opponents by the papal administration‑until finally the reconciliation of the two points of view was seen to be impossible, and the order was actually split into halves.
Bt. Anthony of Padua (q.v.) has usually been regarded as the first leader of the Observantists; but recent investigations have shown that he was inclined to the opposite side. When Elias sent a delegation to Rome in 1230 to obtain papal sanc2. Develop. tion for his views, Anthony was one
ment to of the envoys; and there is little doubt
	1889. The that the bull Quo elongati of Gregory
		Later IX., favoring this side, was due in
		pa'tY. large measure to his influence. The
earliest leader of the strict party was rather Brother
Leo, the witness of the ecstasies of Francis on
Monte Alverno and the author of the SPwulum
perfechonis, a strong polemic against the laxer
party. Next to him came John Parens, the first
successor of Francis in the headship of the order.
In 1232, however, Elias succeeded him, and ad
ministered the affairs of the order in the interest of
his own, party for seven years. Much external
progress was made during these years; many new
houses were founded, especially in Italy, and in
them, without regard to the founder's depreciation
of secular learning, special attention was paid to
education. The somewhat earlier settlements of
Franciscan teachers at the universities (in Oxford,
for example, where Alexander of Hales was teach
ing) continued to develop. Contributions toward
the promotion of the order's work came in abun
dantly, and Elias authorized his subordinates to get
around the provision of the rule against the receiv
ing of money, usually by the appointment of agents
outside the order, who had the custody of the
funds. Elias pursued with great severity the prin
cipal leaders of the opposition, and even Bernardo
di Quintavalle, the founder's first disciple, was ob
liged to conceal himself for years in the forest of
Monte Sefro.
	At last, however, the reaction came. At the
general chapter of 123b, held in Rome under the
personal presidency of Gregory IX., Elias was
deposed in favor of Albert of Pisa, the former
		provincial of England, a moderate Ob
8. To 1274. servantist. None the less, Elias' at‑
	Bonaven‑	titude remained widely prevalent in the
		order. The next two ministers‑general
Haymo of Faversham (1240‑44) and Crescentius of
Jesi (1244‑47), governed to a great extent in this
sense, and had the new pope Innocent IV. on their
side. In a bull of Nov. 14, 1245, he even sanc
tioned an extension of the system of financial
agents, and declared the funds in their custody the property of the Church, to be held at the disposal of the cardinal‑protector and not to be alienated without his permission. The Observantist party took a strong stand in opposition to this ruling, and carried on so successfully an agitation against the lax general that in 1247, at a chapter held in Lyons, where Innocent IV. was then residing, he was replaced by the strict Observantist John of Parma (1247‑57). Elias, who had been excommunicated and taken under the protection of Frederick II., was now forced to give up all hope of recovering his power in the order. He died in 1253, after succeeding by recantation in obtaining the removal of his censures. Under John of Parma, who enjoyed the favor of Innocent IV. and Alexander IV., the influence of the order was notably increased, especially by the provisions of the latter pope in regard to the academic activity of the brothers. He not only sanctioned the theological institutes in Franciscan houses, but did all he could to facilitate the entrance of their teachers to the universities, especially Paris, the headquarters of theological study. It was due to the action of his representatives, who were obliged to threaten the university authorities with excommunication, that the degree of doctor of theology was conceded to the Dominican Thomas Aquinas and the Franciscan Bonaventura (1257), who had previously been able to lecture only as licentiates. , In the same year Bonaventura succeeded John of Parma. In spite of his adherence to Observantist principles, Bonaventura took a decided stand against the teaching of Joachim of Fiore, which John of Parma had been inclined to favor. Not a few of the " Spiritual " party, as they were now coming to be called, were condemned to lifelong imprisonment; and for the purpose of discouraging their extreme tendency a new life of the founder was compiled by Bonaventura, at the request of the general chapter held at Narbonne in 1280, and authorized by that of Pisa. three years later as the only approved biography. Apart from the severe measures taken against Joachim's followers, Bonaventura seems to have ruled (1257‑74) in a moderate spirit, which is represented also by various works produced by the order in his time‑especiauy by the Expositio regulce written by David of Augsburg (q.v.) soon after 1280.
The successor of Bonaventura, Jerome of Ascofi (1274‑79), the future Pope Nicholas IV., and his successor, Bonagratia (1279,85), also followed a middle course. Severe measures were taken against certain extreme Spirituals who, on the 4. To 1800. strength of the rumor that Gregory
	Continued	X. was intending at the Council of
Dissensions. Lyons (1274‑75) to force the mendi
		cant orders to tolerate the possession
of property, threatened both pope and council
with the renunciation of allegiance. Attempts
were made, however, to satisfy the reasonable de
mands of the Spiritual party, as in the bull Exiit
qui semixiat of Nicholas III. (1279), which pro
nounoed the principle of complete poverty meri
torious and holy, but interpreted it in the way of
a somewhat sophistical distinction between pos‑

359	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Francis, saint
session and usufruct. The bull was received respectfully by Bonagratia and the next two generals, Arlotto of Prato (1285‑87) and Matthew of Aqua Sparta (1287‑89); but the Spiritual party under the leadership of the fanatical apocalyptic Pierre Jean Olivi (q.v.) regarded its provisions for the dependence of the friars upon the pope and the division between brothers occupied in manual labor and those employed on spiritual missions as a corruption of the fundamental principles of the order. They were not won over by the conciliatory attitude of the next general, Raymond Gaufredi (1289‑96), and of the Franciscan pope Nicholas IV (1288‑92). The attempt made by the next pope, Celestine V., an old friend of the order, to end the strife by uniting the Observantist party with his own order of hermits (see CELEsTINEs) was scarcely more successful. Only a part of the Spirituals joined the new order, and the secession scarcely lasted beyond the reign of the hermit‑pope. Boniface VIII. annulled Celestine's bull of foundation with his other acts, deposed the general Raymond Gaufredi, and appointed a man of laxer tendency, John de Murro, in his place. The Benedictine section of the Celestines was separated from the Franciscan section, and the latter was formally suppressed by Boniface in 1302. The leader of the Observantists, Olivi, who spent his last years in the Franciscan house at Narbonne and died there in 1298, had pronounced against the extremer " Spiritual " attitude, and given an exposition of the theory of poverty which was approved by the more moderate Observantists, and for a long time constituted their principle.
	Under Clement V. (1305‑14) this party succeeded
in exercising some influence on papal decisions.
In 1309 Clement had a commission sit at Avignon
for the purpose of reconciling the conflicting parties.
		Ubertino of Casale (q.v.), the leader,
6. Tempo‑ after Olivi's death, of the stricter rary Success pay who was a member of the com‑
ofthe	mission, induced the Council of Vienne
Stricter. to arrive at a decision in the main Party. Per‑
	secution.	favoring his views, and thepapal con
		stitution Exivi de paradiso (1313) was
on the whole conceived in the same sense. Clem
ent's successor, John XXII. (1316‑34), favored the
laxer or conventual party. By the bull Quorundam
exigit he modified several provisions of the constitu
tion Exivi, and required the formal submission of
the Spirituals. Some of them, encouraged by the
strongly Observantist general Michael of Cessna,
ventured to dispute the pope's right so to deal
with the provisions of his predecessor. Sixty‑four
of them were summoned to Avignon, and the most
obstinate delivered over to the Inquisition, four of
them being burned (1318). Shortly before this all
the separate houses of the Observantists had been
suppressed.
A few years later a new controversy, this time theoretical, broke out on the question of poverty. The Spirituals contended eagerly for the view that Christ and his apostles had possessed absolutely nothing, either separately or jointly. This proposition had been declared heretical in a trial before an inquisitor. A protest was now made against this
decision by the chapter held at Perugia in 1322, as well as by such influential members of the order as William Occam (q.v.), the English e. Renewed provincial, and Bonagratia of BergaControveray mo. John XXII. ranged himself deonthe cidedly with the Dominicans> who Bueation of
	poverty.	combated the theory, and by the
		bull Cum inter nonnullos of 1322
declared it erroneous and heretical. Appealing
from this decision, Bonagratia, Occam, and Michael
of Cesena were imprisoned at Avignon for four
years, until they escaped by the help of the Em
peror Louis the Bavarian. Supported by him,
they carried on a literary war against the papal
and Dominican denial of the absolute poverty of
Christ and his apostles. The pope deposed Cessna
and Occam from their offices in the order, and ex
communicated them with the Franciscan antipope
Peter of Corvara (Nicholas V.) and all their adher
ents. Only a small part of the order, however,
joined them, and at a general chapter held in Paris
(1329) the majority of all the houses declared their
submission to the pope. The same step was taken
in the following year by the antipope, later by the
ex‑general Cesena, and finally, just before his death,
by Occam.
Out of all these dissensions in the fourteenth century sprang a number of separate congregations, almost of sects. To say nothing of the heretical parties of the Beghards and Fraticelh (qq.v.), some which developed within the order on both 7. Separate hermit and cenobitic principles may Congrega‑ here be mentioned: (1) The Clareni tione. or Clarenini, an association of hermits established on the river Clareno in the march of Ancona by Angelo di Clareno after the suppression of the Franciscan Celestines by Boniface VIII. It maintained the principles of Olivi, and, outside of Umbria, spread also in the kingdom of Naples, where Angelo died in 1337. Like several other smaller congregations, it was obliged in 1568 under Pius V. to unite with the general body of Observantists. (2) The Minorites of Narbonne. As a separate congregation, this originated through the union of a number of houses which followed Olivi after 1308. It was limited to southwestern France and, its members being accused of the heresy of the Beghards, was suppressed by the Inquisition during the controversies under John XXII. (3) The Reform of Johannes de Vallibus, founded in the hermitage of St. Bartholomew at Brugliano near Foligno in 1334. The congregation was suppressed by the Franciscan general chapter in 1354; reestablished in 1368 by Paolo de' Trinci of Foligno; confirmed by Gregory X1. in 1373, and spread rapidly from Central Italy to France, Spain, Hungary and elsewhere. Most of the Observantist houses joined this congregation by degrees, so that it became known simply as the " brothers of the regular Observance." It acquired the favor of the popes by its energetic opposition to the heretical Fraticelli, and was expressly recognized by the Council of Constance (1415). It was allowed to have a special vicar‑general of its own and legislate for its members without reference to the conventual

Francis, Saint	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	380
part of the order. Through the work of such men as Bernardin of Sienna (q.v.) John of Capistrano (see CAPISTRANo, GIOvANNI DI), and Dietrich Coelde (b. 1435? at Munster; was a member of the Brethren of the Common Life, q.v.; d. Dec. 11, 1515), it gained great prominence during the fifteenth century. By the end of the Middle Ages, the Observantists, with 1,400 houses, comprised nearly half of the entire order. Their influence brought about attempts at reform even among the Conventuals, including the Observantists of the Common Life, founded by Boniface de Ceva and spreading principally in France and Germany; the reformed congregation founded in 1426 by the Spaniard Philip de Berbegal and distinguished by the special importance they attached to the little hood (cappuciola); the Neutri, a group of reformers originating about 1463 in Italy, who tried to take a middle ground between the Conventuals and Observantists, but refused to obey the heads of either, until they were compelled by the pope to affiliate with the regular Observantists, or with those of the Common Life; the Caperolani, a congregation founded about 1470 in North Italy by Peter Caperolo, but dissolved again on the death of its founder in 1480; the Amadeists, founded by the noble Portuguese Amadeo, who entered the Franciscan order at Assisi in 1452, gathered around him a number of adherents to his fairly strict principles (numbering finally twenty‑six houses) and, died in the odor of sanctity in 1482.
Projects for a union between the two main branches of the order were put forth not only by the Council of Constance but by several popes, without any positive result. By direction of
Martin V., John of Capistrano drew 8. 'Unsuc‑ up statutes which were to serve as a cessful At‑ basis for reunion, and they were actu‑
Unites to ally accepted by a general chapter at
order. Unite the Assisi in 1430; but the majority of the
Conventual houses refused to agree to them,and they remained without effect. At Capistrano's request Eugenius IV. put forth a bull (Ut sacra minorum,1446) looking to the same result, but again nothing was accomplished. Equally unsuccessful were the attempts of the Franciscan pope Sixtus IV., who bestowed a vast number of privileges on both the original mendicant orders, but by this very fact lost the favor of the Observantists and failed in his plans for reunion. Julius Il. succeeded in doing away with some of the smaller branches, but left the division of the two great parties untouched. This division was finally legalized by Leo X., after a general chapter held in Rome, in connection with the reform‑movement of the Fifth Lateran Council, had once more declared the impossibility of reunion. The less strict principles of the Conventuals, permitting the posesssion of real estate and the enjoyment of fixed revenues, were recognized as tolerable, while the Observantists, in contrast to this usus nwderatus, were held strictly to their own uses arctus or pauper. The latter, as adhering more closely to the rule of the founder, were allowed to claim a certain superiority over the former. The Observantist general (elected now for six years, not for life) was to have
the title of "Minister‑General of the Whole Order of St. Francis " and the right to confirm the choice of a head for the Conventuals, who was known as " Master‑General of the Friars Minor Conventual " ‑although this privilege never became practically operative.
IV. Spread of the Order in Modern Times: The regulations of Leo X. brought a notable increase of strength to the Observantist branch, and many conventual houses joined them‑in France all but forty‑eight, in Germany the greater part, in Spain 1. New Con. practically all. But this very growth gregations. was fatal to the internal unity and strength of the strict party. The need for new reforms soon became apparent, and the action of Leo X., far from consolidating the order, gave rise to a number of new branches. The most important of these are: the Capuchins (q.v.), founded in 1525 by Matteo Bassi and established in 1619 by Paul V. as a separate order; the Discalced Franciscans, founded as a specially strict Observantist congregation at Bellacazar in Spain by Juan de Puebla toward the end of the fifteenth century, compelled by Leo X. to unite with the regular Observantists, but soon afterward reestablished as an independent branch by Juan de Guadelupe (d. 1580), and subsequently obtaining some importance in Spain and Portugal; the Alcantarines, a very strict congregation founded in 1540 by Peter of Alcantara (q.v.), and distinguished by remarkable achievements in the mission field; the Italian Riformati, founded about 1525 near Rieti by two Spanish Observantists, and becoming comparatively wide‑spread from the beginning of the seventeenth century through the favor of Clement VIII. and Urban VIII.; the French Recollects, originating at Nevers in 1592, formed into a distinct congregation by Clement VIII. in 1602, and important in later missionary history, especially in Canada.
	The Franciscans also rendered important serv
ices to the cause of the Counterreformation in
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, rivaling
the Jesuit order in zeal, and frequently suffering
martyrdom for their faith in England, the Nether
		lands, and Germany. During the last
2. Present hundred years the possessions of the Status. order have been much reduced by the storms of the French Revolution, the German secularizations since 1803, and the political changes of Spain, Italy, and France. On the other hand, there has been a considerable extension in many parts of the order, especially in North America. The present statistics of the three principal male branches of the order are approximately as follows: (1) Observantists: 1,500 houses, comprised in about 100 provinces and Custodice, with about 15,000 members of whom some 7,000 belong to the Regular Observance, 6,000 to the Riformati, and the rest to the Recollects and the Discalced ,Congregation; (2) Conventuals: 290 houses, principally in Italy, but also in Bavaria, Austria, Rumania, Turkey, etc.; and (3) Regular Tertiaries, following the rule of Leo X.: less than a score of houses‑two in Rome, five in Sicily, seven in Austria, and two in America. These figures show a

381	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Francis, Saint
great contrast to the strength of the order at the end of the Middle Ages, when it had over 8,000 houses, of which the 1,300 Observantist communities alone numbered 30,000 members, or even in the middle of the seventeenth century when there were about 70,000 members, divided into 150 provinces. The noteworthy proportional decline of the non‑Observantist section shows that the order to this day presents more attraction as it remains truest to its original principles.
Although surpassed in the number of prominent and influential theological authors by the Jesuits and Dominicans, the order still boasts a number of distinguished names. The first century of its existence produced the three great scholastics Alexander of Hales, Bonaventura, and Duns Scotus, the "Admirable Doctor" Roger Bacon, and the
well‑known mystic authors and popuS. Distin‑ lar preachers David of Augsburg and
guiahed Berthold of Regensburg. Among
Franciscan celebrities of the later Middle Ages may be mentioned Nicholas of Lyra, the Biblical commentator, Bernardin of Sienna, John of Capistrano, Mollard and Menot as preachers, and the famous canonists Astesanus, Alvarus Pelagius, and Occam. Later again came sound historical investigators such as Luke Wadding and Pagi. In the field of Christian art, during the later Middle Ages, the Franciscan movement exercised considerable influence, especially in Italy. Several great painters of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, especially Cimabue and Giotto, were spiritual sons of Francis in the wider sense, and the plastic masterpieces of the latter, as well as the architectural conceptions of both himself and his school, show the influence of Franciscan ideals. The Italian Gothic style, whose earliest important monument is the great convent church at Assisi (built 1228‑53), was cultivated as a rule principally by members of the order or men under their influence. The early spiritual poetry of Italy was inspired by Francis himself, who was followed by Thomas of Celano, Bonaventura, and Jacopone da Todi; and in a certain sense even Dante may be included within the sphere of Franciscan influence (cf. especially Parcudiso, xi. 50).
V. The Clarisses or Poor Clares : For the history of the female branch of the order, founded in the lifetime of Francis, See CLARA, SAINT, AND THE CLARISSES.
VI. The Third Order: The Tertiary rule which passes under the name of St. Francis not only can not have been drawn up by him, but does not even show a basis of his original instructions. There must have been, however, in leis lifetime a following of devout laity who composed a sort of third
1. Origin order, beside the Friars Minor and the
and Rule. Clarisses. It seems probable that the
rule drawn up in 1285 for Dominican tertiaries served as a model for the corresponding Franciscan rule mentioned by Nicholas IV. in his bull Supra montem of Aug. 18, 1289. This rule excludes persons living in the estate of matrimony, but does not prescribe absolute renunciation of property or the wearing of the Franciscan habit. The precepts as to fasting are comparatively mild,
allowing the use of meat three times a week, and the devotional exercises required are very much less than in the first and second orders. The brothers are expressly allowed to render military service in defense of the Holy Roman Church, the Christian faith of their own fatherland. The position midway between the Church and the world taken by this rule corresponded to a need widely felt at the time, and contributed toward the spread of the mendicant principle. The growth of the third order was not without opposition. Frederick II. took severe measures against it, and now and then the Franciscan tertialies were confused with the heretical Beghards; especially after the condemnation of this sect by the Council of Vienne, many of its members sought entrance into the third order of St. Francis or adopted its habit and manner of life, so that John XXII. was obliged to issue a special bull (Sancta Romana, 1317) to distinguish the true and false tertiaries. The growth of the institute continued throughout the Middle Ages, and numerous pious brotherhoods and sisterhoods grew up either within it or in close connection with it. Under Leo X. a new system went into effect (1517), separating from the general body those tertiaries who accepted a new rule drawn up for them. These took the three monastic vows, had a minister‑general of their own, and could be admitted into the first order. The remainder were divided into three classes: those who lived in community, bound by simple vows, on the basis of the old rule of Nicholas IV.; those who lived alone, bound by a simple vow of celibacy, and wearing the habit of the order; and others of both sexes, single or married, who made no vows and did not live in community. The third class is by far the most numerous, and comprises all the affiliated members living in the world.
It is to these that the comprehensive rearrangements refer which were ordered by Leo XIII. toward the end of the nineteenth century. In the encyclical Auspicator of Sept. 17, 1882, he ur2. New Ar‑ gently commended the third order, and rangements dwelt upon its high usefulness in modof Leo ern conditions. By the constitution
XTTT,	Misericors of May 30, 1883, he made
a number of changes in the obligations to be imposed on the members. No vows are now required on entrance, but a simple promise to keep the rule and wear the scapular and girdle under the ordinary clothing; a few fasts are imposed, especially on the vigils of the feasts of the Immaculate Conception and of St. Francis; the duty of monthly communion and grace before and after meals is insisted on, together with that of a generally self‑denying and temperate life. These easily fulfilled regulations have brought about a marked increase in the number of members, which in the single country of Germany is estimated at about half a million. (See TERTIARIES.)
(O. ZOCRLERt.)
BrDLIOGRAPIiY: Full lists of works on the subject are given in Hauck‑Herzog, RE, vi. 197‑‑220; Heilnbucher, Orden
and Kongrepationen, I. 285‑‑271; Potthast, Wepweiieer, pp. 1318‑21; and in the . British Museum Catalogue under " Francis [Bernardoni]." Consult also P. Robinson, A Short Introduction to Franciscan Literature, New

Francis, Saint	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	362
York, 1907. The oldest and weightiest sources for a life of St. Francis are the two Vita by Thomas of Celano, the Chronieon fratris Jordani a Jano, the Legenda trium sociorum (Leo, Rufmus and Angelus Tancredi) and the celebrated Vita by S. Bonaventura. These, with the exception of the fuller Vita of Thomas, are collected together with a commentary in ASS, Oct., ii. 545‑798. The principal editions and translations will be noted below. Other sources are of course the Opera of St. Francis, ed. Wadding, Cologne, 1849, and Horvy, Paris, 1880, made available in Eng. transl., London, 1890, and by P. Robinson, Philadelphia, 1906; and the Sacrum commercium (written anonymously c. 1227), Eng. transl. by M. Carmichael, London, 1901.
The best modern life is by P. Sabatier, Paris, 1894, which has run through many editions, Eng. transl., London, 1898. Sabatier edited the Speculum yerfectionis of Leo of Assisi, Paris, 1898, of which Eng. tranals. appeared by Sebastian Evans, London, 1899, Countess De Is Warr, 1902, and Robert Steele, 1903. Next to these should be noted H. G. Rosedale, St. Francis of Assisi according to Brother Thomas of Celano, with Critical Introduction, London, 1904 (for the best edition), cf. Thomas of Celano, The Lives of St. Francis of Assisi, tranal. by A. G. Ferrers Howell, ib., 1908. Other accounts are by K. Hase, Leipsic, 1856 (long the standard); Bemardin, 2 vols., Paris, 1880; a sumptuous work in 3 parts, S. Francois d'Aasise, containing the Vie by F. E. Chavin de Malan, first published Paris, 1845, S. Frangoia apres so mart and S. Francois dana fart, Paris, 1885; H. S. Lear, London, 1888; Miss Lockhart (from the Legends of St. Bonaventure), ib. 1889; J. M. S. Daurignae, Abbeville, 1887; L. Le Monnier, Paris, 1890, Eng. transl., London, 1894; J. W. Knox Little, ib. 1897; the Du,e Legendo of Bonaventura, Quaracchi (near Florence), 1898; J. Adderley, London, 1900; A. Barine (S. Frangoia . . . et la legends des trois eompagnons), Paris, 1901; L. de Chtrancd, Paris, 1892, Eng. trans]., London, 1901; J. Herkless Francis and Dominic, pp. 16‑80, New York, 1901; W. O. E. Oesterley, London, 1901; B. Christen, Innsbruck, 1902; L. de Kerval, Paris, 1902 (a Fr. tranel. of the legend of the three companions); A. Goffin, Brussels, 1902 (also a Fr. trans]. of the same); E. G. Satter, London, 1902 (Eng. transl. of the same); J. H. McIlvaine, New York, 1902; Anna M. Stoddart, London, 1903; S. Bonaventura, ib. 1904 (Eng. tranal.); L. L. Du Bois, New York, 1906; J. JSrgensen, Den hellige Prans of Assisi, Copenhagen, 1907; M. A. Heins, New York, 1908. On the portraiture consult N. H. J. Westlake, On the Authentic Portraiture of St. Francis of Assisi, London, 1897; O. Kuhns, St. Francis of Assisi, New York, 1906.
The Rules are given in L. Wadding, S. Franciaci opuscula, Antwerp, 1623, ed. V. der Burg, Cologne, 1889, and in Horoy's edition of the Opera of St. Francis, Paris, 1880. Consult also Regula antiqua frabum et serorum de pa;nitentia seu tertii ordinis S. Francois, ed. P. Sabatier, Paris, 1901, and cf. K. Miiller, Die Anfange des Minoritenordens, pp. 4‑114, 185‑188, Freiburg, 1885. The Teatamentum was edited from the Cottonian MS. in the British Museum by J. S. Brewer in Monumenta Franciacana, i (1858), 562‑566, and is given in Sabatier's Vie, 9th ed., pp. 389‑393.
Consult also: B. Francis, Rule and Ceremonial of the Third Order, London, 1883 Manual of the Third Order, ib. 1883; Nouvelle r6gle du tiers‑ordre seculier, Paris, 1883; F. Bertiuus, Manual of the Third Order, London, 1884; Little Manual of the Third Order, ib. 1899; Gerard, Documents pour erpliquer la regle du tiers‑ordre, Paris. 1899.
For the history of the order sources are: Chronicon fratris Jordanis a Jano, ed. G. Voigt, Vol. v. of Abhandlungen der koniglich.en adchaischen Gesellachaft der Wi,` sen8chaften, v (1870), 421 sqq. (good for Germany); Chroniche degli ordini inatituti dal S. Francesco, in Portuguese and Spanish, 3 vola., Lisbon and Salamanca, 15561670, Fr. transl., 4 cols., Paris, 1600, Germ. tranal., 2 vole., Constance, 1604; A. Parkinson, Collrctanea Anglominoritica, London, 1726; J.H. Sbaralea, Bullarium Franciscanum . . . conatitutiones, epistolos, diplomats .
4 vols.. Rome, 1759‑68 (Vol. 4 by D. A. Rossi); Analecta Franciacana, 2 vole., Quararchi, 1885‑87 (a collection of chronicles, and various documentary sources).
Of more modern accounts the beA are: L. Wadding, Annalea minorum, Vol. i.‑vii., Leyden, 1625‑48, Vol. viii.
Rome, 1654, 2d ed. begun by J. M. Fonseca, vols. i.xvi., Rome, 1731‑36, continued al intervals, Vol. xxv., 1887; Helyot, Ordres monastiquea. Vol. vii., cf‑ i., pp. Ixxi. aqq.; Heimbueher, Orden and Kongregationen, i. 264‑385. Consult also: V. Greiderer, Germania Franci8cana, 2 vols., Innsbruck, 1777‑81; G. F. C. Evers, Analecta ad fratrum minorum historian, Leipsic, 1882; K. Maller, Die Anfange des Minoritenordena, Freiburg, 1885; D. de Gubernatis, Orbis aeraphicue. Hist. de tribue ordinibus a . . . S. Francisco inatitutis, new ed., Quaracehi, 1887 sqq.; F. Servais Dirks, Hist. litt&aire den fr&ea mineura en Belgique, Antwerp, 1888; B. Hammer, Die Franciscaner in den Vereinigtcn Staaten, Cologne, 1892; A. G. Little, The Grey Friars in Oxford, Oxford, 1892; J. M. Stone, Sufferings of English Franciscans during 16th and 17th Centuries, London, 1892; O. Huettebrauker, Der Minoritenorden, Berlin, 1895; T. Kolde, Die kirchlichen Bruderachaften and das religibee Leben, Erlangen, 1895; Thaddeus, The Franciscans in England, 1800‑1860, London, 1898; Anne Macdowell, Sons of Francis, New York, 1902; D. Muszey, The Spiritual Franciscans, ib., 1908.
On the Third Order consult: F. J. d'Ezerville, Le Tiersordre de S. Franyois, Lille, 1887; Ldon, Le Tiers Ordre a&aphique, Paris, 1887; P. B. da Greccio, 11 Terz' Ordine di San Francesco, Quaracchi, 1888; P. de Martignd, Le Tiers‑ordre . . . d'apr~s Leon XIII., Le Mans, 1896; Morbert, Les Religieuaee frangiseainea, Paris, 1897; P. Baptists, Spirit of the Third Order of St. Francis, London, 1899; J. G. Adderley and C. L. Marson, "Third Orders," ib. 1902; F. O. Kaercher, Summary of Indulgencet, Privileges, and Favors Granted to the Secular Branch of the Third Order of St. Francis, St. Louis, 1902; T. C. L. Josa, St. Francis of Aaeiai and the Third Order, ib. 1906.
FRANCIS BORGIA, SAINT. See JESUITS.
FRANCIS, JOSEPH MARSHALL: Protestant Episcopal bishop of Indianapolis, Ind.; b. at Eaglesmere, Pa., Apr. 6, 1862. He studied at Racine College (1879‑82) and Oxford (188r86), and was ordered deacon in 1884 and priested two years later. After being in charge of the mission churches of St. Edmund, Milwaukee, and of St. Peter, Greenfield, Wis., 1884‑86, he was canon of All Saints' Cathedral, Milwaukee, 1886‑‑87 and rector of St Luke's, Whitewater, Wis., 1887‑88. He then went as a missionary to Japan, where he remained until 1897, being professor of dogmatic theology in Trinity Divinity School, Tokyo, 1891‑97 and subdean of the same institution 1893‑97. Returning to the United States, he was rector of St. Paul's, Evansville, Ind., 1898‑99, and in 1899 was consecrated bishop of Indianapolis. In theology he is in "entire conformity with the teaching of the Episcopal Church as laid down in the Book of Common Prayer."

FRANCIS, SAINT, OF PAOLA: Founder of the Order of Minims; b. at Paola (13 m. w.n.w. of Cosenza), Italy, 1416 (according to the Bollandists),1438; d. at Plessis‑lee‑Tours (1 m. sm. of Tours). France, Apr. 2, 1507. His parents dedicated him at an early age to St. Francis of Assisi, to whose intercession they attributed his birth. At the age of twelve he entered the Franciscan monastery of San Marco in Calabria, and quickly surpassed the strictest monks in his rigid observance of the rule. After spending a year as novice he accompanied his parents in a pilgrimage to Assisi, Rome and other holy places, and after his return to Paola lived for six years in a cave on the seashore, gradually gathering about him a band of disciples. After a few years the archbishop of Cosenza gave permission for the erect‑'on

888	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	:Francis, Saint
of a monastery and church, probably about 1454, although the date is usually given as 1435. This marks the establishment of his order, which assumed the title of " Eremites of St. Francis " and strove to surpass the Franciscans by a more rigid application of the vow of poverty and by extreme asceticism. The fame of the miracles of St. Francis soon attracted the attention of Paul II. who sent a chamberlain in 1469 to test them. The result was favorable, and the rule of the new order was confirmed by Sixtus IV. in a bull issued May 23, 1474, their founder himself being appointed eorrectorgeneral. The rule was slightly modified by Innocent VIII., Alexander VI., and Julius I I., the second changing the name of the order to Minimi fratres (" Least of the Brethren "), probably in allusion to Matt. xxv. 40. Numerous miracles are recounted of St. Francis, many of them closely resembling those of Christ. As a consequence, Louis XI. of France, when near death. summoned him to his court, but was obeyed only at the command of the pope, St. Francis declining to attempt to prolong the dying monarch's fife by his prayers. The new king, Charles VIII., induced him to remain in France, consulted him both in spiritual and secular matters, and built for him two monasteries in France, one at Plessis‑lesrTours and the other at Amboise, as well as a third at Rome, to be occupied solely by French monks. Francis was canonised by Leo X. in 1519.
	The Minims are bound, in addition to the three
monastic vows, by a fourth which devotes them to a
vita quadrigesimalia, or perpetual fast, enjoining
abstinence from all meat and lacticinia, and per
mitting only bread and water, oil, vegetables, and
fruit to be used for food. The appointed fasts of
the Church are intensified by the Minims,, who are
also bound by strict rules of silence. The rule of
the Minimite nuns, whose first convent was estab
lished at Andujar in Spain in 1495, closely resembles
that for the monks, but the Tertiaries of both sexes
are subject to far less rigid restrictions, especially
with regard to diet. During its period of greatest
prosperity, from the death of its founder to the end
of the sixteenth century, the order had 450 houses,
and extended its missionary activity as far as India.
It now has only nineteen cloisters, the mother house
at Paola, Sant'Andrea della Fratte in Rome,
fourteen in Sicily, and one each in Naples, Marseilles,
and Cracow. 	(O. ZSCSLLMRt.)
BtBLIOUEAPHY: The earliest fife of the founder is in ASB, April, i. 105‑234. Other lives are by Hilarion de Coate, Paris, 1855; I. Toecano, Venice, 1704; C. du Vivier, Douai, 1722; Rolland, Paris, 1874; J. Dabert, Paris, 1877; and in HL, iv. 1824‑28.
Early accounts of the order are: L. de Montoia, Cronies general de la Orden de loo Minimoe, Madrid, 1819; Louie DOW Datichi, Hist. p€n&ale de l'ordre des Minim". Paris, 1824; P'• Lanovius, Chronicon penernle ordinia MinimOmm, ib. 1835. Consult: Helyot, Ordrea monastiquea, vii. 428‑452; Heimbucher, Orden and %onprepationen, ii. 527 eqq.; Currier, Religious Order, pp. 288‑270. On the Rules consult: C. Passarelii, StaNta fratrum Minorum, Naples, 1570; Lea fles des fr&es et sa;urs et des fd&a . do l'ordr des Minim", Paris, 1832; Digestum sapientif Minimitanm tripwtitum, ad. P. Baltas d'Avila, Lille, 1867; Traduction nouvelle des raglet . . . de 1'ordre des Minimes, Paris, 1703.
FRANCIS OF PARIS. See JANsEN, CORNELIuB,
JANBENISM, § 7.
FRANCIS, SAINT, OF SALES: Saint Francis of Sales, noted preacher and devotional author; born at the ch$tesu of Sales near Annecy (25 m. s. of Geneva) in Savoy, Aug. 21, 1567; .d. at Lyons Dec. 28, 1622. He was a member of a noble family of Savoy and at the age of twelve entered the Jesuit college in Paris, where he devoted himself to the study of philosophy, the classics and Hebrew, leading at the same time a life of stern asceticism in fulfilment of an early vow to the Virgin. From 1584 to 1590 he studied civil and canon law at Padua, but gave himself up more and more to theology under the guidance of the Jesuit Possevin. During a severe illness he determined to enter the priesthood, and carried out his purpose in 1591, in spite of the opposition, of his family.
Placed under the authority of the bishop of Geneva, who was then riding at Annecy, Francis began to play an important part in the movement for bringing back to the Roman faith the inhabitants of the province of Chablais and of the district of Gex, lying on the Lake of Geneva.
Activity Conquered in 1536 by the Bernese in Chablais, and converted to Protestantism,
(hex, and Chablais and Gex were restored to
	Geneva	Philibert Emmanuel of Savoy by the
		Treaty of Lausanne in 1564 with the
assurance of religious freedom. This pledge,
faithfully kept by Philibert, was broken by his son
Charles Emmanuel, who succeeded in 1580; and
discerned in the close connection prevailing be
tween the people of the two regions and the inhab
itants of Bern and Geneva a menace to his political
authority. Peaceful methods were at first. decided
upon, and to Francis of Sales the mission was con
fided. In spite of his zeal, courage, patience and
remarkable gifts of persuasion, Francis met with
absolute failure at Thonon, the capital of Chablais,
whose inhabitants entered into a compact to re
fuse even a hearing to the eloquent preacher.
Only among the peasantry and the nobility could
he point to a few isolated conversions. Convinced
that nothing was to be accomplished by peaceful
means. he abandoned the field of his labors in the
winter of 1596‑97, and at Turin in the ducal council
declared himself for a policy of forcible conversion,
calling for the expulsion of the Protestant clergy, the
prohibition of Evangelical literature, the re‑estab
lishment of the Roman Catholic parishes, the foun
dation of a Jesuit college, and the restoration of the
mass in the city of Thonon. The plan was adopted,
priests and monks were sent into the country,
soldiers were quartered upon the inhabitants; and
with the additional weapon of exile the Roman
reaction was speedily triumphant. Encouraged by
their success, the authorities turned their eyes to
Geneva. whither Francis went in 1597 at the in
stance of Pope Clement VIII. There he came
into repeated contact with the aged Beza, and,
convinced that the great Huguenot could not be
gained over by argument, attempted bribery
an act which roused Beza to great indignation.
To his very last day Francis retained an irrecon
cilable hatred for Geneva, which he designated as
the home of the devil and of heretics.

Francis, Saint Franck
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
384
In 1602, on the death of the bishop of Geneva, Francis succeeded to the see, of which he had for some time been coadjutor. In the performance of the duties of his office he lived up to the very highest standard of pastoral obligation. His fame
as a preacher caused him to be sumBishop moned repeatedly to France, where of Geneva. he enjoyed great influence. With the aid of Madame de Chantal he founded in 1604 the order of the Visitation (see VISITATION, ORDER OF THE) devoted to the care of the sick and later also to the education of the young.
In 1618 Francis composed his Introduction d In vie devote, one of the most popular books among Roman Catholics to the present day, the object of which, as he explained in his preface, was to meet the pious needs of those whose calling lay in the spheres of active life. The book is in the form of a discourse addressed to a certain Philothea, and treats in five chapters of repentance, prayer, the various virtues, temptations, and pious practises.
"The world," he says, "often looks His with contempt upon piety because it Works and pictures the pious as men of downcast
	Doctrine. and sorrowful faces, but Christ him
		self testifies that the inner life is a
soft, sweet, and happy one." In his indulgence
to the demands made by the, world he often goes
to extremes. His views find their systematic ex
pression in his Traite de l'amour de Dieu. Pro
ceeding from the principle that the will, ap
pointed by the Lord as ruler of all the powers of
the soul, finds its highest expression in the love
of God, he finds two principal manifestations of
this love, one passive, revealing itself in attrac
tion toward the divine, and one active, finding
expression in the performance of the will of God.
The first consists primarily in prayer, by which is
understood not merely verbal utterance of devo
tion but the inner approach of the soul toward
God. The inner form of prayer is of two degrees,
the lower, meditation, the higher, contemplation.
Its highest degree is the total absorption of the
soul into its God, ecstasy. In Francis we find an
undisguised exposition of the doctrines of Quietism.
AS a counterpoise to the evil consequences that
might possibly follow on the extreme interpreta
tion of his mystic doctrine, Francis sets up the act
ive love of God, which consists in the fulfilment of
the divine will. In three books he gives a de
tailed account of the various virtues in which this
active love manifests itself, a love which in Francis
himself revealed itself throughout his life. He
was canonized in 1665, and in 1878 was declared a
doctor of the universal Church. 	(J. EHNI fi.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The tEuvres of St. Francis appeared 16 vols.,
	Paris, 1821; 8 vols., Lyons, 1868; ed. H. B. Mackey, An
	necy,1890‑97; also an ed., Paris, 1908; lEuvres choisies, ed.
	M. Pag6s, 3 vols., Paris, 1890; Selection from Spiritual
	Letters, by H. L. S. Lear, London, 1892 ; a selection in
	Fr. by F. Pracht, Paris, 1893. Several of his works are
	constantly reproduced in English, e. g., Practical Piety,
	London, 1851; Spiritual Letters (or selections from them),
	ib., 1871; Spiritual Conferences, ib., 1862; Introduction
	to a Devout Life, Oxford, 1875. For his life or phases of
	it consult: Baroness Herbert of Lea, Mission o/ St
	Francis in the Chablais, London, 1868; J. P. Camus, Tke
	Spirit of Francis of Salsa, ib., 1880; A. Peratd, La Mission
	de Franyois de Sales dams le Chablais, Rome, 1886: G.
Porter, The Heart of St. Francis, London, 1887; J. F.
Gouthier, La Mission de S. Franfois de Sales daps . .
Chablais, Annecy, 1891; H. B. Mackey, St. Francis de Sales as a Preacher, London, 1898; F. Strowski, S. Franr,ois de Sales, Paris, 1898; A. Delplanque, S. Francois de Sales, humanists et ecrivain latin, Lille, 1908; Marsollier, Vie de S. Franois de Sales, Tours, 1908; R. Ornsby, Life of St. Francis de Sales, London, GA.; KL, iv. 1826‑36.

FRANCIS XAVIER, SAINT: The founder and pioneer of modern Roman Catholic missions to the heathen; b. at the castle of Xavier, near Pamplona (195 m. n.n.e. of Madrid), in Navarre, Apr. 7, 1506; d. on the island of San‑than (Chang‑Chuang, St. John's Island, on the south coast of China, 125 m. s. of Canton) Dec. 2, 1552. He sprang from an aristocratic family of Navarre. While preparing himself for the higher spiritual career at the University of Paris, he became acquainted with Ignatius Loyola, soon stood completely under his influence, and was one of those who on Aug. 15, 1534, bound themselves by a vow at Montmartre and formed the nucleus of the subsequent Society of Jesus (see IGNATIUS OF LOYOLA). The field of labor falling to Francis Xavier was that of missions to the heathen. As King John III. of Portugal desired Jesuit missionaries for the East Indies, he was ordered thither, leaving Lisbon on Apr. 7, 1541; from August of that year till Mar. 1542, he remained in Mozambique, and reached Goa, the capital of the Portuguese colonies, on May 6. His first missionary activity was among the Paravas, pearl‑fishers along the southerly portion of the east coast of Hindustan. He then exerted himself to win the king of Travancore to Christianity, on the west coast, and also visited Ceylon. Dissatisfied with the results of his activity, he turned eastward in 1545, and planned a missionary journey to Macassar, on the island of Celebes. Having arrived in Malacca in October of that year and waited there three months in vain for a ship to Macassar, he gave up the goal of his voyage, and went to Amboyna and other of the Molucca Islands, returning to India in Jan., 1548. The next fifteen months were occupied with various journeys and administrative measures in India. Then his displeasure by reason of the unchristian life and manners of the Portuguese, whereby his proselyting work was seriously impeded, drove him forth once again into the unknown Far East. He left Goa on Apr. 15, 1549, stopped at Malacca, visited Canton, and on Aug. 15 reached Japan, where he landed at Kagoshima, the principal port of the province of Satsuma, on the island of Kiushiu. He was received in friendly manner and was permitted to preach, but, not knowing the native language, had to limit himself to reading aloud the translation of a catechism. For all this, his sojourn was not without fruits, as is attested by congregations established in Hiudo, Samaguchi, and Bungo (see JAPAN, III., 1, § 1). After more than two years in Japan, he returned to India, and was back in Goa by Jan., 1552. In April he was again under way, aiming for China, but died on the journey.
Francis Xavier accomplished a great missionary work both as organizer and as pioneer. By his compromise' in India with the Christians of St. Thomas lie developed the Jesuit missionary methods

385	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Francis, Saint
		Franck
along lines that subsequently became fateful for
his order (see JE$UrTs; ACCOMMODATION, § 8);
the instruction he dispensed in connection with
baptism was superficial; and he combined mis
sions with politics, and approved of the extension of
Christianity by force (cf. his letter to King John
III. of Portugal, Cochin, Jan. 20, 1548). Yet he
had high qualifications as missionary; he was
animated with glowing zeal; the consciousness of
acting in God's service never forsook him, he was
endowed with great linguistic gifts, and his activity
was marked by restless pushing forward. His ef
forts left a significant impression upon the mis
sionary history of India; and by pointing out the
way to East India to the Jesuits, his work is of
fundamental significance with regard to the history
of the propagation of Christianity in China and
Japan. The results of his labor that he himself
witnessed were not slight (mere figures may be
disregarded, as they are difficult to verify); but
still greater were the tasks he proposed. And
since the Roman Catholic Church responded to his
call, the effects of his efforts reach far beyond the
Jesuit order; the entire systematic and aggressive
incorporation of great masses of people on broad
lines of policy by the Roman Catholic Church in
modern times, dates back to Francis Xavier. He
was beatified by Paul V. on Oct. 25, 1619, and was
canonized by Gregory XV. on Mar. 12, 1622.
		CARL MIRBT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The best sources for a life are the letters,
	146 in all, translated into Latin by R. Minchaca, with the
	title S. Francisci Xaverii . . epiatolarum omnium libri
	quattuor, Bologna, 1795; next is the Monuments. Xave
	riana, in the Monumenta historiat soeietatis Jesu, Madrid,
	1899. Consult: H. F. Coleridge, Life and Letters o/ St.
	Francis Xavier, 2 vols., New York, 1886; Mary H. Mac
	Clean, Life of Francis Xavier, London, 1895; H. Haas,
	Geschichte des Chrastentums in Japan, 2 vols., Tokyo,
	1902‑04; L. J. M. Cros, S. Franwois de Xavier, Paris, 1903;
	XL. iv. 1839‑43. A really critical life is still a de8ider
	atum.
	FRANCISCANS. See FRANCIS, SAINT, OF Assisi,
AND THE FRANCISCAN ORDER.
	FRANCISCUS A SANCTA CLARA. See DAVEN
PORT, CHRISTOPHER.
	FRANCK, frdnk (FRANK), JOHANN: German lyric
poet; b. at Guben (79 m. s.e. of Berlin), Branden
burg, June 1, 1618; d. there June 18, 1677. He
studied law at Ii6nigsberg, was a councilor in his
native town, later on mayor and a member of the
county council of the Niederlausitz. Under the
influence of the Silesian School and of Simon Dach
of K6nigsberg he produced a series of poems and
hymns, collected and edited by himself in two
volumes (Guben, 1674), entitled: Teutsche Gedichte,
enthaltend geistliches Zion samt Vaterunserharfe
nebst irdischem Helicon oder Lob‑, Licb‑, Leidge
dichte, etc. His secular poems are forgotten; about
forty of his religious songs, hymns, and psalms
have been kept in the hymn‑books of the German
Protestant Church. Some of these are the hymn
for the Holy Communion " Schmiicke dich, o liebe
Seele " (" Deck thyself, my soul, with g adness ");
the Advent hymn " Komm, Heidenheiland, Liise
geld " (" Come, Ransom of our captive race; "
a translation into German of J. Campanus's " Veni
Redemptor gentium "); a hymn to Christ, " Jesu,
meine Freude " (" Jesus, my chief pleasure ").
The music for his hymns by the Guben organist
Christoph Peter appeared first in the Andachtscym
beln, the oldest Guben hymn‑book, in 1648. In
honor of Johann Franck a simple monument has
been erected at the south wall of the Guben parish
church. 	A. WERNER.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Jentsch, Johann Franck von Guben, Guben, 1877. On his hymns consult A. Knapp, Evanr
pelischer Lieder‑Sehatx, ii. 849 Stuttgart, 1850; Julian,
Hymnology, pp. 386‑387.
FRANCK (FRANK), SEBASTIAN.
His Peculiar Views (§ 1). The Chronica (§ 3).
I‑lie Literary Activity (§ 2). Other Works (§ 4).
Sebastian Franck, one of the popular writers of the Reformation, was born at Donauworth (25 m. n. of Augsburg) 1499; d. Basel (?) 1542 or 1543. He entered the University of Ingolstadt in 1515, and continued his studies at Bethlehem college, an institution of the Dominicans at Heidelberg, incorporated in the university. Here he met his later opponents, Martin Frecht and Butzer. Bethlehem was still dominated by the scholasticism of the closing Middle Ages, but influences of humanism also made themselves felt. Subsequently Franck became priest in the bishopric of Augsburg, and in 1527 he occupied a clerical position at Gustenfelden, a small borough near Nuremberg.
At this time his standpoint was strictly Lutheran, and he attacked the Sacramentarians and Anabaptists. But in his Tiirkenchronik (1530) his radicalism began to find expression. Here he treats of " ten or eleven nations or sects of Christianity " of which none possesses the full truth, and at the close he intimates that beside the three faiths,
the Lutheran, the Zwinglian and the :. His Anabaptist, there would soon arise a
Peculiar fourth, an invisible spiritual Church
Views. which would be governed by the eter‑
nal invisible word of God without any external means such as ceremonies, sacraments and sermons. Thus Franck appears as the representative of a mystic spiritualism which placed him in strong contrast with ecclesiastical Protestantism. In 1528 he resigned his position at Gustenfelden and went to Nuremberg and in the following year to Strasburg. In the free atmosphere of the two imperial cities his views underwent an entire change‑the theologian became a popular writer, the Lutheran an opponent of every Christian system that is bound by ecclesiastical rules. He searched for God's truth among all people, in nature, and history as well as in the Bible. In Strasburg he came into contact with congenial opponents of the ecclesiastical Reformation, especially with Servetus and Hans Biinderlin of Linz. Under the influence of the latter as well as of Sehwenckfeld his spiritualism reached its full development. He held that the whole external Church and all its institutions were corrupted by Antichrist immediately after the time of the apostles. It is not God's will, he thought, that it should be reerected, the inner illumination by the spirit of God being sufficient. We must all unlearn what we have learned from the pope, Luther, and Zwingli.

p~ k e	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	see
In 1531 there appeared at Strasburg Franck'a first great work, Chronica, ZeiOuch and Ge8chwhobibel. The frank criticisms in the book caused a great sensation, there being no party which had not received its share. Princes became aware of the dangerous character of the book, and prominent men like Erasmus entered their complaints. In 1531 Franck was imprisoned and his chronicle confiscated, but he was soon released
3. His and expelled from Strasburg. He
Literary	went to Esslingen where he established
	Activity.	a soap factory for the support of his
		family. In 1533 he was permitted to
settle at Ulm. Here he established a printing‑press
and printed some of his works which again brought
him into conflict with the theologians and authori
ties. At the instigation of Martin Frecht, first
preacher at Ulm, Frunck was ordered in 1535 to
leave the city, but he protested against this decision
and was allowed to remain. He published several
other works which, however, he was not allowed
to print at Ulm. They appeared at Frankfort
and again offended the theologians. Frecht suc
ceeded in inducing the Town Council to expel
Franck from Ulm in 1539. In 1540 a resolution
written by Melanchthon was passed at the con
vention of theologians in Schmalkalden in which
Franck was accused of separation from the
Church, contempt for the Bible and the ministry,
and of heresy. These experiences naturally in
creased the bitterness of his criticisms, but did not
paralyze his energy. In 1539 he moved with his
family and printing‑press to Basel where he was
active in the production and printing of numerous
writings until his death.
Franck has left no adherents as he belonged to no party. The ecclesiastical leaders of the time did not understand his independence; they only recognized the incongruity of his ideas with their theology and the contradiction between his abstract idealism and their newly established Church. He was severely attacked by Luther, who criticized him for his pessimism and the lack of positive Christian thought in his works; the other Protestant theologians judged similarly. But in spite of all damnatory criticisms by theologians Franck's productions were circulated in numerous editions and remained popular for more than a century. Even more lasting and greater was their influence upon the development of free thought in the Netherlands. Franck was no original thinker in the higher sense. Most Of his thoughts on spiritualism were borrowed from the older philosophic mysticism, and he had too little of a religious nature to mark an epoch in the history of mysticism: While his works are superficial arid betray a lack of erudition, they are full of a glowing patriotism and pointed remarks and criticisms on the shortcomings of his people and his time. Franck's Chronica consists of three parts; the first comprises the time from Adam to Christ, the second treats of emperors
3. The and secular affairs, the third of popes
	Chroni‑	and spiritual affairs. The larger part
		Of the material has been taken from
other works, but the book is original in its ar
rangement, in its leading ideas, in its criticisms of
ecclesiastical phenomena of the past and present and of the political and social conditions of the people; it became very popular, and many later works of a similar kind were dependent upon it. Apart from the information on contemporaneous history and customs, the chief value of the book lies in the Ketzerchronik of the third part. Here Franck has compiled all the different beliefs which according to the judgment of Romanism would have to be considered heretical if it were consistent. Among the reformers appear the Anabaptists and enthusiasts; among the heretics rejected by thQ Church such as Mareion, Arius, Huss and Wyclif are found the great pillars of the Church‑Augustine, Ambrose, etc.‑in so far as they taught differently from the sixteenth‑century Roman Church; by the side of the prophets of the Old Testament appear the sibyls, philosophers, and poets of the pagans‑‑everything in alphabetical order with epitomes of their writings and pervaded by a delicate irony. Franck's purpose was to show the vain presumption of Rome and of all other sects in their claims to possess the only right faith. He criticises severely the violence of princes and the nobility, but not less the' stupidity of the mob in changing its faith like a garment, and the arrogance of the learned. He demands a decisive reform in State and society, being conscious of the misery and disorder of social and ecclesiastical conditions. The Weltbuch, Coamographie CTtibingen, 1534) appeared as the fourth part of the executive work.
Franck printed his Paradoxa, 880 Wunderreden at Ulm in 1534, and calls it the true and divine philosophy and theology for all Christians. Here he developed, on the basis of Dionysius the Areopagite, Eckhart, Tauler and the Deutsche Theologie, his mystical and speculative theories on the relation between God and the world, God and sin, liberty and necessity, spirit and flesh, Christ and Antichrist. Subsequently there appeared his Germanise
Chroniwn (Frankfort, 1538) and Die 5. Other guldene Arch (Augsburg, 1538). In
Works. the latter work he placed side by side
passages from Holy Scripture, from the Church Fathers, and from illuminated pagans. By the side of Augustine is placed Hermes Trismegistus; by the side of Thomas, Orpheus; by the side of Plato, Tauler. Franck also translated Erasmus's "Praise of Folly" (1534) to which he appended treatises, one concerning the vanity of all human arts and sciences; the second concerning the tree of knowledge of good and evil, and the third concerning the praise of the " foolish divine word " and the difference between the internal and external word. Das Kriegabfchleixi des Friedena (Basel, 1539) was directed against the court preachers who justified war like the princes. Das verbiit8chierte Buch (1539) is a sort of concordance which is arranged in such a way that the contradictions in the letter of Scripture become prominent, and was intended to lead away from the letter to the spirit. Franck also published two collections of proverbs (Frankfort, 1541) which became popular and were enjoyed by Lessing.
(A. HEGLERt.) K. HOLL.

367	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Franck
		Francke
BIBL10ORAPHY: The most important work is A. Hegler,
	Geist and Schrift bei Sebastian Franck, Freiburg, 1892.
	Consult also: C. T. Keim, Die Reformation der Reirhatadt
	Ulm, Stuttgart, 1851; C. A. Hase, Sebastian Franck, der
	Schwvrmgtigt, Leipsie, 1869; C. Sepp. Gewhiedkundige
	Nasporingen, i. 158 sqq., Leyden, 1872 (important); C.
	Gerbert, Gewhichte der Strasaburger Sektenbewepung, stras
	burg, 1889; E. Tausch, Sebastian Franck . . . and seine
	Lehrer, Halle, 1893; ADB, vii. 214 sqq.
		FRANCCKE, AUGUST HERMARN.
Early Life and Studies (§ 1). His Work in Leipsic, Erfurt, and Halle (§ 2). His Philanthropic Institutions (§ 3). His Service to Missions and Pedagogy (§ 4). His Writings (§ 5).
August Hermann Francke, founder of the charitable institutions at Halle bearing his name, was born at LGbeck Mar. 12, 1663; d. at Halle June 8, 1727. In his third year his father, a jurist, removed to Gotha, on the call of Duke Ernest I. the Pious (q.v.), and died there a few months later. The pious influences of his home determined the son to study theology. He was edu‑
	r. Early	cated by private tutors and at the
	Life and	gymnasium of Gotha, where he passed
	Studies.	his final examination in 1679. After
		half a year's stay at Erfurt he went to
Kiel, where he was influenced by Christian Kortholt
(q.v.), a theologian of Spener's tendency. His
memoirs illustrating this period show how strict he
was in his self‑discipline and how eagerly he longed
for a perfect Christianity. After three years he
went for two months to Hamburg where he per
fected his knowledge of Hebrew under Ezra Ed
zard. Then he returned to Gotha, always dis
satisfied with himself as being a mere " natural "
man. In 1684 he continued his studies at Leipsic
and in 1685 became master of arts, receiving at
the same time permission to lecture as privat
docent.
In Leipsic his future Pietistic tendency began to manifest itself by his absorption in Holy Scripture. fie helped to found the Collegium philobiblicum (see PmTIsM) for a closer study of Old and New Testament exegesis. These Bible studies became very popular, and Francke confessed that he grasped the deep truths of Scripture first in these gatherings; but he was still dissatisfied with himself. In 1687 he went to Liineburg to continue his Biblical studies under the guidance of the learned superintendent Sandhagen. The period at Lfineburg was destined to become the turning‑point of his inner life as he dated from this time his conversion. In 1688 he was again at Hamburg, where he continued his exegetical studies under the influence of the learned preacher Johann Winkler, a friend of Spener. Toward the end of the same year he returned to Leipsic, visiting Spener at Dresden for two months on the way. The intimate intercourse with this congenial man exerted a great influence upon Francke, and ever after they were united by a bond of cordial affection, assisting each other in their labors and keeping up their correspondence until 1702.
After Francke's return to Leipsic in Feb., 1689, and the resumption of his earlier academic activity, his influence began to make itself felt in larger
circles. By his lectures‑which were chiefly exegetical,and attended by so many that the largest auditorium could hardly hold all his hearersas well as by his sermons and his per z. His Work sonal intercourse with the students,
in Leipsic, he was the originator of a movement Erfurt, which struck deep roots in the minds
and Halls. of his hearers and was destined to effect a deepening of piety by a conscious devotion to Christ in a living, personal faith. It was inevitable that his success should arouse envy, and it must be confessed that not everything in the movement of Francke and his friends was commendable, as, for instance, the contempt of science and distrust of earnest philosophical study united with self‑complacency and conceit among those who were only superficially inspired by the Spirit. Francke's chief opponent was his colleague, J. B. Carpzov (q.v.), at whose instigation, the faculty prohibited the continuation of the Collegia biblica and instituted a formal investigation against Francke, the result of which was that he had to confine himself to lectures of a philosophical nature. In 1690 he gladly accepted a call to the Church of the Augustinians at Erfurt. Here he developed again in an extraordinary manner his successful activity in the spirit of Pietistic Christianity. Students from Leipsic and Jena followed him to Erfurt, and his influence made itself felt beyond the town. But the opponents of Francke rose again and instituted a commission, the result of which was his dismissal from office (1691). He went to Gotha and from there was invited to Berlin by Spener. Owing to the latter's influence, he received in 1692 a parish at Glaucha., now a suburb of Halle, and at the same time the chair of Greek and Oriental languages in the University of Halle. Here he found among his colleagues a circle of congenial men who followed the tendency of Spener. The opposition of the orthodox town clergy was soon overcome. Francke's parochial activity and pastoral care exercised the deepest and most far‑reaching influences. His sermons centered in the great theme of Pietistic theology, sin and grace. They were spontaneous utterances of his innermost being and testimonies from his own experience. His practical activity enlivened his lectures and made his study of the Bible more fruitful for the calling of his students, and his scientific work in its turn had a wholesome effect upon his sermons and religious instruction. He entered into intimate relations with his colleagues J. J. Breithaupt and Paul Anton (qq.v.), who held the same theological convictions, and the three men gave to tile newly founded faculty its characteristic stamp of Pietism. The chief factors were a profound study of the Bible, an unfolding of the thoughts of salvation contained in it without the mechanical dogmatics of the orthodox, practical guidance in the successful performance of the clerical office, and insistence upon pious conduct and a godly life. In accordance with Franeke's general views his lectures treated first of all Biblical exegesis, but hermeneutics, hoiniletics, and parenetics were not excluded.
But his chief activity belonged from the beginning to his congregation. His eminent gifts showed

Flaancke Frank
THE NEW
SCHAFF‑HERZOG
themselves not only in his pastoral care, but also in the field of pedagogy. In both spheres he developed the most strenuous activity, taxing his powers to the utmost. He preached twice on Sunday, conducted daily prayer‑meetings and daily catechizations of children, and paid regular visits to the members of his congregation. In 1695 he opened his pauper‑school in the parsonage with
the aid of a poor student, and this un3. His Phil‑ dertaking of Christian charity was the
anthropic seed from which all the other instiInstitutions. tutions of Francke developed. The
number of children grew rapidly, and soon larger accommodations had to be provided, and the number of teachers had to be increased. In 1696 there originated the P4dagogium which was intended chiefly for the education of boys whose parents lived out of town, and almost simultaneously the orphan asylum was established. The teaching staff of these institutions consisted for the most part of poor students who, in compensation for their services, received free board. In 1697 there was founded the so‑called Latin School to prepare boys for academic studies. There was something almost miraculous in the growth and rapid development of these various institutions, and Francke revealed an extraordinary talent of organization in their management. His trust in God awakened everywhere the same spirit, and voluntary contributions poured in from far and near so that he considered his success a direct answer to his fervent prayers. In the year of his death more than 2,200 children were being instructed in his institutions, among them 134 orphans; 175 teachers and eight inspectors were employed; and about 250 students received free board. There were also added a printing‑press and publishing establishment and a pharmacy which contributed a large profit to the institutions.
Not less important was Francke's interest in foreign missions. The orphanage with its numerous assistants and teachers became for a time an important center for the education of missionaries for India. Ziegenbalg, Phitschau, and C. F. Schwarz were trained in Francke's institutions and, together with the Moravians, deserve the
credit of having inaugurated the mis4. His Serv‑ sionary history of modern times for ice to IIIis‑ Germany. Another undertaking due
	sions and	to the influence of Francke is the
	Pedagogy.	Bible Institute founded in 1710 .by
		Baron von Canatein (q.v.), a faithful
admirer of Francke. F rancke also rendered great
services to the cause of pedagogy. As he was free
from the restrictions by the authorities, he was able
to realize some of his innermost ideals. The main
purpose of education was for him to lead children to
a saving knowledge of God and Christ and to true
Christianity. Without true love to God and man
all knowledge appeared to him worthless, and he
considered it the task of the higher as well as of the
lower schools to further not. only Christian instruc
tion, but Christian life. He hated all empty
formalism and tried in every way to introduce
object‑lessons, and to emphasize instruction for the
practical matters of life.
Francke's writings were numerous, but relatively unimportant. His Pddagogische Schriften have been edited by G. Kramer, with an account of his life and institutions, as vol. xi. of the Ribliothek pbdeagogisher Klasaaker (2d ed., Langensalza, 1885). His Fussstapfen des noch lebenden Gottes, an account of his institutions (Halls, 1701, and
many later editions), was translated
5. His into English (An Abstract of the Mar‑
Writings. vellous Footsteps of Divine Providence,
	London, 1706 and often). Other English
translations which were highly popular in their time
are Nicodemus or a treatise against the fear o f man
(London, 1706) A Letter to a Friend concerning the
Most Useful Way of Preaching (1754); Faith in
Christ inconsistent with a Solicitous Concern about
the Things of this World, a sermon (1759); A Guide to
the Reading and Sturdy o f the Holy Scripture (1813).
		(T. FSnsTERt. )
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. Kramer, Beitrege zur Geschichte A. H. Franeke'e, Brwe%wecheel Franeke's and Spener's, Halls,
1861; idem, Neue Beitrage cur Geschichte Francke's, ib.
1875; idem August Hermann Prancke. Ein Letrenabild,
2 vols., Halle, 1880‑82 (the best, some mistakes in which
are corrected in w. Schrader, Geschichte der Friedrichs‑
univereitat in Halle, 2 vols., Berlin, 1894); T. FSrster,
August Hermann Franeke. Bin Lebembild, Halls, 1898.
Consult also, A. Ritsehl, Geschichte des Pietismus, vol. ii.,
Bonn, 1884; J. Jiingst‑Btettin, Pietisten, pp. 24‑38, Tiij bingen.190B.

FRANK, FRANZ HERMANN REINHOLD VON:
German Lutheran; b. at Altenburg (26 m. s. of Leipsic) Mar. 25, 1827; d. at Erlangen Feb. 7, 1894. His early life was spent at Zschernitz, and in 1839 he entered the gymnasium of Altenburg, matriculating in 1845 at the University of Leipsic to study theology, philosophy and philology (Ph.D., 1850; licentiate of theology, 1851). There, under the influence of Harless, Frank underwent an entire change of views, and from a rationalist he became
an enthusiastic admirer of the Lu‑
Early	theran confession and of early Prot‑
Life.	estant theology. In 1851 he became
subrector of a school at Ratzeburg, and two years later teacher of religion in the gymnasium of Altenburg. In 1857 he was appointed extraordinary professor of church history and systematic theology in Erlangen, and in the following year became ordinary professor; while from 1875 until his death he occupied the chair of systematic theology.
Not only as a theological leader, but also as a moral character, Frank exercised a far‑reaching influence. He was thoroughly convinced of the truth of his conservative ideas; but deeply rooted as he was in Evangelical principles, he still maintained a deep interest in modern life with its aims and problems, while he was opposed to reactionary tendencies in ecclesiastical affairs, and to external authority in political relations. He may be styled the dogmatician of the " Erlangen theology." Twice his views were essentially changed‑in Leipsic he was won for the old truth, in Erlangen, under the influence of Hofmann, for the " new mode of teaching the old truth."
Frank's most characteristic work was his System der christlichen Gewissheit (2 vols., Erlangen,

869	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Ee
		~k
1870‑73; 2d ed., 1881‑83; Eng. trand. by M. J.
Evans, "System of Christian Certainty," Edin
burgh, 1886). The great question which Frank
attempted to answer in this work was the basis of
belief. The answer is offered by the positive as
surance of the Christian. The Christian is trans
posed into a new state of life, and into a state of
	regeneration and conversion of which he becomes
positively assured. This assurance, however, im
plies also the assurance of an objective cause.
Thus there result three groups of objects of Chris
			tian assurance; the immanent objects
	Theory of as the effects of the objective cause
	Christian inherent in the subject (knowledge
	Certitude. of sin; reality of the new life); the
			transcendent objects (God as the
supramundane factor, the Trinity; the atoning
God‑Man); and the transmittent objects (the
Word, the Sacraments, the Church), or the
historical and concrete media. by which faith
experiences the effect of the supramundane cause.
Each of these three groups is opposed by a develop
ment of modern intellectualism; so that rationalism
denies the reality of the peculiar religious experi
ence of the Christian; pantheism does away with
the causality of a personal God; and criticism (as
represented by Baur and Strauss) tries to prove the
Church and church life to be merely natural phe
nomena devoid of any specifically inherent trans
cendent causality. According to Frank, the objects
of faith are implied in the assertion of the Ego of the
new man, and he is assured of them according to
the degree of the certainty of that Ego concerning
itself.
	Having thus acquired the realities of Christian
faith, it is the task of dogmatics, as set forth by
Frank in his System der ehristlichen Wahrheit (2
vols., Erlangen, 1878‑80; 3d ed., 1893‑94), to
grasp and represent the objects of Christian
			faith in their inner connection. Here
	Dogmatic Frank no longer starts from sub
	System.	jective assurance, but from the first
			cause of Christian realities, from the
principium essendi, or God. His work accordingly
represents the evolution of the humanity of God.
The first part treats of the " principle of evolution "
and establishes the doctrine of God. The second
part is devoted to the " realization of evolution "
in three divisions: generation (creation, world,
man), degeneration (sin, devil), and regeneration,
the latter comprising the humanity of God as being
realized for the God‑Man; the humanity of God
as posited in the God‑Man; ‑arad the humanity
of God as evolving from the God‑Man, that is (a)
the humanity of God as the object of becoming
(the means of grace); (b) the humanity of God as
the subject of becoming (the order of salvation);
and (c) the humanity of God as the object‑subject
of becoming (the Church). The third part describes
the " aim of becoming," or eschatology.
The life‑work of Frank as a systematic theologian
found its completion in his System der christlichen
Sittlichksit (2 vole., Erlangen, 1884‑87; Eng. transl.,
System of the Christian Certainty, Edinburgh, 1886.)
The leading point of view in this work is the "evolu
tion ofthe God‑Man." Frank attacked the theology
		IV. 24
of Riteehl in his Ueber die kirchliehe Bedeutung
der Theologie A. Ritschls (Leipsie, 1888), arid Zur
Theologie A. Ritachls (3d. ed., 1891); and he also
wrote Evangelische Schulreden (Altenburg, 1856);
Die Theologie der Concordienformel (4 vols., Erlangen,
1858‑65); Aus dem Leben christlieher Frouen (Gii
tersloh, 1873); Dogmatische Studien (Leipsic, 1892);
Vademeeum fur angehende Theologen (1892); and
Geschichte and Kritik der neueren Theologie (1894;
3d ed., 1898). 	(R. SEEBERG.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: B.. Seeberg, F. H. R. von Frank; sin Godenkblatl, Leipsie, 1894; J. Gottechiek, Die Kirchlicdkeit der eogenannten kircklirhen Theolopie, pp. 110 aqq., Freiburg, 1890; F. Nippold, Handbuch der neueeten Kirdeengeechichte, iii., part 1, pp. 495 eqq., Berlin, 1890; O. PHeidrrer, Die Entuicklung der protestantisdaen Theologfe aeit Rant, pp. 183 sqq., Freiburg, 1891; G. Daxer, Der $ubjektivismus in Franks '‑System der chrisaichen Getoieeheit" Giltersloh, 1900; F. K. E. Weber, F. H. R. non Franks GoUeelehre, Leipsic, 1001.
FRANK, GUSTAV WILHELM: German Protestant; b. at Schleiz (24 m. s.w. of Gam) Sept. 25, 1832; d. at Vienna Sept. 24, 1904. He studied at Jena, where he became privat‑docent in 1859 and was appointed associate professor of theology in 1864. In 1867 he was called to Vienna as full professor of dogmatic and symbolic theology, and the same year became a member of the Evangelical ecclesiastical council in Vienna. He edited E. F. Apelt's Religionsphilosophie (Leipsic, 1860), and wrote Memorabilia qucedam Flocciana (Schleiz, 1856); De Luthero rationaZismi prcecursore (Leip‑. sic, 1857); De Academia Jenensi evangelicce veritatis altrice (Sehleiz, 1858); Die jenaisehe Thealogie in ihrer geschichtllichen Entwickelung (Leipsic, 1858); De Matthim Flacii Myrici in ltxbros aacros meritis (1859); Geschichte der protestantischen Theol" (vols. i. iii., 1862‑75, vol. iv., with Lebensabriss by G. L6sche, 1905); Johann Major, der Wittenberger Poet (Halls, 1863); Das Toleranzpatent Kaiser Joseph 11 (Vienna, 1882); and Symbolce ad recentiorem C. R. ordinia Theologorum evangelicorum Vindobonensia historaam congest&, (1896).
FRANK, JACOB (Jankiev Lebowicz): Jewish adventurer, founder of the sect of Frankiate; b. in Podolia c.1720; d. at Offenbach (4 m. e. of Frankfort) Dec. 10, 1791. He was the son of a rabbi and originally a distiller, but afterward traveled as a merchant in Turkey, where he received the surname of Frank, the usual designation for Occidentals among the Turks. In Turkey he lived chiefly in Salonica and Smyrna, the centers of Shabbe: thaianism, and himself became a prominent member of the sect of Shabbethak Zebi. On his return to. Poland he became famous as a cabalist. In 1755 he settled in Podolia, gathered about him a group of local sectaries and began to preach to them a new gospel. The essence of his teaching semis to have been a negation of moral 'and religious laws, his mission, in his own words; being " to free the world from the laws and regulations which have hitherto existed." When it leaked out that at his meetings orgies were celebrated similar to those of the Adamites (q.v.), the Roman Catholics joined the orthodox Jews in the suppression of the Frankist sect. At the rabbinical court held at Sovanta

Frank
Frankfort $ecess
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
many of the sectaries told of immorality practised under the guise of religious symbolism. As Frank was a Turkish subject he was allowed to leave the country, but many of his followers were imprisoned, and a congress of rabbis at Brody proclaimed excommunication against all the impenitent heretics. Acting on the advice of Frank, his followers, as being anti‑Tahnudista, now enlisted the sympathies of the Roman Catholics. They claimed to find in the Zohar (see CABALA), which they substituted for the Talmud, the doctrine of the Trinity, and expressed their belief in the Messiah, but without saying that they meant Shabbethai Zebi. The bishop of Kamenetz took up their cause, freed those who were in prison, and compelled the Talmudists to pay a fine to their opponents and deliver up all copies of the Talmud, which were then publicly burned at Kamenetz.
To escape the persecution to which they were again subjected after the death of their patron, the bishop, the Frankiats joined the Roman Catholic Church in 1759, Augustus IIl. of Poland acting as godfather to Frank. The insincerity of the Frankista, however, soon became apparent, and early in the following year Frank was arrested, convicted as a teacher of heresy, and imprisoned in the fortress at Czenstochova. He was liberated by the Russians in 1773 and then became a secret agent of the Russian government. Frank's imprisonment only increased his influence, and the contributions of his numerous followers, together with the large sums received from the Russian court, now enabled him to live in princely splendor. He resided successively at Briinn, Vienna, and Offenbach, whither he repaired in 1788, when his hypocrisy had brought him into disfavor at the Austrian court. To his followers he pretended to be the Messiah, and they thought their " holy master " immortal. On his death his daughter Eve succeeded him as the " holy mistress." The contributions now fell off, and Eve died in obscurity in 1816. The Frankists still survive in Poland, Moldavia, and Turkey. They are nominally Roman Catholics, but maintain their Jewish nationality by marrying only among themselves.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Gratz, Prank and die Prankiaten, Bres
	lau. 1866;. A. Theimer, Vetera monuments Polonix . . .
	ex fobulariia vatiranie collectia, iv., Rome, 1860; JE, v.
	475‑478 (where the titles of the literature in Polish are
given).

FRANKENBERG, JOHANN HEINRICH, COUNT OF: German cardinal; b. at Gross Glogau (35 m. n.n.w. of Liegnitz), Silesia, Sept. 18, 1726; d. at Breda (24 m. w.s.w. of Bois‑le‑Duc), Holland, June 11, 1804. He was educated at the Jesuit college of his native town, at the University of Breslau, and at the German‑Hungarian college in Rome and upon his return to Germany, became coadjutor to the apostolic vicar and archbishop of Gorz. On Jan. 27, 1769 Maria Theresa appointed him archbishop of Mechlin and member of the Belgian council of state, and in 1778 Pius VI. invested him with the dignity of a cardinal. When Joseph II. abolished the episcopal seminaries in 1786 and founded state seminaries at Louvain and Luxemburg in their stead Frankenberg was the first to voice the
870
dissatisfaction of the clergy. The emperor, however, further enacted that only those who had completed a five years' course at one of these institutions were eligible for major orders, whereupon the cardinal vainly renewed his objections, maintaining that the new seminary was instituted solely for the propagation of Jansenism. The dissatisfaction of the pupils, however, resulted in open antagonism to the seminary, and the institution. was practically disorganized. Frankenberg, who was suspected of being the instigator of their unrest, was summoned to Vienna to give an account of his actions. and was kept in confinement for a time; but the turbulence in Belgium increased, and he was finally set free, being hailed as a martyr upon his return. He continued his protests against the general seminary, and restored his archiepiscopal institution of learning; but an order was issued forbidding him to teach theology under penalty of a fine of 1,000 thalers. He declared this order invalid, and was thereupon directed to go to Louvain, inspect the general seminary and give an account of his objections against it. He obeyed the order, and on June 26, 1789, framed an opinion in which he declared the professors, the text‑books, and the method of instruction unorthodox and Jansenistic. This decision was published and used as a means of agitation. Frankenberg was then accused by the imperial minister Count Trautmannsdorf of having incited the people, but he responded that he had acted only as a true shepherd of the faith, and petitioned the emperor to restore to the Church its privilege of educating the clergy as well as the youth of the land. The disturbances in Belgium at length assumed the character of an uprising, and Frankenberg was accused of being its leading spirit. The minister charged him with conspiracy and ordered him to return his various insignia of honor, whereupon the cardinal appealed to the emperor, but Joseph died before the letter reached him. When the French Revolutionists invaded Belgium, Frankenberg bravely resisted them, and was accordingly sentenced by the Convention to deportation, dying a fugitive. (K. KLtJP1n,Lt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Theiner, Der Cardinal J. H. Ors/ von
Prankenberg, Freiburg, 1850; KL, iv. 1609‑1702.
FRAIYKENTHAL COLLOQUY: A conference between representatives of the Reformed Church of the Palatinate and Anabaptists, held at Frankenthal (20 m. n. by w. of Speyer) May 28‑June 19, 1571. There were Anabaptists in the Palatinate from 1525, both native and immigrants. They had settled in great numbers along the Hardt River after they had been cured of the wild fanaticism of the earlier time. As they were industrious cultivators of the soil, Elector Ottheinrich did not dislike them. Hoping to win them over to the Church of the Palatinate, he ordered a colloquy to be held at Pfeddersheim in 1557. No agreement was reached, but the Anabaptists were still tolerated under the condition that they should keep aloof from disturbances and innovations. As some of their teachers from Moravia tried to incite them against the Reformed, Elector Frederic III. the Pious called the colloquy at Frankenthal. It was opened in the presence of the Elector by Chancellor

371	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Frank
		Frankfort Recess
Chitistoph Ehem, who had been joined by the
Electoral delegates, Wenzelaus Zuleger, Hans
Rechklau, and Otto von HSvel. On the side of the
Reformed seven prominent preachers were called
to the conference, most of them Netherlanders who
had entered the service of the Palatine Church or
who were preachers of foreign congregations
court preacher Petrus Dathenus, Gerhard Verstegus,
Petrus Colonius, Franz Mosellanus, Engelhert
Faber, Konrad Eubulaeus and Georg Gebinger.
Prominent Anabaptists were Diebald Winter,
Rauff Bisch, Hans Rannich, and Hans Bfchel.
Thirteen important points of doctrine in which the
Anabaptists deviated from the Reformed were dis
cussed‑the authority of the Old Testament, the
Trinity, the substance of the body of Christ, original
sin, good works, the resurrection of the body, the
relation of the Christian to the secular authority,
to the sword, and to the oath, and others; finally
the baptism of children. The chief speaker of the
Reformed was Dathenus, while Rauff Bisch was the
most efficient defender of the Anabaptist cause.
The Anabaptists showed great haughtiness and
stubbornness, refusing to acknowledge in some
points the authority of even such Anabaptists as
Menno Simons, Jakob Hutter, and Matthmus
Cervas. They rejected a thorough theological in
vestigation as a quibble of words. Thus an agree
ment was impossible, but the two bodies departed
without hostility, after a comprehensive protocol
had been examined and signed on both sides. The
Elector was not satisfied with the result, but decided
not to expel the Anabaptists; their leaders, how
ever, were strictly forbidden to teach or baptize in
his country.	(F. W. CuNot.)
BIHLIOQRAPHy: The proceedings (Protokoll) were printed,
	Heidelberg, 1571, by Johann .Mayer. Consult: B. G.
	Struve, Beriqht von der pftiWschen Kirchen‑Hiatarie, pp.
	238 sqq., Frankfort, 1721; H. Alting, Historia eccleaix
	Palatine, Groningen, 1728; F. W. Cuno, Bl&tter der Erin
	nerung an Dr. K. Olevianue, pp. 37‑38, Barmen, 1887.
	FRANKFORT RECESS (or AGREEMENT; called
also Frankfort Book, Formula pacis Francofor
diance): A document signed Mar. 18, 1558, aim
ing to compose the disputes between the strictly
orthodox Lutherans with Matthias Flacius (q.v.) as
their leader and the Philippists (q. v.) who adhered
to Melanchthon. The gulf between the two parties
had been widened by personal quarrels between the
two Saxon lines, the Ernestine line as protector of
Flacius and the Albertine line as protector of
Melanchthon, also by the rivalry of the University
of Wittenberg and the newly founded University
of Jena, which took side with Flacius. The Evan
gelical estates tried to settle the conflict by appoint
ingaconvention at Frankfort in June 1557, but it did
notcomeabout. The Consultationof Worms (Aug.
Dec.1557; see Woftma) proved ineffectual since the
princes did not appear. When Ferdinand I. was
proclaimed emperor in Frankfort in Mar., 1558,
the Electors Ottheinrich of the Palatinate, August
of Saxony and Joachim II. of Brandenburg in
duced Count Palatine Wolfgang of Zweibriicken,
Duke Christopher of W frttemberg, and Land
grave Philip of Hesse, to take a personal part in
consultations over the settlement of the disputes.
The negotiations took place on the basis of a recommendation of Melanchthon, which was approved and made the basis of an agreement signed by the abovementioned estates. The introduction of the recess attempts to refute the reproaches of the Roman Catholics that the Evangelicals disagreed among themselves. It was stated that they did not intend to set up a new confession, but rather'to adhere to the pure doctrine as laid down in the Bible, the three principal creeds, and the Augsburg Confession with the Apology. They thought it advisable, however, to discuss some points of controversy on the. basis of the Augsburg Confession: (1) justification; man is justified by faith alone. (2) Good works; new obedience is necessary in the justified. (3) The sacrament of the body and blood of Christ; Christ is really present in the Lord's Supper. (4) Adiaphora; minor ceremonies may be used or omitted without sin and detriment. Then follows a number of resolutions upon which the princes had agreed; new controversies should not be divulged, but examined by the consiatories and superintendents; no theological treatises should be printed without having gone through the hands of the censor; the publication of libelous treatises should be strictly prohibited; consiatoriea and superintendents should be instructed to depose from his office any one who taught or acted in disagreement with the confession; the old differences should be forgiven and forgotten to make possible an agreement of all Evangelical estates on the basis of this recess; the other estates fahould be invited to join the recess.
The recess was received differently in various places. For some the real presence of Christ ,was not taught with sufficient emphasis. Others censured the recess because heresies were not specially noted and condemned. Others again complained because secular princes had assumed the right to decide on ecclesiastical doctrines without the consultation of theologians. But the strongest opposition came from Jena and Weimar. In Weimar Amsdorf at the order of John Frederick of Saxony attacked the recess, and in Jena Flacius wrote two replies, which seem to have been circulated in manuscript only‑Refzctcttio Sdmctritani interim, in quo uses religio cum sectis et corrupts lis scelerate et Perrticiose confunditur, and Grund and Ursach, warum das Frankfurter Interim in keinem Weg snzunehmen. The same arguments' were used by the theologians whom John Frederick of Saxony asked in 1558 to reply to the invitation of the six princes to join the recess. They were answered by Melanchthon at the order of the electoral court, in a treatise entitled Resporesum Melsnchthonis de cerasura formuke pads Frsncofordiance, scripts a Theologis Wimariensibus (Sept. 24, 1558, in CR, ix. 617 sqq.). John Frederick did not succeed in gathering the opponents of the recess in Magdeburg; but on the other hand, the purpose of the recess to settle the controversies was not attained.
(C. ENDERa.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The document is best preserved in CR, ix.
499 eqq. A monograph is J. F. Lebret, De recesau Franeo‑
lurti, 1668, Tiibingen, 1796. C. A. Fslig, Haatorie der
augaburpeachen Confession, iii. 363 sqq., Hulls, 1745; G. J. Planck, Geachichte . . . unsers protestantxachen Lehr‑

Frankfort Respite
Fraticelli	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	372
begriffs, vi. 174 sqq.i Leipsie, 1800; W. Preger, Matthias Fladus Illyricua and seine Zeit, ii. 70, Erlangen, 1861; J. C. L. Gieseler, Church History, ed. H. B. Smith, iv. 444 sqq., New York, 1868 (valuable as' a summary).

FRANKFORT RESPITE: A temporary agreement between German Roman Catholics and Protestants, signed at Frankfort Apr. 19, 1539. After the diet at Schmalkalden (Feb., 1537), where the Protestant estates refused to attend a council summoned at Mantua, the Catholics and Protestants were more vehemently opposed to each other than ever. The Protestants were strong, and they threatened to become dangerous to the emperor if they formed an alliance with Francis I. of France. The outbreak of war seemed imminent. Under these circumstances Dr. Held, the imperial commissioner, found it necessary to unite the Catholic estates, and agreed with King Ferdinand to form a Catholic league of defense, after the model of the Schmalkald League. After difficult negotiations the so‑called Nuremberg League was formed on June 10, 1538. The membership, however, was small, the ecclesiastical estates almost all keeping aloof, and the league did not attain any importance. The political situation compelled the emperor to seek the aid of the Protestants against the Turks, and against Duke William of Julich‑Cleve‑Berg, who had made himself duke of Geldern and, since the death of his father, united four duchies under his power and tried to come in touch with the Schmalkald League. Moreover, the emperor was in financial straits. ‑ Therefore the archbishop of Lund was commissioned to negotiate with the Protestants, who since Feb. 14, 1539, had been assembled at Frankfort. They required nothing leas than an unconditional peace for all time, including those who might still join the Augsburg Confession. The Catholics were not willing to concede so much; but finally the following agreement was arrived at. All adherents of the Augsburg Confession, not merely those included in the Peace of Nuremberg (see NUREMBERG, RELIGIOUS PEACE OF), should be granted a respite of six months. During that time no actions should be taken against them; and the ban which had been imposed upon Minden on Oct. 9, 1538, should be suspended. The Evangelicals bound themselves not to refuse aid against the Turks and not to deprive clerics of their revenues with the exception of what they needed for the support of their own parishes, schools, and hospitals. The respite should last eighteen months or till Aug. 1, 1540. Its importance is not great, but peace was at least secured for a short time for those who had been won over to the Evangelical cause since the Peace of Nuremberg; and still more important was the fact that there was no talk of a council; the agreement promised that a Christian union should be discussed at a diet to be held in Nuremberg, without the presence of papal legates. Thus the period of religious colloquies was inaugurated.
(T. KOLDE.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: 0. Meinardus, in Forechungen zur deutsohen Geschichte, xxii. 605‑654, GSttingen, 1882; M. Lenz, Brie/wechwl Bucers mit Landgra/ Philipp, pp. 70‑75, Leipsic, 1880; 0. Winckelmann, Strassburge politische Correspondenz, ii. 549 sqq., 560 sqq., Strasburg, 1887; F. von Bezold, Refornatibnegeschiehte, pp. 685 sqq., Ber‑
lin, 1891; W. Friedensburg, Nuntiaturberichte, ii. 294 sqq., Goths, 1892; Moeller, Christian Church, iii. 283‑287. FRANKFORT, SYNOD OF, 794: A gathering convened by Charlemagne at Frankfort, attended, according to later writers, by 300 bishops from Germany, Gaul, England, Spain, and Italy, and two delegates of the pope. Fifty‑six canons are ascribed to it, the most important being the first, condemning Felix and Elipandus, the leaders of the Adoptionists; and the second, condemning the decisions of the Second Council of Nicaea (787) concerning image‑worship, which had.been accepted by Pope Adrian I. See ADoPTIomsM; CAROLINE BOOKS; IMAGES AND IMAGE‑WORSHIP, II.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hefele, Conoiliengeschichte, iii. 678‑693; Mansx, Concilia, vol. xiii.
FRANKINCENSE: An aromatic substance made of the resin secured from the bark of different trees, particularly Boswedlia serrata. The Hebrew term is lebhonah, and the Arabic cognate is luban; the term frankincense means " free (‑burning) incense." The gum is a product of South Arabia and was known to commerce as early at least as the seventeenth century B.C.; it was never cultivated in Palestine, and the word. for the so‑called dark frankincense from Lebanon is usually translated by the word " myrrh." The trade in frankincense was important; there was a deity whose significance was due to his function as a protector of the industry and the growth of the material; it is believed that the name Ethiopia comes from the word meaning "collector of frankincense." The gathering of the raw material was associated with peculiar customs, the product being regarded as the blood of a tree the soul of which was a divinity. The beat kind was that known as masculine frankincense (Pliny, Hist. mat., xii. 32). The substance became an article of luxury; wine was spiced with it, it figured in the presents to kings (cf. Matt. ii. 11), and it was burned at their burial (II Chron. xvi. 14, xxi. 19; Jer. xxxiv. 5). It was indispensable at heathen worship (II Kings xxiii. 5; Isa. lxv. 3; Jer. xliv. 17 sqq.). For its employment among the Hebrews see INCENSE.
(R. ZEHNPFUND.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. E. Post, Flora of Syria, Palestine and Sinai, Beirut, 1896; atade, in ZATW, iii (1883), 143 sqq., 168 sqq.; F. Hommel, Altisraelitische Ueberlieferungen, pp. 279 sqq., Munich, 1897; idem, Aufsatze and Abhandlungen, vol. ii. passim, ib. 1900; idem, Die Insel der Seligen, pp. 12, 18, ib. 1901; DB, 1 65, 469; EB, 1 1563‑64; JE, v. 494‑495.
FRANKS: A name applied after, the middle of the third century to the Germanic tribes of Chattic descent dwelling on the middle and lower Rhine, who during the decline of the Roman power became the most formidable enemies of the empire. In spite of repeated defeats they succeeded in making themselves masters of the Roman possessions on the lower Rhine, establishing themselves in Batavia, Toxandria or Holland, Zealand, and Brabant. A distinction in names now appears between the inhabitants of the coastlands or Safic Franks and the dwellers. on the banks of the Rhine or Ripuarians. In the course of time the left bank of the Rhine, the basins of the Scheldt and the Somme, and the valley of the Moselle came into their power; their victory over Syagrius at Soissons in 486

373	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Frankfort Respite
		Fratieelli
shattered the Roman power in Gaul and extended
their authority to the Loire; their victory over the
Visigoths in 507 carried it to the Garonne, while on
the east the overthrow of the Alemanni (496) and of
the Thuringians (531) made the Neckar and the
Rednitz the boundary of their kingdom. On the
east bank of the Rhine the inhabitants remained
purely Germanic, but in Gaul the Frankish element
was speedily absorbed by the Roman and the
Romanized Celtic.
	The great episode in the advance of the Franks
was the conversion of their king Clovis in the year
496. That he was from the beginning no enemy to
Christianity is shown by the fact that his wife was
of that faith and that his sons were baptized with
his permission. His own conversion was primarily
actuated by the belief that the step was necessary
for the preservation of his kingdom. The common
legend that Clovis while hard pressed in battle by
the Alemanni made a vow of baptism if the god of
the Christians would grant him victory finds no
historical substantiation. On the contrary, his con
version seems to have been the result of delibera
tion and to have been hastened by the exhortations
of his Christian wife. The baptism of Clovis is of
primary importance in the history of the Church
in that it rallied to its support the most powerful
of the barbarian kingdoms and thus insured
the triumph of Christianity among the Germanic
tribes. Moreover, it marked the beginning of the
end of Arianism and guaranteed the unity of the
Church in the West. The conversion of the Frank
ish king was followed by that of his people, but the
new faith made unequal progress in the different
parts of his dominions, most in Gaul, least in the
Germanic territories to the east of the Rhine, where,
as late as the beginning of the eighth century, the
greater part of Hesse was still pagan. The organi
zation of the Church under Clovis remained un
changed. The Gallic and Rhenish bishoprics
extended their influence across the Rhine where
no new sees were created. The Church remained
in possession of the rights which it had enjoyed
under the Romans, but in the course of time the
king succeeded in gaining the right of confirming
the nomination of bishops and summoning the
church assemblies, powers which, together with
the restriction of the papal jurisdiction, made the
Frankish Church a truly national one, a charac
ter which it retained throughout the Merovingian
period.	(A. I3AUCg. )
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are, Gregory of Tours, Opera, in
	MGH, Script. rer. Merov., vol. i,. 1885; Fredegar, Chroni
	carurn libri, ib. vole. ti.‑iii., 1888, 1896; MGH, Legum
	Sect. IL, Capitularia rag. Franc., vole. i.‑ii., 1883, 1890;
	Diplomata rag. Franc., in MGH, Dipl., vol. i., 1872;
	MGH, Coneilia eevi Merov., vol. i., 1892; Epiatola Merov.;
	et Karoli avi, in MGH, Epist., iii., vol. i., 1892; Rerum
	Gallicarum et Prancicarum acriptores, ed. M. Bouquet, 23
	vols., Paris, 1738‑1876; E. Le Blant, Inscriptions chrE
	tienne8 de la Gauls, 2 vola., Paris, 1856‑85.
		Excellent modern reconstructions of history are found
	in Rettberg, KD, vol. i.; Friedrich, KD; Hauck, KD, i.
	99 sqq. Consult further: Fustel de Coulanges, Hist. des
	institutions politiques de l'ancienne France, Paris, 1875;
	H. Chevalier, His& de la France, 396‑1270, ib. 1882; V.
	Gantite, RErwvation de Mist. des Franks, Brussels, 1883,
	H. von Schubert, Die Unterwerfung der Alamannen unter
	die Franken, Strasburg, 1884; J. Havet, Questions Mero
	vingiennea, Paris, 1885; E. A. Freeman, Teutonic Con‑
quest in Gaul, London, 1888; J. B. Lueotte, BktaWseernent du Christianisme dana lea Gaules, Dijon, 1888; A. Thierry, R9cits des temps Merovingiannes, London, 1888; 1. Fav6, L'Empare des Francs, Paris, 1889; Melin, Hist. de la France, 396‑1,970 Moulins 1890; W. E. Collins, Early Hiat. of Frisia, London, 1891; H. Froidevaux, Ptude sur la "Lax dicta Prancorum Chamavorum," Paris, 1891; B. L. H. Martin, Lse Originea de to France, ib.1891; M. Lipp, Die Marken des Prankenreiches unter Karl dam Grossen, KSnigaberg, 1892; A. Sehiber, Die frdnkischen und alemannisehen Siedlungen in Gallien, Strasburg, 1894; F. Dahn, Die Pranken unter den Merovingen and den Karolingen, Leipsic, 1895‑99; 0. Havard, Clovis. France au Ye. si~cle, Paris, 1896; G. Kurth, Clovis, Tours, 1896; M. Prou, La Gauls mkrovingienne, Paris, 1897; L. Sergeant, The Franks, London, 1898; P. Imbart de Is Tour, Les Oriyines religieuses de la France, Paris, 1900.
FRATERNITIES. See CONFRATERNITIES, RELIGIOUS.

FRATICELLI: An antiecclesiastical sect which developed in the latter part of the thirteenth century from the Observantine Franciscans. The name of " little brothers " was originally applied to the strict Franciscan Observantines whom Celestine V. had united with his own order in 1292 and who, after the suppression of the Celestines (q.v.) by Boniface VIII. ten years later, had continued their opposition to the Conventual Minor ites. Later becoming a general designation of all separatistic Observantine ‑Franciscans, the term Fraticelli gradually acquired a sinister connotation, being applied to heretics of the most dangerous type and equivalent to Beghards, Bizochi (" wallet‑carrying vagabonds," from Fr. besaee, "wallet "), Lollards, and similar epithets. The Fraticelli quickly spread throughout Italy, southern France, Flanders, and portions of Germany, despite the Inquisition. Their principal Italian leaders were the Observantine Angelus de Clareno in the eastcentral part, Enrico de Ceca in Tuscany, the Celestine hermits of Mount Majella in Abruzzi, and Duke Lodovico de Durazzo in southern Italy, while in Ach2ea and the Peloponnesus they were harbored by the Latin princes, forming both here and in the south of Italy an organized hierarchy under their own bishops in opposition to the Church.
In life and practise the Fraticelli differed from the Observantines chiefly in that they desired to be entirely independent both of the Minorites and of the Church and its hierarchy. Their garb was uncouth and they wore short cowls and dirty wallets to distinguish themselves from the Franciscans. They also rejected the Roman Catholic Church as fallen from Christian purity, and considered the popes since Celestine V. or at least since John XXII. as usurpers, while the sacraments administered by priests were held to be inefficacious and papal indulgences worthless. The Fraticelli were subjected to severe persecution as a result of the bull of condemnation issued by John XXII. on Jan. 23, 1318, especially in Toulouse and its vicinity, in Italy after 1321 and again after 1350, repeatedly in Flanders after 1322, and in Florence even in the fourteenth century, while a number were put to death in Rome as late as 1466. (0. Z6csLERt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Ehrle, in Archiv fair Litteratur and Kirchengeschiehte,'i (1886), 509‑570; d (1886). 106‑164;.Iii (1887), 553‑623; A. Limborch, Hiat. of the Inquuition,1816; H. C. Lea, Hiet. of as Inquintion, vole. u‑iii., New York.

Fra~vssfnons	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	g7¢
Fr Brick III
	1906; J. J. 1. D6llinger BeitrdgezurSektehpeschichte, ii 417
	aqq., 606 sqq., Munich, 1890; F. Toeco, in Bolletino delta
	aocieth storica Abruzwae, 1895, pp. 117‑159; A. Hausrath,
	Die Arnoldisten, pp. 262 eqq., Leipsic, 1895; KL, iv.
	1926‑36.
	FRAYSSINOUS, DENIS, COUNT OF: French
Roman Catholic; b. at Curi6res (200 m. s.w. of
Lyons), Department of Aveyron, May 9, 1765; d. at
St. Geniez, also in Aveyron, Dec. 12, 1841. He
was originally intended for the law, but his own
inclinations led him into theology. After the sign
ing of the concordat of 1801 (see CONCORDATS
AND DELIMITING BULLS, VI. 1, § 1) he became the
leader of a great agitation against the materialism
and atheism of current philosophy. Although he
was a zealous royalist, the government offered no
opposition to him, even making him au inspector in
the Paris Academy and giving him a canonry in
Notre Dame. Finally in 1809 his discourses at
the Church of St. Sulpice were prohibited; but
they were resumed on the restoration of the Bour
bons. On the return of Napoleon from Elba,
Frayssinous fled to the mountains of Aveyron,
where he lived till he was recalled by Louis XVIII.
In quick succession he now became grand almoner,
court preacher, titular bishop of Hermopolis, grand
officer of the Legion of Honor, a count and a peer
of France. As minister of public instruction and
ecclesiastical affairs he supported Charles X. in
his plan to make Jesuitism dominant in legislation.
Deprived of his offices by the July Revolution, he
went into exile with Charles X. (1830), but re
turned to France in 1838, living thenceforth in
retirement. His principal works are, Les' Vrais
Prineipes de l1glise gallicane (Paris, 1818); and
Defense de Christianisme (3 vols., 1825, new ed.,
2 vols.,1889; Eng. transl., A Defence of Christianity,
2 vols., London, 1836).	(C. PFENDER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Guizot, M6ditations sur d'Etat actuel de la
	religion chretienne, pp. 66‑70, Paris, 1866; Lichtenberger,
	ESR, vol, v.
	FRECHT, freest, MARTIN: German Reformer;
b. at Uhn 1494; d. at Tiibingen Sept. 14, 1556.
He was the son of a councilor and master of the
shoemakers' gild. He matriculated at Heidel
berg in 1513 for theology and philosophy, and was
dean of the faculty of arts from 1523 to 1526, pro
fessor of theology after 1529, and rector of the
university and provisor domus Dionysianee in
1530‑31. He ranked as one of the leading humanists
and discovered in the monastery of Eberbach the
Saxon chronicle of Widukind, which he published
at Basel in 1532. He listened with enthusiasm
to Luther's disputation at Heidelberg (April 26,
1518), and was a friend of Brenz, Isenmann, Loner,
Butzer, Schnepf, Blaurer, Capito, and fEcolampa
dius, while in 1524 he became acquainted with
Melanchthon. In 1531 he was recalled to Ulm to
teach the Bible to the clergy, monks and students, and
became pastor of the church at Ulm in 1533. His
sensitive nature and his lack of practical experience
in church work hindered him greatly, but he labored
faithfully to promote the interests of his struggling
church by synods and visitations. The conflicts with
the enthusiasts, Anabaptists, Sebastian Frank, and
Caspar Schwenckfeld (qq.v.) who lived in Ulm, and
together with the evident need of an understanding
between the Protestants of northern and southern Germany, impelled Frecht to join Butzer in approaching Luther. He was a colleague of Butzer in the conference with the South Germans at Constance (Dec. 15, 1534), and of Butzer and Blaurer in the disputation with Schwenckfeld at Tiibingen (May 28, 1535), while he also attended the Wittenberg Concordia in 1536, the deliberations at Frankfort in 1539, the convention at Schmalkald in 1540 (where he secured the condemnation of Frank and Schwenckfeld), and the conferences at Worms in 1540, and Regensburg in 1541 and 1546. In 1543 he made peace between the ministers at Biberaeh, and three years later he was sent to Dillingen by the Schmalkald League to begin a reformistic propaganda in the diocese of Augsburg. The disastrous termination of the Schmalkald war, however, obliged him to return to Ulm, but the rejection of the Interim exasperated the emperor, and on Aug. 16, 1548, Frecht and other ministers of Ulm were imprisoned in the fortress of Kirchheim. He was released, though on hard terms, Mar. 3, 1549, and then went to Nuremberg, which he left for Blaubeuren, where he lived under the protection of Duke Ulrich of Wurttemberg. In 1551 Duke Christopher appointed him inspector of the theological seminary at Tiibingen, where he lectured on Matthew and Genesis. In the following year he became professor of theology, and rector in 1555. G. BOSSERT. BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. Berplllus, Epitaphia, pp. 67 sqq., Regensburg, 1707‑10; L. M. Mechlin, Memoria theologorum Wirtembergeneium, i. 42, supplement, pp. 36 sqq., Ulm, 1709‑10; A. Weyermann, Nachrichten von Gelehrten . . aus Ulm, Ulm, 1798; T. Keim, Reformation der Reiehatadt Ulm, Stuttgart, 1851; Keidel, in Wurttembergische Viertel¢ahrshefte, 1866, pp. 204‑223; the letters of Freeht in Wgrttembergische Vierteliahrshefte, 1881, pp. 252‑255, 1882, pp. 251‑265; G. Bossert, Dae Interim in W6rttemberg, Halle, 1895; S. Fischer, Chronik von Ulm, ed. K. G. Vesenmeyer, Ulm, 1896; ADB, vii. 325‑327.
FREDERIC OF HEILO: Dutch ecclesiastic; b. at Heilo (17 m. n.w. of Amsterdam), Holland, in the early part of the fifteenth century; d. near Haarlem (14 m. w. of Amsterdam) Oct. 11, 1455. It is uncertain whether he belonged to the monastery of St. Willibrord at Heilo, but he is described as a priest and oblate in the monastery of the Visitation near Haarlem, where his superior was John h Kempis, brother of the more famous Thomas. He also acted as confessor in the monastery at War mond, possibly in the house of the Brethren of the Common Life. Later he resided at Leyden and in a nunnery at Bereswijk. According to a letter of his the nuns so embittered his life that, to regain peace of soul, he returned to his monastery. His writings are extant in two manuscripts, and comprise the following works: Epistola contra pluralitatem eonfessorum et de regimine sororum, proving that a nunnery should have but one confessor; an epistle of similar content advising that women should not be governed but should be instructed by men; a letter to a priest who had entered into a monastery governed by strict seclusion, warning him to beware of losing his spirituality through contact with the world. Apologia super resignatione regiminis sororum (ed. J. C. Pool, see below); epistle to a monk concerning his moral life; Trac‑

375	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Frederfak=y°~'°ns
			III
tatue de peregrinantibus contra peregrinantea, a
polemic against the misuse of pilgrimages solely for
the sake of indulgences (ed. Pool); and liber de
f undatione domus regularium prope HaerLm, a chron
icle extant only in fragments, but important on
account of its information concerning the ecclesias
tical and moral conditions of the times, especially
the year of jubilee 1450 and Nicholas of Cusa. In
addition to these extant writings, the following
works, now lost, are also mentioned: De inclusions
religosorum, alterum de eadem materia; De digriitate
aacerdotali; De doctrina peccati venialis et mortalis,
live contra nimis scrupulosos et de remediis; De
ofciis recttmia sine pastoris; De collections mends
in se; De choreis; Contra sacxrdotem lubrieum sive
oortaolatio super infamies fratris; Contra detraetores
religiosorum; De fonts qui aseendit de paradiso;
De imagine et similitudine Dei; Carmina de sancta
Basilia in Warmunda quieseente; De feativitatfbm
beaten Maria; virginis ; Sermones de tempore et de
eanctis, and Eptatolare satin pulchrum. The stand
point of Frederic was ethical rather than mystical,
although he was a faithful adherent of medieval
theology with its semi‑Pelagian tendency.
		L. SCHULZE.
BIHLIoaRAPHY: The one biography is by J. C. Pool, Frederic
	roan Heilo en eiin echrdften, Amsterdam, 1868 (written at
	the suggestion of Moll the historian). Consult also J. G.
	R. Acquoy, Het Klooeter to Windeshwim, Utrecht, 1875.
	FREDERICK III., THE PIOUS: Elector of the
Palatinate; b. at Simmern (26 m. s.w. of Coblenz)
Feb. 14, 1515; d. Oct. 26, 1576. He was strictly
educated in the Roman faith at his father's
court and at Cologne, but, influenced by his wife,
the pious princess Maria of Brandenburg, whom
he married in 1537, he followed the Reforma
tion, and in 1546 made a public profession of his
faith. He succeeded his father as duke of Simmers,
May 18, 1557, and became elector Feb. 12, 1559,
on the death of Otto Henry. Under his predecessor
strict Lutherans like Tilemenn Hesshusen, Melanch
thonians, and Calvinists had found a place in the
Palatinate. In the summer of 1559 bitter contro
versies arose among them. Theses on the Lord's
Supper prepared by the Heidelberg deacon Meebitz
provoked a bitter controversy between him and
Hesshusen. When efforts at mediation failed
Frederick deposed both, Sept. 16. To get a clear
understanding of the controversy Frederick spent
days and nights in theological studies and was thus
led more and more to the Reformed confession.
A disputation held in June, 1560, between the
Saxon theologians St6ssel and MOrlin and the
Heidelberg Boquin, Erast, and Einhorn increased
Frederick's dislike for the Lutheran zealots.
After the Naumburg Convention (Jan., 1561; see
NADMBBRti CowvENTlox) Frederick fully adopted
the Reformed dogmas. In March, 1561, he called
Emmanuel Tremellius, and in September the famous
Zacharias Urainus, to Heidelberg. The whole
Church was now transformed. Caspar Olevianus
had been there since Jan., 1560. Images of the
saints, vestments, baptismal fonts, and other
"idolatrous works," even organs, were ruthlessly
removed from the churches. In the celebration
of the Lord's Supper the breaking of bread was
introduced. The revenues from monasteries and foundations were confiscated and applied to Evangelical church purposes or charity. The Heidelberg catechism prepared by Ursinus and Olevianus now served as the norm of doctrine and for the instruction of the youth. The church‑order of Nov. 15, 1563, and the consistory order of 1564 closed the changes. The opposition of ministers inclining to Lutheranism was suppressed by their dismission. Among the Lutherans Frederick's measures caused a great sensation. The religious colloquy held at Maulbronn, Apr., 1564 (see MAU1r BaortN) increased the animosity. In 1565 the Emperor Maximilian ordered to annul the changes made. A unanimous decree of the diet held at Augsburg in 1566 also demanded the abolition of the changes. Frederick, however, declared in a session of the diet, May 14, that a matter was concerned over which God alone has the rule, and if it was intended to proceed against him, he would find comfort in the promises of his Savior. The decree was not carried out. After completing the work of reform in the Rhine Palatinate Frederick endeavored to continue it in the Upper Palatinate; but here he was resisted by the zealous Lutheran estates. He continued his work of reform on the Rhine by introducing in 1570 a strict church discipline. A stain on Frederick's life is the sentence of death which he pronounced on the antitrinitarian Johannes Silvanus based on the opinion signed by Olevianus, Ursinus, and Boquin, and which he had executed after long hesitation, Dec: 23, 1572. In other matters he was an excellent, intelligent, truly pious ruler, who wished to promote the welfare of his people in every way. With the Reformed abroad he had intimate connections. In 1562 he gave Frankenthal for a refuge to the Evangelicals driven from the Netherlands. His like‑minded son John Casimir he sent in 1567 and again in 1576 to France in aid of the Huguenots. In 1569 he assisted also the Count Palatine Wolfgang on his way to France. His last years were troubled by domestic afflictions. As his older son Louis was a strict Lutheran, he could not hope that after his death his work would be cairied out in his own spirit. Juilus NEY.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: His letters were edited by A. Kluckhohn, 2 vole., Brunswick, 1888‑72; and this editor also wrote his life, Nbrdlingen, 1879, also the sketch in ADB, vii. 806 eqq. Consult also L. Hausser, Oeschichte der rhuinischen Pfala, ii. 1‑85, Heidelberg, 1858; K. Sudhoff, Okvianus and Ursinus, Elberfeld, 1857; K. Menzel, Wolfgang yon Zrwibricken. Munich, 1893; Schaff, Christian Church, vi. 596‑598; Moeller, Christian Church, iii. paeaim; Cambridge Modern History, ii. 595‑596, 619, New York, 1904.

	FREDERICK IIL, THE WISE: Elector of Sax
ony 1486‑1525; b. at Torgau (31 m. e.n.e. of Leip
sic) Jan. 17, 1463; d. at Lochau (now Annaburg,
40 m. n.e. of Leipsic) May 5, 1525. He received
		the electoral dignity after the death of
	His his father, Ernest, and governed the
	Religious other Ernestine territories in union
	Nature. with his brother, John the Steadfast
		(q.v.). This article will consider only
his attitude in religion and church polity. He did
not originate an established Church in Germany, as

Frederick III
Free Church Federation	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	$'78
some have believed, but, while his predecessors and other princes were prompted chiefly by political motives, the purely religious interest was strongest in Frederick. He was the model of a pious prince of the medieval. kind. He lived and moved in the forms of churchly devotion peculiar to his time, and they fully satisfied his religious nature. He received his first instruction in the school at Grimma, where the Auguatinians possessed a flourishing monastery, and from that time he showed a predilection for their order. In 1493 he traveled to the Holy Land, with a large suited but as a mere pilgrim. He was devoted to the worship of saints like all pious men of his time. In his church at Wittenberg he had the choicest collection of relics that could be found in Germany. Most of them he had probably bought on his pilgrimage for large sums; others he brought from a journey to the Netherlands, which he undertook in 1494, and he never tired of adding new treasures. A catalogue of the collection printed in 1509 (cf. the Wittmberger Heiligtumsbuch, ed. G. Hirth, Munich, 1883) contains no less than 5,005 entries. The relics opened the way to the free granting of indulgences; any one who visited the collection was assured of the forgiveness of his sins for a hundred, years. It is therefore not to be assumed that Frederick when he founded a university at Wittenberg in 1502 meant to break with the past, by receiving adherents of what was later called humanism.
Frederick probably heard of Luther for the first time in 1512 when Johann von Staupitz (q.v.), the general vicar of the Augustinians, asked him to defray the expenses of promotion for the poor but promising monk. It seems to have been Staupitz
also who directed the attention of the Relations elector to the study of the Bible as with the only certain source of salvation;
Luther. and he became an earnest student of
Scripture. It might be supposed that Luther's theses concerning indulgences were likely to arouse the anger of the elector, devoted as he was to the practise and to the worship of saints. But he was too large‑hearted and possessed too noble a nature. Luther was mistaken, however, when he thought that Frederick's intention to protect him and not to allow his removal to Rome originated in his " wonderful inclination toward his theology." The attitude of the elector was due rather to his love of justice, which could not endure that Luther should be delivered to his enemies without having been convicted, and to his wish to save for his university, as long as possible. one of its most celebrated teachers, as may be plainly seen from his letter to Staupitz, Apr. 8, 1518 (T. Kolde, Johann von Staupitz, Gotha, 1879, p. 314). Because he shrank from interfering with the will of God, it was the policy of the elector neither to approve nor disapprove of Luther's actions, but to let him fight out his own convictions. He himself, however, clung to his saints and relics; in 1520 the number of the latter had increased to 19,013.
Then followed the great events of 1520, the bull of excommunication against Luther, the publication of his great reformatory writings, the appeal to a council, the burning of the papal bull, etc.
Without misjudging the seriousness of the dondition,Frederick did not recede from his course, repeating his demand that Luther's cause should be entrusted to learned and unprejudiced judges. As an obedient and faithful son of the Church, however the thought never entered his mind to defend Luther's doctrine; as a layman, he did not pretend to understand anything of it. He followed the same policy at the diet of Worms. Luther, he insisted, should be convicted of heresy only according to the established principles and forms of law. In confidential letters he showed a cordial interest in the persecuted monk, but at the diet he took great pains not to show it and to avoid all intercourse with him. It was undoubtedly due to the influence of his brother, John of Saxony, who was a devoted Lutheran, that Frederick protected Luther after the diet. He probably gave his councilors an order in a general way to guard Luther, without definite directions, since for a long time neither the elector nor his brother knew that Luther was in the Wartburg. At any rate, it was not the intention of Frederick to protect the cause of Luther, but only his person. He soon perceived, however, that his action had furthered the cause in the most powerful way.
Now the hardest and most troublesome years of his life began. No prince ever faced a more difficult and responsible task than Frederick before the disturbances and innovations in Wittenberg; but seldom has a prince practised greater self‑re‑
nunciation. Everything that he loved Attitude so dearly was gradually deprived of Toward the its value, and although he always
Wittenberg counseled moderation, he was not
Reforms. willing to stem the tide because he
did not wish to act against the word of God, and the new movement might perhaps be his will. As a layman he tolerated everything in religion as long as the public order was not disturbed. But his opponents did not acknowledge the justness of this standpoint and made him responsible for everything that happened in the Saxon churches. In 1523 he consented to make an end of the worship of relics in the Catholic Church. The abolition of the mass must have cut deeply into his heart, but his opposition was of no avail. He could not be induced, however, to advocate himself the introduction of reforms.
Evidently he had become more and more absorbed in the study of Luther's doctrine and especially of the Gospel, under the influence of his faithful adviser and secretary Georg Spalatin (q.v.), an intimate friend of Luther He strove with his whole heart to live according to the Gos‑
pel and fulfil God's will. However Accepts the severely Luther had attacked his fa‑
Reformed vorite devotion and whatever trouble Faith on His and care Luther's actions had caused
Death‑bed. him, he always retained for him the
same inclination, and accepted the advice of Spalatin regarding him; but he still avoided all direct contact with Luther. Luther hardly ever saw him, except at the Diet of Worms, and never spoke to him. Only when the hour of death arrived, did he send for Luther; but then it

877	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA		rlag‑nx
		Free Church Federation
was too late. Luther was far away in the Hartz
mountains. trying to quell the rebellion of the
peasants, which embittered the last days of the
peace‑loving prince but did not shake his trust in
God. Spalatin consoled him on his death‑bed.
Before his death, he partook of the Lord's Supper
in both kinds, from full conviction, and thus openly
avowed the Evangelical doctrine and joined him
self to the Evangelical Church.	(T. KoLDE.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. Spalatin, Friedrich den Weiten Leben
	and Zeitpeachichte, Jens, 1851; M. M. Tutzsehmann,
	Friedrich der Weise, Grinuna, 1818; G. L. Plitt. Fried
	rich der Weise ale Schirmherr der Reformation, Erlangen.
	1863; T. Kolde, Friedrtch der Weise and die Anfange der
	Reformation, ib. 1881; J. KSstlin, in TSK, Iv (1882), 691
	sqq.; idem, Friedrich der Weise and die Schlosekirche zu
	Wittmberg, Wittenberg, 1892; Cambridge Modern His
	tory, vol. ii., The Reformation, pp. 41, 116, 132‑172, 606,
	New York, 1904; Creighton, Papacy, vol. vi. passim; and
	the biographies under LUTHER, MARTIN.
	FREE CHURCH: A name given to certain relig
ious bodies in various countries of Europe, in some
cases chosen by the organization itself, indicating
somewhat loosely secession from an older and
larger communion, independence of the domi
nant ecclesiastical authorities, and separation from
an established church. For the so‑called Free
Churches of England, France, Holland, Italy, and
Switzerland, see the articles upon each country.
For the Free Churches of Germany see LUTHER
ANS, II; also FREE CONGREGATIONS. For the
Free Church of Scotland see PREBRYTERIANB. In
America the name " free church " is sometimes
given to a congregation which does not rent sit
tings at a fixed charge, but derives its revenues
from the spontaneous contributions of attendants.
See VOLUNTARYISM.
	FREE CHURCH OF ENGLAND : A small Prot
estant organization which broke off from the Church
of England (see ENGLAND, CHURCH OF) in 1844
because of antagonism to the Oxford Movement
(see TRAcTARIANIsM). Being free from State con
trol, it claims the right to enter any parish where
advanced ritualism prevails, and to establish a li
turgical service on the basis of the Evangelical
party of the Anglican Church. Its churches are
widely scattered throughout England, although
their number is small. It is governed by its own
convocation and by its few bishops, consecrated
by Bishop Cummins (q.v.) of the American Re
formed Episcopal Church. The convocation meets
annually in June. Its clergy number twenty‑four,
and its churches twenty‑seven, with accommoda
tions for 8,140. It has 1,352 communicants, 361
Sunday‑school teachers, and 4,196 Sunday‑school
scholars. Though practically identical with the
Reformed Episcopal Church of England (see
REFORMED EPISCOPAL CHURCH), the two refuse to
unite on account of differences respecting govern
ment and the rights of the laity.
	FREE CHURCH FEDERATION: A union of
free churches for Evangelical work. The federa
tion was initiated at a congress of members of free
churches in the city of Manchester in November,
1892. That congress was an outward and visible
sign of the growth of the inward and spiritual grace
of Christian unity, which had been proceeding for at least the two preceding decades. The causes
that development were: (1) the reOrigin. turn of the churches to Christ Jesus as the sole and exclusive authority in the life of the soul and in the activities of the churches; (2) the separation between the greater and the lesser truths of revelation effected by the providence of God in these later years; (3) the growth of sacerdotalism within the Anglican Church, and the total inability of Parliament to control and check it; (4) the consequent necessity for a united resistance to this sacerdotalism by Evangelical Protestantism; and (5) the need for more sustained and enthusiastic efforts to carry the Gospel to the people of the large towns and cities. The Congress formed itself into a Federation in 1896. It embraced all the Evangelical denominations claiming spiritual autonomy and refusing to recognize the patronage and control of Parliament. It was the creation of a new organization in which Baptists, Methodists, Presbyterians, Congregationalists, and others met, not as denominationalists, but simply as Evangelical Free Churchmen. It was a wider basis of union and fellowship than any hitherto recognized. The sectarian element was totally excluded. It was the Free Church of England, with hopes of becoming the Church of England of the future.
The denominations embraced within this federation are as follows: Baptists, Calvinistic Methodists, Churches of Christ, Congregationalists, Countess
of Huntingdon's Connexion, IndependMemberehip ent Methodists, Moravians, Presbyteriand ans, Primitive Methodists, Reformed
Statistics. Episcopal Church, Salvation Army,
Society of Friends, United Methodist Church (formed in 1907 by the union of Bible Christians, Methodist Free Connexion and United Methodist Free Churches), Wesleyan Methodists, and Wesleyan Reform Union. In England and Wales the councils number 915, and the federations 53. The movement is spreading in other countries. In the United States a plan has been adopted for the organization of a Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America representing an aggregate membership of over 17,000,000. The movement is also advancing in South Africa, Jamaica., Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, Japan, Korea, India, Germany, France, and Italy. The statistics for England and Wales (1907) art: Sitting accommodation in places of worship, 8,483,925; communicants, 2,183,914; Sunday‑school teachers, 405; 391; Sunday‑school scholars, 3,471,276. These figures will be better understood if they are compared with the statistics of the Anglican Church: viz., sitting accommodation, 7,240,136; communicants, 2,053,455; Sunday‑school teachers, 206,873; Sunday‑school scholars, 2,558,240. The international figures (1906) are: Free Church members, 21,731,713; Anglican communicants, 3,830,866.
The objects of the national council are: (1) to facilitate fraternal intercourse and cooperation among the Evangelical Free Churches; (2) to assist in the organization of local councils; (3) to encourage devotional fellowship and mutual eoun‑

Free	Federation	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	378
eel concerning the spiritual life and religious activities of the churches; (4) to advocate the New
		Testament doctrine of the Church,
Objects	and to defend the rights of the as
	and	sociated churches; and (5) to promote
Work.	the application of the law of Christ in
		every relation of human life. But the
chief work of the Council from the beginning has been
directed to the proclamation of the Gospel outside
all churches. The Council has employed a body of
mimioners, of which the chief members are Gipsy
Smith, W. R. Lane, and Tolfree Parr, to visit the
large centers of population and to organize the
churches for mission work: and more recently the
Rev. F. B. Meyer has been set apart for the minis
try at large of the churches in England and Wales.
Conventions for quickening and nourishing the
spiritual life have been held, and a system of pa
rochial visitation has been carried out. Social
purity has been promoted, social institutes created,
and Girls' Gilds, Auxiliary Societies for Young
Free Churchmen have been formed. The Council
has also been compelled to devote its energies to
the solution of the problem of state education on
exclusively civic lines. It has resisted the en
croachments of Roman Catholicism through legis
lation upon the rights of the people; and though it
has not formally adopted "passive resistance," yet
many of the leaders of the National Council have
given that movement their personal support. It
has also led crusades against gambling and intem
perance. It supports a publication department,
from which it has issued The Free Church Year
Book (1896 aqq.); The Free Church Catechism
(1899); a series of thirteen volumes on Eras of
Nonconformity (1904 sqq.); Little Books on. the De
vout Life, ed. F. B. Meyer (1904 aqq.); The Free
Church Counccl Hymnal (1906); The Work of the
Free Church Council; a Manual for Secretaries and
others (1906); various biographies, including those
of Dr. Clifford and Gipsy Smith, with miscellane
ous literature bearing on the work; and The Free
Church Chronicle, the official organ of the move‑
ment. 	JOHN CLIFFORD.
FREE CONGREGATIONS IN GERMANY.
The Friends of Light, or Protestant Friends (§ 1). The Formation of Free Congregations (¢ 2). The Free Congregations Since 1858 (§ 3).
	The name " Free Congregations " (Germ. Freie
Gemeiyu3en) is given.in Germany to certain religious
bodies which have separated from the State
Church; s, yet are distinct from the so‑called Free
Churches of Germany (for which see LUTHERANS,
II). In the fifth decade of the nineteenth century
a movement arose in Prussian Saxony, the adher
ents of which were popularly named " Friends of
		Light " (Lichtfreunde), though they
	r The first styled themselves " Protestant
	Friends of Friends." The external provocation
	Light, or for this movement was the disciplining
	Protestant of Pastor W. F. Sinteris at Madgeburg,
	Friends. because he had characterized prayer
		to Christ as superstition. Certain
circles, offended by this procedure on the part
of the Magdeburg Consistory, found a leader
and organizer in Pastor Leberecht Uhlich in 1841. The movement underwent greater extension at the hands of Pastor Gustav Adolf Wislicenus in Halle, who on occasion of the seventh convention of those who favored it, at K6then, May 29, 1844, discussed the question whether Holy Scripture, or the living spirit indwelling within us, is to be regarded as norm of the Protestant type of religious consciou;ness. From ecclesiastical circles there ensued sharp and deprecatory expressions of opinion, and the Friends of Light soon came into conflict with the church authorities. The Breslau theological professor, David Schulz (q.v.), forfeited his position as consistorial councilor. But greater interest by far was aroused by the deposition of Pastor Wislicenus, on Apr. 23, 1846, " on account of gross injury to the liturgical and doctrinal ordinances in force in the Evangelical State Church." The publication of his book Die Bibel im Lichte der Bildung unserer Zeit (Magdeburg, 185.3), subjected him to the penalty of a two years' imprisonment,, adjudged by the court at Halle, though he escaped the same by flight to America. He returned to Europe in 1866. His later works, Die Bibel, Pr denkende Leser betraehtet (Leipsie, 1863; 2d ed., 1866), and Entweder‑oder. Glaube oder Wissensehaft. Schrift oiler Geist (1868), show that he consistently adhered to his earlier radical views. He died Oct. 14, 1875. Even before Wislioenus was compelled to leave the State Church, the schismatic pastor, Julius Rupp, in Kbnigsberg, had been deposed on Sept. 17, 1845, " on account of repeated violation of his official obligations by reason of gross negligence." Uhlich, after prolonged proceedings, voluntarily withdrew from the State Church. He died Mar. 23, 1872. Deacon W. E. Baltzer of Delitzsch resigned his ecclesiastical office on account of his non‑confirmation as pastor at Nordhausen in 1847, and Pastor Adolf Timotheus Wislicenus, the " physical and intellectual brother " of the one mentioned above, accepted the consequences of his doctrinal standpoint and withdrew from the State Church.
These collisions with church authorities acquired a greater significance, in that they furnished the first incentive and became the means toward establishing congregations outside the State Church. At Konigaberg such a congregation had come into existence as early as Dec. 16, 1845, and had organized itself, on Jan. 19, 1846; as a " Free Evangelical Congregation." Other free congregations arose at Neumarkt in Silesia; at Halle, Nordhausen,
Halberstadt, Magdeburg, Hamburg,
a. The ' and Marburg. The attitude of the Formation various governments in relation to of Free Con‑ both the German Catholic (see GzR‑
gregations. mAN CATHOmCDsM), and the Free Protestant movement, down to the year 1848, was not quite uniform, though evincing the same general character. In so far as the movement was regarded as a product of the revolutionary spirit, the government looked upon it with great distrust, and sought to obviate its further encroachments by the application of statutory means. Finally, the outbreak of the Revolution in Mar., 1848, afforded the " Free " religious move‑

379	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Free Church Federation
		Freemasons
ment the desired complete freedom, and gained
for it, at the outset, a large increase. New congre
gations arose in the Province of Saxony, in the
Province of Brandenburg, in Brunswick, in the
Anhalt duchies, in the kingdom of Saxony, in
Silesia, East and West Prussia, in Nassau, Hesse
Darmstadt, and elsewhere; all told there were more
than seventy new establishments. At their height,
the total number of German Catholics and " Free
Protestants " in Germany‑who are not subject
to separate enumeration‑amounted to approxi
mately 150,000.
But from 1850 forward, the German govern
ments once again confronted the free religious
movement in a hostile spirit. The most pronounced
complaints, on the side of the Free Congregations,
were proffered against the government in Prussia.
A circular of the Minister of the Interior, Sept. 29,
1851, declared that the dissenting associations
were not simply religious societies, but rather po
litical unions, furthering the subversion of the civil
and social order; and that by reason of insight into
the proper nature of these societies, it had grown
to be the peremptory duty of the State Govern
ment to oppose them with every legitimate agency.
It was only when Prince William of Prussia, later
King William I., assumed the regency, in Oct.,
1858, that the free operation of their principles was
finally secured them.
On June 16 and 17, 1859, a large contingent of
the German Catholic and Free Protestant congre
gations united in the Bund freireligi68er Gemeinden
	(" Federation .of Free Religious Congregations ").
			According to the latest revision of
	3. The Free the Constitution (1899), the funda
	Congrega‑ mental principle of the Federation is
	tions Since " free determination of the individual
		1858.	in all religious affairs according to his
			own advancing knowledge "; its ob
ject: " advancement of religious life independently
of dogma." Since 1877, a federate convention has
been held biennially. At present the entire Feder
ation comprises probably some 22,000 souls. The
largest congregations are in Berlin, Mannheim, Of
fenbach, and Magdeburg. The contemporary Free
Congregations are unanimous in disclaiming all re
ligion cultivated by the churches as being that of
a petrified dogma‑creed, but unanimous only in
this negation. Indeed, a positive expression of
what the advocates of free religion understand by
	religion can hardly be attempted, since by that
very process the freedom of independent deter
mination would be invaded, and a relapse into
" confessionalism " would come to pass. But the
	practical problems of religious instruction, preach
	ing, propaganda, etc., tend to press the issue in
the direction of set standards of procedure. In
the face of this dilemma, a varying attitude is
	adopted. The East Prussians, the " K6nigsberg
ers," represent the right wing within the Free
	Congregations; they still maintain remnants of
	church ideas, and religious instruction is still im
	parted by them in connection with the Bible. The
" Nuremberg tendency " represents the opposite
extreme, and stands outright upon the basis of
naturalism and atheism. The center is occupied by
the " South German " group, which perceives in Jesus an ethical prototype. Public worship holds only a very subordinate and accessory position. Established and generally valid forms of worship are altogether wanting; in this matter the separate congregations have their hands quite free. The Lord's Supper is still solemnized at a good many places. For baptism there had been substituted even as early as the sixties the so‑called Kindesweihe (" infant consecration "). Since then, however, it would appear to have gone out of observance entirely. Confirmation takes place in all congregations; that is, Jugendweihe (" consecration of youth "), which terminates the religious instruction that begins for the most part in the ninth year of age. The movement was only transiently a momentous force in the church life of Germany; nor did it owe even this transient significance at any time to great performances, but essentially to the circumstance that people imputed great things to it, and hoped or feared them.
CARL MIRBT.

BIBLIOGBArHY: F. Kampe, Geschichte der religi6aen Bewegung der neueren Zeit, 4 vols., Leipsic, 1852‑60; Drews, in Zeitwhrift fair Theologie and Kirche, xi. 6 (1901), 484527; G. Teehirm, Zur BOjbhrigen Geschichte der freireligiosen Beuwung, Bamberg, 1904; F. Nippold, Handbuch der neuesten Kirchengeschichte, v. $ 18, Leipsie, 1906.
FREEDOM OF THE WILL. See WILL.
FREEMAN, JAMES: Pastor of the first Unitarian Church in America; b. at Charlestown, Mass., Apr. 22, 1759; d. at Newton, Mass., Nov. 14, 1835. He was educated in the public Latin school, Boston, and at Harvard College (B.A., 1777; D.D., 1811). After his graduation from college he went to Cape Cod and drilled a company of recruits for the colonial army. In 1780 he visited Quebec, where he was arrested and held till 1782. He then returned to Boston, became lay reader at King's Chapel in 1782, and pastor in 1783, but with the stipulation that he might omit the Athanasian Creed from the service. Having become a Unitarian in his views, he openly renounced the doctrine of the trinity, and in 1785 induced his church to change its liturgy, thus converting the first Episcopal Church in New England into the first Unitarian Church in America. On being refused ordination by Bishop Provost he was ordained by his own people, Nov. 18, 1787. He remained pastor of the church till 1827, though in 1826 he gave up his pastoral duties to his colleague, Francis W. P. Greenwood, and retired to a country residence near Boston. He published Sermons and Addresses (Boston, 1832), and made many contributions to periodical literature, and to the collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, of which he was one of the founders.
BIBLIoanAPHY: W. Ware, American Unitarian Biography, 2 vols., Boston, 1850‑51; W. B. Sprague, Annals of the American Pulpit, viii. 162, 9 vols., New York, 1865‑73; J. H. Allen, in American Church Hist. Series, a. 185‑186, ib. 1894.

FREEMASONS: The name of the members of a well‑known secret society, derived from those medieval stonemasons who were allowed to migrate

Freemasons
Free Spirit	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	380
at will, as distinguished from their fellow workmen in the gilds. The latter were restricted to certain localities and confined to their gilds, while the former went from land to land, and formed a widespread organization under the supervision of the supreme lodge at Strasburg. The institution of the lodge lasted longest in England, receiving a new impetus through the burning of London in 1666. Far different, however, is " symbolic freemasonry," which is a secret organization for the erection of a spiritual temple of humanity in the heart of man. The change from the ancient masonic craft to modern freemasonry began as early as the end of the sixteenth century. After the rebuilding of London and the completion of St. Paul's, the majority of lodges disappeared, but the four which survived formed a grand lodge at London on St. John's Day (June 24), 1717, surrendering manual masonry, and seeking a new sphere in moral and social life. The original organization of medieval masonic fraternity was retained, however, especially the distinction of masters, journeymen, and apprentices, as well as mutual help, the application of a detailed symbolism in words, pictures, and signs, and the solemn obligation to secrecy covering everything pertaining to the lodge. In 1721, one of the founders of this union, James Anderson, an English Presbyterian minister, drafted a " constitution " for this cosmopolitan organization, which bound all " freemasons " to a faithful observance of the moral law, humanity, and patriotism. In religion,, however, they are non‑sectarian, and profess only that faith in which all men of honor agree. Doctrines going beyond that are tolerated as private opinions, but no one is permitted to make propaganda for them. The characteristics of masonry are, therefore, humanistic morals, the cultivation of fraternity, and a deistic belief. It was the outcome of English deism and latitudinarianism, and was soon adopted in Germany in radical religious circles. In those Roman Catholic countries where no Protestantism existed, masonry even obtained the importance of an opposing church, and freemasonry is accordingly regarded as in league with Satan. 3n the encyclical humanum genus on freemasonry, dated Apr. 20, 1884 (2d ed., Treves, 1885), Leo XIII. solemnly condemned it, as other popes had repeatedly done since 1751. '
From England masonry soon spread to the British colonies acid to the continent of Europe. In 1725 it was in Paris; in 1733 in Florence and Boston; and in 1737 in Hamburg. In 1738 the Prussian crown‑prince, afterward Frederick the Great, was solemnly initiated at Brunswick by a deputation from the Hamburg lodge Absalom. As king he energetically labored for the spread of the system, and in 1744 was made grand master of the grand lodge " Zu den drei Weltkugeln" in Berlin. As the tendency of masonry is essentially subjective, many internal dissensions arose. In addition to the Brotherhood of St. John, divisions were formed with a knightly organization and the most varied degrees of fantastic terminology and mysterious ceremonial. Rationalism in Germany helped to introduce masonry among the middle
classes, where it still has a strong hold on account 'of the advantages, especially in social respects, enjoyed by many of its adherents, such as physicians and merchants. Spiritually it has not advanced. For Evangelical churches with their charitable interests, freemasonry is wholly superfluous. The Roman Catholic Church is opposed to the freemasons.
In Europe the number of masons is estimated to be over 300,000, most of them belonging to the grand lodges of Great Britain. In America, in addition to freemasons proper, who number about 750,000, there are similar societies with about 4,650; 000 members, divided into Odd Fellows (820,000), Knights . of Pythias (475,000), Ancient Order of United Workmen (361,000), Maccabees (244,000), Modern Workmen of America (204,000), and about twenty smaller orders, this entire body spending annually about $25,000,000 for benefit money.
PAUL TaCHAC$ERT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lists of books are furnished by G. Klass, Biblioaek der Fieimaurerei, Frankfort (1846), Supplement by G. Findel, Leipsic, 1866, and W. Gowans, Catalogue of Books on Freemasonry, New York, 1858. Consult, A. G. Mackey, Encyclopedia of Freemasonry, Philadelphia, n.d.; idem, Hist. of Freemasonry, 3 parts, New York, 1900; J. O. Halliwell, Early Haul, of Freemasonry an England, London, 1843; C. L. Paton, Freemasonry, its Symbolism, Religious Nature, etc., ib. 1873; L. Hyneman, Hist. of Freemasonry in England, New York, 1878; R. F. Gould, Hist. of Freemasonry, 6 vole., London, 18841887; H. Boos, Gtachichte der Freimaurerei, Aarau, 1894; F. Katch, Entatehung and . . Endzuxck der Preimaurerei. Berlin, 1897; J. 6assenbaeh, Die Freamaurerei, ib. 1897; 0. Kuntsemijller, Die Preimaurerei and ihre Gepner, Hanover, 1897; A. Churchward, Origin and Antiquity of Freemasonry, London, 1898.

FREE METHODISTS. See METHODISTS, IV., 5.

FREE RELIGIOUS ASSOCIATION: An association established in Boston May 30, 1867, aiming at the emancipation of religion from sectarian limitations, the reconciliation of faiths, and the ap= plication of scientific methods to the study of religion, and emphasizing practical morality. Octavius Brooks Frothingham was the first president, and for many years Ralph Waldo Emerson was one of the vice‑presidents. Members axe allowed the utmost liberty of opinion. The elastic nature of the organization‑" any person desiring to cooperate" is "considered a member"‑renders exact statistics impossible. The association has not attempted to , organize local societies, but has contented itself with holding conventions and distributing publications. An annual report is usually issued in pamphlet form.
EDWIN D. MEAD.

FREE SPIRIT, BRETHREN OF THE.
Meaning and Origin (¢ 1). Mystic Pantheism Wide‑spread (§ 2). Various Groups (§ 3).
Brethren of the Free Spirit is a name under which the heresiologists of the Middle Ages classed,.various extreme developments of quietistic and pantheistic mysticism. Modern scholars also have accepted the existence of a pantheistic sect, sharply marked off from the fellowship of the Church, usually recruited from the laity, and handing down

381	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Pr°emm°°n°
		Free Spirit
	its doctrines practically unaltered from the thir
	teenth to the sixteenth century. It is possible to
	show, however, that the phenomena classed under
	this title have points of such radical difference
	as to destroy the conception of one single pan
	theistic tradition reproducing itself
	i. Meaning through more than one century by
and	means of an actual sect; and that the
Origin.	origin of this pantheistic quietistic mys
	ticism is found not among the ordi
	nary laity but in the monasteries and among the
	Beghards and Beguines, who came so strongly
	under monastic influence; also that in the follow
	ing centuries the boundaries between monastic
	mysticism and sectarian pantheism were never
	very stable. There is no adequate ground for be
	lieving that the teachings of Amalric of Bena (q.v.)
	found acceptance among a section of the French
	Waldenses, and then about 1215 spread from east
ern France into western and southern Germany.
	The earliest authentic information about the ap
	pearance of this sort of mysticism on German soil
	shows certain Swabian heretics about 1250 teach
	ing a radical pantheism and determinism. Start
	ing from the belief in the divine essence of the soul
	and of all earthly things, they considered the as
	cension of the soul to God the goal of all religion.
	This was to be attained by abstraction from all
	earthly activity and also from moral and religious
	commandments which distracted the soul from its
	purpose of union with the Godhead. The " per
	fect man " who has reached this goal is sinless;
	his will is God's will; the Church's laws and means
	of grace are without significance for him. All
	value was taken both from moral effort and from
	ecclesiastical ordinances by the belief that every
	human act had been predestined from eternity.
	All this points to these doctrines being'a straggling
	offshoot of the monastic mysticism of the school of
	Saint‑Victor, as drawn by its adherents from Dio
	nysius the Areopagite. When Richard of Saint
	Victor (q.v.) says of the soul united with God (De
	prepar. dnimi ad contempl., ii. 13) " Here first the
	soul recovers its* ancient dignity, and asserts its
	claim to the innate glory of its own freedom,"
	he uses expressions only too easily misunder
	stood by extravagant mystics, and serving them
	as a foundation for their doctrine of spiritual
freedom.
	The decrees of the Council of Vienne (1311)
	against the Beguines and Beghards shows that the
	church authorities of that time were disposed to
	tax these communities throughout Germany with
	similar pantheistic heresies. The consequences of
	this view have been that up to the present day it
	has been usual to attribute a. much wider exten
	sion than the facts justify to the pan
	s. Mystic theistic doctrines, and. to consider the
	Pantheism characteristics of the orthodox Beg
	Wide‑spread. uines and . Beghards, e.g., their es
	teem for poverty and mendicancy, as
	distinguishing the heretical mystics. The fact is,
	however, that it is (difficult to draw a sharp line of
	demarcation between orthodox and heretical mys
	ticism. How true this is. may be seen not only
	from the complaint of David of Augsburg that the
friends of mysticism were persecuted on no other ground than as heretics or as possessed by demons, but also from the accusations of spreading alleged heresies which were brought against Tauler, Suso, and Ruysbroeck, to say nothing of Eckhart. Among the cloistered women of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the line of demarcation was even more fluctuating. The ecstatic‑mystical life and the visionary condition of many of them produces frequent expressions from which to pantheism is but a short step. It can scarcely be denied that this pantheism won many adherents through the influence of the great German mystics of the fourteenth century. The theory that close personal relations existed between Eckhart and the " Free Spirit " heretics at Strasburg and Cologne is unproved and unlikely; but the sectarian pantheistic mysticism was unquestionably aided and influenced by his speculations. In a well known passage of Suso's Biichlein der Wahrheit (ch. vi.), in which he is arguing with the leaders of the pantheistic mystics, the latter quote Eckhart as a high authority. This attempt to show him as on their side, however unjustifiable, throws light on the close correspondence between the propositions condemned as his by John XXII. in 1329 and the extracts given by Mosheim from a lost sectarian book De novem rupt7bua; apparently the papal censure was based not upon Eckhart's authentic writings but upon this pantheistic treatise which was given out as his.
The opponents of the teaching of the " Free Spirit," e. g. Tauler, Rulman Merawin, Gerson, Ruysbroeck, and Geert Groote, give the impres‑
sion that they are combating, not an
3. Various organized sect, but a morbid tendency
	Groups.	and an exaggeration of mystical piety.
		The confusion frequently found in
writers of that period between the adherents of this
pantheistic mysticism and the Fraticelli and Apos
tolic Brethren springs partly from ignorance of the
points in which they differed widely, and partly
from the use of the expression " sects spiritus
libertatis " as a common designation for quite dis
tinct heresies. This has led some modern writers
into the supposition that the teachings of the Ger
man heretical mystics had been spread in the four
teenth century among the Italian Fraticelli and
Apostolicals, as well as through the so‑called " Tur
lupins " (q.v.), in France. It is clear that the at
tempt to trace the development and organization
of a single definite pantheistic sect in the Middle
Ages must be unsuccessful. The records of the
tribunals, however, make us acquainted with vari
ous groups of this kind and with a whole series of
individual representatives of heretical mysticism.
The condemnation of Margareta Porete, a Beguine
of Hainault, who was executed in Paris in 1318,
precedes the Council of Vienne. In her writings
the soul, " annihilated " in God, is released from
the obligation to practise virtue, which, however,
comes naturally to the soul united with God.
Probably similar to hers was the teaching of the
mystical work of Marie de Valenciennes, contro
verted by Gerson, which, appealing to an alleged
Biblical counsel " Ama et fac quod vis," denied

Freethinker
French Revolution	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	382
the binding force of the moral law for those who were filled with the mystical love of God. With the Flemish poetess and visionary Hadewich Blommaerdine (q.v.), the pantheistic element is not prominent. About the same time in Cologne, a Netherlander, Walther, burned c. 1322, was the center of a wide‑spread pantheistic movement, in the contemporary descriptions of which we meet for the first time with the nocturnal Adamite orgies (see ADAMITEs). In southern Germany Berthold of Rorbach (q.v.), burned 1356 at Speyer, and Hermann Kachener of Nuremberg, who recanted at Wilrzburg in 1342, were the apostles of a similar movement. Another interesting group is that of the "Friends of God" (q.v.), whose leader, Nicholas of Basel was burned at Vienna in 1396. Pantheistic‑antinomian elements are mingled with apocalyptic views of the Joachim type in the " Homines intelligentim " (q.v.). The sources for the history of these heresies in the fifteenth century are so confused that little can be made of them. That pantheistic ideas still had power in the Reformation period is shown by the rise of the Loist sect at Antwerp (15251545), and the Libertine or Spiritual party (see LIBERTINES, 3) which after 1529 spread from the Netherlands through France, western Germany, and Switzerland, as well as by certain developments of the Anabaptist movement.
(HERMAN HAUPT.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: P. Fredericq, Corpus documentorum inquisitionis Neerlandicle, vole. i.‑ii., Ghent, 1889‑96; Ulanoweki, in Scriptures rerum Polonicarum, xiii. 233‑250, Cracow, 1889. Consult: H. C. Lea, Hist. of Inquisition, vol. ii., passim, New York, 1888; C. U. Hahn, Geschichte der Ketzer, ii. 470, Stuttgart, 1847; J. C. L. Gieseler, Kirchengeachichte, II. ii. 642 sqq., Bonn, 1849, Eng. transl., ed. H. B. Smith, ii. 590 sqq., New York, 1871; W. Moll, Kerkgeschiedenis van Nederland, II., iii. 59 sqq., Utrecht, 1869; W. Preger, Geschichte der deutsehen Mystik, vole. i.‑iii., Leipsic, 1874‑93; H. Haupt, ZKG, v. 478, vii. 503, xii. 35; H. Reuter, Geschichte der religidsen AufklBrunp, ii. 240 sqq., Berlin, 1877; W. Wattenbaeh, in Sibunpsberichte der Berliner Akademie, 1887, pp. 517 eqq.; J. J. I. von D811inger, Sektengeschichte, ii. 378 sqq., 702 sqq., Munich, 1890; Neander, Christian Church, iv. 633, v. 393, 401, 408.
FREETHINKER: In general, one who reaches his conclusions by following the demands of reason, rather than those of authority; more particularly, one who rejects the supernatural elements of Christianity. The term was first used toward the close of the seventeenth century, though it does not seem to'have gained general currency till after the publication of Anthony Collins' Discourse of Freethinking (1713, see COLLINS, ANTRoNY). The term then came to be applied specifically to the group of deistic writers formed by Collins, Woolston, Tindal, and others (see DEISM). Although Collins defined freethinking as merely an attempt to judge a proposition according to the weight of evidence, his book was regarded as an attack on the fundamental tenets of Christianity; and from that day to this the term freethinker has carried with it, in the popular understanding, the implication of skeptic, infidel, and even libertine and atheist. The freethinker of to‑day does not reject Christianity; he explains it.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Consult the literature under ANTrraINITARIANISM; DEISM.
FREE‑WILL BAPTISTS. See BAPTISTS, IL, 4, c.
	FREISING, BISHOPRIC OF: A bishopric or
ganized by Boniface in the spring of 739 after his
return from Rome, with the other Bavarian bish
oprics, under the approval of Duke Odilo. It was
of small extent; the boundary joined Augsburg on
thp west, ran to the south along the ridge of the
hills on the north side of the Inn valley, then along
the top of the Mangfall range, and touched the
river at the present Kufstein, following its course
to Gars, where it turned to the north and came
round to meet the Augsburg line again above
Geisenfeld. In charge of it Boniface placed Erim
bert, brother of Corbinian (q.v.). The number of
monasteries it contained was large. The most im
portant of them was that of St. Quirinus on the
Tegernsee,'which goes back probably to the reign
of King Pepin, and asserted its immediate depend
ence on the Empire until the time of Louis the
Bavarian. 	(A. HAUCg.)
The history of the diocese presents few features of more than local interest up to the Reformation, in which period it must be said that the preservation of Bavaria to the Roman Catholic faith is due rather to the zeal of the dukes than to the influence of the bishops. Both, however, were not unwilling to show a reasonable spirit, and the Synod of Salzburg in 1562, including Bishop Maurice von Sandizell of Freising (1559‑66), assented to the laying before the Council of Trent of the concessions desired by Duke Albert V. of Bavaria and the Emperor Ferdinand‑the marriage of the clergy and communion in both kinds. The next bishop, Ernest (1566‑1612), was himself of the ducal family, which gave the see two more bishops, Albert Sigmund (165285) and John Theodore (1727‑63). The title of prince‑bishop was conferred by Ferdinand 11. upon the incumbents of the see. By the secularization of 1802‑03 Freising was incorporated as a principality with the Bavarian Palatinate, except the portions situated in Austria and the Tyrol, which were given to Salzburg. By the concordat of 1817 a combined archbishopric of Munich and Freising took the place of the old bishopric (see CONCORDATS AND DELIMITING BULLS, VI., 2, § 2).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Meichelbeck, Hist. Frisinpeneia, 2 vole., Augsburg, 1724‑29; Graf Hundt, in AMA, vole. xii.xiii.; K. Roth, Kozrohe Renner, Munich, 1854; idem, Verzeichnis der Freiainger Urkunden, ib. 1855; idem, Oertlichkeiten des Bisthums Freising, ib. 1856; S. Riezler, Geschichte Bayerns, Gotha, 1880; H. G. Gengier, Beid~w,6pe zur Rechtsgesehichte Bayerns, i. 58, 185 sqq., Leipaie, 1889; Rettberg, KD, i7. 257; Hauck, KD, i. 491.

FRELINGHUYSEN, fri'ling‑hai"zen, THEODORE: Dutch Reformed educator; b. at Millstone, N. J., Mar. 28, 1787; d. at New Brunswick, N. J., Apr. 12, 1862. After his graduation (1804) from the College of New Jersey (Princeton) he studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1808, when he removed to Newark. He was attorney‑general of New Jersey 1817‑29, United States senator 1829‑45, mayor of Newark 1837‑38, chancellor of New York University 1839‑50, and president of Rutgers College 1850‑62. In 1844 he was the Whig candidate for the vice‑presidency, on the ticket with Henry Clay. In the senate he won for

383	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Freethinker
		French Revolution
himself the title of " Christian statesman." It is
said that no other American layman was ever as
sociated with so many great religious and char
itable enterprises. He was president of the Ameri
can Bible Society 1846‑62, of the American Tract
Society 1842‑48, and for sixteen years president of
the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign
Missions. He was vice‑president of the American
Sunday‑school Union 1826‑61, and for many years
was vice‑president of the American Colonization
Society.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. W. Chambers, Memoir of Theodore Fre
	linphuysen, New York, 1883.
	FREMANTLE,WILLIAX HENRY: Dean of Ripon;
b. at Swanbourne (17 m. n.e. of Oxford), Bucking
hamshire, Dec. 12, 1831. He studied at Balliol Col
lege, Oxford (B.A., 1853), and was ordered deacon
in 1855 and ordained priest in 1856. He was fel
low of All Souls, Oxford, 1854‑63 and fellow of
Balliol and tutor 1883‑94. He was curate of
Middle Claydon, 1855‑57, vicar of Lewknor, Ox
fordshire, 1857‑65, rector of St. Mary's, Bryan
ston Square, London, 1865‑‑83, and canon of Can
terbury 1882‑95. Since 1895 he has been dean of
Ripon. He was chaplain to Bishop and Archbishop
Tait 1861‑82, select preacher to the University of
Oxford in 1879‑80, Bampton Lecturer in 1883. and
William Belden Noble Lecturer at Harvard Uni
versity in 1900. He has written The Influence of
Commerce on Christianity (London, 1854); Lay
Power in Parishes (1869); The Ecclesiastical Judg
ments of the Privy Council (in collaboration with
G. C. Brodriek; 1865); Reconciliation to God
through Jesus Christ (1870); The Gospel of the Secu
lar Life (university sermons; 1882); The World as
the Subject of Redemption (Bampton Lectures;
1885); Eighty‑Eights: Sermons on Armada arid
Revolution (1888); The Present Work of the An
glican Communion (1888); and Christian Ordi
nances and Social Progress (Noble lectures for 1900;
Boston, 1901). He also translated the works of St.
Jerome and Rufinus in the Nicene and Post‑Nicene
Fathers (in collaboration with G. Lewis and W. G.
Martley; Edinburgh, 1893), and edited Church Re
form (London, 1888) and the Sermons of B. Jowett
(3 vole., 1895‑1901).
	FRENCH CONFESSION OF FAITH. See GAL1.I
CAN CONFESSION.
	FRENCH PROPHETS: A fanatical sect is Eng
land started in 1706 by refugee Camisards (q.v.),
who pretended to have the gift of prophecy and
the power of working miracles. Their special mis
sion, they claimed, was to declare the speedy es
tablishment of the Messiah's kingdom, which was
to be accompanied by wonders and the infliction
of severe judgments on the wicked. For a time
they produced a deep impression in London and
the larger provincial cities and won the allegiance
of such well‑known people as Lady Jane Forbes,
Sir Richard Bulkeley, and John Lacy. Bulkeley
claimed to have been miraculously cured of con
tinuous headache, stone, and rupture, and con
tributed large sums to the support of the sect, at
the time of his death (1710) he was on the point of
selling his estates and distributing the proceeds among the prophets. He wrote in their defense, An Answer to Several Treatises Lately Published on the Subject of the Prophets (London, 1708).
	Lacy, who was a member of Edmund Calamy's
church, fell under the influence of the prophets
soon after their arrival and " entered into all their
absurdities, except that of a community of goods,
to which he strongly objected, having an income
of two thousand pounds per annum." He became
a seer and healer and published several works for
the cause, including A Cry from the Desert, or Tes
timonials of Miraculous Things Lately Come to Pass
in the Cevennes (London, 1707), a translation
from the French of Francis Maximilian; Prophetical
Warnings of Elias Marion (1707); The Prophetical
Warnings of John Lacy (1707), a collection of his
own prophecies; A Relation o f the Dealings o f God
to his Unworthy Servant, John Lacy (1708), an an
swer to an attack by Edmund Calamy; and A
Vision of J. L., Esq., a Prophet (1715), inspired by
the Jacobite rising. In 1707 the prophets were
convicted of publishing false and scandalous pam
phlets and holding tumultuous assemblies and
placed in the pillory, though prosecutions' against
Lacy and Bulkeley were quashed. This seems to
have made the sect temporarily more popular than
ever, and soon there were no less than 400 persons
spreading their fanatical prophecies in various
parts of the country. They even went so far as to
predict that one of their number, Thomas Emes,
lately deceased, would rise from the dead on May
25, 1708. In a pamphlet entitled The Mighty
Miracle, or the Wonder of Wonders, Lacy issued a
general invitation to everybody to come to Bun
hill Fields to witness this event. The failure of
Emes to emerge from his grave at the time ap
pointed weakened the influence of the prophets,
and from that time they fell into disgrace.
BInLIoaBAPHy: D. Hughson [pseudonym for Edward Pugh], A Copious Account of the French and English Prophets, London, 1814; R. Adams, The Religious World Displayed, Edinburgh, 1809; English Review, is (1852), 22‑23; and especially DNB, xxxi. 382‑383, where a copious literature on the subject is indicated.
FRENCH REVOLUTION, RELIGIOUS EFFECTS
OF.
Early Friendly Attitude of the Church (¢ 1). Influence of Financial Considerations (1! 2). Reconstitution of Church and Clergy (¢ 3). Clerical Opposition Causes Persecution (§4 ). More Extreme Anticlerical Measures (§ 5). Movement Becomes Antireligious (§ 8). Rationalistic Cults Introduced (§ 7). The Turn in Affairs (¢ 8). The Coming of Napoleon (¢ 9).
	The violent commotion which, toward the end
of the eighteenth century, shattered the vital struc
		ture of the French state was directed
	I. Early primarily against medieval feudalism.
	Friendly But, inasmuch as this was closely re.
	Attitude lated to the Roman Catholic Church,
	of the the element of destruction of necessity
	Church. reached the Church. From this it was
		an easy step to the attack upon religion
in general. Distrust of the positive teaching of the
Church and the frivolity which was hargpered by

Frenoh Revolution	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	8S4
the moral philosophy of the day combined to arouse the suspicion that the clergy clung to their prerogatives, social organization, and possessions not because of their conviction of the essential rightness of these things, but simply from a desire for power. . As financial stringency had given the first impulse to the revolution, so later it seemed just and natural to make use of the wealth of the Church to save the State from bankruptcy. But from the beginning the political status of the clergy was a matter of consideration. It was commonly expected that they as a body would side with the nobility; but while the nobility maintained their purpose to contend for their ascendancy in the assembly, on June 22, 1789, 148 of the 308 clerical delegates sided with the third estate, and on June 24, 151 others joined in the movement under the leadership of Talleyrand. The abolition of tithes aroused little opposition; already the clergy had offered their possessions for the national good; and the proposal to use the church vessels for public relief had been agreed to, while the offer of 140 million francs was accepted by the assembly Sept. 29. But the advancing revolutionary spirit‑ was no longer satisfied with a friendly attitude on the part of the Church; it would satisfy its hate by appropriating all the Church's possessions. It is therefore noteworthy that a high dignitary of the Church, Talleyrand, bishop of Autun, recognizing that the especial prerogatives of the Church could no longer be preserved, lent his aid to the expression of the general feeling. He proposed, Oct. 10, 1789, that a third of the ecclesiastical revenue (fifty millions of francs) be applied to cover the deficit in the accounts of the State, justifying the proposal by the fact that the clergy were not owners of the Church property, but merely in possession of a usufruct, while the State had power over every institution within its jurisdiction. Talle‑grand, Mirabeau, and Abby Gr6goire carried their point against the opposition of Sieyiss and the Abb6s Maury,. Montesquieu, and others, by a vote of 586 to 346. A resolution passed reciting that all ecclesiastical property was at the disposal of the State on the condition that the latter defray the expenses of public worship and provide for the support of the Church's officers and for the maintenance of the poor. Two days later this was ratified by the king while in confinement. Yet the clergy, so far from receiving sympathy, were the recipients of ridicule and insults from the populace.
New plans against the clergy came continually to the front, personal attacks were made upon the church dignitaries, while the monas‑
	a. Influ‑	teries were especial objects of assault.
	ence of	On Feb. 11, 1790, Treilhard proposed
	Financial	for the second time the abolition of
	Consider‑	monasteries and of monastic vows.
	ations.	After many debates the resolution
		passed on Feb. 13, 1790, dissolving all
orders and congregations of both sexes with the ex
ception of those devoted to the instruction of chil
dren and to the care of the sick. Monastics might
leave their cloisters on notifying the local author
ities; monks who were unwilling to leave were
assigned houses for their use. Great numbers seized
the freedom offered and became most enthusiastic
in .their devotion to the revolution. Nuns were allowed to remain where they were, and few left their orders. Pensions were granted to those who entered civil life, depending in amount upon the condition of the monastery, the rule of the order, and the age of the individuals. The clergy had hoped that the resolution to sell the property of the Church would be a dead letter, but the lack of gold and the growing deficit made this measure an immediate eventuality. The archbishop of Aix proposed a loan of 400 millions of francs, guaranteed by the property of the clergy, who would pay the interest and then gradually the principal through the proceedings from sales. But the majority would not accept this plan, not recognizing the position of the clergy which could warrant the offering of such a sum. Meanwhile, Dom Gerles, a member of the clerical committee, urged that, in order to satisfy those who feared for the existence of religion, the Roman Catholic religion be regarded as that of the nation, and that its services alone be regarded as authorized by the State. After considerable debate the assembly decided not to entertain the proposal, since it was neither willing nor able to enter decrees upon matters of religion (Apr. 13, 1790). The Paris chapter, the members of the Right, and the cities. of Nimes, Nantes, and Rennes complained against this decision and defended the Roman Catholic religion. The assembly determined to assume administration of the clerical estates under ‑the directors of departments and districts, 400 millions to be paid therefor and the money to be given to the clergy.
Behind the financial gain which the people thought to make on this occasion lay the main purpose, the dissolution of a detested yet
3. Reron‑ powerful aristocratic body. The clergy atitution of was regarded as the corner‑stone of the Church and feudal system, the demolition of which
	Clergy.	was the goal of the whole political
		movement. Several other moves fol
lowed the completion of the change in the status of
the clergy. The number of bishoprics was reduced
from 134 to 83. The bishop became the immediate
pastor of the community in which he lived, and in
stead of the former chapter had a number of vicars
who formed his council and gave him advice in all
matters. The bishops were chosen by the same
bodies as named the members of the departmental
assemblies, and were forbidden to seek papal con
firmation. The choice of the pastor was left to the
active citizens of each district, but he was inducted
into his post by the bishop. Bishops and pastors
took the oath of allegiance to the nation, the law,
the king, and the constitution. These changes, con
cluded May 31, followed a severe struggle led on the
part of the clergy by the archbishop of Aix and the
Jansenist theologian Camus. The civil constitution
of the clergy was finished July 12, the salaries being
fixed as follows: the archbishop of Paris, 50,000
livres; the other bishops, 20,000; the vicars, 2,000
to 6,000; and the pastors, 1,200 to 4,000, with
dwelling and garden. The king, being urged to sign
this constitution, found himself in difficulties, and
wrote the pope for advice. The latter could no
better solve the problem, called a meeting of car‑

Sao	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	French Revolution
dinals, and asked the king to await the result of their deliberations. But the aspect of the people and assembly was so threatening that the king signed Aug. 24, 1790, though the pope and the bishops began a passive resistance. Protests from all quarters came in, the leading one by Boisgelin, archbishop of Aix, who voiced the feelings of the Church and its opposition to the new constitution in a paper under the title Exposition des princiipm, signed by 110 bishops. The assembly, regarding this as a revolutionary movement, replied by a decree of Nov. 27, 1790, requiring all bishops to take the oath of obedience to the civil constitution of the clergy, and threatening those who resisted with dismissal from their posts. At the suggestion of the king, Boisgelin, in the hope of securing come concessions, presented to the pope a paper to the following purport: it suggested (1) that the pope confirm the arrangement made by the assembly for the metropolitan and other dioceses; (2) that the bishops who were deprived of sees or whose dominion was limited be advised to approve the new divisions; (3) that he give his sanction to the establishment of the new dioceses; (4) that he give the metropolitan power in the matter of canonical investiture of the new bishoprics; (5) that he approve of the arrangement for a council of vicars for the conduct of parochial business; and (6) that he admonish the. bishops to accept the transfer of the vacant parishes to the incumbents chosen by the people in case there were neither moral nor canonical reasons against it. The archbishop did not expect that the pope would assent to these propositions, yet he laid them before him, while the latter took refuge in procrastination. Meanwhile the king was driven to sign the threatening decree, Dec. 26, 1791, and on the next day Abb6 Grdgoire took the oath of allegiance, and was at once followed by Talleyrand and three other bishops and by seventyone of the 300 clerical members of the assembly. It was the purpose of the assembly to have the new Church free from the authority of the pope.
Jan. 4, 1792, was the day set for the general administration of the oath. It was a day of great bitterness of feeling in the assembly,
4‑ Clerical but the majority of the clergy of Paris Opposition took the oath; in the provinces threeCauses fourths of the clergy remained true to Persecution. the old order. These consecutive steps against the clergy had created a great stir among the French people. The nobility and those who, from the circumstance of birth or of civil or political position, were hostile to the new order joined with the clergy who were opposed to the constitution. The king, realizing his position, began to think of flight and of retaliation with outside aid. The assembly, on the other hand, saw itself checked by the very extreme to which it had been carried. In the South there were rumors of an insurrectionary movement; the large number of those deprived of positions was itself a cause for grave apprehension, and it was not due to thoughts of charity that pensions were provided for these and further persecution checked. While the Roman Catholic clergy were lamenting the dissolution of IV.‑25
their church, Protestants were enjoying their newly found liberty as granted by the new civil constitution. The latter thus became the friends of the revolution, their clergymen taking the oath without hesitation. The pope at last broke his silence, announcing his absolute rejection of the civil constitution. The first declaration was in a document sent to the archbishop of Sens, threatening him with degradation from the cardinalate unless he formally retracted the oath of allegianoe to the constitution. The archbishop replied by sending his cardinal's bat to the pope, but declared his intention to remain as bishop at the head of his church. The pope expressed his condemnation of the civil constitution in other acts. He wrote on Mar. 30 to the thirty bishops who had joined in the memorial of the archbishop of Aix in the Expogition des principes, and threatened them with canonical punishment in case of failure on their part to retract their oath of obedience to the constitution. In other letters he declared all arrangements made in accordance with the constitution null and void; he commanded all clergymen who had taken the oath to retract within forty days under penalty of permanent suspension, and warned the people to have no dealings with the prelates or pastors who bad been forcibly installed. These letters afforded a new basis for the opposition of the bishops and clergy, and many withdrew their oaths. But the very zeal of reaction aroused again hatred for the clergy, Church, and religion. The pope became the objget of insult, and on May 4, the day after his letters had been made public, he was burned in effigy before the palace with the applause of the populace. The bishops were driven from their diocese partly by direct command of government, partly by turbulent violence. Talleyrand resigned his bishopric and returned to private life. The churches of the resisting bishops were closed or put to other than religious use. At this juncture the clergy began to break away from celibacy, and this the assembly encouraged, promising to pay the pensions and declaring that there was no law forbidding the marriage of the clergy. In later times of persecution those who had married found their marriage state a protection, as it signified that the priest had discarded his ecclesiastical relationships. The opposing clergy avoided this step, and the upholders of royalty regarded it a duty of honor to seek the sacraments from these only. The king's vain attempt at flight in June, 1791, became a new pretext for persecution of the clergy, and this in Nantes was carried to extremes. The suspicion that the clergy had been connected with this unfortunate attempt was strengthened by a letter of July 7 from the pope to the king, expressing the pope's high hope of the king's speedy and victorious return to Paris, clothed with full authority and surrounded by the regular bishops, who would then be able to return to their respective dioceses. This letter fell into the hands of the revolutionists. The immediate results were more severe regulations against the disobedient clergy, and the union of Avignon and the county of Venaissin to France, Sept. 14. Reports of coadi. tions in Vend6e and Montpellier, as well as from other parts of the country, amused a new hatred of

French Revolution	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	888
the Church, which was shown in a decree of the assembly, Nov. 29. Priests who had not taken the oath were given eight days' grace in which to take the oath of citizenship; all failing then to do this were to be deprived of their pensions, were to he considered as under suspicion, and were liable to imprisonment; if they were found in a place where trouble occurred, in case this was due to religious causes, they might be removed from the place. The government of each department was charged with the carrying out of these regulations and was to report to the assembly in case further measures were required.
The opposing clergy in Paris, as well as the direotorium of Paris, urged the king to veto this bill, which he did on Dec. 19, 1791, moved
g. More also by regret at signing the previous
Extreme bills. Now a storm of indignation Anticlerical broke out against the king and mon‑
	Measures.	archical institutions: he was called a
		traitor and the ally of internal and ex
ternal foes, whose sanction of the laws was not
needed. While the resolution of Nov. 29 had not
the force of law, proceedings took place in many
departments‑Toulouse, Nantes, Rennes, Angers
which assumed its binding force, and the nonjuring
priests were maltreated and cast into prison. The
hate which first was directed against the priests was
now turned against the Roman Catholic Church and
against religion itself, as was particularly the case
in the Jacobin club. Nevertheless, though many
showed themselves atheists, the attitude taken by
Robespierre indicated plainly that the revolution
was not wholly under antireligious influence. Robes
pierre expressed himself thus: "‑To call upon divine
Providence, not to be willing to lose sight of the idea
of the divine Being who influences so essentially the
affairs of nations, who appears to me to be in par
ticular watching over the French Revolution‑and
this last does not appear to me to be too bold a
thought‑all this is for me a necessity. How could
I, relying upon my own spirit alone, have endured
all these conflicts which call for more than human
strength, had I not raised my soul to God? " On
Apr. 28 a law was passed abolishing clerical dress,
and on May 27 a bill went through directing that at
the request of twenty active citizens of a canton
the directors of a department should see to the
deposition of nonjuring priests as instigators of
sedition. The apparent justification of this law lay
in the fact that there were rumors at the time of
the suppression of a conspiracy in the department
of Tam to kill the Calvinists of that locality. The
king delayed ratifying this bill, and indeed finally
interposed his veto, a deed which by no means
bettered the condition of the priests or enhanced
the security of his throne. At first the means of
deportation of the priests failed, yet in Lyons,
Chfilons, Angers, Nantes, and Dijon there were
numerous arrests of priests. On Aug. 10 began the
close confinement of the king, while the extreme
party gained the ascendancy in the assembly. On
Aug. 23 a bill passed commanding all nonjuring
priests to leave France within fourteen days under
penalty of being sent to Guiana. Then came the
dark month of September in which so many priests
were slain. Many were brought to Paris to be deported, and on the way to the place of detention in the city eighteen were killed by the mob and sixty more in the courtyard, while later in the monastery of the Carmelites 200 were killed. As a consequence the priests delayed no longer in obeying the law to leave the country, finding refuge in the papal dominions in Switzerland, in the Netherlands, and in Spain. In consequence of this law 40,000 priests were expatriated, and in Protestant England 8,000 found a home.
The next attack was upon institutions which connected civil life and Christianity. A decree of Sept.
20, 1792, transferred the registry of 6. Move‑ births, marriages, and deaths from the ment Be‑ Church to the civil authorities. Only comes Anti‑ a few days earlier, Aug. 30, divorce
	religions.	was made possible by simple declara
		tion only, and on Sept. 20, by common
agreement; already for Protestants declaration
before a judge had constituted legal marriage. The
calendar was changed at this time. Since Sept. 22
they had reckoned from the first year of the repub
lic; on Oct. 5, 1793, an entirely new calendar was
devised in which each of the twelve months was
divided into three decades, the first of each decade
of days taking the place of the Christian Sunday.
The five surplus days of the year were made a festal
period. The names of the days were taken from
natural products of the soil and the like. The na
tional convention which succeeded the national
assembly on Sept. 21, 1792, assumed an attitude
still more inimical to Christianity.' At the instiga
tion of Chaumette, a noted despiser of religion, the
Christmas festival was abolished and in its place
was installed the "feast of the sansculottes." At
tacks upon church rites, dignities and feasts were
numerous, and atheistic declarations were frequent.
In its earlier days the convention was milder in its
dealings with the clergy, declaring the outrages
against them punishable. But the harsher side came
to be seen before long. Some of the school‑children,
of course prompted to this course, asked that they
be not made to pray in the name of a so‑called God,
but that they be given instruction in the funda
mentals of equality, the rights of mankind,. and the
constitution; but at the time this petition met with
rebuff. Toward the end of the year 1793 atheistic
fanaticism gained ascendancy, and oh Nov. 1 a
delegation from Nantes petitioned for the abolition
of Roman Catholic services. On Nov. 7, after the
reading of a letter to the convention, beginning:
" I am a priest, that is, a charlatan," Gobel, the
archbishop of Paris, went to the president's desk
and laid his letter of appointment to the post upon
the table, saying amid great applause that the will
of the people had been his first law, and that from
this time on there could be no national worship
except that of freedom and equality; he renounced
his position as a servant of the Roman Catholic
Church. He received congratulations from the
president of the convention, and then laid aside his
red cap, his cross, and his ring, and his vicars also
deposited there the insignia of their offices. But
this unworthy act brought Gobel no safety, since five
months later he ascended the scaffold on the charge

387	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	French Revolution
of siding in the destruction of morals. In the scene just portrayed a Protestant minister took part‑‑Julien, of Toulouse, declaring that Protestantism also had its charlatanry, and that henceforth he would have no other sanctuary than that of the law, no deity than freedom, no Gospel,than the republican constitution. He died at the guillotine in Apr., 1794. Bishop Gr6goire was the only ecclesiastic of the convention to oppose this unworthy movement. His stand was bold and his declaration emphatic that his religion was a part of his most solemn convictions; his office was from the hands of the people, but his call to it came neither from the people nor the convention. He was violently assailed, but remained steadfast, continued to wear ecclesiastical dress, and presented so imposing a mien that no one ventured to lay hands upon him.
The Paris council instituted, in celebration of the abolition of the Roman Catholic religion, a feast of reason, carried out on the twentieth of
7. Ra‑ Brumaire (Nov. 10), 1793, in Notre
tionalistic Dame, in which a so‑called temple of Cults philosophy was erected, in which sat
Introduced. as the representative of reason an opera singer, Mademoiselle Maillard. The celebration was continued in the national convention, whither the representative of reason was carried in a sedan‑chair, was proclaimed goddess of the feast, of freedom, and reason. The prom‑ion then went again to the cathedral, where the celebration was held and hymns were sung to reason. This ceremony was imitated in other parts of the country, the sanction of the convention having been given to the new cult of reason. On Nov. 13 the subordinates of the convention were empowered to receive the renouncements of the clergy and the latter were urged to abjure Christianity. In the festivals the churches were often plundered and the treasures appropriated as state property. Proposals were made to destroy the towers which held the bells and the sculptures of Notre Dame on the ground that they implicitly opposed equality. The convention received reports from various quarters of the burial of Christianity and the abolition of the worship of God. In cases where the clergy submitted to the demands made upon them, the fact was noted and celebrated as the triumph of philosophy over prejudice and error, while the churches were stripped of adornment and turned into temples of reason or even put to ignominious uses‑ Books of prayer or hymns were burned, the citizens were forbidden to keep Sunday as a holy day, while on Nov. 22 all bishops and clergy who had renounced their functions were assured of pensions. In spite of all this there were many, especially women, who still went to the churches for prayer and worship. Even in the convention the voice of Robespierre was raised against the prevalent tendency, and on Nov. 21 at the Jacobins' club he declaimed against HAbert, who had just delivered a harangue upon the dangers of fanaticism and priesthood. He declared that there were men who under the pretense of destroying superstition made a sort of religion of atheism. This might do for aristocrats, but the people needed a Supreme Being to watch over oppressed innocence
and to punish victorious crime. But the representatives of atheism were not to be overthrown without a struggle. A few days later they.put through the city council a decree to close the churches and making of all who contraverted this auspicious persons.
Chaumette, however, secured a partial recall of this resolution, and on Nov. 26 Danton carried the resolution in the convention that the
& The antireligious masquerades should cease
Turn in and that an end be put to the persecu‑
	ASalrs.	tion of the priests, while no obstacle
		was to be laid in the way of any wor
ship, the decree for freedom of worship passing the
convention on Dec. 6. Robespierre began to pose
as the patron of religion; and though he was far
from desiring to give to the priests their earlier
power, declaring them to be in religion what char
latans were in medicine and that the true priest of
the Highest Being was nature, whose temple was the
universe and his worship virtue, yet he prevailed
upon the convention, May 7, 1794, to make the
following declaration: The French people acknowl
edges the existence of a Supreme Being and the im
mortality of the soul; it recognizes that the worthy
worship of him is the fulfilment of man's duties,
the first of which are the detestation of faithlessness
and tyranny, the punishment of tyrants and traitors,
and the support of the unhappy; festivals shall be
appointed with the object of bringing mankind
again to the thought of the deity. The first of the
festivals provided for was celebrated June 8, 1794,
at which Robespierre, then president of the con
vention, appeared in gay costume and delivered
a political‑moral address. Though shortly after
Robespierre went to the scaffold charged with ma
king for himself a priesthood, his speeches marked
the turning‑point in favor toward religious belief.
On May 30, 1795, the use of the churches was
granted to their former possessors, though the public
announcement of service, as by the ringing of bells,
was forbidden. The constitution of Aug. 22, 1795,
granted freedom in matters of religion to all who
submitted to the law. Oversight by regular au
thorities was provided for, the clergy was forbidden
to interfere in 'the matter of the registry of vital
statistics and to publish foreign documents hostile
to the republic. The last was aimed against the
pope, who by reseripts was continually endeavoring
to control the French Church. Full freedom was
given to the rearing of religious sects, and owing
to this was a remarkable development of " Theo
philanthropists," which reduced all religious teach
ing to the doctrines of God and of immortality and
the moral ideas which flowed from them. The dis
persal of these sects caused no little trouble later
when Napoleon, after the signing of the concordat
(see CONCORDATS AND DELIMITING BULI$, VI., §f 1
2), forbade their meetings, especially those of the
Theophilanthropists, whose sect had spread widely
over France. Even after the decree of 1795 the per
secutions of religion did not entirely cease. In Oct.,
1795, the convention threatened with death all exiled
clergy if they returned to France. But the lot of
the religious was making advance toward better
ment during the year 1796 and the first part of 1797.

French Revolution	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	888
Fresenius
On June 17 Camille Jordan, deputy from Lyons,
delivered an address in favor of the priests and
calling for a revision of the laws respecting religion.
On June 24 the directorium reported to the Five
Hundred that, in consequence of the more favor
able outlook in religious affairs, a large number of
priests had returned and many religious organiza
tions were asking freedom of worship. Finally a
decree was passed to restore to the priests their civil
rights, though in September of 1797, during a tem
porary period of control by the republican radicals,
persecution of the priests was renewed, and of the
returned priests stern requirements were made,
such as vowing hatred to royalty. Under these con
ditions many of the exiled clergy returned, and
about 17,000 took the required oath; but others
were exiled, and about 380 transported to Guiana,
while others died miserably on the islands of Oleron
and Rhde.
	The return of Napoleon from Egypt gave to the
affairs of the Roman Catholic Church a favorable
		turn; the imprisoned ecclesiastics were
	g. The	released, and freedom of worship was
	Coming of proclaimed (Dec. 28, 1799). The serv
	Napoleon. ices of the Church were no longer con
		fined to the first day of each decade,
and the only requirement of the clergy was that
they declare their submission to the law and the
constitution of 1799, while the festivals of the Revo
lution were reduced to two. Bonaparte, believing
the assistance of the Church essential in establishing
his power, opened negotiations with Pius VIL, and
on Apr. 18, 1801, a solemn service was performed in
Notre Dame. In spite of the strong hold unbelief
had gained in France during the Revolution, 40,000
communities shortly returned to the Roman Catholic
Church. A great difficulty arose in this restoration
of the Church owing to the split in the ranks of the
clergy over the oaths imposed by law. The nonjur
ing clergy considered themselves the only true
representatives of the Church; on the other hand,
the constitutional priests maintained that their atti
tude of yielding had saved its existence, thereby
rendering the greater service. Napoleon at first
was drawn toward the side of the nonjuring priests,
since they seemed to be held in higher esteem. by
the people.	Then he attempted to aid Bishop
Gr6goire, the head of the constitutional clergy, to
secure reconciliation. But he soon saw that neither
the pope nor the nonjuring priests would have any
thing to do with the constitutional clergy, and
won the support of the nonjuring element by con
cluding a concordat with the pope in 1801 against
the advice of Grngoire. Since in the concordat no
mention was made of the Protestants, and the first
article seemed to make the Roman Catholic cultus
the one having principal rights, a special statement,
of Mar. 9, 1802, declared that the other church
were to enjoy equal rights with the Roman Catholic,
it being the duty of the State to protect the noble
minded Protestant minority, which had many claims
upon the respect and favor of the nation. Three
months were allowed for the organization of the
different ecclesiastical bodies. The ratification of
the concordat could not be accomplished so quickly,
however, there being many obstacles in the way.
Many of the constitutional and of the nonjuring clergy, and some statesmen also, were opposed to the proposed restoration of the churches. A difficult part of the work lay in getting the bishops to lay down their offices. The pope, however, in Oct., 1801, directed both classes of clergy to lay down their offices, and was obeyed by all, even the exiled, except those in England. Bonaparte found opposition also among the political forces, the senate, the tribunal, and the legislature, and he had to use his constitutional right to reduce the membership of the tribunal before introducing the concordat. The concordat itself needed a " constructive " article defining the public policy of worship according to the principles of the document itself. This article, assuring to every religion the sufferance and protection of the State, was presented to the council Apr., 1802. According to it, without the permission of the government no bulls or briefs might be published nor any councils held; every priest was to acknowledge " Bossuet's declaration " of 1682 and promise obedience to the Church in spiritual matters and to the civil power in temporal affairs; the bishops, appointed by the First Consul and confirmed by the pope, were allowed to name their pastors, provided they sought civil approval before installing them; they might build churches and seminaries, but in the choice of teachers the confirmation of government was necessary, and the pupils might not become priests before their twentyfifth year; the new archbishoprics created were Paris, Malines, Besanpon, Lyons, Aix, Toulouse, Bordeaux, Bourges, Tours, and Rouen; the salaries of the archbishops were to be 15,000 francs, those of the bishops 10,000, and of the pastors 1,000 to 1,500. Of the property of the Church there were to be restored only the pastoral dwellings and the appertaining gardens; the use of bells was again permitted. The republican calendar was modified so that the week and its days were as they were before, Sunday thus being restored; in marriage the ecclesiastical ceremony was again given its place, but a prior civil license was required. This article also provided for the Protestants that no confessions were to be published without governmental approval; the State paid the salaries of the pastors, previously appropriating church property. Two seminaries were permitted in eastern France for the instruction of the candidates for the Lutheran ministry, and one in Geneva for the Reformed faith. The direction of Lutheran affairs was placed in the hands of local and general consistories, while the Reformed were to have synods based upon the Church census. This constructive article became law without being submitted to the pope. The appointment of bishops became the bone of contention, the pope desiring that the constitutional bishops be wholly excluded, while Napoleon gave twelve of the sixty bishoprics to them. By the concordat the pope had yielded to the First Consul what had been refused to the assembly‑submission of the Church to the civil power, while the nonjuring clergy had now by command of the pope to agree to what they had formerly resisted. On the other hand, the Church had won a politically recognized existence and with this a large part of its legitimate power,

889	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	French Revolution
		Freseninr
and in later time the papacy regarded as one of
the victorious results the relegating of the French
episcopacy to a position of dependence upon Rome.
The concordat thus became the introduction to the
Vatican Decrees (see VATICAN COUNCIL).
		(P. TBCHACBERT.)
Brsrroasspay: A fine list of sources and literature is given
	in Hauck‑Hersog, RE, avi. 713‑714. Consult further the
	works on the general history of the period. This bibli
	ography, like the teat, has in mind only the religious side
	of the French Revolution. Consult: F. C. Dreyfus, L'Aa
	siatance sous la legislature et 14 convention, 1791‑1796, Paris,
	1905; A. Barruel, History of as Clergy during the French
	Revolution, 3 parts, London, 1794; H. Grdgoire, M6nodres,
	precedes d'une notice hi8torique our 1'auteur par M. H.
	Carnot, 2 vole., Paris, 1837; ANA Jager, Hiatoire do
	l'dglise do France pendant la revolution, 3 vols., Paris, 1852;
	W. H. Jervis, The Gallican Church and the Revolution,
	London, 1882; F. X. Plasse, Le Clerg4 Jranpais rd(ugid en
	Anydeterre, 2 vols., Paris, 1886; A. Gazier, Atudes sur
	Miatoire religieuae de la revolution franaiae, Paris, 1887;
	P. L. Seiout, Hiatoire de la constitution civile du elerg€,
	Paris, 1887; E. de Pressened, L'Aglise et la revolution
	Iran gaiae Paris, 1889; B. Robidou. Hiatoire du clergi
	pendant la revoution franyaiae, 2 vole., Paris, 1889; F.
	Chamard, La Revolution, 7e concordat et la libertd relipieuse,
	Paris, 1891; P. G. Moreau, Le Centenaire du martyrs den
	Carmelites de Compiigne 179.¢, Compibgne. 1894; F. Bour
	nand, Le Ckrge eoua la terreur, Tours, 1895; A. Sientd,
	A la recherche d'une religion cavils, Paris, 1895; P. A.
	Hamart, Collcetea h fravers L'Europe pour lee pretres francais
	ddportds an Suisse pendant la Revolution, 179.¢‑1797, Paris,
	1897; F. A. Aulard, Paris pendant la reaction thermido
	rienne et aoua Is directoirs, 5 vols., Paris, 1898‑1902; L.
	Bourgain, L'Aglise d'Angers pendant la revolution et jus
	qu'en 1870, Paris, 1898; A. Debidour, Hist des rapports
	de d'eglise et do Vital en France, 1789‑1870, Paris, 1898;
	O. Delare, L'ggliae de Paris pendant la revolution franfaim,
	1789‑1801, Paris, 1898; 1. Manseau, Lea Pr&ea et reliqieux
	deportee our lee cdtea et dare lea flee de la Charente irtlrisure,
	2 vole., Lille, 1898; J. F. E. Robinet, Le Mouvement reli
	pisuae h Paris pendant la revolution (1789‑1801), 2 vols.,
	Paris, 1898; A. Thys, La Persecution radigisuae en Belgique
	soua is directoire, 1789‑1799, Anvers, 1899; M. Bonneau.
	Notsa pour aervir d 1'Matoire du clergg do 1'Yonne pendant
	la revolution (1790‑1800), Gene, 1900; B. Erdmannsdarfer,
	Mirabeau, Bielefeld, 1900; Abbd Ange do Lave des Or
	mause. Massacres de aeptembre dans lea priaona de Paris;
	arreatation tea pr6trea et tea shninarietee do s. Sulpice a
	lacy, leur empriaonnfent dans 1'dpiiee tea Carmea, Paris,
	1900; H. Belloc, Robespierre, London, 1901; Sophia H.
	Maclehose, The Last Days of the French Monarchy, Glas
	gow, 1901; item, From Monarchy to Republic in France,
	1788‑1799, Glasgow, 1904; T. Carlyle, The French Revolu
	tion, new issue, 3 vols., London, 1902; C. Gomel, Histoirs
	fnanei~rs de la legislative et la convention, 1792‑1795, Paris,
	1902‑1905; R,, de Teil, ‑0vraques at pritrea massacres crux
	journbes de aeptambre 179,8 h Parts, Paris, 1902; T. Kiefer,
	Die deputicrten Bischb/e der franzdaiachen Nationalver
	sammlung and die constitution civik du clergd in den Jahrsn
	1790‑1791, Freiburg, 1903; G. L. Scherger, The Evolution
	of Modern Liberty. The French Declaration of do Rights of
	Man, New York, 1904; H. d'Almdras, Lee Romans do
	Yhiatoire, Is dhsms et Is cults de la raison, Paris, 1905; U.
	Wahl, Vorgeachichte der franz6eiachen Revolution, 2 vole.,
	Tilbingen, 1905‑07; H. G. Graham, Society in France
	before tae Revolution, Edinburgh, 1908.
	FREPPEL, frep"gel', CHARLES EXILE: French
Roman Catholic prelate; b. at Ehnheim (14 m. n.
of Schlettstadt), Alsace, June 1, 1827; d. at Paris
Dec. 22, 1891. He studied at Strasburg and was
ordained priest in 1849. After teaching philoso
phy at a Carmelite school in Paris and being di
rector of the episcopal college at Strasburg, he be
came one of the staff of Ste. Geneviave at Paris in
1853 and dean in 1867. From 1854 to 1870 he
was professor of sacred eloquence in the faculty of
Roman Catholic theology at Paris. In 1869 he
was called to Rome to assist in the preliminary ar‑
rangements for the Vatican Council, and was a pronounced adherent of the dogma of papal infallibility. He was consecrated bishop of Angers in 1870, and was s vigorous prelate, being active in organizing pilgrimages to Paray‑le‑Monial, Puy, and elsewhere, and in founding a Catholic university at Angers. In 1880 he was returned as deputy from Brest, and became the leader of the clerical party. He attracted great notice by his opposition to the government, and by his outspoken ultramontanism, as well as by his antiGerman sentiments. He favored the expeditions to Tunis (1881), Tonkin (1883), and Madagascar (1885), but his interference in Prussian ecclesiastical affairs was so active that it was suppressed by the French government. His numerous works include: Les Pyres apoatoliqtsea et leur 6poque (Paris, 1859); Les Apologiates chrEtierta au dear xii'me sie'cle (1860); St. Irdttde (1861); Examen critique de la vie de Jdatts‑Christ par M. Renart (1863); ConfErencea our la divinitk do Jesus‑Christ (1863); Tertullien (2 vole., 1864); St. Cyprien (1865); Cldmettt d'Alezandrie (1865); Examen critique des ap8tres de M. Reran (1866); Orighne (2 vole., 1888); (Euvres pastorales et oratoires (9 vole., 1869‑94); (Euvres polkntiques (9 vole., 1874‑88); L'9gliae et lea outriers (1876); Les devoirs du ehr6tiert dens la vie eivile (1876); and La Vie ehrdierane (1879). After his death appeared his Bossuet et t'doquzrtce sacr6e au dix‑aeptihrrte side (2 vole., 1893); Sermons in6dits (2 vole., 1895), and Lea 0»gitnea du christictnisme (2 vole., 1903).
BIHLIOanAPHY: J. Subilesu, Cinquante am do ministers
	paroiaaial et d'autoritd dpiscopale an Anjou. Mgr. Anpe
	bault et Mgr. Freppal, 2 parts, Paris, 1894; A. Ramrd,
	Monseigneur Fmpped, i6,. 1892; E. Cotnut, Mgr. Freppsl
	d'aprpa tea documents authantiquea at in&lite, i6,. 1893;
	E. Lesur sad F. Bournand, Un grand duEque: Mgr. Frep•
pei, i6,. 1893. '

FRESENIUS, f1'g's6‑nf've, JOHANN PHILIPP: German theologise; b. at Niederwiesen (near Kreuznach, 8 m. s. of Bingen), Germany, Oct. 22, 1705; d. at Frankfort July 4, 1761. Despite his poverty, he entered the University of Strasburg in 1723, where he devoted himself especially to the study of the works of Luther. On Sept. 26, 1725 he defended a series of theses on justification, but was compelled to interrupt his studies on account of the illness of his father, whose clerical duties he assumed for a year. He was then appointed tutor in the family of the count of Salm‑Grunbach, but his father died shortly afterward (May 25, 1727), and he became his successor at Oberaviesen. In 1731 he published at Augsburg his Antitveislingerus in answer to the Fries Vogel oiler afire of the Jesuit J. N. Weislinger. This pamphlet so angered the Roman Catholic clergy that an attempt was made to arrest him, but he escaped to Darmstadt, where he became acquainted with Landgrave Ernst Ludwig, who appointed him second court preacher at Giessen (1?34). In 1735 he became college primaries at the Pajdagogium 1Uustre, and also began to deliver exegetical and ascetic lectures at the university. From 1736 to 1742 he officiated as court deacon at Darmstadt, where he founded an institute for proselytes which added
400 members to the Lutheran Church. From 1742

Freylinghausen	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	890
to 1743 he was assistant professor and second city chaplain at Giessen; and from 1743 until his death he was minister at Frankfort.
	Fresenius was a zealous opponent of the Mora
vian movement and of Zinzendorf, who called him a
" devil incarnate." He also opposed the Reformed
congregations of Frankfort, and thwarted their
endeavors to obtain free exercise of their relig
ion, and permission to establish churches. Among
Fresenius's many works special mention may be
made of the following: Beieht‑ and Kommunion
bueh (Frankfort, 1746); Beudhrte Nachrichten
von Hermhutischen Saehen (4 vols., 1747‑51);
Notige Priifung der Zinzendorjfachen Lehrart (1748);
Pastoral_Sammluugen (24 parts, 1748‑60); Heil
same Betrachtungen fiber die Sonn‑ uxd Feattagaevan
gelien(1750, 1845, 1872); and ZuverldasdgeNachrich
ten von dem Leben, Tode and Sehriften D. Joh. Albrecht
Bengels (1753). 	(G. E. STErTzt.)

BIBLIOaaAPH7: A life was appended to the sermon preached at the funeral by K. K. Grieebach (Halls, 17617). Consult J. M. Lappenberg, Reliquien des Prdulsin von KletknbarC, pp. ,227‑231, Hamburg, 1847.

FREYLINGHAUSEN, frilling‑hau"zen, JOHANN ANASTASIUS: Pietist leader and hymn7writer; b. at Gandersheim (36 m. s.w. of Brunswick) Dec. 2, 1670; d. at Halle Feb. 12, 1739. His father was a merchant and Burgermeister of Gandersheim. He attended the school in Eimbeck, living there with his grandfather, the councilor Dietrich Freylinghausen, and studied theology at Jena, Erfurt, and Halle. In Halle he assisted Francke as well in his sermons and parochial duties as in the establishment of his well‑known institutions (see FRANCKE, AuausT HERMANN). When Francke, in 1715, was called as pastor to the church of St. Ulrich, Freylinghausen became his assistant and married his only daughter. Assistant superintendent of the Paedagogium and of the orphan asylum from 1723, he became, after Francke's death, and in association with the latter's son, superintendent of both institutions and also head pastor of St. Ulrich's. From 1728 he had several attacks of paralysis, but continued his labors to the end.
Freylinghausen is one of the most noteworthy of the group of gifted men who, deeply interested in the ideas of Spener, worked together zealously for their realization. Francke often called him his right hand. He is most widely known as a poet, and is distinguished among the poets of German Pietism oy his imagination and delicacy of taste. His hymns‑forty‑four are ascribed to him with certainty‑are characterized by Scriptural phrases and conceptions, but never sink to the level of Biblical doggerel. His importance in the history of spiritual song, however, depends principally on the hymnals which he edited, in which many hymns from the circle of the Pietists first saw the light. The earliest of these hymnals appeared in 1704 and contained 683 hymns (2d ed., 1705, with seventy‑five additional hymns); the second in 1714, containing 798 hymns and seventeen psalms for festal occasions (2d ed., 1719, with three additional hymns). A selention from both was pub‑
lished in 1718; containing 1,050 hymns. A complete hymnal after Freylinghausen was brought out by Francke's son, Gotthilf August Francke, in 1741. In these hymnals, the personal devotion peculiar to Pietism appears for the first time to claim an equal place with the objectivity of the older hymns. The musical part was even more of a novelty than the poetical. The melodies, .sometimes composed by Freylinghausen himself, differ from the older, ones in their triple‑time, in the tripping movement of the tune with the constant refrains, and in the flourishes with which the principal part is overcharged.
	Freylinghausen was 'also prominent as a cats.
chist. His Grundlegung der Theologie (Halls, 1703)
was even used as a guide in academic lectures by
Rambach, Baumgarten and others. That the
simple and instructive style of Freylinghausen's
preaching was fully appreciated appears from the
fact that, at the request of the theological faculty
of Halle, he delivered lectures to the students on
homiletics, a branch of study which was first in
cluded in the theological curriculum on the‑initia
tive of Halle. 	CARL BERTHEAU.
BmwoaaAPHT: The hymns were edited by L. Grote in the second part of W. 6ehirek'e Geiatliche Sanper, Halle, 1855, and many were translated by Catherine Winkworth in Lyra Germanica, London, 1868. For the life consult: Ehrenpedochtnis Frevlinphausens, Halle, 1740; Nachrichten von den Charakler and der AmteffArung rechtechaftener Prediper and Seelsorper, v. 188‑198, ib. 1777; H. DSring, Die peMrten Theolopen Deutechlande, i. 439‑445, Neuetadt, 1835; J. L. Pasig, in Knapp's Chriatoterpe, 1852, pp. 211‑262; A. Walter, Leban J. A. Freylinphouse=, Berlin, 1864; E. E. Koch, Gesehichte des Kirchenlsedea, iv. 322‑334, Stuttgart, 1868; ADB, vii. 370371. On his hymn‑books and the new melodies therein consult Koch, fit sup., iv. 300 sqq., v. 586 eqq.; G. D& ring, Choralkunde, 159 sqq. et passim, Dansig, 1865; J. Zahn, Die Afelodien der deutachen evanpelieclun Kirchenlieder, vi. 573 eqq. et passim, GQtersloh, 1893; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 395‑397.

FRIAR: A corruption of ,frater, the distinguishing title of the members of the Mendicant Monks (q.v.).

FRICKE, GUSTAV ADOLF: German Lutheran; b. at Leipsic Aug. 23, 1822; d. in Leipsic March 30, 1908. He studied at the university of his native city, where he 'became privat‑docent in 1846. In 1849 he was appointed associate professor of theology in the same university, and in 1851 went to Kiel as full professor of theology. In 1865 he returned to Leipsie as chief catechist at St. Peter's, and in 1867 was appointed professor of New Testament exegesis, ethics, and dogmatics. He wrote Die Erhebunq zum Hems im Gebete (Leipsie, 1850); Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte, i. (1850); Gottesgriisse (sermons; 2 vols., 1883‑86); and Aus dem Feldxuge 1888, Briefs aus dem Fdde and Predigteu and Reden im Felde (1891).

FRIDOLIN (FRmOLD) : Reputed founder of the monastery of SSekingen (on the Rhine, 20 m. above Basel), which is first mentioned as presented by Charles the Fat in 878 to his wife. According to the detailed but unreliable life by Balther, a monk of St. Gallen of the tenth or eleventh century, Fridolin was born in Ireland of noble parents. He

392	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	B=>Ighan4ea
received an excellent education, and decided to become a priest. After preaching the Gospel in his own country he went to Gaul as a missionary, making his abode at Poitiers. Here he occupied himself chiefly with collecting relics of St. Hilary, and the saint appeared to him in a vision and exhorted him to revive his cult. With the aid of Clovis, the ruler of the Franks, he erected a church for the bones of Hilary, who then commanded him to go to Alemannia to an island in the Rhine. After founding a monastery and several church on the Rhine he finally reached the island (Sackingen), and founded a church and a nunnery there. He was highly esteemed for saintliness and on account of the miracles which he wrought. This report was written about 500 years after the date of the alleged events. Balther claims to have taken his account from an older biography of Fridolin, but this is doubtful, and the whole history seems to have been Balther's invention as it fits into neither the reign of Clovis I. nor that of
Clovis II. 	(A. HAvcx. )
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Balther's life, ed. B. Krusch, in in MGH, Script rer. Merov., iii (1898), 350‑369, and with a thirteenth century German transl., in F. J. Mons, Quellensammlung der badiwhhenn Landesgeschichta, i. 1‑17, 99111, Carleruhe, 1848. Consult Rettberg, KD, ii. 29 sqq.; Friedrich, KD, ii. 411 sqq.; Hauck, XD, i. 328; J. H. A. Ebrard, Die irosdwttisc&e Missionakirehe, p. 288, Gttersloh, 1873; H. Leo, Der Wigs Fridolin, Freiburg, 1886; Wattenbach, DGQ, i. 620; ADB, vii. 385‑387.
FRIDUGIS, frf"iii"zllf' (FREDEGISUS, FRIDUGISUS, FREDEGIS, FREDUGIS): French ecclesiastic and statesman; b. in England in the second half' of the eighth century; d. in France 834. He left his native country for France some time before 796 and became a favorite pupil of Alcuin. He was a deacon at the French court in that year, and four years later had become archdeacon and teacher at the academy. After the death of Alcuin in 804, Charlemagne appointed Fridugis abbot of St. Martin's in Tours, later giving him the monasteries of St. Omer and St. Bertin. From 819 to 832 he was chancellor of Louis the Pious, in which office he made a number of praiseworthy innovations, but his career as an abbot was less creditable. Fridugis was the author of an Epiatolo ad proceres, in which he discusses light and darkness as positive entities, not as abstract negations. He likewise wrote another work which is lost, although its contents are known from Agobard's L4'ber contra objectiones Fredegesi, which states that in it Fridugis maintained the doctrine of the verbal inspiration of Scripture.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are the Bpistolm of Alcuin, nos. 99, 108, 158, 180, 197, and the Vita Alcuiai (see under ALcuIn); Einhard, Vita Karoli, chap. xxxii. in MGH, script., ii (1829), 426‑463; Theodulph, Carmiaa, 25, ed. D6mmler in MGH, Posits Lat. aroi Carolsai, i (1881), b69‑573. Consult: C. BRhr, Geschichts der rdmischen Literahur, Carlsmhe, 1840; H. F. Router, Geschichfe der religi‑ Aujkldtrunp, 6ondersbausen, 1875‑77; M. Abner Fredepia roon Tours, Leipsic, 1878; Hauck, KD, ii. 137, 148 eqq., 574.
FRIEDBERG, frfd'berg, EMIL ALBERT: German Protestant jurist; b. at Konitz (62 m. s.w. of Danzig) Dec. 22, 1837. He studied in Berlin (Dr.Jur., 1861) and Heidelberg, and was privat‑do‑
cent at Berlin (1862‑6b), associate professor at Halls (186b‑68), and full professorat Freiburg (1868‑89). Since 1869 he has been professor of canon and German law at Leipsic. Among his numerous writings mention may be made of the following, as of theological interest: De fircium inter ecclxaiam et eivitatem regettdorum judicio quid medii etri doetores et leges atatuerint (Leipsie, 1861); Die evartgeliache and katholiache Kirche der reeu einverlex3tert tinder in ihren Bexiahungen our 7rroteatantischen Landeakircha and zum Statute (Halls, 1887); Aus deutachen Buaabiichern (1865); Das Veto der Regierung bei Biachofswahl in Preussen and der obey‑rheinisehen Kirchenprovinx (1869); Agenda mie es in des Churf,araten. zu Sachserl Landen in den Kirchen gehalten taird (1869); Der Stoat and die ktttholische Kirche im Grossherzogtum Baden aeit 1880 (Leipsie, 1871); Akten‑Stiicke zum eraterc vatilcareischen Kortxil (1872) ; Crenzera zloischert Sttutt and Kirche. (3 vole., Tiibingen,1872); Johann Baptist Baltzer (Leipeic,1873); Dar Stoat and die Bischafawahlerl in Deutschland (2 vole., 1874); Akten‑Stocks die ttltkatholische Bewegung betreffend (Tubingen, 1876); Corpus yuris ednonici (2 vole., Leipsie, 1879‑81); Lehrbuch des kotleoliachen and evcsngeliachert Kirehetlrechts (1879); Quiraque compilatiortea antiquae (1882); Die gelte»den Verfaasungageaetze der evartgelischen deutachen Landeakirche (Freiburg, 188b); also four supplementary volumes, 1888‑1904); and Conotlea Sammlungen zwischen Grattan and Bernhard van Pavia (189T). From 1864 to 1892 he edited the Zeitachrift far Kirchanrecht in collaboration with R. Dove, and since 1892 he end E. Sehling have edited the successor of this periodical, the Deutsche Zeitachrift fiir ICirchertrecht.
FRIEDLAENDER, MICHAEL: Jewish scholar; b. at Jutroschin (38 m. n. of Breslau), Germany, Apr. 29, 1833. He studied in Berlin and Halls (Ph.D., 1862), and at the Talmud Thorah, of which he was director until 1865, when he became principal of Jews' College, London, resigning in 1907. He has written, edited, or translated The Commentary of Ibn Ezra an Isaiah (3 vole., London, 1873‑77); The Guide of the Perplexed of Maimonides (3 vole., 1885); The Jewish Religion (1891); and also a revision of the Authorized Version with the Hebrew text (1882) and the second edition of Lady Katie Magnus, Outlines of Jewish History from B.C. 586 to C.E. 1885 (1888).
FRIEDRICH, JOHAIIN: German Old Catholic; b. at Poxdorf June 5, 1836. He studied in Bamberg and Munich, and was ordained to the priesthood of the Roman Catholic Church in 1859. He was chaplain of Markscheinfeld until 1862, when he became privat‑docent at Munich. In 1865 he was appointed associate professor in the same university and in 1889 was called to Rome as a councilor in theVatican council. He refused to accept the dogma of papal infallibility and in 1871 was excommunicated and was also deprived of his benefice for violating a fundamental principle of the Church in giving the sacrament to a colleague who had fallen pader ecclesiastical condemnation. Notwithstanding the protests of the bishops, be was promoted to the rank of full professor in Munich in

Friends of God
Friends, Society of
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
1872, and in 1874‑75 was professor of church history at Bern. He then returned to Munich, but in 1882 was transferred, in deference to the protests of the Ultramontane party, from the theological to the philosophical faculty of the university, where he has since been professor of history. He has written Johann Wessel (Regensburg, 1862); Die Lehre des Johann Hus and ihre Bedeutuny fur die Enhoicklung der neueren Zeit (1862); Astrologic and Reformation (Munich, 1864); Das wahre ZeVadter des heiligen Ruperts (Bamberg, 1866); Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands (2 vols., 1867‑69); Tagebuch wdhrend des vatdkaniachen Konzila gefuhrt (N6rdlingen, 1871); Documenta ad illustrandum concilium Vaticanum (1871); Der Meehanismus der mlikanischen Religion (Innsbruck, 1876); Beitrdge zur Kirchen‑Gesahiehte des achtzehnten Jahrhunderts (Munich, 1876); Geschichte des vatikanischen Konzils (3 vols., Bonn, 1877‑87); Zur dltesten Geschickte des Primots in der Kirche (1879); Beitrdge zur Geschichte des Jesuiten‑Ordens (Munich, 1881); Die Kondankin‑Sehenkung (N6rdlingen, 1889); Johann Adam M6ller, der Symboliker (Munich, 1894); Jakob Froschhammer (Fiirth, 1896); and Ignaz von Dollinger (3 parts, Munich, 18991901). He likewise published a revised edition of J. J. I. von D6llinger's Jan= under the title Daa Pabsttum (Munich, 1892) and prepared the second edition of the same theologian's Pabstfabel» des Mittelalkrs (1890).

FRIENDS OF GOD: A group of German mystics of the fourteenth century. The expression " Friend of God " is taken from the Bible (John xv. 14‑15).
In the twelfth century it was used to
	Meaning	denote a religious tendency which was
	of Term.	strongly influenced by the teaching of
		Bernard of Clairvaux. In the next
century it became commoner, but in the fourteenth
in the writings of the mystics its meaning became
more restricted and expressed the ideal which they
strove to reach, the being raised through Christ
out of a state of servitude into the divine friend
ship and sonship. Three stages in man's religious
development were recognized by the mystics: begin
ning, growth, and perfection. The perfect man,
the true friend of God, can put justification byfaith
at the beginning of his career, for God will deny none
of his requests. Such friends of God Tauler called
the pillars of the Church; and not only could priests
and monks become friends of God, but even a
devout layman. However, there were many kinds,
including a more perfect class, the hidden sons of
God; some even enumerated nine different grades.
Heretics were sometimes called friends of God, for
instance, the Waldenses. Though they differed
from their fellows in their thoughts and in their
withdrawal from the world, these "friends" did not
form a definite sect. They had no brotherhood;
but their ideal was a mystical union such as Henry
of Nsrdlingen (q.v.) urged his penitent Margareta
Ebner (q.v.) to work for with other women. Henry
of N6rdlingen is the only source for an account of
the spread of this mysticism, whose teachers in
cluded such men as Eckhart, Tauler, Seuse, Henry
of NBrdlingen, Nicholas of Strasburg, and others,
in the valley of the Rhine, Switzerland, Bavaria, and Franconia.
Rulman Merawin, the chief author of the Friends of God, was born in Strasburg in 1307. and died in
the cloister of the " Grfner Worth " Rulmaa (on an island in the Ill near Strasburg)
Merswin. July 18, 1382. He was, as his father
had been before him, a well‑to‑do banker in his native city. When he was forty years old, he and his second wife renounced the world and ten years later were granted an indulgence by Pope Clement VI. In 1367 he obtained from the Benedictines the cloister of the "Griiner Worth," which four years later he gave to the Knights of St. John, retiring thither himself. He named the commander of the order as the head of the monastery, but obliged him to render a report of his administration yearly to Merawin and two others. Merawin remained the real ruler of the monastery until his death. In his lifetime he was never suspected of being a writer, but after his death many books were found written by his pen: the " Story of my Conversion"; the "Book of the Nine Rocks "; the " Little Banner Book "; the " Book of the Three Conversions and of a Holy and Learned Pastor who was the Pupil of Master Eckhart "; a selection from the " Spiritual Marriage " of Ruysbroeck; and the " Seven Works of Mercy " (these works have all been printed except the last one). All these tracts are compilations, with Merawin's own thoughts scattered here and there. The original matter is plainly the work of an ignorant, unskilful layman; its chief content is complaints of the corrupt manners of the Christian communities of the time. In the story of his conversion Merswin relates how he made the acquaintance of the "Great Friend of God from the Highlands" in 1351, who, although unknown to the rest of the world, became his secret friend. At his request he wrote the story of his own conversion and in return received a like treatise from the Great Friend. These two books were to be kept quite secret from all but themselves.
The Knights of St. John told how the Great Friend entrusted to Merswin a large quantity of
writings, which Merewin kept conThe Great cealed for thirty years, but four years
	Friend.	before his death showed them to the
		brothers of the order, first carefully
erasing all the proper names. There are about
fifteen separate works attributed to the Great
Friend, besides a large collection of letters said to
have been written by him to the monks in the
"Griiner Worth." From all this material it is
gathered that the Great Friend after a sudden con
version in the midst of worldly pleasures retired
into solitude and formed the central point of a
secret brotherhood by whom be was reverenced
almost like a god. His influence extended to all
classes, even to Jews and heathens, and he had
correspondents in Hungary and in Italy. In 1365
he retired to a mountain in the territory of the duke
of Austria, but Merawin alone knew the exact spot.
Regarding the retreat of the Great Friend the
Knights of St. John questioned Merswin in vain,
even on his death‑bed, when, however, he informed

393	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Friends of God
them that the secret messenger passing between him and the Great Friend had died the previous year. Many expeditions were sent to search for the Great Friend, even as late as 1390 In later times the Great Friend was identified with Nicholas of Basel, a layman who, having spread the heresies of the Begharda (see BEGHARDa, BEGUINEB) through the country around Basel, was burned at the stake in Vienna (1395); also with John of Chur, a pious hermit who lived in a cell on the Rutberg in the canton of St. Gall. In his writings everything is vague, and there are many contradictions. He has no definite doctrines and no more knowledge of theology than any other devout layman. An socount of a pilgrimage to Rome in 1377 is certainly a fiction. The Great Friend must have been an invention; no one could see him or could carry on a correspondence with him except through Merewin, and when Merswin died all trace of him suddenly vanished. It is then almost certain that Merewin himself invented the whole story of the Great Friend, a conjecture that is strengthened by the close correspondence in matter and style between his own writings and those attributed to the Great Friend. (PHILIPP STRAUCH.)
BIBmoGBAPH7: On the Friends of God consult: K. Schmidt, Johannes Tauler von $traasburg, pp 181 eqq. Hamburg, 1841; idem, Die Gottes/reunde ien 14. Jahrhundsrt, Jens, 1864; Rdhrich, in ZHT, x. 1 (1840), 118 eqq.; W. Wackernagel, Hleinere schriften, ii. 148 sqq., Leipsie, 1873; idem, Altdeuteche Predigten and Gebete, pp. 381 aqq., 583 eqq., BBssI,‑1876; M. Rieger, Die Goueqraunda im deuh achen Mindalter, Heidelberg, 1879; %L, v. 893900. For the works and life of Merswin consult the editions of the " Book of the Nine Rocks " by K. Schmidt, Leipsic. 1859; by B. Waslkes, Leeuwarden, 1882; by Strauss, in Zeitachrif W deutsche Philolopie, xxxiv (1902), 235 sqq.; and further, J. G. V. Engelhardt, Richard von 3t. Vidor and Johannes Ruysbroek, pp. 346 eqq., Erla~ 1838; K. Schmidt, in ZHT, ix (1839), 61 eqq.; idem, in Revas d'Alsaw, vii (1856), 145 eqq., 193 sqq.; A. Jundt, Hint. du panth4iame populaire au moyen dpe, pp. 211 sqq., Paris, 1876; R. A. Vaughan, Hours with the Mystics, i. 224, 321, 336, 8th ed., London, n.d. The extensive literature upon the question of the " Great Friend of God " is indicated is Hauck‑Herzog. RE, xvii. 203.
FRIENDS OF LIGHT. See FRM C0NGBEGATIoNs IN GEntANr.

FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF.
I. Origin and History. George Fox (1 1). Rapid Growth ($ 2). Friends in the American Colonies 0 3). Persecution 0 4). Later Development (55). Differences. The Hicksite Separation Q 6). The Gurneyite and
Wiiburite Movements (g7).
Missionary Work (¢ 8).
IL Doctrine and Practise. Distinctive Creed 0 1). The Ministry (¢2). Worship (; 3).
III. Educational Institutions.
IV. Organizations and Statistics.
The Society of Friends originated in England in the seventeenth century and spread thence to the English colonies. A few small congregations have existed at times in other countries (France, Germany, Norway, etc.), but practically the history of the Society is confined to England and America. The popular name " Quakers " is said to have bin given by a local judge at Derby, Oct. 30, 1650 (of. L. Muggleton, The. Acts of the Witness o/ the Spirit, pp. 94‑9b, London, 1699; cf. DNB, ax. 119).
L Origin and History: The rise of the Friends is one of the mgt noteworthy events in the religious
history of England is the seventeenth century. In the midst of the efforts then made to rescue the Church from the corruptions which had grown up around it, there were men who felt that Luther and Cranmer had not gone far enough, and that there was still much sacerdotaliam to be purged away, before the original simplicity of Christianity could be restored. Such men found a leader in George Fox (q.v.). He and his followers announced as their aim the revival of primitive Christianity; and this phrase remains as the beat definition of their work. The privilege of direct access to God, without the intervention of human priest or rite, was revealed to Fox's soul. Having found one, " even Christ Jesus, who could speak to his condition," he longed to impart his discovery of the spirituality of true religion to others, and in 1647 began his labors in public ministry, going forth through England on foot, and at his own
1. George charges. His message appears to
	PON.	eve been mainly to direct the peo
		ple to the great Shepherd and Bishop
of souls, who died for them, and had sent his spirit
into their hearts, to instruct and guide them in the
things pertaining to life and salvation. " I was
sent," he says, " to turn people from darkness to
the light, that they might receive Christ Jesus;
for, to as many as should receive him in his light, I
saw that he would give power to become the sons
of God, which I had obtained by receiving Christ.
I was to direct people to the Spirit that gave forth
the Scriptures, by which they might be led into all
truth, and so up to Christ and God, as those had
been who gave them forth." To the illumination
of the Holy Spirit in the heart he turned the at
tention of all, as that by which sin teas made mani
fest and reproved, duty unfolded, and ability given
to run with alacrity and joy in the way of God's
commandments. He preached repentance toward
God, and faith in the Lord Jesus Christ, and showed
that one became a true disciple not by a bare as
sent of the understanding to the truths contained
in tile Bible, nor by any outward rite, but by a
real change of the heart and affections, through
the power of the Holy Spirit. The inward fight
became not merely a mystical communion with
God, but also a source of strength and guidance in
the practical affairs of religion.
The soil was ready for the seed, and the rapid spread of Fox's doctrines was surprising. All classes flocked to his preaching; and among his converts were persons of the best families in the kingdom, priests of the Established Church, and ministers of other societies, and many men of
td. Rapid wealth and learning. For four years
Fox was the only minister of the society; the second preacher was Elizabeth Hootoa (d. 1672). In the fifth year there were twenty‑five preachers; in the seventh, upward of sixty. Within eight years, ministers of Friends '~ preached in various part, of Europe, in Asia, and ~ In Africa, and heroically endured persecution in Rome, Malta, Austria, Hungary, and other places. Among the noteworthy preachers in the earlier years, Francis Howgill, John Audland, and Samuel Fisher had been clergymen; George Bishop, Rich‑

Friends, eooist7 of	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	894
and Hubberthorn, and William Ames, officers in the army; Anthony Pearson and John Crook, justices of the peace. The courtly and cultured William Penn, and Robert Barclay (qq.v.), a member of a noble family in Scotland, a near relative of the Stuart kings, and a man of thorough classical and patristic scholarship, joined the society about twenty years after its formation. In 1680 the number of Friends in Great Britain was not less than 66,000.
America was first visited by Friends in 1656, when Mary Fisher and Anne Austin arrived in Boston from Barbados, to which island they, had gone to preach the Gospel the preceding year.
They were charged with holding" very
8. Friends dangerous, heretical, and blasphege
~ moua opinions," and were kept in close Colonies. confinement, at first on the vessel, and
afterward in jail. Their books were burned by the common executioner, and even their persons were searched to discover signs of witchcraft. They were then sent back to Barbados. In 1660 this same Mary Fisher held an interview with Sultan Mahomet IV., at Adrianople, where he was then encamped with his army. Two days after the banishment of the first Friends from Boston, a vessel having on board eight other Friends arrived from London. They were at once imPrisoned, and, eleven weeks afterward, were sent to England. But, nothing daunted, others of the same faith continued to arrive in New England, to suffer scourging, imprisonment, banishment, and four of their number (William Robinson and Mar maduke Stevenson in 1659, Maiy Dyer in 1660, and William Leddra in 1661), death by the gallows. Monthly meetings had been established in New England before 1660, and in 1661 a yearly meeting in Rhode Island, which has been continued regularly to the present date. New York, New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas were visited very early; and, although there was much persecution, flourishing communities of Friends sprang up. George Fox himself made an extended journey in America in 1671‑73. But the most important event in the early history of the society on this continent was the settlement of Pennsylvania by William Penn and a large number of his brethren in faith, beginning in 1682. In 1690 there were at least 10,000 Friends in the American Colonies, and in 1702,20,000 in Pennsylvania and New Jersey. For an account of the schism in America, 1692 and later, see KEITH, GEORGE.
While no Friends in England suffered immediate martyrdom, the sum of their persecution was very great. Between 1650 and 1689 14,000 of them were fined and imprisoned; and 369, inclu‑
ding the majority of the first preach~‑ err, died in jail, " not to mention cruel
mockings, buffetings, scourgings, and afflictions inn%nmerable." Never were persecutions borne in a more heroic spirit of endurance, or in a more Christian spirit of forgiveness. Never, too, were the inalienable rights of conscience more bravely asserted, and the privileges of Englishmen more boldly claimed. " The trials of the Friends, and especially that of John Crook in 1662,
and that of William Penn and William Mead in 1670. at the Old Bailey, will forever remain as noble monuments of their resistance to the arbitrary proceedings of the courts of judicature at that time, and the violent infringement of the privilege of jury." Soon after the Revolution of 1688, the persecution ceased on both sides of the Atlantic.
When the martyr age had passed, the society became less aggressive, and made fewer converts to its views; but it devoted itself to the quiet 6. Later De‑ practise of the Christian virtues, and
velopment. to dive philanthropy. An exaggerated asceticism in certain directions, and a rigid, though in some respects an admirable, discipline, visiting with excommunication even the offense of marrying a person not a member of the society, cooperated to keep it numerically small. In the recognition of the equal rights of women, in the abolition of slavery and the davetrade, in the protection and instruction of the Indians and the weaker races of mankind, in the amelioration of penal laws and prison discipline, in the adoption of enlightened methods for the care and relief of the insane, in testimony against war, intemperance, oaths, corrupting books and amusements, extravagance, insincerity, and vain display, it has been in the forefront of Christian reformers; while it has maintained high standards of integrity and practical virtue, and in the everyday charities of life its bounty has been liberal.
The Society in early days was an association of sympathetic believers without any adopted written creed or list of members. In time birthright membership was introduced and this created a non‑convinced element. About the middle of the eighteenth century such varied views e‑ "iff°ra"‑ and practises prevailed that on both
Cos. The sides of the ocean disciplinary regqla‑
~o~t° tions were adopted, and these in time
Separation.
came to be looked upon as an essential part of original Quakerism. Men of liberal views and varying habits were lost. This rigidity lasted well into the nineteenth century, but in 1827 came the great separation. The differences had been smoldering for years. The central figure was Elias Hicks (q.v.), an eloquent minister from Long Island. From him one body was called Hieksite while the other was known as Orthodox, though neither side formally adopted the title. The former contained many Unitarians, but their basis was the non‑necessity of the beliefs commonly known as Orthodox. In many cases there was an extension of the belief of the early Friends as to the guidance of the Holy Spirit, so as to repudiate the common Orthodox conceptions of the deity and atonement of Christ and the inspiration of the Scriptures. The other body held to these, as taught by their ancestors, but held to them with such disciplinary rigidity that sympathetic believers, who cared more for freedom of opinion than for any particular belief were driven into the opposite branch. The formal separation began in Philadelphia in 1827 and extended to the yearly meetings of New York, Baltimore, Ohio and Indiana. In the three eastern yearly meetings the Hicksites were a large majority. .In London, Dub‑

896	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Friends, society or
lin, New England, and North Carolina, the whole meeting went with the Orthodox body, leaving them as a whole the strongest and best organised. Both bodies have lost numbers in the eastern United States since this date, though of late years the tide has probably turned. In England there was also a gradual loss till about 1870 when " adult school " work and missionary effort began to increase the zeal and spirit of the younger members. English Friends, with divergent doctrinal views, have been free from serious dissensions and are now an open‑minded and progressive. body.
About 1840 there began a new tendency among Orthodox Friends‑fen Evangelical reaction from the Hicksite position. This was led by an English minister, Joseph John Gurney (q.v.). and hence
is commonly known as a " Gurney" 7. The dvr‑ its " movement. The opposition from Wybu cite a stanch upholder of ancient ways was Wilbnrite teed " Wilburite "
Move.	(see Wirsvx,
ments. JOHN). The controversy		so far as it was
theological centered about such questions as the relative authority of the Spirit and the Scriptures, the historic and the living Christ, and their places in the plan of salvation. Small divisions resulted, the Wilburite bodies being generally few in number, though Philadelphia as a whole sympathized with them. In the West the Gurneyite movement swept on with a great revivalistic agitation on Methodist lines, bringing great numbers into membership, but for a time almost destroying the landmarks of Quakerism. This has since in turn produced its reaction and the original basis of friendly doctrine and practise has to some extent reasserted itself.
Organized missionary work of Friends is of comparatively recent date, although in earlier time a number of itinerant ministers carried their messages to many parts of the world. About 1866 the Friends' Missionary Society in England established the work in India. The next year some work in 8. Mission‑ Madagascar followed, and two years try Work. later stations were organized in Syria.
In 1886 China was added to the list, and in 1896, Ceylon. The English Friends now maintain about 100 missionaries in the field in these stations, and very considerable success has attended the effort. American Friends have missions in Alaska, Mexico, Cuba, Jamaica, Japan, and East Africa, and are associated with English Friends in the missions in Syria and China. These have all been established since 1871, and are managed for the most part by the American Friends' Board of Foreign Missions, which sustains about ninety workers. The English Friends devote yearly about $150,000 to the work, and the American Friends something like one‑half this amount. The tendency of the work of the missions has been largely educational as well as Evangelical, and no special attention has been given to adding members to the Society of Friends.
II. Doctrine and Practise: The creed of the Society of Friends, if it may be so called has always been simple and Biblical. What is most distinctive of the Society is its belief in the immediate influence of the Holy Spirit, and its expects‑
tion of the guidance of the Spirit in worship and all religious acts. This might degenerate into pure mysticism, were it not corrected by the Society's 1. Distinct‑recognition of the inspiration and au‑
ive0reed. thority of the Scriptures, by which they admit in the words of Barclay " as a positive certain maxim, that whatsoever any do, pretending to the Spirit, which is contrary to the Scriptures, should be accounted and reckoned a delusion of the Devil." Their belief in the spirituality of Christianity has led them, also, to the disuse of the outward rites of baptism and the Lord's Supper, while they fully believe in the necessity of spiritual baptism, and the privilege of spiritual communion with the Father and the Son, through the Holy Spirit. They do not find, in the texts ordinarily understood as establishing these rites, any indication of such intention, and regard the rites themselves as inconsistent with the whole spirit of Christianity, in which types have given place to the substance.
Their views in regard to the ministry are also characteristic. They believe that no one should preach the Word without a direct call from God, and that this call may come to male or female, old or young. No high human learning and no course of theological study are necessary qualifications for a minister, who may be as unlettered as were most
2. The of the apostles, if plenteously endued
	>~iaistry.	with heavenly grace. But Friends do
		not deny the self‑evident proposition,
that learning and intellectual ability conduce to
the usefulness of a preacher of the Gospel, and that
a church needs men possessing both, to assert and
defend the truth. Any one who feels it laid upon
him is allowed to speak in the meetings for worship,
so long as he speaks things worthy of the occasion.
If, after sufficient probation, he gives evidence of
a divine call, he is formally acknowledged as a
minister, and is allowed one of the seats at the head
of the meeting. Besides ministers, the Society
appoints elders, whose especial duty is to sympa
thize with and advise ministers, and watch that
they be sound in the faith; and overseers, as in the
primitive Church, who have a general care of the
flock. In meetings for business, the society recog
nizes the presidency of the great head of the
Church, and strives to do all in his fear, and with
his guidance. Decisions are not made by votes
and majorities, but are recorded by the clerk, in
accordance with what appears to be " the weight "
of either side; or, if there is not a general spirit of
acquiescence, action is postponed.
Believing that every act of divine service should proceed from an immediate impression of duty, prompted by the Holy Spirit, many meetings of the Society for worship are held in silence, unless some one feels called upon to preach or teach, to 8. Worship. offer prayer in behalf of the congrega‑
Hh	tion, or to give praise to the Most
	ig ‑ But this silence is itself intended to be oc
	cupied with religious acts. Highest of these is the
	direct communion of the soul with its Maker and
	its Lord, in rapt devotion, in thanksgiving and
	prayer. But there are services, in these hours of
	silence, adapted to every degree of religious ex‑

Friends, Society of
Friends of the Temple
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOQ
898
perience and every serious mood‑ of mind. One of the most profitable of these is self‑examination. As in the sight of the All‑Seeing Eye, the humble worshiper recounts his thoughts and deeds, confesses his sins, supplicates for pardon for the past and strength for the future, and prays that he may be cleansed even from secret faults. Anothei exercise is religious meditation. At least, every attender can force himself to think on profitable themes by repeating to himself texts of Scripture, or the verses of some suggestive hymn. " Sometimes a light surprises " the humble worshiper; his thoughts are led on and upward by a higher Power; new meanings of texts flash upon his mind, a new illumination is given to the path of duty, and in answer to the prayer breathed forth by his inmost soul he feels conscious of a closer union with God, and strengthened for his future warfare with the world, the flesh, and the devil. And, if some brother or sister is led to offer vocal service, it often happens that the word of exhortation or reproof or comfort, or the earnest petition to the throne of grace, harmonizes with the private exercise of mind which the hearer has passed through, confirming his faith, and invigorating his resolution.
III. Educational Institutions: The educational institutions of higher grade among Friends of England sire,‑Dalton Hall, a hall of residence connected with the University of Manchester, which supplies living and instruction, but grants no degrees, and Woodbrooke Settlement, an institution near Birmingham, where courses of study are given to adults in sociology, Bible history and criticism, and religious movements. Of the secondary grade there are the following: Bootham and Mount Schools at York, one for boys and one for girls, which prepare for London matriculation examinations; Leighton Park School, near Reading, which prepares for the universities; Ackworth School, founded in 1779, of rather lower grade than the others; belonging to the same class, educationally considered, are Sidcot, Saffron‑Walden, Ayton, Sibford, and one or two others. A very strong movement in England of a different character is the adult school system, originated and managed chiefly by Friends, which embraces Bible lessons, educational opportunities, and many beneficial agencies. There are (1906) about 82,000 scholars in these schools and the number is rapidly increasing. It is a movement of great moral and social significance.
In America the Orthodox bodies have Haverford and Bryn Mawr Colleges near Philadelphia, Guilford College in North Carolina, Wilmington College in Ohio, Eaalham College in Indiana, Penn College in Iowa, Pacific College in Oregon, and Whittier College in California. New England, New York and Philadelphia yearly meetings also conduct boarding‑schools and the latter a number of primary and secondary schools. The school founded by William Penn, the William Penn Charter School, is managed by a board of Philadelphia Friends. There are various Friends' academies in the West. Swarthmore College near Philadelphia is under the control of the Hicksite branch, which
also has a, number of flourishing schools in and around New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore. While Friends in early days had an excellent system of schools, so that illiterate Quakers ‑unknown, the belief that education was not imperative for ministers led to a neglect of higher training; attempts to rectify this began to be made about 1850, and the colleges mentioned above have sprung up since this date.
IV. Organization and Statistics: The congregations are grouped together to constitute monthly, quarterly, and yearly meetings; the monthly meetings send representatives to the quarterly, and the quarterly to the yearly. The yearly meetings are separate in their jurisdiction, each one determining its own course of procedure. They are united with each other in epistolary correspondence, and the Orthodox meetings send representatives to the "Five Years' Meeting," the conclusions of which are simply advisory. The yearly meetings and all subordinate meetings have no presiding officer. There is a clerk appointed yearly whose duty it is to minute the conclusions of the meeting. If necessary he may exercise the office of moderator, but he is distinctly the servant and not the master of the meeting. Votes are not usually taken. After a full discussion the clerk writes his minute and reads it. If this is not satisfactory the meeting may direct a change. If there is division of sentiment, it is his duty to gather the "sense of the meeting," the weight of the speakers as well as their numbers counting in his final estimate. If there is strong opposition to a new proposition it is dropped. A simple majority would not introduce an innovation. In all meetings except the representative meetings, which are in reality executivc bodies, every member of the Society of Friends is entitled to be present and to speak to business. The recent establishment of " The Five Years' Meeting," composed of delegates from each of the yearly meetings, bids fair to become a permanent national organization of great consequence. There are two yearly meetings of the Orthodox in Great Britain and fourteen in America; of the Hicksites, six in America. The total figures are as follows:
	Orthodox‑America (1904) 	92,285
	British Islands (1904) . 	. 21,890
Hickeite‑America (1900) ................
wilburite‑America (1890) ...............
Foreign Mission Fields ..................
114,155 21,358 4,561

140,072 5,787
145,839
ISAAC SHARPLE89.
BIBmooaAP8Y: For lists of early books by, on, and against Quakers consult: J. Smith, Descriptive Catty lopue of Friends' Books privately printed, 1887 ; idem, Bibtioaeca Anti.Quakeraana, ib. 1873; idem, Supplement, London, 1893. Consult: George Fox, Journal, London, 1894, ed. R. M. Jones, Philadelphia, 1904; I. Penington, Works, London, 1681; W. Sewel, Hut. of the People called Quakers, London, 1722, Philadelphia, 1855; R. Claridge, Life and Posthumous Works, Collected by J. Besse, London, 1726; J. Besse, Sufferings of the People called Quakers, ib. 1738; William Penn, Seled Works, ib. 1771; J. Woolman, Journal of Life, Gospel Labours, and Christian Experience. Dublin, 1776, edited

897	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Primde, Ocelot, of
		Friends of the emple
	with Introduction by J. G. Whittier, Boston, 1871; J.
	Gough, Hist. of the People called Quakers, 4 vols., Dub
	lin, 1789‑90 (comes down to 1784); Miss Hicks, Sd
mone, Philadelphia, 1825; idem, Journal, New York,
	1832; J. Comly, Friends' Miscellany, 12 vols., 1831
	1839; H. Christmas, Concies Hist. of go Hampden Con
	troversy, London, 1848; J. Bowden, Hist. of Friends in
	America, ib. 1850; J. Barclay, Diary of Alexander Jaf
	fray, and Memoirs of the Quakers in asNorth of Scotland,
	Edinburgh, 1858; E. Dfichener, Portraiture of Early
	Quakerism, Philadelphia, 1860; W. Hodgson, Select His
	torical Memoirs of the Society of Friends . . . 17th and
	181h Centuries, Philadelphia, 1887; idem, Society of
	Friends in 19th, Century, ib. 1878; J. Cunningham, The
	Quakers, Edinburgh, 1888; C. Evans, Friends in the 17th
	Century, Philadelphia, 1875; Frances Anne Budge, An
	nals of the Early Friends, London, 1877; 8. M. Janney,
	Hist. of Friends, 4 vole., Philadelphia, 1859‑87; idem,
	Memoirs, ib. 1881; idem, Life of William Penn, ib.
	1882; R. Barclay, The Inner Life of the Religious
	Societies of the Commonwealth, Sd ad., London, 1879;
	A. C. Applegarth, Quakers in Pennsylvania, in Johns
	Hopkins University Studies, ser. 10, roe. 8, 9, Baltimore,
	1892; I. Sharpless, A Quaker Experiment in Government,
	Philadelphia, . 1902; idem, Quakerism and Politics, ib.
	1905; J. Bellows, Letters and Memoirs, London, 1904;
	T. E. Harvey, Rise of the Quakers; ib. 1905; A. C. and
	It. H. Thomas, Hist. of Friends in America, Philadelphig'
	1905; J. Rowntree, Essays and Addresses, London, 1908.
		On the Doctrines of the Friends consult: Robert. Bar
	day, Theologice verse Christianid apologia, Amsterdam,
	1876, Eng. transl., Apology for the True Christian Divin
	ity (Aberdeen?), 1878, reprinted Philadelphia, 1855;
	W. and T. Evans, The Friends' Library, 14 vols., ib.
	1837‑50; E. Bates, The Doctrines of the Friends, London,
	1843; J. J. Gurney, Observations on Distinguishing Views
	and Practice of Friends, ib. 1859; Book of Christian Dis
	cipline of Society of Friends, ib. 1883 (compiled from the
	documents of the yearly meetings, 1672‑1883); J. M.
	DeGarmo, Hickaite Quakers and their Doctrines, New York,
	1897; J. Rowntree, Society of Friends; its Faith and
	Practice, London, 1901; R. M. Jones, Social Lam in the
	Spiritual World, Philadelphia, 1905.
	FRIENDS OF THE TEMPLE: An organiza
tion which originated in Germany for the setting
up of the Kingdom of Christ upon earth according
to the Law and the Prophets, with its capital in
Jerusalem. The founder, Christoph Hoffmann,
was born at Leonberg ‑Dec. 2, 1815, as the son of
the burgomaster G. W. Hoffmann and younger
brother of the future court preacher Wilhelm Hoff
				mann (q.v.). The impressions which
			The	he early received at Koruthal (q.v.),
	Founder. his father's foundation, were decisive
				of his future career, and he regarded
his own work as the fulfilment of his father's plans.
His theological training was largely along lines of
his own choosing, and the lack of a scientific knowl
edge of the Scriptures was always obvious in him.
His course was determined by the conception of
the kingdom of Christ on earth as set forth in the
writings of P. M. Hahn (q.v.); and his marriage to
Hahn's granddaughter brought him into conneo
tion with the Paulus brothers, in whose educational
work he assisted until 1853. He tame out against
the conventional Christianity of his time in his
,dl Sdtze gegert GottesleWner (Ludwigsburg, 1844)
and other writings of the kind; and he car
ried his campaign further in the periodical pub
lished by him in conjunction with Paulus, the
Saiddmtsche Warte (called after 1877 Warte den
Tempels).	In the eventful year 1848 he was elected
for the Ludwigaburg district to the Frankfort As
sembly, in which he voted with the Left for the
complete separation of Church and State; but, dissatisfied with the way things were going, he resigned his seat the neat year, giving utterance to his views in Stimmen der Weissagung uber Babel and das Volk Gotten (1849). If the Church was to fulfil its mission of renewing the national life, it must itself be revivified; and this was the purpose of the Evangelischer Verein, founded in 1848 and composed of about 450 local branches, and of a school of evangelists under Hoffmann's direction, the lay preachers trained in which were to put new life into Pietism. It was not long before his peculiar ideas began to come out strongly‑,social regeneration through the " assembling of God's people " with a central point, the Temple, conceived partly in a spiritual sense, and partly in a realistic as involving the restoration of the Temple and the theocracy at Jerusalem. With these views, it was natural that Hoffmann should stand apart from the Inner Mission, which arose at the same time, and ultimately from the Church. With his followers he left the Evangelischer Verein, and at the same time turned his back on Pietism, whose leaders, in their predominantly eschatological conception of the kingdom of God, declared decidedly against his views and forbade their members to read the Warte. He gained a vigorous ally, however, in Georg David Hardegg of Ludwigsburg, who aided him to assemble there (Aug. 24, 1854) a gathering of the " Friends of Jerusalem." This body sent a petition to the Frankfort Assembly with 500 signatures, requesting it to bring pressure to bear on the sultan for the sanction of a settlement in Palestine. Since nothing came of this and similar efforts, Hoffmann undertook to build up the Temple in Germany. He wrote a projected constitution for the people of God, an appeal to Christians and Jews alike to support his project, and a book intended as a contribution to the social question, Geschiehte den Volkes Gotten (Stuttgart, 1855). The first practical step was the purchase of a place near Marbach in 1856, which was intended to be a preliminary settlement on the road to Jerusalem. While his sympathizers settled there under regulations based on the Law and the Prophets, Hoffmann went, with Hardegg and Bubeck, to Palestine, and after a thorough investigation came to the conclusion that there was no use attempting the erection of the Temple until after much preliminary work.
Hoffmann was suspended from the privileges of a Lutheran candidate in 1857 by the Consistory, and then, refusing to give any satisfactory explanation of his attitude, formally ea‑
Organiza‑ pelled from the communion of the nation as tional Church in 1859. The neat step a Sect. was definite organization as a separate religious body, accomplished in 1861 in a gathering of sixty‑four men at Kirschenhardthof, the headquarters. The Temple was to be governed provisionally by Hardegg as secular and Hoffmann as spiritual leader, with an advisory council of twelve elders. A constitutional election was first held in 1867. The movement spread in Franconia and especially in the Black Forest, until the number of adherents was estimated at 3,000.

Frfende of the Temple
,it
Hoffmann was incessantly active in the organization of various departments at Kirsehenhardthof, in lecturing (most frequently at Stuttgart), and most of all in the composition of his book Fortschritt and Rixkschritt, oder Geschichte des Ab/alls vo. Christenthum (3 vole., Stuttgart, 1863‑‑68). From 1861 to 1868, however, the real leadership of the movement was not in his hands but in Har degg's. He was a fanatical dreamer, and Hoffmann was forced into an antagonism to him which gradually became apparent. Hoffmann even thought for a time of resigning the whole chap into his hands and seeking to realize his own views in America.
In 1868 they made an attempt to settle in Palestine, the first settlement being at Haifa near Mount Carmel, where Hardegg remained while Hoffmann
migrated to Jaffa the next year, foundColonization ing there a school and a hospital. in Palestine. The acquisition of a tract of ground
in the plain of Resaim near Jerusalem in 1873 marked an important advance; and smaller settlements arose at Nazareth; Tiberias, Beirut, Ramleh, and other places, including Alexandria. About 1,500 colonists in all took up their abode in these places. In 1874 occurred an open breach between the two leaders. Hardegg went his way, founded an organization of his own (the Temple Union), and died in 1879. Hoffmann now founded an inner brotherhood for the strict carrying out of his principles, and in 1878 transferred his headquarters to Jerusalem. He gradually broke more and more with orthodoxy, contesting many of its fundamental doctrines and leaving the use of the sacraments wholly voluntary. His pen was still busy; Occident and Orient (Stuttgart, 1875) is a noteworthy production of this period. A definite constitution was drawn up in 1875, and replaced by another in 1879. Hoffmann was forced by infirmity to resign his leadership in 1884, and died Dec. 8, 1885. At that time there were 1,300 colonists in the East, and in 1901 1,406. Another new constitution, promulgated in 1890 and since then little modified, placed the rule in the hands of the " Guardian of the Temple " (from 1893 Christoph Hoffmann, Jr., the founder's son), and prescribed very simple rites, requiring unconditional obedience to the governing body. But with Hoffmann's death the movement lost its stimulus. A new colony was founded in Palestine in 1903; there is one community in Wfirttemberg (with a diminishing number of members‑244 in 1905), and a few adherents are found in Saxony, in Russia, and in America [in the United States to 1905, four churches with 340 members]. Among the colonists in Palestine divisions have occurred, which an attempt at reunion in 1897 did not fully reconcile. A number of them have shown a tendency to return to the Lutheran Church and accept its ministrations. The importance of the movement there to‑day is to be found in its economic aspects, which now admittedly predominate, and in its support of German interests in the East. Hoffmann's curious mixture of supernatural and rationalistic, Judaizing and Christian, Pietistic and socialistic elements could never have served as the
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
basis of a permanent structure; and in what he
set out to do he may be said to have definitely
failed. 	(C. KOLB.)
BIHLIOdaAPH:Y: F. Lange, (ieech4clvts des TemPela, Stuttgart, 1899 (goes only to 1884): C. Palmer, Gemeinechatteri and Sekten, TUbingen, 1877; W4rUemberBieche Kirrhtngeachichte, Stuttgart, 1893; E. Kalb, xirrhen and Sekten der (3epsnwarE, ib. 1907 (the two last‑named contain further literature). Hoffmann issued an autobiography under the title Mein Wep each Jerusalem, 2 vole., Stuttgart. 188184.
FRIENDSHIP: A relation between men for the purpose of mutual support and furtherance, having its root in the natural instinct for association between those of like tastes, aims, and desires. It is to be distinguished from the communion of sexes, and from relations of authority (e.g., that between employer and employed]. As long as the individual was absorbed in the community, the realization of friendship was not possible. Since ancient Greek philosophy was guided by the tendency to secure for the individual his personal value in opposition to the community, without finding the right ethical basis for mutual relations, it naturally esteemed friendship, especially between men of like philosophical training. Owing to their deficient appreciation of the moral value of married life, Greeks like Socrates and Theophrastua even went so far as to give friendship the precedence over every other form of love.
In modern times speculation on friendship has been less prominent, because in Christianity friendships arise everywhere as a matter of course. Christianity prepared an entirely new soil for friendship. While in the Aristotelian conception of philia and in Cicero's amicitid the general ethical sense of communion is confused with the special idea of friendship, in Christianity both are cle8sly separated. The former has been purified and perfected in the love of one's neighbor (yuhdladelphia, II Pet. i. 7); still higher moat be ranked the union of the saved children of God (John xiii. 34, xvii. 21), as being in its spiritual and moral content superior to all conceptions of the pre‑Christian world. While, moreover, the ancient world considered friendship the highest form of communion, because it did not estimate the moral personality of woman and the moral value of married life, Christianity, by placing woman on an equal footing with man in a religious and moral aspect, showed in married life a natural form of communion far superior to every kind of friendship in intimacy, satisfaction of the soul, and permanence. But since Christianity appreciates every just natural instinct, and purifies it ethically, it acknowledges the right of the natural relations of friendship as long as they do not interfere with the moral obligations in family, Church, and State.
The purpose of friendship has been variously stated. According to Socrates and the Stoics, it is profit; according to Aristotle, profit, pleasure, and virtue; according to Epicurus, the propose is profit, the consequence enjoyment. Cicero more correctly put the natural impulse which binds men to men before a conscious striving for profit, although he would have done still better, had he said want and need instead of natural impulse. Friendships

899
flourish best in the period of youth because then the need for help from outside oneself is strongest. There are sentimental friendships based on like impressions and feelings; esthetic friendships, like that between Goethe and Schiller (cf.theirinterchange of letters); and scientific friendships, between men of like vocation. The highest form of friendship is the religious, in which the Christian's love of his fellow man unites with natural sympathy differing and yet like‑minded individualities, because there is developed here the deepest intimacy, sincerity and truth of spiritual communion in connection with the most devoted sense of sacritice.
(L. LEMME.)
BIHLIOGRAPHT: Cioero and R. W. Emerson, Friendship; two Essay#, New York, 1904; H. Black, Friendship, ib. 1904; F. L. Knowles, Value of Friendahip, Boston, 1904; H. D. Thoreau, Essay on Friendship, East Aurora, N. Y., 1904; M. A. Ayer, Joys of Friendship, Boston, 1905; Aristotle, Ethics, good Eng. trawl., ad. J. Burnet, London, 1904.
FRISIANS : A people of Germanic stock dwelling along the coast of the North Sea from the Sinkfal, a tributary'of the Scheldt, to the lower courses of the Weser, with an outlying spur (the North Frisians) on the western coast of Sleswick‑Holstein. Their neighbors to the north and east were the Saxons, and to the south and west the Franks. With the latter they came into close contact, and accordingly as the Frankish influence advanced or receded the influence of Christianity rose or waned among the Frisian tribes, their conversion remaining uncompleted until the final incorporation of their territory by the Frankish empire. Mission work was begun among the Frisians in the early part of the seventh century but was followed by a pagan reaction which wiped out all traces of the new faith. The process of permanent conversion may be dated from the year 678 when Archbishop Wilfrid of York (q.v.), cast away on the Frisian coast, was hospitably received by King Aldgild at whose court he remained during the winter preaching and baptizing. It was, however, a pupil of Wilfrid, Willibrord, who came to Friesland in 690, who deserves the name of apostle of the Frisians (see WILLIBRORD). At the time of his advent the successor of Aldgild was engaged in conflict with the Frankish king Pepin, and Willibrord was compelled to restrict his labors to that part of the region south of the Rhine which was under the Frankish power. There his efforts met with pronounced success and in 695 the Frisian territory as far as the river Fly was organized into an archbishopric of which Willibrord became the first head. Till his death in 739 he was busy in perfecting the organization of the church, interrupted only by a short period when the Frisian King Radbord, in conjunction with the forces of Neustria succeeded in wresting the conquered territory from the Franks (714‑718), only to lose it to Charles Martel. Under the immediate successors of Willibrord the mission failed to make decisive progress in the region beyond the Fly and it was not until 785 that the Frisians were brought entirely under the influence of the Gospel. Politically the western Frisians came under the authority of the counts of Holland and' from them passed to the houses of Burgundy and Hapsburg, while the
RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Friends or the Temple Frith
eastern' Frisians after dwelling for a long time as a league of independent communities finally chose a common ruler, who in the reign of Emperor Frederick III. became count of East Friesland . The Reformation plunged Friesland into a protracted conflict between the Lutheran and Reformed tendencies which had made their way into the country‑ from lower Saxony and Belgium and Holland respectively, a conflict in which the two parties showed themselves matched with sufficient evenness to prevent the establishment of a church organization of either type. In 1599 a concordat was concluded by which the two confessions were both recognized as the legitimate offspring of the Augsburg Confession and the control of church affairs was vested iw a consistory comprising representatives of both parties. The principles of the concordat, however, were not carried into effect. In 1643 a consistory was organized of an exclusively Lutheran character, but it was antagonized by the ruling body of the Reformed Church. Full equality between the two denominations was established by the law of Dec. 12, 1882, when the Reformed churches of Friesland together with those of the counties of Bentheim and Plesse were united into the ecclesiastical province of Hanover under the authority of a consistory at Aurich established in 1884.
(G. UHLHORNt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. D. Wiarda, Oat(rteeieahe Geachichte, 10 vols., ib. 1792‑1817; C. A: Cornelius, Der Anfheil Oatfriedands an der keformation, Mffwter, 1852 P Claeseens hclairciasementa sur l'RaNiasementa dea f&J,& dana lee Pays‑Bas. Louvain, 1859; W. Moll, BarkgaecAiedenis roan Nederland, Arnhem, 1864‑71; W. T. Hewett, Frisian Language and Literature, New York, 1879; P. G. Bartels, Zur 0eachiehle des ostiriesisden Konratoriuraa, Aurieh, 1885; P. J. Blok, Friealand im Mit<daltsr, Leer, 1891; W. E. Collies, Early Hist, of Prieia, London, 1891 (on the conversion of Frisia); Hofstede de Groot, Hundert Jahre aua der Reformation der Niederlande, Gtlteraloh, 1893; P. Blom, QsaAiedenie roan Oud‑Friealand, Leeuwarden, 1900; Rettberg, RD; Hauck, %D, i. 295 sqq., 393 eqq., 541 eqq., ii. 310 eqq.; HL, iv. 2049‑58.
FRISSELL, HOLLIS BURKE: Presbyterian; b at Amenia, N. Y., July 14,1851. He was graduated at Yale in 1874 and Union Theological Seminary in 1879. After being assistant pastor of the Madison Avenue Presbyterian Church, New York City, for a few months in 1880, he was appointed chaplain of Hampton Institute, Hampton, Va., remaining there in that capacity until 1893, when he was appointed to his present position of principal.

FRITH (FRYTH), JOHN: English Reformer; b. at Westerham (19 m. s.e. of London) 1503; d. at London July 4,1533. He was educated at Eton and King's College, Cambridge, (B.A.,1525), but immediately after taking his degree he became a junior canon of Cardinal College (now Christ Church), Oxford, his patron being Cardinal Wolsey. In the same year he met Tyndale in London, and aided him in his translation of the New Testament. With several friends he was imprisoned in his college for teaching the doctrines of the Reformers. He was released, however, at the instance of Wolsey, on condition that he should remain within ten miles of Oxford, but he went to Germany, spending the most of his time at Marburg. After living on the Continent about four years, during which time he

F omeat
married, he returned to England and went to Reading. There he was set in the stocks as a vagrant, but was released at the request of the schoolmaster of the town and went to London, where Sir Thomas More, the lord chancellor, issued a warrant for his arrest as a heretic. Frith sought concealment, but was seized at Milton Shore, Essex, as he was attempting to escape to Holland, and was committed to the Tower. His imprisonment was not rigid, however, and became still milder when Sir Thomas Audley became chancellor in 15$,3. Meanwhile Frith had formulated his views on the sacrament, holding the following four points: The doctrine of the sacrament is not an article of faith to be held under pain of damnation; the natural body of Christ had the same qualities as those of all men, except that it was free from sin, and it is therefore not ubiquitous; it is neither right nor necessary to take the word of Christ literally, for it should be construed according to the analogy of the Bible; the sacrament should be received according to the institution of Christ, and not according to the order in use. A tailor named William Holt obtained a statement of these views from Frith by pretending to be his friend, and gave a copy to More, who prepared a reply, of which the. prisoner managed to secure a written copy. He immediately wrote a refutation, but was attacked by one of the royal chaplains in‑a sermon before the king. Henry VIII. ordered him to be examined, and he was accordingly tried, refusing a proffered opportunity to escape. He again appeared before the bishops of London, Winchester, and Chichester on June 20, 1533, but as he persisted in his denial of transubstantiation and purgatory, Bishop Stokesley of London condemned him to die at the stake as an obstinate heretic. Frith was therefore delivered to the secular arm and was confined in Newgate until he was taken to Smithfield for execution.
	John Frith was a prolific writer, his chief works
being Fruitful Gatherings o f Scripture (n.p., 1529 [?];
a	translation of the Loci of Patrick Hamilton);
A Pistle to the Christen Reader; the Revelation o f Anti
Christ (Marburg, 1529; one of the first English
attacks on Roman Catholicism); A Disputation of
Purgatory (Marburg [?] 1531 [?]); A Letter unto
faithful Followers of Christ's Gospel (n.p., 1532 [?]);
A Mirror or Glass to Know thyself (1532 [?]); A
Mirror or Looking Glass wherein you may behold
the Sacrament of Baptism described (London, 1533);
and The Articles wherefore John Frith he died (1548).
Frith's complete works were edited, together
with those of Tyndale and Barnes, by John Foxe at
London in 1573. To him are also ascribed the
Voz Piscis (3 parts, London, 1626‑27), containing
three brief treatises, including the Mirror or Glass
to Know thyself, all said to have been found in a
codfish in Cambridge market in 1626; An Admoni
tion or Warning that the faithful Christians in Lon
don dzc. may avoid God's Vengeance (Wittenberg,
1554) and the Testament of Master W. Tracie,
Esquire (Antwerp, 1535), Tyndale being a collabora
tor in the latter work.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Life and 4Vartyrdom of John Frith, London, 1824; A. & Wood, Adenas Oxonieness, ed. P. Bliss,
i. 74, London, ISM; ADwnw Cantabrspienses, ed. C. H.
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
400
and T. Cooper, i. 47, ib. 1858; T. Fuller, Church His(. of Britain, ed. J. 8. Brewer, iii. 85, oxford, 1845; DNB, ax. 278‑280.

	FRITZSCHE, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH: Re
formed theologian; b. in Nauendorf (10 m. n. of
Halls) Aug.17,1776; d. at Zurich Oct.18,1850. He
studied in the Latin school of the Halls orphan
asylum and entered the University of Leipsic in
1792; in 1799 he became pastor in Steinbach and
Lauterbach near Borna, and in 1809 preacher and
superintendent at Dobrilugk. He took a warm
interest in the public schools and wrote monographs
and articles on the theological questions of the time
from the supernaturalistic point of view. When
he became too deaf to preach he was made honorary
professor of theology at Halls in 1827, ordinary
professor in 1830; and held the position till 1848.
His writings were collected in two volumes of
Opusculd academics (Leipsic, 1838, and Zurich,
1846). 	(O. F. FxITZSCa>,t.)
Bn;LIOaxArax: C. W. Spieker, Ana dens Leben don • • . C. F. Breaciva, Frankfort, 1845; Ava den Brie%n von C. F. Breacius an C. F. Fritzache, von O. F. Fntssahe in
7.%G, uv. 214‑240.
FRITZSCHE, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST: German exegete, eon of Christian Friedrich Fritzsche (q.v.); b. at Steinbach, near Boma (15 m. s.s.e. of Leipaic), Dec. 16, 1801; d. at Giessen Dec. 6, 1846. He was educated from 1814 to 1820 at the Thomasschool in Leipsic and then studied theology at the same place. In 1825 he became professor on the philosophical faculty. In 1826 he went as professor of theology to Rostock, and in 1841 to Giessen. His theological views were rationalistic, and he concentrated his efforts chiefly upon the exegesis of the Bible, especially of the New Testament. Biblical exegesis in the second decade of the nineteenth century was at a low ebb. The prevailing conception of language was purely empirical; general laws were deduced from superficial investigations, and by confounding the meaning and sense of words the most different and contradictory interpretations were often justified; there was no trace of a penetration into the fundamental spirit of language. Exegesis had become the vehicle of dogmatics, and everything displeasing was simply explained away from the Bible. The reform of these conditions in the sphere o£ philology was started by the Rostock philologist Gottfried Hermann, and it was transferred to Biblical literature by Winer and Fritzsche. The strictly grammatical method of Bible study was first introduced by Winer in his Gtammatik des neutesttameratlichen Slorachidioms (Leipsic, 1822), and Fritzsche was one of the most industrious contributors to the later emendations and editions of this work. He paid special attention to the linguistic element in exegesis; textual criticism was one of his favorite occupations. His most important works are: De taonnullis posterior's Pauli ad Corinthios epistola; locis dissertationes dace (1823‑24) and his commentaries on Matthew (1826), Mark (1830), and the Epistle to the Romans (3 parts, Halls, 1836‑43). Some of his miscellaneous writings have been collected in Fritzschiorum oPuscula academics (Leipsic, 1838). Against the purely diplomatic method which Lach‑

401	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	~t
mann applied to the New Testament he wrote De
con f ormatione Nmn: Teetamenti aitica, quam C. Lach
mannus adidit, commentatio 1(Gieesen,1841).
(O. F. FarrzscHiiit.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Bnobel, Grabrede, Giessen, 1847; Aib pemeine Zeitung for CAridenthum and Ruche, 1847, no. 2; Allpemeins Kirdhanseitung, 1847, no. 26..
FRITZSCHE, OTTO FRIDOLIft: German theologian, youngest son of Christian Friedrich Fritzeche; b. at Dobrilugk (66 m. s.a.w. of Frankfort), Prussia, Sept. 23, 1812; d. at Zurich Mar. 9, 1896. He studied at Halle and became privat‑docent there in 1836, but in 1837 was called as professor of theology to the University of Zurich, where he was active in his official capacity until 1893. In 1837 he was also made librarian in the theological department of the library of the canton and in 1844 chief librarian of the same library. He lectured on New Testament exegesis and church history and wrote valuable books in these fields. His exegesis is based on the new principles in linguistic research advocated by Gottfried Hermann, his older brother Karl Friedrich August Fritzsche (q.v.) and Winer. His text editions contain extensive collections of different readings and critical introductions; his edition of the Apocrypha of the Old Testament (Leipsic, 1871) is the most comprehensive and important. Notwithstanding some objections that may be raised, it is the best edition now in existence. Its chief merit lies in the collection and systematic utilization of the material collected by Holmes and Parsons for the " Oxford Septuagint " (5 vols., 1789‑1827; see BIBLE VERmON3, A, L), to which Fritzsche added the Codex Sinaiticus and the fragments of the Codex Ephraemi, while for Sirach, Baruch, the Epistle of Jeremiah, and the additions in Daniel he unfortunately did not compare the Codex Vaticanus. At the end of this text edition there are to be found some of the so‑called Pseudepigrapha‑the Psalms of Solomon, the Fourth and Fifth Books of Ezra, the Apocalypse of Baruch, and the Ascension of Moses. The Paeudepigrapha were also published separately (1871). Fritzsche also edited the double text of the Greek translation of the Book of Esther with the Greek additions (1848‑49), the Greek translation of the Book of $uth (1864) and of the Book of Judges (1866‑67). Other publications belonging in the same category are‑Probe einer kritisehen Ausgabe der alien lateinischen Uebersetzung ties Neum Testament" (1867), which consists of the text of the first five chapters of the Gospel of Luke; and the edition of the fragments of the old Latin translation of the Book of Judges as an appendix to the abovementioned edition of the Greek translation of the Book of Judges. Of text editions belonging to the sphere of church history may be mentionedDer Brief des Clemens an Jakobus in der lateinischen Uebersetzung des Ruftnus (1873); Die Werke des Ladantius (1842); Theoddrs von Mopm"tia exegetische Schriften zum Neuen Testament samt den Fragmeenten seiner Schrift: "De incarnations filii Dei " (1847); Anselm of Canterbury's Cur dens homo (3d. ed., 1893); Confessio Helrodiea posterior (1839). He also prepared a biography of the Zurich theologian Johann Jakob Zimmermann (1841)
IV.‑26
and alareanus, sein Leben and seins Schriften (1890). His principal work in exegesis is the Kurzgefaast" eaxgetwehes Handbuch zu den Apokry_ phen des Alter Teatamentes (6 vols., 1851‑60), which he wrote with Willibald Grimm. It is still the best commentary on the Old Testament apoorypha. The first, second and fifth volumes are the work of Fritzsche; they comprise the third book of Ezra, the additions to Esther and Daniel, the Prayer of Manasseh, the Book of Baruch and the Epistle of Jeremiah in the first volume; the books of Tobit and Judith in the second and the book of Jesus Sirach in the fifth volume.
(V1croR RyssELt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: V. Rywel, in Theolooiadae Zeitschritt Gus der schunia, 1896, pp. 108‑123; Steiner, in TAeoiopiade Zeitechritt Gus der Schweiz, 1887.

FROESCHEL, fra'shel, SEBASTIAN: German Protestant; b. at'Amberg (35 m. e. of Nuremberg), Bavaria, Feb. 24, 1497; d. at Wittenberg Dec. 20, 1570. From 1514 till 1519 he studied at Leipsic, when he heard the disputation between Luther and. Eck in the latter year and received an impression therefrom which proved decisive for his subsequent career. Ordained deacon in 1520, and priest in 1521, he soon came into conflict with the Roman Church, and, as a result, removed to Wittenberg in the autumn of 1522. While on a visit to Leipsic in Oct., 1523, he preached a series of sermons, which led to his arrest and expulsion from the country as a heretic. After a short ministry at Halls he returned to Wittenberg in 1525 as assistant to Bugenhagen. During the remainder of his life he, served the church at Wittenberg, becoming deacon there, in 1528, and later archdeacon. He was on terms of intimacy with both Luther and Melanchthon. From 1542 to 1566 he frequently assisted in the ordination of foreign ministers at Wittenberg. In his writings he appears as the interpreter of Melanchthon. He published a Latin commentaty on St. Matthew (Wittenberg, 1558; Germ. trand., 1559; reprinted in. CR, xiv.535‑1042); Catechismus (1559; 2d. ed., 1560); Von den heiligen Bngeln,vom Tetcfel, and des 3fenschm Seele (15.63); Von der Passion . . Christi (1565); ,Vom Priestatm. (1565); and Vom Kirnigre" Christi (1566). ,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. C. Erdmsnn, Bioymphie sammaieher Pwtoren .. . . su Witlenbem. P. 11 and Supplement, pp. 65‑62, Wittenberg, 1801‑08; J. C. 6eidemann, Die Leipsiger Disputation in 1518, pp. 132‑134, Dresden, 1848; G. Buchwald, Zur Witlenbemer Stadi‑ and Uniroeraitdh tidde, Leipsio, 1893.

FROMENT, fra'!mdnl, ANTOINE: One of the men who introduced. the Reformation in Geneva; b. at Mena (25 m. a. Of Grenoble), in Dauphints, 1508; d. in Geneva Nov. 6, 1581. From 1529 he accompanied Guillaume Farel, the pioneer of the Reformed faith and preached the Gospel in western Switzerland. On Nov. 3, 1532, he went to Geneva, where the Evangelicals were still few and timid. He opened a school, and advertised that " a man had come who within a month would teach every one, men and women, great and small, to read French and to write, even if they had never been to school"; if any one did not learn in that space of time, he should have nothing to pay; sled

Froment
Fruit‑Trees
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
he would heal many sicknesses gratuitously. Froment was a capital teacher; he used the Bible as a text‑book and crowds of people, old and young, came to him. On New Year's Day, 1533, so many wished to hear him that he was compelled to preach in the market‑place. Taking Matt. vii. 15‑16 as his text, he criticized the pope, the monks, and the priests as false prophets and denounced their shameful living. He was soon obliged to depart from Geneva, but when the Protestant party became stronger and was supported by Bern he came back (July 1533). The bishop of Geneva, Pierre de la Baume, had just left the city. Froment resumed his Evangelistic work with great success. The Roman Catholic party called a popular preacher, Guy Furbity, a doctor of divinity of the Sorbonne, as Advent preacher. When he spoke violently of the new doctrine in a sermon Froment answered in the church of St. Pierre. A great tumult followed and once more Froment was compelled to leave Geneva. Bern took offense at Fupbity's preaching and threatened to break its alliance with Geneva if an apology was not made (Jan., 1534). Froment and Viret came back with the Bernese deputies. The government of Geneva gave way and the Reformation made steady progress. After Mar., 1534, Froment went to the Waldenses in Piedmont and Dauphin. In 1535 he was in Geneva when the priests, it is alleged, induced a female servant to give a poisoned soup to the Reformers, of which fortunately neither Farel nor Froment partook, but Viret was taken very seriously ill. Meantime Protestantism gained so much ground that the majority of the citizens favored the new doctrine. In Aug., 1535, the mass was abolished and the Reformation practically established. Froment ministered for a time in the Bernese province of Chablais and was deacon at Thonon, but he was busier as a merchant than as a pastor. Then his wife, Marie Denti&re of Tournai, a former abbess, became unfaithful to him, and he had to resign his charge. He acted for a time as secretary to Bonjvard, the former prior of St. Victor and prisoner of Chinon, then (Dec. 31, 1552) he was appointed notary. In 1562 he was put in prison and banished, being convicted of unchastity. For ten years the old man led a poor and miserable life; at last he was allowed to come back to Geneva (1572) and even to resume his place as notary (1574). His most notable work is: Lea Aden et gestes merveilleux de la cilt de Gen~w (ed. G. Revilliod, Geneva, 1854), a chronicle of the years 1532‑36, very interesting, but not always accuratey.
EUO$NE CHOISY.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. and A. Hang, La prance protmfaate, ed. Henri Bordier, vol. v., Paris, 1886; A. L. Herminjard, Correapondanee des r4ormateura, 9 vole., Geneva, 1866‑97; A. Guillot, Lea D*uts de la ROormation d Gendve, Geneva, 1885.

FRONTON, frsu"tou', DU DUC (also Fronton le Duc; Lat. Fronto Ducwus): A learned Roman Catholic writer; b. at Bordeaux 1558; d. in Paris Sept. 25, 1624. He was a son of a councilor of the parliament of Bordeaux, entered the Society of Jesus in 1577, and acted as teacher at Pont‑AMousson,Bordeaux, and Paris, where he became
402
librarian of the College of Clermont in 1604. A friend of Casaubon and very well known as a Greek scholar, he revised the text of the works of the Greek Fathers and translated them into Latin, with the addition of notes (Bibliotheca patrum grwco‑latina, 2 vols., Paris, 1624). He also wrote three volumes against Du Plessis‑Momay's book on the Eucharist (Bordeaux, 1599‑1~6,02 ).
EITQGNE CHOISY.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Niedron, Mhnoirea, xxxviii. 103; A. and A. de Backer, Bibliothbque den krsroaiw de la aoei&k de Jdaw, iii. 233, 7 vols., Lidge, 1853‑61; H. Hurter, Nomenclator literardua recentioria 0eologia catholsca, I. 330, Innsbruck, 1892.
FROSSARD, free"ser', BENJAMIN SIGISMOND: French Protestant; b. at Nyon (14 m. n. of Geneva), Switzerland, 1754; d. at Montauban (110 m. s.e. of Bordeaux) Jan. 3, 1830. He studied theology at Geneva and in 1777 became pastor of the Reformed Church at Lyons, where he remained till the siege of the city in 1793. While visiting England in 1785 he received an honorary doctorate from the University of Oxford. In 1795 he became professor of morals in the lvcole Centrals of ClermontFerrand. Later he went to Paris, became a member of the consistory there, and collaborated with Rabaut‑Pommier in the preparation of the organic articles of the Reformed worship. In 1809 he was charged with the organization of a Protestant theological faculty in Montauban, where he became pastor and president of the consistory. In 1810 he became the first dean of the new faculty and professor of morals and sacred eloquence. The reaction of 1815 deprived him of both deanship and pastorate, though he retained his professorship. His chief publications are a translation of Hugh Blair's sermons (3 vols., Lyons, 1782); La Cause des enclaves n~gres et des habitants de la Guin& (2 vols., 1789); and Le Christianisme des gene du monde mis en opposition avec le veritable Christianisme (2 vols., Montauban, 1831), a translation of Wilberforce's Practical View.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lichtenberger, ESR, v. 345‑346, Paris, 1878, where sources are indicated.

FROTHINGHAM, OCTAVIUS BROOKS: Rationalist; b. in Boston Nov. 26, 1822; d. there Nov. 27, 1895. He was graduated at Harvard in 1843, and at the divinity school in 1846. He filled charges at Salem, Mass. (1847‑55), Jersey City, (185Fr‑59), and New York City (1859‑79), resigned on account of ill health in 1879, and after 1881 lived in Boston. He founded the Free Religious Association (q.v.) in 1867 and was its president till 1878. He was noted for eloquence and scholarship, but was extreme in his religious views. His New York church was originally called The Third Unitarian but it separated from that denomination in 1874 and was called The Independent Liberal Church of New York. He published lives of Theodore Parker (Boston, 1874), Gerritt Smith (New York, 1878), George Ripley (Boston, 1882), and William Henry Channing (1886); The Religion of Humanity (New York, 1873); A History of Transcendentalism in New England (1876); Boston Unitarianism, 1820‑50, a study of the life and work of his father, Nathaniel Langdon Frothingllam (1890).

408	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Froment
		Fruit‑Treee
	FROUDE, frud, RICHARD HURRELL: The
English theologian remembered chiefly for his
connection with the beginning of the Oxford Move
ment, and brother of James Anthony Froude, the
historian; b. at Dartington (2 m. n. of Totnes),
Devonshire, Mar. 25, 1803; d. there Feb. 28, 1836.
He was educated at Eton and at Oxford (B.A.,
1824; M.‑A., 1827). In 1826 he won a fellowship
at Oriel, of which he was also tutor from 1827 to
1830. He took deacon's orders in 1828 and priest's
in 1829; but symptoms of consumption soon ap
peared, and he was obliged to pass a large part of
the few years that remained to him in the south of
Europe and the West Indies. Though he died at
such an early age, his force of intellect and character
made a deep impression on all who knew him. and
contributed not a little to influence the course of
the Oxford Movement. Thomas Mozley, who was
intimately associated with the whole group of men,
says of these early days (Reminiscences, i., London,
1882, p. 225) that " if there could ever be any
question as to the master spirit of this movement
		. it lies between John Henry Newman and
Richard Hurrell Froude." He wrote three of the
Tracts for the Times, and contributed to the Lyra
Apostolica the charming verses signed p. Two
volumes of his Remains were published in 1837,
with a preface by Newman. See TftAcrARIANISM.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Consult, besides the Life prefixed to the
	Remains: J. H. Newman, Apologia, pp. 75, 77, 84‑87, 95,
	109‑110, et passim, London, 1864; T. Mosley, Reminis
	cences, i. 224‑228, 291‑305, ib. 1882; J. B. Mosley's Let
	ters, pp. 75, 102, ib. 1884; DNB, xx. 290‑291.
	FRUCTUOSUS OF BRAGA: Archbishop of
Braga and apostle to the Suevi and Lusitani; d.
about 665. He was of royal stock, but retired
to monastic life at an early age. After completing
his education at a school founded by the bishop
of Palencia, he sold his estates and devoted the
proceeds partly to the poor and partly to the
establishment of cloisters. By 647 he had founded
seven monasteries in Lusitania, Asturia, Galicia,
and the island of Gades, but, instead of as
suming the direction he retired to solitude, where
his scholars from Complutum (not the well‑known
town of that name, the modern Alcala, but
a place apparently in northwestern Leon, or,
according to others, in Asturia), sought him
out and induced him to take charge of their
monastery. Such was the growth of the cloister
that the king forbade any except women to join
it, fearing that the number of men available for
military service would be depleted, whereupon
Fructuosus built a nunnery for about eighty virgins
who chose him for their spiritual head. He is best
known, however, through the two rules which he
drew up for his monks. The first of these, based
in part on the Benedictine rule and designed for
the cloister of Complutum (whence it is known as
the Regula Complutensis), is divided into twenty
five sections and inculcates the most implicit and
detailed obedience on the part of the monks. In
the second rule (Regula communis) the problem
of double monastic life is considered, so that
husbands might live with their wives and children
in monastic purity. Here again absolute sub‑
mission to the abbot was required, family ties were completely dissolved, and the sexes were rigidly separated, although a few aged monks of proved morality were permitted to reside in nunneries at a distance from the cells of the sisters, to exercise supervision over them. No one was permitted to enter a monastery, moreover, unless he first renounced all his wealth in favor of the poor.
	Despite the asceticism of Fructuosus, he was
obliged to enter upon high ecclesiastical office. He
was planning to make a pilgrimage to the East when
he was consecrated bishop of Dumio in Galicia, and
in 656 the Synod of Toledo elevated him to the
archbishopric of Braccara (Brags). Throughout
his life he was unwearied in the erection of monas
teries and churches, and after his death many
miracles were ascribed to his body, which was
buried at Santiago de Compostella. He is still
honored as the patron saint of many churches,
especially in Spain. 	(O. Z6CKLl;xt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Vita, by a contemporary, is in ASH, Apr., ii. 431‑436, and ASM, ii. 581‑590. Consult C. F. de T. Montalembert, Les Moines d'occident, ii. 221‑226, 5 vole„ Paris, 1860‑77, Eng. transl., 7 vols., London, 1861‑79; P. D. Gams, Kirchengeschichte Spaniens, ii. 2, pp. 152‑158, 3 vols., Regensburg, 1862‑79; O. ZSckler, Askew and Mtinehtum, pp. 378‑381, Frankfort, 1897; Helyot, a'dz'es monasliquea, v. 30‑34.
FRUCTUOSUS OF TARRAGONA: Bishop of Tarragona and martyr; d. about 259. Little is known concerning his life, except the events connected with his martyrdom, which is said to have taken place in 259, during the reign of Valerian and Gallienus. At the command of Amilianus, the presiding judge, Fructuosus, with his two deacons, Augurius and Eulogius; was taken from prison to the amphitheater, where all three were burned to death. The festival of Fructuosus is celebrated by the Roman Church on Jan. 21, St. Agnes' Day.
(O. Z6CKLESt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: ASH, Jan., ii. 239‑240; Prudentiue, Peristephanon, hymn 6; F. Htibner, Inscriptionea Hispanim Christian2, nos. 57‑58, Berlin, 1871.
Consult: Tillemont, MEmoires, iv. 198, 645; P. D. Gams.
Kirc*engeschiehte Spaniens, i. 265 sqq., Regensburg, 1862;
DCB, ii. 571‑572; KL, iv. 2066‑2067.
FRUIT‑TREES IN THE OLD TESTAMENT.
The Cultivated Olive (§ 1).	The Mulberry, Almond, and
The Wild Olive (§ 2).		Pomegranate (§ 5).
The Fig (§ 3).	The Apple (§ 6).
The Sycamore (§ 4). 	The Date‑palm (§ 7).
	Olive‑ and fig‑trees and grape‑vines were culti
vated in Palestine by the Canaanites long before
the advent of the Israelites. In the old parable
of Jotham (Judges ix. 7‑15) these appear as the
characteristic plants of the land. The olive‑tree
belongs to the cultivated plants of the Mediterranean
region. Its habitat is south hither Asia, where it
		was early improved and made to yield
	z. The paying crops. It requires calcareous
	Cultivated soil and a mean temperature of
	Olive. 15° C. (60° F.), and must be protected
		against strong winds and excessive
heat. In the earliest times the olive was cultivated
throughout Palestine (Deut. xxviii. 48); and olive
oil has always been one of the chief products of
the country (Deut. viii. 8; Joel i. 10; Amos iv. 9,
etc.). The regions particularly rich in olives were

Fruit‑Tree
Fry
the low plains of the coast, where the royal gardens were located (I Chron. xxvii. 28), the region of the bay of Akko (Deut. xxxiii. 24), and the shore of the Sea of Galilee (Josephus, War, II., xxi. 2). The export, especially to Egypt, was considerable (Hoses, xii. 1), likewise to Phenicia (Ezek. xxvii. 17; cf. I Kings v. 11). Olive orchards are planted with seedlings, which are then improved. The tree does not bear for ten years, and only after thirty years does it yield a full crop. On an average, there is a full yield every second year, and with good care, a half‑crop in the intermediate years. The tree, according to Pliny (Hilt. nat., XVI., xliv. 90, XVII., xxX. ), may live 200 years; and very old olive‑trees may be seen in Palestine to‑day. An old stump will continue to send up new stems, as if its vitality were indestructible. The oil is found not in the kernel of the atone but in the juicy flesh of the fruit, which ripens in September and October. The fruit is gathered when purple, before it gets black and overripe, as the oil has a much finer flavor then. Olives were eaten everywhere, either raw or pickled, after the bitter taste had been removed by allowing them to lie in brine. The finest oil was obtained by placing the bruised ripe olives in a basket and allowing them to drip without being pressed (Ex. xxix. 40, etc.). Such oil was used for the golden candlesticks 'and in the preparation of the holy anointing oil. Most of the olives were trodden and mashed in stone presses, just as were grapes (Mic. vi. 15; Joel ii. 24). Many such oilpresses are still seen in Palestine.
The wild olive, or oleaster (Rom. xi. 17 eqq.), which is also referred to in the Old Testament, but by a different name (I Kings vi. 23, 31, 33; Neh. viii. 15), must not be confused with the cultivated olive. This had short, broad leaves and thorny
branches, and yielded an inferior Z. The quality of oil used only in the preparaWild tion of ointment. The wood, on the Olive. other hand, furnished, good timber.
The olive‑tree, perennially green and always rejuvenating itself, was a favorite symbol of prosperity (Pa. Iii. 8, exxviii. 3; Jer. xi. 16); and the falling off of the leaves after a frost was typical of the early destruction of the wicked (Job xv. 33). In case the tree lost its branches, wild olive branches were grafted on the cultivated stock (Rom. xi. 17.) For the Orientals olives and olive‑oil are necessities, and the failure of the olive crop is a national calamity (Amos. iv. 9; Hab. iii. 17; cf. II Kings iv. 2 sqq.).
The home of the fig‑tree is likewise in hither Asia, and in ancient times it was planted throughout Palestine (Num. xiii. 23; Deut. viii. 8, etc.). It has a smooth trunk, gray bark, attains a height of fifteen to eighteen feet, and its dense foliage affords a splendid shade (I Kings iv. 25; II Kings xviii. 31; Micah iv. 4). It is noted for its vitality
and its ability to thrive on any soil;
3. The Fig., though in Palestine its fruit is not
particularly large. In the Old Testament three varieties of figs are distinguished: (1) Bikktarfm, early figs that ripen in June; (2) te'enim, late figs, which begin to ripen in August, growing on branches that were foroed in January;
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
404
(3) plucggim, late figs, which, still green in the autumn, hang on the tree all winter and ripen in the spring, when the sap rises. It was such winter figs that Jesus expected to find on the leafy figtree as early as the Passover . (Matt. xxi. 19). Figs are very nutritious, and are eaten both fresh and dried, in the latter case pressed into cakes (I Sam. sxv. 18; II Kings xx. 7). In antiquity the healing power of figs was generally known and prized (Puny, Hist. nat., XXIIL, lxiii.; II Kings xx. 7).
The sycamore (Ficus Sycomories), mentioned frequently in the Old Testament, is one of the commonest trees of ancient and modern Egypt, which was considered its habitat, hence Pliny speaks of it as Ficus Egyptia (Hiat. nat., XIII., xiv;
¢. The cf. Diodorus, i. 34; Ps. lxxviii. 47).
	Sycamore.	It is common in Palestine and Syria
		(II Chron. i. 15), e.g., at Gaza, Jaffa,
Ramleh and Beirut; and the present Haifa used to
be called " the City of Sycamores " (Strabo, xvi. 758,
etc.). It grows best on low ground, and was found,
therefore, chiefly near the coast, in the valley of the
Jordan, on the plains of lower Galilee, aid in the
Shephelah (I Kings x. 27; I Chron. xxvii. 28;
Isa. ix. 10). It attains considerable size and height,
and its wide‑spreading branches, covered with beau
tiful green leaves, make a magnificent shade. The
fruit is yellow, resembling the fig in appearance
and odor, and has a sweetish, insipid taste (Strabo,
xvii. 823). It was eaten by poor people; but, to
be made edible, just before ripening the fruit had
to be pierced so that a part of the juice could escape
(Amos vii. 14; Theophrastus, Hist. plantarum, iv.
2). The wood is very durable, particularly in
water, and serves chiefly for building purposes (Isa.
ix. 10). 1n Egypt it was used for mummy cams.
The mulberry‑tree is mentioned only in I Mace. vi. 34, unless Luke:xvii. 6 refers to it. The white mulberry (Mores albs), now planted extensively on Mount Lebanon for, silk‑worms, 5. The Mul‑ was introduced into Palestine compara‑
berry, Al‑ lively late. Before its advent, the
mond, black mulberry (Mores nigra) was and Pome‑ cultivated, from the fruit of which an
	granate.	intoxicating drink was, and is still,
		made. The almond‑tree (Amygdalus
communis).growa wild in Afghanistan, Kurdistan,
and Mesopotamia, but in hither Asia and Palestine
it has been cultivated from remotest times (Gen.
xuii. 11; Num. avii. 8; Jer. i. 11; Eccles. xii. 5).
It puts out its leaves as early as the end of January,
before any of the other fruit‑trees, and hence, per
haps, the Hebrew name shdkedh, " the waking one."
The pomegranate‑tree (P~xiica Crranatum) is in
digenous, to hither Asia; it ' was common, both
wild and cultivated, in Egypt (Num. xx. 5), Arabia,
Syria, and Palestine (Num. xiii. 23; Deut. viii. 8;
I Sam. xiv. 2), and the frequent lice of the name
Rimmon as a place‑name shows the prevalence
of the tree in Canaan (Josh. xv. 32, xix. 13; Judges
xx. 45). Pliny mentions eight varieties. In size
and shape the pomegranate resembles an orange; it
has a bright red color shining out from a yellow and
white background, and is juicy and refreshing.
From the juice. a sort of fruit‑wine. is prepared
(Cant‑viii. 2; Pliny, Hiet.nat.,XIV.,xix.). Withits

405	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Fruit‑Trees
		Pry
	numerous cavities, each containing a kernel, it
	became the symbol of fruitfulness in ancient relig
	ious imagery. Hence its use in the Hebrew cult
	on the columns of the temples (I Kings vii. 20 aqq.;
	Jer. Iii. 22‑23) and on the robe of the priest (Ex.
xxviii. 33).
	It is fairly probable that the Hebrew word tap
	puah refers to the apple (Prow. xxv. 11; Cant. ii. 3,
	vii. 8, viii. 5; Joel 1. 12). Names o
6. The	cities compounded with tappuak show
Apple.	that the fruit was frequently cultivated
	in Palestine. The pleasant odor re
	ceives special mention (Cant. vii. 8). However,
	it has often been denied that there were any apple
	trees in Palestine in olden times, and the word
	has been interpreted as " quince " (of. PSBA,
	XII., i. 4, 2 sqq.), or as " citron " (cf. Delitzsch, on
	Prov. xxv. 6), or as " apricot " (cf. H. B. Tristram,
	Fauna and Flora of Palestine, p. 294, London, 1884).
	The date‑tree (Phwnix dactylifera) belongs to
	subtropical vegetation. It requires sandy soil and
	a mean annual temperature of 21° to 23° C (70° F.).
	It thrives on the scorching breath of the desert;
	but at the same time its thirsty roots
7. The	must have water. It grows slowly,
	Date‑palm. reaching its maximum height of about
	fifty feet in about 100 years, and lives
	to the age of about 200 years. The fruit is eaten
	fresh, or it is pressed into a cake and then dried,
	as are apricots. In Jericho a kind of sirup was also
	made of dates (Josephus, War, IV., viii. 3; Pliny,
	Hist.nat., XIII., ix.). Its cultivation in Palestine as
	a fruit‑tree was restricted to the plains by the Sea
	of Galilee, the valley of the Jordan, and the region
	of the Dead Sea, where it thrived, as these were the
	localities offering the proper conditions. Jericho
	bore the name, " City of Palm‑trees " (Dent. xx.,
	xiv. 3; II Chron. xxviii. 15). In other parts of the
	country the tree was cultivated as an ornament,
	and in the temple pictures of palm‑trees were em
	ployed extensively as decoration (I Kings vi. 29
sqq.; Ezek. xl. 17 sqq., xli. 18 sqq.).
	I. BENzINGER.
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. E. Post, The Flora of Syria, Palestine,
	and Sinai, obtainable of the PEF, is the best single work.
	Consult: H. B. Tristram, Fauna and Flora of Palestine,
	London, 1884; Maria Calloott, Scripture Herbal, ib. 1842;
	H. S. Osborn, Plants of the Holy Land; with their Fruits
	and Flowers, Philadelphia, 1860; Auderlind, Fruchtbdurne
	in Syrien, in Zeitachrift des deutecken PaMStina Vereine,
	xi (1888), 69 sqq.; V. Hehn, Hulturpflanaen and Haustiere,
Berlin, 1894.
	FRUMENTIUS. See ABYSSINIA AND THE ABY6
BINIAN CHURCH, § 2.
	FRY, ELIZABETH: English philanthropist, be
longing to the Society of Friends; b. at Earlham
(3 m. w. of Norwich), Norfolk, May 21, 1780; d.
at Ramsgate (on the coast, 67 m. e.s.e. of London)
Oct., 12, 1845. She was the third daughter of
John Gurney, a banker of Norwich, and at the age
of twenty was married to Joseph Fry, a wealthy
London merchant. At the death of her father, in
1809, she spoke for the first time in public, and was
soon recognized as a minister among the Friends.
Her attention being drawn in 1813, by a report of
Friends, to the wretched condition of criminals
in the jails, she visited the prison at Newgate, and found nearly 300 women with their children crowded together in two wards and two cells, all sleeping on the bare floor. She at once instituted measures for the amelioration of prison morals and life, daily visiting the prison, reading to the prisoners the Scriptures, and teaching them to sew. A committee of women was organized in 1817 to carry on the work on a larger scale. These labors effected a great change in the condition of the criminals, and many profligate characters went out. of the prison renewed.
In 1818, in company with her brother, J. J. Gurney, Mrs. Fry visited the prisons of northern England and Scotland, and in 1827 those of Ireland. She also visited Kaiserswerth (see DEACONESS, III., 2, a; FLIEDNER, THEODOR), and was impressed with the advantage of training for nurses. Her efforts led to the formation of societies for the help of female criminals in various parts of Great Britain; and the fame of her labors stimulated the competition of women in foreign lands. In 1839, 1840, and 1841 she visited the Continent, extending her travels as far as Hungary, where many of the criminals slept in stocks, and whipping was universally practised, even to bastinadoing. Her efforts secured remedial legislation, and the organization of prison‑reform societies in Holland, Denmark, France, Prussia, and other Continental countries. In the mean while her efforts secured the organization of a society (1839) for the care of criminals after their discharge from prison, and for the visitation of the vessels that carried the convicts to the colonies. See PRISON REFORM.
Mrs. Fry did not confine her labors to prison reform. She successfully prosecuted a plan to supply coast vessels and seamen's hospitals with libraries. A governmental grant was supplemented by liberal private donations which enabled her and the society to distribute 52,464 volumes among 620 libraries (report for 1836). She established a " nightly shelter for the homeless " in London, and instituted a society in Brighton to discourage begging and promote industry. In 1828 her husband became bankrupt, and thenceforth she was unable to continue the liberal contributions of money she had been in the habit of making,, but her zeal and personal exertions continued unabated. She was a woman of even temper, great practical skill, tenderness of heart, and deep knowledge of Scripture. Her maxim was " Charity to the soul is the soul of charity."
	Mrs. Fry published: Observations on Female
Prisoners (London, 1827); Report by Mrs. Fry
and J. J. Gurney on their Visit to Ireland (1827);
Texts for Every Day in the Year '(1831; trans
lated into French, German, and Italian); and wrote
a preface for John Venn's Sermon. on the Gradual
Progress o f Evil (1827).	D. S. SCHAFF.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A list of books by and on Mrs. Fry is in J. Smith, Descriptive Catalogue of Friends' Books, i. 811813, privately printed, 1867. Consult: R. E. C[resswelll, Memories, London, 1845 (Mrs. Cresswell was a daughter); Memoirs of tae Life of Mre. Fry, by two of her Daughters, ib. 1847. Lives have been written also by Thomas Timpson, ib. 1847; Susanna Corder, ib. 1853; 1. M. Ashby, ib. 1892; E. R, Pitman, 1895. Consult also DNB, xz. 294‑296.

Fulda
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
	FRY, JACOB: Lutheran; b. at Trappe, Pa.,
Feb. 9, 1834. He was graduated at Union College
in 1851 and the Lutheran Theological Seminary,
Gettysburg, Pa., in 1853. He was pastor of the
Lutheran Church at Carlisle, Pa., 1854‑65, and of
Trinity Lutheran Church, Reading, Pa., 1865‑96.
Since 1891 he has been professor of homiletics and
sacred oratory in the Lutheran Theological Sem
inary, Philadelphia. He has written History o f
Trinity Lutheran Church of Reading, Pa. (Reading,
Pa., 1894) and Elemenlar Homiletics (Philadel
phia, 1897).
FUERST, Mrst, JULIUS: German Jewish scholar and Orientalist; b. at Zerkow (35 m. s.e. of Posen) May 12, 1805; d. at Leipsic Feb. 9, 1873. He studied in Berlin, Breslau, and Halle (Ph.D., 1832), and became privat‑docent in Leipsic. On the twenty‑fifth anniversary of his services in this capacity he was appointed honorary professor by the Saxon government (1864). He was editor of Der Orient, which he founded in 1840, and of the Sabbathblatt, and translated Daniel and Ezra for L. Zunz's German Bible (Berlin, 1838) and wrote Lehrgebdude der aramdischen Idiom, oder Formenlehre der ehaiddischen Grammatik (Leipsie, 1835); 1Hanize Peninim, Perlenschnure aramdiacher Gnomn and Lieder, oder aramdisehe Chrestomalhie (1836); Ozer Leshon ha‑%deah, Concordantia Leibrorum Veteris Testamnti sacrorum (in collaboration with Franz Delitzeeh; 1837‑10); Piro Aboth, Die Sprache der Vdter (1839); Hebraisches and chalddisches Sahulwbrterbuch fiber das Alts Testament (1842); Urkunden zur Geaehichteder Juden, i. (1844); Cultur‑ and Litteraturgeschichte der Juden in Asien, i. (1849); Hebrdisches and chalddisches Harulavorterbueh vber das Alte Testament (2 vols.,1857‑61; Eng. transl. by S. Davidson, London, 1865); Geschiehte des Kardertum (3 vols., Leipsie, 1862‑69); Btbliotheca Judaica (3 vols., 1863); Geschichte der biblisehen Litteratur and den jadisehrhellenistischen Sehrifum (2 vols., 1867‑70); Der Kanon des Alten Testaments naeh den Ueberlieferungen in Talmud and Midraseh (1868); and Illuetrierte Prachtbibel (1874), together with a translation of the Emunoth we‑De'oth of Saadia Fayyumi (1845).
BIBwoGnAPHY: XL, iv. 2081‑82.
FULBERT, fill"bar', OF CHARTRES: An early French prelate and scholar; b. between 952 and' 962; d. at Chartres Apr. 10, 1028. His birthplace is variously given as Aquitaine, the diocese of Laudun, and the town of Chartres. After studying under Gerbert (later, Pope Sylvester II.) at Reims, he opened a school at Chartres where, in addition to the ordinary studies of the Trivium and Quadrivium, he lectured on medicine and theology. In 1006 he was made bishop of Chartres, in which character he became of importance in the political and theological controversies of the time. He was notable especially for his vindication of the rights of the Church against the encroachments of the turbulent nobility. His writings include letters of the highest interest for the ecclesiastical and political history of France, sermons, poems, and devotional forms. Some of his letters touch on dogmatic questions, and declare with considerable
406
distinctness for the doctrine of transubstantiation. His significance lies in the services he rendered to the cause of the new thought which in his time was struggling into being. He continued the tradition of Gerbert, and, without evincing any marked creative ability, was eminently successful in handing down that tradition to distinguished pupils, among whom were Hugo of Langres, Adelmann and Berengar of Tours. His school at Chartres was, after Reims, " a second fertile nursery of learning, and not for France alone." He laid greater emphasis on the positive element in Gerbert's doctrine than on his dialectic and critical system, enjoining close adherence to the authority of the Fathers of the Church.
(F. NITZaCHt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Epistolm are accessible in A. Ducheane, Hiatori,2 Francorum acriptorea, iv. 172‑198, 5 vole., Paris, 1839‑49; in Bouquet. Recueil, x. 443 182, and m MPL, cali., which contains the real of his works. Consult: C. Pfister, De FulLert% . . . vita et oPer%Lwa. Nantes, 1885; Gallia Christians, viii. 1744; Hiato%re Litt6raira de in France, vii. 281‑282, Paris, 1748; Cartula%re de 8. Pyre de Chartres, ed. J. M. Qudrard, ib. 1840; H. Reuter, Geachiclete der religi&aen Aufkdrun9. i. 89‑92, Berlin, 1875; K. Werner, Gerbert von Aurillac, pp. 273‑‑288, Vienna, 1878; wattenbeah, DGQ, iii (1888), 130, 149; ii (1894), 185; Neander, Christian Church, iii, passim (contains selections from his writings); XL, iv. 2092‑93.
		FULCHER, f iii"ah6', (FOUCHER) OF CHARTRES
	(Fulcherius Carnotensis): A monk, b. at Chartres e.
	1059; d. after 1127. He took part in the first cru
	sade and became chaplain to Baldwin L, the second
	king of Jerusalem; according to some accounts
	he was afterward bishop of Tyre and patriarch
	of Jerusalem. Under the title Gesta Francorum
	Hierusalem peregrinantium, he wrote a valuable
	history of the Crusades from 1095 to 1127 (in MPL,
	clv. 823‑940, and, with .title Historic Hierosoly
	mitdna, in Reezleil des historians des eroisades,
	Hilt. Occid., iii., Paris, 1866, 311‑X85, cf. preface,
	xxvii‑xxxvi.; French tranal. in Guizot, Collection,
	xxiv. 1‑275, cf. preface, i.‑v.; Eng. tranal. in Pur
I	char' Pilgrim). 	(A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. von 9ybe1, Geachichte den eraten Xreuzzugea, pp. 48‑53, Leipaic, 1881; T. A. Archer and C. L. KinBaford, The Crusades, pp. 49‑50. 55, 98‑99, 135, 139140, 142, 170, 440; J. M. Ludlow, The Age of the Crusades, pp. 110‑115, New York, 1898.
FULCO (FOULQUES) OF lYEUILLY: French ecclesiastic, preacher of the fourth crusade; b. in the second half of the twelfth century; d. at Neuilly (2 m. w. of Paris), Mar., 1202. While still a young man he was placed in charge of the parish of Neuilly. His youth had been devoted to the pursuit of pleasure, rather than to the preparation for his calling, and he was now reproached by his parishioners for his ignorance and inexperience. In 1192 he reformed, gave up worldly pleasures, and set his people an example of the most rigorous asceticism and devotion to duty. He resumed his studies and walked to Paris every week‑day to learn of Peter, the famous cantor of Notre Dame.. Soon he had won the respect of his parishioners and made himself known far and wide as a fearless preacher. He even warned Richard the Lion‑Hearted to banish from his household the vices of arrogance, cupidity, and luxury. In 1198 be was charged

407	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
by Innocent III. with the preaching of the fourth crusade in France. He now went from place to place, accompanied by a few Cistercians and Pre‑. monstrants, preaching to enormous crowds. Many of his hearers were attracted by his reputation as a healer and performer of miracles, and his success was great. At the chapter‑general of the Cistercian order in 1201 he reported that under his preaching 200,000 people had taken up the cross. In the midst of this work he retired to Neuilly for a short rest, and was there stricken with fever. At his request he was buried in the parish church at Neuilly. After having been cared for and decorated for centuries his grave was desecrated and destroyed during the French Revolution.
(F. W. DIBELIUs.)
BIBLIOGBAr'87: Jacobus de Vitriaw, Hiat. orientalia, ed. F. Moschus, pp. 275 sqq., Donal, 1597; Geoffroy de Villehardouin, La Conquhte de Constantinople, ed. N. de Wailly; pp. 1 eqq., Paris, 1872; Otto of San Blas, Chronimn, xlvii., in MGR, Script., xx (1888), 304 eqq. Consult: Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chap. Ix.; J. I. Mombert, Short Hist. of As Crusades, p. 184, New York 1894; T. A. Archer and C. L. Kingsford, The Crusades, pp. 180, 370371, ib. 1895.
FULDA, ABBEY OF: A famous German abbey, founded in 744 by Sturm, a disciple of Boniface, in the district of Grabfeld on the banks of the River Fulda' on land given by Duke Carloman. The modern town, which grew up about the abbey,' is in the territory of Hesse‑Nassau, 54 m. s.e. of Cassel. Three years after the foundation the church and other buildings were complete, and a large tract of land was under cultivation. Before the constitution was drawn up, the brothers visited older monasteries, Sturm himself traveling through Italy and studying especially the life at Monte Cassino (q.v.). On his return he established his monks under the rule of St. Benedict. Boniface bore a special love to the foundation, and for its greater security obtained from Pope Zacharias a bull placing it under the immediate jurisdiction of Rome. Pepin confirmed the exemption in 753 and promised the special protection of the monarchy as well. Boniface continued his relations with Fulda, and directed that his body should be buried there; it rests in a stone sarcophagus at the present main entrance to the church. Sturm died in 779. The number of the monks and the extent of their possessions steadily increased, and their wealth was admirably employed. The abbey was one of the earliest centers of German ecclesiastical art; numerous churches were built in the surrounding country and enriched with paintings, mosaics, and beautiful vessels and manuscripts. Learning was not less encouraged. The school which was founded, probably almost as soon as the abbey, was the earliest home of theological learning in Germany. It flourished especially under the rule of Rabanus Maurus (q.v.), himself educated at Fulda and abbot from 822 to 842. The education imparted, to boys looking forward to a secular career as well as to future ecclesiastics, included the " liberal arts," grammar, rhetoric, dialectic, arithmetic, geometry, physics, astronomy, theology, and the German tongue. Among those who profited by it were Walafried Strabo (q.v.), afterward abbot of Reiche‑
nau, Servatus Lupus, Otfried, author of the Krist, and Bernard the grandson of Charlemagne, afterward king of Italy. Charlemagne laid the foundation of a library very considerable for that age, and Rabanus largely increased it. A decline began after his time; later abbots still had a care for learning, but no more great scholars or important works are found issuing thence. The most important author of these later days was Williram (q.v.). After the restoration of the abbey church by Hadama,r (installed 948), artistic activity seems also to have fallen off. Meantime discipline was decaying; the reform of 1013 made no lasting improvement. The vigorous rule of Abbot Markward (1150‑65) effected a change for the better; but later abbots were largely interested in protecting the property of the community from ppoliation by the nobility. In 1513 the neighboring abbey of Hersfeld, where Sturm had made his first settlement, was united with Fulda. The Reformation had no little influence within .t le jurisdiction of the abbey, and in 1542 a reforming ordinance was wrung from Abbot PhiAp Schenk which contained some distinctively Protestant elements and permitted the further extension of Evangelical teaching. The Counterreformation was begun in 1573 by Abbot Balthazar, and during the Thirty Years' War the Protestants in the territory came near getting the upper hand several times. The treaty concluded in 1631 between William V. of Hesse and Gustavus Adolphus gave the territory of Fulda to the former as a vassal of Sweden, and he did his best to forward the Protestant cause there; but after the defeat at NSrdlingen he was forced to resign his claims to Fulda, and Roman Catholic abbots once more, took possession. The settlement of 1803 gave the territory as a secular principality to the Prince of Orange. In 1809 it was incorporated by Napoleon with the grand duchy of Frankfort, occupied by Prussia in 1815 and assigned to the electorate of Hesse‑Cassel, with which it became part of Prussia in 1866.
(A. HAucg.)
Fulda has a somewhat peculiar history as an episcopal see. In a sense it was a diocese as early as 751, when quasiepiscopal jurisdiction over his territory was granted to the abbot by Pope Zacharias and confirmed by Pepin. The claim was often contested and stoutly upheld during the next thousand years, until Benedict XIV. placed it beyond doubt by formally raising the abbot to the dignity of a prince‑bishop in 1752. After the Revolution, the bishopric was restored in 1827, as a suffragan see of the province of the Upper Rhine, though with slightly altered boundaries in consequence of the political changes; and other changes were made by Pius IX. in 1857 and 1871, giving the diocese a Roman Catholic population of about 150,000.
BIIswoa8APHy: Sources are: C. Brower, AntiquiWum Fuldensium libri quattuor, Antwerp, 1812; Codex diplossaticus Fuldensia, ed. E. F. J. Dronke, Camel, 1850; Traditi~a et antiquidatm Puidensea, ed. E. F. J. Dronke, ib. 1844; Eigil, Vita Sturmi, ed. G. H. Perte in MGM, Script., ii (1829), 365‑367; Bruno Candidus, Vita E%qibia, ib. xv (1887), 221; lists of the abbots are given, ib. xdii(1881), 272 sqq., 340 sqq., and pp. 161‑218 contain the Annales neerolopiei Puldensm, 779‑1066; Theotroehus, Eyfsl. de ritu Puldensi mime celtbranda, in NA, iv. 409. Consult:

Fnlaentins Ferrandus
Fa1ler
J. GBsemann, Beitrdpe sur. Gewhidte des P9rstenfhume Fulda, Fulda, 1857; K. Arnd, Gesrhiehte do Hochstifts Pulda,Frsnkfort, 1862; J. Gegenbaur. Das Kloster Pulda sm RarolingeP Zeitalter, 2 parts, Fulds,1871‑73; A.Hartmann, ZeitpdrAishte von Pulda, ib. 1895; E. Heydenreieh, Dae alteste Puldaer' Cartular in Staatsarchive au Marburg. Leipsic, 1899; Die ersten Anfange der Bau‑ and %uns6 thatipksit des Klosters Pulda, Fulda, 1900; G. Rioter, Quellen and Abhandlunpen our Geschichtc der Abtei Pulda, Fulda, 1904; %L, iv. 2100‑13; Rettberg, %D, vol. i.; Hauck, AD, i. 564 aqq.; and the literature under BAIr TBALAR oh DEBNBACB.
	FULGENTIUS FERRANDUS: Deacon at Car
thage; d. there before 547. He suffered ban
ishment from Africa under the Vandal King
Thrasamund and accompanied his friend and
teacher, Fulgentius of Ruspe (q.v.), into exile to
Sardinia, but returned to Africa in 523 and became
deacon at Carthage. Nothing is known of his later
life. Apart from an anonymously transmitted bi
ography of Fulgentius of Ruspe (MPL, lxv. 117
150), he left behind him several letters and circulars
on dogmatic and ethical questions (MPL, lxvii. 887
948). Best known, and of greatest interest as
regards church history, is the circular addressed
in 546 to the Roman deacons Pelagius and Anato
lius on the occasion of the Three Chapter Contro
versy (q.v.). The title is, Pro epistula Ibce episcopi
Edesseni adeoque de tribus capitulia eoncilii Chalce
donensis adversus acephalos. Fulgentius expresses
himself very positively against the contemplated
condemnation of the Three Chapters; and he
succeeded in confirming the African bishops in their
opposition. There may still be mentioned, as of
moment for the history of canon law, his Breviatio car
nonum (MPL, Ixvii. 949‑962), a compilation of the
church regulations at that time operative in North
Africa. 	G. KBtlGEH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Letters of Fulgentius are collected in A. Mai, Scriptorum veterum nova collsdio, iii. 2, pp. 169184, 10 vole., Rome, 1825‑38; A. Reifferscheid, Aneodota Casineneia, pp. 5‑7, Wratislaw, 1871‑72; O. Bardenhewer, Patrolopie, p. 544, Freiburg, 1901; DCB, ii. 583‑584.
FULGEWTTIUS OF RUSPE: Bishop of Ruspe in the province of Byzacena, North Africa; b. at Telepte, North Africa, 468; d. at Ruspe Jan. 1, 533. He was born of a senatorial family, and on account of his good education and practical ability obtained at an early age the office of fiscal procurator, but, under the influence of Augustine's writings, he soon entered a cloister and subjected himself to the strictest asceticism. The persecutions of catholics under the Vandal King Thrasamund drove him from his home to Sicily and Rome about 500. On his return he became abbot of a small island cloister on the African coast, and in 508 (or 507) bishop of Ruspe. Scarcely had he entered upon his office when with other catholics he was banished from North Africa. With many of his fellow exiles, including his biographer, Fulgentius Ferrandus (q.v.), he settled at Cagliari, Sardinia, where he developed great practical and literary activity and became the recognized leader of the exiles in their efforts to effect their return to Africa. In 515 Thrasamund summoned him to a disputation that he had arranged between catholics and Arians, but Fulgentius, persisting in his conviction, had to return into exile. He was likewise drawn into the disputes of the Eastern Church by request of the bo‑
a1	v~_	‑ ‑t
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
408
called Scythian monks (see SEMI‑PELAGLINIBM THEOPABCHrTEB). On the death of Thrasamund in 523 he returned to Ruspe and resumed the administration of his diocese, which he resigned a year before his death.
Fulgentius was one of the most influential champions of orthodoxy against Arianism and Semi‑Pelagisanism, to which he opposed the Augustinian doctrine, though avoiding, as far as possible, its subtleties and austerities. Of his numerous writings the most important are: Contra Arianos; Ad Thrasamundum regent Vandalorum libri iii; De remissions pu;catorum ad Buthymium libri ii; Ad Monimum la7bri iii; De veritate pradestinationis et gratite deb ad Johannem et Venerdum libri iii; De fide sive de regula verse fidet ad Petrum, his best‑known and most valuable writing; and Liber de incarnations et gratin domini nosh Jesu Christi, addressed to the Scythian monks, and also designated as Epist. (xvii.) ad Petrum diaconum. The best edition of the works of Fulgentius is that of L. Mangeant (Paris, 1684; reprinted in MPL,1xv.105‑1018). G. KR$GER.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: O. Bardenhewer, Patrolopie, pp. 544 @lq.. Freiburg, 1901; F. Wbrter, Zur Dopmsnpesrhiehte des Semipeiapianismus. MRneter, 1900; Harnack, Dogma, v. 258 aqq., 293; DCB, ii. 576‑583 (rather detailed); ABB, Jan., i. 32‑45.

	FULKE, WILLIAM: English Puritan; b. in
London 1538; d. Aug. 28, 1589. He. was educated
at St. Paul's School, London, and at St. John's
College, Cambridge (B.A., 1558; M.A., 1563; B.D.,
1568; D.D., 1572). After studying law for six
years at Clifford's Inn he returned to Cambridge to
study theology. He was appointed fellow in 1564,
principal lecturer of his college in 1565, and preacher
and Hebrew lecturer in 1567. On his return to
Cambridge he allied himself with Thomas Cart
wright (q.v.), became a zealous champion of Puri
tanism and an opponent of Roman Catholicism.
He took a prominent part in the vestiarian con
troversy, inducing about 300 students, at one time,
to discard the surplice in the chapel of St. John's.
This led to his expulsion, but he was soon restored
to his fellowship. On being narrowly defeated for
the headship of his college in 1569 he retired from
the university and shortly afterward secured the
livings of Warley in Essex, and Dennington in
Suffolk. In 1572 he accompanied Lord Lincoln
to France and was one of the friends who persuaded
Cartwright to return to England. In 1578 he ob
tained the mastership of Pembroke Hall, Cambridge,
which he held till his death. He was also vice
chancellor of the university in 1581. The same
year he was deputed to hold a public disputation
with Edmund Campion (q.v.) in the Tower of Lon
don, and in 1582 he was one of twenty‑five theolo
gians appointed to hold disputations with Roman
Catholic priests and Jesuits. He was one of the
ablest controversialists of his time. Of his numer
ous polemic writings, directed largely against the
leaders of the Counterreformation in England,
the most important are: T. Stapleton and Martian
(T‑ Popish Heretics) Confuted (London, 1580; ed.
R. Gibbings for the Parker Society, Cambridge,
1848); A Defense of the Sincere and True Trans
lations o f the Holy Scriptures into the English Tongue,
t. , ~:_j:.w.

409	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	~'uA
	eutine Ferrutdue
1~'u er
against . . . Gregory Martin (1583; ed. C. N. Hartshorne, for the Parker Society, Cambridge, 1843); and The Text of the New Testament . . . Translated out of the Vulgar Latin by the Papists . . , at Rheims (1589).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: John Strype, Annals of the Reformogon, 4 vols., London, 1709‑31; T. Fuller, Church HisC of Brih aim, v. 79, ib. 1845; C. H. and T. Cooper, Athena Cantabripieneas, ii. 57‑61, ib. 1861; DNB, xx. 305‑308.

FULLER, ANDREW: English ‑Baptist preacher and author; b. at Wicken (12 m. n.e. of Cambridge), Cambridgeshire, Feb. 6, 1754; d. at Kettering (13 m. n.n.e. of Northampton), Northamptonshire, May 2, 1815. He was of humble rural parentage. About Nov., 1769, he experienced conversion and in Apr., 1770, he was baptized into the fellowship of a hyper‑Calvinistic Baptist church, of antinomian tendencies, at Soham. The pastor of the church was shortly afterward compelled to resign for teaching that men have the power to follow or resist God's will, the majority denying absolutely any freedom on man's part and regarding as impertinent and heretical any human effort for the salvation of sinners. Fuller, who had received only a moderate education, became greatly interested in the theological questions that were being discussed, and from 1771 onward read whatever pertinent literature was accessible. He early became familiar with the hyper‑Calvinistic works of John Gill and John Brine (Baptists) and was profoundly influenced by the writings of John Owen, the Puritan, and of Jonathan Edwards, the American divine. In 1772 he was invited to preach in the Soham church and in 1774 became its pastor, sound Evangelical sentiments having by this time gained ground in the community. The influence of the Evangelical revival in England and America (led by the Wesleys, Whitefield, Jonathan Edwards, and others) soon gained the mastery over Fuller, and he became the protagonist of the Evangelical and missionary movement among British Baptists. Such was his industry and strength of mind that, without academic training, he became a master in theological thinking and writing and acquired a working knowledge of the Greek and Hebrew languages. His tract entitled The Gospel Worthy of All Acceptation (Northampton, 1784) was widely. circulated among dissenters and Evangelical churchmen and produced a profound impression. His moderate, sane, Evangelical Calvinism was embodied in effective form in The Calvinistic and Socinian Systems Examined and Compared as to Their Moral Tendency, London, 1794. His writings on Sandemanianism were occasioned by his coming in contact with this type of religious thought during his Scottish tours on behalf of foreign qlissions. He was one of the founders of the Baptist Foreign Missionary Society formed for the support of Carey and his coadjutors in India, and by far the most influential home promoter of its objects. His activity in visiting the churches throughout Great Britain in this cause diffused widely his interest in missions and his sane Evangelical and Baptist views. His influence on American Baptists has been incalculable.
ALBERT H. NEwMAN.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Works have appeared in many editions,
‑London, 1838, 1840, 1853; ed. by his son, A. G. Fuller, with a memoir, for Bohn's Standard Library, 1852; ed. J. Belcher, 3 vole., Philadelphia, 1833. For his life consult: J. Ryland, Life and Death of Rev. Andrew Fuller, London, 1816; J. W. Morris, Memoir of the Life and WrsDings of Rev. Andrew Puller, ib. 1816; T. E. Fuller, Memoir of Andrew Fuller, ib. 1863; DNB, xx. 309‑310.
FULLER, RICHARD: American Baptist preacher; b. at Beaufort, S. C., Apr. 22, 1804; d. in Baltimore Oct. 20, 1876. He was the son of a prosperous South Caroilna cotton‑planter, and was brought up as an Episcopalian. In 1820 he entered Harvard, where he took high rank as scholar and debater. Though he was obliged on account of ill health to abandon his studies before the completion of his course, he received his degree in 1824. Returning to South Carojina he studied law, was admitted to the bar, and by 1831 had gained a high reputation in his chosen profession. In Oct., 1831, he was converted under the ministry of Daniel Baker, a Baptist evangelist, and soon after began to preach with remarkable eloquence. As pastor in Beaufort, his home town, he was eminently successful and soon gained a national reputation as preacher and denominational leader. He was one of the most eminent of the Southern representatiies in the Triennial Convention at the time of the rupture of the Northern and Southern Baptists on the slavery question, and with Francis Wayland as his chief opponent ably defended, in a literary way, the Southern view of slavery. As pastor of the Eutaw Place Church, Baltimore (1846‑76), he came to be recognized as the foremost pulpit orator of the American Baptists, and as a denominational leader he was prominent in the great denominational gatherings. In figure and feature he was impressive and attractive.
His Sermons, in three volumes, were published posthumously (Baltimore, 1877).
ALBERT H. NEwMAN.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. H. Cuthbert, Life of Richard Fuller, New
York, 1878.
FULLER, THOMAS: English theologian and church historian; b. at Aldwincle (3 m. n.e. of Thrapston), Northamptonshire, June, 1608; d. in London Aug. 16, 1661. He was educated at Queen's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1625; M.A., 1628), afterward entering Sidney Sussex College as a fellow commoner. In 1630 he was ordained and appointed to the living of St. Benet's, Cambridge. The next year he published his first book, in the fantastic poetical style of the period, .David's Hainous Sinne, Heartie Repentance, Heatie Punishment, and obtained the prebend of Netherbury in Salisbury Cathedral. From 1634 to 1641 he held the rectory of Broadwindsor in Dorsetshire, but did not wholly break off his connection with Cambridge. His first important book, the History of the Holy Warre, i.e., the Crusades, appeared in 1639. A year later he was elected proctor in convocation, and presently removed to London, where his wit in the pulpit was widely celebrated; ultimately he became lecturer at the Savoy Chapel. In 1642 he published his most characteristic work, The Holy State and the Profane State. His loyalty caused him to be driven out of London and to take

Fund‑mental
amental Doctrines
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
refuge at Oxford. He was chaplain for a time to Princess Henrietta, and then placed himself under the protection of Lord Montagu of Boughton, living quietly and supporting himself by his pen. During these years he brought out his picturesque geography of Palestine, called A Pisgah‑Sight (1650) and his most celebrated work,‑ the huge Church History of Britain. (1656), which, like all his books, abounds in quaint humor and epigrammatic sayings. Its accuracy was impugned by Heylyn, and Fuller retorted in a lively Appeal of Injured Innocence (1659), his last publication of importance. At the Restoration he recovered his ecclesiastical offices, and was looking forward to a bishopric when he was attacked by typhoid fever and died. His famous History of the Worthies of England appeared posthumously (1662). Fuller was never held preeminent as a divine, and as a historian he was too rapid and careless to inspire confidence, but he holds an important place among the prose‑writers of the seventeenth century, and his quaint humor has given him an undying popularity. Besides the works already named, his Good Thoughts in Bad Times (1645) and Thoughts in Worse Times (1647), and Mixt Contemplations in Better Times (1660) may be mentioned. He also contributed lives to Abel Redivivus, a collection, of biographies of ° moderne divines " (London, 1651).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A very full list of Fuller's works is given at the end of the sketch in DNB, xx. 315‑320. The Church History, History of University o,' Cambridge, and History of Waltham Abbey were edited by James Nichols, London, 1868, and for the Oxford University Press by J. S. Brewer, 1845. The Worthies of England was reprinted London, 1840. The original authority on the life is the anonymous biography printed in Brewer's ed. of the Church History. The best life is by J. E. Bailey, Life of Thomas Fuller, with Notices of his Books, his Kinsmen and his Friends, London, 1874. Consult also M. Fuller, Thomas Fuller, his Life, Times and Writings, 2 vols., ib. 1886.
FULLONIUS, GULIELMUS (Gulielmus Gnapheus, Willem van de Voldersgraft,WillemdeVolder): Protestant theologian; b. at The Hague, Holland, 1493; d. at Norden (75 m. n.w. of Bremen), Hanover, 1568. He received a humanistic education and became at an early age teacher in his native city, but had to flee after various persecutions on account of his faith. From 1535 to 1541 he was rector of the gymnasium in Elbing, then went to Kdnigsberg as counselor of Duke Albert and was active there from 1544 to 1547 as rector of the academy. Expelled also from there he went to East Frisia, where he died. On his theological conflicts see BBIEBsMANN, JOHANN; STAPHYLUs, FRIDERICITS.
(A. HAucs.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Studied en Biidrapen op't gebied der historiechs Theologie verzameld door . . . J. G. de Hoop‑Scheffer, Amsterdam, 1868; P. Tschackert, Urkundenbuch zur Reformataonepeschichle des Herzopthums Preussen, i. 254 sqq., LeiPsic, 1890; ADB, ix. 278‑280.
FULTON, JOHN: Protestant Episcopalian; b. in Glasgow, Scotland, Apr. 2, 1834; d. in Philadelphia Apr. 24, 1907. He studied in Aberdeen, and at the age of sixteen left Scotland for the United States. In 1857 he was ordained priest in New Orleans and after serving as rector and journalist Was appointed in 1892 professor of canon law in the Divinity School of the Protestant Episcopal
410
Church in Philadelphia. He wrote Letters an Christian Unity (New York, 1868); Index Canonum (1872); Laius of Marriage (1883); The Beautiful Land: Palestine, Historical, Geographical, and Pictorial (3891); The Chalcedonian Decree: or, Historical Christianity Misrepresented by Modern Theology Confirmed by Modern Science, and Untouched by Modern Criticism (Slocum lectures; 1892); and Memoirs of Frederic A. P. Barnard (1896). He also edited Ten Epochs of Church History (New York, 1897‑99).
FUNCg, JOHANN: Lutheran divine; b. at Wdhrd (a suburb of Nuremberg), Germany, Feb. 7, 1518; beheaded at K6nigsberg Oct. 28, 1566. After obtaining the master's degree at Wittenberg, and after preaching in several places, he was recommended to Duke Albert of Prussia by Veit Dietrich, and accordingly went to K6nigsberg in 1547, where the duke was so pleased with the young clergyman that he made him his court preacher (1549). On the outbreak of the Osiandrian controversy, Funck sided with Osiander and his son‑in‑law Andreas Aurifaber (q.v.), physician in ordinary to the duke; when Osiander died (Oct. 17, 1552), Funck delivered the eulogy. Joachim Morlin (q.v.), his principal opponent, was obliged to leave Prussia in 1553, and Funck was then considered the dominant theological representative of Osiander's teaching. Duke John Albert of Mecklenburg, the Lutheran son‑in‑law of Duke Albert of Prussia, long tried to influence his father‑in‑law against his protfe, and Funek was obliged to retract certain " heresies " at a synod held at Riesenburg in 1556 and to promise to abide by the Augsburg Confession and the Loci of Melanchthon. The duke still showed him great favor, however, but after his marriage to Osiander's daughter, the widow of Aurifaber, who died Dec. 12, 1559, the wrath of Osiander's opponents now turned upon Funek, who was both the confessor and counselor of the duke and treasurer of the duchess. The dissension was increased by alien adventurers like Paul Skalich, who took advantage of the senile duke, while councilors belonging to the highest nobility were pushed aside. The estates, feeling that their rights were infringed, appealed to the suzerain of the country, King Sigismund II. of Poland, who sent a commission in Aug., 1566, to Kbnigsberg to investigate the matter. Funek, together with the councilors Horst, Schell, and Steinbach, was charged with opposition to the ecclesiastical and political governance of the state, and the Polish commission directed that the case be tried by the court in the Kneiphof, Konigsberg, thus putting the accused at the mercy of their enemies. While it was true that Funek's position rendered him partly liable for the measures of the duke, Albert gave the final decision and was, therefore, personally responsible. Little value can be attached to the confession extorted from the prisoner by threats of torture, and there is, therefore, no tangible evidence of guilt. Nevertheless, Funck, Horst, and Schnell were condemned and executed in the Kneiphof market‑place at Kdnigsberg; Steinbach had to leave the country; and Paul Skalich, the real cause of the mischief, had the good fortune to escape.

411	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Fuller
		Puadsmental Doctrines
The works of Funck are as follows: Chronologia ab
urbe condita (2 vols., Ktinigsberg, 1545‑52); exposi
tions of Psalms xlvi. (1548), ciii. (1549), and ix.
(1551); Auszug and kurzer Bericht von der Ge
rechtigkeit der Christen fur Gott (1552); Wahrhaftiger
and grundlicher Berieht wie and was Gestalt die
drgerliche Spaltung van der Gerechtigkeit des Glaubens
sich anfdinglich im Lande Preussen erhoben (1553);
Der Patriarehen Lehre and Glauben (1554); Vier
Predigten von der Reekdfertigung des Sunders durch
den Glauben fur Gott. Item: Kurtze Bekenntnis
(1563).	PAUL TBCHACHERT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: K. A. Hase, Herzog AlbrecUvon Preussen
	uxd rein Hofprediger, Leipsie, 1789 (really a biography of
	Funck); P. Techaekert, Urkundenbuch zur Reformataona
	geachichte des Herzogthums Preussen, i. iii., Leipsic, 1890
	(contains essays on Funek's life up to 1551); idem, Un
	gedruckte Briefs zur allgemeinen Refomeationageschichte,
	GSttingen, 1894.
	FUNCKE, OTTO: German Protestant; b. at
Wiilfrath (6 m. w.n.w. of Elberfeld) Mar. 9, 1836.
He studied in Halle, Tubingen, and Bonn, and held
pastorates in his native town (1860‑61), Elberfeld
(1861‑63), and Holche (1863‑‑68). Since 1868 he
has been pastor of the Friedenskirche, Bremen.
Among his numerous writings, mention may be
made of his Reisebilder and Heimatklfinge (3 series,
Bremen, 1869‑72); Die Schule des Lebems, oder
christliche Lebensbilder im Lichte des Buches Jonas
(1871; Eng. tranal., School of Life, London,
1885); Christliehe Fragezeichen (1873; Eng. transl.,
under the title Self Will and God's Will: or, How
to Discern What is God's Will in the Perplexing Ques
tioats of Life, by E. Stirling, London, 1887); Ver
wandlungen, oder wie sin Sehender blind and sin
Blinder aehend urird (1873); Tagliche Andachten
(1875); St. Paulus zu Wasser and zu Lande (1877);
Freud, LEid, Arbeit im Ewigkeitslieht (1879); Seelen
kctmpfe and Seelenfriede (sermons; 1881); Willst
du gesund werden f Beitrlige zur christlichen Seelen
P flege (1882); Englische Bilder in deutscher Beleuchl
ung (1883); Die Welt des Glaubens and die All
tagswelt, dargestellt nach den Fusstapfen Abrahams
(1885; Eng. trand. by S. Taylor, The World of
Faith and the Everyday World, Edinburgh, 1891);
Wie der Hirsch schreiet (sermons; 1887); Brot and
Schwert, sin Buch fur hungernde, zwestelnde and
kdmpfende Herzen (1889); Der Wandel vor Gott,
dargelegt nach den Pusstapfen des Patriarchen Joseph
(1890); Neue Reisebilder and Heimatklange (1892);
Jesus and die Menschen, oder angewandtes Christen
tum (1894); Wie man glucklich wird and glucklich
macht (1896; Eng. transl. by S. Taylor, How to
Be Happy and Make Others Happy, London, 1896);
Du and deine Seele (1896); Die Fussspuren des
lebendigen Gottes in meinem LebenswWe (2 vols.,
Altenburg, 1898‑1900); Ungeschminkte Wahrheiten
uber christliches Leben (1902); and Reisegedanken
and Gedankenreisen eines Emeritus (1905).
FUNDAMENTAL DOCTRINES OF CHRISTIANITY.
		Fundamental and non‑Fundamental Doctrines (§ 1).
		The Fundamental Doctrines Defined Negatively (§ 2).
		The Fundamental Doctrines Defined Positively (§ 3).
		Late Schools and Theories (§ 4).
	The distinction between fundamental and non
fundamental doctrines of Christianity is useful, since,
by emphasizing the great cardinal articles of the
Christian faith, it promotes the union of the various parts of the Christian Church and develops a spirit
of tolerance with regard to the articles I. Funds‑ of lesser importance in which they dismental and agree. The Roman Catholic Church non‑Funds‑ rejects the distinction (cf. KL, arti‑
mental cle "Dogma," iii. 1879‑86) on the
Doctrines. ground that it resolves doctrines
into essential or necessary, and unessential or incidental. Nevertheless the Church recognizes a distinction in the relative importance of its doctrines. Thomas Aquinas and the Council of Trent distinguish concerning the relative value of the sacraments, baptism and the Eucharist (the " crown of the sacraments ") being the " major sacraments." Although the distinction is not universally made by Protestant theologians, it early calve into use. N. Hunnius was the first to use it in the Lutheran Church in his De fundamentali dissensu doctrinae Lutheranm et Calviniana, (Wittenberg, 1626). He was followed by Quenstddt and others, and more recently by F. A. Philippi (Glaubenslehre, i. 73 sqq., Gutersloh, 1854), who, starting from the atonement as the constitutive principle, defines as fundamental all articles which necessarily follow from it.
The distinction was urged by the younger Turretin (d. 1737), and in England by Chillingworth (d. 1644), Stillingfteet (d. 1699), Waterland (d. 1740), and others in the interest of ecclesiastical toleration; before this, Francis Bacon, in his Advancement of Learning, had insisted upon distinguishing between " points fundamental " and " points of further perfection." The Parliament of 1653 voted indulgence to all who professed the " Fundamentals," and appointed a commission, consisting of Archbishop Ussher (who resigned, his place being filled by Baxter), Owen, Goodwin, and others, to define what the " Fundamentals " were. Baxter was for holding to the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, and the Ten Commandments. But the commission drew up sixteen articles which were presented to Parliament, and only missed ratification by its dissolution in 1653 (cf. Neal's History of the Puritans, ii., 143‑144, New York, 1863). The varying importance of the doctrines of the Christian system and the growing tolerance of later times have produced the conviction that it is desirable to emphasize the more important articles. The Evangelical Alliance, on the assumption that agreement in fundamentals is a sufficient foundation for Catholic communion, has adopted a constitution of nine articles, which are regarded as essentials of Christian union (see EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE).
The distinction of fundamentals and non‑fundamentals is based upon the valid assumption that some articles are of greater importance than others.
It is justified by the example of a. The Fun‑ Paul in his teaching against the Ju‑
damental daizing tendencies of his time. The
Doctrines following distinctions may be heip‑
Defined ful in defining the term: Funda‑
Negatively. mental when applied to articles does
not imply that they are the only articles which it is expedient or desirable for a Church to teach, and the individual to believe.

Pondamental Doctrines Funsten
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
The apostasy of the angels, the eternal duration of future punishment, the single or double procession of the Holy Spirit (the filioque clause being rejected by the Greek Church; see FImOQUE CoNTRovER$Y), may all be Scriptural doctrines, and ought to be believed, but are not fundamental doctrines of Christianity (although some would so consider the endlessness of future punishment).
The fundamental doctrines of Christianity are not to be confused with the distinctive tenets of a denomination. Denominational differences may and often do embody the truth; but the mode of baptism, for example, or the particular theory of the decrees (however valuable a right view on this subject may be as a constructive principle in dogmatic theology), or a special form of ecclesiastical polity, can not be regarded as fundamental. Christianity might not do so well with one class of opinions on these subjects (say, baptism by sprinkling, supralapsarianism, and the congregational principle of church government) as it would with another; but it would still remain radically unchanged, and continue to exert its beneficent influence.
The fundamental doctrines of Christianity . are not synonymous with the doctrines essential to salvation. The latter depend upon the answer of the individual to two questions‑" What think ye of Christ?" and " What must I do to be saved?" A living faith in Christ as the one sent of God for the salvation of the world is essential to salvation, and sufficient for it (John vi. 47; Acts xvi. 31). The fundamental doctrines of Christianity are broader in their scope. They concern it as an objective system of truth.
The term fundamental is not properly applied to doctrines which distinguish Christianity from natural religion. There is a distinction between the fundamentals of religion and the fundamentals of Christianity. Religion is possible on the basis of the Five Articles of Lord Herbert of Cherbury; but the superstructure of the Christian religion has a different foundation. Some of the tenets which Christianity has in common with natural religion, as the existence of God, are fundamental to the former.
The Apostles' Creed, though a venerable and excellent summary of the Christian's faith, is not a perfect statement of the fundamental articles of Christianity. On the one hand, it brings out only by implication the doctrine of atonement, passes over entirely the Scriptures, and, on the other, as Waterland puts it, is " peccant in excess."
The fundamental doctrines of Christianity, then, are those which lie at the basis of the Christian system, and without which its professed aim (the glory of God and the highest welfare of man) could not, by logical necessity and with subjective certainty, be evolved. Waterland's defi‑
3. The Fun‑ nition is as follows: " Fundamental, as
damental	applied to Christianity, means some‑
Doctrines	thing so necessary to its being, or at
Defined least its well‑being, that it could not
	Positively.	subsist, or maintain itself tolerably,
		without it" (vol. v., p. 74). And
again: " Whatever verities are found to be plainly
and directly essential to the doctrine of the Gospel
412
covenant are fundamental " (p. 103). According to Sherlock (p. 256), they are doctrines " which are of the essence of Christianity, and without which the whole building and superstructure must fall."
The most fundamental doctrine of Christianity is salvation by Christ; and the principle will hold good that whatever doctrine stands in most necessary connection therewith is the most fundamental. The statement in Rom. i. 1‑6 (the divine existence, Scriptures, incarnation, grace, faith, and resurrection) approaches nearest of any passage in Scripture to a comprehensive enumeration of the fundamental doctrines. Waterland enumerated seven, as follows: (1) The Creator, or Covenanter; (2) covenant; (3) charter of the covenant, or Sacred Writ; (4) mediator; (5) repentance and a holy life; (6) sacraments; (7) two future states. The central principle from which he started was the Christian covenant. The sacraments, however, can hardly be regarded as a fundamental. The following statement is preferable: (1) The Fatherhood of God; (2) the Trinity; (3) the incarnation; (4) atonement; (5) faith or union with Christ, the condition of man's best being; (6) the immortality of the soul; (7) the Scriptures the summary of the divine purposes concerning man.
In defining what is fundamental in Christianity, it is as desirable to avoid a narrow as to avoid a latitudinarian tendency. Certain communions insist upon regarding episcopacy and the authority of the Church as fundamental. Individuals might insist upon particular views of original sin, tho divine decrees, the inspiration of the Scriptures, or the duration and nature of future punishment. But few of these are touched upon in the Apostles' Creed, and none definitely answered. Divergence of view on these points is of inconsiderable importance in comparison with the cardinal doctrines of God's existence, the Messiah's work, saving faith, the soul's immortality, and the sufficiency of Scripture for human illumination and guidance, and can not limit the perpetuity of Christianity. It is, however, not to be forgotten that a Church may profess these fundamental doctrines, and yet so combine fundamental errors as to modify, if not completely to destroy, their force. Of such errors, as held in the Roman Catholic Church, Sherlock says (p. 314) that " all the wit of man can not reconcile them with the Christian faith." On the other hand, a religious communion (as the strict Unitarians or Universalists) may deny fundamental truths, and yet sincerely accept Christianity as the only and perfect religion, and Christ as the Lord and Savior.
The views of the school of advanced New Testament criticism represented in varying degrees of positiveness by different scholars from Harnack to Paul Wernle of Basel (Die An. fdnge unserer Religion, Tubingen, 1904) attempt to retain the Christian religion as the final religion
4. Late and Christ as " the great Deliverer "
Schools from the bondage of legalism in reand . ligious ritual and doctrine, and at the
	Theories.	same time cast aside some of the evi
		dent teachings of the books of the
New Testament, such as the bodily resurrection of
our Lord and those doctrines which it is claimed

413	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	~~°atal Dootriaes
Paul invented by a process of reflection, such as the vicarious atonement through Christ's death. It would seem as if there could be no terms of agreement between this school and the received views of the Church. For what is fundamental in the views of the Church is in part completely set aside if the distinctive theology of the Pauline epistles is without warrant in fact and only a product of the Apostle's own brain.
Prof. Alfred Seeberg of Dorpat, in his Katechismus der Urchristenheit (Leipsic, 1903), has attempted to arrange the articles of a supposed primitive catechism of fundamental tenets, which, he thinks, it was the custom to carry or send to new churches for their adoption. He bases the existence of such a formula upon Rom. vi. 17 (" that form of doctrine which was delivered you "), II Thess. ii. 15, and other passages, and reconstructs it on the basis of I Cor. xv. 3‑5 and other Pauline statements. He includes in it a belief in the divine mission of the Son of God, his crucifixion, resurrection, ascension, and second coming. This formula became the nucleus of the Apostles' Creed and was the kernel of apostolic preaching. The treatment is suggestive and points to the fact that in the pages of the New Testament as they have been preserved there is a distinctive set of tenets which were new when they were proclaimed and composed the early Christian teaching.
An indirect attempt to define what is fundamental in the Christian system was made in the so‑called Chicago‑Lambeth Articles, adopted first by the General Convention of the Protestant Episcopal Church in Chicago, 1886, and then by the Lambeth Conference in 1888 (see LAMBETH CONFERENCE). They were intended as an invitation to church union and a basis for it, but were officially rejected by the Presbyterian General Assembly in the United States and were unfavorably received by other bodies. The fundamentals of the Articles (called the " Quadrilateral " because four in number) were: " The Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments as containing all things necessary to salvation, and as being the rule and ultimate standard of faith; the Apostles' Creed, as the baptismal symbol, and the Nicene Creed, as the sufficient statement of the Christian faith; the two sacraments ordained by Christ himself‑baptism and the Supper of the Lord‑ministered with unfailing use of Christ's words of institution and of the elements ordained by him; the historic episcopate locally adapted in the methods of its administration to the varying needs of the nations and peoples called of God into the unity of his Church."
D. S. SCHAFF.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Chillingworth, The Religion of Protestants, i. 4‑5, Oxford, 1638; W. Sherlock, A Discourse about Christian Unity, Being a Defence of Bp. Stillinggett's Unreasonableness of Separation, chap. v., pp. 248‑316, London, 1681; J. A. Turretin, A Discourse concerning the Fundamental Articles in Religion ib 1720; D. Waterland, A Discourse of Fundamental, ib. 1735 (v. 73‑104 of ed. of Oxford, 1843); Tholuek, in Deutsche Zeitsehrift fir christlidee Theologie, 1851. Modern treatments of the subject do not appear under the title of Fundamentals; the topic is discussed more or lees directly in writings upon Christian Unity and Church Union, e.g., A. M. Fairbairn, The Place of Christ in Modern Theology, New York, 1893; J. Martinesu, The Seat of Authority in Religion,
London, 1898; A. Harnack, Das Weaen des Christentums, Berlin, 1900, Eng. tranel., What is Christianity, New York, 1901, which was ably answered by H. Cremer, Do# Wesen des Christentums, Giitersloh, 1901, Eng. tranel., Reply to Harnack an "The Essence of Christianity," New York. 1904. Consult also R. D. Browne, The Fundamental Truths of the Catholic Church, London, 1890.
FUNK, FRANZ XAVER: German Roman Catholic; b. at Abtsgmund, Wurttemberg, Oct. 12, 1840; d. at Tiibingen Feb. 24, 1907. He studied in Tiibingen (Ph.D., 1863) and at Rottenburg, and was ordained to the priesthood in 1864. He then studied for a year in Paris, and was lecturer in the Wilhehnstift at Tiibingen 1866‑70. In 1870 he was appointed professor of church history, patrology, and archeology at Tiibingen. He wrote Zina and Witcher (Tiibingen, 1868); Geachichte des kirchlichen Zinsverbotes (1876); Die Echtheit der ignatianischen Briefe (1882); Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte (Rottenburg, 1886); Dxtrina duodeeim apostolorum (Tiibingen, 1887); Die katholieette Landesuniver8ittit Ellwangen (1889); Die apostolischen Konstitutionen (Rottenburg, 1891); Kirchengeschichtliche Abhandlungen urtd Untersuchungen (3 vols., Paderborn, 1897‑1907); Das Testament unseres Herrn and die venuandten Schriften (Mainz, 1901); and Dddascalia et Constitutionm apostolorum (2 vole., 1905).
FUNK, ISAAC KAUFMANN: Lutheran; b at Clifton, O., Sept. 10, 1839. He was graduated at Wittenberg College in 1860 and was ordained to the Lutheran ministry in 1861. He was pastor at Carey, 0.,1862‑64 and of St. Matthew's Evangelical Lutheran Church, Brooklyn, 1865‑72. He then resigned from the ministry, and after a tour of Europe, Egypt, and Palestine was associate editor of The Christian Radical (Pittsburg, Pa.) 1872‑73 and of The Union Advocate (New York) 1873‑75. In 1876 he founded The Metropolitan Pulpit and in the following year The Complete Preacher, merging the two in 1878 into The Homiletic Monthly, which has been called The Homiletic Review, since 1885. He established The Voice, a total‑abstinence paper, in 1880, The Missionary Review in 1888, and The Literary Digest in 1889. In 1878 he entered into partnership with Adam Willis Wagnalls, founding the publishing firm which was incorporated in 1890 as the Funk & Wagnalls Company. He has thus been instrumental in publishing a large number of theological works, among which mention may be made of The Jewish Encyclopedia, the Schaf‑Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, and The Standard Bible Dictionary. He is editorin‑chief of A Standard Dictionary of the English Language, and has edited G. Croly's Salathiel under the title Tarry Thou Till 1 Come (New York, 1901), and has written The Next Step in Evolution (New York, 1902); The Widow's Mile and Other Psychic Phenomena (1904); and The Psychic Riddle (1907).
FUNSTEN, JAMES ' BOWEft : Protestant EpiscopaI missionary bishop of Idaho; b. at The Highlands, Clarke Co., Va., July 23, 1856. He studied at the Virginia Military Institute, Lexington (C.E., 1875), and the University of Virginia (LL.B., 1878), and after practising law for a short time; entered the Theological Seminary at Alexan‑

Furness
Future Punishment
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
dria, from which he was graduated in 1882. He was ordered deacon in the same year, and was advanced to the priesthood in 1883. From 1882 to 1884 he was a missionary at Bristol, Tenn., and at Marion, Va., and after traveling in Europe in 1884, was a missionary attached to the staff of Christ Church, Richmond, Va., 1884‑90 and a general missionary in Virginia 1890‑92. From 1892 to 1899 he was rector of Trinity Church, Portsmouth, Va., and in 1899 was consecrated missionary bishop of Bois6, his diocese comprising portions of the States of Idaho and Wyoming. In theology he is Evangelical, and, besides having been editor of The Southern Churchman 1885‑86, has written Christ or the World (New York, 1890) and A Study o f Confirmation (1895).
FURNESS, WILLIAM HENRY: Unitarian; b. in Boston, Mass., Apr. 20, 1802; d. in Philadelphia Jan. 30, 1896. He studied at Harvard (B.A., 1820), and after completing his theological training at Cambridge was ordained pastor of the First Unitarian Congregational Church, Philadelphia, Pa., in 1825, and held the office until his retirement in 1875. He was a leading abolitionist, and was author of Remarks on the Four Gospels (Philadelphia, 1835); Jesus and his Biographers (1838); A History of Jesus (1850); Thoughts on the Life and Character of Jesus o f Nazareth (Boston, 1859); The Unconscious Truth of the Four Gospels (Philadelphia, 1868); Jesus (1871); The Power of Spirit Manifest in Jesus of Nazareth (1877); The Story of the Resurrection Told Once More (1885); Verses: Translations from the German and Hymns (Boston, 1886); and Pastoral Offices (1894). He also translated D. Schenkel's Das Charakterbild Jesu (Wiesbaden, 1864) under the title Character of Jesus Portrayed (2 vols., Boston, 1866).
FURRER, HANS KONRAD: Swiss Protestant; b. at Fluntern, near Zurich, Nov. 5,1838; d. at Zurich Apr.14,1908. He studied in Zurich (1857‑62) and was ordained to the ministry in 1862. In 1863 he made a tour of Palestine, and in 1869 became privatdocent for Biblical archeology in the University of Zurich. He held various pastorates in the canton from his ordination until 1876, when he became pastor of St. Peter's, Zurich. He began to lecture continuously at the university in 1885, and in 1888 was appointed professor of the general history of religion. In theology he was a liberal conservative. He wrote Wanderungen durch das heilige Land (Zurich, 1865); Yortrtige iiber religi6se Tagesfragen (1895); Katholizismus and Protestantismus (1899); and Vortrdge caber das Leben Jesu Christi (1902).
FURSA (FURSEY, Lat. Furseus), SAINT: Irish monk and missionary; b. of noble family probably in Connaught; d. at Macerie (Mazeroeles, on the Authie), in Ponthieu (northern France), Jan. 16, probably 650. He was brought up in Munster under monastic discipline and lived the usual life of an Irish monk, founding a monastery at Rathmat, probably in the northwest of County Clare. For ten years he went up and down in Ireland preaching repentance and judgment. Then with his two brothers and two monks he
414
traveled eastward, and in 637 (7) was received by King Sigbert of East Anglia and assisted him and Bishop Felix (see FELIx, SAINT) in establishing Christianity among the only half‑converted peoplc. He built a monastery at Cnoberesburg (Burghcastle, 5 m. from Yarmouth), then, with a single companion, retired to a hermitage. After a year the menace from Penda, the heathen king of Mercia, drove him away, and he went to France. He found refuge at the court of the young Clovis II., king of Neustria. Erchinoald, mayor of the palace, gave him land at Latiniacum (Lagny‑sur‑Marne, 18 m. e. of Paris), where he built a monastery in 644. He was buried at P6ronne (75 m. n.n.e. of Paris) and was long honored there. Miracles were attributed to him even in his lifetime.
	Fursa was noteworthy chiefly for his visions, which
	were probably due to cataleptic attacks. He saw and
	conversed with angels, was attacked by demons, and
	beheld the awful torments of the wicked; impend
ing calamities were foretold to him.	He would
	relate what he had seen, says Bede, only to those
	who wished to hear " from holy zeal and desire of
	information." Similar visions were not uncommon
experiences of the monks.	The narratives of them
	were highly popular and constitute a distinct class
	of medieval literature (of. Plummer's Bede, ii.
	294‑295, Oxford, 1896, and, for Fursa's visions,
	Olden's Church o f Ireland, pp. 87‑90, London, 1895).
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: Three lives of Fursa in ASB, Jan., ii. 36
	55, of which the first and best, by an anonymous writer,
	is also in J. Colgan, Acts Sanctorum, i. 75‑98, Louvain,
	1645, ASM, ii. 300‑315, and De Smedt and De Backer,
	Actor aanctorum Hibernia, pp. 77 sqq., Edinburgh, 1888.
	Consult: Bede, Hiat. eccl., iii. 19; J. Lanigan, Eccl. Hiat.,
	ii. 448‑464, 4 vols., Dublin, 1829; J. O'Hanlon, Lives of
	the Irish Saints, i. 222‑286; Hist. litt&aire de la France,
	iii. 613‑615; J. Corblet, Hagiographic du dioc"e d'Amiena,
	vol. ii., Paris, 1870; G. Grat$macher, in ZKG, six. 2
(1898), pp. 190‑196.

FUTURE PUNISHMENT. New Testament Doctrine (§ 1). Historical Christian Belief (§ 2). Tendencies of Recent Discussions (§ 3). Two Leading Views (§ 4). Endlessness (§ 5).
	This presentation is limited to punishment after
death; all reference to earthly punishment is not
excluded, but this is considered only so far as its
nature and aim have a bearing on the future state.
		In the New Testament punishment is
r. New Tes‑ part of the eschatological program
	tament which follows upon the judgment (q.v.).
	Doctrine. The wicked are sent into Gehenna (q.v.),
		or into a condition designated vari
ously as unquenchable fire, the undying worm, outer
darkness, weeping and gnashing of teeth, eternal
destruction, and the second death (Mark ix. 43, 48;
Matt. xxv. 30; II Thess. i. 9; Rev. xx. 14; cf. II
Pet. iii. 7, and Jesus' parables of judgment‑the
tares, the drag‑net, the wedding guest, the virgins,
and the talents). Punishment is described as posi
tive (as above), as natural (Gal. vi. 8; Col. iii. 25),
and according to degree of guilt. The finality of
punishment is supported by contemporary Jewish
belief, by the term Gehenna and destruction (Gk.
olethros, apbleia), by the parables of Jesus in which
finality is implied (Matt. xiu. 39‑43, 47‑50), by the

416	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
period at which judgment is consummated, and by the contrast of the state of the wicked with that of the blessed (Matt. xxv. 46). Yet, since the New Testament teaching is practical rather than theoretical, other intimations have been found there, concerning its nature, aim, duration, and outcome (see ANxIHILATIONism, and UNIVERSALISM).
Historical Christian belief concerning the nature of future punishment has been determined in part by the doctrine of the resurrection of the same bodies that died (see RESURRECTION), of hell as a place
and its fire as real (E. D. Grin, Sera: Historical mons not before Published, etc., " Hell
Christian Composed of Material Fire," pp. 46Belief. 53, New York, 1844). In particular,
Christian mystics have been fond of dwelling on the physical condition of the lost, with every refinement of imaginative ingenuity, inventing tortures which reflected the most terrible and revolting forms of human suffering (Dante, Inferno; H. Suso, Der ewigen Weywheit Buchlein, chap. ix., Dillingen, 1567; Jonathan Edwards, Works, vii., pp. 387‑388, New York, 1829). Punishment has also been conceived of as separation from God, as remorse, as penitence which could not issue in repentance, the sense of one's own vileness, and the like. The aim of punishment has been regarded as vindictive or vindicatory, as disciplinary and deterrent. Its duration has been most commonly taught as endless, based on such considerations as the continuance of penalty commensurate with that bf blessedness, the limitation of redemption to the present life, the total absence of even common grace in the world of the lost, and the inability of the sinful soul to change itself. From early times here and there voices have been raised in advocacy of a limit to this condition, either through annihilation or restoration, or a gradual mitigation of the severity of retributive suffering. Yet even when theoretic considerations have inclined toward milder views, the demands of the religious appeal have often enforced the more rigid interpretation. Christian belief has preponderated on the whole in one direction, but it has never been crystallized into a dogmatic formula.
Present day discussions of future punishment direct attention to four principal points‑‑its nature, purpose, degree, and duration. It is no longer conceived in terms of material fire, but as spiritual experience, regarded by some as a positive infliction
by God, by others as natural and in
3. Tenden‑ accord with immanent and universal cies of moral order, again as a gradual wasting Recent Dis‑ away of the organic powers of the being
cussions. or as a divine judgment in which the
very personality ceases to exist. Its purpose is either vindicatory or deterrent or disciplinary. As to duration, it is held to be either irreversible, whether immediately at death or at the latest after the judgment, or else as continuing for a temporary period only, determined by the force of resistance to God or by the degree of sin, thereafter to issue in a final restoration to harmony with God or in an extinction of the being. By reason of the limitation of human experience to the present world, however, man is unable to picture the form of
the punishment; but since the moral order is universal, character and condition are known as inseparable, in the moral consciousness are found the principle and law of retribution‑the principle that of accountability, the law that of cause and effect. Moral obligation and penalty originate and are realized in the same relations. Punishment is essentially ethical‑how ethical one can understand by comparing Jesus' teaching with that of his own or of a later period. Jesus did indeed speak of outer darkness, fire, the undying worm; but he more commonly represented punishment as taking place in ethical relations, e.g., that of payment in kind. Penalty is often conceived as suffering. This interpretation may be traced in part to experience of civil punishment, in part to the stinging pain of a quickened and reproaching conscience, and in part to a literal use of the New Testament. But there is moral stupor as well as anguish; men are " past feeling," " branded as with a hot iron." It is a common belief that the circumstances of the other life will be radically different from the present, and that therefore insensibility will give place to awakened and remorseful suffering. But on the one hand it is conjectural whether, from the moral order of the world as known through revelation and experience, there is sufficient reason to believe that at the instant of death the torpid conscience, the unresponsive will, the insensible heart will be quickened to preternatural and unending activity; and on the other hand, so long as the moral nature, memory, and vicissitude are real in a moral and spiritual universe, the sinner may waken to fierce and uncontrollable remorse.
There are two leading views as to the purpose of punishment‑‑retribution and prevention. As retributive, the evildoer receives back the consequences of his deeds; punishment demonstrates the nullity of his moral rebellion. This may be
4. Two the experience of vengeance, of public
Leading	sentiment, or of the deserts of the
	Vlews.	sinner. As preventive, punishment is
		deterrent or reformatory. He who
suffers for his wrong‑doing deters others from a like
course of action; while reformatory punishment
recalls the sinner to himself, to his folly and the in
efficacy of his action, to his wickedness, so that in
the moral arrest he may become aware of the plead
ing ideal of his own higher nature and the benign
good‑will of God. Whether the retributive shall be
the only aspect of punishment in the sinner's con
dition after death must from the analogy of the
earthly life be determined in part by the soul itself.
No final decision on this subject can, however, ignore
the universal Fatherhood of God and his eternal
moral government.
Concerning the endlessness of future punishment, the mind can form no adequate notion (cf. Edwards, Works, vi. 451). Arguments for its endlessness are drawn from many directions. (1)
g. End‑ Words and pictures in the New Testa‑
	lessness.	went imply finality. (2) Preterition
		or reprobation of some here below ren
ders future salvation for such impossible. (3) The
offers of pardon are restricted to the present world.
(4) The judgment occurs at the close of the redemp‑

Punishment	THE NEW SCHAF7‑HERZOG	416
GVA
tive era, and hence is final. (5) Every tingle sin
unrepented of deserves endless retribution. (6)
Character tends to final permanence, as seen in the
strengthening of the wrong decision, the consequent
bondage of the will, and the intensifying of the sin
ful opposition to God in view of punishment ex
perienced; naturally, final permanence can ba
attained but once. (7) The conscience expects and
demands unending, retribution in another life. (8)
Finally, reference is made to the long history of this
belief, and the eminent supporters of it in every age.
Relief from the painful conclusion here reached is
sought in many ways: appeal to human ignorance; a
probationary period between death and the judg
ment for those who in this life have not finally
refused God (see PROHAnoN, FUTBRE); the incom
patibility of the ultimate loss of any soul with the
perfection of the Creator;. the injustice of ever
lasting punishment for sins committed during the
short span of the earthly life; continuance of pun
ishment for a time after death, but God will finally
succeed in his purpose of grace, or, on the other
hand, the incorrigible will be eventually worn out
with their punishment. See FscseToroGy.
		C. A. BscKwlTn.
Brewoaasra:: The subject is invariably treated as a sec
	tion of systematic theology, and therefore the works cited
	under DoorA, DoostaTzce may be consulted. Much of
	the literature under the articles on FnceATotOo:; Gs
	wsixA; PaoBArcox, Fvrross; UimasseLzc. and re•
	GABLER, gitfbler, JOHANN PHILIPP: German
theologian; b. at Frankfort‑on‑the‑Main June 4,
1753; d. at Jena Feb. 17, 1828. He studied for
ten years at the gymnasium of his native town, and
from 1772 to 1778 was a student at Jena, ‑where
Griesbach and Eichhorn were his teachers in theol
ogy. After filling minor positions in Frankfort
(1778) and Gottingen (1780), and after officiating as
professor at the gymnasium at Dortmund (1783), he
was called to Altdorf in 1785 as deacon and pro
fessor of theology. In 1804 he was called to the
University of Jena, and in 1812 he succeeded his
former teacher, Griesbach, as professor of theology
there. As a theological author Gabler is chiefly
known by his edition of‑ Eichhorn's Urgeschichte, to
which he added a preface and notes (2 vols., Alt
dorf and Nuremberg, 179(1‑83), also by.a number
of Latin and German essays, several of which ap
peared in his periodicals: Neuestes theologisckes
Journal (1798‑1800), Journal far theolo*chs
Literatur (1801‑04), and Journal fair auaerlesena
theolo0che IRteratur (1805‑11). Some of these
minor works are devoted to church history, and
others to dogmatics, but the greater number con
sist of expositions and criticisms of narratives and
sayings of the New Testament. In tendency Ga
bler was naturalistic and rationalistic. A collec
tion of his essays, lectures, and Latin programs
and speeches was published by his sons, Theodor
August and Johann Gottfried Gabler (2 vols:,
Ulm, 1831), with an autobiographical sketch written
lated topics is pertinent. Consult further: M. Stuart, Future Punishments, in vol. iii. of Philological Tracts, in Biblical Cabinet, 45 vole., Edinburgh, 1838‑44; R. W. Hamilton, Revealed Doctrine of Rewards and Punishments. London, 1853; H. M. Dexter, The Verdict of Reason upon the . . . Future Punishment of . . . As Impenitent, Boston, 1885; f3. C. Bartlett, Future Punishment, ib. 1875; [J. M. W hiton], Is " Eternal " Punishment Endless f ib. 1878; N. Adams, Endless Punishment: Scriptural Argument for . . . future endless Punishment, ib. ‑1878; E. Beecher, Hist. of opinions on the scriptural Doctrine of Retribution, New York, 1878; G. P. Fisher, in his Discussions in Hist. and Theology, ib. 1880; E. M. Goulburn, Everlasting Punishment, ib. 1880; J. B. Reimenanyder, Doom Eternal, Philadelphia, 1880; T. J. Sawyer, Endless Punishment, $oeton,4880 (Universalist); F. W. Farrar, Mercy and Judgment, London, 1881; idem, Eternal Hope, ib. 1892; W. Griffith, Evidence of the Evangelists and Apostles on Future Punishment, ib. 1882; R. H. Mcli;irn, F~tura Punishment, New York, 1883; V. M. de Lissi, De d~uturn= ymnarum, Naples, 1884; C. A. Row, Future Retribution in the Light of Reason and Revelation, New York, 1887; W. G. T. Shedd. The Doctrine of Endless Punishment, ib. 1887 (perhaps the strongest affirmative statement of the doctrine since Edwards); J. Macpherson, The Larger Hope, London, 1890; S. M. Vernon, Probation and Punishment, New York, 1890; Wider Hops, Belays and Strictures upon the Doctrine aril Literature of Future Punishment, with Bibliographical Appendix, London, 1890; R. L. Bellamy, The Harvest of the Soul, kb. 1902; J. Mew, Traditional Aspects of Hell, Ancient and Modern, ib. 1908; J. Bauts, Die Hslie, Mains, 1905; L. B. Hartman, Divine Penology, New York, 1906; J. R. Norris, Bfernal Torment: is it a possible human Destiny f ib. 1905.
FUTQRE STATE. See EscaATouOGy, i¢ 8‑7.
for EiehsWt's Annalea academia Jenensia (Jena,
1823).
(E. H>cNa>ct.)
BrerroaaArar: W. 8chr6ter. Erinnerunpen as J. B. taablar, Jena, 1827; G. Thomseiue, Do& WiedersruwaAen des evanyelisaAen Lebsns in der nun $irde Bayerns, pp. 21 eq9.. Erlangen, 1887.
GABRIEL SEVERUS: Greek metropolitan and theologian; b. at Monemvasia (45 m. s.e. of Sparta) 1541; d. at Venice Oct. 21, 1616. After completing his education at Padua, he resided in Crete and at Venice, where the Greek colony chose him priest of 1St. George in 1573. Four years later he was made metropolitan of Philadelphia, but continued to live at Venice. He was one of the most learned theologians of the modern Greek Church, whose claims he passionately defended against Roman Catholicism and the unionistic tendencies within his own communion. The first of his three chief works was the collection of three treatises on the honor due the sacred elements of the Eucharist, the " portions " (Gk: mer^ides, pieces of bread set stride at the Eucharist in honor of the Virgin and the saints, and for the spiritual welfare of all orthodox Christians, whether living or dead), and the boiled wheat distributed to the congregation on certain days, generally in memory of the dead. This was first published at Venice in 1604. His second work was the " Treatise on the Holy and Sacred Mysteries" (1600), of which separate portions have been edited at various times. In its presentation the book is vscholastic and not altogether free from

417	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	~ e Punishment
unconscious approximations to Roman Catholic doctrines. The chief work of Severna is his "Exposition against those who ignorantly say and unlawfully teach that we, the true and orthodox Children of the Eastern Church, are Schismatics from the Holy and Catholic Church. 'I Of this only the first portion has been published (Ogdom acriptorum grcecorum by N. Metaxas, Constantinople, 1627). It is a polemic against. the Roman Catholics, occasioned by the charge of the Jesuits Possevino and Bellarmine that the Greek Catholics were 'heretics. In his work he seeks to show what are the differences between the Roman an Greek Churches, which is the true Church, and the proof that the Orthodox possess the true faith and are neither schismatics nor heretics. Severus wrote little except in systematic theology, although he collaborated in ‑Sir Henry Savile's edition of Chrysostom (Eton, 1612). Certain anecdota are given by Legrand, while some of his fetters have been edited by G. Lami, M. Crusius, and others. (PHILIPP MEYER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. Simon, Fides ecclesioa orientadia, seu Gabrielie Metropolitie Philadelphiensis, Paris, 1671; Fabricius‑Harlee, Bibliotheca Grorca, ai. 625, Hamburg, 1808;. E. Legrand, Bibliographic HcWnique, Paris, 1885 sqq.

GABRIEL SIONITA: A learned Maronite; b. at Edden, Mount Lebanon, in. northern Palestine, 1577; d. in Paris 1648. At the age of seven he entered the Maronite college at Rome, where he studied and taught till 1614. Through the French ambassador, Cardinal du Perron, he was persuaded to, go to Paris to collaborate on a ,proposed polyglot Bible. In Jan., 1615, he was appointed professor of Arabic and Wac at the Sorbonne. He took his doctorate in theology in 1620 and became a priest in the same year. After many interruptions the Paris Polyglot was taken up by Michel le Jay in 1630 and finished in 1645, Gabriel furnishing the Arabic and Syriac versions (see BIBLES, POLYGLOT). On account of his unruliness and alleged inaccuracy, the editors of the Bible discharged him in 1640 and called Abraham Ecchellensis (q.v.) to take his place. They even induced Richelieu to put Gabriel in prison at Vincennes, but after three months he secured his liberty and resumed his former position, on promising to deliver the Arabic and Syriac versions. He published several works in Arabic, Latin, and Italian, including: Geograpkaa Nubiensis (Rome, 1592; Paris, 1619) told Grammatica Arabica Maronitarum (Paris, 1616).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Le Long, Bibliotheca sacra, ed. Maseh, 5 vola., Halls, 1778‑90; C. P. Goujet, Menwires historiquea et littirairee sur le college royal de France, vol. iii., Paris, 1758; C. G. JScher, Allgemeines GelehrterrLexicon, iv. 619, Leipeie, 1787; HL, v. 4‑5.
GABRIELS, HENRY: Roman Catholic bishop of Ogdensburg, N. Y.; b. at Wanneghem, Belgium, Oct. 6, 1838. He studied at Audenarde (1852‑57), St. Nicolas (1857‑58), Ghent (1858‑60), and the University of Louvain (S.T.L., 1864). He taught theology in St. Joseph's' Seminary, Troy, N. Y., 1864‑92 and was president of the same institution 1871‑1892, in addition to being vicar‑general for Ogdensburg and Burlington, and diocesan examiner for New York and Albany. In 1892 he was consecrated IV‑27
bishop of Ogdensburg. He has written Quteationea
Mechlinienaea in rubricas breviarii et misaalis Ro
mani (New York, 1887) and Rudiments o f the He
brew Grammar (a translation of the seventh edition
of the Rudiments linguce Hebraicce of C. H. Vosen and
F. Kaulen; St. Louis, Mo., 1891).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A sketch of his life is found in the Monograph Series of the U. 8. Catholic Historical Society, iii. 7‑16, New York, 1905.
GAD: The name of a Canaanitic deity of fortune. In Isa. htv. 11 (A.V.) occur the words: " But ye are they .' . . that prepare a table for that troop " (the Hebrew of which is better rendered in the R.V. "that prepare a table for Fortune"; margin "Gad," Gk. tai. daimoniai). The "Gad"of the R.V. margin reproduces the Hebrew, which is evidently a proper name introduced in connection with Meni (q.v.), both Gad and Meni being deities worshiped by apostate Israelites in the worship of the former of wNch a table (lectisternium) was spread. This is the only unquestionable mention of the deity in the Old Testament. Other traces occur, however, which make probable the fact of an extensively propagated cult of Canaanitic or Aramean origin. Thus a place named Baal‑gad, " Lord of (good) fortune," situated " in the valley of Lebanon . . . under mount Hermon " is given as the extreme northern limit of Joshua's conquest (Josh: xi. 17, Iii. 7, xiii. 5); while Migdal‑gad, " Tower of Gad," appears as a 'place in the southwest lowlands of Judah (Josh. xv. 37). In Gen. xxx. 11 (belonging to the J narrative) at the birth of Zilpah's first son her mistress is said to have exclaimed " a troop cometh," R.V.,."Fortunatel" margin, "fortune!" or " Fortune is come " (an attempt to render in the R.V. more closely the Hebrew begad or ba gad). The Talmudists understood this exclamation to refer to the god Gad in the sense of " Gad is here, bringing good fortune," but later commentators are much divided over the sense of the passage. Since from the passage in Isaiah (and other evidences to be adduced) it is clear that Gad is. the name of a deity, it would be expected that the word would be found as an element in proper names. In Num. xiii. 10 appears mention of a " Gaddiel the son of Sodi," and in xiii. 11 of " Gaddi the son of Susi," the latter possibly a shortened form of the former; in II Kings xv. 14, 17 Menahem is called " the son of Gadi " (Septuagint, Gaddi), and possibly ";Gad " in I Sam. xxii. 5 is a form still more simplified. Azgad, " Strong is Gad," as the name of a clan or a chief, appears in Ezra ii. 12, viii. 12; Neh. x. 15. While all of these names do not necessarily contain conscious reference to a deity, there is a probability that, in the light of known practises of later Jews, at least some of them may have been formed with the god in mind. The practise of spreading the lectisternium for Gad continued in Some Jewish families as late as the eleventh century, this in a way vouching for the worship mentioned in Isaiah, while Buxtorf (Lexicon talmudicum) adduces the custom of keeping in the house a couch called " the couch of Gada," finely fitted up, never used by the family, 'but reserved for " the prince of the house," i.e., the protector " Fortune."
In other Semitic regions the name appears as an

(1EaQ
Galilee
a111ee
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
element in names, though the meaning can not always be determined. In most cases it is possible to take the element Gad as an appellative, "fortune." Thus there are found in very different provenance the combinations Gad‑Nebo, " Fortune of Nebo," and Gad‑shirath. So in a number of Palmyrene inscriptions the word occurs in combinations where the second element is the name of another deity, e.g., Gad‑Allat, while gadya, " fortunate," occurs. One Palmyrene inscription found at a sacred spring points indubitably to a deity to whom the spring was sacred, reading " to Gada " (of. the place name " Ayin‑Dada," N61deke, ZDMG, xxix., 1875, 441) and the " Gad‑spring " near Jerusalem. In Phenician and Carthaginian environment the word is found as an element in personal names, while in many more probable cases the reading is not sufficiently clear to give entire certainty; moreover the meaning can not always be definitely determined and may be appellative. Gadrnelek, " Gad is king," is an inscription on a stone found in Jerusalem, possibly due to Canaanitic influence. In Arabic the proper name Abd al‑Gadd is found, certainly a deity's name (Wellhausen, Heidenlum, p. 148). Isaac of Antioch (Opera, ed. Bickell, ii. 210, Giessen, 1877) reports that tables were prepared on the roofs by his countrymen for Gadda or (pl.) Gadde, and he mentions a " demon " Gadlat as belonging to the city of Beth‑hur. Jacob of Sarug speaks of a female. goddess of Haran named Gadlat, while by the plural gadde he means demons. It is noteworthy that both of these references fall in with what is shown by comparative religion as happening within the Semitic sphere; (1) the development of a shadowy consort correspondmg in name to the male deity, and (2) in a subsequent stage of development or under another religion the degradation of both deities to the rank of demons. Post‑Christian Jews, especially the rabbis, used the name as that of a demon. Temples of Gad were known in Syria, and Buxtorf cites a passage which speaks of an image of Gad. Jacob of Sarug says that " on the summit of the mountains they now build monasteries instead of belt‑gadde " (i.e., temples to Jupiter and Venus, who were identified with the deities of good luck). In late times Gad appears to have been so popular that his name acquired the sense of " genius, godhead." Under the Greek rigime Gad seems to have passed over into the Greek form TychS, who is very often mentioned on coins and in inscriptions in the region of Syria and became a patron of very many Greek cities, possibly also the patron of rulers. The Greek TychB is unquestionably not of native Greek origin, but is an importation from the East, and on Greek soil was sometimes masculine. Whether the Syrian Tychis is the earlier Gad, renamed under Greek influence, can not be definitely decided, as the data are not yet sufficiently numerous or continuous.
The origin of the god Gad is in doubt. It is possible that he arose as the personification of the abstract concept good fortune, though it must be said that this process is not usual in the Semitic sphere. None of the Old Testament passages which bear on the question are very early, unless the view of the critical. school be correct which inclines to the
belief that the tribe of Gad, like that of Asher, took its name from the god. The newer explanation of the composite origin of the Hebrew nation as including clans absorbed by conquest, tradition recording this fact by assigning to the clans so absorbed a humbler origin as the descendants of concubines, would make for an early origin of the deity. But these conclusions are by no means universally accepted, and the worship, even the existence, of Gad in strictly Canaanitio provenance earlier than the Exile rests on the two place names Baal‑gad and Migdal‑gad (ut sup.).
GEO. W. G1LM08IM.
BrsmoaBABHr: J. Bolden, De die Syria, L, i., London, 1017, and the additions of Boyer in ed. of Amsterdam, 1080; F. C. Movers, Die PAonisier, i. 174, Bonn, 1841; D. A. Chwolson, Die Asabier, ii. 220‑227, St. Petersburg, 1850; W. W. von Baudissin, Jahve et Moloch, pp. 30 eqq., Leipdc, 1874; F. Lenormant, Chaldaean Magic, p. 120, London, 1877; J. H. Mordtmann, in ZDMG, xxxi (1877), 99‑101, xxxix (1885), 44‑40; P. Scholz, Galaendienst and Zauberwescn bei den $ebrurn, pp. 409‑411, Regensburg, 1877; C. U. A. Siegfried, in JPT, i (1875), 350‑307; F. W. A. Baetbgen, Beitrdge sur semitiechen Religionageschiahte, PP. 7&‑80, 159‑181, Berlin, 1888; T. NSldeke, in ZDMG, xlii (1888), 479 eqq.; (1. Kerber, Die religiongeschichtliche Bedeatung der htbrdiachea Rigennamen, pp. 00‑88, Freiburg, 1897; the commentaries of Dillmann, Cheyne, Delitssch, and (3. A. Smith on lesiah, on the passage 1xv. 11, of Dentssoh on Gened% at xxz. 11, and T. K. Cbeyne, Introduction to Book of Isaiah, pp. 305‑300, London, 1895; DB, ii. 70; EB, ii. 1557‑1558. " Fortune."
GADARA, GADAREIM See GxxAsENxs; PERAA.
GAETANO, ga"6‑tWna (CAJETAN), OF TIENE. See THEATmms.
GAILOR, THOMAS FRANK: Protestant Episcopal bishop of Tennessee; b. at Jackson, Miss., Sept. 17, 1856. He studied at Racine College, Racine, Wis. (B.A., 1876), and at the General Theological Seminary (S.T.B., 1879), and was ordered deacon in 1879 and ordained priest in 1880. After being rector of the Church of the Messiah at Pulaski, Tenn., 1879‑82, he was appointed professor of ecclesiastical history in the University of the South, where he was also chaplain after 1883 and vicechancellor after 1890. He was consecrated bishop coadjutor of Tennessee in 1893, and became bishop five years later, on the death of Bishop Quintard. He has been a member of the General Convention of the Protestant Episcopal Church since 1886 and a member of many important committees, such as that on marginal readings in 1895‑1902. He is at present chairman of the Court of Review for ecclesiastical trials in the fourth department of the Church. In theology he is a High‑churchman with wide sympathies. He has written A Manual o f Devotion (New York, 1887) and The Apostolic Succession (1890).
BisraoosAPay: W. S. Perry, The Episcopate in America, p. 357, New York, 1895.

GAINES, WESLEY JOHN: Methodist Episcopal bishop; b. a slave, near Washington, Ga., Oct. 4, 1840. Until the age of fifteen he remained on the plantation where he was born, acquiring an elementary education by his own efforts, while his theological training was obtained later, especially
rn 1870, from Protestant Episcopal clergy. In 1855

416	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	lee
he was taken to Stewart County, Ga., and in the following year to Muscogee County in the same State. He was licensed to preach (1865), was admitted to the South Carolina Conference (1866), and was ordained deacon and elder (1867). He was stationed at Florence Mission, Ga. (1867), Atlanta (1867‑69), Macon (1871‑73), Columbus (1874‑77), again at Macon (1878‑80), and Atlanta (1881‑88). In 1888 he was elected bishop. He has been a trustee of Wilberforce University, Ohio, vice‑president of Payne Theological Seminary, president of the board of trustees of Edward Waters College, Jacksonville, Fla., and the founder of Morris Brown College, Atlanta, of which he is $lso trustee and treasurer. He is likewise president of the financial board of the African Methodist Episcopal Church, and has written African Methodism in the South (Atlanta, 1890).
GALATE0, ga"ld‑0'6, GIROLAM0. See ITALY, THE REFORMATION IN, § 3.
GALATIA. See ASIA MINOR, VII.
GALATIANS, EPISTLE 1'0 THE. See PAUL THE APOSTLE.
GALBANUUM. See INCENSE, I., § 3.
	GALE, THEOPHILUS: English non‑conformist;
b. at Kingsteigaton (12 m. s.q.w. of Exeter),
Devonshire, 1628; d. at Newington, London, Feb.
or Mar., 1678. He studied at Magdalen Hall, Ox
ford (B.A., 1649; M.A., 1652), and in 1650 received
the fellowship of one of the ejected fellows. Afterhav
ing distinguished himself as a university preacher,
he accepted an appointment as preacher in Winches
ter Cathedral in 1657, but retained his fellowship.
At the Restoration he lost his preferments and
became a tutor to the children of Lord Wharton.
He traveled abroad with his pupils 1662‑6.5, and on
the termination of his engagement in 1666, he settled
at Newington, London, as assistant pastor to John
Rowe, whom he succeeded in 1677. On his death
he left his theological library to Harvard College.
Gale is known by his Court o f the Gentiles (parts i.
and ii., Oxford, 1669‑71; parts iii. and iv., London,
1677; 2d. ed., London, 1682), which is a learned
attempt to trace all European languages back to
Hebrew and to prove that all ancient philosophy
and theology were derived from the Hebrew
Scriptures. Among Gale's other works are: A
True Idea of Jansenism (London, 1669); Anatomy
of Infidelity (1672); and Idea Theologlci (1673).
BIBLIOGRAPRT: A. a Wood, Athena thonlenltl, ii. 461. 7511, 778, London, 1692; E. Calamy, Historical Account, pp. 64‑&5, ib. 1713; S. Palmer, Nonconformist's Henwrial, i. 239, ib. 1802; DNB, xx. 377‑378.
GALERIUS: Roman emperor, 293‑311. See DIOCLETIAN.
GALFRID, gdl'frid (GAUFRm, GOTTFRM), OF CLAIRVAU%: Cistercian abbot; d. after 1188. He was born at Auxerre, and was a pupil of Abelard, but obtained Bernard's favor in 1140, and later became his secretary (notarius). In 1159 he was made abbot of the monastery at Igny, in 1162 of Clairvaux, but had to give up this position in 1167. In 1170 he became abbot of Fossanova, near Rome, in 1176 of Hautecombe in Savoy. The most
important part of Galfrid's activity refers to Bernard of Clairvaux, of whose biography he wrote books iii.‑v. and the third part of book vi., besides collecting materials. For the pdings against Gilbert of Poitiers at Reims in 1149 he collected patristic quotations against him and published them afterward (MPL, clxxxv. 595‑618). At the request of the order he also wrote a biography of the archbishop Peter of Tarentaise. Commentaries on the Song of Songs, on the Apocalypse, and sermons are still extant in manuscript. Galfrid nowhere develops any new. thoughts nor does he betray any deep conception of persons and thin, but he shows a certain ability in the way of presentation. His unlimited admiration of Bernard and his hostility to Abelard and Gilbert make it necessary to accept his statements with caution.
S. M. DEuTacH.
BIHISOORAPn7: Mabillon, Introduction to the Vita• Bernardi, in MPL, dzxzv. 221 eqq.; Histoirs liWraire de la Frame, xiv. 430‑451; H. Reuter, Alasander 111., vol. ii., Leipsic, 1882; G. Hailer, Der heilips BeryAard von Clairsaux, i. 27 sqq., Monster, 1886; E. Vaoandard, Vie de St. Bernard, Paris; 1895; KL. v. 932‑933.
	GALFRID OF VENDa11M: Abbot of the clois
ter at Vend6me from 1093; d. at Angers Mar. 26,
1132. When Pope Urban II. (q.v.) fell into sore
straits under the party of the antipope Clement III.,
Galfrid hastened to Rome and rendered such great
service that he was appointed a cardinal‑priest, and
received still further tokens of the pope's good‑will.
He enjoyed favorable relations with Paschal II.
as well; also with Ca,lixtua II. and Honorius Il.
In church history at large, Galfrid is a factor of
some significance on account of his share in the in
vestiture controversy (see INVESTITURE); he be
longed to those of the clergy who stoutly demanded
the revocation of the privilege of investiture con
ferred by Paschal II. on the German king. He
was the author of certain minor teleological
writings. 	CARL MIRBT.
BuswoaRAPey: Gottfried's Npistola, libelli sad Opuwula were edited by J. Sirmond, Paris, 1610, and are also in MPL, clvii. The libdli, ed. E. Smkur, are in MGH, Libelli de life, ii (1893), 880‑700. Consult: Histoire litthaire de la Francs, :d. 180; L. Compain, i¢tude ear Geoffmi de Venddme. Paris, 1891; E. Sackur, in NA, xviii (1893).666‑673; C. Mirbt, Die Publisistikinzsifalt6 Grepom VII., Leipsi0. 1894.

GALILEE.
I. The lerse)itie Period. 	Geographical Limits (; I).
Names and Boundaries (11). Earlier History (¢ 2).
History (1 2).	Galilee the Home of Insur.
Cities (g 3). 		section (5 3).
II. The Jewish Period 	Cities (1 4).
Galilee (Hebr. Galil; Aram. Gallila, Gelila; Gk. H8 Galilaia) is the most northern district of Palestine. The form of the name indicates two distinct periods in the history of the region, the. Israelitic and the Jewish.
L The Inaelitic Period: The word Galfl or Galilah (11 Kings xv. 29) means a circle, region, district. It is used nearly in its primary sense in Isa. ix. i (cf. I Mace. v. 15), and suggests in these passages a region not in the complete possession of the Hebrews. The passage in Isaiah defines the region closely enough, mentioning on one aide Zebulun and Naphtali, on the other 11 beyond

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
420
Jordan," and also " the way of the sea," which is
the caravan	route from Damascus to Acre via
	Bahrat al‑Hulah, Wadi al‑Hammam
r. Names and past Kam Hattin, and also the and Bound‑ " district of the nations " (R. V. mar‑
	aries.	gin). The region through which this
		road passes beyond Kam Hattin is the
land of Zebulun; the Jordan region is the stretch on
the west side from Bahrat al‑Hulah to Dan. The
" district of the nations "includes the mountain
region to the north of the plain of al Battof (cf.
Josh. xx. 7 and II Kings xv. 29). The last two
expressions in Isa. ix. 1 correspond to the " land
of Naphtali " in the preceding context.
The earliest reports of this region come from the inscriptions of Sethos I. and Rameses II. (fourteenth and thirteenth centuries B.C.) in connection with the conquered territory between the Kishon and Lebanon, in which Asher is mentioned. By this is not necessarily meant the tribe of Asher, since the incriptions clearly mean a country. Gen. xxx. 9‑13 makes Asher a son of Jacob and Zilpah, the bondservant of Leah, that is, a stock of mixed Hebrew and Canaanitic blood: or, in other words, Hebrew settlers in the district of
2. History. Asher had assumed the name of the region, though they had in time become its masters. A similar explanation applies to the case of Naphtali as the son of Jacob and Bilhah, the bondservant of Rachel (Gen. xxx. 1‑8). The two Canaanitic stocks out of which these peoples developed were the Amorites and the Hivites. The Amorites came from Lebanon later than 1250 B.C.; the Hivites dwelt at the foot of Hermon (Josh. xi. 3) or Lebanon (Judges iii. 3). In the Song of Deborah, Naphtali and Zebulun receive praise, while Asher is charged with indifference and lack of effort, but in Judges vi. 35, vii. 23, Asher is reckoned among the fighting tribes. The indications of history and of Judges i. 31‑33 are that the district of Asher was less under Hebrew control than that of Naphtali. But it is clear from the reading of events that the population of the region had little influence at least upon the religion of Israel. Solomon ceded to Hiram of Tyre twenty cities in Galilee which belonged to the region of Cabul (I Kings ix. 10‑14) which Hiram gave to Solomon (II Chron. viii. 2), though the history in the Books of Kings does not bear out the Chronicler. Benhadad I. wasted "all the land of Naphtali" (I Kings xv. 20); after the victory of Ahab it was again recovered by Hazael (II Kings xii. 18, xiii. 22), and Jeroboam was able to restore the control to Israel, though only for a short time. In 734 B.C. Tiglath‑pileser III. assailed this entire region at the request of Ahaz (II Kings xvi. 7) and carried the inhabitants into exile (II Kings xv. 29). The harassed condition of the inhabitants is expressed in Isa. iii. 21, ix. 4. The Israelitic period ends with the assimilation of the region to the Assyrian rule.
The Galilee of Israelitic times possessed no large cities. It was not easily accessible, since there were no good roads, and the caravan route passed through its southeastern corner only.. One road passed eastward from Tyre to Abel‑beth‑maacah, and crossed several leading north and south; there
was a path from Tyre to the Sea of Galilee, and one from Acre, more traveled, which branched on the hills northward and southward. Judges xviii. 7‑10
probably represents the condition of
3. Cities. all the places called cities in Galilee.
Josh. xi. 10 names Hazor as the capital, one of Solomon's border fortresses (I Kings ix. 15), while I Macc. xi. 63‑73 locates it south of Kedesh. Kedesh was one of the oldest possessions of Israel; its modern name is Kades, located north of Bahrat al‑Hulah. Its name indicates that it was an old sanctuary, and Josh. xx. 7, xxi. 32 make it a city of refuge and a Levitical city. North of Kedesh, on the border of the hill country above the Jordan valley, lay Abel‑Beth‑maacah, the modern Abil al‑Kamh, the refuge of Sheba (II Sam. xx.14). Still farther north lay Ijon, not definitely located, though there is a Marj Ajun between the Litany and the Hasbany. Dan was situated eastward from Abil al‑Kamh, on the west source of the Jordan (Judges xviii., Josh. xix. 47). Its earlier name was Lais or Leshem. Jeroboam made it one of the royal sanctuaries, and it stood for the extreme northern boundary of Israel. Achahaph (Josh. xi. 1) is possibly the modern Khirbat Iksaf, southwest of the bend in the Litany. The village Jarun west of Bahrat al‑Hulah perhaps marks the Iron of Josh. xix. 38, Kana, south of this, may be the Kanah of Josh. xix. 28, and Ramiya, still farther south, the Ramah of Josh. xix. 29.
II. The Jewish Period: The boundaries of the Jewish Galilee differed from those under Israel. Josephus makes it begin on the north of Scythopolis and the Plain of Jezreel, and divides it into Upper and Lower Galilee, with the division at the plain of al‑Ramah, with Beersheba on the line. While the Sea of Galilee and the Jordan were normally the eastern boundary, places farther east were reckoned to it (see GAULANITIB). The
northern and western boundaries are
z. Geo‑ hard to define, though Josephus makes
graphical Kedesh a Tyrian fortress on the bound‑
Limits. ary. The Jewish Galilee included the
territory of Zebulun, which was not in the earlier district. Dr. Hirsch Hildesheimer (Beitrdge zur Geographic Paldstinas, Berlin, 1886) from indications in the Talmud would place the northern line by Tibnin, Marj Ajun and Caesarea Philippi in the time of Alexander Jannaeus. But it is hardly likely that Kedesh had changed its relations between his time and that of Josephus.
Despite the exemplary punishment meted out to the district by Tiglath‑pileser III., the Israelitic inhabitants continued for the most part to hold their position, and it did not suffer the same admixture of foreign population as did Samaria. The narrative in II Chron. xxx. 10‑I1 supports the supposition that there were those in the country about 300 B.C. who were allied in religion with the Jews; and that Jews lived in that country is shown
by I Mace. v. 14‑23, in that Simon the
2. Earlier Maccabee brought numbers of Jews
History. thence to live in Judea. Under John
Hyroanus I. Samaria was subjected and the boundaries thrust farther north to Galilee. Aristobulus I. seems to have conquered and Judaized

4131	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Galilee
Galilee (Josephus, Ant'. XIII., xi. 3), and Hyrcanus II. was confirmed by Pompey as ethnarch of the region. The later destiny of Galilee was bound up with that of Judea. The proconsul Gabinius divided the whole Jewish country into five districts, each with its own synedrium, that for Galilee sitting in Sepporis. But this arrangement did not prove satisfactory. The risings of the years 55 and 53 B.c. were suppressed by the Romans, but Herod first secured peace in the land 45 B.c. After the rule of Antigonus, 40‑37, Galilee was united with Herod's kingdom (37‑4 s.c. ), and Augustus gave Herod also the tetrarchy of Zenodorus. After the death of Herod, hatred of the Romans and hopes of the Messiah kindled the fires of insurrection. Judas of Gamala, son of an Ezechias executed by Herod, rebelled and was subdued by Varus (see JuDAs OF GALILEE). Meanwhile Augustus had confirmed Herod's will and Galilee and Perma fell to Antipas, who made his capital first in Sepporis and then in Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee. While the census of Quirinius (7 A.D.) did not affect Galilee, it set loose forces of
insurrection. The Zealots arose under 3. Galilee Judas of Gamala and the Pharisee
the Home Zaddok. Judas was killed (Acts v. of Insurrec‑ 37), but he had sown seed which pro‑
	tion.	duced fruit. Both John the Baptist
		and Jesus found Zealots among their
disciples (John i. 35‑42; Mark iii. 18). These
continued movements caused Antipas great anxiety
(Luke xiii. 31, 32). An event of the year 40 showed
how great was the feeling against the Romans.
Caligula had ordered Petronius, the governor of
Syria, to place the emperor's statue in the Temple
at Jerusalem, and thousands of Jews assembled
in Ptolemais and Tiberias, in the latter place con
tinuously for forty days, beseeching him not to
profane the Temple, and Petronius gave up the
design. From the year 44 the Zealots continued to
gain ground among the people, though treated by
the Romans as common brigands. By a gift of
Nero, part of Galilee came under Agrippa II., viz.,
Tiberias and Tarichma. At the beginning of the
war in 67, Sepporis yielded to the Romans and the
other cities, Tarichaea, Tiberias, Gamala, and the
fortress on Tabor and at Gischala were subdued.
After 70, Vespasian took the entire district, so
rife with sedition, under his private control, and
Judea was administered by governors probably of
pretorian rank. Agrippa's realm after his death
in 100 was joined to the province of Syria.
A review shows that the population of Galilee was heterogeneous. Besides the Jews, themselves not of pure strain, there were Arameans, Itureans (perhaps Arabs), to say nothing of Phenicians and Greeks. On this account the contempt of the Jews for Galileans is explicable (John i. 46, vii. 52), and the dialect was distinguishable from that used in the south (Matt. xxvi. 73; Mark xiv. 70). Nevertheless in the second century Galilee became the home of Jewish scholarship, the place where the Masoretic work was done upon the text of the Old Testament and where the beginning was made of the collection which became the Jerusalem or Palestinian Talmud.
The best‑known cities belonged to Lower Galilee.
Near the southwestern boundary and south of the Wadi al‑Malak lay Simomas, the Shimron of Josh. xi. 1, the modern Semuniyah. South of Tabor the modern Nein locates the Nain of Luke vii. 11. On the plateau between Tabor and the Sea of Galilee the modern village of Sarona locates the Saronas of Eusebius (Onoma8ticon, 296). In the time of Christ the region immediately west of the Sea of Galilee was densely populated. In the south, not far from the outlet into the Jordan, lay the Talmudic fortress Bethirah, to be identified with the Tarichaea of Josephus, the modern Khirbet al‑Karak. Four miles north was the celebrated spring of Tiberias, with Tiberias itself half an 4. Cities. hour farther north, according to the Talmud the site of the Rakkath of Josh. xix. 35. After Herod Antipas had built it, he found it difficult to get Jews to settle there, since they regarded it as unclean on account of the many graves in the vicinity or on the site. An hour still to the north is located the village al‑Majdal, identified with the home of Mary Magdalene. From there to Khan Minyah stretches the plain, the Gennesaret of Mark vi. 53. On the location of Capernaum see CAPERNAUm. The best road from the shore of the Sea of Galilee westward is through the Wadi al‑Hammam, where Herod's famous battle with the supporters of the Hasmoneans was fought (Josephus, War, I., xvi. 2, 4). The basalt hill of Kam Hattin is identified by the Roman Catholics as the Mount of Transfiguration, but without good reason. To the southwest is situated Kafr Kanna, often identified with the Cana of John ii.; others locate Cana at Khirbet Kana, and a third identification is with Hanat al‑Jalil, at the north of the plain of al‑Battof. But half an hour north of Nazareth (q.v.) is a spring still known as Ain Kana, surrounded by masonry, and near it a basin of masonry. This site better fulfils the conditions required for the site of Cana. One and a half hours north of Nazareth is Safuriyah, which marks the site of Sepporis, a town by nature a fortress, and for that reason influentil•1 in history. Before Tiberias was built, it was the chief city of the district. In the north of the plain of al‑Battof (plain of Asochis, Ant. XIII., xii. 4), at the modern Tell Jafat was the fortress of Jotapata (Josephus, War, III., vii.‑viii.). In Upper Galilee, near the north shore of the Sea of Galilee and near Capernaum, the present Khirbet Karazah is the site of Chorazin (Matt. xi. 21). Upon a high spur, giving a wide view southward, was Zafed, a city reckoned with Jerusalem, Hebron, and Tiberias as one of the holy places. Westward lies Meron, often mentioned in the Talmud and still a place of pilgrimage for Jews who honor the doctors of the law buried there. Gischala lay to the north, the modern ruins bearing the name al‑Jish.
(H. GUTHE.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. A. Smith, Historical Geography o/ the Holy Land, London, 1897; Sehther, Geschichte, i.‑ii., Eng. trawl., I., i., II., i.; A. Neubauer, La Geopraphie du Talmud, Paris, 1868; V. Gudrin, Description de la. Palestine, III., Galil6e, i. ii., ib. 1880; C. R. Conder and H. H. Kitchener, Survey of Western Palestine, Memoirs, vol, i., London, 1881; S. Merrill, Galilee in the Time o/ Christ, Boston, 1881; W. M. Thomson, Land and Book, Central

Galilee, Sea of	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZUG	428
Galiioan Confeasdon
	Palestine, London, 1883; B. Stade, Gesehichte des Volkes
	Israel, vol. i., Berlin, 1887; H. Graets, tiewhiehte der Ju
	dea, vol. iii., Index, " GalilAa," " • Galil$er," " • Zeloten,"
	ib. 1888; W. M. Moller, Asian and Europa, Leipsic, 1893;
	J. Wellhausen, laraelit%sdke and iiidssehe Gaachichts, Ber
	lin, 1894; F. Buhl, tiaopraphie des allen Palastina, Frei
	burg, 1898; W. Sanday, Sacred Sites of the Gospels, pp. 20
	48, London, 1903; Robinson, Researches, Vol. ii.; DB, ii.
	98‑104; EB, ii. 1628‑36; JE, v. 553‑554.
	GALILEE, SEA OF: The body of water into
which the Jordan widens north of the Dead Sea and
south of Lake Huleh. In the Old and the New
Testament several names are applied to it. In
the Greek of the New Testament it appears as a
limns ("lake"; Luke v. 1, viii. 22‑33), and as a
thalassa (" sea "; John vi. 18, 23). In one place
(Luke v. 1) it is called the Lake of Gennesaret, a
name given also to the plain along the northwestern
shore and to a town in the plain. Sea of Tiberias
is the terminology in John vi. 1, xxi. 1, in the
first passage also Sea of Galilee. The term Sea of
Galilee is the beat known to the New Testament,
occurring Matt. iv. 18, xv. 29; Mark i. 16, vii. 31;
John vi. 1. In the Old Testament it appears as the
Sea of Chinnereth (Num. xxxiv. 11; Josh. xiii. 27)
and the Sea of Chinneroth (Josh. xii. 3), variant
forms of the same word, the origin of which is
doubtful. I Mace. xi. 67 speaks of " the water of
Gennesar." This body of water is thirteen miles
long, and nearly seven miles wide, less than 200 feet
in depth, approximately an elongated oval in shape,
and its surface is 700 feet below the Mediterranean.
The northern and southern shores slope gently to the
plain of the Jordan, while the eastern and western
shores are terminated by the hills which rise
abruptly on the east, less so on the west. It is
subject to sudden storms of great violence which
make its navigation always a matter of peril. Its
waters swarm with fish, and one town, Bethsaida
(" Home of Fishermen "), took its name from this
fact. The most sacred associations of the lake are
connected with the life of Jesus.
BIBLIOGaAP87: For literature consult list under GALn.Eb.
	GALILEO, gS"li‑15'8 (properly Galileo Gslilei):
Italian physicist and astronomer; b. at Pisa Feb.
15, 1564; d. at Areetri, near Florence, Jan. 8, 1642.
In 1581 he entered the University of Pisa to study
medicine and the Aristotelian philosophy, but soon
abandoned medicine for mathematics and physical
science. In 1585 he left the university and went
to Florence to study under Otilio Ricci. He was
professor of mathematics at Pisa 1589‑91, and at
Padua 1592‑1610, lecturing there to crowds of
enthusiastic pupils from all over Europe. In 1610
Cosmo II., grand duke of Tuscany, appointed him
philosopher and mathematician at the Florentine
court, thus relieving him of all academic routine
and enabling him to devote himself entirely to his
scientific investigations.
	Galileo's opposition to the Ptolemaic cosmology
first brought him under the suspicion of the In
quisition in 1611, though he continued his investi
gations and publicly defended the Copernican sys
tem. In a letter to his friend Father Castelli,
dated Dec. 21, 1613, he maintained that the theolo
gian, instead of trying to restrict scientific investiga
tion on Biblical grounds, should make it his business
to reconcile the phraseology of the Bible with the results of science. In 1615 a copy of this letter was produced before the Inquisition, with the result that the following year Galileo was warned by the pope to desist from his heretical teachings on the pain of imprisonment. In 1632 he again drew the attention of the Inquisition by publishing a defense of the Copernican system. After a long and wearisome trial he was condemned on June 22, 1633, solemnly to abjure his scientific creed on banded knees. This he did under threats of torture; but whether he was actually put to the torture is still a mooted question. He was also sentenced to indeterminate imprisonment, but this was soon commuted to residence at Sienna, and the following December he was allowed to return to his villa at Arcetri, though he remained under the surveillance of the Inquisition. In 1637 he became totally blind.
Galileo's chief contributions to science are his formulation of the laws governing falling bodies, the invention of the telescope, the discovery of the isochronism of the pendulum, and numerous astronomical discoveries, including the phases of Venus, four satellites of Jupiter, and the spots on the sun. His works were stricken from the Index in 1835. The most important are Dialogo . .
copra i due siatemi dal mondo (Florence, 1632); and Discorsi a demostrazioni matematicU intorno 4 due nuove science (Leyden, 1638; both these are in Eng. tranal. by T. Salusbury, The Systems of the World, in Four Dialogues, wherein the two grand Systemes of Ptolemy and Copernicus are . . . discoursed of, . . . The ancient and modern Doctrine of Holy Fathers . . . concerning the rash Citation of the Testimony of . . . Sacred Scripture in Conclusions merely natural. Mathematical Discourses and Demonstrations touching two new Sciences pertaining to Mechaniks and Local Motion . . . with an Appendix of the Centre of Gravity of some Solids.A Discourse concerning the Natation of Bodies upon . . . the Water, London, 1661; by J. Weston, London, 1730). The beat editions of his works are that by E. Alberi (16 vols., Florence, 1842‑56) and the new complete edition now being prepared by A. Favaro at the expense of the State (Florence, 1890 sqq.).
BIBwoa8AP8r: A. Favaro, Galilee Galilei, Florence, 1888• F. Picavet, GaliUe, daetructeur de la scolaetique at fondateur de 7a philomphie ecientihque, Paris, 1895; Primate Life o/ Galileo, London, 1869 (based on his correspondence with his daughters); H. de L'Itpinois, Galil6a, son prooM, as eondamnagon, d'aprts lee documents in6dits, Paris, 1878; g. van Gabler, Galileo and the Roman Curia, London, 1879; F. R. Wegg‑Prosser, Galileo and his Judges, ib. 1889 (gives summary of the " Dialogue "); O. Lodge, Pioneers in Science, ib. 1892; D. Nasmith, Makers of Modern Thought, 2 vols., ib. 1892; A. D. White, Warfare of Science with Theology, 2 vols., New York, 1898; J. J. Fahie, Galileo, his Life and Work, London, 1903; HL, v. 18‑44 (RomAn Catholic, gives good list of literature). A. Favaro, professor of law in the University of Padua. has published in Italian " Galileo and the Inquisition," 1907, giving the,original documents referring to Galileo's prosecution from the archives of the Vatican and the Holy Office.
GALITZIft, gee‑lit'zin' (GALLITZIN, GOLIZYN), ADELHEID AMALIE, PRINCE93. See OVERBER(i, BERNBARD HEINmcm

GALL, SAM. See SAINT GAm, MoNAsTERT or.

498	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	X Qal1°°1 s°' g
			lioaa Oonfesrioa
	GALLAGHER, CHARLES WESLEY: Method
dist Episcopalian; b. at Boston Feb. 3, 1846. He
studied at Wesleyan University (B.A., 1870), and
held pastorates at Guilford, Conn. (1870‑72),
Bridgehampton, Long Island (1872), First Church,
Taunton, Mass. (1872‑73), East Pearl Street, New
Haven, Conn. (1873‑76), North Church, Hartford,
Conn. (1876), Hazelville, Conn. (1877), Warren
Street, Brooklyn (1877‑80), 8t. Paul's, Fall River,
Mass. (1880‑81), First Church, Taunton, Mass.
(1882‑83), and Hazardville, Conn. (1884‑86),
while in 1887‑88 he was presiding elder of the New
Bedford district. From ) 889 to 1893 he was presi
dent of Lawrence University, Appleton, Wis., and
president of Maine Wesleyan Seminary and College
from 1893 to 1897. He was then associate principal
of Lasell Seminary, Auburndale, Mass., from 1897
to 1901, and since the latter year has been president
of the Lucy Webb Hayes National Training School
for Missionaries and Deaconesses of the Methodist
Episcopal Church, Washington, D. C. He has
written (hod Revealed, or Nature's Beat Word (New
York, 1899).
	GALLANDI, g31"lan"df', ANDREA: Italian
Oratorian and scholar; b. at Venice Dec. 7, 1709;
d. there Jan. 12, 1779. He achieved fame by his
edition of the Bx?bliotheca wterum potrum antiquorunt
que acriptorum ecclesiasticorum Grteco‑Latina (14
vols., Venice, 1765‑81). Despite the fact that he
did not include works of the ancient theological au
thors which were already extant in separate editions,
Gallandi's Bxbliotheca is more complete, so far as
minor works and authors are concerned, than any
collection previous to that of Migne. He likewise
edited a number of treatises De roWustia canonum
collectionxbus (1778), which included works by
Constant, Petrus de Marca, and the Ballerini
brothers.		(A. HAuos.)
BIHwoQRAPHT: Nouvelle biapraphie ~ale, Ax. 291, Pads,
1858; G. A. Moeehini, Leneratura Venesiana, iii. 138. 4
	vole., Venice, 1808‑08; H. Hurter, Namencktor litarariw,
	iii. 98, Innsbruck, 1895.
GALLICAN CONFESSION (Con/sasio Gallicana,
French Confession of Faith, Confession of La
Rochelle):	A confession adopted by the first
national synod of the Reformed Church of France in
1559. During the first period of the Protestant
congregations in France, there was no official symbol.
There existed, however, the so‑called sommaires,
		short statements of the principal truths
The Ear‑ of Holy Scripture which are found in
	tier"Sum‑ Protestant Bibles, the two oldest being
maries." one in Latin in Robert Stephens'
		Bible (1532) and another in French in
the Bible of Faber Stapulensis (1534). They are
	found also in Stephens' Latin New Testament
	(1552) and in the French New Testament of J.
	Gerard (1553) in a form revised and supplemented
	by Calvin. These original symbols of the French
	Protestant Church were prompted by apologetic
reasons, being called for to refute the calumnies of
	Roman priests. Up to 1559 the Protestant oon
	gregstions of France were independent, each being
	at liberty to set up its own confession, and the "sum
	maries 11 were sufficient for all purposes.
The first impulse toward a general statement of the doctrine and discipline of all French Reformed congregations was given by a dispute over the doctrine of predestination which broke out in the congregation of Poitiers. As the preachers of that city could not
settle the difficulties, the congregation Origin of of Paris was called to aid. The aethe Con‑ sembled preachers came to the confession. elusion that only a common symbol The Synod and a common church order could of 1559• guard against the external and internal dangers of the Church, and it was resolved to convene a general assembly representative of the Reformed Church in France to provide what was needed. The congregation of Paris invited the other congregations to a national synod. Calvin disapproved of the doings of the Reformed congregations, and at his instigation the church council of Geneva sent three deputies to Paris, N. des Gallars, Arnauld, . and Gilbert, with the draft of a confession in thirty‑five articles‑and a personal letter from Calvin to Frsngois de Morel. In the mean time, the synod had begun its sessions on May 26, 1559, under the presidency of Morel. There were present probably about fourteen deputies, preachers or elders, but the number is variously given from eleven to seventy‑two. During the final three days forty articles of church discipline were decided on. On May 28, the envoys from Geneva arrived. They submitted Calvin's draft and it was accepted with soma slight changes.
The arrangement is the same as in Calvin's " Institutes " and the Geneva catechism of 1540. The symbol contains forty articles and is divided into four parts, corresponding to the four chief dogmas‑‑God, Christ, the Holy Spirit, the Church.. The word of God; as reviled in Holy Scripture,
is declared the only and infallible rule Cones of of faith. The Bible derives its author‑
	the Con‑	ity from the testimony of the Holy
	feasioa.	Spirit in the believing soul. The
		chief dogmas are as in the sommairea‑
Adam's tall, original sin, total depravity of human
nature, redemption through the blood of Christ,
free grace of God, justification by faith. Pre
destination is taught with emphasis, but without
supralapsarianiam. In the doctrine of the Lord's
Supper Calvin's conception of " being nourished
from the substance of the flesh and blood of Christ "
is retained.
The confession was unanimously accepted by the deputies and, according to Chandieu, was " read and proposed to the people and signed by all who could attend according to time and locality." Although it was intended to be kept secret, in the very same year it was published in Switzerland
	and in Francs, under the title Cosfes
Later His‑ lion de foy faicte dun common accord
tort' of the par lea Prang ois~ui d1sinnvive aelon
Confession. to purtE de 1 tgila de NSJC (I
Peter iii.). It was then printed at the beginning of the French Bible, in place of the summary (cf. the Geneva Bible of 1559). A preface addressed to the king was added, and with this addition the confession was handed to him in 1561 by eight deputies from s$ provInoas, chosen at

Qalncan Confession GaUicanism
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
4334
the second national synod in Poitiers (Mar. 10, 1561), with a petition from all congregations. The confession was finally laid before the whole world at the seventh national synod of La Rochelle (Apr. 2, 1571), which convened under the protection of a royal patent. All Reformed congregations of France were represented, and Theodore Beza had been called from Geneva to preside: There were also present Queen Jeanne d'Albret, Prince Henry of Navarre (the later Henry IV.), the Prince of CondS, Admiral Coligni, and many other noblemen. The confession waq read and signed by all. During the time of the so‑called" Churches of the Desert" (Oglisw du d&ert; 1685‑1787p; ~se~e CAMIsARD9; Comm, ANToNz; HUGUENOTS; RABAUT, PAUL), the authority of the symbol began to wane until its subscription became optional. In 1848 unsuccessful attempts were made by H. Gasparin and F. Monod to substitute a new confession. The deputies assembled at Paris rejected everything except Christ crucified as a basis of agreement. Another attempt in 1872 was more successful. A new rule of faith was declared in which the Reformed Church of France professed to remain true to the principles of faith upon which it was founded and to maintain the authority of Holy Scripture in agreement with the forefathers and martyrs of the Confession. of La Rochelle. Since that time a gulf has existed between the orthodox and the liberal party in the Reformed Church of France.
(G. BONET‑MAURY.)

BIHLaoaSAPBT: The Fiench text with Eng. tranel. is in Schaff, Creeds, iii. 358‑382. The original text is in T. de Beza6 Hint, ecci6siaatique des tplisea rtformfea, ii. 173‑190, Antwerp, 1580, and in ZHT, 1875, pp. 508‑544, with introduction by Hoppe. An early Eng. tranal. is in J. Quick, Bynodicon in Gallia retormata, i., pp. vi.‑xvi., London, 1692. Consult: Bess, Hiat., ut cup., 3 vols.; J. Quick, ut sup., 2 vols.; Calvin, Opera, Strasburg ed., ix. 57 sq4.; G. de Felice, Hist. des Protestants en France, Toulouse, 1851, Eng. tranel., London, 1851; H. Lutteroth, La R9formation en France, Paris, 1859; F. Chaponnibre, La Question des confessions de foi au sein du Protestantism contemporain, Geneva, 1867; H. Dieterlen, Ls Synods glm6'al de Paris en 1869, Paris, 1873; E. Bersier, JA Synods t)6niral de Paris en 1872, ib. 1873; N. Weiss and O. Douen, in Bulletin de la sociN d'hist. du Protestantism franpais, pp. 37, 449, Paris, 1894; Sehaff, Creeds, i. 490‑498.

GALLICANISM.
Early Development of Nationalism (¢ 1). Formulation of the GalHcan Principles (1 2). Relation of the Pope to the Episcopate (J 3). Relation of the Pope to the State (§ 4).
Gallicanism denotes the attitude, tending toward national independence, which was more or less widely prevalent in the Roman Catholic Church of France especially during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The Church in Gaul was early recognized as a separate division; in the third century a papal vicar was commissioned to oversee its affairs, and by the fourth the bishop of Arles had succeeded in gaining a definite primacy and appeared as the representative of the pope (see ARLFB, ARCBBISHOPmC OF). Under the Merovingian kings the organization became more firmly established and enjoyed an increasing independence, always in close connection with the monarchy. After the king it was the largest landed proprie‑
tor, and the bishops and abbots were the most influential magnates of the kingdom. This connec‑
tion involved the result that scarcely i. Early a single point of church life was ex‑
Develop‑	eluded from royal regulation. The
ment of gradual development of the papal suNationalism. premacy from Gregory VII. to Inno‑
cent III., aiming as it did at the liberation. of the Church from all secular control, came into inevitable conflict with the system established in France and expressed in the Codex Dionysio‑Hadrianus given by Adrian 1. to Charlemagne. But while in Germany the Church was in the main successful in the conflict, the struggles of the popes with the French kings, such as that of Innocent III. with Philip Augustus and of Boniface VIII. with Philip the Fair, resulted in the strengthening of the royal power. The voluntary removal of censures and limitation of the bull Clericis laicos by Benedict XI. and the declaration of Clement V. in 1306 that the bull Unam sarictam did not affect the rights of the king, completed the victory of the French conception of a State Church.
In 1594, under the title of Les Ltbert& de d'eglise gallicane, Pierre Pithou, a famous lawyer and humanist, for a long time procurator‑general of Paris (d. 1596), put forth eighty‑three propositions expressing the Gallican position on the status of the pope, the king, and the bishops, and on the internal government of the Church. A protest of the bishops against Pithou's work was suppressed by the parliament, and his book, supported later by
Pierre Dupuy's anonymous collection 2. Formula‑ of documents (1639) and commen‑
tion of the tary (1652), was reprinted with the Gallican royal license and became the stand‑
	Principles.	and in practise. Under Louis XIV.
		the questions at issue became acute
in the R6gale (q.v.) controversy, and Gallicanism
in its modern form was officially expressed by the
famous Declaratio cleri Galdicani or " Four Articles
of Gallicanism," drawn up by Bossuet, accepted by
the episcopate on Mar. 19, 1682, and imposed upon
the French clergy. The following is a transla
tion of the " Four Articles ":

There are' many who labor to subvert the Gallican decrees and liberties which our ancestors defended with so much zeal, and their foundations which rest upon the sacred canons and the tradition of, the Fathers. Nor are there wanting those who, under the pretext of these liberties, seek to derogate from the primacy of St. Peter and of the Roman pontiffs his successors; from the obedience which all Christians owe to them, and from the majesty of the Apostolic See, in which the faith is taught and the unity of the faith is preserved. The heretics, on the other hand, omit nothing in order to represent that power by which the peace of the Church is maintained as intolerable both to kings and their subjects; and by such artifices estrange the souls of the simple from the communion of the Church, and therefore from Christ. With a view to remedy such evils, we, the archbishops and bishops assembled at Paris by the king's orders, representing together with the other deputies the Galliean Church, have judged it advisable, after mature deliberation, to determine and declare as follows:
1. St. Peter and his successors, vicars of Christ, and likewise the Church .itself, have received from God power in things spiritual and pertaining to salvation, but not in things temporal and civil; inasmuch as the Lord says, My kingdom is not of this world; and again, Bender unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's, and unto God the thugs which are Gods. The Apostolic precept also holds Let every soul be subject

4135	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	CWucan Confession
		Goancantam
unto the higher powers, for there is no power but of God:
the powers that be are ordained of God; whosoever therefore
resisteth the power resisteth the ordinance of God. Conse
quently kings and princes are not by the law of God subject
to any ecclesiastical power, nor to the keys of the Church,
with respect to their temporal government. Their subjects
can not be released from the duty of obeying them, nor ab
solved from the oath of allegiance; and this maxim, necessary
to public tranquillity, and not less advantageous to the Church
than to the State, is to be strictly maintained, as conformable
to the word of God, the tradition of the Fathers, and the
example of the Saints.
2. The plenitude of power in things spiritual, which resides
in the Apostolic See and the successors of St. Peter, is such
that at the same time the decrees of the ecumenical Council
of Constance, in its fourth and fifth sessions, approved as
they are by the Holy See and the practise of the whole
Church, remain in full force and perpetual obligation; and
the Gallican Church does not approve the opinion of those
who would depreciate the said decrees as being of doubtful
authority, insuufciently approved, or restricted in their ap
	plication to a time of schism.
3. Hence the exercise of the Apostolic authority must be
	regulated by the canons enacted by the Spirit of God and con
secrated by the reverence of the whole world. The ancient
rules, customs, and institutions received by the realm and
Church of France remain likewise inviolable; and it in for
the honor and glory of the Apostolic See that such enact
ments, confirmed by the consent of the said see and of the
	churches, should be observed without deviation.
4. The pope has the principal place in deciding questions
	of faith, and his decrees extend to every church and all
	churches; but nevertheless his judgment is not irreversible
	until confirmed by the consent of the Church.
		Under the system thus formally established, the
	pope was recognized as the successor of Peter and vicar
			of Christ, the divinely appointed head of
	3. Relation the Church, with spiritual jurisdiction
	of the Pope over the whole body and over national
	to the Epis‑ Churches in particular. But the sta
		copate.	tun of the bishops rested equally upon
			divine ordinance, and they, with the
	pope, represented the Church in general councils,
	which were of higher authority than the pope,
	and could alone issue an irreformable definition in
	matters of faith; a definition issued by the pope
	when no council was sitting required the consent
	of the whole Church before it could be considered
	irreformable. From the point of view of his rela
	tions to the French episcopate, the pope was sup
	posed to be bound by the canons, and in France
	especially by the recognized ancient customs.
	These, it is true, had been substantially altered by
	the Concordat of 1516 between Francis I. and Leo
	X., which had gone into effect in spite of clerical
	protests (Bee CONCORDATS AND DELIMITING B17LI13,
	III., 2, § 1). The king named the bishops, who were
	then confirmed by the pope. Papal interference in
	the affairs of individual dioceses was only to be
	tolerated as far as the law of the Church allowed.
	The papal nuncio had no jurisdiction in France,
	and the presence of a legate to latere was permissible
	only in virtue of a mutual agreement, and then only
	during the king's pleasure. The greatest power
	was conceded to the pope in regard to the ap
	pointment to benefices; abbots and, in practise,
	abbesses were nominated by the king and confirmed
	by the pope, who also claimed for his province
	dispensations of all kinds, unless the king or the par
	liaments interfered in a specific case.
		In theory the Church was an independent power,
	but in reality the State ruled. Every papal consti‑
tution, whether relating to doctrine or discipline, required the approval of the king or a government
official before it went into effect in .y. Relation France, and the same thing applied of the Pope to the decrees of councils. A part of to the State: the decisions of the Council of Trent
was enforced through the royal ordonnance de Blois of 1579. Ecclesiastical jurisdiction was strictly limited. The offenses of clerics, unless purely ecclesiastical, came before secular tribunals, except in the case of bishops, who were tried before a provincial council. All mixed causes (dissolution of marriage, questions of church property, benefices, tithes, etc.) were decided by the higher secular courts. The king claimed the right to tax the clergy and church property, but this was vehemently opposed by the clergy and, never wholly conceded before the Revolution. , The incomes of vacant sees went to the king, who also claimed the right to appoint to all benefices during a vacancy in the see.
The State took strong ground against any immediate interference of the curia in the government of the French Church. A French prelate consecrated in Rome was not allowed to exercise his functions. The decrees of the Roman congregations had no validity in France, nor were Frenchmen allowed to be summoned to Rome in any process of law. As 9, consequence of this conflict between the rival powers, an institution grew up which seriously crippled the ecclesiastical jurisdiction, the appal comma d'abus, by which on the application of one party to a case, or simply on grounds of public interests, the procureur‑gWral might cite the case before the parliament of the province for investigation and decision. This institution, created by the Pragmatic Sanction of 1438 (see PRAGMATIC SANCrION), was abolished by the Concordat of 1516, but the parliaments still maintained it; it found a new support in the ordonnance de Millers‑Coter4s in 1539, was limited or modified on complaint of the clergy by new edicts in 1571, 1580, 1605, and 1695, and stoutly upheld by the parliaments until practically there was no more question of an independent ecclesiastical jurisdiction or administration. Thus the power of the papacy was indeed broken, but at the cost of serious damage to the rights of the episcopate and the complete subjection of the Gallican Church to the State. The downfall of the old r€gime, however, allowed the pope to acquire a degree of power in France which he had never before possessed, and the nineteenth century witnessed the gradual decay of the last remnants of the old Gallican spirit. (J. F. voN ScHuLTE.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. de Marca, De ooncordia saardotii et imperil, Paris, 1641; J. B. Boseuet, Detensio declaraiionis
. de potentate eccleeim sanxit clams Gallicanus, Luxemburg, 1730; C. Fleury, Diseours our lea libertt!a de l'6plise pallicane, Paris, 1765; idem, Institution au droit ecrcUsiastique, ib. 1767; L. E. Dupin, Les Libert& de 1'Jplise pailicane, ib. 1824; idem, Manual du droit publique eccUsiastique /rantais, ib. 1847; J, B. Bordas‑Demoulin, Las Pouyoirs conatitutifs de 1'hgliae, ib. 1855; F. Host, Le Gallimnisme, ib. 1855; W. H. Jervis, The Gallican Church, London, 1872 (from 1516 to the Revolution); idem, The Gallican Church and the Revolution, ib. 1882; A. Le Roy, Le Gallicanieme au xviii. sipcle, Paris, 1892; L. Mention, Domino* relatila aux rapporta du clerg,' avec 14 royaulE 1888‑1705, Paris, 1893 sqq.; A. Debedour. Mist. den rap‑

~~ °a	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	498
ports do 1'dglise o do 1'Ltd . . . 1789‑‑1870, ib. 1898; Seller, La Pin du gnMmnisms et M. Marl son dernier reprbentant, Alenpon, 1901; A. Gslton, Church and State in Prance, IS00‑1007, London, 1907; Cambridge Modem History, v 72sqq., New York, 1908 Documents Pertinent to the subject, including the bulls Cleric4a laioot and Imam sanetam, are in Thatcher and MoNeal, Documents, pp. 811‑814; Robinson, Europsan Hisfav, pp. 848 sqq., 488 eqq.; and Reich, Documents, pp. 198‑195, 879‑886.

GALLIOrlm3, gal"i‑vnvs, PUBLIUS LICIR=:
Roman emperor 280‑268; b. 218 or 219; d. at Milan Mar. 4, 268. In 254 he was made coregent by his father, the Emperor Valerian, and ruled with him until 260, when the elder emperor was taken prisoner by the Persians. Gallienus thenceforth seems to have remained sole ruler, for it is not certain that his stepbrother, the younger Valerian, ever became Augustus. On the revolt of Aureolus in Illyria, Gallienus marched against him and laid siege to Milan, but fell a victim to a conspiracy of his officers, headed by Aurelian and Heraclian. His reign was marked by inroads of the barbarians from the north and east, and by ceaseless meurrections and attempts at usurpation. Notwithstanding that he was unequal to the tasks which confronted him, Gallienus was highly lauded by his elder contemporary Dionysius, bishop of Alexandria, who, writing to Hermammon in 262 (Eusebius, Hist. seal., vii. 23), compared the emperor to the sun which shines again after its temporary obscurity by a cloud (alluding to the usurper Macrianus, who had taken possession of Egypt), and even saw in him the fulfilment of the prophecy in Isa. xliii. 19.
The ground of this favorable judgement of Dionysius, in which Eusebius concurs, is evidently the repeal by the new emperor of the harsh edicts of Valerian against the Christians. It has even been stated (without cogent evidence) that he declared Christianity to be a tolerated religion. The edict issued by Gallienus in 260 is lost, and the one translated from the Latin by Eusebius (Hilt. eccl., VII., xiii. 2) is a special edict for Egypt, promulgated in 261. Granting that the edict for the entire empire was analogous to this Egyptian decree, it merely provided that the bishops should not be sought out by the authorities, and that the places of worship should be left unmolested. It therefore simply restored the conditions which existed before the reigns of Decius and Valerian, without giving Christianity the slightest official recognition. The fact that the decree was addressed directly to the bishops was indeed unprecedented, but this was clearly due to the importance and influence which they had attained. Eusebius himself, moreover, merely states that Gallienus alleviated the position of the Christians, but nowhere says that he tolerated them, while the mesa of Christian tradition has either ignored the edict or paid scant attention to it. The clearest evidence that the attitude of the State toward Christianity was unchanged lies in the fact that Christian soldiers could still suffer martyrdom for their faith (cf. Eusebius, Hist. ecd., vii. 15). The most that can be said is that the repeal of the edicts of Valerian practically amounted to a declaration of toleration for the Church in view of the position which it then occupied. Despairing of the
possibility of crushing Christianity by persecution, Gallienus determined to leave it alone, though without changing its legal status. Nevertheless, it is clear, from the executions during his reign and the rule of his successors, that the State still claimed the right to inflict capital punishment for refusal to worship the images of the emperor or even for the avowal of a belief in Christianity.
(ADola HARNAOS.)

BmwoanAPHy: The sources are: Porphyry, Vita Plotini, xii.; Trebelliue Pollio, OaUisni duo: idem, Claudius, i. 4; Ammisnus Maraellinue, xiv. I sqq., Eng. trend. in Bohn's Classical Library, London, 1887; Eusebius, Hist. eecZ., VII.. x.1, xi. 8, xiii. 1‑2, etc.; Georglue Synoellus, Chronoyraphia, i. 717, Bonn, 1829. Consult: L. 6. Le Nain de Tillemont, Hiet. des empereurs, pp. 288‑289, Dresden, 1754; Gibbon, Decline and Pail, chaps. x., xvi.; Brequi8ny, in Mhnoirw de 1'acadhnie des inscriptions, xxx. 849‑850, xxxii. 286‑267; Nesnder, Christian Church, i., passim, ii. 15, 167; sad the literature under PammcaTToxe, Cmtanurr, Dr Tam RoxAN Emm:z.
GALLIO. See GREECE, I., I
GALLITZIlK, DEMETRIUS AUGUST=: Roman Catholic missionary; b. at The Hague Dec. 22, 1770; d. at Loretto, Cambria County, Pa., May 6, 1,840. His mother was a famous adherent of Pietism, Adelheid Amalie von Schmettau, wife of the Russian Prince Dmitri Alexeievitch Galitzin (see OVERBERIi, BERNHARD HExNmCH; the name is variously spelled: Gallitzin, Golitzine, Golizyn, preferably Galitzin or Galiain; that of the subject of this sketch, however, almost invariably appears in the form Gallitzin). After serving in the Austrian army in the first campaign against France, he sailed for America with Father Brosius, his tutor, in 1792. He joined the Roman Catholic Church in 1787, surrendered his commission in the Russian army, entered the seminary of St. Sulpice in Baltimore, and was ordained priest Mar. 18, 1795, being the second priest ordained in this country. After serving for a time in the missions of Port Tobacco, Md., and Conewago, Pa., in 1799 he became pastor of the Roman Catholics of Maguire's Settlement in the wildest part of the Allegheny Mountains, now Cambria County, Pa. Here he bought more than 20,000 acres of land and began to furnish homes to settlers on easy terms. On his own property he founded in 1803 the town of Loretto. Other settlements were made at Ebensburg, Carrolltown, St. Augustine, Wilmore, and Summitville. As " Father Smith," by which name he had been naturalized in 1802, Gallitzin became famous for his charity, self‑sacrifice, and zeal in Christian work. In 1809 he was allowed by special act of the legislature to resume his family name. He was held in high esteem by all sects, and high episcopal honors were frequently urged upon him. His writings are still prized by Roman Catholics, particularly his Defence of Catholic Principles (Pittsburg. 1816); Letters to a Protestant Friend on the Scriptures (1818); Appeal to the Protestant Public (1818); and Six Letters of Advice (1834).
BIHLIOa8AP87: T. Heyden, Memoir on As Life and Character of P. D. A. de Gallitzin, Baltimore, 1869; 8. M. Brownson, Life of Demetrius Augustine Ga71itan, Prince and Priest, New York, 1878; Pauline Hard, A Royal Son and Mother. Notre Dams, Ind., 1908.

427	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Gallienus
		Gallus
	GALLOWAY, CHARLES BETTS: Methodist
Episcopal bishop; b. at Kosciusko, Miss., Sept. 1,
1849; d. at Jackson, Miss., May 12, 1909. He
studied at the University of Mississippi (B.A., 1868)
and held pastorates at Port Gibson (1871), Yazoo
City (1872‑73), Jackson (1874‑78), and Vicksburg,
Miss. (187884). From 1882 to 1886 he was editor
of the New Orleans Christian Advocate, and in 1886
was elected bishop of the Methodist Episcopal
Church, South. He was a fraternal messenger to
the Methodist Church of Canada in 1886 and to the
Wesleyan Methodist Conference in England in 1892,
while in 1901 he preached the opening sermon of
the Ecumenical Conference at London. He was
also a member of the Ecumenical Conference at
Washington in 1891, and visited the Methodist
Episcopal missions in China, Japan, Korea, and
those in Brazil and Mexico. He was president
of the board of education of the Methodist
Episcopal Church, South. In theology he was an
orthodox member of his denomination. He wrote
Methodism, Its Providential Origin and Progress
(Nashville, Tenn., 1880); Life of Bishop Linus
Parker (1886); Hand‑Book of Prohibition (1886);
A	Circuit of the Globe (1895); Modern Missions,
their Evidential Value (Cole Lectures at Vanderbilt
University; 1896); Christianity and the Nation
(Quillian lectures at Emory College; 1898); The
South and the Negro (1904); Methodism's To
morrow (1904); and Bishop John Christian Keener
(1906).
	GALLUS, CAIUS VIBIUS TREBONIANUUS: Ro
man emperor 251‑253; b. at Perusia (the modern
Perugia, 85 m. n. of Rome), probably in 207; d.
at Forum Flaminu (probably the modern San
Giovanni pro Fiammo, 2 m. n. of Foligno) or at
Interamna (the modern Terni, 59 m. s. e. of Perugia)
late in the summer of 253. He was a general of
Decius in the war against the Goths, and after the
death of this emperor was declared Augustus by the
Senate in 251, together with Hostilianus, the son of
Decius. Hostilianus died in the following year,
and Volusianus, the son of Gallus, was appointed his
successor. The reign was one of disaster, marked
by a shameful peace with the Goths and their
renewed inroads, the loss of Syria and Armenia to
the Persians, and a terrible pestilence. On the
Danube the Pannonian legions proclaimed lhnil
ianus emperor, whereupon Gallus and his son
marched against him, only to fall at the hands of
their mutinous troops on the way. In the early
portion of the reign of Gallus the Christians had a
brief respite from the horrors of the persecution of
Decius, but before long the new emperor reenforced
measures of repression, either at his own initiative
or under the compulsion of the people, who were
maddened by pestilence and poverty. As early
as May, 252, it was feared at Carthage that
the new laws would be enforced, and in the
summer of the following year Cyprian wrote to
the Roman bishop Cornelius of an imperial edict by
which " the people were commanded to offer
sacrifices." The actual persecutions, however,
seem to have been mild, banishment being the
penalty rather than death, so that all recollection
of a persecution during the reign of Gallus soon vanished from the Church.
(AnoLF HARNACK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: J. C. Orelli, Inecriptionum Latinarum . . . Coilectio, nos. 281, 997, 998, 1000, 3 vole., Zurich, 1828,1858; Eusebius, Hist. scat., V11. i., x. 1; idem, Chronicon, 2289‑72; Jerome, Chronicon, 22682270. Consult: L. 8. Le Nain de 7111emont, Hiet. des empsrsure, x. 245‑246, Dresden, 1754; Gibbon, Decline and Fall, i. 250‑252; Milman, Latin Christianity, i 85; Neander, Christian Church, i. 138, 268, 711; and the literature under PERSECUTIONS, CHRISTIAN, IN THE ROMAN EmPOiE, and CYPRIAN.
GALLUS (HAHN), ftICOLAUS: Leader of the Reformation in Regensburg; b. at K6then (19 m. n. of Halle), Anhalt, 1516; d. at Zellerbad, near Liebenzell (20 m. w. of Stuttgart), Wurttemberg, June, 1570. At Wittenberg, where he became a student in 1530 and received the master's degree in 1537, he won the commendation of Melanchthon. In 1543 Luther sent Hieronymus Nopus as preacher to Regensburg at the request of the city council and with him went Gallus, who was ordained by Bugenhagen in April. In 1548 trouble arose in Regensburg over the acceptance of the Interim. Gallus wrote a treatise against it, and had to leave the city; services in the only Evangelical church there were discontinued. For a time Gallus preached for Cruciger (who was ill) at Wittenberg, then in 1549, through the influence of his brother‑in‑law, Heinrich Merkel, city secretary at Magdeburg, he went to the Ulrich Church in that city. He joined Flacius in opposition to the adiaphorism of the Wittenberg circle and published a Disputation von Mitteldingen in 1550. He remained in Magdeburg after its capitulation in 1551, and kept up the dispute against Osiander and Major. In June, 1553, Prince Wolfgang of Anhalt called him to his native city to assist in the settlement of the administration of the church property. In August, 1553, Gallus was called back to Regensburg as leader of the Evangelical cause. He worked there for almost seventeen years, and the effects of his activity were felt far beyond the borders of the town. In the disputes of the following years he fought faithfully on the side of Flacius. Like him he tried to influence Mehanchthon by letters, but the latter treated Gallus rather haughtily. It probably angered him that Gallus had republished (1554) his Sententite veterum de coma Domini, which was directed against (Ecolampadius. In 1561 Gallus warned the princes convened at Naumburg of the spreading Calvinistic doctrine of the Lord's Supper. He also got into a dispute with Brenz, whom he suspected of leanings toward Melanchthonism. From 1562 to IBM he furnished a refuge to Flacius, who had been expelled from Jena. Melanchthon reproached Gallus for fighting continually against the Evangelicals, instead of combating Romanism. But the reproach was not pertinent; during the diet in 1556 he preached against the Roman Catholics, and there are still extant manuscripts containing theses of disputation against the Ingolstadt Catholics. In this connection may be mentioned Gallus' writing directed against Corpus Christi day: Vom abg6ttischen Fest, FrohnLiehnama‑Tag genannt (1561). His congregation esteemed him highly for his seal

iBI	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	428
in the maintenance of pure doctrine and moral discipline, and his personal life was blameless.
(G. KAwERAU.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources: Some of his letters are printed in CR, viii., ix., and in J. Fecht, Hiat. eccl. awculi xvi., supplement vol., pp. 27 eqq.; part of his writings are in W. Preger, M. Flaciua, ii. 540 eqq., Erlangen, 1861 (where other biographical material is found). Consult: L. Widmann in Chroniken der deutschen Sthdte xv. 187 eqq.; W. Germann, J. Forater, pp. 371 eqq., Meiningen, 1894; E. B5h1, Beitrdpe zur Geechichte der Reformation in Oesterreirh, Jena, 1902; ADB, viii. 351 sqq.

GAMALIEL ("God is my rewarder"): A celebrated rabbi of the first century. There were at least two noted leaders of this name, the one mentioned Acts v. 34 being generally called the Elder or Gamaliel I. to distinguish him from his grandson. According to Acts xxii. 3 he was the teacher of Paul. In Jewish literature he is known as the ancestor of the later Jewish patriarchs (ethnarchs) of Palestine. The family claimed descent from Benjamin and even from David. That Hillel the Great was Gamaliel's grandfather is claimed, but is not certain. Jewish tradition speaks of Gamaliel as president of the Sanhedrin, but these statements refer generally to Gamaliel II. A few practical enactments are ascribed to him. Thus he decided (Mishnah, Gitlin iv. 2) that in the letter of divorce the formula " and every name which he (she) has " be added to the name of the husband and the wife, thus precluding the possibility of invalidating a letter of divorce in case one had different names. In the interest of orphans he introduced the custom that the widow state under oath that she had thus far received nothing, before taking her dowry from the estate (Gittin iv. 6). He considered the evidence of one witness of the death of a husband as sufficient to allow the widow to marry again (Yebamot xvi. 7). That he became a Christian as the Clementine Recognitions (i. 65) state is an invention. He died probably before the year 70, for his son Simeon played an important part during the rebellion, whereas Gamaliel is mentioned no more.
(G. DALMAN.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. D. Ginsburg, in Mtto, Cgclopaedia o/ Biblical Literature, ii. 60‑61, Edinburgh, 1864 (gives rabbinical references); J. Derenbourg, L'Hist. et la gtographie de la Palestine, i. 239‑246, Paris, 1867; H. Gritz, Geachichte der Juden, iii. 373 sqq., Leipsic, 1878; F. W. Farrar, Paul, vol. i., excursus v., London, 1879; J. Hamburger, RealEneyklop4die filr Babel and Talmud, ii. 236‑237, Strelitz, 1883; M. Bloch, Inatitutionen des Judentuma, IL, i. 118202, BrUnn, 1884; M. Brauneehweiger, Die Lehrer der Miachnah, pp. 50 aqq.; Frankfort, 1890; Schilrer, Geechichte and Eng. transl., consult Indexes; DR, ii. 106; EB, ii. 1638‑39; JE, v. 558‑560.
GAMES: A means of securing entertainment and relaxation, as is indicated by the most general Hebrew term " to play," ;zih,.,hak ( = " to laugh long and heartily "). The Old Testament gives no detailed information about the games of children, but it may be assumed that Hebrew young people employed their mental, muscular, and nervous energy in the same way as the children of all other peoples. Even the positive prohibition of images by Islam has not prevented the children from delighting in models of horses, sheep, and the like. Since in spite of Ex. xx. 4 there were varied products of the arts in animal and other forms in the
Temple; the Hebrew children doubtless had their playthings made after similar models. A hint of a mode of entertainment may be given in Job xli. 5" Wilt thou play with him [leviathan] as with a bird? or wilt thou bind him for thy maidens? " (cf. Baruch iii. 17). The excavations in Taanach have revealed bone implements such as the Arabs still employ in playing dice. The Talmud (Rosh ha‑Shanah i. 8) pronounces those who train doves for speed trials or to lure other doves into their dove‑cotes and those who use dice incompetent to bear witness. There is mention of a game of drafts in Sanhedrin 25b. Early rabbis condemned card‑playing. To win money from a Jew by a game is robbery, to win it from a Gentile is not robbery though a breach of the law. " Odd and even " was a game of the Egyptians; Assyrian dice of bronze with spots of gold have been found; a similar game, played by the drawing of arrows, was used by the ancient Arabs; the,' Homeric Greeks had both drafts and dice; and Tacitus reports that the Germans played with dice. Doubtless the early Hebrews in their moments of leisure, as they sat at their doors or met in public gathering‑places (Gem. xix. 1; Lam. v. 14) or on festal occasions (Judges xiv. 10 sqq.), amused themselves in similar manner, and it is known that they sharpened their wits in the propounding and answering of riddles (Judges xiv. 14 sqq.; I Kings x. 1; Prov. xxx. 21 sqq.). The drama does not seem to have been congenial to the Hebrew character, and for this reason the interpretation of Canticles as a drama. seems less reasonable, though in later times the Jews are reported to have gone upon the stage and written dramas (Josephus, Life, iii.; Clement of Alexandria, Strom., i. 155).
There were also what may be classed as sensuous games in distinction from those already mentioned which exercise primarily the mental faculties. In these song and music occupy prominent parts (Ex. xv. 20‑21; I Sam. xvi. 16 sqq.; Isa. v. 12; Jer. xxx. 19; Amos vi. 5; see Music, HEBREW). Games which exercised the powers of body and will were numerous; among these dances take first place (Job xxi. 11; Jer. xxxi. 4), in which the course of the seasons or national success or personal prowess was celebrated in joyous and concerted movement (Judges xxi. 21; I Sam. xviii. 6; see DANCING). With such dancing to the accompaniment of music and song Samson was probably expected to entertain his enemies (Judges xvi. 25). The foot‑race is implied in Ps. xix. 5, and by the references to the speed of Saul, Jonathan, and Asahel (II Sam. i. 23, ii. 18). Skill of hand and arm were employed in a game of ball (Isa. xxii.18), which game is recognized among Assyrian sports, is mentioned by the rabbis, and was known to the Egyptians. The shooting of arrows at a mark was likewise a means of entertainment (I Sam. xx. 20; Job xvi. 12; Lam. iii. 12). Throwing the stone is suggested by Zech. xii. 3 (cf. C. eon Orelli, Durchs heilige Land, Basel, 1890, p. 291). The Jews raised energetic protest against the adoption of Greek sports (I Mace. i. 14; II Mace. iv. 9‑15); but the Herodian faction had theaters and amphitheaters near Jerusalem and Joppa, and Herod's interest in such matters is reported by Josephus (Ant. XV., viii. 1, ix. 6, XVI., v.

429	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	GamalleI
		Gardens
1). Gladiatorial shows were most strongly con
demned by the Jews.	In the New Testament Paul
makes frequent reference to the foot‑race and its
rewards (I Cor. ix. 24‑27; Phil. iii. 12; II Tim. ii.
5; cf. James i. 12; Rev. ii. 10).	(E. K6NIG.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. J. Van Lennep, Bible Laude, .	. Cue
	toma and Manners 1llusimtive of Scripture, pp. 573‑574,
	New York‑, 1875; J. G. Wilkinson, Manners and Customs
	of the Ancient Egyptians, London, 1878; E. Buchholz,
	Die homeriachen Realien, ii. 1, pp. 280‑299, Leipsic, 1881;
	J. 8. Howson, Metaphors of St. Paul, chap. iv., London,
1883; A. Huber, Udber das " Meiair "	. Spiel der
	heidniachen Araber, pp 9 sqq, Leipsic, 1883; A. Wiinsche,
	Die Rdtselweiaheit bei den Hebraern, ib. 1883; M. Lazarus,
	Die Reize des Spieles, Berlin, 1883; T. Mommsen, R6mi
	sehe Altertilmer, ii. 517 sqq., Leipsic, 1887; G. Dalman,
	Paldstiniacher Diuyan, 1901, pp. 95 eqq., 182 eqq., 254
sqq.; DB, ii. 106‑108.
GAMS,	gyms, PIUS BONIFATIUS: German
Roman Catholic; b. at Mittelbuch (a village of
Wurttemberg) Jan. 23, 1816; d. at Munich May
11, 1892. He studied at Ttibingen, and became
vicar at Achstettin and Gmund in 1838 and teacher
at Horb in 1841. He made a scientific journey at
the expense of the State in 1842‑43, and in the fol
lowing year was appointed acting pastor at Wurm
lingen and professor at Rottweil. After serving as
teacher at Gmiind, he became professor of theology
and philosophy at the episcopal seminary of Hildes
heim in 1847, but in 1855 entered the Benedictine
monastery of St. Boniface at Munich. Gams was
a prolific writer, his principal works being: Aus
gang and Ziel der Geschichte (Tubingen, 1850); Die
Geschichte der Kirche Jesu Christi im .neunzehnten
Jahrhundert (3 vols., Innsbruck, 1854‑58; sup
	plementary volume; 1860); Margott, die Siege der
Kirche im ersten Jahrzehnt des Pontifikats Pius IX.
	(1860); Kateehetische Reden gehalten in der Basilika
zu Miinchen (2 vols., Regensburg, 1862); Kirch.en
	geschiehte von Spanien (3 vols., 1862‑79); Das
Jahr des Martyrtodes der heiligen Apostel Petrus
and Paulus (1867); Zur Geschiehte der spanischen
	Staatsinquisitian (1878); and Der Bonifacivsverein
in Deutschland 1850‑1880 (Paderborn, 1880). He
wrote also a biography of J. A. Mohler (Regensburg,
	1866) and edited his Kirchengeschichte (3 vols.,
	1867‑68), as well as the Series episcoporum ecclesia
	catholiea quotquot innotuerunt a beato Petro apostolo
(1872; supplements 1879 and 1886).
GANGRA, SYNOD OF (circa 340).	See Eu
STATHIUB OF SEBASTE.
	GANNON, THOMAS JOSEPH: Roman Catho
	lic; b. at Cambridge, Mass., July 14, 1853. He
	studied at Boston College, which he left in 1872 to
encer the Society of Jesus.	He studied the usual
	courses of the Society at Frederic, Md. (1872‑75,
	1889‑90), and Woodstock College, Woodstock, Md.
	(1875‑78, 1883‑87), and was professor of Latin,
	Greek, and mathematics at Holy Cross College,
	Worcester, Mass., 1878‑83. He taught philosophy
	at Boston College (1887‑88) and at Woodstock
	College (1888‑89), and after being assistant to his
	provincial in 1890‑91 was president of St. John's
College, Fordham, N. Y., until 1896.	He was then
	again assistant to two provincials for five years;
	in 1901‑06 provincial of the Maryland‑New York
	province, and in 1907 became instructor of ter‑
tiaries in the Novitiate of St. Andrew‑on‑Hudson, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. He has been a member of the Missionary Band since 1906.
GARASSE, ga"r&, FRANQOIS: French Jesuit; b. at Angoul6me (66 m. n.e. of Bordeaux), France, 1584; d. at Poitiers (60 m. s.s.w. of Tours), France, June 14, 1631. He joined the Jesuit order in 1600, and soon became known as a powerful pulpit orator. As a writer he devoted himself chiefly to polemics, sparing no opponents of his order, and attacking even the dead. In 1622 he published a pamphlet against Ptienne Pasquier, a Roman Catholic, who had died several years before, because the latter had defended the university against the Jesuits in 1565. Under the pseudonym " Andreas Schioppius " he wrote a polemical pamphlet entitled Elixir calvinisticum (Charenton, 1615) aimed at the French Reformed Protestants, and in 1619 he published at Brussels his Rabelais reforme, which was more of a satire than a polemic. He was especially antagonistic toward Pierre du Moulin, a prominent and scholarly Reformed polemic author. Garasse's writings are characterized by a lack of earnestness, scientific spirit, and thorough knowledge of his subject, as well as by a want of dignity and truthfulness. He died of the plague at Poitiers, whither he had been sent at his own request to care for the sick.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Hurts% Nomenclator literariua, i. 289, Innsbruck, 1892; Der, Bibliothkque de la compagnie
de Jesus, ed. C. Sommervogel, iii. 1184 sqq., Paris, 1892.
GARDENS, HEBREW: In gardening the Israelites were pupils of the Canaanites. The Hebrew gars meant either a vegetable‑garden (I Kings xxi. 2) or an orchard (Jer. xxix. 5; Amos iv. 9; Eccles. ii. 5). In the first‑mentioned were raised onions, garlic, cucumbers, and melons (which, eaten with bread, were leading articles of diet), and aromatic herbs, such as mint and caraway. Such gardens required careful and bountiful watering (Isa. lviii. 11; Jer. xxxi. 12). Vegetables were often planted in the fields after the harvest of the winter crop (see AGRICULTURE, HEBREW).
Of greater importance were the orchards (see FRUIT‑TREES IN THE OLD TESTAMENT), which formed the gardens characteristic of the Old Testament. The kings of Jerusalem had such gardens in the valley southeast of the city (II Kings xxv. 4; Jer. xxxix. 4; cf. II Kings xxi. 18, 26), which served as pleasure‑grounds, particularly when provided with water. To " sit under one's vine and fig‑tree " was characteristic of a happy period (I Kings iv. 25; Micah iv. 4). The old Hebrew, like other dwellers in the scantily watered East (cf. the descriptions of paradise, in the Koran and the general Mohammedan conception), thought of paradise as an Eden with trees of all kinds, where, at evening, cool breezes blow (Gen. iii. 8). It was customary to place the family vault in a " garden " (11 Kings xxi. 18, 26; Matt. xxvii. 60). In Babylon such pleasure‑grounds were popular (cf. B. Meisaner and P. Rost, Bauinschriften Sanheribs, v. 14 sqq., Leipsic, 1893), and the kings and noblemen of Persia delighted in beautiful parks (Xenophon, Cyropadia, I., iii. 12; Anabasis, I., ii. 71; cf. Esther i. 5, vii. 7). Indeed, the word parries, the later

Oardiner	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	480
Garnet
Hebrew designation for such a garden, meaning " paradise " and also " forest " (Neh. ii. 8), was borrowed from the Persian. I. BENZINGER.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bensinger, Archdolopie, pp. 35‑36: E. Day, Social Life among the IIebrewe, New York. 1901; DB, ii. 108‑110; EB, ii. 1640‑44 (both of these are especially excellent); JE, vi. 470‑472.
GARDINER, FREDERIC: Protestant Episcopalian; b. at Gardiner, Me., Sept. 11, 1822; d. at Middletown, Conn., July 18, 1899. He studied at Hobart College, Bowdoin College (B.A., 1842), and the General Theological Seminary, New York City, from which he was graduated in 1845. Ordered deacon in 1845, he was advanced to the priesthood in 1846. He was minister and rector of Trinity Church, Saco, ‑Me., 1845‑47, curate at St. Luke's, Philadelphia, 1848, and rector of Christ Church, Bath, Me., 1848‑54. He spent the years 1854‑56 in Europe, then became rector of Trinity Church, Lewiston, Me., for a year. From 1857 to 1865 he was in charge of his father's estate at Gardiner, and at the same time rector of St. Matthew's, Hallowell, Me., besides assisting Bishop George Burgess in his tentative theological school at Gardiner. In 1865 he accepted a call to the professorship of the literature and interpretation of the New Testament at the Protestant Episcopal Theological Seminary at Gambier, O., but resigned two years later, and after being a general missionary in the diocese of Massachuset* for a year, was assistant rector of Trinity Church, Middletown, Conn., 1867‑68. From 1869 to 1882 he was professor of Old Testament and Christian evidences in Berkeley Divinity School, Middletown, Conn., and from the latter year until his death was professor of the literature and interpretation of the New Testament in the same institution, also. serving as librarian throughout this period. He wrote The Island of Life, an Allegory (Boston, 1851); Commentary on the Epistle of St. Joule (1856); Harmony of the Gospels in Greek (Andover, 1871); Harmony of the Gospels in English (1871); Diatessaron, The Life of Our Lord in the Words of the Gospels (1871); The Principles of Textual Criticism (1876); The Old and New Testaments in their Mutual Relations (New York, 1885); Was the Religion of Israel a Revelation or merely a Development! (1889); and the posthumous Aids to Scripture Study (1890). He wrote also the commentary on Leviticus for the American edition of Lange's commentary (New York, 1876), and on II Samuel and Ezekiel for Bishop C. J. Ellicott's Old Testament Commentary for English Readers (London, 1883‑84), besides editing Chrysostom's " Homilies on Hebrews " for The Nicene and Post‑Nicene Library of the Fathers, xiv. (New York, 1890).
GARDINER, JAMES: A colonel of Scottish dragoons famous for his remarkable religious experience; b. at Carriden (17 m. w. of Edinburgh), Linlithgowshire, Jan. 11, 1688; killed at the battle of Prestonpans Sept. 21, 1745. At fourteen he became an ensign in a Scottish regiment in the service of Holland. In 1702 he exchanged to the English army and distinguished himself in the campaigns of Marlborough. Until Judy, 1719, he led a career of notorious licentiousness. Then while
waiting for an appointment with a dissolute woman, he picked up a Christian book (Watson's Christian Soldier according to Doddridge; Gurnall's Christian Armour according to Carlyle); suddenly a blaze of light illuminated the paper, and, looking up, Gardiner saw what he took for a vision of Christ on the cross and thought he heard him speak. He now forsook his old ways, and thereafter led an exemplary Christian life.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. Doddridge, Some Remarkable Passage, in the Life of . . . Col. J. Gardiner, London, 1747 (very often reprinted, e.g., Edinburgh, 1848); idem, Sermon on the Death of Col. Gardiner, ib. 1747; DNB, u. 414‑416.

GARDINER, STEPHEN: Bishop of Winchester and Lord Chancellor of England; b. at Bury St. Edmunds (60 m. n.e. of London), Suffolk, between 1483 and 1490; d. at Whitehall, London, Nov. 12, 1555. He was educated at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where he later became fellow (Doctor of Civil Law, 1520; Doctor of Canon Law, 1521), and in 1524 was made a lecturer in the university, shortly before his appointment as tutor to a son of the Duke of Norfolk. He now became secretary to Wolsey, and from 1525 to 1549 was master of Trinity Hall. He visited France with Wolsey in 1527, and in 1528 he and Edward Fox were sent as ambassadors to the pope in the interests of the divorce from Catherine of Aragon desired by the king. It was Gardiner's tact and determination which induced Clement VIII. to assent to a commission to try the case in England. Gardiner was made archdeacon of Norfolk on Mar. 1, 1529, and early in the following year again went to Italy in an unsuccessful endeavor to secure the king's divorce. He was appointed secretary to the king, and in Feb., 1530, visited Cambridge in a vain effort to induce the university to decide in favor of the divorce. In 1531 he was collated to the archdeaconry of Leicester, and on Nov. 27, 1531, he was consecrated bishop of Winchester. From December to March he was once more in France as an ambassador, in Apr., 1532, he was appointed custodian of John Fisher (q.v.), and in May was one of the assessors of the court which annulled Henry's marriage to Catherine, while at the coronation of Anne Boleyn on June 8 he and the bishop of London bore her train. He was again in France on business connected with the divorce in September, but his resistance to Henry's claim of spiritual supremacy led him to resign his secretaryship and retire to his diocese. He was soon summoned to court, but on Feb. 10, 1535, formally renounced the jurisdiction of the pope and published his De verd obedientia (London, 1535). Thus regaining the favor of the king, Gardiner was again appointed ambassador to France, and during this time dissuaded Henry from making a league with the Continental Protestants. The suspicions entertained concerning him, however, caused him to be superseded as ambassador at Paris by Bonner, but in the following year he was sent as ambassador to Germany.
With the downfall of his rival Cromwell in 1540, Gardiner became supreme, and was even elected chancellor of Cambridge as successor to Cromwell. In 1541 he was once more in Germany as royal

481	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	&="_
ambassador, and in 1542 he was one of those who conducted the negotiations with the imperial ambassador in London. He enjoyed the favor of Henry to the last, but with the accession of Edward VI. he was removed from the Council of State and from the chancellorship of the university. In consequence of his opposition to the religious innovations of the new council, Gardiner was committed to the Fleet on Sept. 25, 1547, but was allowed to return to his diocese the following December. Summoned to London in May, 1548, he still refused to acknowledge the supremacy of the council and maintained the doctrine of the real presence, for which he was imprisoned in the Tower for a year. In Dec., 1550, he was tried before Cranmer, and on Feb. 15, 1551, was deprived of his bishopric and confined to the Tower until the death of Edward in 1553.
With the accession of Mary, Gardiner was released and restored to office. As lord high chancellor he crowned the queen Oct. 1, 1553, and prided at the opening of Parliament four days later, in addition to being reelected chancellor of Cambridge and master of Trinity Hall. He advocated rigorous measures against those who refused obedience to the Roman Catholic Church, but the severity popularly ascribed to him is doubtless exaggerated. He also strove to restore England to the papal allegiance, and even sought to have Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon declared valid, thus implying the illegitimacy of Elizabeth. He was likewise obliged to work in favor of Mary's marriage to Philip II., although in reality he was opposed to it. He sought to restore the ecclesiastical courts and the episcopal jurisdiction, and one of his last official acts was the reenforcement of the statute De hteretico combauendo. The chief works of Gardiner were: De vera obedientia (London, 1535 ; Eng. tmnsl. by M. Wood, Geneva [?], .1553); Conquestio ad M. Bucerum de ejusdem pseudologia (Louvain, 1544); A Detection of the Devil's Sophistry (London, 1546); An Explanation and Assertion of the True Catholic Faith, Touching the Most Blessed Sacrament of the Altar (Rouen, 1551); Palinodia libri de vera obedientia (Paris, 1552); and Epiatolee ad J. Cheeum de pronuntiatione lingutr Greecce (Basel, 1555). A few minor works also exist in manuscript.
BIHLIoaEAPH7: Sources are: Calendars of Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, of the Reign of Henry VIII.; ed. Brewer and Gairdner, 2 vole., London, 1884. Consult: C. H. and T. Cooper, Agenar Cantabripienses, i. 139140, ib. 1858; J. B. Mullinger, Hitt. of Unioerenty of Cambridge, ii. 58‑83, ib. 1888; $. R. Maitland, Essays on Subjects Connected with the Reformation, ib. 1899; DNB, xx. 419‑425 (careful and authoritative).

GARISSOLES, g8"rf"sal', ANTOINE: French Protestant; b. at Montauban (110 m. s.e. of Bordeaux) June, 1587; d. there Mar., 1651. He was pastor at Puylaurens from 1610 to 1620, when he was called to Montauban. He was professor of theology at the Academy of Montauban from Oct., 1527, till his death, and with the exception of Charmer and Cameron, he is the best‑known lecturer of this ancient institution. In 1645 he presided at the Synod of Charenton and distinguished himself by his successful resistance to ‑ royal demands that
menaced Protestant liberties. At this synod he also attacked the doctrine of mediAte imputation of Placesus. His works include: La voie du salut expose en huiE sarmona. (Montauban, 1637); Deereti eynodici Carentoniorwia (1648); Theses theologicta (1648); Disprut¢tionee elenchticee (1650;; and Catechesim scclaaiarum in Gallia (Geneva, 1656).
BawootuPat: Bulletin de la	A du yrotestantsma
franmir, 1874; Ltohtenberser, ESN, v. 408‑408.

GARLANDS: Garlands and flowers played an important part in the private and public life of the ancient Egyptians. The court used a hundred garlands daily for the adornment of wine‑vessels, and at festal repeats the guests decked themselves with wreaths. Flowers were offered to the gods and the sarcophagus of the dead was entwined with them. The use of wreaths and flowers by Greeks and Romans is well known. The Israelites had no especial fondness for flowers, although it may be mere accident that there is no mention of flower gardens. The use of green sprays and flowers for personal adornment at banquets, marriage feasts, and on other festival occasions was, however, not foreign to the Israelites (Isa. xxviii. 1; cf. Ezek. xxiii. 42; Cant. iii. 11; III Mace. iv. 8). Later, under the influence of Hellenism, this custom became general; fragrant flowers were regarded as elements of a cheerful and joyous life (Wisd. of Sol. ii. 8); joy and mirth found expression in the adornment of the person and house with garlands (III Mace. vii. 16; Ecclus. vi. 31, xv. 6). Garland and crown are used as metaphors for ornament and honor of every kind (Job lua. 9; Prov. xii. 4, xiv. 24). It does not appear, however, that garlands were used in religious observances; at least there is no mention of the adornment of the Temple with natural flowers. To place wreaths upon sacrificial animals was a pagan custom (Acts xiv. 13). Only at the Feast of Tabernacles, according to later usage, those who took part in the procession carried branches of citron and palm.
I. BENZINeiHB.
BnewoaaAmT: Tertullao, De corona: B. Ugolini, The‑
saurus antiqaitaham sacnarunk vol. xxx.. 34 vole., Venice, 1744‑89; L. LBw, in Ben Chananja. 1887, nos. 11. 12: DD, i. 529‑531; EB, i. 723, 983; JR, iv. 370: and ord#arx in the la=ioons
GARRET, HENRY HIGHLAND: Colored Presbyterian, United States minister and consul‑general to Liberia; b. at New Market, Md., Dec. 23, 1815; d. in Monrovia, Liberia, Feb. 13, 1882. He was born in slavery, but escaped with his father to the North and settled in New York City in 1826. He was educated at the Canaan Academy (N. H.) and at the Oneida Institute, near Utica, N. Y., where he was graduated in 1840. He was licensed to preach in 1842 and was thereupon pastor in Troy for nearly ten years. In 1850 he went to Europe in the interest of the free‑labor movement and for three years lectured in Great Britain on slavery. In 1851 he was a delegate to the peace conference at Frankfort, and in 1853 he went to Jamaica as a missionary for the United Presbyterian Church of Scothmd. He was pastor of the Shiloh Presbyterian Church, New York, 1855‑65, and of a church in Washington, D. C., 1865‑69. He then

Garnier
Gasquet
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
482
became president of Avery College, but soda resigned this position and returned to Shiloh Church. He was appointed minister and consul‑general to Liberia in June, 1881.

	GARNIER, gdr"nyb', JEAN: French Jesuit; b.
at Paris Nov. 11, 1612; d. at Bologna Oct. 26, 1681.
He joined the order of the Jesuits at the age, of
sixteen, and soon demonstrated his theological
talent and his aptness for study and teaching. For
forty years he held professorships of ancient lan
guages, rhetoric, theology, and philosophy, and pub
lished numerous works, the value of which could
not be denied even by enemies of the order. Of
lasting importance are his Pelagian studies, compri
sing awork on the Pelagian Bishop Julian of Eclanum
(Juliani Eelanensis episVpi libellus fWei Primum
edilus cum nods et dissertationibus trios, Paris,
1648), as well as his edition of the writings of Marius
Mercator (1673) with a commentary and treatises
on Pelagianism. Such was the excellence of this
latter work that when Cardinal Noris saw it, he
declared that his own book on the history of the
Pelagian heresy would have remained unwritten
if he had seen the Marius Mercator at an earlier
date. In 1675 Garnier edited the Breviarium
causce Nestorianorum et Eutychianorum of the
Carthage archdeacon Liberatus, appending learned
notes and excursus of his own. He also dis
cussed other problems of church history in the
three dissertations which he appended to his Leer
diurnus Romanorum pontificum (1680). After the
death of Garnier his supplement to the works of
Theodoret was edited by Hardouin, a brother of
the same order, with a preface containing a biogra
phy of tile author (Paris, 1684). His earliest
works, Organi philosophim rudiments (Paris, 1651)
and Regulee falei catholicee de gratis Dei Per Jeaum
Christum (Bourges, 1655), are less noteworthy. He
wrote also T raetatus de o f ficiis con f essoris erga
singula pcenitentium genera (Paris, 1689), and
Systems bibliothecoe eollegii Parisiensis S. J. (1678).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Hurter, Nomenclator literarius, ii. 484, 831, Innsbruck, 1893; De Backer, Bibliothaqae de la compagnis de Jiaw, ed. C. $ommervogel, iii. 1228 sqq., Paris 1892; %L, v. 104‑I05.

GARNIER, JULIEN: French Benedictine of the Congregation of 'St. Maur; b. at Connerrd (16 m. e. of Le Mans). c. 1670; d. at Charenton (5 m. s.e. of Paris) June 3,.172,5. In 1699 he joined the Maurist order, and became the collaborator of the famous Dom Mabillon. His thorough knowledge of the Greek language and literature led his order to entrust him with the preparation of a new edition of the works of Basil, and after 1701 he devoted all his time and energy to this tremendous undertaking. The first volume appeared after twenty years of uninterrupted toil (Paris, 1721), and in the following year he published the second. His labors had worn him out, however, and he died before the publication of the third volume, which was prepared by Dom Prudent Mayan (1730).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Hurter, Nomenclator 1%terariue, ii. 1106, Innsbruck, 1893.
GARRETT, ALEXANDER CHARLES: Protestant Episcopal bishop of Dallas, Tex.; b. at Bally‑
mote (13 m. s.w. of Sligo), County Sligo, Ireland, Nov. 4, 1832. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1855), was ordered deacon (1856) and ordained priest (1857). After being curate of East Worldham, Hampshire (1856‑59), he was a missionary in British Columbia for ten years, being evening lecturerat the cathedral in Victoria; missionary to the Indians, naval chaplain at Esquimalt, rector of St. Paul's, Nanaims, and missionary to the miners at Cariboo.‑ He was rector of St. James', San Francisco . (1870‑72), and dean of Trinity Cathedral, Omaha, Neb. (1872‑74). In 1874 he was consecrated missionary bishop of Northern Texas, and on the creation of the diocese of Dallas in 1895 became bishop of that see. He was the founder of St. Mary's Institute for girls at Dallas, and also secured the erection of St. Matthew's Cathedral in the same city. He has written Historical Continuity (New York, 1875) and The Philosophy of the Incarnation (Baldwin lectures; 1891).

BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. s. Perry, The Episcopate in America, p. 229, New York, 1895.

GARRIGAN, PHILIP JOSEPH: Roman Catholic bishop of Sioux City, Ia.; b. at Cavan (26 m. s.s.e. of Enniskillen), County Cavan, Ireland, Sept. 8, 1840. He was educated at St. Charles' College, Ellicott City, Md. (1862‑66), and St. Joseph's Provincial Seminary, Troy, N. Y., from which he was graduated in 1870. After being curate of St. John's, Worcester, Mass. 1870‑73, he was vicepresident of St. Joseph's Provincial Seminary 18731875, and rector of St. Bernard's Church, Fitchburg, Mass., 1875‑88. He was then vice‑rector of the Catholic University of America, Washington, 1888‑1902, and in 1902 was consecrated bishop of the newly created diocese of Sioux City.

GARRUCCI, gdr‑ru'cht, RAFFAELE : Italian Jesuit and archeologist; b. at Naples Jan. 23,1812; d. at Rome May 5, 1885. He entered the Society of Jesus at the age of fourteen, and after 1845 published numerous monographs and books on Christian archeology, including numismatics, , epigraphy, painting, sculpture, and the art of the catacombs in all its ramifications. His principal works are : Antichitd dei Bebiani (Naples, 1845); La Storia di Isermia (1848); Tre sepolchri del cimiterio di Pretestato in Roma (1852); Questioni pompejani (1853); Inscriptions gravces sur les murs de Pompei (Brussels, 1854); 11 Crocifrsso graffito in casa dei Cesari (Rome, 1857); Yetri ornati di figure in oro trovati nei cimiteri dei Cristiani primitivi (1858); Monumenti del Museo Lateranense (2 vols., 1862); Cimiterno degli antichi Ebrei scoperto in vigna Randanini (1862); Storia dell' ante cristiana nei primi Otto secoli dells ehiesa (6 vols., Prato, 1872‑81); and Le Monete dell' Italic antica (Rome, 1885). He also prepared the first edition of the Hagivglypta Rive pieturm et seulpturm sacree antiquiores prcesertim qutv homes reperiuntur, which had been written by Jean 1'Heureux (Macarius) as early as 1605 (Paris, 1856).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: De Backer, BibliotALqm de la compagnie de June, ed. C. 8ommervogel, vol. iii., Paris, 1892; 3limmen Gus Maria‑Laarl4 x. 158‑180; %L, v. 105‑108.

488
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Qarnier
Qaequet
	GARVE, KARL BERNHARD: German Moravian
preacher and hymn‑writer; b. at Jeinsen (a. of Han
over) Jan. 24, 1763; d. at Herrnhut (42 m. e. of
Dresden) June 21, 1841. His father's house was a
meeting‑place for the Moravian brethren of that part
of Germany, and a candidate from Herrnhut was a
private tutor in his father's family. At the age of
five Karl was sent to the institution of the Brethren
in Zeist, then to Neuwied‑on‑the‑Rhine. His edu
cation was completed in the Paedagogium in Niesky
and in the theological seminary in Barby. In 1784
he received his first position as teacher at the Pa'da
gogium. In 1789 he. became docent of historical
and philosophical sciences in the theological semi
nary. Starting from the criticism of Kant and fol
lowing closely Jacobi and Reinhold, he endeavored
to build a foundation for the Moravian conception
of Christianity. But his lectures on philosophy
only fostered an aversion to theology and practical
service in the Congregation of Brethren so that the
authorities were compelled to dismiss Garvein 1797,
acknowledging, however, their kindly feelings to
ward him. From 1799 to 1816 he was successively
preacher in the Moravian congregations at Amster
dam, Ebersdorf, Norden, Berlin, and from 1816 to
1836 at Neusalz‑on‑the‑Oder. In 1837 he retired
to Herrnhut. [carve was one of the most noted of
the Moravian hymn‑writers; his best hymn is
probably Dein Wort, 0 Herr, is$ milder Thau, trans
lated by Miss Winkworth as " Thy Word, O Lord,
like gentle dews."] He wrote: Chxistliche Gesange
(G&rlitz, 1825); Briidergesdnge (Gnadau, 1827);
Der deutsche Verabau (Berlin, 1827); Die Themes
der Dichtkunst (1828); Die Schule der Weisheit
(Leipsic, 1830); and Der Volka»ertreter (Carlsruhe,
1839).	JOSEPH Mt)LLER.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A notice by his son Leopold appeared in the Nakrolog der Deutaduen, mix. 1, pp. 609‑610. Consult also Julian, Hymnology, pp. 404‑405.
GARVIE, ALFRED ERNEST: English Congregationalist; b. at Zyrardow, Russian Poland, Aug. 28, 1861. He studied at George Watson's College, Edinburgh, and the universities of Glasgow (M.A., 1889) and Oxford (B.A., 1892). After being lecturer at Mansfield College in 1892, he held pastorates at Macduff Congregational Church 1893‑95 and at Montrose Congregational Church 1895‑1903. In 1903‑07 he was professor of the philosophy of theism, comparative religion, and Christian ethics in Hackney and New Colleges, London, of which he has been principal since 1907. He was examiner in Biblical languages and literatures in Edinburgh Congregational Hall 1895‑1902, and president of the Hampstead Free Church Council 19061907. In theology he is moderately progressive and liberal, and is a Lutheran rather than a Calvinist. He has written The Ethics of Temperance (London, 1895); The Ritsehlian Theology (Edinburgh, 1899); Commentary on Romans in The Century Bible (London, 1901); The Gospel for To‑Day (1904); The Christian Personality . (1904); My Brother's Keeper (1905); and Religious Education (1906).
	GASPARIN, gas"pa''ran•, AGENOR ETIENNE:
French Protestant, statesman and author; b.
at Orange (18 m. n. of Avignon) July 12, 1810;
		IV.‑28
d. at Geneva May 8, 1871. He studied law in Paris and entered politics. After having held various political appointments he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies from Bastia, Corsica, in 1842. On being defeated for reelection in 1846 he abandoned politics and devoted himself thenceforth to writing and lecturing, chiefly on social and religious subjects. He worked for the abolition of slavery, the suppression of war, the establishment of religious liberty, and the separation of Church and State. In 1849 he settled at Geneva, where he lived till his death. His principal works are: Esclavage et trait6 (Paris, 1838); Las Int&&s gdn&aux du proteetantisme franpsis (1843); Christianisme et paganiame (2 vols., 1846); Des tables tournantes, du. sumaturel en g6n&al, et des esprits (2 vols., 1854; Eng. trawl., Science vs. Modern Spiritualism, 2 vols., New York, 1857); Lm &oles du doute et Z'&ole de la foi (Geneva, 1854; Eng. trawl., The Schools of Doubt and the School of Faith, Edinburgh, 1854); Un Grand Peuple qui se reUve (Paris, 1'861; Eng. tmnd., The Uprising of a Great People, New York, 1861, and London, 1862); L'Am6rique devant L'Europe (1862; Eng. trawl., America before Europe, New York and London, 1862); La Famine (2 vols., 1865; Eng. transl., The Family, London, 1867) ; La LiUrtg morale (2 vols., 1868); L'4yalW (1869); La Conscience (18,72); and L'6glise selon Z'hangile (2 vols., 1878). Other translations from Gasparip are: The Doctrine of Plenary Inspiration (Edinburgh, 1852), from five articles in the Archives du Christianisme; and The Concessions of the Apostle Paul and the Claims of Truth (1854), translated from an unpublished manuscript.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Accounts of his life are by T. Borel, Paris, 1878; L. Ruffet, ib. 1884; and C. Barbey‑Boiseier, 2 vole., Paris, 1902.

GASQUET, FRANCIS AIDAN: English Benedictine; b. in London Oct. 5, 1846. He was graduated at St. Gregory's College, Downside, Bath, in 1864, and entered the Benedictine order in 1865, being a postulant at Belmont Priory, near Hereford, 1865‑70 and at Downside Priory 1870‑74. , In 1874 he was ordained priest, and from 1878 to 1885 was prior of the community, but was compelled to resign on account of ill health. On his recovery he was appointed by Pope Leo XIII. to engage in historical research, and accordingly, removed to London. In 1896 he was appointed a member of the commission of Anglican orders, and during a visit in Rome discovered important documents bearing on the controversy. Four years later he was appointed abbot president of the English Benedictines, and in this capacity controls .four wonasteries and over 300 monks. He has written Henry VIII. and the English Monasteries (2 vole., London, 1888); Edward VI. and the Book of Common Prayer (in collaboration with Edmund Bishop; 1890); The Great Pestilence (1893); . The Last Abbot of Glastonbury (1895); A Sketch of Monastic Constitutional History (1896); The Old English Bible, and Other Essays (1897); The Eros of the Reformation (1900); A Short History of the Catholic Church in England (1903); English Monastic Life (19030; Henry the Third and the Church (1905);, Lord Acton and his Circle (1906); Pariah Life in Madia‑

Gass	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	484
Gauden
val England (1906); and The Black Death of 131,8
and 131,,9 (1908). He has also edited Montalembert's
Monks o f the West (6 vols., London, 1895); William
Cobbett's History of the Protestant Reformation in
England and Ireland (1896); Vita Antiquissima
Beati Gregorii Magni (1903); and Analeeta Anglo
Premonstratensia (1904).
	GASS, (FRIEDRICH) WILHELM QOACHIM
HEINRICH): German Protestant; b. at Breslau
Nov. 28, 1813; d. at Heidelberg Feb. 21, 1889.
As a mere child he learned Greek, before undertaking
the study of Latin, from Franz Passow, professor
at Breslau, and thus laid the foundation for his
later researches in Greek Christianity. After at
tending the gymnasia at Breslau and Schweidnitz
he entered the University of Breslau in 1832 to
study theology, but was at first interested chiefly in
philosophy, philology, and belles‑lettres. In 1834
1835 he studied at Halle, being influenced especially
by Gesenius, Wegacheider, and Thilo, later at Ber
lin, where Neander exerted a deep influence upon
him. In 1836 he returned to Breslau (Ph.D., 1836;
Th.Lic., 1839) and established himself as privat‑do
cent of theology there in 1839. In 1846 he became
professor extraordinary at Breslau, and in 1847 at
Greifswald, where he was made full professor in
1855. In 1862 he became professor of systematic
theology at Giessen, whence he went to Heidelberg
in 1868 as the successor of R. Rothe. Here he
taught, besides systematic theology, New Testa
ment exegesis and hymnology. As represent
ative of the faculty of Heidelberg, he took part in
the general synods of 1871, 1876, and 1881, ad
vocating a moderate liberalism. In 1885 he was ap
pointed church councilor.
	Gass was a strong advocate of the Evangelical
union, and was one of the most learned among the
masters of German Evangelical theology. His
works are distinguished by diligent research and
rest upon a conscientious and intelligent use of the
sources. He first directed his attention to the
history of the Greek Church in the Middle Ages,
a	field almost entirely neglected until his time.
His first work, Gennadius and Pletho (Breslau,
1844), treats of the struggle of Aristotelianism and
Platonism during this period. In Die Mystik des
Nikolaus Kabasilas, vom Leben in Christo (Greifs
wald, 1849) he edited for the first time the " Life
in Christ " of Kabasilas, metropolitan of Thesea
lonica about 1350, and gave an interesting sketch
of the history of Greek mysticism. He wrote also
Geschichte der Athoskloster (Giessen, 1865) and
collected his smaller contributions to the history of
dogma in the Greek Church in Slik der grie
chischen Kirche (Berlin, 1872), the first compre
hensive work on this theme since Heineccius'
Abbildung der alien and neuen griechischen Kirche
(Leipsic, 1711). Gass tried to present a critical
description of the character of the Greek Church,
by considering not only its dogmatic tradition,
but also its rites, liturgy, and worship, and the
spiritual, national, and moral conditions in gen
eral. He also rendered valuable service to the
history of Protestant dogmatics by his Geschichte
der protestantischen Dogmatik (4 vols., Berlin, 1854
1867), which presents the dogmatic development
from Melanohthon to Schleiermacher. In his later years Gass devoted himself to the study of Christian ethics. His most important works in this field are: Die Lehre vom Gewissen (Berlin, 1869), Optimismus and Pessimismus (1876), and Geschichte der Ethik (2 vole. in 3, 1881‑87). Of other works may be mentioned: Georg Calixt and der Synkretismus (Breslau, 1846) and Das Recht der Union, eine Schutzrede (Giessen, 1867). He also edited Schleiermaeher's Briefwechsel mit J. C. Gass (his father, Berlin, 1852), and with A. Vial, E. L. T. Henke's posthumous Neuere Kirchengeschichte (3 vols., Halle, 1874‑80). With H. Reuter and T. Brieger he edited, after 1876, the Zeitschrift Pr Kirchengeschichte (Goths, 1876 sqq.). G. GRfzMACHER.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Badische Biographieen, ed. F. von Weeeh, iv. 527‑536, Carlsmhe, 1891. The funeral oration, by H. Basserman, is in Protestantische Kirchenwitung, 1889, pp. 251 eqq.
	GASS, gds, JOACHIM CHRISTIAN: German
theologian; b. at Leopoldahagen (a suburb of
Anklam, 47 m. n.w. of Stettin) May 26, 1766;
d. at Breslau Feb. 19, 1831. He began his educa
tion at the monastic school at Bergen, studied
theology and philosophy at Halle 1785‑89, and in
1795 was appointed field chaplain in Borcke's
regiment, and. preacher at the garrison at Stettin.
As a theologian he early departed from orthodoxy,
although he endeavored to restore the beautiful
" individuality " of Christianity, his Beitrage zur
Verbreitung eines religaosen Sinnes in Predigten
(Stettin, 1801) giving evidence of this desire. In
1806 the Napoleonic war took Gass to Halle, where
he met Schleiermaeher, who had been his close
friend for three years, and Steffens. Gass soon
returned to Stettin, but the disbanding of his
regiment in the latter half of 1807, together with
domestic troubles, led him to settle in Berlin,
where he was appointed preacher at the Marien
kirche. In 1810 he was called to Breslau, where
he remained until his death, officiating as Konsis
torialrat and as a member of the church and school
committees of the government of Silesia. When
the University of Frankfort‑on‑the‑Oder was trans
ferred to Breslau in 1811, Gass was given the
chair of systematic theology. As a theologian,
he was a follower of Schleiermacher, although he did
not absorb the latter's doctrinal idiosyncrasies.
In the beginning of his career as a member of the
Silesian consistory, Gass was in accord with the
highest functionaries, but later he sided with the
opposition. His attitude during the controversies
regarding union, organization, and ritual may be
gathered partly from his letters to Schleiermacher
and partly from the Jahrbuch des protestantischen
Kirchen‑ and Schulwesens von and fur Schlesien
(2 vols., Breslau, 1818‑20), which he edited. Among
his other works the most important are the following:
Ueber den ehristlichen Cultus (Breslau, 1815); An
meine evangelischen Mitburger (1823); Ueber den
Religionsunterricht in den oberen Klassen der Gym
nasien (1828); and Ueber den Reichstag zu Speyer
von 1629 (1827). 	(W. GASSt.)
BIBLIoaRAPBy: F. $chleiermacher, Briehoecheel mit J. C. Gass, Berlin, 1852; Aus Setaeiermacher'a Leben, in Briefen, Berlin, 1858. Eng. transl., The Life of SchleiermacAer as Unfolded in his Autobiography and LeNers, London, 1860.

486	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	GGoeanden
GASSENDI, gas‑sen'di, PIERRE: French Roman Catholic philosopher and mathematician; b. at Champtercier, near Digne (55 m. n.e. of Aix), Jan. 22, 1592; d. at Paris Oct. 24, 1655. He was educated at Digne and Aix. At sixteen he was offered an instructorship in rhetoric at Digne, and in 1613 he became professor of theology at Aix. In 1617 he took orders, and was then professor of philosophy at Aix till 1623, when he resigned his position for a canonry at Grenoble. In 1633 he became provost of the cathedral at Digne, and in 1645 professor of mathematics at the Collbge Royal in Paris. Gassendi is known chiefly as an opponent of Descartes, and as the reviver of Epicureanism, which he endeavored to harmonize with Christianity. He adopted Epicurus's atomistic physics, his empirical theory of knowledge, his hedonistic ethics, and also his view of the freedom of the will. He held that God created the atoms and endowed them with certain properties, but that he also exercises a supervision over them. Gassendi prepared the way for the empiricism of Condillac and Locke and occupies an important place in the history of atomistic philosophy. Aside from a number of polemical writings against Descartes, his principal works are, Exercitationes paradoxite versus Aristoteles (bk. i., Grenoble, 1624; bk. ii. The Hague, 1659); De vita moribus et doctrine Epicure (Lyons, 1647); Institutio astronomica (Paris, 1647); and Syntagma philosophia Epicuri (Lyons, 1849).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: De Camburat, Abrcpe de la vie et du systtme de Gassendi, Bouillon, 1770; C. Jeannel, Gassendi spiritualists, Montpellier, 1859. Works on his philosophy are by: L. Mandon, ib. 1861; P. F. Thomas, Paris, 1889.

GAST, gust, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS: German Reformed; b. at Lancaster, Pa., Oct. 17, 1835. He studied at Franklin and Marshall College, Lancaster, Pa. (B.A., 1856), and the Mercersburg Theological Seminary (1856‑57). In 1859 he was ordained, and was pastor at NewHolland, Pa., 1859‑‑65 and at Loudon and St. Thomas, Pa., 1865‑67, in addition to being chaplain of the Forty‑fifth Pennsylvania Volunteers from March to July, 1865. He was principal of the academy of Franklin and Marshall College 1867‑71, assistant professor in the college 1871‑72, and tutor in the theological seminary at Lancaster 1872‑74. Since 1874 he has been professor of Hebrew and Old Testament theology in the same institution.

GATAKER, gat'a‑ker, THOMAS: English Puritan; b. in London Sept. 4,1574; d. at Rotherhithe (2 m. s.e. of St. Paul's) July 27, 1654. He studied at St. John's College, Cambridge, and was appointed to a fellowship in the newly founded Sidney Sussex College in 1596. After preaching for a few months at Everton, near Cambridge, he went to London in 1600, where he preached occasionally at St. Martin's‑in‑the‑Fields and served as tutor in the family of Sir William Cooke. In 1601 he received the lectureship at Lincoln's Inn, and in 1611 the rectory of Rotherhithe, which he held till his death. In 1643 he was nominated a member of the Westminster Assembly of Divines, and in 1644 he was put upon the committee for examining ministers. He bad
previously declined the mastership of Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1645 he was a member of a committee to select persons to translate the directory of worship into Welsh, and also of the committee of seven charged with the preparation of the first draft of a confession of faith. On Jan. 18,1649, he signed the first address against the trial and execution of the king. In the matter of church government he advocated a modified episcopacy. Gataker was a man of minute scholarship, and his best‑known works are his valuable annotated edition of Marcus Aurelius (London, 1652), and his commentaries on Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Lamentations, published in the Assembly's Annotations (1645, 1651). Other works are: Of the Nature and Use of Lots (London, 1619); A Discussion of the Popish Doctrine of Transubstantiation (1624); A Short Catechism (1624); and Sermons (2 parts, 1637). H. Witsius edited his Opera critica (2 vols., Utrecht, 1697‑98).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are his own Discours Apologetical, London, 1654; his autobiography in the posthumous Adversaries Miscellanea, ib. 1659; and Gray Hayres Crowned toroth Grace, a Puneral Sermon with Memoir, 1655. Consult: A. A Wood, Athena! Oxonienses, ed. P. Bliss, iii. 1257, 4 vols., ib. 1813‑20; B. Brook. Lives of the Puritans, iii. 200, ib. 1813; D. Neal, Hist. of the Puritans, iii. 451, ib. 1822; A. F. Mitchell, Westminster Assembly and Standards, passim, ib. 1883; DNB, xxi. 80‑$2.

GAUDEH, g8'den, JOHN: Bishop of Worces‑
ter; b. at Mayland (35 m. e.n.e. of London) 1605; d. at Worcester Sept. 20, 1662. He was educated at St. John's College, Cambridge (B.A..1623; M.A., 1626), and at Wadham College, Oxford (B.D., 1635; D.D., 1641). In 1640 he became vicar of Chippenham and chaplain to the earl of Warwick, through whose influence he was nominated to the deanery of Bocking in 1641. On Nov. 29,1640, he preached before the House of Commons. He was a member of the Westminster Assembly in 1643, but on account of his conservative views on episcopacy was soon removed from that body. Although he opposed the policy of Cromwell and published a number of books in behalf of the Church of England, he conformed to Presbyterianism and continued to hold his preferments throughout the Protectorate. At the Restoration in 1660 he was made chaplain to the king and bishop of Exeter, and in 1662 he was translated to the see of Worcester. He was a member of the Savoy Conference (q.v.); and according to Baxter, if all had possessed his moderation the Episcopalians and Presbyterians would have been quickly reconciled. Gauden was probably the author of Eik6n Basilik8; the Portraiture of his Sacred Majesty in his Solitudes and Sufferings (1648), an ostensible work of Charles I. that quickly passed through twenty‑seven editions. The book was translated into Latin and was attacked by Milton in his Eikonoclastes (1649). It is a defense of the king'P conduct and an account of his misfortunes from 1640 to 1648, interpolated with prayers and meditations.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: On the authorship of Rikbn Basilika consult C. Wordsworth, Who wrote Etwor PaouA4eqt Cambridge, 1824; idem, King Charks 1., Author of Icon Basilike, ib. 1828; H. J. Todd, A Letter . . . concerning the Authorship, 1825. On Gauden consult: A. A Wood, Athmas Osonienese, ed. P. Bliss, iii. 612‑618, 4 vole., London, 1813‑20; T. Baker, Hist. of CoUsps of Bt. John.

Gaudsntlw
(#anraea	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	438
ed. J. E. B. Mayor, pp. 286, 678, Cambridge, 1869; G.
Oliver, Lives o/ the Bishops of Exeter, pp. 150‑151, London, 1861; DNB, xxi. 69‑72.
GAUDEIYTIUS: Bishop of Brixia (the present Brescia); b. probably at Brixia c. 360; d. probably soon after 410. He was a.pupil of Philastrius (q.v.) and may have been consecrated by him. He was absent oa a journey to Jerusalem and Cappadocia when Philastrius died, and clergy and people unanimously chose him bishop and asked for his return. Gaudentius accepted the position reluctantly, entering on his duties about 387. Little. is known of his further activity. With two other deputies of the Emperor Honorius and of the Roman Bishop Innocent I. he went to Greece to intercede for Chrysostom (q.v.) before the Emperor Arcadius; the mission was unsuccessful, but Gaudentius won Chrysostom's gratitude by his act of love. Gaudentius must have been still alive in 410, in. which year Rufinus dedicated to him his translation of the Recognitiones of Clement.
Gaudentius wrote a number of small treatises, among them ten sermons on Easter (c. 390), which are dedicated to a certain Benevolus who was prevented by sickness from attending service in the church. The first sermon is addressed to candidates for baptism and treats of the celebration of Easter on the basis of Ex. xii.; the others were delivered before baptized persons. Six of them treat of Christ, the true paschal lamb, and the Lord's Supper; the eighth and ninth, of the wedding‑feast at Cana and virginity; the tenth, of Easter in particular and of Sunday in general. With these ten sermons go eleven addresses on miscellaneous subjects, and two letters. The addresses are plain and simple and by no means deficient in beautiful thoughts. Like his contemporaries he shows an inclination to allegorical interpretation of Scripture.
(K. LmMBACHt.)
Bimtoassray: An excellent edition of the sermons in by P. Gagliardi. Padua, 1720, reproduced essentially in MPL, xx. 827‑1002. On the life of Gaudentius consult: ASB, Oct., xi. 587‑604; MPL, xx. 791‑826; G. Brunati, Lepgendario o.vite di sang Bresaani, pp. 73‑104, Brescia, 1834; J. Nirsehl, Lehrbuch der Patrolopie and Patrsatik, ii. X93, Mains, 1883.
GAULANITIS, g8"la‑n?'tis: A district to the east of the Sea of Galilee and of the upper Jordan. According to Eusebius (Onomasticon, 242), the name is derived from Gaulon, the name of a large town, the Golan in Bashan of the Old Testament and the Gaulana of Josephus (Ant. IV., vii. 4). The name is used in Josephus with varying signification. Sometimes it is the equivalent of Bashan, though again he sets off from it the regions of Trachonitis and Batanea, thus restricting it to the district immediately bordering the Sea of Galilee and the Jordan. The last is the better usage. There is a division of the district into Upper and Lower Gaulanitis. The boundaries are only in part distinguishable. The deep bed and abrupt banks of the Yarmuk are the fixed natural Names and southern limits. Equally certain is the
	Extent.	western boundary on the Sea of Galilee
		and the Jordan, except that Hippo and
Paneas are not always reckoned as belonging to it.
The northern and eastern limits are uncertain,
except as marked on the north by the foot of Hermon. On the southeast the tributaries of the Yarmuk make a sharp demarcation in the plain, yet neither the Nahr al‑Rukkad nor the Nahr al‑Allan is recognized as the boundary.; From the fact that Saham al‑Jaulan was once reckoned to this district, the boundaries must once have extended beyond the Nahr al‑Allan, eastward, therefore, as far as the upper course of the Yarmuk. In Josephus (Life, 37) the modern Sulam (Seleima in the inscriptions; cf. Le Bas and Waddington, Inscriptions, iii. 543) at the foot of Jabal Hauran, and so the southern part of Batanea or Hauran, belonged to Gaulanitis, extending the district as far as the Lejjah, at least as a governmental province. Herod the Great drew 3,000 Idumeans and 600 Jews from Trachonitis and Batanea to check the Arab marauders.
The name enters history in the account by Josephus of the campaigns of Alexander Jannaeus (10276 B.C.), who conquered Golan, Seleucia, and Gamala from a certain Demetrius. Pompey (63 B.c.) assigned Golan to tile province of Syria and left Hippo free (Ant. XIV., iv: ‑4; War, I., vii. 7). Under Augustus the district belonged to Herod the Great, and after his death it went
	History.	to the tetrarchy of his son Philip,
		while Hippo was a part of the province
of Syria. It belonged to the province of Syria
during the period 34‑37 A.D., and was then granted
by Caligula to Agrippa I. (Ant. XVIII., vi. 10),
after whose death (44 A.D.) it was included in the
general control of Palestine until in the year 53 it was
granted by Claudius to Agrippa II., whose death
caused it to return to the government of Syria.
Hippo lay at an elevation of 1,500 feet above the Sea of Galilee. The Talmud gives the Aramaic name as Susita, the Susiyah of the Arabic geographers, where are extensive ruins half an hour west of Fik in the lower Jaulan, Fik being the old Aphek, not far from Hippo (Eusebius, Onomasticon, 219, 91). The site of Hippo, however, lies one hour west of Pik. The inhabitants were largely Greeks. According to Josephus (Life, 9), the district belonging to the city was so extensive that it bordered upon the districts belonging to Gadara, Scythopolis, and Tiberias. About four miles to the north, on the bank of the Wadi al‑Samak are some ruins, including the remains of a wall and a tower, called by the Arabs al‑Sur (connected with kursi, " a seat"), recognized by many scholars as the site of the city of the Gerasenes, Gergesenes, or Gadareneo of Matt. viii. 28 sqq., Mark v. 1 sqq., and Luke viii. 26 sqq. (see GEFAsBNES). The investigations of W. A. Neumann in the region lead. him to see in Jabal Kurein Jaradi, the name of a hill to the north, the traces of the old place‑name, which he would read Gerada, not Gadam. Not far from the entrance of the Jordan into the sea lay the fishing
Principal	village Bethsaida, built by Herod
	Cities.	Philip into a city and named Julias in
		honor of Julia, daughter of Augustus.
Pliny (Hist. nat., V., xv. 71) locates it on the east
coast. . The fishing village is best placed at al Araj,
immediately on the sea, where the fishermen still
land and dry their nets. Possibly the city is to

487	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	QaOa=entlna
		aseen
be located at al‑Tell,.where the Arabs have their
winter huts. Leading New Testament references
to the place are Mark vi. 30‑44; cf. Luke ix. 10 sqq.;
Mark viii. 22; John i. 44, xii. 21. The question of a
second Bethsaida in Galilee is to be decided in the
negative, since that province was often regarded as
extending eastward of the Sea of Galilee. The
residents of Bethsaida were Jews. According to
Mark viii. 27, Jesus led his disciples from Bethsaida
to the villages of Ceesarea Philippi, on which journey
Peter made his celebrated confession (verse 29).
Ca'sarea Philippi lay in the district of Paneas (Ba
niss), named from Pan and the celebrated grotto of
the source of the Jordan (Eusebius, Hist. eecl.,
vii. 17). Near this grotto Herod the Great erected
a splendid temple, about which his son Philip built
a city which he named C8eesarea after the emperor
(Josephus, Ant. XVIII., ii. 1). Agrippa II. ex
tended it and renamed it Neronias after Nero, a
name which did not adhere, since Ceesare& Philippi,
or Casarea Paneas, or Paneas is the usual designa
tion. It was a favorite resort of Vespasian and Titus
for rest from the exertions of war. The population
was prevailingly heathen. Of the places inland
from the sea little is known. The ruins now called
Selukiyah doubtless mark Seleucia. The situation
of the strong fortress of Gamala can not be certainly
identified. Since Kalat al‑Hozn has been given up,
the village Jamli is regarded as a probable site,
located by Schumacher on the east bank of the
gorge of the Nahr al‑Rukkad. Furrer and Van
Kasteren place it on the Tell al‑Ahdeib or Ras al‑Hal,
between Jamli and the Rukkad. The conjunction
of the ruins and the present name (Jamb) makes
this identification probable. The place was con
quered by Alexander Jannaeus (Josephus, Ant. XIII.,
xv. 3), and by the Romans under Vespasian after
a siege of a month (Josephus, Wars, IV., i. 1 sqq.).
Gamala was the center of a toparehy. Another
Gamala mentioned in Ant. XVIII., v. l is perhaps the
Jamli discovered by Schumacher in Ajlun. The
Bathyra built by Herod the Great is probably the
modern Bait Ari, south from Jamli. See TRACHO‑
Nrns. 	(H. GUTHE.)
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: ;G. A. Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy
	Land, London, 1897; U. J. Seetzen, Rewn, vols. i., iv.,
	Berlin, 1854‑59; J. G. Wetzstein, Reimbericht fiber Hau
	ran, Berlin, 1860; idem, Das batanuiacAe Giabelpcbirpe,
	Leipsic, 1884; A. Neubauer, La GEopraphie du Talmud,
	Paris, 1868; P. Le Bas and W. H. Waddington, inscrip
	tions precquea at latines, vol. iii., Paris, 1870; C. R. Conder
	and H. H. Kitchener, Survey of Western Palestine, Mem
	oirs, vol. i., London, 1881; S. Merrill, East of the Jordan,
	ib. 1881; W. M. Thomson, Land and Book, Central Pales
	tine, ib. 1883; G. Schumacher, Across the Jordan, ib. 1886;
	idem, The Jaulan, ib. 1888; P. de Lsgarde, Onomastica
	sacra, G,3ttingen, 1887; W. A. Neumann, Qum Darheradi,
	Freiburg, 1894; F. Buhl. Geographie den alien Paldetina,
	Freiburg, 1896; Schflrer, Geschichte, i. 427, Ii. 4, 12‑13,
Eng. tranal., I. ii. 12, II. i. 2‑4.
GAUSSEft, g&'sdn', ETIENNE :	French Protes
	tant; b. at Nines at the beginning of the seven
	teenth century; d. at Saumur (100 m. s.w. of Or
l6ans) 1675.	He became professor of philosophy
	in the academy at Saumur in 1651 and in 1665
professor of theology.	He was rector of the acad
emy in 1667.	The school Of Saumur represented
	at that time a more liberal conception of French
	Protestantism than did the schools of Sddan and
Montauban; and Gaussen contributed much to propagate this conception. His works were highly rated by his contemporaries, and up to the middle of the eighteenth century they were frequently reprinted, both in Holland and Germany. To be mentioned particularly are: De consensu gratin cum nature (Saumur,1659); De roerbo dei (1665); and Quattuar dimertutiones theologian (1670), including De rations studii theolagiei, De nature theologize, de rations concionandi, and De utilitate philosophize ad theologian, forming, according to Bayle, the beat manual of the time for the study of theology.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. and It. Hang, La Prance proteatante, ed. H. L. Bordier, vol. v., Paris, 1886; Bulletin du proteatant%sme franpaia, i. 311, ii. 158, 327; Lichtenberger. EBB, v. 441‑442.

GAUSSEH, FRAft!POIS SAMUEL ROBERT LOUIS: Swiss clergyman; b. at Geneva Aug. 25, 1790; d. there June 18, 1863. Two years after completing his studies at the university of his native city (1814), he was appointed minister at Satigny, near Geneva, where he succeeded Oellerier, one of the few members of the Swiss clergy who clung to orthodoxy, and who exercised a profound influence on the formation of Gaussen's theological convict:ons. The period was almost contemporaneous with the dawn of the religious revival in French Switzerland. This awakening resulted in the issuance of an order (May 7, 1817) by the Venerable compagnie den pasteurs, practically prohibiting the preaching of certain important doctrines of divinity. Gaussen and Cellerier protested against this ruling in 1819, chiefly by republishing the new French edition of the Helvetic Confession, to which they added a preface in which they declared that a Church must have a declaration of faith, and that the Second Helvetic Confession correctly voiced their personal convictions. In the meantime Gaussen pursued his clerical duties in Satigny, besides holding religious meetings in his own home, as well as in his mother's house in Geneva, striving to revivify the, national church, but not advocating separation from it. At Geneva, which gradually became the center of his activity, Gaussen founded a missionary society, which held meetings, first in private houses and later in the church. In 1828, through the intervention of the VEnfble compagnie, certain new members were elected to its committee whom Gaussen considered heterodox in their views, and he therefore withdrew from the society. This conflict with the clergy of Geneva was the precursor of frequent storms which influenced his future career. Calvin's catechism had long been used as a basis for the instruction of the young, but the Venerable compagnie now substituted another in its stead, and ordered Gaussen to use it. He tried to do so, but found it unsatisfactory:and laid it aside. The clergy of Geneva lodged a complaint against him, and after a lengthy dispute he was finally censured by the compagnie, and deprived of his right to take part in its meetings for a period of one year (cf. Lettrea de Mr. le Pasteur Gau8aen d la vin&abk compagnie den pasteurs de Gen~w, 1831; and Expose historique den discussions &v&s entre la. rnmpagnie den pa8teurs de Genwv et Mr. Gaussen, 1831) With his friends,

C+auhaen
(iebhard II	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	488
Merle d'Aubign6 and Galland, Gaussen now founded an " Evangelical Society " to distribute Bibles and tracts, and to interest the public in missionary work among the heathen. Shortly afterward the Evangelical Society decided to found a school for the dissemination of Evangelical teachings, and this resolve was imparted to the state councilor of Geneva, as well as to the churches, in circular letters signed by Galland, Merle d'Aubign6, and Gaussen. Gaussen was accordingly deposed by the consistory on Sept. 30, 1831, while his two colleagues were suspended. For a long time he traveled through Italy and England, awakening strong sympathy for his cause in the latter country, but viewing the Roman Catholic Church with extreme disfavor. In 1834 he returned to Geneva, and accepted the chair of dogmatics at the newly established theological school. He inclined strictly toward Reformed Orthodoxy, and deviated from its doctrines only with regard to his theory of predestination, accepting the teaching of election by grace but denying supralapsarianism. Three points of Evangelical theology were especially treated by Gaussen: the divinity of Christ, the prophecies, and the divine authority of Holy Scripture. In his Thdopneustie (Geneva, 1840; Eng. transl., Theopneustia; theplenary Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures, London, 1841) he maintained that all passages. in the Old and New Testaments were verbally inspired, but his theory of inspiration was attacked by members of his own theological school, and later also by Edmund Scherer, and he accordingly wrote, in vindication, Le Canon des Saintes ‑0critures au double point de true de la. science et de la foi (Lausanne, 1860; Eng tranal., Canon of the Holy Scriptures as Viewed. Through Science and Faith, London, 1862). He was also the author of numerous other works, including Legons sur Daniel (3 vols., uncompleted, 1861; Eng. transl., The Prophet Daniel Explained, 1873‑74), consisting of several of his catechetical lectures on Daniel; and of Les premiers chapftres de l'Exode, and Le propWe Jonas (the latter two published posthumously). His works enjoyed a wide circulation both in England and in France. (E. BARDEt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. von der Goltz, Die retornsierte Kirche Gents im 19. Jahrhundert, pp. 103, 289, 467, Basel, 1862; Lichtenberger, ESR, v. 442‑443.
GAUTAMA. See BUDDHISM.
GAUTIER, go"ty6', CHARLES LUCIEN: Swiss Reformed; b. at Cologny (2 m. n.e. of Geneva), Switzerland, Aug. 17, 1850. He studied in Geneva (B.Lit.,1867; B. Th6ol., 1874), Tiibingen, and Leipsic (Ph.D., 1877), and was professor of Old Testament exegesis and theology at Lausanne (Free Church of the Canton of Vaud) from 1877 to 1898, when he retired as honorary professor. He was president of the synod of the Free Church of the Canton of Vaud in 1885, 1886, 1891, and 1892. In theology he is Evangelical in his sympathies, although not an enemy of the critical school. He has written Le Sacerdoce dams l'Ancien Testament (Geneva, 1874); Ad‑Dourra al‑Fdkhira, la perle precieuse de Ghazali : traits d'eschatologie musulmane (1878); La Mission du prophUe Ez4chiel (Lausanne, 1891); Au del& du Jourdain (Geneva,
1895); Souvenirs de Terre‑Sainte (Lausanne, 1898); Vocations des prophdes (1901); Autour de la Mer Morte (Geneva, 1901); and Introduction & l'Ancien Testament (2 vols., Lausanne, 1906).

GAVAZZI, ga‑vat'si, ALESSANDRO: One of the founders of the " Free Church of Italy " (see ITALY); b. at Bologna Mar. 21, 1809; d. at Rome Jan. 9, 1889. He entered the Order of Barnabites in 1825, and four years later became professor of rhetoric at Naples. His radical views soon attracted unfavorable notice, and in 1840 he was transferred to a subordinate position in the States of the Church. He welcomed the election of Pius IX. and enthusiastically supported the liberal movement which marked the beginning of the new r6gime. Appointed chaplain of the Roman troops sent to Lombardy, he assisted in inciting resistance to Austria, but was arrested at Vicenza and confined at Corneto until released by the inhabitants of Viterbo. The change in the papal policy, however, filled him with hatred of the pope, and on the capture of Rome and the reinstatement of Pius in 1849, he fled to England and renounced his faith. He then became pastor of a Protestant Italian congregation in London, and lectured in England, Scotland, and Ireland against his former religion. In 1860 he joined the army of Garibaldi as a chaplain, and after the establishment of the kingdom of Italy resided in Rome, where in 1877 he started a theological seminary for the " Free Church," of which he was the principal founder (see ITALY), and officiated as professor of dogmatics, apologetics, and polemics. Among his numerous works special mention may be made of the following: Memoirs (London, 1851); Orations (1851); Lectures in New York (New York, 1853); Recollections of the Last Four Popes (London, 1858); Records of Two Years' Christian Work in Italy (1865); La Bibbia regola di fede degli evangelici (Florence, 1868); Dei Concilt ecumenici (1869); No Union with Rome (London, 1871); and The Priest in Absolution (1877).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. M. Campanella and G. B. Nicolini, Biography o/ Father Gavazzi, New York, 1853 (prefixed to the Lectures); J. w. King, Alessandro Gavazzi: a Biography, London, 1860.
GEBAL ("Mountain"): 1. A Phenician city of seamen and merchants engaged in the Mediterranean trade, mentioned Ezek. xxvii. 9 and perhaps referred to in Josh. xiii. 5; 1 Iiings v. 18. The name is preserved in the modern Jibeil, about 20 m. n. of Beirut. Its Assyrian name was Gubal or Gubla; the Greeks called it Byblos. The Egyptians knew it before 1500 B.c. as a center of religious life and literature, it figures in the Amarna Tablets (q.v.), important inscriptions have been found there, and it was the home of Philo Herenius, who transmitted the fragments of Sanehuniathon's " History." The modern place is near the shore; probably the older city was on a spur of the mountains, farther inland.
2. A district named in the Bible only in the late Ps. lxxxiii. 7 in connection with Edom, the Ishmaelites, Moab, Ammon, and the Amalekites, whose home was toward the south or southeast of the

439	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Ga=a
		Oebhard II
Dead Sea, therefore to be located in that region.
It is doubtless the modern Jibal of the Arabs, the
district located by Josephus (Ant. II., i. 2, IX., ix. 1)
as near Petra, and by Arabian geographers as the
northern part of the region east of the Wadi al
Arabah (the depression south of the Dead Sea).
						(H. GUTHE.)
BIBLIoaSAPHT: DB, ii. 117; EB, ii. 1863‑56. On 1, con
	sult: W. M. Miiller, Asien and Europa, pp. 185 sqq.,
	Leipsie, 1893; . E. Benin, Mission de PUnieie, pp. 174
	eqq., Paris, 1864; H. Winekler, in Keilwhrifaiche Bib
	liothekc, vol. v., Berlin, 1898. On 2, consult: Robinson,
	Researches, ii. 154; Guy Is Strange, Palestine under as
	Moatenw, London, 1890; F. Buhl, Gesdhichte der Edomi
	ter, Leipsic, 1893.
GEBHARD II. AND THE COUNTERREFORMA
			TION IN THE LOWER RHINE
					LANDS.
		Protestants in the Lower Rhine Lands (§ 1).
		Bavarian Intrigues in Lower Germany (§ 2).
		Gebhard II (§ 3).
		Gebhard's Downfall (§ 4).
		Progress of the Counterreformation (§ 5).
		The Reformation nowhere completely permeated
the Lower Rhenish districts. Small congregations,
it is true, struggled here and there for a modest
existence, and a part of the nobility appeared to
incline toward the new doctrines; but the new
movement was not supported by the towns. In
				both of the most powerful imperial
	i. Protes‑ cities of these regions, Cologne and
		tants in	Aachen, the Roman preponderance
	the Lower in councils and civic life remained un
		Rhine	impaired. But from 1570 onward, the
		Lands.	disturbances in the Netherlands hav
				ing driven countless refugees into the
neighboring districts of the Lower Rhine, quite a
number of Reformed congregations became estab
lished in the duchy of Juliers and Cleves, and in the
electorate and city of Cologne. Wesel came to be
a center for the new propaganda. At Aachen the
Protestants began to contend, after 1574, for the rule
of the city. Indeed as early as 1571 there came into
effect a firm organization of all these "Netherland
ish "congregations, which drew to themselves many
of the native Protestants. In spite of sporadic action
on the part of the authorities, the congregations
were tacitly tolerated, in the main, a contributory
factor to this end in the city of Cologne being re
	gard for mercantile relations with the Netherlands;
	while at the court of Juliers a Protestant party
even endeavored to gain a legislative influence over
	the infirm and vacillating Duke William IV.
		If therefore the Reformation had nowhere gained
	the supremacy in these districts, and had not even
	attained to a position of security, nevertheless,
	toward the dose of the decade 1570‑80, Protestants
were everywhere to be found, and no Counterref
ormation tendency was then active. The Jesuits
had begun their activity in Cologne soon after their
society was founded, and made that point a center
of their missionary and literary enterprises in the
rest of Germany; but their efforts in Cologne it
self never accomplished anything assured and
fruitful.	They were thwarted by lack of support
from the political authorities; the electors showed
no inter in the society, and the city council, the
clergy, and the university put obstacles in its course. The victory that was eventually achieved at this place by the Counterreformation was owing to the pressure of alien dynastic interests, and the chief part in this result for the Roman cause was played by Bavarian statecraft.
Duke Albert V. of Bavaria had destined his third son, Ernest (b. 1554), for the clerical vocation; in 1565 he became a canon at Salzburg, and soon afterward at Cologne, Treves, and Wurzburg as well; in the autumn of 1565 he likewise became bishop of Freising. Albert's wishes no doubt centered upon the neighboring archdiocese of Salzz. Bavarian burg; but in 1569, when Elector
Intrigues	Salentin of Cologne incurred difficul‑
in Lower ties with the curia for non‑recognition
	Germany.	of the Council of Trent and was con
		templating resignation, Ernest was pro
posed by his father, who had the support of the
Spanish government at Brussels, as Salentin's suc
cessor. At the imperial diet at Speyer, in 1570,
the negotiations with Salentin were so far advanced
that Ernest went to Cologne in November, and served
his first residence there as canon till May, 1571,
such being the preliminary condition in the line
of election. Salentin's resignation, however, was
deferred, and in 1573 he actually submitted to the
Council of Trent, and was thereupon confirmed by
the curia as archbishop, foregoing the priestly con
secration. In 1577, after the Bavarian court had
failed in an attempt to secure Munster for Ernest,
efforts looking to Cologne were resumed and
prosecuted more zealously than before. Moreover,
the support of the curia now heightened the hope
of some practical result. Duke Ernest, who for a
time, in 1572, had well‑nigh thwarted all his father's
plans by a suddenly outcropping disinclination to
ward the spiritual vocation, was sent to Rome in
the spring of 1574, for a sojourn of nearly two years,
by way of reward for submitting to his father's
will. At Rome he won the particular good‑will of
the pope, so that Gregory XIII. resolved to support,
with all his might, Ernest's installation as coadjutor
to Salentin; in fact, the advancement of Bavarian
family interests appeared to be the only possible
way of recovering a more secure standing for the
Roman Catholic Church in Lower Germany. The
status which had been gained in 1573 by the elec
tion of Ernest as bishop of the small see of Hildes
heim could not as yet, by itself alone, afford a very
trustworthy base of support.
But against the common plans of Salentin, the curia, and the Bavarian court, opposition manifested itself on the side of the chapter at Cologne; when, in 1577, Salentin resigned, Ernest was defeated, at the new election, by Gebhard Truchsess, who was elected by the Protestants and the lukewarm Catholics of the chapter. Duke Albert, as well as the papal nuncio Portia, protested against the election; but as both the emperor and the electors espoused Gehbard's cause, and as he passed for a good Catholic, receiving priestly consecration in Mar., 1578, and swearing to the Council of Trent, the curia disregarded the Bavarian protest and in Mar., 1580, confirmed the election. By that time Duke Albert had died, and his successor, William

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	440
Godalish
V., was ready to come to terms. Ernest received
some compensation, in 1581, by obtaining the rich
diocese of Li€ge.
	Gebbard (b. at the Waldburg, 5 m. e.s.e. of
Ravensburg, in Swabia, Nov. 10, 1547; d. at Stras
burg May 21, 1801) descended from the old Swan
bian family of the Truchsesses of Waldburg; his
father was Imperial Councilor Wilhelm Truch®ess;
his uncle, Cardinal Otto of Augsburg. A careful
education had fallen to his portion, as even at an
		early age he was destined for the spir
	e. Gob‑ itual vocation. He attended, so the
	hard II. accepted report has it, the universities
		of Dillingen, Ingolstadt, and (longest)
Louvain; then terminated his studies with a sojourn
in Italy, 1587. His spiritual career began in 1580
with the acquisition of a prebendary position at
Augsburg; in 1561 he became canon at Cologne;
capitular at Strasburg in 1567; and capitular at
Cologne in 1568, in place of the newly elected
elector Salentin. From data of the year 1569 it is
known that Gebbard led a scandalous life at Augs
burg, and by request of Cardinal Otto, Duke Albert
V. interposed with exhortations which appear to
have occasioned some improvement. In 1574
Gebhard became dean of the cathedral at Stras
burg; in 1576, by papal nomination, provost of the
cathedral at Augsburg. At all events, his ecclesi
astical behavior must have been clear of suspicious
imputations, and the curia was ready to confirm
his election as elector of Cologne.
	A personal matter drew the elector, some years
after his election, into the ecclesiastical strife, and
gave new life to the Bavarian hopes. Gebhard,
about 1580, had formed a liaison with Countess
Agnes of Manafeld, a canoness of the cloister at
Gerresheim. Under the insistencies of the dishon
ored woman's relatives, Gebhard resolved on
marriage. Originally, no doubt, he meant to re
sign his office and renounce the spiritual career;
but the same friends who had been active in secur
ing his election now induced him to retain the
archiepiscopal position despite his marriage. After
somewhat prolonged, though not, indeed, by any
means satisfactory preliminaries, and after formal
conclusion thereof in the city of Bonn, which, for
that matter, was anything but unanimously in
accord with him, the elector publicly announced,
in Dec., 1582, and in Jan., 1583, that he licensed
the exercise of both confessions in the archdiocese,
the old as well as the new; and that he himself
intended to adopt the Augsburg Confession, to
remain archbishop, and to marry. Gebhard's
shortsightedness betrays itself in the fact that on
publicly declaring his purpose he still had no assur
ance that he had sufficient support in the arch
diocese, or that he would receive encouragement
from the German Protestants or from Orange
and the States‑General. Up to that time, only the
counts of Wetterau and Palgrave John Casimir
had showed themselves ready to help. In case a
general Protestant support were lacking‑and this
was just what happened, thanks to the mistaken
policy of Elector Augustus of Saxony‑the unsuo
cesaful issue of this attempt toward religious free
dom was inevitable from the outset.
	Even before Gebhard had publicly announced his
purposes, his adversaries were stirring (from the
autumn of 1582); the cathedral chapter at Cologne,
opposing on both ecclesiastical and personal grounds
the secularization of the archdiocese, devised meas
ures of resistance, and formed an alliance with the
		governor‑general of the Netherlands,
	;. Geb‑ Alexander of Parma; moreover the ter
	hard's ritorial estates of the diocese declared
	Downfall. themselves against Gebhard's project.
		The most influential member of the
chapter, the suffragan bishop, Duke Frederick of
Saxe‑Lauenburg, even began, on his own responsi
bility, open war against the innovation. The city
of Cologne arrayed itself against the elector; the
Emperor charged him to desist; and the curia
instituted canonical procedure against all apostates.
In Apr. 1583, Gebhard was excommunicated and
deposed from his rank. Bavarian statecraft now
began to stir anew, and the curia, no less than
Gebhard's antagonists in the chapter at Cologne,
accepted Duke Ernest as their sole possible can
didate. He had appeared in Cologne at the be
ginning of. March, and at the new election, duly
appointed under date of May 23, he was unani
mously elected archbishop. Ernest and Gebhard
now confronted each other as champions of differ
ent principles no less than as exponents of personal
interests; nor was Gebhard disposed to recede.
Promptly after his election, Ernest, supported by
his brother Duke William V., by the Spanish
Government at Brussels, and by the curia, collected
an army; his elder brother, Duke Ferdinand of
Bavaria, was appointed commander‑in‑chief, in the
summer of 1583; and Spanish regiments were
furthermore in readiness to cooperate, since it would
be a new menace to the shattered Spanish dominion
in the Netherlands if the electorate of Cologne
fell into Protestant hands. Gebhard's military
forces were quite unequal to this opposition.
Among the archdiocesan subjects, only the estates
of the duchy of Westphalia had declared in his
favor; in the Rhenish districts of the electorate,
Gebhard, at the beginning of the war, had only
a few secure points in his hand (Bonn, Bedbur,
Berk, and Uerdingen); in the southern portion of the
diocese, his brother Karl Truchsess fought on his
side and in the north his most capable partizan,
Count Adolphus of Neuenar, but both with meager
commands. Palgrave John Casimir, to be sure, the
sole Protestant prince who attempted to furnish
real assistance, marched up to his support with
seven thousand men in the summer of 1583; but
his army, unfit to begin with, and by no means well
handled under his own leadership, was well‑nigh
ready to disband after two months of fruitless
maneuvering on the right bank of the Rhine, and
in consequence of a shortage of pay. In October
John Casimir was recalled from the seat of war to
Heidelberg, to assume the regency on occasion of
the death of his brother, Elector Louis. The ban
of the Empire, threatened by the emperor, con
tributed to the collapse of this auxiliary service.
Negotiations with the States‑General leading to no
result, Gebhard was left to his own resources for
facing the much stronger adversary. In spite of

441	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
		Gedaliah
this, half a year elapsed before the new elector's preponderating power achieved its purpose; first in the archdiocese, then also in Westphalia, one city and one castle after another slowly succumbed. Gebhard sought refuge in the Netherlands, and finally died at Strasburg in 1601. The battle over the electoral dignity and religious freedom was decided from 1584; by admission to the electoral college early in 1585, Ernest won for himself the legal recognition of the Empire.
Gebhard was impelled by no great idea, nor could he claim through virile activity the title to high striving ambition. He meant well, both at the outset as Roman Catholic and later as Protestant, but was wanting in depth and tenacity. His victorious adversary, personally, was not at all his superior. Ernest had pretty nearly the same good and evil traits, and lived a spiritual life just as little as his predecessor; " he is a great sinner, but you must cut your cloth to the figure," was the papal nuncio's remark of him. Again, Ernest's personality was almost indifferent as regards the. result; he was carried to his position by the rising tide of the Counterreformation. Over Gebhard, who stood alone, the, victory was the curia's, Bavaria's, and Spain's.
Now that the political task was accomplished; the ecclesiastical forces of the Counterreformation began to exert themselves; the Jesuits and the papal nuncios proceeded to invest their field. In the Rhenish districts of the diocese and in Westphalia, Protestantism was combated energetically; by the acquisition of Munster, where Ernest was elected in 1585, and by the induction, 5. Progress under Bavarian influence, of trustof the worthy Roman Catholics into the epis‑
	Counter‑	copal sees of Oanabriick, Paderborn,
reformation. and Minden, the possibility of a consoli
		dated Roman Catholic Northwestern
Germany appeared to be once again in the course of
realization. However, the Protestant congrega
tions everywhere struggled obstinately for their
existence; in spite of all repression, they continu
ally increased in Cologne toward the close of the
sixteenth century; while the greatest obstacles to a
complete reaction in the electorate at large inhered
in the elector's personality. His worldly inclina
tions were so little amenable to the desires of the
curia that even by 1588 the papal nuncio agitated
the plan of a coadjutorship. When the adminis
tration and the finances fell into worse and worse
decline, and the elector by his ardor for the chase
and his worldly dress, his evasion of the command
ments of the Church, and his frivolous life caused
sharper and sharper vexation, the installation of a
coadjutor was prosecuted with earnestness. In
Apr., 1595, with the elector's consent, his nephew
Duke Ferdinand of Bavaria was elected to that
office. The liquidation of accumulated debts was
now undertaken, and a visitation, with ecclesias
tical reforms, of the entire archdiocese was ac
complished.
But even though the electorate of Cologne and the neighboring episcopal provinces were securely annexed once more to the Roman Church, the attempt again to subject to the Roman Church the
entire Northwest of Germany did not succeed; for not only did the Netherland provinces, victorious in their battle with Spain, form a strong Protestant counterpoise, but also in the JuliersCleves districts, the Protestant congregations maintained themselves notwithstanding limitations; indeed, they continually increased, insomuch that in Cleves and in the Mark they actually held the preponderance, and in 1609, when Brandenburg and Pfalz‑Neuburg assumed possession of the territories of the house of Juliers, the time of complete liberty was at hand for them.
WALTER GOETZ.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. Ennen, Gesehichte der Stadt Koiln, vol. v., Cologne, 1880; M. Loosen, Der koolnische Krieg. Gotha. 1882; M. Philippson, La Contre‑R.4uolution relipieuse au zvi. si&le, Brussels, 1884; L. Keller, Die Gepenrdormation in Westfalen, vol. ii., Leipsic, 1887; Unkel, in Historischee Jahrbuch, vole. viii., x., Munich, 1887, 1889; J. Hanson, NuntiadwbericAts sue Deutschland, vol. iii., parts 1‑2, Gotha, 1892‑94; idem, Rheinische Akten our Geachichte des Jesuitenordena, 16.4.8‑88, ib. 1896; G. Wolf, Aus Kurk6ln in 16. Jahrhundert, Berlin, 1905.
GEBHARDT, OSKAR LEOPOLD VON : German Lutheran; b. at Wesenberg (150 m. s.e. of St. Petersburg) June 22, 1844; d. at Leipsic May 10, 1906. He studied at Dorpat, Tiibingen, Giittingen, and Leipsic and was assistant in the library of Leipsic University 1875‑76, custodian and sublibrarian of the University of Halle 1876‑80, librarian of the University of G6ttingen 1880‑84. librarian of the Royal Library, Berlin, 1884‑91, and divisional director of the same institution 1891‑93. From 1893 until his death he was director of the library of the University of Leipsic. He wrote or edited Gra;cus Venetua (Leipsic, 1875); Patrum Apmtolicorum opera (3 vols., 1875‑77, in collaboration with A. Harnack and T. Zahn; editio minor, 1877); Evangeliorum codex Grcecus purpureus Roasanensis (1880; in collaboration with A. Harnaek); Das New Testament griechisch each Tischendorfs letzer Recension and deutsch nach dem revidierten Luthertext (1881); Novum Testamentum Grace, recensionis Tischerulorfiance ultimm textus cum Tregellesiano et We8eottiano‑Hortiano coliatus (1881); The Miniatures of the Ashburnam Pentateuch (London, 1883); and Acta martyrum selects (Berlin, 1902). He was likewise the editor of the eleventh to the sixteenth edition of W. Theile's Novum Testamentum Grtece (Leipsie, 18751900), while with A. Harnack he established and edited the valuable Texte and Untersuahungen zur GeschicW der adtchristlichen Literatur (1882 sqq.), to which he himself contributed a number of monographs.
BxBLroaRAPHT: A memorial sketch is found in the ZeatraEbla# fttr Bibliothekewasen, June, 1908.
GEDALIAH, ged"a‑lai'8: Son of Ahikam and grandson of Shaphan, and protector of Jeremiah from the people who sought to kill him because of his predictions against Jerusalem (Jer. xi. 5‑8, xliii. 6). He was appointed by Nebuchadrezzar governor of Judea after the fall of Jerusalem, in accordance with the custom of Eastern monarchs to leave the government of subjected lands in charge of distinguished individuals of the conquered races. The selection of Gedaliah for this position may have

Uah	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	442
been determined by his attitude toward the rebel
lion, which made him appear trustworthy to the
Babylonian overlord. It may have been through
Gedaliah that Nebuchadrezzar gave directions for
the protection of the prophet (Jer. xxxix. 11 sqq. ),
and that he was released from bonds and given his
full liberty by Nebuzaradan, the Babylonian gen
eral (Jer. xl. 1‑6). Gedaliah fixed his residence at
hfizpah, whither Jeremiah came, and also the
representatives of the Jewish insurgents in order to
get advice of Gedaliah. His counsel was to live
quietly, since then they would be unmolested by
the Babylonians. The result was that the Jews
who had been fugitives among the neighboring
peoples returned and placed themselves under
Gedaliah's protection, and the nucleus of a new
Jewish nation was gathered. But there was an
element in the population which regarded sub
jection and even a peaceful life under the Chaldeans
as disgraceful, and these were led by Ishmael, one of
the princes royal. He was prompted by Baalis,
king of Ammon, to kill Gedaliah. The governor
was warned of the plot by a certain Johanan, who
offered to forestall its execution by the assassina
tion of Ishmael. Gedaliah regarded the informa
tion as a slander and rejected the offer. Three
months after the fall of the city, Ishmael with ten
companions visited Gedaliah, was entertained by
him, and then slew him and the Jews and Chaldeans
who were of his company (Jer. x1i. 1‑3). Ishmael
slew also on the second day after a number of men
from Shechem, Shiloh, and Samaria who were
bringing gifts for the Temple, carried off as prisoners
the residents of Mizpah, and started on his journey
to Ammon. He was confronted on the way by
Johanan with a strong force, and was compelled
to abandon his prisoners and escape with a small
band to the Ammonites. 	(W. LOTZ.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The works on the history of the period mentioned under AHAB; and ISRAEL, HISTORY OP, especially Stade, f. 696‑700, Kittel, p. 33, and Kent, The Divided Kingdom.

GEDDES, ged'ez, ALEXANDER: Scottish Roman Catholic; b. near Rathven (50 m. n.w. of Aberdeen), Banffshire, Sept. 14, 1737; d. in London Feb. 26, 1802. He studied at the Roman Catholic seminary at Scalan (1751‑58) and at the Scotch College in Paris (1758‑64). On his return to Scotland he officiated as priest in the region of Angus. In 1765 he became chaplain to the earl of Traquair, and in 1769 pastor of the Roman Catholic congregation at Auchinhalrig, but was deprived of his charge in 1779 for attending a Presbyterian service. In 1780 he settled in London, where he devoted himself almost entirely to authorship, preaching only occasionally. He published several volumes of verse, including a translation of the first book of Homer's Iliad (London, 1792), but his chief works are his translation of the Old Testament (2 vols., London, 1792‑97), complete through Chronicles; and his Critical Remarks on ;he Hebrew Scriptures (1800). He adopted the German method of rationalizing the Biblical narrative, thereby incurring the displeasure of both Protestants and Roman Catholics. In 1800 he was suspended from all ecclesiastical functions, and
his translation of the Bible was prohibited to the faithful. His unfinished translation of the Psalms was edited by John Disney and Charles Butler and completed from Geddes' corrections in Bishop Wilson's Bible (London, 1807). When Geddes died, mass was prohibited over his remains. It was his misfortune to be in advance of his time, and he lacked tact in presenting his views; in some points he anticipated modern scholarship, and many of his critical remarks are excellent.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. M. Good. Memoirs of his Life and Writings, London, 1803; T. K. Cheyne, Founders of Old Testament Criticism, pp. 4‑11, New York, 1893; C. A. Briggs. Study of Holy Scripture, p. 282, New York, 1899, DNB, xxi. 98‑101 (where scattered notices are indicated).

GEDDES, JENNY: According to the popular story, a Scottish " herb‑woman " who instigated a riot in St. Giles's Church, Edinburgh, on Sunday, July 23, 1637. Archbishop Laud was trying to introduce the English liturgy into Scotland, and the attempt raised a storm of indignation. The dean of Edinburgh, however, made the experiment in the Cathedral Church of St. Giles, on the Sunday named, in the presence of the privy council and the city magistrates. According to the usual story, Jenny Geddes, hearing the archbishop direct the dean in finding the collect for the day, exclaimed in indignation, " Villain, dost thou say mass at my lug? " (ear), and hurled the stool upon which she had been sitting at the dean's head. This was the signal for a riot in and about the cathedral. The people shouted through the streets, " A pope, a popel Antichristl the sword of the Lord and of Gideonl " and the ultimate result was the withdrawal of the liturgy, since the outburst of popular feeling was by no means confined to Edinburgh. According to other accounts it was a woman named either Mein or Hamilton who threw the stool. The maiden name of Mrs. Mein or Mrs. Hamilton may have been Geddes, although the popular account represents Jenny Geddes as an old woman. Both Mrs. Mein and Mrs. Hamilton, moreover, are described as women of a social status far above that of Jenny Geddes. A herb‑woman of the same name is said to have given her stall to be burned in a bonfire at the rejoicings in honor of the coronation of Charles II. Other accounts of the riot of 1637 state that the name of the woman who threw the stool was not known. A folding stool, the very one used by Jenny Geddes, it is said, is exhibited in the National Museum of Antiquities in Edinburgh.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. H. Burton, Hist. of Scotland, vi. 150‑152, 8 vols., London, 1873; Schaff, Creeds, i. 88; DNB, xxi. 102.

GEHENNA (" Valley of Hinnom "): Originally the name of the deep valley south of Jerusalem, later a name given to the place of torment. The full form of the name (" valley of the son of Hinnom ") appears in II Kings xxiii. 10. Hinnom is otherwise unknown. From Old Testament references and from the accurate description of its position in Enoch xxvi. 1‑5, it is identified with the present Wadi al‑Rababah. At the end of the preexilic period Moloch‑worship was carried on there, and Josiah desecrated the place (II Kings xxiii. 10)

443	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	aeaaeleb
		C>teibel
but without permanent effect (Jer. vii. 31‑32,
xix. 2‑6, xxxil. 35). Jeremiah announced that
	this valley was in future to be called " valley of
	slaughter," because the enemies were to kill there
	the fleeing inhabitants of Jerusalem and leave
			their bodies unburied (Jer. vii. 32,
In the Old xix. 6). Isa. Ixvi. 24 states that the
	Testament carcasses of the men that transgressed
		and	shall in future be before the gates of Je
	Apocrypha. rusalem for an amazement to every one
			because " their worm shall not die,
neither shall their fire be quenched." Dan. xii.
2 even goes beyond Isa. lxvi. 24, and is illustra
ted by the contemporaneous description in Enoch
xc. 26‑27, according to which after Israel's redemp
tion an abyss filled with fire is to be opened
	south of Jerusalem, into which ungodly Israelites
are to be thrown after submitting to judgment.
	According to Enoch xxvi. 1‑xxvll. 3, this very
	valley of Ben‑hinnom was conceived as the place
	of future judgment and punishment of impious
	Israelites. Thus it became customary to call the
	place of punishment of the Jewish wicked " valley
	of Hinnom." The name was retained after the idea
	of the place of punishment in the last day had
	severed itself from thatlocalityand its connotation.
	expanded to mean a place of punishment for all
men. There is no trace that the name of the Ben
	hinnom valley was transferred to the place of
	punishment after death, for according to Enoch xc.
	24‑25 besides the fiery abyss near Jerusalem there
was a second fiery abyss, appointed for the fallen
	angels and the " shepherds of the nations." In
	the second prechristian century there comes into
	view a different fate of the pious and impious in
	the other world, which begins after death. Enoch
	xxii. 10 sqq. speaks of a twofold place for the
	impious in Hades. The Apocalypse of Baruch,
	xxxvi. 11, distinguishes between the (lesser) torment
	of the impious before the last judgment and the
	greater after it. The place of the former is called
	Gehenna (xlix. 10). According to IV Ezra vii.
	80‑87, the ungodly dead are in a restless state of
	anxious expectation of coming torment; according
	to vii. 36, the iake of torment and the oven of
	Gehenna become manifest only at the end. Ac
	cording to Josephus (Ant. XVIII., i. 3; War, II., viii.
	14), the Pharisees made the everlasting punishment
	of the ungodly begin with their death. AS to the
	locality of the place of punishment, different views
	prevailed. It was easiest to seek the place of the
	impious in Hades under the earth. This was the
	view of the Pharisees (Josephus, Ant. XVIII., i. 3)
	and of Josephus (War, III., viii. 5; cf. Enoch li. 1;
	Apocalypse of Baruch xxi. 24; IV Ezra vii. 32).
	According to Enoch xxii. (cf. xxi. 1, 2), this place
	lies outside of heaven and earth. The place of
	everlasting punishment after the last judgment
	was located by the Pharisees under the earth. In
	this case a connection between this place and the
	Ben‑hinnom valley could easily be made by seeking
	in this valley one of the gates to hell. The old no
	tion of the judgment‑place in the Ben‑hinnom
	valley near Jerusalem was never completely given
	up only that the locality was differently fixed.
	The thoughts about the final fate of the ungodly
can be understood from Israelitic assumptions, but there can be no doubt as to foreign influences, especially Greek.
	In the New Testament the Grecized form of the
word is found only in the synoptic Gospels and
Jas. iii. 6. By " Gehenna of fire " (R. V., margin,
		Matt. v. 22, xviii. 9: Mark ix. 477;
In the New this " valley " is more accurately
	Testament.	designated. The fire is called " un
		quenchable " (Matt. iii. 12; Mark
ix. 43; Luke iii. 17) and "everlasting" (Matt.
xviii. 8, xxv. 41). It is placed in opposition to the
" dominion of God " or " eternal life " and denotes
the state which falls to the final lot of the ungodly,
and this, according to Matt. x. 28, affects both soul
and body. The fire is here to be taken literally,
whereas"the outer darkness" (Matt. vi. 23, etc.) is
figurative. The devil and his angels are appointed
for the like death by fire according to Matt. xxv. 41,
the demons according to Matt. viii. 29. The same
idea of the final destiny of the ungodly is also found
in Heb. x. 27 sqq., xii. 29, in Jude 7; and in Rev.
xix. 20, xx. 10, 14; xxi. 8. Whereas it is supposed
that death is the lot of both good and bad and the
different lot of each can show itself only in events
which do not occur at death, Paul taught that
death is the wages of sin and therefore a passing
anomaly for the righteous to which he must sub
mit as being in the flesh, but that it is the lasting
lot of the ungodly. The Gospel and Epistles of John
speak indeed of a coming day of judgment (v. 29;
I John iv. 17) for which the unrighteous "rise,"
but in xv. 6 a punishment of apostates with fire is
mentioned figuratively only, so that it can not be
stated how the literal statement would read.
(G. DALMAN.)
BIBLIOGRAPRY: The best single book covering the subject is R. H. Charles, Critical Hint. o/ Doctrine of a Future Life, London, 1899. For detailed study of the Jewish non‑canonical ideas consult the literature under PSEUDEPIGRAPHA; A. Hilgenfeld, JudiscAe Apocalyptik, Jena, 1857; A. Wfinsehe, Die Vorstellungen vom Zuatande der Seele each dem Tode each Apokryphen, Talmud and Kirchenvtitern, in JPT, vi (1880), 355‑383; J. Hamburger, Real‑Encyklopedie, ii. 1252‑57, Strelitz, 1883; A. Lowy, in PSBA, x (1888), 333‑342; D. Castelli, in JQR, i (1889), 314‑352; T. K. Cheyne, Origin and Religious Content of Psalter, pp 381‑452, London, 1891; F. Sehwally, Dae Leben nach deco Tode, pp. 142‑147, 174177, Giessen, 1892; R. Kabiseh, Die Eschatologie des Paulus, GBttingen, 1893; E. Haupt, Die eachatologieden Aussagen Jeau, Berlin, 1895; F. Weber, JVdische Theologie, pp. 341‑344, Leipsic, 1897; E. Stave;‑Ueber den Eintlum des Parsismus auf das Judenthum, Harlem, 1898; P. Carus, Hist. of the Devil, Chicago, 1900; H. Guthe, Kurzes BibelwOrterbuch, pp. 271‑274, Tubingen, 1903; DB, ii. 119‑120; JE, v. 582‑584. Ezra Abbot's Literature of the Doctrine of a Future Life, originally appended to W. R. Alger's Hiat. of the Doctrine of a Future Life, but published separately, New York, 1871, is exhaustive for the earlier literature.

GEIBEL, gai'bl, JOHANN: German Reformed minister; b. at Hanau Apr. 1, 1776; d. at Lubeck July 25, 1853. He studied at Hanau and at Marburg and acted for some time as private tutor at Copenhagen. In 1797 he was called to Lubeck as vicar to Pastor Butendach, upon whose death, half a year later, he succeeded to the chief ministry, and served as such till 1847. As a preacher he was eloquent and convincing, and he exercised consid‑

Geirer	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	444
Geiler
erable influence outside the Reformed congregation.
With several prominent men of Ltibeck he founded
a Bible Society and a Missionary Association; and in
his own house he held Bible lectures and discussions.
In the interest of his congregation he published
various catechetical works, but only a few of his
sermons appeared in print. With the Hessian
philosopher Suabedissen, Geibel established a
school for his congregation which existed for six
years. He also served his community by arran
ging (1824) the system of worship still in existence,
and by the introduction (1832) of the first satisfac
tory hymn‑book of modern times. Of his published
works may be mentioned Prafet Alles and behaket
das Gute (Hamburg, 1818), five sermons " in behalf
of Evangelical liberty and truth"; and Wieder
her8tellu.ng der ersten chrietlichen Gemeinde, von
Philalethes (1840).
	GEIGER, gai'ger, ABRAHAM: German Jewish
scholar and theologian; b. at Frankfort May 24,
1810; d. at Berlin Oct. 23, 1874. He studied phi
losophy and Oriental languages at Heidelberg and
Bonn and in 1832 became rabbi at Wiesbaden. In
the interest of the reform movement in Judaism
with other scholars, he established the Zedschrift
fur jiidische Th‑ologie in 1835. In 1838 he accepted
a call to Breslau as associate rabbi, though he had
to defend himself against the opposition of the
orthodox party. Here he founded in 1862 the Jii
dische Zeitsraarift fair Wissenschaft and Leben (11
vole., Breslau, 1862‑74), which was written almost
entirely by himself. He was rabbi at Frankfort
from 1863 to 1870, when he became rabbi at Berlin
and professor in the newly established " Lehranstalt
fiir die Wissenschaft des Judentums." Geiger was
one of the pioneers of the reform of Judaism, in
sisting upon a liberal interpretation in the construc
tion and observance of the traditional Jewish law.
Of his numerous writings the most important are:
Was hat Mohammed Gus de?n Judentum aufgenom
men p (Bonn, 1833; new ed., Leipsic, 1902), a prize
essay on the Jewish sources of the Koran; Urschrift
urul Ueberaetzurgen der Bibel in ihrer Abhdngigkeit
von der innern Entwickelung des Judentums (Bres
lau, 1857); Die Sadducder and Pharisaer (1863);
and Das Judentum and seine Gesehichte (3 vole.,
1864‑71; Eng. transl., Judaism acrd its History, vol.
i., New York and London, 1866). His son Ludwig
Geiger edited his Nachgelassene Schriften (5 vols.,
Berlin, 1875‑78).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A memoir by his eon Ludwig, A. Geiger,
	Leben and Briefs, is in the Naehgelassene Schriften, vol.
	v., ut sup.; E. Schreiber, A. Geiger ate Refer des
	Judenthums, LSbau, 1880; JE, v. 584‑587.
	GEIGER, FRANZ TIBURTIUS: Roman Catho
lic; b. at Harting, near Regensburg, May 16, 1755;
d. at Lucerne May 8; 1843. He studied under the
Jesuits in Regensburg and the Benedictines at St.
Emmeran. In 1772 he became a novice in the
Franciscan order at Lucerne. The next year
he returned to Regensburg and he studied theology
in W tlrzburg. He was successively teacher of
Hebrew in Regensburg, privat‑docent of poetry
and rhetoric in Offenburg, professor of philosophy
at Freiburg in Switzerland, and cathedral preacher
and professor of theology in the school of his order at Solothurn. In 1792 ha was appointed professor of theology at Lucerne, the seat of the papal nuncio, and the center of Roman Catholic Switzerland. He was opposed here on account of his original method, which was not in sympathy with scholasticism, and because in the doctrine of grace he did not follow the Jesuits. He was even accused in Rome, but the papal court took care to keep so efficient a worker.
	As Theologus nuntiaturce he rendered important
services to the Roman Catholic Church. He di
rected far‑reaching ultramontanist plans and stood
in connection with the most important leaders
of the party. In his doctrines, sermons, negotia
tions, and treatises he concentrated all his energies
to enliven the Roman consciousness, to make
Switzerland the bulwark of ultramontanism, and
to frustrate the efforts of political and religious
liberalism. " Without pope, no Church " was for
him as much an axiom as " Without revelation, no
religion." He attacked freemasonry especially, and
in 1819 his opponents succeeded in removing him
from his chair, thereby making him a martyr and in
creasing his influence. His numerous polemical trea
tises, notwithstanding the effect they produced, have
no scholarly value. 	(EMIL EGLI.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The works of Geiger were collected and published by Prof. Widmer, 8 vole., Lucerne, 1824‑39. who published also Franz Geiger, . . Laute Gus seinem Leben, ib. 1843. Consult also %L, v. 186‑188.

GEIKIIE, gf"kf', JOHN CUNNINGHAM: Church of England; b. at Edinburgh Oct. 26, 1824; d. at Bournemouth (25 m. s.w. of Southampton), Hampshire, Apr. 1, 1906. He studied at Queen's College, Toronto, and was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry in 1848. He was pastor of the Argyle Street Presbyterian Church, Halifax, N. S., 18511854, of the Argyle Street Chapel, Sunderland, England, 1.860‑67, and of Islington Chapel, London, 1867‑73. He then entered the Church of England and was ordered deacon in 1876 and ordained priest in 1877. He was curate of St. Peter's, Dulwich, 1876‑79, rector of Christ's Church, Neuilly, Paris, 1879‑81, vicar of St. Mary's, Barnstaple, 1882‑85, and vicar of St. Martin‑atPalace, Norwich, 1885‑90. In 1890 he retired from the active service of the Church. In theology he adhered to the Evangelical school of the Church of England, but maintained the right to full investigation of all religious problems. He wrote George. Stanley : or, Life in the Woods (London, 1864); Life: A Book for a Quiet Hour (1868); Light from Beyond to Cheer the Christian Pilgrim (1872); The. Life and Words of Christ (1877); Old Testament Portraits (1878); The English Reformation (1879); Entering on Life (1879); Hours with the Bible (12 vols., 1880‑1897); The Holy land anal the Bible (1887); Short Life of Christ for Old and Young (1888); Landmarks of Old Testament History (1895); and The Vicar and his Friends (1901).

GEIL, WILLIAM EDGAR: Baptist layman; b. near Doylestown, Pa., Oct. 1, 1865. He was graduated at Lafayette College in 1890 and in 1896 spent six months in an archeological tour of Asia

446
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Minor. Between 1901 and 1905 be traveled extensively for a comparative ethnographical and missionary study of native races, and penetrated deeply into China and Africa. He has lectured in many lands on religious, historical, and scientific topics. He has written Pocket Sword (London, 1895); Laodicea (1898); The Isle That Is Called Patmos (Philadelphia, 1898); Ocean and Isle (Melbourne, 1902); A Yankee on the Yangtze (New York, 1904); The Man of Galilee (London, 1904); A Yankee in Pigmyland (New York, 1905); The Men on the Mount (London, 1905); and The Autornatie Calf (1905).

GEMER, gai'ler, JOHANII, OF KAISERSBERG: Roman Catholic preacher; b. at Schaffhausen Mar. 16, 1445; d. at Strasburg Mar. 10, 1510. He was educated in the elementary branches at Ammeraweier, a small town in the neighborhood of Kaisersberg in Upper Alsace, where his father was town secretary. At the age of fifteen he entered the University of Freiburg. In 1462 he was made bachelor and two years
	His Life.	later master of arts. As such he
		lectured on Aristotle and Latin gram
mar, and for a short time was dean of the philosoph
ical faculty. In 1471 he went to Basel to. study
theology. After promotion he lectured on exegesis
and Peter Lombard and, in 1475, was made doc
tor of theology. At the request of students the
town council of Freiburg induced him to return to
the university there, and according to custom he
became first rector of the university for the win
ter term of 1476‑77. But his talents inclined him
toward the office of preacher, and Peter Schott,
Ammeister of Strasburg, prevailed upon him to
settle there, where there was a lack of good preach
ers. With the firm determination to reform the
depraved morals of the city, he entered upon his
calling (1478) and remained at Strasburg, until
the end of his life.
He preached fearlessly and without regard of persons. At the opening of a synod convoked by Bishop Albert he censured the assembled officers for their selfishness and worldliness and demanded a reform of morals among the clergy. In the interest of the Church he fell into several disputes with the magistrates on account of
His Preach‑ their refusal to grant the Holy Coming and minion and a Christian funeral to
Reforma‑	persons condemned to death; he also
tory Efforts. made war against the tendency of civil legislators to encroach upon the liberty of citizens who intended to bequeath their property to the Church. His vehement attacks were, however, often powerless and without effect. In the same way he denounced the abuses of church life, as, for instance, the carousals and debauches at church festivals, the masquerades at the beginning of Lent, the pursuit of worldly business during church hours, and the sales in the vestibules of the churches. In these battles he found an almost insuperable obstacle in the tenacity with which the people held to tradition and the lenient ways followed hitherto by the clergy. Sometimes his invectives against the city council in the pulpit were so vio‑
lent that he was called to account; as an answer he published twenty‑one articles which contained his demands of reform. With the same relentless vigor he reproved abuses among the ecclesiastical classes. Many, he knew, chose the clerical profession only because of their laziness. He deplored the accumulation of benefices and the preference given to noblemen irrespective of their merits. Not less fiercely he attacked the abuses in monasteries; the sins of the rich, the degeneration in army circles, luxury in dress, fads, and immorality. It is a mistake, however, to look upon Geiler as a precursor of the .Reformation. His view of life centered in Catholicism and medievalism. In spite of his high esteem for the Bible he considered its explanation subject to the consensus of the theologians. Over against the awakening of humanism he remained a scholastic of the old school. He commended indulgences and good works for the achievement of salvation and regarded the saints as intercessors before God.
When Count Frederick of Zollern, a devoted pupil and friend of Geiler, was chosen bishop of Augsburg, he invited his Strasburg friends, among them Geiler, to prepare him for his office. The eminent preacher accepted and preached in Augsburg several months until he was called back by his anxious congregation. Now he devoted himself entirely to the affairs of his own town. Together with his friend Jacob Wimpfeling he tried to reform the school system; but their efforts were not successful and Geiler, in spite of his appreciation as preacher, came at the end of his life to the conclusion that a general reform of Christianity was impossible. The only achievements possible, according to him, were isolated reforms on a small scale.
Most of the literature which is considered to‑day as Geiler's production did not proceed directly from his pen. His sermons were either copied, and prepared for print, or sometimes he simply handed over his Latin notes, from which his sermons were reconstructed in German or these notes were used after his death. It will therefore always be a question how far his publications
His Ser‑ are authentic. Some of his editors
	mons.	are unknown; of those known may
		be mentioned Jacob Otther of Speyer;
the physician Johann Adelphus Milling; Johann
Pauli, the well‑known author of the humorous
collection Schimpf and Ernst; Heinrich Wesarner;
and Peter Wickram, Geiler's . sermons lasted
usually one hour. He gave free range in the pulpit
to his talents of popular oratory in the vernacular.
and his spontaneous invention of anecdotes, com
parisons, word plays, and proverbs give his sermons
their charm. They are either sermons on the
Gospel arranged in the form of homilies or consist
of series which are grouped around one 'common
picture. To the scholastics be owes his fondness
for analyzing his material into divisions and sub
divisions and his tendency to quote recognized
authorities. His interest centers chiefly in the daily
happenings of public and private life. Satire and
humor are his principal weapons. He makes his
sermons interesting by striking similes which some‑

Gelasius	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	448
aelzer
times form the central point of a long series of ser
mons. But even when they border on the bur
lesque he is always in earnest.	It is true he some
times goes too far in his similes and allegories, but
allegorizing was the fashion of his time and the taste
of his hearers was not refined. He rendered a great
service to the German language by using exclusively
the vernacular in his sermons and not a mixture of
Latin and German, as was the custom of his time.
		(G. KAWERAU.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Geiler's Ausgewdhlte Schriften, ed. P. de
	Lorenzi (with omission of " offensive " passages), ap
	peared in four volumes at Treves, 1881‑83. The two
	early works on Geiler by J. Wimpfeling (1510) and B.
	Rhenanus (1513) are in J. A. von Riegger, Amlenitates
	literaria Friburpenses, Ulm, 1755. Consult: L. Daeheux
	(Roman Catholic), Un R6formateur catholique a la fin du
	ave. sickle, Paris, 1876; C. Schmidt (Protestant), Histoire
	littdraire de l'Alsace, i. 335‑461, Paris, 1879; ADB, viii.
	509.
	GELASIUS, je‑16'sht‑us or	g6"18‑si'us: The
name of two popes.
	Gelasius I.: Pope 492‑496.	He was a Roman
by birth, and entered upon his administration as
successor to Felix 111. on Mar. 1, 492. The schism
with Byzantium which had begun under Felix in
484, on occasion of the excommunication of the
Patriarch Acacius of Constantinople for his encour
agement of the Monophysite doctrine (see FELIx
III.; MONOPHYSITEB), continued under Gelasius.
Nor was Gelasius on good terms with Odoacer, the
eastern emperor's " governor," but he got on better
with the Ostrogothic king Theodoric, who from
493 resided at Ravenna as king of Italy, and as
yet refrained from encroachments upon the province
of the Church. This reserve of the Arian was of
the utmost moment for Gelasius, who set his heart
on extending the rights of the Roman primacy.
In his letters he claimed the right to receive appeals
from all parts of the world, and he contested the
admissibility of appeal to any other tribunal from
a deliverance by the bishop of Rome. The pre
eminence of the see of Rome is guaranteed for him
by Matt. xvi. 18; beside it, the churches of Alexan
dria and Antioch occupy second and third rank.
FIe spurned with indignation the equality with the
Roman bishop desired by the bishop of Constan
tinople, and he upheld with great energy against
the Emperor Anastasius the independence of the
spiritual power. Concerning the genuineness of the
so‑called Decretum de libris recipiendis et non
recipiendis ascribed to Gelasius I. there has been
much disputation, but the matter is to be decided
affirmatively. It may be that a part derives from
Pope Damasus, maybe the entire matter was re
cast by Hormisdas in the sixth century; but the
main portion was probably proclaimed under Gela
sius at a Roman synod in 496. The decree com
prises: (1) a table of the writings of the Biblical
Canon; (2) a discussion of the primacy of the Ro
man Church; (3) a list of the synods to be accepted
as valid; (4) and (5) a catalogue of the writings ac
cepted and rejected by the Roman Church. Gela
sius furthermore composed sundry dogmatic and
polemical treatises; the origin of the so‑called
Sacramentarium Gelasianum (ed. H. A. Wilson,
Oxford, 1894) is debatable (see LITURGICS). Gela‑
sius died Nov. 19, 496, and is accounted a " saint "
by the Roman Catholic Church.
CARL MIRBT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Epiatolm are in MPL, lix. 13‑140, and one of them in MGH, Epist., iii (1891), 32‑33. Sources are in Jaffd, Regesta, i. 83‑95, 619‑743; Liber pontiAmlie, ed. Duchesne, i. 255, Paris, 1886, ed. Mommsen in L1iGH, Gest. Pont. Rotn., i (1898), 116‑118. Consult: A. Roux, Le Pape S. GElase I., Paris, 1880 (on the life and writings); J. Langen, Geschichte der r6mischen Kirche, ii. 159‑214, Bonn, 1885; Zahn, Kanon, IL, i. 259 sqq.; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, ii. 616 sqq.; Bower, Popes, i. 282‑291; Milman, Latin Christianity, i. 348‑349.
	Gelasius II. (Giovanni da, Gaeta): Pope 1118
1119. He was born at Gaeta, and, after receiving
his education in the monastery of Monte Cassino,
was drawn to the curia by Urban II., appointed
chancellor, and also promoted to the rank of cardi
nal deacon. He loyally supported Paschal II. (q.v.)
when this pope was taken captive by Henry V. of
Germany in 1111, and was sharply attacked by a
portion of the college of Cardinals on account of
the treaty he had concluded with the emperor in
relation to investiture. After the death of Paschal
II. Cardinal Giovanni was unanimously elected as
his successor (Jan. 24, 1118), and he adopted the
name of Gelasius II. The conclave was scarcely
ended when he was taken captive by the Frangi
pani party, but was soon released. However, the
news then reached him that Henry V., upon word
that the papal election had occurred without his
cooperation, was approaching in rapid marches.
In the fear that a treaty similar to the one exacted
of his predecessor might be forced upon him,
Gelasius fled hurriedly to Gaeta, where, on Mar.
9 and 10, he was consecrated priest and bishop.
Upon his declining the demands of Henry in re
gard to investiture, and when thereupon the latter
induced the Romans to elect Mauritius Burdinus,
archbishop of Braga, as antipope (Gregory VIII.,
q.v.), Gelasius decreed from Cp,pua on Apr. 7
the ban of excommunication against the emperor
and the schismatic pope. After Henry's departure
from Rome, he returned thither himself, but was
very soon compelled to leave the city anew
to escape the Frangipani plots; he now turned to
France. The contest with Henry V. was prosecuted
with great energy in Germany by the pope's legate,
Kuno of Proeneste. Gelasius died at Cluny Jan.
18, 1119. 	CARL MIRBT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Epistolm are in Bouquet, Recueil, xv. 223‑228, the Epiatolar et privilegia, in MPL, clxiii. 487514. The early Vita by Pandulfus Aletrinus is in ASB, May, 9‑13, and MPL, cWii. 475‑484. Consult: J. Langen, Geschichte der rbm£schen Kirehe, iv. 271‑277, Bonn, 1893; Jaffd, Regesta, i. 775 sqq.; G. Richter, Annalen der deutechen Geschichte im M4tteWter, Ill., ii. 603‑607, Halle, 1898; Neander, Christian Church, iv. 141, 245; Milman, Latin Christianity, iv. 125‑129; Bower, Popes, ii. 453‑455. GELASIUS OF CYZICUS: Greek church historian of the fifth century. He was the son of a presbyter at Cyzicus, and is known through his history of the First Council of Nicwa, which lie composed in Bithynia about 475 for the purpose of combating Monophysite appeals to the Nic(enum. The work, in three books, is largely a compilation from Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret. The data not derived from these sources came from an original documentary collection,

447	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	=P‑
a sort of protocol covering the transactions at Nicsea, which had formerly been in the possession of Bishop Dahmatius of Cyzicus (c. 410). These original documents seem to have possessed real historic value. The work was first edited, in Greek and Latin, by the ficotchman Robert. Balfour (Paris, 1599), and since then it has been reprinted in all the large collections of councils (e.g., Mansi, Concilia, ii. 753‑946; also MPG, Ixxxv. 1179‑1360).
G. KRtYGER.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. H. Turner, in JTS, 1900, pp. 125‑126;
G. Loeschoke, Da# Syntagma des Gelasius. CVzieenus,
Bonn, 1908; DCB, ii. 621‑623.
GELLERT, gel'lert, CHRISTIAN FUERCHTEGOTT: German poet and writer; b. at Haynichen, in the Erzgebirge, Saxony, July 4, 1715; d. in Leipsic Dec. 13, 1769. He was the son of a clergyman. After obtaining his first instruction in the school of his native city and attending, from 1729, the Fiirstenschule in Meissen, he went, in 1734, to Leipsic to study theology. Since a congenital timidity and bashfulness as well as pulmonary weakness did not permit him to become a preacher, after four years of study and two of private tutorship, he returned in 1741 to Leipsic. He gave lessons for his support and made his d6but as an author by the publication of his earliest' fables and tales in the Belustigungen des Verstandea and Witzes for 1741. In 1744 he joined the faculty of the university as privat‑docent and lectured on poetry and oratory. Nearly all his secular works belong t0 this period. Of his comedies the Band appeared in the Belustigungen in 1744, and Sylvia in 1745; the Betschwester and Los in der Latterie in the Bremer Beitrdge in 1745‑46. In 1746 also appeared his novel Leben der schwedischen Grafin von G‑. In 1746 and 1748 appeared the first two books of his celebrated fables, which, with the addition of a third book, have been often reprinted and translated. In 1751, Gellert became professor extraordinary; the students flocked to hear his lectures on literature and morals, and his influence over them was great. Even a tendency to hypochondria, the result of physical suffering, did not in any way lessen his popularity. In spite of the recognition awarded him, he remained singularly modest; he declined the position of professor ordinanus as well as calls to Hamburg and Halle, preferring to remain in Leipsic.
Gellert's Geidliche Oden ttnd Lieder met with general approval on their first appearance in 1757, and several were immediately introduced into new hymnals; they even found a warm reception with Roman Catholics. The secret of their influence lies decidedly in their strong religious tone in union with great ease and naturalness of expression. It is true that much may be said against them from an esthetic and dogmatic point of view; many are not suitable for hymns and some were called by Gellert himself " Biblical contemplations "; others, however, have a truly religious quality and a‑lyric strain, as, for example, the Christmas hymn, Dies ist der Tag den. Gott gemacht ("This is the day which God has made"), and the Easter hymn, Jesus le$t, mit ihm such ich ( "Jesus lives and I live with him"). The pious subjectivity of the poet, which
comes out in all his hymns, has found an echo in a thousand hearts and in this way has become truly objective. Gellert's hymns have been often republished and translated into foreign languages. His prose writings also, especially his lectures on morals and his shorter essays of an apologetic and parenetic character exerted a happy influence upon the religious thought of his time. They lack, however, the sharply defined ethical and dogmatic conceptions which are required to‑day.
	Gellert's works first appeared in ten parts, Leip
sic, 1769 74; they have often been reprinted, the
last time in Leipsic and Berlin, 1867. In the later
editions are found a collection of letters from and
to Gellert, but this does not include his letters to
Fraulein Erdmuth von Sch6nfeld (issued as the
first part of the Dahlener Antiquaritts, Leipsic, 1861)
or his diary of the year 1761 (ed. T. O. Weigel, 2d
ed., Leipsic, 1863). 	CARL BERTHEAU.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. A. Cramer, Gellert's Leben, Leipsic, 1774; C. H. Schmid, Nekrodog . . . der Deatechen, ii. 481532, Berlin, 1785; C. H. Jbrdens, Leaikon deutacher Dichter and Prosaiaten, ii. 5488, vi. 140 sqq., Leipsie 1808‑11; H. DSring, Christian Ftirchfegott Gellert'a Leben, Greiz, 1833; G. E. Leo, Dae fromme Leben Gellerte, Dresden, 1846; H. Gelzer, Die neuere deutsche National‑Literatur, i. 37‑61, Leipsic, 1847; K. R. Hagenbach, Die KirchengeschicAte des 18. and 19. Jahrhunderts, i. 339 Sqq., Leipsie. 1848, Eng. tranal., Hist. of the Church in the 18th and 18th Centuries, New York, 1869; Das Gellerh buck, ed. F. Naumann, Dresden, 1854; K. J. Nitzsch. Ueber Lavater and Gellert, Berlin, 1857; E. Koch, Geschichte des Kirchenliedes, vi. 263 eqq., Stuttgart, 1870; S. W. Duffield, English Hymns, p. 285, New York, 1886; A. Schullerus, Gellert's Leben and Werke. Leipsic, 1894; Julian, Hymnologv, pp. 406‑408.

GELPKE, ERNST FRIEDRICH: German theologian; b. at Breitenfeld (4 m. n. of Leipsic) Apr. 8, 1807; d. at Bern Sept. 1, 1871. He studied at Grimma, Leipsic, and Berlin, in the latter university coming under the influence of Schleiermacher and Neander. His Evangelische Dogmatik (Bonn, 1834), written while he was a privat‑docent at Bonn, gained him a call, in the year of its publication, to the newly founded university of Bern. There he lectured at first on New Testament exegesis, and later on dogmatics and moral theology, in addition to teaching in the gymnasia of the city. His chief work was his Kirchengeschichte der Schweiz (2 vols., Bern, 1856‑61), which, however, extends only to the eleventh century. In his theology Gelpke belonged to the mediating school, although his Jugendgeschichte des Herrt (1841) betrayed so strongly the influence of Strauss that it created a sensation at Bern. Humanistic idealism led him to join the freemasons, and he became grand master. Several of his poems were published, including his trilogy Napoleon (1854).
(E. BLtiacHt.)
131BLIOGRAPHY: Frau M. Bach‑Gelpke, in Sammlunp berniacker Biographies, i. 28 sqq., Bern, 1885; ADB, viii. 552.
GELZER, gelt'zer, HEINRICH: 1. German historian; b. at Schaffhausen Oct. 17, 1813; d. at his estate " Witwald " in the Jura Mountains, canton of Basel, Aug. 15, 1889. He was the son of an artisan, began the study of theology at Zurich, but on the advice of his physician, who considered his health not strong enough for the office of a preacher,

Gelzer
Geneva	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	448
turned to history. He continued both theological and historical studies in Jena, Halle, and G6ttingen where he was influenced especially by Hase, Tholuck, Otfried Miiller, and Ewald. Returning to Switzerland, he became private tutor in Bern, and formed here an intimate friendship with K. J. vow Bunsen, the Prussian ambassador. In 1839 he established himself as privat‑docent at Basel. In 1843 he became professor extraordinary of the history of Switzerland and universal history; in 1844 be was called to Berlin as professor of history. Besides his activity as teacher, he was frequently consulted in political and educational problems. A severe illness compelled him to go to southern France and Italy, and after a time he settled at Basel and founded and edited the Protestantische Alonatsbldtter /Or innere Zeitgeschichte (1853‑70), a periodical which attempted " to win the educated circles for the great moral‑religious mission belonging to them, from the universal standpoint of genuine German Protestantism." At the same time, Gelzer was active in the spheres of secular and ecclesiastical politics. From the beginning of the sixties he was an intimate adviser of Grand duke Frederick of Baden. His theological standpoint was on the whole that of Rothe and Hundeshagen. As early as 1839, before the appearance of Rothe's "Ethics," Galzer expressed the opinion that " perfect religion must be moral throughout and that perfect morality must be religious throughout." He demanded a theology that should go back to the leading ideas of a Herder, Fichte and Schleiermacher, without giving up the spiritual acquisition of romanticism and pietism, and in that way renew its conception of Christianity and Christian redemption.
Gelzer published among other works Die drei letzten Jahrhunderle der Schweizergeachichte (2 vols., Aarau, 1838‑39), in which he treats in detail the religious conditions and history of morals beside political events; Die Religion im Leben (Zurich, 1839); Die ztvei ersten Jahrhunderte der Schtreizergeschichte (Basel, 1840); Die neuere deutsche NationalLitteratur nach ihren ethischen and religiosen Gesichtspunkten (2 vols., Leipsic, 1847), his most popular work; Protestnntische Briefs sue Siidfrankreich and Italien (Zurich, 1852), the result of a journey to Italy. His Dr. Martin Luther . . . in geschichtlichen Umrissen (Hamburg, 1847‑51) appeared in several English translations, The Life of Martin Luther . . . in Fifty Pictures (London, 1853; Philadelphia, 1855; London, 1858).
(KARL GELZER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. GSIrtius, Heinrich Gelzar, Goths, 1892; R. $ti<helin, in %irdwnblatt fir die reformirte Schmeia, 1892.
2. German historian, son of the preceding; b. at Berlin July 1, 1847; d. at Jena in 1906. He studied in Basel and Gbttingen, taught in a gymnasium in Basel 1869‑73, and was appointed associate professor of ancient history in Heidelberg. After 1878 he was professor of classical philology and ancient history at Jena. Among his works those of special theological interest are Patrum Niccenorum nomina Lathe, Grwce, Coplice, Syriace, Arabice, Armenice in collaboration with A. Hilgen‑
feld and 0. Cuntz (Leipsic, 1898); Geistlichm and Weltlichea aim dem titrkisch‑griechiachen Orient (1900); Ungedruckte and ungeniigend aero fjentlichte Texte der notitiee episcopalum (Munich, 1901); and Vom heiligen Berge and aus Makedonnien (1905). He was also the editor of the series Scriptores sacri et profani (5 parts, Leipsic, 1897‑1903).
GEMARA. See TALMUD.
GEMISTOS PLETHON, g6‑mis'tus pl@'then, GEORGIOS: Byzantine philosopher; b. at Constantinople c. 1355; d. in the Peloponnesus 1450. His early years were spent at the court of Sultan Murad I. at Adrianople and Brescia. There he was a pupil of the rationalistic Jew Elissmus, who inspired him with anti‑Christian views, so that he later assumed the name of Pletho, in an attempt to approximate his ideal Plato. From the Turkish court Gemistos went to Sparta, where, with a few interruptions, he spent the remainder of his life as teacher, author, and statesman. He was on intimate terms with the despots of the Peloponnesus, one of whom, Theodore the Younger, bestowed certain estates upon him. As a member of the imperial council he attended the Council of Florence (see FERRARA‑FLORENCE, CouNe1L oa) in the interests of a union of the Greek . and Roman Catholic Churches, and there advocated the cause of orthodoxy for political reasons. There too he strengthened the bond with the philosophical representatives of the Italian Renaissance.
Gemistos can scarcely be regarded as a theologian. He was a modern pagan, deeply influenced by Neoplatonism and devoid of sympathy with Christianity. He was one of the protagonists of Platonism in its struggle with Aristotelianism, and at his suggestion Cosmo de' Medici drew up the scheme of a Platonic academy in Florence. The decline of the Greek Church and the conquest of the Roman Catholic Church by the Renaissance led him to see no hope for the future save in a return to classic paganism with the Neoplatonistic coloring which his ideals postulated. In his view, the summum bonum lay in the knowledge of the all, to which reason and the sages of antiquity, such as Zoroaster, ,Plato, and the Neoplatonists, were the guides. The supreme god, the author of the all, bore the name of Zeus, and was absolute existence and absolute goodness. From him proceeded, _ in a manner not altogether clear, the gods of the second rank, the world of ideas, comprised under the name of Poseidon. Thus differentiation of concepts continues in an analogous manner, always under a mythological terminology, until the phenomenal world is reached. Man shares in ideas and matter, and his soul is eternal, preexistent, and immortal, and is perfected by transmigration through various human bodies. Final blessedness is gained through the virtues of which Gemistos gives a detailed scheme, of which the chief are thought and the contemplation of deity. The religion of his ideal state was to be conducted by priests, who, were to be required on certain days to hold services consisting of the recitation of prayers and the singing of hymns with symbolic ceremonies, all of ‑which were detailed by Gemistos in full.

449	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
The concepts of Plethon are contained chiefly in his " Laws," which were first edited by C. Alexandre (Paris, 1858). His theological works are of minor importance, although they include a treatise on the procession of the Holy Ghost.
(PHILIPP MEYER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Most of the works of Gemistoe are in MPG,
ex= Consult: W. Gass, Gennadioe and Pletho, Breslau, 1844; F. Schultze, Geechichte der Philosophic der Renaissance, vol. i., Georgios Gemiew Plethon, Jena, 1874; H. F. Tozer, in Journal of Hellenic Studies, vii (1886), 353‑380; J. Drbseke, in ZKG, xix (1898), 265‑292; Krumbaeher, Gesrhichte, pp. 121, 429 et passim.

GENERAL CONFESSION: The name given to a public and general confession of sins made by the clergyman for the congregation, to distinguish it from auricular and private confession. It is of South German origin and goes back probably to the time of Charlemagne. It was spoken in German after the sermon (also in German) and was followed by the absolution and confession of faith and the Lord's Prayer. The earliest testimony to the usage dates from the ninth century; then there are a number of confessional prayers of this sort of the eleventh and twelfth centuries (cf. Hauck, KD, ii. 255, 729). The priest or deacon pronounced the confession, the people repeated it silently kneeling, and then the priest gave the absolution. The forms vary, but in time a certain formula seems to have developed. The first person singular was used, thus corresponding to private confession.
	The Reformation found the general confession
in common use, and the question whether it should
be retained occasioned some controversy. It was
solved differently in different places. In South
and West Germany under influence of the Re
formed Churches it was put at the beginning of the
service,‑a custom which had medieval precedent.
Zwingli retained it in Zurich after the sermon.
Calvin adopted for Geneva a custom already estab
lished in Strasburg of beginning service with a
general confession repeated kneeling and using it
at the daily " morning prayer." At present it is
little used. [The Anglican service has a general
confession said by the minister and congregation
at morning and CONFESSION. prayer and the communion
service.] See	OF SINS. (P. DREW6.)
In Roman Catholic theology and practise the term "general confession"is used to designate a confession in which the penitent makes a review, confessing the sins of his entire life even though they have already been declared in previous confessions. This is obligatory whenever the foregoing confessions either through insincerity or for any other reason have been invalid; otherwise it is a matter of counsel or spiritual direction. The name is also applied, though less strictly, to confessions which cover a given period, say a few years, by way of recapitulation, as distinguished from the ordinary weekly or monthly confession in which sins previously declared are not repeated. (J. F. DmscoLL.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. Cruel, Geachichte der deutachen Predigl,
pp. 220‑221, Detmar, 1879: G. Itietachel, in Monateechrill
/iir Gottesdienat and kirehdiehe Kun84 i (1896‑97) 396
sqq.; idem, Gloesen au der Ordnung des Hauptpottesdien
stes, pp. 31 sqq., Leipsie, 1898; idem, Lehrbuch der Litur
gi&, i. 369 sqq., 429 sqq., Berlin, 1898; E. C. Achelis,
IV.‑29
Lehrbuch der praktiechen Theologie, i. 389 sqq., Leipsic, 1898; and literature under ComISoN PaAYzR, Boox oF.
GENESIS. See HExATEuca.
GENESIS, LITTLE (Le;otogeneais): Another name for the Book of Jubilees; see PSEUDEPIGRAPHA, OLD TESTAMENT, IV. 33.
GENEVA: A city of Switzerland, of considerable importance in ecclesiastical history, with a population (1900) of 105,710. It was founded by the Allobroges, and employed by Caesar as headquarters in his campaign against the Helvetii. At the beginning of the fifth century it came under Burgundian rule and was the residence of King Chilperic; but before this Christianity had taken firm root in the district. The establishment of the bishopric, which Leo the Great in 450 declared subject to the metropolitan of Vienne, is usually placed in the middle of the fourth century. When the death of the last Burgundian king, Rudolf III., in 1032 transferred Geneva to the Empire, the bishops acquired princely rights which led to frequent contests with the counts of Geneva during the eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Bishop William of Conflans (1287‑95) sought aid from Amadeus V. of Savoy, which was the beginning of gradual encroachments on the part of the latter power, and ultimately, through the necessity of forming an alliance in 1478 with Bern and Freiburg, of the Bernese influence which made the Reformation successful in Geneva. In 1534 its adherents, augmented by fugitives from France, were estimated to be equally numerous with those of the old religion. The bishop, Pierre de la Baume (1523‑44), left the city, transferring his see first to Gex (1534) and then to Annecy (1535). In the latter year the senate abolished the bishopric; but the bishops, of whom the most distinguished was St. Francis of Sales (q.v.), continued to rule from Annecy those of their former subjects who still, acknowledged their allegiance until 1802, when the French Revolution put an end to the see. The Congress of Vienna, restoring the canton to Switzerland, decreed religious equality; and in 1819 Pius VII. placed the Roman Catholics of Geneva (who formed a third of the population) under the bishop of Lausanne, allowing him two years later to add to his title that of the ancient see. When, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, for the first time in three hundred years, mass was celebrated in the city, there were not more than 300 Roman Catholics there; at present they number over 30,000 in spite of the repressive measures undertaken by the cantonal government after the Vatican Council of 1870, which included the repudiation and banishment of the vicar apostolic named by the pope and the requirement of an oath of allegiance to the government incompatible with Roman Catholic belief (law of Mar. 23, 1873). An Old Catholic congregation was established by the French ex‑Carmelite Hyacinthe Loyson; the churches were one by one handed over to this organization, which in 1904 had ten congregations in Geneva.
The first seeds of the Reformation were sown here as early as 1524 with the importation of the French

Geneva
Genevieve	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	450
translation of the Bible by Lefbvre d9haples; and in Dec., 1526, the Duke of Savoy asked for assistance from Rome in repressing the movement, while in 1528 he executed twelve gentlemen guilty " of possessing the accursed book and spreading the heresy of Luther." His efforts, however, were frustrated by the support which the Protestant cause received from Bern. In 1532 Farel arrived in Geneva and made a deep impression. Riots and combats followed, in spite of the efforts of the Council of Two Hundred to reestablish peace by a compromise ordinance (Mar. 30, 1533). In July the bishop fled, never to return, but gained military support and from the middle of 1534 to the end of 1535 threatened the city. It succeeded in beating off these attacks at last, and on Apr. 2, 1536, the mass was finally abolished. In May a general assembly of the whole people swore to be at one in the sacred law of the Gospel. There were now ten pastors, who found their hands full and appealed for assistance. In July Calvin took up his residence there, and Geneva became a city governed by Protestant laws and a refuge for Reformers from France, Italy, Spain, and England (see CALVIN, JOHN). The city was the headquarters for Evangelical missionary effort; between 1555 and 1564 not less than 150 preachers left Geneva for France. In 1589 the party of the Guises in France allied itself with the Duke of Savoy in an attempt to recover the city by force. The war lasted until 1601, costing the republic 400,000 crowns and 1,500 lives, and was terminated by the Treaty of Lyons. The position of Geneva was made still stronger the next year by the victory of the Escalade, when on Dec. 11‑12, 1602, an army of 8,000 men was despatched by Charles Emmanuel of Savoy to seize the city and had fixed their scaling‑ladders to the walls before the alarm was given. The Genevese repelled the enemy and completed their success by turning the defeat into a rout. In the earlier part of the seventeenth century Geneva still continued to furnish pastors and teachers for France, and at its close became once more an asylum for Huguenot fugitives after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes; between 1682 and 1720 3,600 refugees were received and maintained at the cost of the citizens. Close relations were also kept up with the Protestant churches of the North, England, Holland, and parts of Germany. In the eighteenth century, after two hundred years of constant combat with the papacy, Geneva was active in defense of the Christian faith against the attacks of Voltaire and the position of the Encyclopedist school in general: but the deism of Rousseau made alarming inroads on the Protestant Church membership. Between 1841 and 1878 there were constant conflicts between the Calvinist majority and the growing Roman Catholic minority, which resulted in the separation of Church and State.
The organization of the Church of Geneva remained unaltered for a long time, or underwent only minor modifications, until, in 1846, a radical change was effected, amounting almost to a revolution. Up to 1846 the pastors were chosen by the Vdn6rable Compagnie des Pasteurs, one of the institutions of Calvin, which also had in hand the
administration of all religious affairs of the Church, and exercised great influence on the academy and the schools. But from that year the authority of the Compagnie was confined to questions of worship proper; while the other branches of the administration of the Church were placed under the consistoire, composed of twenty‑five lay members and six pastors, and elected by the people; and the pastors were chosen by the congregations. At the same time that doctrinal difference began to develop which finally led to the formation of the Evangelical Society, and the foundation of a new theological school; for which see GAUBBEN; MERLE D'AUBIGNLr; and EVANGELICAL SOCIETY oh GENEVA. The radicals, who gained control in 1846, held it for fifteen years, abolished the Protestant Church of Geneva, and established a church almost creedless. This was reversed in 1862, when the conservatives came into power. In 1873 the grand council ousted all Roman Catholic priests who refused the oath of allegiance to the State; in 1876 the cathedral was given to the Old Catholics. In 1878 the expelled curs were permitted to return, and the separation of Church and State was accepted. In 1909 a monument to John Calvin was erected by general subscription.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Important are the Mhmoires et documents publies par la soci6M d'histoire et d'arehdologie de Genhe, Geneva, 1840 eqq. Consult: Besson, Mt!mOiree pour ssrvir d Mistoire eccleaiaatique . . . de Gentve, Nancy, 1759; J. Gaberel, Hist. de 1'Egliae de Genwe, 3 vols., Geneva. 18531862; Regeste Genevois des documents imprim& relaWs h 1'kistoire de is vine et du diocese de Gentve avant Vann& 1318, Geneva, 1866; J. B. G. Maliffe, Gentve historique et archeologique, ib. 1868 (sumptuous); J. D. Blavignae, Le Christianisme A Genre, ib. 1872; idem, nudes sur Goalive, 2 vols., ib. 1872‑74; idem, in MErrwires et documents d'hiatoire et d'archgologie de Genbve, vii. 20; E. Choisy, La Th6ocratie h Gentve au temps de Calvin, ib. 1897; E. Doumergue, La Gen~ve calviniste, Lausanne, 1905.
GENEVA BIBLE. See BIBLE VERSIONS, B, IV., 4; BIBLES, ANNOTATED, II., § 1.
GENEVA CATECHISM. See CALVIN, JOHN; CATECHISMS.

GENEVA, CONSENSUS OF (Consensus Genevensis ): A document drawn up by Calvin for the purpose of uniting the Swiss Reformed churches with regard to the doctrine of predestination. It appeared at Geneva in 1552, having teceived the signatures of all the pastors of that city. But beyond Geneva it acquired no symbolical authority, and attempts to enlist the civil government in its favor created dissatisfaction and opposition in Bern, Basel, and Zurich.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The text is in Calvin's Opera, viii (1870), 249‑366, and fn H. A. Niemeyer, Collectio eonteasionum, pp. 218‑310, Leipeic, 1840. For history end full references to literature consult Schaff, Creeds, i. 474‑477, and the literature on CALVIN.
GENEVIEVE, jen"e‑vivr: The name of two saints of the Roman Catholic Church.
1. Genevieve, Patron Saint of Paris: b., according to tradition, at Nanterre (7 m. n.w. of Paris), perhaps in 422; d. at Paris Jan. 3, 512. She is mentioned by Gregory of Tours (Hilt. Francorum, iv. 1) as one of the saints venerated at Paris, and as buried in the basilica of the apostles Peter and Paul, built by Clovis I. and his queen. The Latin life of

461	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Geneva
		Genevieve
St. Genevieve, said to date in its earliest form from
520, states that her parents were the Christians
Severus and Gerontia, and describes the extraor
dinary piety of her childhood, together with her
powers of prophecy and her ability to work miracles.
In 429 Bishop Germanus of Auxerre (q.v.) is said
to have dedicated her to the Lord when he visited
Nanterre on his way to England to combat Pela
gianism. When about fifteen, after the death of
her parents, St. Genevieve went to Paris, where
she took the veil. During the invasion of the Huns
in 451, she is said to have prophesied their speedy
defeat and to have averted the famine in Paris and
the surrounding cities by miraculous gifts of bread.
After her death her relics brought the basilica of
Peter and Paul such fame by their miraculous
power that the name was changed to that of Ste.
Genevi6ve. Before the destruction of this church
in the Norman occupation of 857, her relics were
taken to Athis, but, after their return to Paris, a
stately church was erected to her, by Abbot Stephen
of Tournay (1177‑80), where her magnificent reli
quary of gold and jewels, borne by four gigantic
female figures, was preserved until it was destroyed
during the French Revolution. It is generally
admitted that at least the kernel of the tradition
concerning St. Genevieve is authentic, the argu
ments of Kruach, the chief opponent of the his
toricity of the account, being refuted by Ducheane,
Narbey, and others.
	2. Genevieve, Palgravine of Brabant: This saint
is apparently the product of a legend of the late
Middle Ages. According to tradition, she was the
wife of the Rhenish Palgrave Siegfried, who was
supposed to have flourished in the eighth century;
after successfully resisting the advances of one
Golo during her husband's absence, she is said to
have been committed by her would‑be seducer to
the charge of a servant, together with her new
born child, to be drowned. The servant, however,
merely conducted her to a lonely spot, where she
was miraculously sustained and later discovered by
her husband while hunting. This form of the
legend, preserved in Eymich'a account, was ampli
fied by the Jesuit De Cerisiers, who also wrote a
tragedy on the theme. The tradition originally
centered about the chapel of Frauenkirche near
Maria‑Laach (20 m. w.n.w. of Coblenz), which was
believed to have been founded by the palgrave and
crusader Siegfried (d. 1113). His wife, originally
Gertrude, a countess of Nordheim with estates in
Brabant, was transformed by legend into a Gene
vieve, and, as a Brabantine counterpart to Ste.
Genevi6ve of Paris, seems to have been approxi
mated to her in time, so that she was supposed to
have lived in the days of Charles Martel. Numerous
attempts have been made to maintain the historic
ity of the tradition, either in part, as by Kupp and
Sauerborn, or in whole, as by Brower, who iden
tifies the mythical Bishop Hidulf mentioned in the
legend with the historical Archbishop Hillin of
Treves (1152‑(i9), and thus places the beginning of
the story in the twelfth century. On the other
hand, Baronius and the ASB deny the existence
of a Brabantine St. Genevieve, while Zacher has
sought unsuccessfully to interpret the legend myth‑
ologically by identifying Siegfried with Odin, Golo
with Ullr, and the like. 	(O. ZSCKLERt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: 1. The literature, mostly devotional, is voluminous. A well‑eeleeted list is given in Potthaet, Wepweiser, pp. 1331‑32. The earliest (anonymous) Vita is best edited by B. Krnach in MGH, Script. rer. Merov., iii (1896), 204‑‑238, cf. Kruach in NA, xviii (1893), 1150, xix (1894), 444‑459. This Vita, with two others, also anonymous, and Miracula and Revelatio, is in ASS, Jan., i. 143‑153. C. Kohler has edited a fourth in LStude eri.fque sur Is texts de la Vie l"ne de S. Geneviive, Paris, 1881, while the first in edited by C. Narbey, Quel eat to texfe audsntique de la Vie de S. Genevitve, ib. 1884. Consult: L. S. Le Nain de Tillemont, Vie de S. Genevihv
. preced6e dune notice sur toutes lee vies . . , Paris, 1825; M. B. Saintyves, Vie de S. Genevitvs .. , ib. 1846; C. Lefeuve, Hist. de S. Genevihe, ib. 1861; Z. Bt<douet, Le P6lerin de S. Genevitve, ib. 1868; P. F6ret, L'Abbaye de S. Geuviwe et la conprfqation de France, precedh de la vie . . , 2 vols., ib. 1883; Vidieu, Sainte Gsnenitve, ib. 1883; DCB, ii. 632‑39.
2. The early life is by ReM de Ceritiere, L'Innocence rerennue, ou vie de S. Genevi~ve de Brabant, Paris, 1647. Consult: H. Sauerborn, Geschickte der PfalsprBJtn Genovela, Regensburg, 1856: J. Zacher, Die Historic von der Plal.egrgha Genonefa, K5nigsberg, 1860; B: SeuHert, Die L4vande von der Pfalvrdhn Genovela, WUraburg, 1877; B. Gals, P/alsyrdhn Genovela in der deutedun Diehtunp, Leipsic. 1897; KL, v. 297‑301.
GENEVIEVE, SAINT, ORDERS OF: 1. The Canons of St. Genevieve (or of the Congregation of France, Canonici reguZarea congregationie Ganicanw): A Roman Catholic congregation established in 1058 by the transfer of canons of St. Victor to the church of Ste. Genevicve in Paris. Among its earliest members was Peter Lombard, but it first received permanent fame and influence through its reformer and second founder Charles Faure, after 1614. By the time of his death thirty years later the congregation had gained fifteen monasteries, and such was its reputation for scholarship that the chancellor of the Sorbonne always belonged to it. The members were employed in educational and hospital work. In 1646 the canons of St. Genevieve were united with the older congregation of Val des tcoliers, and in the first half of the eighteenth century they had seventy‑seven abbeys and twentyeight priories. They were dissolved by the Revolution. Their library, which has been national property since 1790 and in 1850 was transferred from the old abbey to a new building (BibliotUque Ste. Geneviwe), formed the nucleus of one of the most important public libraries of Paris.
2. The Daughters of St. Genevieve (Mimmionee, Daughters of the Holy Family): A congregation established for the care of the poor and the education of girls in 1636 by Franciaque de Blosset (d. 1642), one of the most zealous coworkers with St. Vincent de Paul. Its rule was confirmed by the archbishop of Paris in 1658, and seven years later the congregation was united with an order established in 1660 by Marie Bonnesu de Rubelle Besuharnois de Miramion, since which time the name Miramiones has been used. The congregation spread and prospered until the Revolution. At the Restoration it was revived as the Swurs de la Sainte Famine, with a mother house at Besangon. There are also houses in Amiens, Lyons, Pezanas, Toulouse, and Villefranche. The sisters pass a novitiate of two years after which they are bound by simple vows. Their rule enjoins upon them

clenne,dine
Gentile
works of mercy, particularly the care of the sick and poor of their own sex and the gratuitous in‑
struction of girls.
(O. ZiSCgLERt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: 1. La Vie du . . . Charles Faure, Paris, 1698: Conatitutionea canonicorum regularium conyrepationis Gallicauir, ib. 1878; Helyot, Ordrea monaatiqaea, i., p. xlvii., ii. 378 sqq.; Heimbueher, Orden and Konpropationen, i. 413‑414; Currier, Religious Orders, pp. 171172.
2. The Constitutions were published at Paris, 1883.
Consult: Abby Choiai, Vie de Madame de Miramion, ib. 1706; Helyot, ut sup., viii. 222 sqq.; Heimbucher, ut sup., ii. 438‑439; KL, v. 301‑302.

GENNABIUS, jen"&di'vs or gen"d‑di'fis: The name of two patriarchs of Constantinople.
Gennadius L: Patriarch 458‑471; died at Constantinople Aug. 25, 471. About the middle of the century he was presbyter and abbot of a monastery at Constantinople, wrote in opposition to the anathemas of Cyril of Alexandria, and was raised to the patriarchate by Leo the Thracian after the death of Anatolius. In the following year a synod held by him led him to issue an encyclical in which he sought to heal the schism caused by the decrees of the Council of Chalcedon,and also endeavored to reform certain ecclesiastical abuses. He likewise entered into negotiations with Pope Leo I. concerning the deposition of the Monophysite Patriarch Timotheus Elurus of Alexandria in 460. According to Gennadius of Marseilles, he was famed for his learning and was the author of a commentary on the prophet Daniel as well as of numerous homilies, all of which are apparently lost.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The writings are in MPG, Ixxxv. Consult: ASB, Aug., v. 148‑155; C. Bardenhewer, Patrolopie, p. 502, Freiburg, 1894; Ceillier, Auteura eacr&, x. 343‑346, 710‑711; DCB, ii. 629‑631.

Gennadius II. (Georgioa Scholarios): Patriarch in the fifteenth century, was born at ConstantinOpleabout the beginning of the fifteenth century; d. at Serea (47 m. n.e. of Salonica), probably in 1468. He was one of the last representatives of Byzantine learning and one of the last pillars of the Greek Church in the period of its negotiations for union with the Roman Catholic Church and its subjection to Mohammedan rule. Of his life few details are known. After receiving a thorough education in philosophy, theology, and law in Constantinople, he was apparently a teacher of philosophy for a time, but was later appointed imperial judge by the Emperor John VIL, who esteemed him highly. In this capacity he accompanied the Emperor and Joseph, patriarch of Constantinople, to Ferrara and Florence in 14381439, where he thrice spoke as an earnest advocate of the union of the two Churches (see I'' ERRARAFLORENCE, COUNCIL OF). After his return, however, the opposition of the Greek people and clergy to the union made him a determined opponent of the movement, and from that time he ranked as the real head of the antiunion party in Constantinople,issuing a series of polemics against the Roman Catholic Church and the advocates of union. His attitude seems to have resulted in a break with the Byzantine court, so that, following an idea long cherished, he retired to the monastery of Pantocrator,became a monk, and exchanged his secular
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
462
name for the monastic appellation Gennadius. After the capture of Constantinople, however, the Sultan Mohammed II. planned to restore the patriarchate, and the choice of the synod fell upon Gennadiue, although he had never taken orders, and sought to decline the proffered honor. In the spring of 1454 he was consecrated by the metropolitan of Heraclea, but, since both the Church of St. Sophia and the palace of the patriarch were now in the hands of the Turks, he took up his residence successively in two monasteries of the city. In the latter he received a visit from the sultan, at whose request he wrote an outline of the most important truths of Christianity in twelve chapters, which he presented to Mohammed both in the Greek original and in a Turkish translation (Eng. tranal., The Confession of Gennadius . . . Exhibited to Mahumet 11., London [15857]). A few years later, however, he found his position so difficult that he was forced to resign and again retired to a monastic life.
	Gennadius was a most prolific writer. The num
ber of his works has been estimated at over a hun
dred, but a complete list is impossible, since the
majority exist only in manuscript, others have
been printed only in part, and others still are of
doubtful authenticity. They may be classified, so
far as known, into philosophical (interpretations of
Aristotle, Porphyry, and others, translations of
Petrus. Hispanus and Thomas Aquinas, and de
fenses of Aristotelianism against the recrudescence
of Neoplatonism) and theological and ecclesiastical
(partly concerning the union and partly defending
Christianity against Mohammedans, Jews, and pa
ganizing philosophers), in addition to numerous
homilies, hymns, and letters. The majority, so far
as they have been edited, are reprinted in MPG,
1xXxV., CLY. 	(PHILIPP MEYER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Among the sources are the Hiatoria of Dukas, pp. 142, 148, and of Georgioa Phrantaes, pp. 305308, in the CBHB; Fabricius‑Harlea, Bibliotheca Graca, Vol. xi., containing the De Georgiia of Leo Allatius. Consult: E. R.enaudot, De Gennwdii vita et aeriptia, Paris, 1709, reprinted in MPG, clx. 249 eqq.; w. Gass, Gennadiua and Pletho, Breslau, 1844; idem, .Symbolik der priechiache» Kirche, pp. 34‑39, Berlin, 1872; Steitz, in JahrbGcher fur deutsche Theologie, xiii (1868), 672‑877; Krumbseher, Geaehichte, pp. 119‑121.
GENNADIUS OF MASSILIA: A presbyter of Massilia (Marseilles), contemporary of Pope Gelasius I. (492‑‑496; cf. Gennsdius, De tnr. ill., xcix. [c.]), who, under the same title, continued Jerome's De viris illttstribus, thus furnishing, in spite of many blunders, a very important source and in part the only source of our acquaintance with the ninetyone (ninety‑three) authors treated therein. Gennadiua knew Greek well and was well read in Eastern and Western, orthodox and heretical literature. He was a diligent compiler and a competent critic. His Semi‑Pelagian attitude is evident in his eulogies of Cassian, Faustus of Riez, and others, as well as in his derogatory verdicts on the opposing side‑Augustine, Prosper of Aquitaine, and even popes. The date of composition is uncertain. The present form of the text indicates a repeated revision of the entire work. It was edited by J. Andrews (Rome, 1468), by C. A. Bernoulli (Freiburg, 1895), by E. C. Richardson in

453
TU, xiv. (Leipsic, 1896), and is reprinted from J. A. Fabricius, Bibliotheca ecclesiastics (Hamburg, 1718), in MPL, Iviii. 1059‑1120. There is an Eng. transl. in NPNF, 2d ser., iii. 385‑402. Gennadius also composed Adversus omnes hwreses N»ri tiii.; five books against Nestorius; ten books against Eutyches; three books against Pelagius; a Tractatus de millenio et de apocalypsi beati Johannis; and an Epistola de file, which he sent to Gelasius. There is also attributed to Gennadius a Liber eeclesiasticorum dogmatum (Hamburg, 1614; reprinted in MPL, Iviii. 979‑1054), an abstract of catholic doctrine with a polemical bent. Its composition by Gennadius would appear to confirm his leaning toward Semi‑Pelagianism. G. KRfJGER.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. H. Turner, in JTS, vii (1906), 78‑99; E. Jungmann, Quastionee Gennadiana•, Leipsic, 1881; A. Ebert, Allgemeine Geschichte der Literatur den Mittelalters, i. 447‑449, ib. 1889; B. Czapla, Gennadius als Litterarhistoriker, Munster, 1898; F. Diekamp, in Rbmische Quartalachrift, xii (1898), 411‑420; DCB, ii. 631632; H. Hurter, Nomenclator literarius, i. 409, Innsbruck, 1.903; H. Koch, Vincenz von Lerin and Gennadius, in T U, xxxi. 2 (1907); Ceillier, Auteurs nacres, x. 600‑606.

GENNARI, jen‑na'ri, CASIMMO: Roman Catholic cardinal; b. at Maratea (96 m. s.e. of Naples), Italy, Dec. 29, 1839. He was educated at the Jesuit college in Salerno and the theological seminary at Naples. He then returned to his native city as a priest, and there founded the Monitore Ecclesiastico, a theological journal. In 1881 he was consecrated bishop of Conversano and in 1897 became assessor of the Holy Office at Rome with the title of archbishop of Lepanto. He was created cardinal priest of San Marcello al Corso in 1901, and is a member of the Congregations of the Consistory, Bishops and Regulars, the Council, Rites, Index, Indulgences, Apostolic Visitation, Provincial Councils, and Propaganda for the Oriental Rite, as well as a commissioner for the apostolic visitation of the dioceses of Italy and the Opera preseruationis fudei.
GENNESARET, gem‑nes'a‑ret. See GALILEE, § 4; GALILEE, SEA OF.

GENOA, ARCHBISHOPRIC OF: An ancient metropolitan see of North Italy. The first bishop named by tradition is Salomo or Salonius (c. 269); the first historically known is Valentinus (295; according to some authorities, c. 313). Under Syrus II. (1130‑63), the see of Genoa, formerly suffragan to Milan, was raised to metropolitan rank by Innocent II. in 1133. As suffragan bishoprics it had at first only Bobbio and Brugnato, to which were added before long Ventimiglia, Noli, and Albenga, and then three of the six Corsican sees, Accia, Mariana, and Nebbio, the other three remaining under the jurisdiction of Pisa until the end of the thirteenth century. During the French Revolution some of these bisboprieswere suppressed. By a bull of 1817 the province was reconstituted with the sees of Albenga, Bobbin, Brugnato, NoliSavona, Tortona, and Nice; and it has the same to‑day with the exception of Ventimiglia in place of Nice. The actual diocese of Genoa contains about 400,000 inhabitants. Amon; the early archbishops one of the most di,tingui.hed wa. JaCOhrh
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Gennadius Gentile
de Varagine (q.v.), 1292‑98. From the fifteenth century the see was frequently occupied by cardinals.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Ughelli, Italia sacra, iv. 830‑907, 10 vols., Venice, 1717‑22; G. Cappelletti, Le Chiesa d'Italia, xiii. 269 sqq., 21 vols., Venice, 1844‑70; M. Rosi, Storia della relazione fra la republics di Genova a la chiesa Romana in rapporto alia ritorma relipiosa, Rome, 1899; KL, v. 304‑308.

GENOUDE, zh@"mud', ANTOINE EUGENE DE:
French priest and publicist; b. at Mont6limar (135 m. s. of Lyons) 1792; d. at Hy6res (12 m. e. of Toulon) Apr. 19, 1849. After teaching for a while at the Lycke Bonaparte, Paris, he entered the seminary of St. Sulpice. At the restoration of the Bourbons he became secretary and adjutant to Prince de Polignac. Entering journalism he collaborated in 1818 on the Consermteur, which was directed against the ministry of Decazes, and in 1820 joined Lemennais in founding the Defenseur. In 1821 he bought the toile, which became the official journal of the government. For his services to the government he was ennobled in 1822. In 1827 he revived the Gazette de France. After the July Revolution of 1830 his violent defense of the fallen dynasty involved him in troubles with the pope and the French bishops. In 1835 he entered the priesthood but soon returned to journalism. In 1846 he was elected a member of the Chamber of Deputies from Toulouse. Besides political writings, a translation of the Bible, and a translation of the " Imitation of Christ," by Thomas b Kempis, his publications include, La Raison du christianisme (12 vols., Paris, 1834‑35), a compilation from many sources; La Vie de Jesus Christ et den ap6tres (2 vols., 1836); Legons et modcles de litterature sacree (1837); Exposition du dogme catholique (1840); Sermons et conf(rences (1844); and L'histoire d'uru dme (1844), an autobiography.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the autobiography, consult: BiograPhie de M. de Genoude, Paris, 1844; Lichtenberger, ESR, v. 527‑529.

GENTILE, jen‑ti'lc6, GIOVANNI VALENTINO:
Antitrinitarian; d. at Bern Sept. 10, 1567. He was a native of Cosenza in Calabria , and was one of those Italians who about the middle of the sixteenth century left Italy to live freely according to Their religious convictions. In 1556 or 1557 he came to Geneva. When in 1558 all members of the Italian colony were required to subscribe an orthodox confession which especially emphasized the Trinity, he preferred to leave the city for a time together with Alciati and Matteo Gribaldi (q.v.). Their countrymen brought them back and induced them to subscribe. Nevertheless the council proceeded (1558) against Gentile, and forced him to a humiliating submission and penance. He fled to Lyons, opposed Calvin's doctrine of the Trinity in the Antidota, dedicated to King Sigismund of Poland, whither he went to 1563. His name occurs. from time to time during the next three years in letters from Poland. Then he returned to Switzerland and settled at Gex, which was under the jurisdiction of Bern. Fresh proceedings were instituted against him, on a charge of blaspheming the Holy Trinity and reviling the Reformed Church, and

Gentillet	THE NEW BCHAFF‑HERZOG	464
George, Bishop
endue in his execution. His theological position
may be seen from the Antidota and from the con
fession which he presented to the Bern clergy
(printed in Trechsel). Gentile opposed the tradi
tional doctrine of the Trinity and its " fantastical
and sophistical " terminology, but he professed to
be attempting to vindicate the position of the Per
sons in the Trinity as something more than mere
constituent parts of the divine substance. He
hoped to escape the difficulties of the doctrine of
the two natures by conceding the incarnation of
the Logos in Mary as a person at once divine and
human, though he thus obscured the doctrine of
the perfect humanity of Christ. K. BtsrranTa.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Geneva process of 1688 was published
	by Faay in MEmoirea de t'Instihat Oenevoia, vol. xiv.,
	1878‑79; on the Bern process consult F. Trecheel, Die
yrotestantiaehan Antitrinitarier, vol. ii.. Heidelberg, 1844,
where some details concerning Gentile are given. Consult
also d. H. Allen, H%st. of the Unitarians, p. 82, New York,
1894.

GENTILLET, zhda"ti"ly5', INNOCENT: French Reformed jurist; b. at Vienne; d. at Geneva, the dates of his birth and death being unknown. After the massacre of St. Bartholomew he fled to Geneva, but after the peace of 1576 was made head of the council of Die, and became president of the Parliament of Grenoble a short time later. He was deprived of his position, however, by an edict of 1585, whereupon he seems to have again sought refuge in Geneva. One of his two political works, the Diacoura our lea moyerta de bier gouverner et maintenir en borne pain un royaume ou suite print cipautE . . . contre Nicolas Machiavel Florentin (Geneva, 1576), was translated into English by S. Paterieke, A Discourse upon the Means of Wei Governing . . . a Kingdom . . . against N. Maehiavell (London, 1602). His Apologia pro Christiania Gallic religionis evangelicd aeu reformats (1578) ranks as one of the best defenses for the Reformation, while his Le Bureau du co7:cile de Trente (1586) forms one of the ablest attacks upon the Council of
Trent. 	(C. ScaUl>rrt.)
GENTILLYzhan"tf"yf' (GENTILIACUI), SYNOD OF, 767 An assembly mentioned in the Frankish annals, at which, in the presence of Greek and Roman emissaries, the doctrine of the Trinity, especially the procession of the Holy Spirit, and image‑worship were discussed. It took place at Gentilly, a southern suburb of Paris, and was occasioned by a Byzantine embassy which had probably come for the purpose of winning the Frankish Church to the standpoint of Constantine V. on the question of image‑worship. The proceedings and resolutions of the synod are not known. The question concerning the procession of the Holy Spirit was only secondary and was probably stirred up by the papal nuncios for the purpose of sowing discord between the Franks and Greeks. There seems to have been no agreement, and this is only natural in consideration of the political conditions of Italy and the resolutions of the synod at Constantinople in 754 against image‑worship.
(A. Heucs.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hefele. Coneiiisapeachiehth iii. 431‑433. Ena. tranal.. v. 888‑881, cf. Manei, ConciLia, :di. 613 sq4.
GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH (Gal/ridua Or Gaufridus Arturus, Ga(/'ridus Monemutertsia; Welsh Galffrai or Gru,$'yd ap Arthur): English chronicler; b., probably at Monmouth, c. 1100; d. at Llandaff 1154. He is thought to have been a monk of the Benedictine abbey at Monmouth, and about 1140 was made archdeacon of Llandaff. He was consecrated bishop of St. Aeaph Feb. 24, 1152, but seems to have died before he actually entered on his duties there. Geoffrey is famous for his Historia reguna Britannia, which was highly popular in all lands during the Middle Ages, furnished Sir Thomas Malory the material for his Mort d'Arthur, and has been drawn upon by poets from Shakespeare to Tennyson. It is a skilful mixture of history, legend, and pure romance, beginning with the fall of Troy and the story of Brutes, a descendant of lEneas, who is made the ancestor of the Britons, and ending with Cadwalader and the downfall of the Celtic power in Britain. The main source, Geoffrey states, was a " very old book " given him by Walter, archdeacon of Oxford, but he also used Gildas, Nennius, and Bede. The seventh of the twelve books appears to have been originally an independent work of Geoffrey's (De prophetiia Merlint). The text has been published by J. A. Giles (London, 1844) and in Gottfried's von Monmouth Historic regum. Britannia and Brut Tysylio . . . herausgegeben von San. Marie [A. Schulz] (Halls, 1854); transl. by Aaron Thompson, The British History (London, 1718), revised ‑and corrected by J. A. Giles, Geoffrey of Monmouth's British History (1842).

BIBLIOGRAPHY: ABB, Oct., ix. 94‑98: T. Wright, BiopraPhia Britanniea, Anglo‑Norman Period, pp. 143‑1b0. London, 1848; idem, Essays on ArchmoLopicat Subjects, i. 202228, ib. 1881; P. Paris, M~moire our . . . 1'hiat. des Bretons do Monmouth. Paris, 1885; T. Gilray, in Dublin University Magazine, April, 1876; A. de Is Bordene, Atudea Aiatoriques BrEtonnea, Paris, 1883: Haddan and Stubbs, Councils, i. 38o‑381; DNB, :c:n. 133‑13b.

GEORGE III. OF ANHALT: Prince of AnhaltDessau; b. at Dessau Aug. 13 or 15, 1507; d. there Oct. 17, 1553. He was brought up with his brothers mainly by his devout mother Margaret; Duchess of Milnsterberg. At the instance of his kinsman, Bishop Adolphus of Merseburg, he was elevated to the rank of canon in that see in 1518, and attended the University of Leipaic, where Georg Held of Forchheim was his " highly beloved master." In 1524 Adolphus consecrated him as priest. That he might be able the better to refute the Lutheran sect, he made a thorough study of the Bible, the Church Fathers, and church history. The extreme tension of mind and the qualms of conscience into which his investigations brought him induced a violent illness, which left its mark upon him for the rest of his life.
It was only after his mother's death (June, 1530) that he could see his way to entire clearness of faith; but from the time of the Diet of Augsburg (1530) both George and his brothers are found allied with the Reformers. After the first Evangelical celebration of the Lord's Supper at Dessau, on Maundy Thursday, 1534, George visited the district churches, making the fewest possible changes

4!f 6	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	GentlUet
		George, Bishop
in the church practises, in accordance with his
natural disposition and with Luther's acquiescence.
Loving peace, he sought to deter Luther, in 1538,
from publishing the tract Wider den Biachof zu
Magdeburg; and persuaded him, in 1542, not to
circulate his sharply worded tract on the feud of
Wurzen. In 1544 the protector of Merseburg
Cathedral, Maurice of Saxony, appointed his
brother, Duke Augustus, administrator, but be
cause the latter was not a cleric, designated George
of Anhalt as his " coadjutor in spiritual affairs."
In this capacity he forthwith proceeded, in com
pany with Antonius Musa, just then appointed
cathedral preacher at Merseburg, upon a visitation
of all the cathedral parishes, exhibiting great
patience, tactful discretion, and forbearance. He
next conferred with Maurice in the matter of a
prospective liturgy, which, in accordance with his
suggestions and in virtue of the deliberations of the
consistories of Merseburg and Meissen, was offi
cially completed at Altenzelle in 1545. Thence
forth twice a year George convened the cathedral
clergy to a synod in Merseburg Cathedral, and on
such occasions discoursed upon the questions and
evils of the time, and upon proper official conduct.
He based these concimles eynodica upon outlines
furnished him by Melanchthon. Of the sermons
which he delivered in the cathedral before many
hearers, only a few have been preserved. They are
distinguished by temperate and lucid exposition.
	When, in spite of his efforts to the contrary, the
Schmalkald War broke out, George received under
his roof the fugitive Camerarius and his family;
interceded for Jonas, who had incurred Maurice's
anger; and sought to restrain the clergy from " sus
picious and frivolous words that might serve to
cause discord." Although he " hated " the Augs
burg Interim, he felt that he ought to lend a hand
in the preparation of the Leipsic Interim, in order
to preclude still worse results (see INTERIM). In
1549 the emperor's candidate Michael Heldingk
(Sidonius) was postulated by the chapter as bishop
of Merseburg. Until his arrival, George was to
continue administering the diocese. To strengthen
the Evangelical confession as firmly as possible be
fore the threatening storm, he now delivered his
powerful sermons " On the False Prophets," and
" On the Right Worthy Sacrament of the Body
and Blood of 'Christ," which are directed both
against Rome and against the fanatics. Afterward
he retired to his Anhalt estates. Sojourning mostly
in Warmsdorf he continued to preach there, and
when occasion offered sought to adjust the Osian
drian dispute. He died unmarried after lingering
sickness. His unfeigned piety, his gentleness and
love of peace, his benevolence and freedom of serv
ice, gained him the honorable title of the " devout "
or " pious." His theology was that of Luther.
		WILHELM WALTHER.
BIRmoaRAPHY: His writings in German were edited by
	Melanchthon, Wittenberg, 1555, 7th ed., 1741, Latin edi
	tion containing the Conciones synodico, 157o; the Cc,
	ciones were edited by G. Stier in Germ. tranal„ 1895.
	For his life consult: Leben der Aitvdter der iulheried.
	%%rche, iv. 63 aqq., Leipeic, 1864 (contains lists of the
	older literature); M. Steffenhagen, Georg von Anbalt,
	Mereeburg, 1893; A. Romelin, Die Reformation in Des
	saa, Halls. 1895.
GEORGE, BISHOP OF THE ARABIANS: One of the most important writers of the Syrian Church; was born about 640 in the Juma, the district of the lower Afrin valley, belonging to the Life. diocese of Antioch, and died in 724. As a youth he attached himself to his famous countryman Jacob of Edema (q.v.), whose Hexaemeron he completed after Jacob's Death. In Nov., 686, in conformity with the dying wish of the Patriarch Athanasius II. of Balad, he was consecrated bishop by the Jacobite Maphrian Sergius Zakunaja, archbishop of Hartamin near Mardin. His jurisdiction was not a local one, but included the Arab tribes on the eastern border of the northern half of the Arabian desert. Doctrinally he was attached to the Jacobite church of Syria, as is shown by his dogmatic and controversial writings.
	He had an extensive knowledge of both Chris
tian and classical literature. Besides the Bible,
		he knew the principal church his
	Mental	torians, Eumbius, Socrates, and Theo‑
Equipment. doret. In Basil's works he was specially at home, and was well acquainted with Athanasius, Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory Nazianzen, as well as with the Monophysite authorities to whom the Jacobites appealed, especially the patriarch Severus of Antioch; he knew both Cyril of Alexandria and Sabellius and Julian of Halicarnamus, and was very familiar with the works of the Pseudo‑Dionysius. He was not less well‑read in the older Syriac literature, Bardesanes, Aphraates, and Ephraem. Even of works still further removed, like those of Josephus and the Clementines, he displays more than a superficial knowledge. His extensive correspondence, of which the letters from 714 to 718 still exist, shows that he was the intellectual leader of his countrymen.
The greater part of his works is still extant, and shows his many‑sidedness, not only covering the most various theological branches, but including a valuable translation of a part of Prose the Organon of Aristotle, with the full‑
	Works.	est commentary on that author exist
		ing in Syriac. With this Aristotelian
work may be classed, as to both plan and pur
pose, a collection of scholia on the homilies of
Gregory Nazianzen (preserved in a tenth or eleventh
century manuscript in the British Museum), though
neither the translation of the homilies nor the
writing of the acholia was done by George, who only
compiled them.
Of his poetical works, the Chronicon, written in twelve‑syllable verse, was formerly preserved in a single manuscript in the Vatican, which has now totally disappeared. This dealt in
Poetical	twenty‑four chapters with the epacta,
	Works.	with rules for finding the movable
		feasts, with the cycles of the sun and
moon, with the months and weeks, and other things
pertaining to the ecclesiastical reckoning. The
table for finding the time of the new moon which
originally formed part of this has been preserved
separately in two copies, one in the Vatican and
one in the British Museum. The author's com
petence in these astronomical questions is shown

George, Bishop
George of Brandenburg
by two letters to John, a priest in the monastery of Litharb (Al‑Atharib, near Aleppo), in which he takes a standpoint far in advance of the astrological superstitions of his age. Of the three poems still extant, one (British Museum and Bodleian) treats of the monastic life, and gives eloquent expression to the mystical enthusiasm of the Monophysite tradition in his portrayal of the blessedness of the monk's condition. The others have reference to the consecration of the sacred chrism, which, after the symbolist manner of the Pseudo‑Dionysius, is mystically connected with the Anointed One; in both a large part is played by the Old Testament and its ceremonies, as types of the more perfect dispensation and its mysteries and festivals. The longer poem (Vatican, Paris) closely follows the ritual of the consecration of the oil; the shorter (Brit. Mus.) covers the same ground more concisely. In connection with these may be mentioned a prose explanation of the sacraments (Brit. Mus.), which treats only of baptism, the Eucharist, and the blessing of the chrism, George apparently recognizing (like the Pseudo‑Dionysius, whom he follows) none but these as sacraments. The above‑mentioned conclusion to the Hexaemeron of Jacob of Edessa takes it up at the resurrection, and deals with the Last Judgment and the recompense of good and evil deeds. Like Origen and other Greek fathers, especially Gregory of Nyasa and the theologians of the school of Antioch, as well as the Monophysite Stephen bar Sudaili, George teaches the doctrine of the final restoration of all things.
For the study, however, of George's doctrinal position, his letters (contained in a manuscript of the eighth or early ninth century,
	Letters.	Brit. Mus.) are of the greatest im
		portance; they show what scientific
questions chiefly occupied the clergy and monks
of his time, what dogmatic questions were most
frequently discussed, and how ecclesiastical legis
lation was carried out in the daily life of the Church.
An idea of their contents may best be given by
taking them according to their subjects without
regard to their chronological order. Under the
head of church history may be placed the first
three chapters of the longest of all, addressed to the
presbyter Joshua the Recluse under date of July,
714. These chapters deal with the life and times
of the " Persian sage," i.e.. Aphraa&s, and discuss
the theory that the end of the world will come after
six thousand years, the doctrine of the sleep of the
soul after death and its awakening, and the question
why Noah did not warn his contemporaries of the
flood‑a question which was not, indeed, treated in
the homilies of Aphraates, but had occurred to
Joshua while reading them. In the fifth chapter
George gives the life and teaching of Gregory the
Illuminator, the apostle of the Armenians, finally
discussing the question whether Gregory was justi
fied in forbidding his Armenian converts to mix
water with the wine of the Lord's Supper, as was
the Syrian custom. In this chapter especially
notable are the keen critical insight and the strict
historical judgment, cleverly avoiding the miracu
lous, with which he handles the material before
him. A second division of the letters is composed
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
488
of those of an exegetical nature. Asselnani is wrong in attributing to George the composition of a commentary on the Bible and especially on Matthew: what he did, after the fashion of his time, was to discuss particular questions which interested him or were put to him by others. With these points of Biblical exegesis may be classed the expositions of passages in Greek and Syriac writers, such as Gregory Nazianzen, Ephraem Syrus, and Jacob of Edessa. A third class, those of doctrinal interest, are partly didactic and partly polemical. Of the former nature are the eighth chapter of the long letter to Joshua, in which he holds fast (like the other Greek and Syrian theologians) to the freedom of the will, and a letter to the John already mentioned, on the part which the priest plays in the forgiveness of sins, which George reduces to very moderate proportions. The polemical letters are principally concerned with Christological questions, and are particularly interesting as showing that Monophysite opposition was then directed not against the Nestoriane but against the adherents of the Council of Chalcedon‑‑a fact which would be hard to explain historically if knowledge did not exist of the difference in belief already existing between Cyril of Alexandria and Severus, George's main authority. A fourth division deals with questions of church law and ritual, and includes the fourth and seventh chapters of the letter to Joshua, as well as another to him of 718, in which he answers three questions relative to the proper celebration of the Eucharist. Finally, a fifth division of ascetical bearing may be made of the ninth chapter of the letter to Joshua, in which he deals with nocturnal temptation and the means to be employed in combating it.
The value of the works of George lies in the manner in which they increase the knowledge of the history of the Syrian Church and
Impor‑	literature, giving a picture which is
	taste.	all the richer for the many‑sidedness
		of his activity, and all the more in
structive for his standing precisely midway between
the authors who open and close Syriac literature,
Ephraem (d. 373) and Gregory bar Hebraeus (d.
1286). Although he far surpasses the imperfect be
ginnings of strictly Syrian learning in Aphraates,
the practically edifying character of his poetical work
especially reminds of the attitude of primitive
Christianity, which was preserved longer in Syria
than elsewhere. But when we look at the height
reached by his scientific thought, trained not only
by Aristotle's logic but by Aristotle's knowledge of
nature and of the world, we recognize at once the
mighty influence which Greek learning had upon
the mind of the Church, even in the far East.
George not only made his own all that Greek litera
ture and philosophy could give him, but he stands
out above the other scholars of his race by his
thoughtful use of this abundant material, by his ex
cellent judgment and keen insight, and by the
freedom and wide range of his outlook.
(VICTOR RYSBELfi.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Parts of his works have been published as follows: his letter to the presbyter Joshua is in P. de Lsgarde, Arwkcta 3yriaca, p. 108, feipeic, 1888; the first

457	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	George, Bishop
		George of Brandeaburg
	three chapters of this letter are also in W. Wright's edi
	tion of the Homilies of Aphraates, pp. 19‑37, London,
	1869, and in the work of J. Forget, De vita et ecriptia
	Aphraatis, pp. 1‑56, Louvain, 1882; his great poem on
	the consecration of the oil and that on the life of the
	monks were edited by V. Ryasel in the AM of the Reale
	accademia dei Lincei, vol. ix., part 1, 1892. On his life
	consult: J. S. Aesemani, Bibliolheoa orientalis, vol. i., chap.
	xvi., Rome, 1719; E. Renan, De philoaophia peripatelim,
	pp. 32 eqq., Paris, 1852; J. G. E. Hoffmann, De herme
	neuticia apudSyros, pp. 148‑151, Leipsic, 1869; V. Ryssel,
	Bin Brief Georg's . . . mit einer Rinloitunp fiber aein
	Leben and seine Sehriffea, Gotha, 1883; idem, Georg's des
	Araberbiachofs Gedidte and Briefs . . . *beraefat and
	erluutert, Leipsie, 1891; W. Wright, Short Hiat. of Syriac
Literature, pp. 156‑159, London, 1894.
	GEORGE OF BRANDENBURG: Margrave of
	Brandenburg‑Anabach‑Kuhnbach; b. at Onolzbach
	(Ansbach, 25 m. s.w. of Nuremberg), Middle Fran
	conia, Mar. 4, 1484; d. there Dec. 27, 1543. He
	was the third of the eight sons of Margrave Fred
	erick the Elder and a grandson of Albert Achilles,
	the founder of the Anabach‑Kuhnbach Hohen
zollern line.	Through his mother, Sophie, a Polish
	princess, sister of King Ladislaus II. of Bohemia
	and Hungary, he was related to the royal court in
Buda.	He entered the service of his uncle, the
	king of Hungary, living at his court from 1506.
	The king received him as an adopted son, entrusted
	him in 1515 with the duchy of Oppeln, and in 1516
	made him member of the tutelary government in
stituted for Hungary, and tutor of his son Louis.
	At the court of Hungary there were two parties
	arrayed against each other‑the Magyar party
	under the leadership of Zapolyas and
	His Terri‑ the German party under the leader
	tories and ship of George of Brandenburg,whose
	Influence. authority was increased by the acqui
	sition of the duchies of Ratibor and
	Oppeln by hereditary treaties with their respective
	dukes and of the territories of Oderberg, Beuthen,
	and Tarnowitz as pledges from the king of Bohemia,
	who could not redeem his debts. By the further
	appropriation of the duchy of Jagerndorf, George
	came into possession of all Upper Silesia. As the
	owner and mortgagee of these territories he pre
	pared the way for the introduction of the Reforma
	tion, here as well as in his native Franconia. At
	an earlier time than any other German prince and
	any other member of the Hohenzollern line, even
	before his younger brother Albert, the grand master
	of the Teutonic Order (see ALBERT OF PRUSSIA), he
	turned his eyes and heart to the new faith pro
ceeding from Wittenberg.
	The first Reformatory writings began the work
	of winning him over to the Evangelical cause.
	Luther's powerful testimony of faith at the Diet
	of Worms in 1521 made an indelible impression
	upon his mind, and the vigorous ser
	He Accepts mons of Evangelical preachers in the
	the Refor‑ pulpits of St. Lawrence and St. Sebald
mation.	in Nuremberg, during the diet there
	in 1522, deepened the impression.
	The study of Luther's translation of the New Tes
	tament, which appeared in 1522, established his
faith on personal conviction.	Moreover, he en
	tered into correspondence with Luther, discussing
	with him the most important problems of faith, and
	in 1524 met him personally on the occasion of the
negotiations of his brother, Albert, regarding the reformation of the Teutonic Order and its transformation into a secular duchy. George was aided in his reformn.tory efforts, after the accession of King Louis, by his wife, Queen Mary, a sister of Charles V. and Ferdinand, who was favorably inclined toward the new doctrine. As the councilor of the young king, George firmly advocated the cause of the new Gospel against the influences and intrigues of his clerical opponents and successfully prevented their violent measures. His relationship with Duke Frederick II. of Liegnitz, Brieg, and Wohlen and Duke Charles I. of Miinsterberg‑Oels, who had both admitted the Reformation into their countries, contributed not a little to the expansion of the Gospel in his own territories. But it was his own personal influence, energy, and practical spirit that introduced the new doctrine and founded a new Evangelical and churchly life. He made efforts to secure preachers of the new Gospel from Hungary, Silesia, and Franconia, and tried to introduce the church order of Brandenburg‑Nuremberg, which had already found admission in the Franconian territories.
	In the hereditary lands of Franconia, where with
his older brother Casimir he had assumed the
regency in place of their father, he encountered
		greater difficulties, although the pop‑
The Refor‑ ular spirit was inclined toward the
	mation in	Reformation. Owing to his marriage
	Franconia.	with a Bavarian princess and to his
		military commandership in the im
perial service, his brother was allied more closely
with the old Church and resisted the new reform
atory efforts. But the pressure of the estates of
the land soon compelled him to allow preaching
according to Luther's doctrine, although he ex
acted the retention of the old church ceremonies,
even of those that were contrary to the Gospel.
George protested against such half‑measures and
showed his dissatisfaction with the half‑hearted
resolutions of the state assembly of Oct., 1526. It
was only after the death of his brother, that as
sole ruler he could successfully undertake and carry
out the Reformation in the Franconian territories,
with the assistance of his councilors Johann von
Schwarzenberg and the chancellor George and
through the new resolutions of the state assembly
of Anabach (1528). At the same time George main
tained his correspondence with Luther and Me
lanchthon, discussing such questions as the evan
gelization of monasteries, the use of monastic
property for Evangelical purposes, and especially
the foundation of lower schools for the people and
of higher schools for the education of talented
young men for the service of Church and State.
He tried to gain, by his continued correspondence
with Luther and other Reformers such as Urbanus
Rhegius, efficient men for the preaching of the Gos
pel and for the organization of the Evangelical
Church. Hand in hand with the Council of Nu
remberg he worked for the institution of a church
visitation after the model of that of electoral
Saxony from which developed after repeated re
visions and emendations the excellent church order
of Brandenburg‑Nuremberg of 1533. After its in‑

eleorge o! Brandenburir
George of Poleatz
troduction in his territories in Franconia and Nuremberg, it entered also his dominions in Upper Silesia.
	Hargrave	George's influence manifested itself
also in the development of the German Reformation
		as a whole. When a union of the
His Influ‑ Evangelicals in Upper and Lower ence and Germany was contemplated for the Activity more successful defense against the
Beyond his dangers accruing to the new Gospel
Territories. from the Roman Church, George had a meeting with the elector of Saxony at Schleitz in 1529, where they agreed on certain articles of faith and confession to be drawn up by Luther; the commission was executed in the seventeen articles of Schwabach on the basis of the fifteen theses of the Marburg Colloquy. But neither at the Convention of Schwabach nor at that of Schmalkalden did George approve armed resistance against the emperor and his party even in selfdefense. The more energetically, however, did he oppose the emperor at the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, when the emperor demanded the prohibition of Evangelical preaching. King Ferdinand made George the most alluring offers of Silesian possessions if he would take the part of the emperor, but he decidedly rejected them. Next to the elector of Saxony, he stands foremost among the faithful and brave princes who defended the Evangelical faith. After the death of his cousin, Joachim I. of Brandenburg, who was a strict Romanist, he assisted his sons in the introduction of the Reformer tion in the territories of Brandenburg. He took part in the Religious Colloquy of Regensburg (1541) where Elector Joachim II. made a last attempt to bridge over the differences between the Romanists and Evangelicals and with his nephew requested Luther's cooperation. The Diet of Regensburg was the last religious meeting which he attended. (DAVID ERDMANNt.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Ube, Erinnerunpen aua der Retormationa‑Geachichte von Pranken, Nuremberg, 1847; L. Neustadt, Markprat Georg ale Erzieher am unpariarhen Hofe, Breslau, 1883; T. Kolde, Analecta Lutkerana, Goths, 1883; idem, in ZKG, xiii (1892), parts 2‑3; J. Meyer, Die Einf"rung der Reformation in Pranken, Ansbach, 1893; H. Westermeyer, Die brandenburgiach‑niirnberpisehe Kirchenviaitation 16.28‑3s, Erlangen, 1894; F. Vogthern. Die Verfaesunp der evangeiiach‑lutherischen Kirehe in den Piiratentnmern Anabach and Bayreuth, ii. 209, 289, Erlangen, 1898.
GEORGE, DUKE OF SAXONY (George the Bearded): Violent opponent of Luther; b. at Dresden Aug., 1471; d. there Apr. 17, 1539. He was the oldest surviving son of Albert the Courageous, ancestor of the Albertine line of sovereigns in Saxony. Although heir to the throne, he was destined for the priesthood, probably under the influence of his mother. One of his teachers in theology was Andreas Proles, the predecessor of Staupitz in the German Augustinian congregation, and widely known as a courageous fighter against the abuses in the order, and as a pious preacher. This education influenced the whole life of George; he became not only a sincerely pious and well‑educated man. but also enough of a theologian to have an independent judgment in ecclesiastical matters. As early as his seventeenth year he was entrusted with the govern‑
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
ment of his country while his father fought in distant lands, and in 1500 he succeeded his father as actual ruler.
George welcomed with sincere joy the Reformation at Wittenberg and the theses of Luther. In the spring of 1517 he declared himself very decidedly against Tetzel, the dealer in indulgences, and branded his practise as fraud. But his very first meeting with Luther, in July, 1518, when Luther, especially recommended by Staupitz, preached in the castle church of Dresden, aroused opposition. By this sermon the duke became aware of the fact that Luther aimed not only at certain reforms of the Church; but, in opposition to ruling Catholicism, announced a new Gospel which was bound to result in a complete rupture with the traditions of the past. Such a revolutionist George decidedly opposed. He was confirmed in his opinion of Luther by the ideas which the latter expressed at the Leipsic Disputation (1519). He had no objection to Luther's bold attacks on the abuses in the Church and found many a truth in his address " To the nobility of the German nation "; but the continual desertion of monks and nuns, the violation of the vow of celibacy, and the disturbances among the peasants fully convinced him that Luther's Gospel was an un‑Christian affair, since the Bible teaches that the tree shall be known by its fruits. The fruits of Luther's activity were, in George's opinion, renunciation of all discipline and order, disobedience, violence, and the violation of the most sacred vows; the world can not exist without authority, and only the Church has power to bring about reforms. Landgrave Philip of Hesse, his son‑in‑law, tried in vain to win him over, especially by the Bible. In spite of his independent character, George seems to have been influenced not a little in his unfavorable attitude toward the new Gospel by his reactionary secretaries, Hieronymus Emser and Johannes Cochlaeus. By the manner of his polemics Emser excited Luther in such a way that his cutting replies against him and the duke can not always be justified. Emser's last work, an emended translation of the New Testament, was intended to compete with Luther's great work, but differed so little from it that it only helped the cause of the Reformation. After having awaited in vain the promised council, Duke George ordered visitations and the reform of monasteries on his own responsibility and tried to abolish abuses, but his efforts were not successful. He made his life‑work a vain struggle to stem the tide of the Reformation, and his failure was the more tragical as it isolated him from his people and even from his own family. The end of his life was saddened by the prospect that after his death the new Gospel would enter his country freely and openly, since his brother Henry, the heir to the throne, hard adopted the Lutheran cause. George's last attempt to save his country for Romanism by ceding it to Ferdinand, the Roman king, was frustrated by the opposition of the estates of Meissen and by his sudden death.
(F. W. DIBELIUa.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Welek, Georg der Bartise, Brunswick,
1900; F. Gess, Kloatervisitalionen des Herzog Georgs,
Leipsic, 1888; idem, in ZKG, 1888; ideuu4 Akten and

469
RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA
of Brandenburg of Polent$
Brisfe cur Airehenpolittk Herzog George son Sachsen, Vol. i., 1517‑24, Leipsic, 1905; articles in the Neues Archia fear sachaiaehe Geachichte by Friedenaburg, Briafuedrsel awiachen Herzog Georg and Philipp won Hessen, 1885; by Gese, Leipzig and Wittenberg, 1895, and by E. Brandenburg, Herzog Heinrich der Fromma, 1898; K. Menaing, Bilder aua der aachaiachen Geachidta, Dresden. 1902; Schaff, Christian Church, vi. 178, 181, 292, 587; Cambridge Modern History, vol. ii., The Reformation, pp. 135, 141, 183‑252.
	GEORGE OF LAODICEA: Bishop of Laodicea
in Syria, one of the leaders of the homoiousian party;
b. in Alexandria; d. between 360 and 363. Alex
ander of Alexandria made him presbyter, and before
the Council of Nictea, during a stay at Antioch,
George tried to mediate in the controversy between
Alexander and the Arians. The opponents of the
Arians treated him as Arian, and Alexander deposed
him. George then joined the " Eusebians," and
before 335 they procured him the bishopric of
Laodicea; he took part in the Synod of Antioch in
339 and for doing so was anathematized by the
Occidentals. George regarded the Nicene doctrine
as Sabellianism and was an especial enemy of
Athanasius; but he did not altogether agree with
Eusebius of Nicomedia since he opposed Arianism
sharply, and, with Bishop Basil of Ancyra, became
founder of the holnoiousian party. The new atti
tude of George after 358 can hardly be called a
change of conviction since the homoiousian formu
las may be traced back to the Christology of Alex
ander of Alexandria who influenced his youth.
After the Synod of Seleucia George disappears. It
is said that he took part in the homoian synod at
Constantinople in 360, having submitted at that
time, like many other homoiousians, to the power
of the court; this is possible, but George of Laodicea
seems to have been confounded with George of
Doara, the Arian. Of his writings there have been
preserved a few sentences of a letter found in
Athanasius, De synodis, xvii. (MPG, xxvi. 712,
cD), a letter in Sozomen (IV., xiii. 2‑3) and a
memorial in Epiphanius (Hmr., lxxiii. 22, end).
It is said that he wrote also an "Encomium of
Eusebius of Emesa," and a treatise against the
Manicheans. 	(F. LooFs).
BIBLIOGRAPHT: Sources are the histories by Socrates, Sozomen and Theodoret, and the "History of the Arians " by Athaneaius, all available in Eng. travel. in NPNF, 2 ser. Consult: Leo Allatius in Georgro4 Acropolita . . . historic, p. 305‑308, Paris, 1851; Tillemont, M6moirsa, vi. 259 of Venice ed.; M. Le Quien, Oriene chrietianue, ii. 792‑793, Paris, 1740; Fabricius‑Hades, Biblio0uca Graces, vii. 327, ix. 293, Hamburg, 1801, 1804; J. H. Newman, The Ariane of as 4th Century, p. 284, London, 1871; J. Dritaeke, Geaammelte patriatische Untersttchungen, Altona, 1889; DCB, ii. 837‑838; KL, v. 335‑338; and the literature under ARIANISM.
GEORGE THE PISIDIAft: Byzantine poet and historian; flourished in the first half of the seventh century. He was a deacon in the church of St. Sophia, Constantinople, and enjoyed the favor of the Patriarch Sergius, and of the Emperor Heraclius, whom he accompanied on his first campaign against the Persians. He wrote a number of long poems of historical, philosophical, and religious content, which were highly praised by the latter Byzantine writers, though modern criticism has condemned them as artificial and tedious. The Hexaemeron aeu mundi oftcium, and his De vanitale vine were
printed, with a Latin translation, by F. Morel (Paris, 1584), and his complete works, with Latin translation and a critical introduction, were edited by G. M. Querci (Rome, 1777). This edition was reprinted in CSHB, vol. xiv., and also in MPG, xcii.
BIBLIOURAPHT: Leo Allatius, De Georgiia, in FabriciusHarlee, Bibliotheco Graxa, x. 581‑589, Hamburg, 1807; 1. Hilberg, in Wiener Studien, viii (1888), 292‑304, ix (1887), 207‑222 (on the Hexaemsron); L. Sternbach, De Georpio Pig" Nonni aectatore, Cracow, 1893; Krumbacher, Geachichte, pp. 709‑712 et passim; KL, v. 337338; DCB, ii. 848‑849.
GEORGE OF POLENTTZ : Bishop of Samland in Prussia, the first bishop who avowed the Evangelical faith; b. in Saxony 1478; d. in Balga (24 m. s.w. of KSnigsberg, on the Frische Haff) Oct. 1, 1549. He descended from one of the most prominent and ancient families of the Saxon nobility, studied law in Italy, was for some time private secretary of Pope Julius II., then entered the service of Emperor Maximilian I. He became acquainted with Margrave Albert of Brandenburg (see ALBERT OF PRUssIA), a later grand master of the Teutonic Order, and subsequently joined the Order. By the faithful and able execution of several important commissions in the affairs of the Order he won the confidence of Albert, through whose influence he became bishop of Samland (1519). When he assumed in 1522 the regency of the Order in the absence of the grand master, his mind had already been turned toward the Evangelical cause by the writings of Luther. In 1523 he tolerated the preaching of the pure Gospel in the cathedral church of Kbnigsberg and put no obstacle in the way of the Reformatory movement. After 1524 he advocated the nullifiation of the papal constitution and the secularization of the Order. On the recommendation of Luther, Johannes Briessmann became cathedral preacher at Konigsberg, and introduced the bishop to a deeper knowledge of the Evangelical doctrine of salvation. In the summer of 1523 the bishop publicly avowed the cause of the Reformation. In a mandate of 1524 he admonished his subjects to accept the new doctrine, and, instigated by the ignorance of his people, advocated in another mandate the preaching of the Gospel in the vernacular. As early as 1524 he sent Evangelical preachers from place to place, as many as he could gather. While he himself received instruction from Briessmann in Greek and Hebrew to study the Bible in the original text, he inculcated upon his preachers the diligent use of the Bible and of Luther's translation and his most important writings. After the transformation of the Order into a secular duchy (see TEUTONIC ORDER), Albert on his return to K6nigsberg in 1525 immediately entrusted George of Polentz and his second bishop, Erhard von Queiss in Pomerania, with the j organization of Evangelical church life. The first church orders and visitations were prepared by Bishop Polentz in connection with Briessmann and Paulus Speratus, the new preacher of KSnigsberg. The first Prussian church order was issued in 1525 under the title, Artikel der Cerenwnien and anderer Kirchenordnung, and thus the Prussian State Church was organized before that of electoral Saxony. Bishop Polentz considered it an essential part of

George, Saint Gerberon
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
his official activity to hold church visitations, being convinced of the great importance of the personal influence of the bishop upon the preachers and their congregations. The chief interest of his activity lay in the organization of the Church, on the basis of the Gospel and the confessional doctrine. He was also prominently active in the foundation and development of the University of K6nigsberg (1544). His marriage in 1525 was of the most farreaching influence, as he gave by it a practical testimony for the Evangelical truth and an example for the foundation of the Evangelical parsonage. (DAVID ERDMANNt.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. Tachackert, Georg van Polentz, Leipeic,
1888; idem, Urkundenbuch der Reformations‑GewAichte in Preussen, vol. i. ib. 1890; Vita Georgii a Polentiis, KSnigsberg, 1829; 1 R. Gebser and E. Hagen, Der Dom zu Konigsberg, pp. 242‑243, ib. 1835; J. Voigt, Geachichte Preussens, ix. 685‑686, ib. 1839; Georg von Polentz, der erste evangelische Bischof, Halle, 1858; J. KSatlin, Martin Luther, ed. G. Kawerau, i. 622, 720, Berlin, 1903; Cambridge Modern History, vol. ii., The Reformat, pp. 160162, New York, 1904; Schaff, Christian Church, vi. 593 aqq.
GEORGE, SAINT: Christian martyr, the patron saint of England; b. of a noble Cappadocian family in the third century; d. about 303. That the Roman army possessed an officer of high rank by the name of George (Lot. Georgius), who suffered martyrdom in the Diocletian persecution after repeatedly professing his faith, can scarcely be doubted, although the year of his death is uncertain. Churches were erected in his honor at a very early period, as at Thessalonica in the fifth century, while Gregory of Tours is witness to the wide extension of his cult in the Occident. Gregory the Great is said, on somewhat doubtful authority, to have restored a church of St. George in Rome, identified with Santo Giorgio in Velabro.
According to the acts of his martyrdom, which are late and historically valueless, St. George resigned his commission shortly after the outbreak of the Diocletian persecution, and bore zealous testimony against the informers and persecutors. After the emperor had sought in vain to induce him to apostatize, the saint was condemned to die by the sword, whereupon he distributed all his property among the poor and prayed fervently for the constancy of his fellow Christians. According to some sources, he was martyred at Lydda in Palestine, and according to others at Nicomedia in Bithynia. The only point of agreement concerning the date of his death is in the statement that the day was Apr. 23.
The chief points in the development of the cult of St. George in the Eastern Church were the erection of a number of churches in his honor in Constantinople and of a monastery near the Hellespont, whence the latter was called St. George's Arm; the building of many churches to him in Armenia and the name of Georgia applied to the country to the north; and the tribute paid to him in Russia, where the Czars bear his effigy in the center of their coat of arms. In the West St. George became one of the fourteen "Helpers in Need " (q.v.) and the patron saint of the Republic of Genoa, as well as of the English Order of the Garter and of many military orders. The English
crusaders of Richard Caeur de Lion were under his
special protection, and a decree of a national council
held at Oxford in 1222 made his day (Apr. 23) a
holiday for all England. Since the later Middle
Ages the Western universities have regarded this
saint as the patron of artists. St. George first ap
pears as the slayer of a dragon and the liberator of
a maiden from her chains in the late medieval
period, and in this aspect is a legendary Christian
recrudescence of Perseus, influenced by the Ger
manic Siegfried. 	(O. Z&XLER t.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The various legends, under the titles of Acta, encomium, miracula, passio, and translation, are collected in ASB, April, iii. 117‑163 and appendix, pp. xx.xlv.; cf. Analecta Bollandiana, i (1882), 615‑617. Consult P. Heylin, Historie of that Famous Saint and Souldier . . . Saint George of Cappadocia, London, 1633; T. Lowiek, Hist. of the Life and Martyrdom of Saint George, ib. 1664; J. Milner, Historical and Critical Enquiry into the Existence and Character of St. George . . ib. 1795; P. Heber, Die vorkarolingischen christlichen GlaubensheZden am Rhein, pp. 273‑283, Frankfort, 1858; F. Gorres, in ZWT, 1887, pp. 54‑70; E. A. W. Budge, The Martyrdom and Miracles of St. George of Cappadocia. Coptic Texts with Eng, Transl., London, 1888; St. George, Champion of Christendom and Patron Saint of England, London, 1907.
GEORGE SYNCCELLUS: Byzantine historian of the eighth century, who wrote a Chronographia (ed. J. Goar, Paris, 1652; W. Dindorf, 2 vols., Bonn, 1829), which is valuable for its extracts from other writers. J. J. Scaliger's text of the first book of the Chronicon of Eusebius is composed entirely of fragments preserved in the work of Syncellus. He received his surname from the fact that he was syncellus, or privy councilor. to Tarasius, patriarch of Constantinople (see SYNCELLUB).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: His works in 2 vols., ed. G. Dindarf, are in CSHB, Bonn, 1829. Consult: Krumbaeher, Geschichte, pp. 118‑120; DCB, ii. 650; H. Hurter, Nomenclator literarius, i. 734‑735, Innsbruck, 1903; Ceillier, Auteura sacres, xii. 155‑156.
GEORGE OF TREBIZOND : Greek scholar and humanist in Italy; b. in Crete 1396; d. at Rome 1486. His ancestors had come from the city of Trebizond, hence his cognomen. He settled in Venice in 1420 as a teacher of Greek, philosophy, and rhetoric, taught for a number of years in Vicenza, and in 1442 removed to Rome, where he enjoyed the patronage of Eugenius IV. and particularly that of Nicholas V. He was a pronounced Aristotelian and made a great reputation as a translator and expounder of Aristotle. Through his bitter and unfair attacks on Bessarion, Gemistos Plethon, and the Platonic school he lost the favor of Nicholas; and so great was the general indignation against him that he would have been compelled to leave Italy had not King Alphonso V. given him protection at Naples. Later he was made papal abbreviator by his pupil Paul II. Besides translations from Plato and Aristotle, his writings include Latin translations from the Greek Church Fathers (e.g., the commentaries of Cyril and the Prceparatio evangelica of Eusebius), and two essays against the Greek Church to be found in Allatius, Grtecia orthodoxa (Rome, 1652).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Scattered notices are to be found in Fabricius‑Harles, Bibliotheca Grceca, vols. iii., vii.‑ix., xi., xii., Hamburg, 1793‑1809; KL, v. 347; Lichtenberger, ESR, v. 534‑535, Paris, 1878.

461	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Gtooree, Saint
Cterberoa
GEORGIOS SCHOLARIOS. See GENNADIUS II. GER. See PROSELYTES; STRANGER.
GERARD, je‑rard' (Fr. Gerard, zhe‑rW; Germ. Gerhard): The name of sixty or seventy worthies in the hagiological tradition of the Roman Church, some classed as saints, some as blessed. Among the more noteworthy are:
1. Saint Gerard of Brogne: Abbot of Brogne (Bronium, Braine‑le‑Comte, 13 m. n.n.e. of Mons), reformer of Benedictine monasteries in Lorraine and Flanders; b. at Staves (Slablecellte) in the diocese of Namur, between 880 and 890; d. in the monastery of Brogue, presumably Oct. 3, 959. He descended from a noble family and in his youth served under Count Berengar of Namur. While on a hunting trip with the count, he retired to a chapel to pray and beheld a vision of the apostles; Peter asked him to build a larger church in place of the chapel in honor of Peter and the martyr Eugene, and to bring thither the bones of the latter. Gerard obeyed, built a church and a canonry (913), and devoted himself to an ascetic life. He went to Paris and studied in the monastery of St. Denis. After having been consecrated presbyter, he returned to Brogue, about 923, as an independent abbot. From St. Denis he brought the relics of Eugene and many other saints. The rumor of miracles effected by these relics in the church of Brogne spread far and wide, and people came in such crowds that Gerard shut himself up in a small cell to conclude his days in quietness and prayer; but he was repeatedly called from his hiding‑place as a reformer. In 931 Duke Giselbert of Lorraine asked him to introduce the Benedictine order in the demoralized monastery of St. Ghislain in the diocese of Cambrai. Six years later Count Arnulph of Flanders called him to restore the destroyed monastery of St. Bavo in Ghent and to introduce the Benedictine rule in the neighboring canonry of Blandinium. Several other monasteries were subsequently reformed by Gerard after strictly Benedictine principles, especially St. Bertin of Flanders, in the diocese of Therouanne about 944 and St. Amand in the diocese of Tournai 952. Apparently in this later period of his life, he made a pilgrimage to Rome to ask the blessing of the pope for his institutions and a privilege for his monastery of Brogne. After his return, he undertook a general visitation of his monasteries. Various miracles, it is said, were wrought by his dead body, in consequence of which Innocent II. canonized him. The monastery was united to the bishopric of Namur by Paul IV. in 1556.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: An anonymous Vita with commentary is in ASB, Oct., ii. 200‑320; the Vita is also in MGH, Script., xv (1888), &54‑673, cf. Ex virlutibua S. Eugenii, ib. pp. 646‑652, and Sermo de adventu S. Eugenii in Analecta Bollandiana, v. 395 sqq. Consult: U. BerlRre, Monasticon Belge, i. 28 eqq., Bruges, 1890 (contains very complete list of literature); P. Gunther, Dag Leben des heiligen Gerhard, Halle, 1877; W. Schultze, Gerhard von Brcgueurul die Klosterreform, in Forschungen der deutacheu Geechichte, xxv. 223‑271, G6ttingen, 1885; A. Servais, Essai sur la vie de S. G&ard, Namur, 1885; E. Sackur, Die Cluniacenaur, i. 121‑141, Halle, 1892; Hauck, KD, iii. 345‑349.
2. Gerard Sagredo: Bishop of Csanad (44 m. n. of Temesvar), eastern Hungary; b. at Venice c.
960; d. at Csanad Sept. 24, 1046. Before he went as missionary to the Magyars he lived as a monk in San Giorgio Maggiore, Venice. In recognition of his successful missionary work Stephen I. of Hungary gave him the honorary title Apostle of Hungary and made him bishop of Csanad in 1036. He retained his bishopric under the two less Christian successors of Stephen, until his death as a martyr. He is said to have been the first to teach the Hungarians to address the Virgin Mary as " Our Lady."
BIBLIOGRAPHY: An anonymous Vita and an Elogium with comment are printed in ASB, Sept., vi. 713‑725. Consult: H. Marczali, Ungarns Geschichte, pp. 24‑33, Berlin, 1882; Wattenbach, DGQ, ii (1886), 185, ii (1894), 209.
3. Gerard of La Sauve: French Benedictine reformer, founder of the congregation of SauveMajour in Guienne; d. 1098. Under his leadership, which lasted till his death, this reform congregation won considerable fame and attained a strength of seventy cloisters.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. Cirot de la Ville, Hist. de la congr6galion de . . . In Grande Sauve, 2 vols., Bordeaux, 1844; Moniquet, S. G&ard de l'ordre de S. Bl!noit, Paris, 1895.
	4. Gerard of Toul: Bishop of Toul (14 m. w.
of Nancy); b. at Cologne c. 935; d. at Toul 994.
He was made bishop of Toul by Archbishop Bruno,
and deserves mention here as the restorer of the
cathedral at Toul, and as the self‑sacrificing shep
herd of his diocese during the famine and pest of
981. 	(O. ZOCBLER t.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The early Vita and the Miracula by Widric are in ASB, April, iii. 206‑213, and, ed. Waitz, in MGH, Script., iv (1841), 485‑509. Consult Wattenbach, DGQ, ii (1886), 115, i 0 893), 337, ii. 127‑128.
GERASENES, ger"a‑sinz': According to the best readings of Mark v. 1 and Luke viii. 26, the name of the people in whose region Jesus healed a demoniac, permitting the " legion of demons " to enter into a herd of swine. In Matt. viii. 28 " Gadarenes " is the preferable reading, and " Gergesenes " is also found. Gadara, the capital of Per2ea, has been thought too far from the Sea of Galilee to satisfy the narrative, but its territory reached to the shores of the sea. A hill west of the sea, Jabal Kuran Jaradi, has been thought to retain the old name, changing Gadarenes into Garadenes. Gerasa can not be the modern Jerash, but may be Kersah, a ruined village on the left bank of the Wadi as‑Samak about half‑way between the northern and southern extremities of the Sea of Galilee, or as‑Sur (connected with kursi, " seat ") farther up the same wadi. See GAULANITIS; PEP‑EA.
GERBERON, zhar"be"ren', GABRIEL: One of the most famous disciples of St. Augustine and one of the most profilic writers of his time; b. at St. Calais (95 m. s.w. of Paris), in Maine, Aug. 12, 1628; d. at the abbey of St. Denis, Paris, Mar. 29, 1711. He received an excellent education from the fathers of the Congregation of St. Maur, of which he became a member in 1648. He taught rhetoric, philosophy, and theology in different abbeys; but, developing too great a zeal for the doctrine of the " disciples of grace " and being suspected as a Jansenist, his superiors finally sent him to the abbey of St. Germain des Pr6s at Paris, under supervision. After 1675 he was active in the abbey of Corbie

Gerbert
Gerhardt
near Amiens. In 1676 his Miroir de la pi& chr& tienne appeared at Brussels, a work which several archbishops and writers criticized as a renewal of the five condemned sentences of Jansen; Gerberon defended his work in Le Miroir sans tache (Paris, 1680). The Jesuits and their partizans in his congregation denounced him in Paris for taking the part of the pope against the king in the disputes concerning the royal prerogative. Gerberon was threatened with arrest, but fled with the consent of his superior to the Spanish Netherlands. The Jansenist clergy called him to Holland, but owing to his attacks on the Protestants he was compelled to return to Brussels in 1690. In 1703 he was arrested, forced to sign the condemnation of the five sentences of Jansen, and delivered to his superiors for punishment; until 1707 he was kept a prisoner in Amiens. After he had given his signature, the pope allowed him to read mass. In Vincennes he was treated with greater severity; being stricken with paralysis, Cardinal Archbishop Noailles threatened to let him die " like a dog," without the Eucharist, if he did not sign certain further propositions expressing the cardinal's opinion. In 1710 he was handed over to his congregation. As soon as he learned that his signature was interpreted as a recantation of his doctrine, he wrote Le Vain Triomphe des Josuitm, but his superiors prevented its publication. On his death‑bed he recalled all declarations, " wrested from his weakness by cunning and force," except the condemnation of the five sentences. Besides the works mentioned, he wrote Apologia pro Ruperto abbate Tiutense (Paris, 1669) against the Calvinistic doctrine of the Lord's Supper, Defense de l1glise romaine eontre lee calomnies des `protestants (Cologne, 1688, 1691), and many other works, said to number 111 in all.
(C. PFENDER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Supplhnent au n&rolope de 1'abbaye . . . de Port‑Royal‑dea‑Champs, i. 498 eqq., Amsterdam, 1735; R. P. Tasein, Getehrtengeschichte der Congregation roan St. Maur, i. 505 eqq., Frankfort, 1773; KL, v. 350‑353; Lichtenberger, ESN, v. 539‑540.

GERBERT, gAr'bart, MARTIN: Abbot of St. Blasien (St. Blaise) in the southern part of the Black Forest (20 m. s.e. of Freiburg), and one of the most learned ecclesiastics of the eighteenth century; b. at Horb‑on‑the‑Neckar (31 m. s.w. of Stuttgart) Aug. 13, 1720; d. at his monastery May 3, 1793. He was educated at the Jesuit college of Freiburg, at Klingnau in Switzerland, and at the abbey of St. Blasien, where he was ordained priest in 1744, and chosen abbot in 1764. From 1759 to 17112 he traveled in Germany, Italy, and France, an‑1 published a Latin account of his travels (St. Blasien, 1765; Germ. tranel., Ulm, 1767). He was a zealous investigator of the history of monasteries, esoecially in the Black Forest, and his Historia nilroe sylvte ordinis S. Benedicti (3 vols., Cologne, 1783,88) contains much valuable information on this subject. He published also a Codex epistolaris Rudolphi 1. (St. Blasien, 1772), and completed the Taphographia principum Austrim, begun by Rustenus Heer, a former member of the chapter of St. Blasien (vol. iv. of Herrgott's Monuments domus Austriacm, Vienna, 1752). His favorite study, how‑
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
ever, was the theory and history of music, and he enriched this field of literature with many valuable works: De canto et muaica sacra (2 vole., St. Blasien, 1774); Monuments veteris liturgice A'Iemannicee (2 vole., 1777‑79); and Scriptures eccleaiaatici de muaica sacra (3 vole., 1784). He wrote also several theological and ascetical treatises, one of which was directed against Jansenism.
(K. KL$PFELt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Bader, Fitrsfaht Martin Gerbert van St. Biaeien, Freiburg, 1875; RL, v. 363‑3b8; ADB, viii. 725.
	GERDES, gRr'dea, DANIEL: Professor of dog
matics and church history at the University of
Groningen; b. at Bremen Apr. 16, 1698; d. at
Groningen Feb. 11, 1765. He was the son of a
respected merchant, studied theology in his native
city and then in Utrecht under F. A. Lamps. In
1724 he became preacher at Wageningen in Hol
land, in 1726 professor of theology in Duisburg.
From 1736 until his death he was professor at
Groningen. His extensive scholarship and, his
piety made him the mgt distinguished personal
ity of the university. In his Doctr<:na gratice live
compendium theologize dogmaticir (Duisburg, 1734;
Groningen, 1744) he shows himself a very moderate
disciple of Cocceius. His real importance lay in
the sphere of church history. He presented the
growth of the Evangelical faith, especially of the
Reformed faith, in his Introductio in historiam
Evcangelii seculo X V I. passim per Europam renovati
doctrinaque reformatte (4 vole., Groningen, 1744
1752) and Scrinium antiquarium live miscellanea
Groningana nova ad historiam re(ormationis ecclesi
asticam prmcipue spedantia. (8 vole., Groningen and
Bremen, 1761‑85), and wrote also about the Refor
mation in Italy, in the diocese of Salzburg, and in
Bremen. Many important documents are given in
these works. 	(E. F. KARL M~VVLLER.)
BISLIOnaAraY: A abort autobiography e:tists in his Mieultanea Duiaberpaneia, i. 128 eqq., 1732 eqq. E. Hollebeek treated of his life in the Preface to Gerdes, Specimen Italia reformatos, Leyden, 1765; A. J. Van der As, Biopraphisch Woordenboek roan der Nederlanden, vii. 123 eqq.; ADB, viii. 730‑731.

GEREOIP, SAM. See THEBAN LEGION.

GERGESEftES. See GERA6ENE8.

	GERHARD, g8r'htlrt, JOHAIf1Y: Lutheran dog
matician; b. at Quedlinburg (34 m. n.w. of Magde
burg), of distinguished family, Oct. 17, 1582; d. at
Jena Aug. 17, 163?. At the age of fifteen he was
afflicted with a serious illness and vowed to devote
his life to the ministry if be should recover. Johann
Arndt (q.v.), who preached at this time in Quedlin
		burg, took kindly to him and assisted
	Life. him with his counsel. In 1599 he went
		to the University of Wittenberg and
devoted himself to the study of philosophy and
theology. Complying with the wish of a relative
and contrary to his vow, he took up the study of
medicine, but after the death of the relative re
sumed theology. He removed to Jena, but prof
ited less from the lectures of the professors there
than from private study of the Bible and the Church
Fathers. In 1803 he became master of arts. At this
time the fame of the theological faculty at Marburg

488	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Gerbert
		Serhardt
attracted him thither, and Winckelmann and Ment
zer especially influenced him. When Hesse‑Cassel,
under Landgrave Maurice, accepted the Reformed
doctrine he left Marburg and went back to Jena
hoping to become professor. But Duke Casimir
of Coburg, to whom he was highly recommended,
entrusted him with the superintendency at Held
burg and made him doctor of theology. He was
only twenty‑four years old at this time. In 1615
the duke made him general superintendent at
Coburg, and in this position he was commissioned
to draw up a church order. His nature and talents,
however, made him long for a professor's chair, and
he received calls from different universities, but
Duke Casimir considered a theologian of Gerhard's
importance indispensable for tis realm. At last,
however, the opposition of the duke was overcome,
and in 1616 Gerhard became professor at Jena.
	All the different phases of the academic teacher
seemed to find their full development in Gerhard,
and his lectures attracted crowds of students. He
		loved his students, in case of sickness
	His Char‑ went to their residence, and assisted
	acter and them in all their troubles. His con
	Activities. temporaries considered him the great
		est theologian of his time. He re
ceived no less than twenty‑four calls from different
universities while at Jena, but he had no reason to
leave. Although his salary was not large, he
amassed a not inconsiderable fortune from emolu
ments accruing from his connection with princes and
noblemen, and moreover, he lived in peace with
all his colleagues. His usefulness showed itself
also in the domain of practical church work and
even of politics. The theologians of Saxony had
brought about conventions from which they hoped
to develop gradually a supreme tribunal of the
Lutheran Church at the birthplace of the Refor
mation. Important conventions were held in 1621,
1624, 1628, and 1630, and in all of them Gerhard
held a leading position. To many princes he was
an oracle in questions of all kinds, such as the
recommendations of church or school officers,
princely match‑makings or sponsorships, arbitra
tion in disputes, and mediation in pecuniary affairs.
Indeed, he himself sometimes gave financial aid
to princes. His health was rather delicate and
considerably affected by his numerous journeys on
business.
	In the sphere of dogmatics two works especially
made Gerhard's name famous. One of them was
the Confessio catholica, in qua doctrana catholica et
evangelica, quam ecclesiT Augustanee con(essioni
addictw prof lerttur, ex Romano‑catholicorum scrip
torum sufragiis conftrmatur (4 parts, Frankfort
and Leipsic, 1634‑37), based upon the Catalogue
testium mritatis of Flacius. It is more compre
hensive than its title denotes, being at the same time
an extensive apology and polemic of the Evan
		gelical creed. The first part is general
	Writings. and treats the prineipia et media nos
		trtE et pontifeciw religionis. The other
three volumes treat the disputed articles of faith
in the order of Bellarmine, the controversialist par
excellence. But the chief work which established
Gerhard's theological reputation is his Loci theo‑
logici; he began this at the age of twenty‑seven and wrote the last and ninth volume in 1622. In 1657 his son, Johann Ernst, prepared a new edition, and another (22 vols.) was issued by J. F. Cotta, professor of dogmatics in Tiibingen in 1762‑89 (later eds. by E. Preuss, 33 vols., Berlin, 1863‑75; 9 vols., Leipsic, 1885), Gerhard's work is distinguished from that of his predecessors like Chemnitz and Hutten by a certain progress in method. He made a more logical arrangement of the loci and distinguished different groups. He puts the doctrine concerning Scripture before his system proper, because the dogma of the canon is not really an article of faith, but the basis of the articles of faith. Over against the infallibility of the pope he sets the infallibility of Scripture. But here it becomes evident that the strongest side of the orthodox faith is also its weakest side, for in order to save the authority of Scripture Gerhard had to maintain a theory of inspiration that included even the Hebrew vowel points. This weak point was cleverly detected by the Jesuits. Nevertheless the work may be justly characterized as the consummation of Lutheran dogmatic theology as initiated by Melanchthon. Besides these two principal works may be mentioned an exegetical writing entitled Harnwnia cvangelistarum Chemnitio‑Lyseriana a Jo. Gerhardo continuata et iusto commer"rio alluatrata (3 parts, Jena, 1626‑27). Another production contributing to his fame was the Meditationes sacra,, which he wrote as a student in 1606. It consists of fifty‑one devotional meditations, has passed through innumerable editions, and even recently several translations have appeared (Fourteen Meditations, London, 1846). A work of a similar nature and similar success was his Exercitium pietatis quotidianum quadripartitum (Coburg, 1612‑15). His Schola pietatis (1622‑23) was less successful. His Enchfridion conaolatorium was translated into German and edited in 1877 by C. J. B6ttcher (Leipsic, 1877). There appeared recently (Leipsic, 1898) D. Joannis Gerhardihomilite XXXj'1, seu meditationes breves diebus dominicis atque festis accommodates e manuscriptis Gerhardinis ab illustrfssima InViotheea Gothana asservatis; primum edidit Dr. G. Berbig. In his Methodus 8tudii theologici (1620) he touched the sphere of isagogics, and emphasized especially the study of Holy Scripture.
(JOHANNES KUNZE.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A highly satisfactory biography of Gerhard, based upon sources, some of which are no longer accessible, was prepared by E. R. Fischer, Leipsic,1723, 1727. Consult: W. Gass, Geschichte der protestantischen Dopmatik, i. 246 sqq., Berlin, 1854; G. Frank, Geschichte der protestanti8chen Throlopie i 371 sqq. Leipsic,1862; E. Troaltsch, Yernunft and Otjenbarunp bei J. Gerhard and Mslanrhthon, G&ttingen, 1891.

GERHARD TONQUE. See JOHN, SkINT, ORDER OF HOSPITALERS OF.

GERHARDT, g&r'hdrt, PAULUS: The foremost of German hymn‑writers; b. at Grafenhainichen (10 m. s. w.of Wittenberg), Electoral Saxony, Mar. 12, 1607; d. at Liibben (40 m. s.w. of Frankfort‑on‑the‑Oder) June 7, 1676. He studied at Wittenberg from 1628, but, probably owing to the disorders of war, it was not until 1651 that he

Gerhardt Gerlach
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
obtained his first charge as provost in Mittenwalde. In 1657 he was called to the church of St. Nicholas in Berlin. When the great elector of Brandenburg required that all the clergy should pledge themselves by a declaration to follow his edicts of 1662 and 1664, Gerhardt refused to sign the deolaration (Feb., 1666) and was dismissed from his office. So far as the content of the declaration was concerned, Gerhardt could have signed it without hesitation. His was not a disputatious nature and he had never used contumelious expressions in his sermons, at which the declaration was specially aimed. The reason for his refusal clearly lay in the fact that he regarded the declaration as an infringement upon his right to uphold his Lutheran convictions, his scrupulous conscience making him feel that all yielding in matters relating to the doctrines of the Reformation was wrong. For this reason he could not decide to resume his office, although his dismissal was recalled and the elector agreed that he should not sign the declaration (1667). In 1668 he was called to Lubben as archdeacon, where he spent the last seven years of a life consecrated to good works.
Gerhardt is the most gifted author of religious songs whom the German Church has ever known. In him, more than in any other, all the requisites for this style of poetry are united. He possessed a firm conviction of the objective truth of the
Christian doctrine of salvation and Gerhardt's also a genuine sentiment for all that
Hymns. is purely human; deep Christian feel‑
ing coupled with sterling good sense; and a fresh and healthy appreciation of life in nature and in mind. In addition to all this, his hymns possess a beauty of form in which the influence of the progress in technique initiated by Opitz can be traced. In the history of religious poetry Gerhardt marks the beginning of a new era; with him sacred poetry assumes a strongly personal character. This was later corrupted by mystical and rationalistic tendencies, but with Gerhardt it always remained in full accord with the objective realities of religious faith. It is characteristic that out of his 120 hymns not leas than sixteen begin with " I," and of the rest more than sixty concern only his own heart and God. In the hymns of the Reformation period the Church is the exclusive subject and object of religious song and the personal note is only rarely sounded. This quality of Gerhardt's hymns is, however, merely the concrete individual form in which Christian faith and Christian life, a common possession of Christ's Church, find expression. As another characteristic of Gerhardt's hymns may be noted the purely human sentiment that animates them. He sings of summer and harvest, of travel and marriage, indeed of the whole of life in nature (cf. his hymn to summer, " Go forth, my heart, and seek for joy"). His whole view of nature, and especially of nature's accord with religious life, is absolutely unaffected and therefore harmonious. In spite of his delicacy of feeling, however, Gerhardt did not altogether escape the influence of the taste of his time; there are parts of his hymns which must to‑day be considered harsh and even tasteless. Not satisfied,
484
however, with removing these real blemishes, the critics of a later time, in their emendations, ruthlessly trod under foot all that was most beautiful in the garden of Gerhardt's poesy and transplanted thither their own thistles. This age has given proof of a better historical sense by turning back lovingly to the " unadulterated " Gerhardt.
Gerhardt did not himself collect or publish his hymns. Most of them appeared for the first time in Johann Criiger s Praxis pietatia melica (let and 2d eds. not known; 3d ed., Berlin, 1648). The first complete collection was the work of Johann Georg Ebeling, in ten parts, each containing twelve hymns with tunes (Frankfort‑on‑the‑Oder and Berlin, 1666 and 1667). Among later editions that of J. H. Feustking (Zerbst, 1707) deserves attention because the editor claims that he has corrected the text " according to a copy revised by the author's very hand." Of the more recent critical editions mention may be made of that by J. F. Bachmann (Berlin, 1866), and that of Karl Goedeke (Deutsche Dichter des aiebzehnlen Jahrhunderta, vol, viii., Leipsic, 1877). The best is the latest edition by August Ebeling (Hanover and Leipsic, 1898), in which for the first time the fifth edition of the Praxis pietatia melica could be used for the restoration of the text (cf. Ebeling's essay, Wo iet der Originaltext der Paul Gerhardt'achen Lieder zu findea 1 in O. Lyon's Zeib achrift /fir den deutschen Unterricht, xi., 1897, pp. 745‑783). CARL BERTHEAU.
Many of Gerhardt's hymns have been incorporated in English collections of hymns or of devotional poetry, and one of them, " O sacred Head now wounded," an adaptation of a hymn attributed to Bernard of Clairvaux (q.v.), is widely known and frequently sung. Other familiar ones begin," Ohl how shall I receive thee; " " Commit thou all thy griefs," and " Give to the winds thy fears." More than thirty of his hymns are classical. His English translators include John Wesley, Miss C. Winkworth, James W. Alexander, and John Kelly, who has furnished a complete translation, Paul Gerhardt's Spiritual Songs (London, 1867).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The editions of the poems and hymns by J. F. Bachmann, K. Goedeke, and A. Eberling contain discussions of the fife of Gerhardt. For his life consult also: E. G. Roth, Paul Gerhardt, Leipsic, 1829; F. W. Krummacher, in Piper's Evanpeliacher Kalender, pp. 204 sqq., Berlin, 1866; E. Koch, Geachichte dea Kirchenliedes, iii. 297‑327, Stuttgart, 1867; K. Goedeke, Zur Geachichta der deutachen Dichtung, iii. 182, Dresden, 1887; ADB, viii. 774‑783; E. Achelis, in the Blatter fur Hymnolo&, 1884, pp. 51 sqq., 71 sqq. More popular lives are those by C. E. Wildenhahn, Leipsic, 1845, and A. Stein, Halle, 1897. Consult also S. W. Duffield, English Hymns, pp. 21 et passim, New York, 1886; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 409‑412. The celebration in Germany in 1907 of the 300th anniversary of Gerhardt's birth educed a number of monographs of great merit, including: P. Wernle's Paulus Gerhardt, Tfibingen, 1907; G. Kawerau's address, Halle, 1907; and H. Petrieh, Paul Gerhardt, seine Liader and seine Zeit, Giiteraloh, 1907; R. Hupfeld, Die Ethik JohannGerharda. Eir<BeitrapzumVer8tdndnisderLatheriachen Ethik, Berlin, 1908.

GERHART, EMANUEL VOGEL: German Reformed; b. at Freeburg, Pa., June 13, 1817; d. at Lancaster, Pa., May 6, 1904. He was graduated from Marshall College, Mercersburg, Pa. (A.B., 1838), and Mercersburg Theological Seminary (1841). After being pastor at Gettysburg, Pa. (1843‑49), and missionary to the German immigrants at Cincinnati, O. (1849‑51), he was professor of theology and president of Heidelberg College, Tiffin, O. (1851‑55); and president of Franklin and Marshall College, Lancaster, Pa. (1855‑66), but on the reconstruction of the faculty of that institution in 1866 became vice‑president and professor of moral philosophy. In 1868 he was appointed professor of systematic and practical theology in the Reformed Church Seminary at Lancaster, Pa., and

486	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	t
am‑=&
held that position until his death. He wrote Philosophy and Logic (Philadelphia, 1858) and Instr:tutes of the Christian Religion (New York, 1891). He likewise edited the bfmrceraNag Review for several years, ss well as F. A. Rauch's Inner Lie of the Christian (Philadelphia, 1858).

GERHOH, gae'hb ((krohm), OF REICHERSBERG: Writer on church discipline; b. at Polling (30 m. s.w. of Munich), Bavaria, 1093; d. at Reiohersberg (on the Inn, 40 an. s.w. of Linz), Upper Austria, June 27, 1189. He was educated in Moaeburg, Freising, and Hiklesheim and became canon and teacher at the cathedral school in Augsburg. Offended by the neglect of church discipline and canonical rules he retired into the monastery of Raitenbuch, but was recalled to Augsburg by Bishop Hermann. Again, however, he was offended by the worldliness in the bishop's surroundings and reentered Rsitenbuch. Bishop Conrad of Salzburg commissioned him twice to go to Rome and discuss with Honorius Ii. the discipline of the clergy. In his own monastery (Raitenbuch) his discipline was opposed, and so Cuno, the new bishop of Regensburg, called him into his district. In 1132 after Cuno's death Conrad of Salzburg appointed him prior of the monastery of Rsichersberg on the Inn, and here Gerhoh was active until the end of him life.
This activity was twofold, pertaining to both ecclesiastical polity and dogmatics. His work and attitude toward the former was conditioned by the circumstances of the time. The disputes concerning Investiture (q.v.) had not yet been settled; the system of Hildebrand made progress, attacking married priests and simony in every form. Pope Gregory VIL, the promoter of strict discipline, became Gerhoh's Weal. It was neoesaary to put an end to the abuses practised in the dispmal of church property and to form the life of the clergy according to fixed rules, and Gerboh fought with angry seal for these ideals. He initiated his warfare about 1130 with his De adifwio Doi, then followed a treatise on the difference between secular and regular clergy. But his most important work is his Inbestxgatio (1182). The first book of this work is historical, then follow discussions on theology and discipline. Gerhoh cenmlres fearlessly the barter of ecclesiastical offices and the avarice of Rome, the abuse of exemptions, the self‑enrichment of nuncios and legatee and the papal schism. Against the arrogance of the popes in usurping worldly government he maintained that popedom and empire, the two great lights, the pillars of the temple, should stand side by side without any confusion of their respective powers. This position led him to the ideal demand that the Church should be satisfied with tithes and free gifts and renounce all worldly and princely power. With growing age Gerhoh's ideals were somewhat subdued. Although he stood altogether alone in his ideals at his time, they may be regarded as a significant prophecy pointing to later times in which the separation of spiritual and worldly power has become a necessity.
Gerhoh's dogmatic activity was carried on at the time of the reaction against the French dialecticians such as Roseeliin, AbeLud and Gilbert of Poitiers, IV‑30
who in Christologiml questions were not only nominalists, but often almost Nestorians by separating the natures of Christ and approaching very closely adoptionism. Representatives of this view were also in Germany, among them Bishop Eberhard of Bamberg and Provost Folmar of Triefenstein. In 1158 a conference took place in Bamberg at which Gerhoh was accused of leresy. In the first chapter of his book De gloria d honors jilii dei he defends his Christologicsl position against the attacks of Folmar. He calls the man Jesus also the natural and only son of God since he entered the glory of the Father. In his eternal birth he has no mother, in his temporal no father. It is on account of the danger of Nestorianism that Gerhoh clings so firmly to the glorification of the human nature in Christ. Then he refutes the objections against the unity of the divine and human nature in Christ, appealing to the Fathers, especially Hilary, Ambrose, Jerome, and Augustine. In his Contra duos harem he combated the view that heretical priests could successfully bring about the transformation of the body of Christ in the mass. He held' that Christ is not locally circumscribed, that he is everywhere. The body of Christ has grown in such a way that it fills the whole universe. The bishop of Bamberg accused Gerhoh of heresy because he taught that in the Eucharist the divinity is at the same time the whole humanity. The bishop held that Christ after ascension is still a creature as man, and his reproach of Gerhoh was not without justice.
	Gerhoh's path of life was troubled. At synods
and diets he was an authority on ecclesiastical law
and polity and well known at the courts of popes
and emperors; but as a dogmatician he clung so
tenaciously to his position that his opponents,
Abelard, Gilbert of Poitiers, and Peter Lombard,
had to quit the field. In later years he had to en
counter another storm. When the emperor tried
to put an end to the schism by enforcing the se.
knowladgment of Alexander's opponent as pope,
Archbishop Conrad did not yield and war broke out
at Salzburg. Gerhoh's monastery was burned and
pillaged. 	(B. R,ocsofl.t.)
BIHLIO(ntAliT: His works sae in ArPL, Casiii.‑=d1r.; 8d" bibdti, ed. E. 8seknr, an in HGH, Lib. de Use, ii (1897). 131‑,625. For his life oonmle H. F. A. Nobbe, Gerhoh son ReWwrebov, fedpeie, 1881; W. Ribbedc, in PorerAunpsn sw dmfeden Gaediods, iii (1888), 3 sqq., uv (1885). 668 eqq.; HL, v. 378‑M1; Nesnder, Chris. flan CAurdr, Vol. iv passim (uses mach of fierhoh's m.R‑i.t); Moe11er, Chri.oim. Church, pp. 265, 307, 318319, 379.
GERIZ13L See PAL88'TuJE; f3AmsarrAxs.
GERLACH, gkr'laN, OTTO YON: German tbeologian; b. in Berlin Apr. 12, 1801; d. there Oct. 24, 1849. Coming from a noble and influential family, he was at first intended for a political career, and took up the study of jurisprudence at Heidelberg and Gottingen. In 1820 he returned to Berlin, where he devoted himself to theology, and he studied also at the Seminary at Wittenberg, 1825‑28. in 1834 he was appointed pastor of the church of Bt. Elizabeth, near Berlin, and in 1847, court preacher. Before his appointment to a pastorate, he bad been active fn foreign missionary work, . having established (1824) the Bwrl%eer Gsadlsehaft zur Ven‑

Gerlach
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
breitung des Evangeliums unter den Heiden, and (1828) a seminary for the instruction of missionaries. After his appointment he took an equally lively interest in home missions, and founded various societies for Christian work as well as many charitable institutions. His zeal earned him the name " the Wesley of Berlin," bestowed upon him by Tholuck. The translation of a sermon of Wesley's was his first literary work; he also translated The Saints' Rest and others of Baxter's works. As a result of a journey to England, undertaken by order of King Frederick William IV., he published Amtliche BerfcN caber den Zudand der anglikanischen Kirche in shren verwhwdemn Glwdemngen im Jahre IS/2 (Berlin, 1845), a work which, although expressive of admiration for the power and activity of the Church of England, nevertheless recognizes the twofold danger of ecclesiastical partizanship and the leaven of Puseyism. Gerlach was the author also of a commentary on the Bible (6 vols., 18471853), which was long a very popular work.
(R. K6GEL t)
BIBmooRAPBY: A notice of his life is prefixed to his Pred%pten, ed. G. 8eegemund, vol. iv., part i., Berlin, 1850.
GERLACH (Gerlacus), PETERS (PETRI, PETERSZ): Ascetic writer belonging to the Brethren of the Common Life (q.v.); b. at Deventer (8 m. n. of Zutphen), Holland, 1378; d.. at Windesheim (14 m. n. of Deventer) Nov. 18, 1411. His mother was a woman of wealth who spent much money on the enlargement of the monastery of Windesheim, and through her he met Geert Groote (q.v.) and was kindly received as a scholar by Florentius Radewyns. While the pupils were presenting a mystery‑play in the church, Gerlach was persuaded by Florentius to enter the monastery of the Brethren. How long he remained there is uncertain, but he felt more at home at Windesheim, and Florentius made the necessary arrangements for his entrance there. In his new home the youth was universally popular, and was an especial protE;g6 of the director, Vos von Heusden. The trend of Gerlach's mind was contemplative rather than mystical, and he recorded his thoughts on slips of paper, generally writing in the vernacular. Shortly before his death he begged that his meditations be destroyed, but his prior declined to accede to his request, and they were accordingly preserved. His writings, according to Johann Busch (Chronieon Windeahemense, ed. Grubs, Halle, 1886, 157 sqq.), were collected by Johann Schutken at the instance of Vos, and were as follows: Bretn'loquium, composed before 1403, and containing edifying thoughts by himself and others to a member of the brotherhood (ed. W. Moll, in Kerkhistoriach Archief, ii., Amsterdam, 1859, 179 sqq., on the basis of a Brussels manuscript; an excellent text was discovered by Hirsche at Wolfenbiittel); Epistola Teutonicalis, addressed to his sister Lubbe, and containing translations from the Brevaoquium (ed. W. Moll, cat sup., 202 sqq.) and Solaoquium (also called Exercaia), his most important work and the one which gained him the name of alter Thomas. It is a soliloquy of the soul with God, lifting the soul out of the diversions of worldly life. It was collected by John Sehutken, and was highly esteemed in Port Royal, in addition
to winning the praise of Poiret and Tersteegen
(Cologne, 1616; new ed., Amsterdam, 1711, ed.
J. Strange, Cologne, 1849; Germ. transl. by G. Ter
steegen, 1734, 1845, and by N. Casseder, in his
Mystiseh‑aeketische &Uwthek, i., Frankfort, 1829,
1849; Dutch transl. by J. van Gorcum, 1621; all
the editions contain many variants). Together
with the Bretriloquium noted above, Hirsche dis
covered at Wolfenbattel a Soliloquium which pre
sents many deviations, but is very old, dating from
1424. The Ignitum cum Deo colloquium and De
libertate spirUus cum exercWia eo apectantiibu8 men
tioned by Valerius Andreas were unknown to Busch.
Moll and Acquoy regard them as independent works,
but Hirsche more correctly considers them reces
sions of the works already mentioned. Since Ger
lach wrote much in the vernacular, he belongs, like
Hendrik Mande, to the first and best prose‑writers
of the fifteenth century. 	L. ScuuLzrs.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The chief source is J. Busch. Chroniom Windeshemanse. ed. K. Grubs. Halle, 1886. The subject was first scientifically treated by W. Moll in N. C. Kist and W. Moll, Kerkhistoriwh Archiet, ii. 145‑146, Amsterdam, 1859, where three of Gerlach's five writings are reproduced, of. W. Moll, Kerkgeschiedanis roan Nederland, ii., part 2, pp. 208‑236, 363 eqq., part 3, pp. 27 sqq., 41, Utrecht, 1865‑71; J. G. R. Acquoy, Het Klooster to Windesheim. Amsterdam, 1875; A. Auger, Ptude our Us mystiques des Pays‑Bas . , in Mhnodres . . . par l'academie royals . . . de Belgique, xlvi. 300 sqq., Brussels. 1892; R. A. Vaughan. Hours with the Mystics, i. 367, London, 1879.
GERLACHER (GERNOLT), THEOBALD. Bee
BmLiCAN, THEoBALD.
GERLE, zhiirl, CHRISTOPHE ANTOINE: French religious enthusiast; b. at Riom (85 m. w. of Lyons) Oct. 25, 1736; d. in Paris Nov. 17, 1801. He entered the order of Carthusians, became prior of the convent of PortrSalnte‑Marie, and represented the clergy of Riom in the States‑General in 1789. In the famous Tennis Court session he exhibited so much patriotic fervor that David gave him a prominent place in his painting, Le Serment du Jeu do Paume. He was a member of the Constitutional Assembly, and on Apr. 12, 1790, vainly urged that body to proclaim Roman Catholicism as the only religion recognized by the French nation. He became a follower of Catherine Th6ot, a fanatical old woman who called herself the mother of God. As a supporter of Robespierre with other Th6otists, he was imprisoned May 16, 1794, but was released on the advent of the Directory. He was afterward employed in the Ministry of the Interior and contributed some articles to the Messager du sair.
Brsnroonerscr: J. Miehelet, Hist. de la revolution fraiwaise. vol. vii., Penis, 1853; Lichtenberger, B.BR, v. 548‑549.
GERMAN BAPTISTS, GERM" BAPTIST BRETHREN. Bee DUNHER&

GERMAN CATHOLICISM.
Origin. Johannes Ronge (¢ 1).
Johann Caerski (§ 2).
Growth and Organization (§ 3).
Absorption by the Free Protestant Congregations (§ 4). Reasons for Failure (§ 5).
By " German Catholicism " (Deutsohkatholicis~ mus) is meant a reform movement which arose within the Roman Catholic Church in Germany in

48?	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Ge~ aathoiIdam
the middle of the nineteenth century, led to the formation of separate congregations, and ultimately entered into such close relations with the Protestant bodies called Lichtfreunde (see FREE CONGRE‑
GATIONS IN GERMANY) that the two x. Origin. movements at present can be distin‑
Johannes guished only in certain parts of Ger‑
	Ronge.	many. The tendency was promoted,
		on the one hand, by the after‑effects
of the age of the Enlightenment and the liberal
spirit which passed over Europe from about 1830;
on the other hand, by the spread of Ultramontan
ism within the Roman Church. The immediate
occasion was the solemn exhibition of the seamless
coat of Christ by Bishop Arnoldi in Treves in 1844
(see TREVFb, HOLY COAT OF); this was intended to
demonstrate that the Roman Catholic population
rendered unconditional obedience to the leadership
of their clergy, a principle which had already been
illustrated by the victory of Archbishop Droste
Vischering of Cologne over the Prussian govern
ment (see DROSTE‑VISCHERINO, CLEMENs AUGUST,
FREIHERR VON), and the intention was fully real
ized. But if this celebration was a great demon
stration of the power of the Roman Church over its
members, it had also the effect of a challenge on
circles which in spirit had outgrown the tutelage
of the clergy. This explains the publication of an
open leuter to Bishop Arnoldi on Oct. 15, 1844;
it was a trenchant protest against the " idolatrous
celebration " (Goetwnfe8t) of the Roman hierarchy
which inveigled the credulous multitude into direct
ing " those feelings of reverence which we owe to
God alone, to an article of clothing, a work that
human hands have made." The contradiction
between the veneration of relics and the spirit of
Christianity is sharply emphasized, and the German
people is exhorted " to check the tyrannical power
of the Roman hierarchy." The author of the letter
was Johannes Ronge, a priest, thirty‑one years old
(b. Oct. 16, 1813), who,, because of an article " Rome
and the Cathedral Chapter of Breslau," had been
suspended from office in 1843 and since then had
acted as a teacher in Laurahtitte in Upper Silesia.
When Ronge refused to retract his open letter, he
was excommunicated and degraded, Dec. 4, 1844,
by the suffragan bishop Latussek of Breslau.
Ronge left the Roman Church but continued the
literary controversy in a series of pamphlets, in
which he demanded the abolition of celibacy, of
auricular confession, and of Latin as the ecolesias
tical language, and called for the formation of a
German Catholic Church.
Another priest, in the neighboring province of Posen, independently of him had already put these thoughts into practise. Johann Czerski (b, May 12, 1813) had come to doubt many dogmas while
in the bishop's seminary, and was cons. Johann firmed in these doubts by studying
	Czerski.	the Holy Scripture while vicar in
		Posen. When he had been trans
ferred to Schneidemuhl, where, even before his
arrival, similar ideas had been spreading, he went
further in this direction, married, gave up his eccle
siastical position, and with his followers left the
Roman Church in order to organize themselves as s
"Christian Catholic,, Church. The first congregation was founded in Breslau in 1845, on the basis of an Apostles' Creed modernized by Ronge as follows:
I believe in God, the Father, who through his almighty word created the world and rules it in wisdom. righteousness and love. I believe in Jesus Christ our Savior, who by his teachings, his life, and his death has ransomed us from the bondage of sin. I believe in the sway (Walten) of the Holy Ghost on earth. I believe in a holy, universal Christian Church, the communion of the faithful, the forgiveness of sins, and an eternal life.
At the same time the congregation proclaimed the principle of complete freedom of. conscience and the freedom of scientific investigation.
There now followed in quick succession the founding of congregations in the other parts of Germany.
To bind them together was the. pur
3. Growth pose of the " First General Church
and Organi‑ Convention of the German Catholic zation. Church," held in Leipsic Mar. 23‑26,
1845. According to the official minutes fifteen congregations were here represented, thirty‑one delegates being present. As the title of the new Church the name " German Catholic Church " was adopted. As to its teaching, it was resolved: " the foundation of the Christian faith for us shall be Holy Scripture solely and alone, the construction and interpretation whereof is left free to reason penetrated and moved by the Christian idea." A creed was set up to show the content of the doctrines of the faith, which was an abbreviation of the confession adopted in Breslau. The demand of Czeraki that the divinity of Christ should be added thereto was not complied with; moreover, the primacy of the pope, the hierarchy, auricular confession, compulsory celibacy, the invocation of saints, the veneration of relics and images, indulgences, etc., were rejected. But two sacraments were recognized, baptism and the Lord's Supper, the latter under both kinds. Regulations were also made concerning divine worship, which should be held in the German language without the use of the canon of the mass. Presbyterial organization was decided on for the congregations, which at the same time received the right to elect their own ministers and standing committees.
It seemed as if a great day was dawning for German Catholicism when Ronge began his agitational journeys through Germany. They became triumphal processions. At the send German Catholic ecclesiastical convention of 1847 there were already 259 congregations with eighty‑eight ministers. The movement attracted notice even in foreign countries. Ronge received resolutions of approval from the United States; a Free Catholic congregation was founded in New York in 1846; in subsequent years ministers who had emigrated from Germany founded similar ones in St. Louis and Philadelphia. English, Irish and French Unitarians showed their interest in what was going on in Germany, as did the Arminians of Holland.
Friendly relations soon arose between the German Catholic congregations and the free Protestant congregations which were founded about the same time (see FREE CONGREGATIONS IN GERMANY). The friendship grew so that in May, 1850, the third

German Catholioism Germanus
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
German Catholic council and the third synod of the free Protestant congregations met in Leipsic for negotiations with each other. There
4. Absorp‑ were here represented about 100 Gertion by the man Catholic congregations and about Free Prot‑ thirty free Protestant ones. The reestant Con‑ sult was the formation of the " Regregations. ligious Society of Free Congregations " (Religiorasgesedlschaft freier Gemeinden), which means that the German Catholic congregar tions gave up their Roman Catholic character and their creed and melted away in the Protestant free religious movement. This union was the end of German Catholicism as an independent party building upon Catholic foundations; the confessional element, which had hitherto still persisted in it though in a weakened form, was sacrified in the interests of the more highly valued element of freedom.
This union was not adopted without objections in the meeting, and not all the congregations socepted it. There still exist to‑day in the Kingdom of Saxony several German Catholic congregations comprising more than three thousand persons; that at Leipsic shows a vigorous increase (1866, 407 persons, 1903 almost 1,400). It can not be determined how many of the free congregations outside Saxony may still be counted as German Catholic; their names are too indefinite. In general it may be said that the title of " German Catholic " is used at present by the congregations of Western and Southern Germany belonging to the League of Free Religious Congregations. In isolated instances there occur titles like " Christian Catholic " (Christkatholisch), " Free Christian " (Frei‑chrisaich), and even the name " Free Evangelical Catholic " (Frei evangelisch‑katholisch) is found in Kbnigsberg, as an attempt to express absolute superiority to confessionalism. According to a list of the League of Free Religious Congregations (Bund freireligioser Gemeinden) of 1896, fifty‑nine congregations belonged at that time, fourteen of them mentioning in their self‑chosen title their relationship to Catholicism.
Within German Catholicism Czeraki tried at the start to maintain connection with churchly Christianity, but he was not able to make his influence felt alongside that of Ronge. From objecting to compulsory dogmas they went on
	5. Reasons apace to thrusting all dogmas aside,
			for	and so to a breach with the Christian
		Failure.	faith, both Roman Catholic and Prot
				estant. Many who had joined the
movement at the start because they hoped from it
a purification and reformation of the Roman Church,
now withdrew; such were Anton Theiner, professor
of Catholic theology, and M. E. Regenbrecht, pro
fessor of canon law, both in Breslau. Very soon
it became evident that Ronge merely had the
ability to summon to the first attack on the Roman
Church and to stir up the masses as an agitator,
but that he did not have the power of founding a
new Church. His lack of capacity was soon recog
nized even by those of his own party; he died in
Vienna Oct. 26, 1887, a forgotten man. Czerski
had long been of no public significance when death
reached him Dec. 22, 1893.
	At the start German Catholicism was not with
out certain prospects, for it voiced demands and
represented ideas which corresponded to the mood
of the times and contained much that was good.
But that which Ronge and Czerski lacked was that
wherein the entire movement was deficient, viz., the
power to proceed from negative criticism of the
faults of the Roman Church to the formation of a
purer Catholic Church. This impotence was rooted
in the lack of religious productivity. The German
Catholic movement brought forth not a single per
sonality able to lead others as a prophet. Though
it may also be granted that persecution by the civil
power was not without influence on the decline of
the movement, nevertheless in the last analysis the
ddcisive reasons for failure lie in its own make‑up.
For but a few years it was a danger to the Roman
Church; after it had amalgamated with the free
Protestant congregations, it needed no longer to be
feared. 	CARL MIRBT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Kampe, Geschichfe der religibsen Bewegung der neuern Zeit, 4 vols., LelpsiC, 1852‑60; idem, Das Wesen des Deutschkatholiciernus, Tfibingen, 1850; H. Schmid, Geschichte der katholiechen Kirche Deutschlands van der Mute des 18. Jahrhunderts, Munich, 1874; H. BrUek, Geechichte der katholisden Kirche im 19. Jahrhundert, ii. 525 sqq., Monster, 1903; G. Tschirn, Zur BO‑jdhrigen Geschichte der freireligdeeen Beuregung, Bamberg, 1904. For review of literature consult Jenaische alkemeine Lideraturseitung, 1846‑47; T. Bruns in C. Hifner, Neues Repertorium ffir die theologiade Litteratur and kirchliche Statis6k, vol. v., 1846.

GERMAN EVANGELICAL CHURCH DIET. See
CHURCH DIET, GERMAN EVANGELICAL.

GERMAN EVANGELICAL PROTESTANT CHURCH: A name given collectively to a number of independent German churches, mostly west of the Alleghany Mountains, holding the general position of the Protestant Union, German (q.v.), represented by two associations named respectively " Union of Ministers of the German Evangelical Protestant Church of North America, " and " Evangelical Protestant Preachers' Conference of North America." The first, formed in 1885, succeeded the defunct " Protestant Union," and aimed to furnish a representation of the churches interested, to preserve their independence and mutual interests, and to increase the efficiency of the ministers. It has three districts, Pittsburg, Cincinnati, and Western, with a central executive board of three members, and reports thirty‑four churches and as many ministers. The second association, holding essentially the same position, was formed in 1896, and has twelve ministers and fourteen oongregations. Besides the churches represented in the associations named, there are a number of independent congregations, the ministers of which are unaffiliated, the number and membership of which is not known, but the latter may reach 20,000. The fundamental principles are practically those of the United Evangelical Church of Prussia of 1817. Its religious foundation is the Gospel of Jesus Christ, the interpretation of which is left to the judgment of the believer, guided by the Christian idea. The associations maintain an orphan's home and a home for the aged near Pittsburg, Pa., have a ministers' seminary, aid in the support of the Protes‑

489	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	German CathoUcitam
		Germanus
tant Orphan's Home in Cincinnati and St. Louis,
and give occasional assistance to other benevolent
institutions. The publications consist chiefly of
aids to church services and devotion. Its period
icals are: the Kirchenzeitung, monthly at Cincinnati
and weekly at Pittsburg; the Christliche Jugend
freund, a weekly and semimonthly paper for Sun
day‑schools; and the Protestantische Volks‑Kalender,
an annual. 	H. K. CARROLL.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: B.. K. Carroll, in American Church History
Series, i. 155, New York, 1896.

GERMAN EVANGELICAL SYNOD OF NORTH AMERICA: An organization founded at Gravois Settlement, near St. Louis, Mo., Oct.. 15, 1840, by six German ministers. The name Der deutsche evangelische Kirclenverein des Westens was then chosen. Owing to the expansion of the Synod this was changed in 1866 to Synod of the West and again in 1877 to its present name. It represents in the United States the State Church of Prussia, which is a union of Lutheran and Reformed elements (see PRUSSIA). Its creed and mission are stated in §§ 2 and 3 of its constitution: " The German Evangelical Synod of North America, as a part of the Evangelical Church, understands by `Evangelical Church' that ecclesiastical body, which acknowledges the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments as the Word of God and as the only and infallible criterion of faith and life and accepts the interpretation given in the symbolic books of the Lutheran and Reformed Churches, the most important of which are: the Augsburg Confession, Luther's Catechism and the Heidelberg Catechism in so far as these agree; but in their points of difference the German Evangelical Synod adheres strictly to the passages of Holy Scripture pertaining thereunto and avails itself of that liberty of conscience prevailing in the Evangelical Church."
" The object and purpose of the German Evangelical Synod in general is the advancement and extension of the Kingdom of God, but especially the establishment and expansion of the Evangelical Church among the German population of the United States of America."
The Synod is divided into eighteen districts, which hold annual conferences. The general conference of the body convenes every four years, to which each district sends delegates, one for every twelve ministers and one lay delegate for every twelve congregations. A . president, vice‑president, secretary and treasurer are the officers of the Synod. The various branches of synodical work are controlled by separate boards of directors elected by the General Synod. Its agencies include a Home Mission Board which ministers to 102 congregations and expends upward of $25,000 annually; a Church Extension Fund which assists in the erection of churches by loaning money at low rates of interest; a Relief Fund for the aid of invalid and superannuated pastors, teachers and their widows and orphans; a foreign mission board which conducts work at four principal stations and forty‑one outlying stations in India and reports 3,088 Inembers; an immigrant mission operated at Baltimore, Md., since 1886; deaconesses' homes and hospitals at
St. Louis, Mo., Indianapolis, and Evansville, Ind.,
Cincinnati, O., and Lincoln, Ill.; homes for epilep
tics at Marthasville and St. Charles, Mo.; orphan
ages at St. Louis, Mo., Hoyleton and Chicago. Ill.
‑also at Detroit, Mich., and Bensenville, Ill., with
homes for old peopi6 ‑‑t the last two places; and
the Eden Publishing House (and book‑store) at St.
Louis, with a branch at Chicago, the whole valued
at $143,775, with net proceeds of $37,000 annu
ally, devoted to carrying on the work of the Synod
in its various branches. There are 650 parochial
schools with 25,777 scholars, instructed by 110
professional teachers and 571 pastors, also 1,044
Sunday‑schools with 10,752 teachers and 110,385
scholars. The theological seminary, Eden College,
is located near Wellston, St. Louis County, Mo. It
was founded in 1850 near Marthasville, Mo., and
removed in 1883 to its present location. It has a
three years' course, four professors and sixty‑seven
students. At Elmhurst, Ill., a suburb of Chicago,
is located a proseminary, having a five‑year course,
with 105 students and seven professors. While
German is predominantly the language used in the
churches and schools, English is also employed in
church service and religious instruction and a few
English churches have been organized in the last
few years. The official organ is Der Friedensbote, a
weekly with circulation of 27,334 copies. Other
publications are: Messenger of Peace, Theologische
Zeitschrift, Jugendfreurul, Kiuderzeitung, and Evan
gelical Companion. The Church began with six
ministers, twelve churches, and 353 communicants.
The statistics of 1907 give 974 ministers, 1,262 con
gregations, 1,095 churches, 654 school buildings,
237,321 communicants, value of church property
$8,214,391.38, contributions for general purposes,
in 1905, $119,233.21. 	PAUL IRION.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Shory, Oesehichte der deatachen evanpeliaehen Syreode von Nord America, St. Louis, 1889; Evangelical Catechism, ib. 1892; Evangeliacher Kalender (annual).
GERMAN REFORMED CHURCH. See REFORMED (GERMAN) CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES.
GERMAN SEVENTH‑DAY BAPTISTS. See COMMUNISM, II., 5.

GERMANUS, jer‑m6rnvs, SAINT, OF AUXERRE (St. Germain d'Auxerre): Bishop of Auxerre; b., according to a life claiming to be by his scholar, Conatantius of Lyons, but thought by some to be later, at Auxerre c. 380; d. at Ravenna July 31, 448. He was of good family, received an excellent education in Gaul and Rome, married, and entered upon a prosperous and honorable career as lawyer and public official. Amator, bishop of Auxerre, chose him as his successor, forced ordination upon him, and when the former died (c. 418) Germanus accepted the position. He put away his wife and adopted a life of rigorous asceticism. In 429 he visited Britain and successfully opposed Pelagianism there. Prosper of Aquitaine says (Chronicon, annus 429) he was sent by Pope Celestine I. The life by Constantius says he was sent by a Gallican synod with Lupus, bishop of Troyes, and that seventeen or eighteen years later he went again with Severus, bishop of Treves. The later accounts

Germanys	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	470
contain much that is clearly legendary and are decked out «1th miracles, including the story of a bloodless victory over the Picts and Saxons gained by the British under the lead of Germanus and Lupus by shouting " hallelujah "‑the so‑called " hallelujah victory." At the time of his death Germanus had gone to Ravenna to intercede at the imperial court for the Armoricans, who had revolted. Churches are dedicated to him and his name is preserved in legend in Wales and Cornwall. BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Vita attributed to Constantine (used by Bede, Hist. eccl., i. 17‑21), and done into meter with other material by the monk Heiricus or Herieus of Auxerre (d. 876), is with legends, miracula, and comment in ASB, July, vii. 184‑287, and the metrical version is in MPL, exxiv. 1131‑1272. On the Vita consult L. M. Duru, Bibliothaque historiqus de l'Yonne, i. 48‑89, Auxerre, 1850; C. Narbey, 2tude critique sur la vie de S. Germain d'Auxerre, Paris, 1884. Duru, ut sup., i. 90‑99, ii. 110‑114, 183‑189, 247‑248, contains bibliographical material. Haddan and Stubbs, Councils, i. 16‑21 give excerpts from early sources. Consult: Tillemont, M6rnoires, xv. 1‑30; Histoire litt&aire de la France, ii. 256‑261, Paris, 1735; W. Bright, Early English Church History, pp. 17‑23, Oxford, 1897; DNB, xxi. 236‑238; DCB, ii. 657‑658.
GERMANUS, SAINT, OF PARIS: Bishop of Paris; b. in the district of Autun (230 m. s.e. of Paris) about 496; d. at Paris May 28, 576. He was of good family, and became head of the abbey of St. Symphorien at Autun about 540; about ten years later he became bishop of Paris, and as such took part in synods at Tours in 567 and Paris in 556 and 573 (MGR, Leg., aectio iii., Concilia, i.,1893, pp. 135, 145, 148). He did not shrink from excommunicating King Charibert I. for an amour with two sisters, winning by such faithfulness and courage the respect of the nobles, though his efforts to keep peace among them were of little avail. The people admired his rigidly ascetic life and his benevolence, and ascribed to him the gift of prophecy and miracles. He was buried in the Church of St. Vincent built. by Childebert I. and consecrated by himself in 559; later it was named after Germanus and is now St. Germain des Prbs. (A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources: a letter to Queen Brunhilde is in MPL, Ixxii. 77 and in MGR, Epiat., iii (1891), pp. 122124; and matter relating to him is in MGR, Dipl" i (1872), 5, no. 3. The Vita by his contemporary Fortunatus Venantius is in MGH Auct. ant., iv. t (1885), 1127, and, with commentary, epitaphium, miracula, and translatio, in ASS, May, vi. 774‑805. Consult: Hist. littiraire de la France, iii. 310, iv. 44, Parls,'1735‑38; A. Ebert, Alipemeine Geschichte der Literatur des Mittela1tere, ii. 356‑357, Leipsic, 1880; 0. Holder‑Egger, in NA, xviii (1893), 274‑281.
GERMANY.
I.	General Survey.
	Tho Modern German Empire (§ 1).
	The Protestant Church ($ 2).
	The Roman Catholic Church (§ 3).
	Education (f 4).
II.	Sectarianism in Germany.
	Meaning of "Sect" (11).
	Different Classes of Non‑established Churches (5 2).
	Attitude of the State toward Beets (§ 3).
	Means of Combating Beets (5 4).
	Statistics (§ 5).
I. General Survey: Germany in the broadest sense is the country of an important branch of the Teutonic race. which first appears in history divided into numerous tribes occupying, roughly, the lands between the Rhine, the Danube, the Vistula. and
the sea. The Romans included all the tribes in the general designation Germani and called their country Germania. Since about the twelfth century the Germans have called themselves the Deutschen. In the time of the migrations, and later, German peoples have become incorporated in neighboring and more distant lands, and their territories have been invaded and permanently occupied by aliens; nevertheless the bounds of Germany as a political designation have never materially changed. The conversion of the more important. German tribes to Christianity is treated in separate articles (see ALEMANNI, BAVARIANS, etc., and notices of missionaries like BONIFACE). For the religious history of the older German Empire (more correctly the German‑Roman or Holy Roman Empire) also, see articles like CHARLEMAGNE and other biographical sketches of important personages, names of places, events, periods, sects, and the tilre (AACHEN; AUGSBURG, RELIGIOUS PEACE OH'; ANABAPTISTS; etc.).
The modern German Empire, constituted in 1871, has an area of 208,830 square miles and a population (1908) of 60,641,278. It occupies a large part of Central Europe, consisting of twenty‑five sov‑
ereign states and the " imperial terriI. The tory " of Alsace‑Lorraine. The king Modern of Prussia is hereditary head of the
German federation, bearing the title German
Empire. Emperor (not Emperor of Germany).
It has colonial possessions aggregating 1,028,000 square miles in area, with a population of about 13,000,000 (12,500 Europeans), in Africa and Oceanica besides Kiau‑Chau in China, which was ceded to Germany in 1898 on a lease for ninetynine years (see AFRICA, II.; PACIFIC ISLANDS). According to the latest figures accessible (those of Kirchliches Jahrbuch, 1908) the people of the empire are divided religiously as follows:
Protestants .................................
Roman Catholics ............................
Russian Orthodox ...........................
Greek Catholics .............................
Dissenters (Baptiste, Methodists, etc.; see below,II.)................................
Jews........................................
Non‑Christian religions (Mohammedans, Buddhiste,etc.).............................
Other confessions (Pantheists, freethinkers, etc.) .
	Confessors of no religion 	,
37,848,852 22,094,492 1,991
13,181
259.717
807.882
909 12,024 4,270
60,841,278
The Protestants thus embrace about two‑thirds of the population (62.5 per cent, not counting the dissenters) and the Roman Catholics a little more than one‑third (36.1 per cent). This is substantially the proportion that existed at the close of the Thirty Years' War in 1648, and the geographical distribution of Protestants and Roman Catholics is still nearly the same as it was two centuries ago. The Roman Church predominates in the South, the Protestant in the North. Roman Catholics form 60.8 per cent of the people in Baden, 70.7 per cent in Bavaria, 72.2 per cent in Alsace‑Lorraine. In Saxony, on the other hand, 94.5 per cent are Protestant, in Sleswick‑Holstein 97.2 per cent, in Mecklenburg‑Schwerin 98:3 percent. Other NorthGerman states show a similarly high proportion of

471	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Germanus
		Germany
Protestants.	The Jews constitute about 1 per
cent of the population.
	Perhaps the most noteworthy feature of the
Protestant Church of Germany is that it is not
divided into numerous rival denominations. This
church has been liberal and found room in its fold
		for men of divergent views. The dis
	c. The	tinction between Lutherans and Re
Protestant	formed has existed since the Refor
	Church.	mation; and attempts to unite the
		two confessions by acts of government
(as in Prussia in 1817; see PRUSSIA) have produced
the " United Evangelical Church " and bodies of
" Separated Lutherans " who objected to the Union
(see LUTHERANS, II.). But Lutherans, Reformed,
and the Separatists are all reckoned to the " Evangel
ical Church "	(for " Sectarianism in Germany" and
the connotation of the word "sect," see below, II.).
Liberty of conscience is secured by the several state
constitutions and by imperial law. The Evangelical
Church does not concern the empire as such, but is the
affair of the individual states, each of which has its
own church or churches which it supports. For
organization, church government, and more de
tailed information, see the articles on the individual
states; see also the denominational articles, particu
larly LUTHERANS. Information concerningChristian
work and the religious life in Germany will be
found in the articles on special organized agencies,
such a8 BUND, EVANGELISCHFR; CONFERENCE, FREE
ECCLESIASTICAI‑SOCIAL; D"CON; DEACONESS; EI
SENACH CONFERENCE; GUSTAV‑ADOLF‑VEREIN; IN
NERE MISSION; etc., and certain peculiarly German
problems in church government and the relation be
tweenChurchand Stateare discussed from the Ger
man standpoint in CHURCH AND STATE; CHURCH
GOVERNMENT; COLLEGIALISM; and TERRITORIALISM.
	In 1900 the Evangelical Church in Germany had
17,454 clerical charges, 14,213 parishes, 10,037
stations, and 1,014 dioceses. Candidates for the
ministry must complete a prescribed course of
theological study at a university and pass certain
examinations. The average yearly salary for a
clergyman at the start is 2,260 marks; the average
maximum salary is 3,564 marks. Hamburg pays
the highest salaries, that of a beginner being 4,000
marks, the maximum 6,000 marks. Pensions vary
from about	1,000 to 4,000 marks, according to
length of service. Pensions for widows amount to
20 to 25 per cent of the highest salary drawn by the
husband, and usually an extra allowance is made for
the children.
	The Roman Catholic Church in Germany is
organized into five archbishoprics and twenty bish
		oprics, as follows: the archbishopric of
	3. The	Cologne, with bishoprics of Monster,
	Roman	Paderborn, and Treves; the archbish
	Catholic	opric of Gnesen‑Posen, with the bish
	Church.	opric of Culm; the archbishopric of
		Munich‑Freising, with bishoprics of
Augsburg, Passau, and Regensburg; the arch
bishopric of Bamberg, with bishoprics of Eicbstdtt,
W orzburg, and Speyer; the archbishopric of Frei
burg, with bishopries of Fulda, Limburg, Mainz,
and Rottenburg; and the six exempt bishoprics of
Breslau, Ermland, Hildesheim, Osnabrock, Stras‑
burg, and Metz. There are three apostolic vicariates, one for Saxony, one for Anhalt, and one for the northern missions; also two apostolic prefectures, one for Sleswick‑Holstein and one for Lusatia. The Roman Church is subsidized by the various states just as is the Evangelical Church, and, in some cases, the Jewish Church. The Old Catholics have a bishop at Bonn.
In 1872 began in Germany the so‑called Kulturkampf, during the course of which numerous stringent laws were passed against the Roman Catholics (see ULTRAMONTANIBM). These measures, with the exception of the law expelling the Jesuits, were later repealed; and in 1904, through their powerful political party, the Centrum, the Catholics secured the repeal of the clause of this law giving full power to expel individual members of the Society of Jesus and kindred orders. Other clauses of the law excluding from the empire such orders in their corporate capacity remain in force. This is practically the only restriction now placed on the Roman Catholics in Germany. See GERMAN CATHOLICISM.
Education is compulsory throughout the empire for children from about the sixth to the fourteenth
year, though the school‑age varies 4. Edu‑ somewhat in the different states. cation. The percentage of illiteracy is only
about one‑half of one per cent. Despite increasing agitation for secular education, public elementary schools are usually confessional, being either Protestant or Roman Catholic; and local supervision of schools is still largely in the hands of the clergy (see CHURCH AND SCHOOL). In the curriculum religion has its place with other subjects. The system of secondary and technical education is admirable, and there are twenty‑one universities in the empire, each having, as a rule, distinct faculties of theology, law, medicine, and philosophy. The theological faculties are Roman Catholic in the universities of Freiburg, Monster, and W orzburg. At Bonn, Breslau, Strasburg, and Tobingen there are both Evangelical and Roman Catholic theological faculties. All the universities are maintained and administered by the states in which they are located.]
II. Sectarianism in Germany: The word "sect" is derived from the Latin sequor, " to follow," or from seco in the sense of sequor. In classical Latin recta meant a mode of thinking, acting, or living, then specifically a political party or philosophical school or tendency. The Vulgate used the word to translate the Greek hairesis in Acts xxiv. 5, xxvi. 5, and in other passages where it means simply the religious tendency which one has chosen. In the
Epistles of the New Testament the I. Meaning term has reference to the formation
of "Sect." of factions within the Christian con‑
gregation (cf. Gal. v. 20; II Pet.. ii. 1). This usage was continued by the Church, and Luther employed Sekte in his translation of the Bible in the same sense. Under present conditions in Germany, distinction must be made between the political and the church use of language. The State regards as sects all religious communities that are not acknowledged by it. But it is conceivable that the relation of the State to the Evangelical state

Germany
Oernler
churches might be dissolved, or that the State might annul the distinction between the acknowledged churches and the sects, and yet there might be communities which would have to be considered sects from the standpoint of the Church. The Evangelical Church of Germany claims privileges against the sects not so much by reason of its acknowledgment by the State as by being the national Church which for centuries has fostered and developed the religious and ethical ideals of the people. A church community might perhaps be designated most aptly by the name of sect where the exclusive or Donatistic conception of the Church forms the leading idea; where the demand to represent the communion of saints puts into the background the catholicity of the Church; where the national Church is considered more or less as a Babel from which one must separate himself; and where the historical development of the Church is treated with little consideration.
The communities which exist in Germany beside the Evangelical state churches or have existed there temporarily fall into very different groups. First must be mentioned those which were received into Germany because of persecution in other
countries and subsequently were ale. Different lowed to establish their own forms of
Classes of worship. To this category belong,
Non‑estab‑ among others, the Walloons and French lished from the territory of Calvinism, the Bo‑
Churches. hemian Brethren, the Waldenses, and
especially the Mennonites. Communities of this kind have been gradually brought into friendly relations with the state churches. From the standpoint of church feeling and sentiment even the Mennonites, who remained isolated, can hardly be considered sects, because their communities are not separations from the German Evangelical Churches and they have never attempted to proselyte from those Churches. In like manner the congregations of foreigners, such as English and Americans in Berlin and other cities, can not be considered sects.
Separations from a state church constitute a second group. Such separations have originated because a minority did not approve of changes in the constitution and rites of a particular State Church (e.g., the Old Lutherans or Separated Lutherans in Prussia; see LUTHERANS; PxussiA). Such separations concern an entire church body. But there are also separations of a local and ephemeral character, as when a clergyman falls into conflict with his church authorities and carries a part of his congregation with him in the organization of a new church. It is a disputable question in how far such separations come under the conception of " sect." It is to be considered whether the separatists were justified in their opposition, which may have been against progress in the Church; whether their conception of the Church has experienced a change in the direction of Donatism; whether after separation they are still able to take part in the spiritual development of Evangelical theology or isolate themselves theologically and thus become sectarian.
A third group of separate congregations, which are undoubtedly 11 sects," has originated in Ger‑
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
472
many by the invasion of Anglo‑American Christianity. Here we have to do not with separations based on the internal history of the churches of the German Reformation, but with representatives of another conception of churchdom, of other views concerning the way of salvation, and other ideals of piety. They have come over to Germany considering the German churches as a missionary field. Herein lies the real danger of sectarianism for the German churches‑a danger of a twofold kind, because, in the first place, the German churches are deprived of zealous and active members; in the second place, the invasion of foreign ideas produces a foreign spirit in the national churches and exercises a disintegrating effect upon them.
The reasons for the estrangement of Germans from their mother church must not be sought primarily in sectarian teachings themselves. The attraction of sectarianism lies deeper. There is a wide variance between the religious ideal of the church and the actual condition of the congregations. The sect allures above all the active, working members by proposing to them a community of none but living Christians. Herein, in the compact spiritual community which it offers, lies the chief power of attraction exercised by a sect. Other reasons for separation are the craze for religious fads; spiritual haughtiness, which feels itself elevated above the duly appointed authorities; ambition; impatience and dislike of the dependence of the Church upon the State or of the "scientific theology" taught to the clergy by the universities.
The constitutional law of the State in regard to sects has undergone various changes since the
Religious Peace of Augsburg and the 3. Attitude Peace of Westphalia. By the former of the State only Roman Catholics and adherents
Toward of the Augsburg Confession received Sects. recognition by the State; in 1648 the
Reformed were also recognized. These three churches still enjoy special privileges. The State supports them, considers their spiritual offices as public offices, and provides theological faculties for the education of their clergy. Of other communities only the Jews were to be tolerated, but exceptions have been made. The Bohemian Brethren were received in Brandenburg, Prussia, in 1548, and the Mennonites in 1722. The French Reformed were granted privileges in 1639, 1685, and 1694. Frederick II. tolerated Moravians, Schwenkfelders, and even Socinians. In 1847 a law was passed empowering local courts to attest births, marriages, and deaths of " tolerated " communities that previously had been required to report them to the preachers of the parishes in which they lived for entry in the parish registers. A constitutional document of 1848 (revised 1850) made the enjoyment of civil and political rights independent of religious confession, but with the proviso that religious communities without corporative rights could obtain them only by special laws. Such rights were obttained by the Mennonites in 1874, and by the Baptists in 1875. The legal status of sects has been further alleviated by the introduction of civil register‑offices and obligatory civil marriage (1874 for Prussia, 1875 for the empire).

473	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Germany
Gernler
The church authorities agree that, in combating sects, appeals to the secular powers are to be rejected. An effective opposition must recognize that
the religious needs which attract memo. Means of bers of the state churches to the sects Combating must be satisfied within the Church.
Sects.	Every appearance of a sect is a warn‑
ing to the Church of defects and abuses, and to remove such faults is the way to preserve members for the Church, and meet the accusations of sectarians. It is an open question what measures of discipline should be followed against members who have associated themselves with sects without severing their connection with the State Church. It is maintained by some that occasional participation in the services of sectarians or even in their celebration of the Lord's Supper does not exclude a person from the State Church. Others would refuse the sacrament of the State Church to apostatizing members. There seems to be agreement on the following points: (1) clergymen of the state churches can not remain in office if they stand in any connection with a sect; (2) school authorities must tolerate no teacher of religion who has joined a sect; (3) adherents of a sect must not be admitted to honorary positions in the Church, such as that of elder and the like; (4) the receiving of a second baptism is to be treated as an actual separation from the State Church.
Accurate statistics of sects in Germany are not available. According to Pieper's Kirchliche Statis‑
tik Deulschlands (Tiibingen, 1899), g. Statistics. which is based on the census of 1895,
Prussia has besides 20,351,448 members of the Evangelical State Church, 119,245 members of " other Protestant church communities," i.e., almost 6 per cent of Evangelicals who do not belong to the State Church. According to the statistics of Prussia in 1900 there were 45,594 Old Lutherans, 14,543 Old Reformed, 4,031 Moravians, 13,876 Mennonites, 38,143 Baptists, 5,226 Methodists and Quakers, 32,215 Irvingites, 2,557 belonging to English churches, 272 members of the Salvation Army, 8,400 belonging to " Free Congregations," 27,679 " dissidents," and 5,635 " other Christians." The statistics of the German Empire for 1890 showed besides 31,000,000 of Protestants belonging to the State Churches, 145; 000 adherents of smaller communities. Such figures are inaccurate, since many adherents of sects have not formally separated from their respective State Churches, and many who simply call themselves " Evangelical " are not counted. Later statistics show that the number of sec‑
tarians is increasing. 	(G. KAwERnu.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: For sources there is nothing comparable to
the MGH. Consult also P. JaHB, Bibl%otheca rerum Ger
maniaavm, 6 vole., Berlin. 1884‑73: J. von Hartaheim.
Conedlia German%as,Cologne, 1759‑83; and for a general
history the work of J. Janssen, Geachichti des deutadaen
Yollua, 8 vole., Freiburg, 1903, Eng. tranal., 10 vole.,
London, 1907. A satisfactory review is even in E. F.
Henderson, Short Hiat. of Germany, 2 vole., New York,
1902. On the early religion consult P. D. Chaatepie de
Is $suasape, Religion of the Teutons. Boston, 1902; and
for origins compare F. B. Gummere, Germanic Origin#,
New York, 1892. The early period of church history
is treated in the works on the history of the Church in
Germany by Friedberg. Rettberg, and Hauck, and in W. Stubbs, Germany in the Early Middle Apes. 47111860, ad. A. Hassell, 1908. For German Protestantism consult: C. F. A. Kahnie, Internal HiaE. of German Protestantism, Edinburgh, 1856: J. I. Good, Origin of the Reformed Church in Germany. Reading. Pa.. 1887; $. B. Gould, The Church in Germany, London, 1891; R. Rocholl, Geachichta ds' evanpeliaehen Kirche in Deutschland, Leipsie, 1897: C. Tiaehhauser, Geachichte der eroangdiachera Kirche Deutachlanda in der araten HBlfte des 19. Jahrhunderla, Basel, 1900; G. Eeke, V :e evanpeliachen Landeakirchen Deutadelanda %m 19. Jahrhunderk. Berlin, 1903; R. $eeberg, Die Kirche Deutachlands %m 19. Jahrhunderte, Leipsie, 1903; E. Foerater, Die Entatehunp der preuaaiachen Landeak%rche unter . . . Friedrich Wilhelm 111., vol. ii., Titbingen, 1907. For the Catholic Church consult: H. Brifek, Geachichte der katholsechen Kirche im 19. Johrhunderte in Deutschland, 4 vole., Mainz, 18871901; G. Goyau, L'Allemapne religieusa. Le Catholiciame, 1800‑181,8, 2 vole., Paris, 1897‑1905; A. Werminghoff, GeachicJvte der Kirchenfaaeunp Dautachlanda im Mittelalter, Hanover, 1905. For the relations between Protestants and Catholics read: J. A. Moehler, Neu@ Unterauchunpen der Lehrpepenadtze ztalachen den Kathol%ken and den Profeatanten, Regensburg, 1900; P. Maiunke, Geach%chte des Kulturkampfea in Deutschland, Paderborn, 1902. For a general view of religious life consult: E. F. Williams, Christian Life in Germany as Seen %n the State and the Church, New York, 1897. For statistics consult: P. Pieper, Kirchliche Statiatik Deutachlande, Tiibingen, 1899; H. A. Kroee, Konfesaionasfatiatik Deutachlanda, Freiburg, 1904; Von Hirschfeld, in Zeitechrroft du kbnip1%chen preuaaiaehenatatiatiaW enBureaua, iii (1863), iv (1884); J. Schneider, Kirchlichea Jahrbuch (an annual; 35th issue, 1908). On sectarianism in Germany consult: Allpomeina Rirchenblatt, 1853, 1855. 1884, 1886 (gives reports of discussions in the Eisenach Conference on the question of assts); H. Schmidt, Die Kirche. Ihre tri6liache Idea and die Fnrmen ihrer . . . Ersclaeinunp, pp. 189 eqq., Leipeie, 1884; H. F. Jacobson, in ZKR, i (1881), 392 eqq.; idem, Evanpdiachea Kirchenrecht, i. 124‑125, Halle, 1864: C. Palmer, Die Gemeinachaften and Sekten Wiirttem6erpa, Tiibiagen, 1877; L. von R&nne, Staatarecht der yreueaiachen Monarchic, ii. 2, pp. 151 eqq., Leipaic,1882; Richter, Rirchenrecht, pp. 318 aqq.; E. Dreabach. Die proteatantiachen Sekten der Gepenwart, Diiaseldorf,1887; W. Rohnert, Kirche, Kirehtn and Sekten, Leipaie, 1900; E. Kalb, Kirchen and Sekten der Gepenwart, Stuttgart, 1905: J. Jiingat. Der Methodiamua in Deutschland, Giessen, 1908.
GERNLER, garn'ler, LUgAS: Swiss Reformer; b. at Basel Aug. 19, 1625; d. there Feb. 9, 1675. After completing his theological studies at the age of twenty, he visited Geneva, and then made a tour of France, England, Holland, and Germany. On his return to Basel in 1649, he was appointed deacon in general for all the churches of the city, and in 1653 was made archdeacon (assistant pastor) at the cathedral, becoming president and first pastor three years later. At the same time he was appointed professor of polemics and the encyclopedia of theology, a position which he exchanged for a professorship of the Old Testament in 1665. His opposition to the overtures of John Durie (q.v.) for union resulted in their rejection in 1662 and 1666, and his hostility toward the theology of Saumur was equally marked. He was the chief author of the Syllabus controversiarum, which appeared at Basel in 1662, and prepared the way for the Helvetic Consensus Formula.. His theological writings are of minor importance, though several collections of his sermons have been published. He induced the council to erect an orphan asylum in Basel, and in 1666 edited the Agenda in a form which remained unchanged for the Church of Basel until 1826. Under the title of Antiquttates Gernleriance be published a collection of documents which are one of

Gerok
Gerson
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	474
the chief sources for a knowledge of the Reforma
tion in Bawl. 	(R. STAHELmt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Athena liauricm. pp. 48‑x. Basel, 1778; K. R. Hageabach, Oeachiehte . . . der eaten Basler Confession, pp. 187 sq9..Basel. 1827: idem. Die tAeoZopdache 3chude Basels and Are Lehrar, iv. 31‑32, ib. 1880; ADB, ix. 37.
GEROg, g6‑r&', KARL: German preacher and poet; b. at Vaihingen‑on‑theEnz (lb m. n.w. of Stuttgart), Wiirttemberg, Jan.30,1815; d. at Stuttgart Jan. 14, 1890. His father removed to Stuttgart a few weeks after the birth of his son, and there Karl Gerok spent most of his life. As his father and both grandfathers were clergymen, the ministry was his natural vocation. He was educated at thegymnasium of Stuttgartand in 1832 entered the University of Tilbingen, where he studied diligently Hegel's philosophy and Schleiermacher'stheology. In 1837 he became his father's vicar in Stuttgart. From 1840 till 1843 he was tutor in Tilbingen. In 1844 he became deacon in BSblingen (about 9 miles from Stuttgart), where he had leisure to write numerous treatises and essays for periodicals. In 1849 he became deacon in the Spitalkirehe of Stuttgart, in 1851 in the Stfftskirehe. In 1852 he was appointed archdeacon in thesame church and dean of the country diocese. In 1862 he became preacher of the Spitalkireheand dean of the town diocese. From 1868 until his death he was court preacher and member of the consistory with the title and rank of prelate. Apart from his activity as pastor and preacher, he held offices as president or member in numerous committees and societies.
Gerokwas a man in whom the culture of his time and Christian truth stood in living connection. To the harmony of his nature corresponded the mildness of his judgment in regard to others; even in the fall he was able to discover the weak germs of goodness. His sermons were built upon the moral basis of diligence and faithfulness. Although he carefully elaborated and memorized them, they were plain and simple, yet full of life and color. They had always a practical relation to life, and their form and contents were aided by a solemn and edifying delivery that inspired esteem for Christianity even in worldly people. As a poet, Gerok educated his taste by studying the great classics. He kept his productions secret until his mature age, and it was only in his fortieth year that his first poem was published. His poetry had its root in the word of the Bible, and all subjects which he treated‑history, the fatherland, and nature‑are transfigured by the light of a Christian view of the world. He was essentially a lyric poet. His collections of poems appeared under the titles Palmblatter (Stuttgart, 1857; Eng. transl.,Palm Leaves, London, 1885); Pfingstrosen (Giitersloh, 1864); Blumen oral Sterns (Stuttgart, 1868); Deutsche 0stern (1871); Auf einsamen Gdngen (1878); Der letzte Strauss (1884); U7bter dxm Abendstern (1886); Christkind (1887). He published also several volumes of sermons, and Von Jerusalem naeh Rom (Stuttgart, 186k3), Bible studies on the Acts of the Apostles. His " HomileticalSuggestions " to G. V. Lechler's Acts of the Apostles in Lange's Commentary (Bielefeld, 1861)
may also be mentioned.	(H. 111OBAPP. )
131BLTOGRAPHY: In the first place as a source stands Gerok's Jupanderinnerungen, Laipsic, 1898. Consult: H. Moeapp. Karl li'erok, sin Bild seines Lebena and Wirkena, Stuttgart, 1$90; idem. Karl Gerok in seiner Wirkaamkeit fttr den Ouataro‑Adolt‑Verein, Barmen, 1890: F. Braun, ErinrMrunpen an Karl (ierok, Leipsie, 1891; G. Gerok, Karl l3erok, sin Lebenebild aua aeinen Briejen and Aufzeichnunpen, Stuttgart, 1892.
GERRHENIANS, ger‑ri'ni‑anz: The name of a people or of the inhabitants of a district in the extreme south of Palestine, mentioned II Mace. xiii.24 as marking the southern boundary (on the coast) of the Syrian province. The description there given tallies with the passage I Mace. xi. 59. Identification is not to be made with the military and impost station named Gerrhon or Gerrha, fifty stadia east of Pelusium, since this place was in Egyptian territory, and the passage in Maccabees does not imply a military station. Stark and Ewald connect it with the Gerar of Gen. xx. 1, xxvi. 1; II Chron. xiv. 13. The regio Geraritica is well known from the Onomasticorl of Eusebius and of Jerome (240, and 124) as located beyond (i.e., to the south of) Daroma as the borderland of Canaan and Egypt. The modern name of the Wadi Jerar or Jerur in the neighborhood of Kadesh recalls the old name and agrees with the geographical conditions.
(H. GUTHE.)
BIHLIOaEAPHr: K. B. Stark, Gaza and die Philiatuiaelu Riiste, p. 483, Jena, 1852; H. Ewald, QeachichEe des Ydkes kraal, iv. 416, GBttingen, 1884; C. L. W. Grimm, Dae zweite . . . Buch der Makkabder, Leipaic, 1857: H. Waco, Apocrypha, ii. 883, London, 1888.

GERSON, zhbr"s8n', JEAN CHARLIER DE.
His Philosophy. Mysticism (¢ 1).
His Pride se s Theologian. Influence of Patriotic Feeling (¢ 2).
Gerson's Doctrine of the Papacy and Councils (§ 3). The Council of Constance (14).
Last Years (¢ 5).
Johannes Arnaudi de Gersonio, as the earliest entry of his name reads in the records of the University of Paris, was chancellor of the University of Paris, one of the most prominent figures in the ecclesiastical disputes of the late fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries, and one of the founders of Gallicanism (q.v.). He was born in the long since obliterated hamlet of Gerson (Jarson), not far from Rethel (100 m. n.e. of Paris), in the diocese of Reims, Dec. 14, 1363, and died at Lyons July 12, 1429. He was the eldest son of peasants, Arnolphe le Charlier and Elisabeth Chardeni6re (concerning an extant letter from his mother to her two eldest sons, cf. Schwab, p. 54; Jadart, pp. 119120), and his education was made possible by the Duke of Burgundy's patronage. After preparation at Reims, he went to Paris in 1377 and entered the College of Navarre. Having completed his course in the arts in 1381, he took up theology the same year. In 1383 and 1384 he was procurator of the Gallic nation; in 1387 he was a member of the university's embassy to Clement VII. against the Dominican Jean de Montson, who denied the Immaculate Conception. He became doctor of theology in 1392, and in 1395 succeeded his teacher Pierre d'Ailly in the chancellorship. This office, which he occupied to the end of his life, gave him opportunity to exert a lasting influence not only

476	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	GMrok
		Gerson
	upon theological instruction, but on academic in
	struction at large; while the ecclesiastical position
	therewith connected favored his natural inclina
	tion to activity in the domain of ecclesiastical prac
	tise, preaching, and the cure of souls.
		He began his scholastic activity with a notable
	reform of the theological course on its practical side
	(cf. the letter to his teacher D'Ailly, De reforma
	tione theologise, Opera, i. 1, p. 120; and two letters
	to the scholars of the College of Navarre, p. 106).
	Only from the closing period of his life are certain
			tracts preserved which treat of logical
i. His Phi‑ and metaphysical problems. Gerson
		losophy. is a nominalist, but he seeks to mediate
	Mysticism. between this tendency and realism;
			our ideas of things first have necessity
	in the notion of God, and at this point being and
.thinking coincide. Philosophy, too, is a revelation
	of God, but knowledge needs to be supplemented
	through faith, which is not merely an act of cog
nition, but rather a matter of volition. Accordingly
	the task of theology is a practical one; and for
	Gerson the true theology is mysticism. The func
	tion of scholasticism is merely to supply the form
	for the treatment of mysticism. But the latter, in
	turn, can preserve its wholesomeness, that is to say,
	its ecclesiastical character, only by such treatment.
	Radical mysticism, including that of Jan van Ruys
	broeck (q.v.), Gerson combated zealously. His
	prototypes were Hugo and Richard of St. Victor
	(qq.v.) and Bonaventum; on occasion he reaches
	back to Bernard, Augustine, and the great Dio
	nysius. His principal mystical writings (Opera,
	vol. iii., ed. Du Pin) belong in a remarkable degree
	to the period of his activity in church politics; the
	Considerstiones de theologis mystics grew out of
lectures, and their second part bears evidence of
	having been written down in the autumn of 1407,
	during a journey as ambassador to Genoa. The
	mystical process culminates in love, the fundamental
attitude of mind, innate in man. In its highest
	development‑to be sure not an " actual " union
	with God, but still the closest conceivable moral
union‑it is also the highest knowledge. But the
	prepossessions of the theologian here prevent Ger
son from drawing the right conclusion from this
	knowledge. He speaks of a perfected knowledge
without love, and of a love without perfected in
	sight. Only the theologian can attain to perfected
	mysticism. And to restore to the theologian his
natural right, to enable him to exercise this right,
was the aim of his many‑sided literary and practical
	activity.
		The overpowering development of the papal rule
in the Church had thrust law before theology, the
	faculty of the canonists before that of the theo
			logians. And now the schism threat
	z. His Pride cued to destroy utterly the venerable
	as a Theo‑ halo of the Parisian doctors of divinity;
	logian. In‑ with a qistinctiy French papacy, also
	fluence of ‑after they had prided themselves on
		Patriotic having pronounced decisions for the
		Feeling.	popes of the entire Church‑they saw
			the danger that they would sink to the
	level of theological schools like Avignon and Tou
	louse. With their ambition patriotism worked as
an equally powerful factor, a product of the times, of the political need of France as it then was‑the most glowing enthusiasm for the idea of the French kingdom; and yet, the national growth of that same kingdom was, in reality, to strike the death‑blow to the university's world‑fame. The union of heterogeneous elements the theologian seeks in a single dogma: France the New Jerusalem, and its kingdom, since the baptism of Clovis, consecrated by a universal ecclesiastical call! The coalescence of the two factors is what stamps the character of a man like Gerson in its comprehensive historical bearings; for that is what dominates the activity in church polities which placed him among the leaders of his age.
Gerson entered the‑field of church politics as a follower of his teacher D Ailly; and this occasioned him at the outset a serious conflict, since he was pledged to follow the House of Burgundy, whereas D'Ailly had attached himself to the young Prince of Orl6ans,
and from the pontificate of Benedict 3. Gerson's XIII., the political opposition of these Doctrine of two houses had appeared more and the Papacy more sharply in ecclesiastical matters.
	and	Gerson sought to mediate, especially
Councils. in his highly finished Trialogus in
materia schismatis. Nevertheless lie belonged to the Burgundian camp, and in a great state address, in 1405, he dared to lay down the law to the " tyrant " Orl6ans. In the subsequent evolution of affairs, he became more and more of a partizan down to the Council of Pisa. He did not attend the same in person, but in his De unitate ecclesiastics and De auferibilitate papse ab ecclesia he upheld its legitimacy in the strongest terms; after the decrees of the council itself, his tracts are the most important original sources for " Councilism." Here, too, Gerson is not original, but dependent in the main on Conrad of Gelnhausen and Henry of Langenstein (q.v.); it was his casuistical elaboration of their principles, and, on another side, his diverting them from the danger of an antihierarchical negation, that first made them popular. For Gerson is so little of a "liberal" that lie attaches preeminent validity to papacy and hierarchy, as the mode of being immutably ordained by God for the Church. However, he makes a distinction between the office in itself (formaliter) and the office in its personal administration at any given time (materialiter); and as every law is interpreted by the purpose of the law, so the hierarchy is subordinate to the more comprehensive idea of the Church Ecumenical. Furthermore, this is not a mere theory, but it has its visible illustration in the general and at least potentially infallible council. The council, to be sure, is composed only of hierarchical authorities, but still every believer must be able to find expression therein. The individual pope is subject to the council, and, if need be, it can assemble without him. Indeed, the motive thought so greatly outweighs, in Gerson's mind, the literal text of the law that he supposes the contingency that a duly elected pope might be executed, if the weal of the Church required it.
At Constance, Gerson experienced the gratification of seeing this doctrine of his erected into an

Gerson
Cieoeaiue	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	476
article of faith; and he played a leading part at the head of the deputation from the University of Paris in the critical days after the flight of John XXIII (see CONSTANCE, COUNCIL OF). But
,4. The from that time forth his fame rapidly Council of paled. In the trial of Huss he served Constance. as accuser: After that, apart from certain reports and gala addresses, his name is no longer mentioned in the official documents. The animating forces of the council passed out of his control. In fact, though chancellor of the first university in the world, from whom an influence over that impressionable assembly might have been expected equaled by few others, he had missed his mark. He had conceived the notion of making the council decide a question which was really French in its coloring and beeame uplifted to the plane of a theological moral problem. On Nov. 23, 1407, an assassin's hand, in the hire of John of Burgundy, the son and heir of Philip, had made way with Duke Louis of Orldans, the brother of Charles VI.; and in the year following, Jean Petit, professor of theology in Paris, justified this murder as due to a tyrant and arch‑traitor. Gerson was so deeply devoted to the Burgundian cause that he maintained silence, and still further upheld the assassin's policy. But in Paris this shortly led to mob rule, and revolution was succeeded by reaction. Patriots' eyes were opened, and they became permanently estranged from the Burgundian. Gerson in particular now believed all the nation's misery to be traceable to that crying violation of law and morality, and thenceforward he applied all his power to the end of making satisfaction, without which a real peace were impossible. But by this course he naturally passed into the service of the opposing party, which came to wield a decisive influence in shaping the policy of the French delegation to the council, and‑if a few waverings be excepted‑continued to maintain this influence throughout the entire session. The bishop of Paris, on Feb. 23, 1414, had been obliged to condemn the " doctrine " of Petit; and it was desired to have the council confirm this verdict. In striving for this goal Gerson displayed a persistency which proclaims a pure idealism far exalted above partizan passion. It is his fairest renown, but also the tragic strain in his life. For in the course of the highly excited proceedings which extended over the years 1415 to 1417, he almost entirely isolated himself. From the council, which he had approached so joyfully and hopefully, he withdrew under the bitterest protest (cf. the Dialogus apologetieus and Tractatus quomodo etan liceat in eavsis ftdei a summo pontifice appellare seu ejus iudicium declinare). And, instead of returning to his beloved fatherland, he had to wander into exile for fear of his former patron, the Duke of Burgundy.
Through Albert of Bavaria he first found refuge at Rattenberg on the Inn, later at Neuburg. In the autumn of 1418 he moved over to
5. Last Austrian territory, probably to Mblk;
	Years.	and Duke Frederick of Austria even
		offered him a Vienna professorship.
After the assassination of John of Burgundy (Sept.
10, 1419) Gerson retired to the quiet of a canonry
at St. Paul's in Lyons, employing his leisure in
literary labors. Amid the abundance of partly
edifying, partly dogmatic and moral writings that
belong to this latter period, mention may be made
merely of the Consoktio theologize ; the rather long
poem Josephina, in honor of St. Joseph; the Gos
pel harmony Monotessaron ; the Dialogus sophioe
et naturm super ealibatu ; , the treatise De eoneordia
metaphysicte cum logica; the Collectorium super
Magni ficat, and the Tractatus super cantica canti
corum. He appeared in public only to deliver an
address before a provincial synod at Lyons (1421).
That he instructed children is probably a myth.
He obtained a proud monument in the Church of
St. Lawrence. The populace honored him as one
of the blessed, and miracles at his grave were re
ported. But this memorial did not survive the
progress of time, and the Church of St. Lawrence
itself succumbed to the Revolution. Only his
title of Doctor christianissimus continued to live
in the learned world in connection with his peren
nially reprinted works. For his claim to the au
thorship of the "Imitation of Christ" see KEMPIs,
THOmAs 1. 	B. BEBs.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The best and most complete edition of the works of Gerson is by L. Ellies Du Pin, 5 vols., Antwerp,
1706. For discussion of the sources up to 1858 the best works are J. B. Schwab, Johann Gerson, W ilrzburg, 1858,
and P. Tschackert, Peter von Ailli, Gotha, 1877. Consult J. C. E. Bourret, Essai historiqus et critique sur lea sermons frangaia de Gerson, Paris, 1858; H. Jadart, Jean de Gerson. . . recherches cur son origins, son village natal et so famine, Reims, 1882; K. Werner, Die Scholastik des spitteren Mittelalters, vol. iv., Vienna, 1887; E. Guillon, De Johanne Gersonio, Paris, 1888; B. Bess, Johannes Gerson and die kirchen‑politischen Parteien Frankreichs vor dam Koncil zu Pisa, Marburg, 1891. Consult also R. A. Vaughan, Hours urith the Mystics, i. 338, 369, London 1879; KL, v. 457‑473; Neander, Christian Church, v. 53‑93 et passim.

GERTH VAN WIJg, JOHANNES ABRAHAM:
Dutch Protestant; b. at Wijk bij Duurstede (12 m. s.e. of Utrecht) Aug. 27, 1827; d. at The Hague Dee. 23, 1907. He was educated at the University of Utrecht (D.D. 1859), and was minister at Eemnesbuiten (1864‑66), Kampen (1866‑72), Groningen (1872‑74), and The Hague (1874‑1902), being made pastor emeritus in 1902. In the latter year he was also made a knight of the order of Orange‑Nassau. He took an active part in the promotion of religious teaching in the public schools of Holland, and was a Dutch delegate to the conferences of the Evangelical Alliance at Copenhagen (1884), Berlin (1888), Florence (1891), and London (1896). Besides a number of translations and contributions to the Hauck‑Herzog RE, he wrote Historia Ecclesite Ultrajectin<e Romano‑Catholiete male Jansenisticm dictce (Utrecht, 1859) and Onze kinderen in Christus geheiligd (1866).

GERTRUDE: The name of several women honored as saints or blessed in the Roman Catholic Church.
1. Saint Gertrude the Great was born at Eisleben (18 m. w.n.w. of Halle) Jan. 6, 1256, and died at the Benedictine nunnery of Helpede, or Helfta, near Eisleben, in 1302 (according to others, about 1311). She entered this convent at the age of five and received a thorough education from its second

477	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA A	Gerson
abbess, St. Gertrude of Hackeborn (see below, 3). For twenty years her interest lay in secular subjects, until on Jan. 27, 1281, a vision of Christ changed the entire current of her thoughts, and she devoted herself henceforth to the exclusive study of the Bible and the Church Fathers. In Feb., 1290, she began to commit to writing the visions vouchsafed her. The German original of her four books of Insinuationes divince pietatis (or, more properly, Legatus divinte pietatis) is lost, and the work is preserved only in a Latin translation, first edited by the Carthusian Johann von Lansperg (Cologne, 1536) and frequently reprinted, both in Latin and in French, Flemish, Spanish, and German versions, especially after her canonization in 1677. Her biography, prefixed to the Insinuationes as the first book, seems to have been written some time after her death by one of the younger nuns at Helpede.
2. Saint (or Blessed) Gertrude, Abbess of Nivelles, was born about 625, and died, probably, Mar. 17, 659 (scarcely, as some think, in 664). She was the daughter of Pippin of Landen and Itta, or Iduberga, and when the latter founded the convent of Nivialla (the modern Nivelles near Brussels), about the middle of the seventh century, Gertrude, who had already refused the hand of a king (possibly Dagobert), entered it and succeeded her mother as abbess in 652. Her symbol is the lily, the emblem of virginity, and she is also frequently represented as surrounded by hosts of mice, since the expulsion of these creatures from the fields is recorded as one of her miracles.
3. Gertrude of Hackeborn, the sister of Matilda (q.v.), was born near Halberstadt (28 m. s.w. of Magdeburg) 1232, and died at the convent of Helpede in 1292. In 1251 she became abbess of the convent of Rodersdorf, but in 1258 went to Helpede, where she spent the remainder of her life.
4. Gertrude, the half legendary sister of Charlemagne, is said to have founded the convent of Karlaburg (or Saalburg) on the Main.
5. Gertrude, the daughter of the Thuringian landgrave Ludwig VI. and Saint Elizabeth, was born about 1226 and died in 1297. She was abbess of the Premonstratensian convent of Altenburg‑on‑theLahn.
6. Gertrude of Oosten, a pious Beguin at Delft,
Holland, is said to have received the stigmata in
1340; she died in 1358. 	(O. Z6Cxl.Eat.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: 1. Weisebrodt, Der heiiige Gertrud der Groseen " Gesaudter der goalichen Liebe," 2 vole., Freiburg,
1876; M. sintsel, Gertradis . . . Leben and Ofenbarunpen,
2 vols., Regensburg, 1876; KL, v. 473‑476.
2. The Vita, by a contemporary, is with a commentary
in ASB, March, ii. 590‑600, and ed. B. Krusch, in MGH,
Script. rer. Merov., ii (1888), 447‑464. Consult H. E. Bon‑
nell, Die Anfdnge des karolingiaden Hauees, pp. 149‑153,
Berlin, 1866; J. Friedrich, KD, ii. 341, 667‑670; Hauck,
KD, i. 307; for further literature, Potthast, Wegweiser,
1339‑40, and KL, v. 479‑480.
3. Revelationes Gertrud%anle ac Meehtildiance, vol. i.,
preface, Paris, 1875; KL, v. 477‑479.
GERVASIUS AND PROTASIUS, SAINTS: Two brothers martyred at Milan during the reign of Nero. In 386 their remains were found by St. Ambrose under the pavement of the church at Milan. He describes his discovery in a letter to his sister
(Epist., xxii.; cf. also Augustine, Con.f., ix. 7), and says the place of burial was revealed to him in a vision. This vision and the miracles which the relics immediately performed were used by Ambrose in his contest with the Arians as proof of his orthodoxy. The cult of the martyrs rapidly spread over Europe and was introduced into Africa by Augustine. In 1864 a porphyry shrine was discovered at Milan, which, according to the inscription it bears, contains the remains of the two martyrs and of Ambrose.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: ASB, June, iii. 817846; L. A. Muratori, Auecdota, i. 171‑177, Milan, 1697; DCB, ii. 666; KL, iv.
486‑491.
GESENIIUS, (HEINRICH FRIEDRICH) WILHELM: German Protestant Hebraist; b. at Nordhausen (38 m. n.n.w. of Erfurt) Feb. 3, 1786; d. at Halle Oct. 23, 1842. After completing his early training at the gymnasium of his native city, he entered the University of Helmstedt in 1803, where he received a lasting influence from the rationalistic H. Henke. Having taught for a short time at Helmstedt, he migrated to GSttingen at Easter, 1806, and a few months later received the degree of Ph.D. For three years he lectured at Gsttingen on the Old Testament and on the classics, Neander being one of his first pupils. In 1809 he accepted a position in the Roman Catholic gymnasium of Heiligenstadt, but in the following year went to a more congenial position at Halle as extraordinary professor of theology. In 1811 he was promoted to ordinary professor, and retained this position until his death, declining calls to Gottingen in 1827 and to Oxford in 1832. Semester after semester he had in his courses of lectures over a thousand pupils. In 1820 he visited France and England, and in 1835 went to England and Holland, both times bringing back rich treasures for his studies. Shortly after his return from this second trip, he was seized with a stubborn and painful disease of the stomach, which recurred at irregular intervals with increasing severity until it finally caused his death.
Gesenius was the pioneer of a new era of Hebrew philology. On the basis of the great Dutch Orientalists of the eighteenth century, he divorced Hebrew linguistics from dogmatic theology, and ph .ed the subject on the level of other linguistic sciences by a systematic comparison of cognate languages and a strictly rational method. As a lecturer he was no less influential than as an author. He was a born teacher, and knew how to make the driest subjects fascinating in their interest. Exactness of method, absorption in details, sobriety of judgment, clear presentation, and practicality were his chief characteristics. He was a student of linguistics rather than of theology, and his attention was devoted to details rather than to generalizations, even in the realm of Hebrew grammar.
In 1830, three years after receiving the title of consistorial councilor, Gesenius was attacked for his rationalism by the Pietistic Evangelische Kirchenzeitung, but the preliminary investigation conducted by the Minister of Worship, Altenstein, ended in the complete vindication of the accused professor and his colleagues. He was again assailed by

Geseafus
(lees	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	478
Heinrich Ewald for his grammatical views, but this onslaught in its turn proved futile.
The chief works of Gesenius were lexicographical. His dictionary, which bore in its first edition the title Hebraisches Hand‑tvorterbuch fiber die Schriften des Alten Testaments mit Einschlusa der geographischen Namen and der ehaldaischen Worter beym Daniel and Ezra, was begun in 1810 and completed two years later. Like the majority of his works, it was published at Leipsic. In 1815 appeared an abridgment entitled Neues Hebraisch‑Deutsches Handw6rterbuch caber die Schriften des Alten Testaments, which after its third edition in 1828 was translated by the author into Latin as Lexicon manuals Hebraic cum et Chaldaicum in Veteris Testamenti llbros (1833). The abridgment gradually superseded the original work, and has been repeatedly reprinted since the death of Gesenius, the fifth to the seventh editions (1868) being edited by F. E. C. Dietrich, the eighth to the eleventh (1890) by F. Miihlau and W. Volck, and the twelfth to the fourteenth (1905) by F. Buhl, A. Socin, and H. Zimmern. The richest fruit of his lexicographical studies was his Thesaurus philologicus criticus lingum Hebrtew et Chaldcete Veteris Testamenti (3 vols., Leipsie, 1829‑58), which was continued and completed after its author's death by his pupil E. R6diger. Among his grammatical works the chief is his Hebraische Grammatik, which first appeared in 1813, and which passed through repeated editions, thirteen being issued in the lifetime of Gesenius, who revised the last in 1842. After his death the fourteenth to the twenty‑first editions (1872) were revised by E. R6diger, and the twenty‑second to the twenty‑seventh (1902) by E. Kautzsch. This is by far the most popular work of Gesenius, and has been translated into French, Danish, English, Polish, Hungarian, and other languages. His extremely rationalistic Hebraiaches Lesebuch appeared in 1814, and after passing through six editions in the author's lifetime was edited by W. M. L. de Wette (1844) and A. Heiligstedt (1873). Mention may also be made of his Geschiehte der hebraischen Sprache and Schrift (Leipsie, 1815) and Ausfuhrliches grammatiseh‑kritisches Lehrgebaude der hebrdischen Sprache mit Vergleichung der verwandten Dialekte (1817).
The sole exegetical work of Gesenius was his Der Prophet Jesaia (3 parts, Leipsic, 1820‑21), one of the last products, of the rationalistic exegesis which had hitherto enjoyed complete supremacy, and one of the best productions of its class.
His remaining writings, in chronological order, include Versuch fiber die maltesische Sprache (Leipsic, 1810), in which he rightly interpreted the language as a corrupt Arabic dialect; De Pentateuchi Samaritani origins, indole et auctoritate (Halls, 1815); De Samaritanorum theologies ex fontibus ineditis (Leipsie, 1822); Carmina Samaritana (1824); De Bar Alio et Bar Bahlulo, lexicographis Syro‑Arabicis ineditis (1834); Paldographisehe Studien uber phbniziache and lvunische Schrift (Leipsie, 1835); Seripturm lingumque Phwnicim monuments quotquot supersunt (3 parts, 1837), the result of his second trip to England and a work which marks an epoch in Phenician studies; and numerous
briefer contributions to periodicals, particularly to
the Allgemeine Litteraturzeitung, of which he was
associate editor after 1828. He likewise contribu
ted a number of articles to Ersch and Gruber's
Encyklopadie. 	(R. KRAETZSCgnsAat.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Both the Handwdrterbuch and the Grammatik of Gesenius have appeared in several English translations. The earliest version of the former was by J. W. Gibbs (Andover, 1824); other versions, many of them with amendments and additions, followed‑by C. Leo (2 parts, Cambridge, 1825‑28), E. Robinson (Boston, 1836), and S. P. Tregelles (London, 1846). The Grammatik was rendered into English by rf. Stuart (Andover, 1826), T. J. Conant (Boston, 1839), B. Davies (London, 1869), and G. W. Collins and A. E. Cowley (Oxford, 1898). H. Gesenius, W. Geseniua, Ein Erinnerungeblatt an den hundertjabrigen Geburtetag, Halle, 1886 (printed, not published); R. H. S. (Robert HaymP). Geeeniua. Eine Erinnerung far seine Freunde, Berlin, 1842; T. K. Cheyne, Founders o/ Old Testament Criticism, pp. 53 sqq., London, 1893; ADB, ix. 89 eqq.

GESENIUS, ge‑si'ni‑us or gb‑zb'nf‑us, JUSTUS: Lutheran theologian of the seventeenth century, known for his catechisms; b. at Esbeck (near Elze, 20 m. s. of Hanover), in the principality of Kalenberg, July 6, 1601; d. at Hanover Sept. 18, 1673. His father was preacher at Esbeck. Having received his early education at the Adreanum in Hildesheim, he went in his eighteenth year to Helmstedt, where he studied under Georg Calixtus and Conrad Hornejus. In 1628 he took his degree of master of philosophy in Jena and was called as pastor to the church of St. Magnus in Brunswick. After seven years of beneficent activity there, he received a call to Hildesheim, the seat of George, duke of Brunswick, as court chaplain and preacher in the cathedral. After the duke's death (1641), he, as well as the whole consistory, removed to Hanover, where he became chief court chaplain and general superintendent of the principality of Kalenberg; later (1665) he was general superintendent of Grubenhagen as well. He received the degree of doctor of divinity in 1643 for a dissertation, De igne purgatorio.
Gesenius' importance lies chiefly in the services he rendered in the production of good hymnals and catechisms. With his friend David Denicke, he brought out a hymnal containing 222 hymns (Hanover, 1646), which was later enlarged and arranged for use in the churches. The compilers did not confine themselves to collecting and arranging the hymns, but also adapted many of the older ones and probably added a few of their own composition. To correct the prevailing ignorance in regard to Christian doctrine, Gesenius, in 1631, brought out his Kleine Katechismussehule, or " Brief Instruction as to how the Catechism Should be Taught to the Young and the Simple " (often reprinted). Later, by order of Duke George and of the consistory, he issued an abridgment of this work under the title Kleine Catechismusfragen caber den kleinen Catechismum Lutheri (1639 and many times republished). This work constitutes the celebrated catechism of Gesenius, which was introduced into all the schools of the principality of Kalenberg and gained great repute in many parts of Lower Saxony. Notwithstanding the praise which was accorded the author, he was violently

479	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	ass~iua
attacked, especially by Statius Buscher in his
Cryptopapismus novce theologise Helmstadiensis
(Hamburg, 1638). Although Gesenius justified
himself in a Grundliche Widerlegung (Ldneburg,
1641) and although his innocence was established
through an investigation by impartial theologians,
it must be admitted that, carried away by his zeal
for a lively faith and for better knowledge, he al
lowed himself to wander from the straight path of Lu
theran doctrine. Of the charge that he was secretly
a Roman Catholic he clears himself in his last
important work, Warum uillst du nicht r6misch
katholisch werden, wie deine Vorfahren ware n? (4
parts, Hanover, 1669‑72). The strife concerning
his Catechismus fragen was renewed in the eighteenth
century, when King George I., in 1723, sought
vainly to introduce Gesenius's catechism into the
duchies of Bremen and Verden (cf. Unschuldige
Nachrichten, 1724). In addition to the other serv
ices rendered by Gesenius to the cause of religious
education, he published, in 1656, a manual of in
struction in Biblical history, BIiblische Historien
Alten and Neuen Testaments. CARL BERTHEAu.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. J. R,ehtmeier, Braunechweigiaehe Kirchenpeschichte, iv. 458 eqq., Brunswick, 1715; J. K. F. Schlegel, Kirchen‑ and Reformations‑Oeschichte von Norddeutachland, vols. ii. iii., passim, Hanover, 1829‑32; F. Ehrenfeuchter, Zur Geschichte des Katechiemue, pp. 7982 and supplement pp. 62‑67, GSttingen, 1857; E. Koch, Geschichte'des Kirchenliedes, iii. 230‑237, Stuttgart, 1867; C. A. G. von Zezschwits, System der . . . Katedutik, II., ii. 1, pp. 93 eqq., Leipsic, 1874; ADB, ix. 87 aqq.; W. Bode, Quellennachweis titer die Lioder des hannoverieden . Gesangbuchea, Hanover, 1881; Julian, Hymnology,
p. 419.

GESHURITES, ge‑shfl'raits. See CANA", § 11.
GESS, ges, WOLFGANG FRIEDRICH: German Lutheran, belonging to the modem kenotic school (see CHRISTOLOGY, X., 4, § 2; KENosls); b. at Kirchheim unter Teck (16 m: s.e. of Stuttgart), Wurttemberg, June 27, 1819; d. at Wernigerode (43 m. s.w. of Magdeburg) June 1, 1891. He studied at the monastic school at Blaubeuren and at Tilbingen (1837‑11), and became vicar of his father, who was general superintendent at Heilbronn. Following the Wiirttemberg custom of his time, as candidate in theology in 1843 he visited various universities‑Heidelberg, Bonn, Berlin, Wittenberg, and Halle. His first pastorate was at Maulbronn, whence he returned in 1846 to Tiibingen as repetent, and then became pastor at Grossanspach. In 1850 he went to the Mission House in Basel as instructor in theology. From 1864 to 1871 he was ordinary professor of systematic theology and exegesis at G6ttingen, from 1871 to 1880 professor at Breslau and member of the Silesian consistory, then general superintendent of the province of Posen till 1885, after which time he lived in retirement at Wernigerode.
The teaching of Gess was fundamentally Biblical. " The Biblical doctrine of faith, which we have here to deal with," he declared in one of his lectures at Basel, " is derived not from the symbolical documents of any particular Church, but immediately from the revealing sources themselves. .
It presupposes that the transmitting author really comprehends the fundamental thoughts [of the
Spirit] out of which all Scripture has grown and did not import extraneous or foreign views." With Auberlen, Riggenbach, Stdhelin, and others he delivered popular lectures in Basel in 1860‑61 in vindication of the Christian faith (Eng. tranal., The Foundations of our Faith, Edinburgh, 1863), and here he first brought out his chief literary work, Die Lehre von der Person Christi (1856), with three supplementary articles " On the Atonement " in the Jahrbiicher fur deutsche T heologie, 1857‑59. He aims to set forth the conceivableness of the union " of the complete humanity and the real divinity in Christ," especially in the light of Phil. ii. 5 sqq.; and to prove " how completely a demonstration, once apprehended with ethical profundity, of the righteousness of God in the fact of Christ's death, corresponds to the needs of the human conscience, and accords with the holy love of God." In connection with his lectures in Gottingen he began to rewrite the work entirely de novo and as the result published first Christi Selbstzeugniss (Basel, 1870); a second part, Das apostolische Zeugmas von Christi Person and Werh; followed in two volumes (18781879), the first treating of Paul's views and influence, the second of the apostolic testimony after Paul's labors; a third and concluding part, Dogmatische Verarbeitung des Zeugnisses Christi and der apostolischen Zeugnisse, also entitled Das Dogma van Christi Person and Werk entwickelt arts Christi Selbatzeugniss and den Zeugnissen der Aposted appeared in 1887. His last work, Die Inspiration der Helden der Bibel and der Schriften der Bibel was issued in 1891 by his son, Ernst Gees, pastor in Berlin, after his death.
The solution of the problem, °° how he who was born as very man can be the same person with him who had glory with the Father before the foundation of the world, Who was as God with God" (vol. iii., p. 254), constituted the literary life‑work of Gess. " Christ's actual acknowledgment of the righteousness of God by silent and humble endurance of the sentence of condemnation, is the mainspring of his messianic work " (iii. 144). The expression that with the Son of God all variableness is excluded, is " only a theological construction, not a canon of Christ, Paul, John " (iii. 352). The " great transformation " took place in him, " in that he passed over from the life of the absolute, or self‑constituent, into the life of the transposed, or objectively constituted " (p. 353). Just as with the children of men God creates the soul at the instant of conception, and the divinely created spirit unites with the bodily nature engendered by man and woman, so " with Jesus the Logos‑Nature unites with the corporal nature as conceived in Mary by the Holy Ghost." Thus arises " the resemblance of Jesus to his mother " (p. 360). So, too, his vital development is conditioned by the gradual maturing of his bodily organism (p. 367). Again, his sanctification remained " the act of real freedom; that is, the freedom of choosing between contrasted or opposing possibilities " (p. 369). " He was still in the process of learning, even in Gethsemane (Heb. v. 7 sqq.). He was doing the same on the cross. Only with his death was his voluntary sanctification, together with the Atone‑

GazGethesemane	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	480
ment, completed" (p. 370). After glorification he lives in the body, " mediates all his world work, even his triune relationship, through his body .... Nay more, even his soul's life itself maintains the impress that was stamped upon it by his earthly career; his holiness, his love, his mercy, though divine, is at the same time accounted human " (p. 411).
	Of the minor works of Gess, the Bibelstunden on
the last discourses of Jesus (Basel, 1871) reached a
fifth edition in 1894, and those on the Epistle to the
Romans (2 vols., 1885‑88) a second edition in
1892. He also published several volumes of lec
tures. 	WILHELM SCHMIDT.

GETHSEMANE. See JERUSALEM, V., § 5.
GEZELIUS, ge‑z5'li‑us, JOHANNES: The name of two bishops of Abo, Finland.
1. Johannes Gezelius the Elder was born at Romfertuna, Westmanland, Sweden, 1615; d. 1690. He studied at Dorpat from 1632 and became professor ‑of Greek and Hebrew there in 1641. As such he lectured diligently and published text‑books of which there was a great need at that time. About 1649. he became provost at Skedevi in Oesterg6tland, Sweden, where he devoted himself with diligence to the service of the congregation, and also gathered students around him and held lectures. On the recommendation of Count M. G. de Is Gardie he was appointed general superintendent in Livonia and vice‑chancellor of the University of Dorpat. Owing to his energy and efficiency, he was made bishop in Abo in 1664, where he found his real life‑work. He was intent upon raising the standard of education among the Finnish preachers, required a theological examination of all who intended to enter the ministry, and ordered all preachers to introduce church registers with the names of all church‑members. Of people who intended to marry, he required a knowledge of Luther's catechism. Every family was to be provided with a hymn‑book, a book of prayer and meditations. He exerted himself to teach his people to read, and paid much attention to the education of children. He had his own printing establishment in which most of the Finnish publications of the time were printed. He showed impatience of the opinions of others, however, and his reluctance to grant liberty of conscience to Pietists is not free from blame. He published many text‑books, and one on the Greek language (1647) was much used. For his preachers he published a Fasciculus hamileticarum dispositionum annis eirciter XXVII seorsim editarum (1693) and Casuum conscientice et prmeipuorum qucestionum practicarum decisiones (1689). He also started a great work on the Bible which was continued by his son.
2. Johannes Gezelius the Younger, son of the former, was born in 1647; d. 1718. He entered the university in 1661. In 1670 he received a royal stipend to go abroad for the completion of his studies, and visited Germany, Holland, England, and France. Immediately after his return, he was appointed professor extraordinary in the University of Abo. In 1681 he became superintendent in In‑
germanland. In 1689 his aged father called him back to Abo to be his assistant, and the next year he became his successor. He faithfully continued his father's labors and devoted much time to the great work on the Bible; but he also was not able to finish it. The New Testament appeared during his lifetime (1711‑13), the Old Testament after his death (1724‑28). In 1711 he fled before the invading Russians to Stockholm, where he remained until his death. His attitude toward the Pietists was as haughty and intolerant as that of his father. (J. A. CEDERBERC3.)
GEZER, gi'zer.
Documentary History (¢ 1). Excavations; the Troglodytic Period (§ 2). Semitic Period to the Exile (§ 3). $yro‑Greek Period (¢ 4). Results of Excavation (¢ 5).
The city of Gezer, known from the Old Testament as a stronghold of the Canaanites or frontier fortress of the Philistines, has acquired no slight interest at present owing to the thorough and scientific excavations, covering about half the area, carried on there during 1902‑05 by R. A. S. Macalister for the Palestine Exploration Fund. It is the modern Tel‑Jezar, 18 m. w. in a direct line from Jerusalem, 20 m. s.e. of Jaffa, to the north of the railroad, near the foot of the hills which border the extreme northeast of the Plain of Philistia. The name is in the list of names of places in Palestine left by Thothmes III. at Karnak (c. 1500 B.C.) as held by him under an Egyptian governor. In the Amarna Tablets it figures frequently, part of the time as loyal and furnishing provisions to Jerusalem (then a city asserting its fidelity to the
Egyptians), later as among the eneI. Docu‑ mies of Ebed‑tob, king of Jerusalem, mentary and unfaithful to the Egyptian overHistory. lord. The inscription of the Pharaoh
Meneptah (c. 1280 B.c.) mentions the city, though the meaning of the inscription is not clear in this part, since it has been rendered as saying that Gazer was captured by the Egyptians, and on the other hand that it was taken by the Ashkelonites. According to Josh. x. 33, xii. 2, its king and people were defeated by Joshua, and the city itself was assigned (theoretically) to Ephraim (Josh. xvi. 3) and to the Kohathite Levites (Josh. xxi. 21), though it was not captured by the Hebrews but became tributary to them (Josh. xvi. 10; Judges i. 29). In II Sam. v. 25 it appears as the limit of David's pursuit of the Philistines. According to I Kings ix. 15‑16 it figures as the conquest of a Pharaoh who assigned it to his daughter, the consort of Solomon. Solomon strengthened its fortifications and it became an important fortress, commanding one of the principal routes from the coast to Jerusalem. Because of this fact it was in Maccabean times, under the name Gazara, the object of constant struggle between the Syrians and Maccabees (I Mace. iv. 15, vii. 45, ix. 52, xiii. 43, 53, xiv. 7, 34, xv. 28; II Mace. x. 32). It is the Mont Gisart of the period of the Crusades, where Baldwin V. gained the victory over Saladin in 1177. Its site was identified by C. Clermont‑Ganneau in 1873,

481	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Gethsemane
		eezer
who discovered there three bilingual inscriptions in
Greek and Hebrew, one has the phrase " Boundary
of Gezer."
		The results of the recent excavations are in a
measure checked and confirmed by excavations
				at Tel‑Hesy, Taanak, and Megiddo,
	a. Excava‑ though the value of the Gezer exca
	tions; The vations is in some respects far greater
	Troglodytic than at either of the other places
		Period.	named because of the continuous his
				tory uncovered and the greater an
tiquity to which that history is traced. No less
than eight stages in the story of the population of
Palestine are revealed in these researches, as repre
sented by eight series of dwellings. The lowest of
these stages is referred to troglodytes of a period
about 3000 B.C. or earlier, the latest to a period
about 100 B.C. The two lowest strata involve the
existence of two series of cave‑dwellers, of low
stature, averaging little above five feet two.inches
in height; they inhabited a chain of underground
chambers somewhat extensive in plan, used flint
and bone weapons of the neolithic type, domesti
cated the cow, pig, sheep, and goat, sacrificed the pig
to an underground deity, and cremated their dead;
the later of them employed extensively the yoni as a
religious emblem. The city of this period was
defended by walls of earth faced with stone.
	The next two periods, covering perhaps 2500
1200 B.C., are early Semitic; the people ranged in
height from five feet seven inches to five feet eleven
inches, flint is gradually replaced by bronze while
iron begins to appear toward the end, and the fe
male phallic emblems of the previous period are
				replaced by those of the male type.
	3. Semitic One of the distinguishing features of
	Period to this period is a " high place " on which
	the Exile. a megalithic temple is indicated in a
				series of rough stone pillars, ten in num
ber, of which eight remain, while the places of the
other two are marked, these ten being separated
by an interval into groups of three and seven. Of
the eight still standing seven are of native stone,
while the other has been brought from a distance,
and is still marked by a groove which perhaps held
the ropes by which it was dragged. These pillars
range in height from five feet five inches to ten feet
six, and one of them shows clear traces of having
been an object of worship. The city wall of these
periods and the next was of stone, fourteen feet in
thickness and nearly a mile in circumference.
These two strata, as well as the one immediately
preceding, yielded many scarabs, most of them
belonging to the middle kingdom of Egypt, and in
particular abundance rude pottery images of a cow
the emblem of fertility and connected with Astarte.
This period also yielded several examples of the
foundation sacrifice, including infants, a young girl,
and an aged and deformed woman and an old man.
Some such cult as Moloch‑worship is implied by the
many charred remains of skeletons of infants. One
object belonging to the end of this period is a
masonry box‑tomb with objects of art in silver and
alabaster and a mirror, an exotic suggesting, per
haps the Philistine occupation. The fifth and sixth
strata cover the Hebraic period, the fifth being
			I V__31
apparently that of the city destroyed by the Pharaoh of I Kings ix. 16, and the next the Gezer of the Hebrew regal period. In this age foundation sacrifice was merely symbolical, indicated by deposition of bowls without the skeleton. The end of this age, corresponding to the Assyrian occupation, is represented by two tablets in the cuneiform, neither of them entire, but both dated, one either 649 or 651 B.C., the other two years later. The first relates to the sale of an estate of which a slave and his family formed part, and the governor is Hur‑wasi, an Egyptian name, regarded as showing, when taken in conjunction with other Egyptian remains, Egyptian control of the city continuously from Solomonic times. The second records the sale of a field by a Hebrew named Nethaniah. The record of dealings in the Assyrian script under an Egyptian governor repeats the characteristic of the Amarna Tablets.
The seventh period is the Syro‑Greek, including the Maccabean age. Characteristic of this is a votive altar, bearing on one side a
4. Syro‑ dedication to Heracles, on the other
	Greek	the name Yahweh in its Greek form.
	Period.	This reflects the religious eclecticism
		of the pre‑Maccabean age in which
Jason the high priest led in promoting the circu
lation of Greek ideas. A result of the excavations
here is the uncovering of the bastions added to the
wall by the Syrian occupants and of the palace or
castle of Simon, identified by a graffito of limestone
with inscription in rude Greek, reading probably,
" (Says) Pampras, may fire follow Simon's palace !"
This is interpreted as a magic charm made by a hater
of that ruler. The eighth stratum is that of the
late Syrian, pre‑Roman occupation, after the palace
of Simon had been destroyed and on its site a
structure reared in which a remarkable series of
baths with basins and drain and furnace existed.
The special results of the excavation are the following: (1) The tracing of successive populations backward to the earliest troglodytic g. Results inhabitants; (2) the existence of conof Excava‑ tinueus traces of Egyptian occupation
	tion.	from the second troglodytic popula
		tion (a scarab of Usertesen III., c.
2500 B.C.) to about the middle of the seventh pre
Christian century, including an inscribed statuette
of the period of the twelfth dynasty, four and one
eighth inches in height; (3) the existence of a ,high
place where the worship of Astarte is abundantly
indicated, especially by a bronze statuette of two
horned Astarte and by numerous phallic emblems;
(4) the votive altar already described; (5) the
possibility that an inscribed sherd carries back
Phenician writing four centuries earlier than the
Baal‑Hermon inscriptions (c. 600 B.C.) to an age
when it was written bodstrophedon like the early
Greek and the Hittite inscriptions; (6) the illus
tration of many Biblical features, such as the
" tongue" of gold (R.V., " wedge," Josh. vii. 21),
two ingots of gold in this form being discovered,
one of them being fifty‑two shekels in weight. Of
gold and silver objects comparatively few were
found, but bronze was relatively abundant; the
pottery, while fragmentary, is valuable for its

Gfroerer	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	482
Gibbon
epigraphic illustration of Hebrew names and per
haps also of Hebrew genealogy.
		GEO. W. GILMORE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Clermont‑Gannesu, ArAmoloyical Re
	searches in Palestine ii. 257, London, 1881; idem, Recueil
	d'arch&logie orientate, i. 351‑391, Paris, 1885; PEF,
	Quarterly Statements, 1903‑date, particularly that for
	July, 1907, giving latest results; R. A. S. Macalister,
	Bible Side Lights from the Mound of Gezer, London, 190';
	H. Vincent, Canaan d'aprls l'exploration rtcente, pp. 109
	sqq., Paris, 1907
	GFROERER, gfrol'rer, AUGUST FRIEDRICH:
German historian; b. at Calm (20 m. w.s.w. of
Stuttgart) Mar. 5, 1803; d. at Carlsbad July 6,
1861. He studied theology at TGbingen, where he
became repetent in 1828, after he had spent three
years in Switzerland and Italy. In 1829 he became
Stadtvicar at Stuttgart, and in 1830 librarian at
the royal library there. He then definitely aban
doned the ministry and devoted himself to his
torical studies. In 1846 he was appointed pro
fessor of history at Freiburg, and in 1848 was
elected to the German parliament, in which he dis
tinguished himself as an adherent of the " Gross
deutsche " party and an opponent of Prussia.
After failing in an attempt at Frankfort to unite
Protestants and Catholics he joined the Roman
Catholic Church in 1853. He had already been long
recognized as one of the leaders of the Ultramontane
party in Germany. His principal works are, Philo
and die judisch‑Alezandrinische Theosophie (2 vols.,
Stuttgart, 1831); Gustav Adolf and seine Zeit
(2 vols:, 1835‑‑37); Geschichte des Urchristentums
(3 vols.,1838); Allgemeine Kirchengeschichte (4 vols.,
1841‑46); Gesehichte der ost‑ and westfrdnkischen
Karolinger (2 vols., Freiburg, 1848); Urgeschichte
des menschlichen Geschlechts (2 vols., Schaffhausen,
1855); and Papst Gregorius VII. and sein Zeitalter
(7 vols., Schaffhausen, 1859‑61; index vol., 1864).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. Alberdingk Thijm, A. F. Gfrvrer en zifne
	werken, Haarlem, 1870; KL, v. 579‑580.
	GIANTS IN THE OLD TESTAMENT: The pas
sages in the Old Testament where the word giant
or its equivalents occur may be differentiated into
two classes: (1) those which adduce sporadic cases
of exceptional stature or strength, against which
no a priori historical objection can lie (such as
I Sam. xvii.); (2) those in which a mythological or
early legendary character is clearly in evidence.
The first class requires no discussion here. In con
sidering the second class preliminary notes of im
portance are (1) that in the canonical writings
there are but fugitive references to what was
probably a much larger body of current folk‑lore,
which entered literature extensively only in the
Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha (H. Gunkel, Gene
sis, Gottingen, 1901, p. 52); and (2) that illumina
tion is received from comparison with like myths of
other peoples.
	In the Old Testament two words convey the idea
of giants Nephilim (Gen. vi. 4, J; Num. xiii. 33,
JE), and Repha'im (Gen. xiv. 5, from a special
source; Deut. ii. 10‑12, 20, 21, iii. 11; II Sam. xxi.
16‑21). The passage Gen. vi. 1‑4 stands alone in
the canonical writings in speaking of a race of
giants which sprang from a union of angels (" sons
of God," the " watchers " of the Pseudepigrapha) and women ("daughters of men"). This‑ narrative is an etiological myth accounting to the Hebrew mind for the giants ah‑eady known to common folk‑lore. Its motif is taken up in the pseudepigraphic literature, especially that which gathered about the name of Enoch. In the other passages the terms Nephilim and Repha'im, used as inclusive of Emim, Zuzim, . 'Ana*im, and Horim, signify the autochthonous inhabitants of Palestine (in its larger sense of the region both east and west of the Jordan), the predecessors of the Canaanites from whom the Hebrews took the land. The philological notion underlying Nephilim is not satisfactorily determined. Repha'im is connected with the word meaning " shade " or " ghost," and thus fits absolutely with the mythological references to the extinct races supposed to have inhabited the land. Other particulars agree with this interpretation. Thus the reference in Deut. iii. 11 to the bed (better " sarcophagus," so Schaff, Bible Dictionary, New York, 1880) of Og, king of Bashan, probably a coffin‑shaped block of basalt (" iron "), is to be put alongside similar objects elsewhere, such as the Giant's Causeway, a name embodying a primitive explanation of a strange feature of the Irish landscape.
In ethnic myths the earlier inhabitants of earth are pictured as of more than human stature and strength, and often as living beyond the usual span of human life. Thus in India the first Jina is said to have been 3,000 feet in height and to have lived eight millions of years. Another characteristic of these myths is that the giants come into conflict with the gods and are destroyed. Examples of this are the Marduk‑Tiamat myth of Babylonia and the Gigantomachia and Titanomachia of Greece. In Hebrew legend these characteristics are separated; the lengthened span of life is assigned to antediluvians in general, abnormal stature is attributed to the prehistoric race in canonical literature, the contest of the giants with God appears first in the Apocrypha (Ecclus, xvi. 7) and develops enormously in the Pseudepigrapha. Wisd. of Sol. xiv. 6 has a curious explanation of the survival of the flood by the giants, and rabbinic literature explains in equally grotesque fashion the survival of Og. In such passages as Baruch iii. 26‑28, III Macc. ii. 4, Enoch vii. 2‑4, and Jubilees vii. these varied characteristics appear. The " sons of God " were angels of high estate who fell, and the idea was perpetuated and finds its extreme expression in Christian literature in Milton's Paradise Lost.
	It may be noted that among the Repha'im were
the Horim, generally explained as " troglodytes,"
and that excavations in Palestine as elsewhere shows
the cave‑dwellers to have been of low stature (see
GEZER). 	GEO. W. GILMORE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. L. Porter, Giant Cities of Bashan, New
York, 1871; F. Lenormant, Lee Origines de 1'histaire, 2 vols., Paris, 1880‑84, Eng. transl. of vol. i., London, 1883; E. Meyer, in ZATW i (1881), 139, and Schwally in the same, xviii (1898), 127 sqq.; K. Budde, Die biblisehe Urgeschichte, pp. 30 sqq., Giessen, 1883; H. E. Ryle, Early Narratives of Genesis, London, 1892; S. R. Driver, Commentary on Deuteronomy, on Deut. iii. 11, New York, 1895; ' C. R. Briggs, Study of Holy Scripture, pp. 333‑334, lb.
1899; DB, i. 90 (" Anakim "), ii. 166‑168, iii. 512 ("Nephi•

483	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	oer°r
lim "); EB, i. 161‑162, iii. 3391 sqq.; JE, v. 658‑868; the literature on Enoch and Baruch under PBEODEYI(iBAPHA.

GIBB, JOHN: English Presbyterian; b. at Aberdeen, Scotland, Dec. 14, 1835. He studied in Aberdeen, Edinburgh, and Heidelberg, and after being assistant minister at the Presbyterian church at Malta 1863‑67, was theological tutor in the College of the Presbyterian Church in England, London, 1868‑77. Since 1877 he has been professor of New Testament theology and ecclesiastical history in Westminster College, Cambridge. He has written Biblical Studies and their Influence upon. the Church (London, 1877) and Gudrun, Beolvolf, and the Song of Roland (1884), and has translated selections from Luther's " Table Talk " (London, 1883) and St. Augustine's " Homilies on the Gospel of John " (Edinburgh, 1873), in addition to editing the " Confessions " of St. Augustine in collaboration with W. Montgomery (Cambridge, 1906).

GIBBON, EDWARD: The historian of the Roman Empire; b. at Putney (7 m. w.s.w. of St. Paul's, London), Surrey, Apr. 27, 1737; d. in London Jan. 16, 1794. For his early training he was indebted chiefly to his aunt, Catherine Porten, from whom he received that taste for books which, he says, was the pleasure and glory of his life. In Jan., 1749, he entered Westminster School, but had to leave it in Dec., 1750, on account of ill health. A glance into Eachard's Roman History in 1751 started him on a wide course of historical reading. In Apr., 1752, he entered Magdalen College, Oxford, where he spent what he considered the fourteen most unprofitable months of his life. His brief career at Oxford was terminated by his temporary conversion to Roman Catholicism, which was accomplished by Middleton's Free Enquiry (London, 1749) and works of Bossuet and the Jesuit Robert Parsons (q.v.). On June 8, 1753, he was received into the Roman fold by a Jesuit priest in London. He at once acquainted his father with this fact, who placed him first in the home of David Mallet, at Putney, but sent him to Lausanne, Switzerland, almost immediately to the care of M. Pavillard, a Calvinistic minister, under whose tutelage Gibbon quickly renounced Roman Catholicism. He returned to England in August, 1758, and took up his abode at Buriton, near Petersfield, Hampshire, whither his father had removed in 1747. An attachment which he had formed at Lausanne for Susanne Curchod, afterward Madame Necker and mother of Madame de Staal, was now broken off, owing to his father's objection to the match. Gibbon's subsequent behavior toward Rifle. Curchod was condemned by Rousseau. On June 12, 1759, he became captain in the Hampshire militia. From May, 1760, to Dec., 1762, he was quartered in various towns in the southern counties. He retained his commission till 1770, becoming major and colonel commandant. This experience gave him robust health and a knowledge of military affairs that stood him in good stead when he came to write of the phalanx and legion. He had now published his Essai sur l'Etude de la lWA. uture (London, 1761;
Eng. transl.,1764). From Jan., 1763, to June, 1765,
he traveled and studied on the Continent. " It
was at Rome," he says, " on Oct. 15, 1764, as I sat
musing amidst the ruins of the Capitol, while the
barefooted friars were singing vespers in the temple
of Jupiter that the idea of writing the decline and
fall of the city first started into my mind." Hav
ing come into the possession of ample means on the
death of his father in 1770, he settled in London in
1772 and began to write The Decline and Fall o f the
Roman Empire. In 1774 he became a member of
Dr. Johnson's famous literary club, and on Oct. 11
of that year he was returned to Parliament for
Liskeard, Cornwall. In Feb., 1776, he published the
first volume of the Decline and Fall. Its success was
as rapid as it has been lasting. To a number of
attacks provoked by the theological chapters Gib
bon replied in a Vindication (1779). Early in 1779
he was employed by the ministry to write a M&
moire Justificatif (1779) in answer to a French
manifesto; and in the summer of 1779 he was given
the lucrative sinecure of commissioner of trades
and plantations, which he held till the office was
abolished in 1782. In Apr., 1781, he published the
second and third volumes of his history. On June
25, 1781, he was returned to Parliament for Lym
ington, that body having been dissolved Sept. 1,
1780. In Sept., 1783, he settled at Lausanne.
Near midnight of the 27th of June, 1787, sitting in
the summer‑house in his garden, he wrote the last
sentence of his monumental work. The last three
volumes were published on his fifty‑first birthday,
thus completing The History o f the Decline and Fall
of the Roman Empire (6 vols., London, 1776‑,88‑ best
ed. by J. B. Bury, 7 vols.,1896‑1900). Gibbon came
to London to see the work through the press, but
returned to Lausanne in July, 1788. He resided
there till Apr., 1793, when he returned to England
to visit his friend, Lord Sheffield, whose wife had
just died. His own death came unexpectedly,
following upon a series of operations for hydrocele.
$e was laid in the burial‑place of the Sheffield
family, Fletching, Sussex. Lord Sheffield published
his Miscellaneous Works (2 vols., London, 1796; 5
vols., 1814), which include his excellent autobiog
raphy, Memoirs of my Life and Writings (ed. O. F.
Emerson, Boston, 1898; ed. G. B. Hill, London,
1900; ed., with introduction, J. B. Bury, London,
1907). Sheffield's grandson, Earl of Sheffield, has
published the six different manuscripts from which
the Memoirs were compiled (London, 1896), and
also prefixed an introduction to Gibbon's Private
Letters (ed. R. E. Prothero, 2 vols., 1896).
The Decline and Fall, which covers the period extending from about the middle of the second century to the year 1453, has, by unanimous consent, been placed in the very front rank of historical works. For accuracy, thoroughness, lucidity, and comprehensive grasp of a vast subject, it bas never been surpassed. While later researches have corrected Gibbon in a few details, they have not materially changed the picture drawn by him. His work is perhaps the one history in English that may be regarded as definitive. The only'charge that has ever been successfully brought against it is that it betrays an unfriendly animus to Christianity; but Gibbon had so little sympathy with the aims of

Gibbons	THE NEW BCHAFF‑HERZ()G	484
Glahtel
the Church that it was not to be expected that he would throw the mantle of charity over the foibles and failings of churchmen. In regard to the famous fifteenth and sixteenth chapters, which relate to the rise and, spread of Christianity, wherein its suocase is explained by reference to secondary causes, and the severity of its early trials declared to have been overestimated, it may be remarked that Gibbon himself admitted that his array of secondary muses left the question of the divine origin of Christianity untouched; and, now that the smoke of the battle against this portion of the history has cleared away, church historians allow the substantial justnes of no main positions. In Gibbon's lifetime the work was translated into German, French, and Italian. It has also been translated, in part, into Magyar, modern Greek, Polish, and Russian.
BmuOQBAmr: Bids the Manwire and Private Leam*, at sup.. consult the biography by J. C. Morison, in Enpliah Men of Ldters, London, 1878; that by S. Walpole, Studies in Biography, Now York, 1907; and DNB, zri. 26o‑‑2568.
GIBBONS, JAMES: Cardinal; b. at Baltimore, Md., July 23, 1834. He received his early education in Ireland, but returned to the United States in 1851, and lived for several years in New Orleans. He studied at St. Charles' College, Ellicott City, Md. (1855‑57), and at $t. Mary's Seminary, Baltimore (1857‑81). He was ordained priest in 1861, and after being assistant at St. Patrick's, Baltimore, for a few months, was appointed rector of $t. Bridget's, Canton (a suburb of Baltimore), where he remained until 1865. He was private secretary to Archbishop Spalding 1865‑68, and was also chancellor of the archdiocese 1866‑88. He was assistant chancellor of the Second Plenary Council of the American Roman Catholic Church held at Baltimore in 1866, and in 1868 was consecrated titular bishop of Adramytum and appointed vices apostolic of North Carolina. In 1872 he was translated to the see of Richmond, Va., and after five years became archbishop coadjutor with, right of succession to Archbishop Bailey of Baltimore. Five months later he succeeded to the see, thus becoming the primate of the Roman Catholic Church in the United States. He presided over the Third Plenary Council at Baltimore in 1884, and two yews later was created cardinal On account of his advancing yes‑, Bishop Curbs, formerly of Wilmington, Del., was appointed to assist him in 1M. He has written The Faith of our Fathers (New York, 1871); Our Christian Heritage (Baltimore, Md., 1889); and The Ambassador of Christ (1,898).

GIBERTI, ji‑Ar't~ GIOVANNI MATTED: A reforming prelate of the sixteenth century; b. at Paleermo 1495; d. at Verona Dee. 30, 1543. Being appointed by Clement VII. apostolic datary, he became a member of the Oratory of Divine Love at Rome. In 1524 he was made bishop of Verona, but he did not enter upon his episcopal duties until 1528. He endeavored to raise the educational and mural standard of the clergy and to enforce the discipline of the religious orders. In the work Condituttbnes eoelesiadicw and in various treatises, ordinances, and letters, he proposed far‑reaching
messunes of reform. But he was obstinately opposed by both the secular clergy and the religious orders; and the famous Concilium de emendanda eccleaia (1537), in whose authorship, besides Contarini and Ceraffa, Giberti was also concerned, produoed no result. After entering upon his episcopal duties, Giberti had one more important commission outside his diocese, going to the Colloquy of Worms (1540) as papal legate. It was intended that he should act in a similar capacity at the Council of Trent, but his sudden death prevented this. His works were published in Verona 1733, 1740; his official correspondence in Guiociaandim, Opere inedile, iv., v (Florence, 1863). B. BEx$ATH.
Bu8LI0aHAPHl: A. von Reumont, Geehinkte der Stadt San, vol. iii., part 2, passim, Berlin, 1870; Dittrich, in Historiadhes Jahaburh der aorrerGesdUahog vi (1888), 1‑50; Creighton, Papam, vi. 278‑291. 808‑M.

GIli80A, EDGAR CHARLES SUMNER: Bishop of Gloucester; b. at Southampton Jan. 23, i848. He studied at Trinity College, Oxford (B‑A., 1870), and Wells Theological College (1871 72), and was ordained priest in 1872. He was chaplain of Wells Theological College 1871 74, vice‑principal of the same institution and curate of Dinder 1874‑76, lecturer at Leeds Clergy School 1876‑80, principal of Wells Theological College 1880‑95, and vicar and rural dean of Leeds 1895‑1905. In 1905 he was consecrated bishop of Gloucester: He was also prebendary of Wells Cathedral 1880‑1905, lecturer on pastoral theology at Cambridge 189394, select preacher at Oxford 189395, examining chaplain to the bishop of Bath and Wells 1894‑1904, honorary chaplain to Queen Victoria 1901, chaplain in ordinary to King Edward VII. 1901‑05, Warburton Lecturer of Lincoln's Inn 1903, and a member of the Royal Commission on Ecclesiastical Discipline and commissary to the bishops of North China and $han‑tong 1904. In theology he is a liberal Highchurchman. He has written Northumbrian Saints (London, 1884); Commentary on St. James in The Pulpit Commentary (1886); Self‑Discipline (1894); The Thirty‑Nine Articles Explained (2 vols., 18961897); Commentary on the Book of Job (1898;) John Howard (1901); old Messages from the Old Testament (1904). He also translated the works of Casnaams for the Nicene and Post‑Nicene Library (Edinburgh, 1894) and edited George Herbert's Temple (London, 1899).

GEISOIf, EDMUND: Bishop of London; b. at Bampton (24 m. as.e. of Csrliale), Westmoreland, Der‑, 1669; d. at Bath Sept. 6, 1748. He was educated at Queen's College, Oxford (B.A., 1891; M.A., 1694), where be was given a fellowship. His early interest in Anglo‑Saxon and British antiquities led to a friendship with Archbishop Tenisoa, who made him his domestic chaplain and got him the librarianship at Lambeth. Through Tenison's influence Gibson became lecturer at 8t. Martin's‑in‑the‑Fields, rector of Stisted in Essex (1700), and rector of Lambeth (1703). He sided with Tenison in the controversy between the two houses of convocation and within three years publiabed ten tracts in support of the upper louse. He became archdeacon of Surrey in 1710, bishop of

485	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Gibbons
		Giohtel
Lincoln in 1716, and bishop of London in 1723. For
years he was the intimate friend and chief adviser
of Sir Robert Walpole in ecclesiastical matters.
His crusade against court masquerades and his
opposition to Walpole's Quakers' Relief Bill cost
him the appointment to the archbishopric of Can
terbury in 1737. Ten years later the arcLbishopric
was offered him, but he declined on account of age
and infirmity. Besides tracts, sermons, and pas
toral letters, some of which were directed against
deists, freethinkers, and Methodists, his principal
publications were, Synodus Anglicani, or the Con
stitution and Proceedings of an English Convocation
(London, 1702: ed. E. Cardwell, Oxford, 1854),
which now forms the text‑book for all proceedings
in convocation; Codex juris ecclesiastici Anglicani;
or the Statutes, Constitutions, Canons, Rubrics, and
Articles of the Church of England (2 vols., 1713), a
monument of research and still the highest au
thority on church law; and A Preservative against
Popery (3 vols., 1734; ed. J. Cumming, 18 vols.,
1848‑49; Supplement, 8 vols., 1849), a collection
of treatises on the subject by various eminent
English divines.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Some Account of . . . Dr. B. Gibson, Lon
	don, 1749 (by R. Smalbroke7); W. Co", Memoirs of
Horatio Lord Walpole, vol. ii.. London, 1808; A. b. Wood,
Atheno Oxoniensea, ed. P. Bliss, iv. 540, London, 1820
DNB, xxi. 274‑275; J. H. Overton and F. Reltn, The
English Church, . . . 1714‑1800, pp. 99‑120 et passim,
London, 1906.
GIBSON, JOHN MONRO: English Presbyterian; b. at Whithorn (9 m. s. of Wigtown), Gallowayshire, Scotland, Apr. 24, 1838. He studied at the University of Toronto (B.A., 1862) and Knox College, Toronto, from which he was graduated in 1864. He was classical tutor in Knox College 1864 and pastor of Erskine Church, Montreal, 1864‑74, as well as lecturer in Old and New Testament exegesis in the Presbyterian College, Montreal, 1868‑74. He was then pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church, Chicago, 1874‑‑80, and since 1880 has been pastor of St. John's Wood Presbyterian Church, London. He was moderator of the Synod of the Presbyterian Church of England in 1891 and president of the National Council of Evangelical Free Churches in England and Wales in 1898, of which he was also honorary secretary 1898‑1905. He is an honorary secretary of the Religious Tract Society, and in theology is a liberal Evangelical, although he holds firmly to the cardinal truths of Christianity. He has written Ages before Moses (New York, 1879); The Foundations (lectures on the evidences of Christianity; Chicago, 1880); The Mosaic Era (London, 1881); Rock versus Sand (1883); Pomegranates from an English Garden (New York, 1885); Christianity according to Christ (London, 1888); The Gospel according to St. Matthew in The Expositor's Bible (1890); Acts in People's Bible History (1895); Unity and Symmetry of the Bible (1896); From Fact to Faith (1898); A Strong City and Other Sermons (1899); The Glory of Life (1900); Apocalyptic Sketches (1901); Protestant Principles (1901); and The Devotional Study of Holy Scripture (1905).
GIBSON, MARGARET DUNLOP: English Orientalist; b. at Irvine (22 m. s.w. of Glasgow), Ayr‑
shire, Scotland. She was the daughter of John Smith, solicitor, Irvine, Ayrshire, was educated at private schools and by university tutors, and in 1883 married Rev. James Young Gibson, who died three years later. She has visited Sinai five times, and in company with her sister, Mrs. Agnes Smith Lewis, has made important discoveries of Arabic and Syriac manuscripts of the Bible, among them the justly celebrated and important Sinaitic Syriac codex of the Gospels, upon which both have done excellent work. A rigid Presbyterian and very decidedly Protestant, she and her sister gave the site for Westminster Theological College, Cambridge, and laid its corner‑stone in 1897. She has edited An Arabic Version of St. Paul's Epistles to the Romans, Corinthians, Galatians, and Ephesians (London, 1894); Apocrypha Sinaitica (1896); An Arabic Version of the Acts of the Apostles and the Seven Catholic Epistles (1899); The Palestinian Syriac Lectionary of the Gospels (in collaboration with Mrs. Lewis, 1899); Apocrypha Arabica (1901); and The Didascalia Apostolorum (Syriac text and translation; 2 vols., 1903); and has written, in addition to a number of tracts, Catalogue of the Arabic Manuscripts in the ~Conmnt of St. Catharine on Mount Sinai (London, 1894).

GIBSON, ROBERT ATKINSON: Protestant Episcopal bishop of Virginia; b. at Petersburg, Va., July 9, 1846. After serving as a private in the First Virginia Artillery of the Confederate Army 1864‑65, he was graduated at Hampden‑Sidney College in 1867; and at the Virginia Theological Seminary in 1870. He became a missionary in southern Virginia, 1870, assistant of St. James' and curate of Moore Memorial Chapel, Richmond, Va., 1872; rector of Trinity Church, Parkersburg, W. Va., 1878, of Christ Church, Cincinnati, O., 1887. He was consecrated sixth bishop of Virginia, 1897.
GICHTEL, gl'H'tel, JOHANN GEORG: German ascetic and mystic; b. at Regensburg‑May 14, 1638; d. at Amsterdam Jan. 21, 1710. He was a descendant of a Protestant family, and the religious impulse was awakened in him at an early age. He studied theology and history at Strasburg' but after the death of his father he took up the study of law and settled in Regensburg as a lawyer, but his religious life received a new impulse through his association with Justinian Ernst von Weltz (q.v.), a Hungarian baron who was endeavoring to propagate his ideas concerning a reformation of the Church, a reconciliation between the Lutherans and Reformed, and a revival of missionary activity. They aroused the suspicion of the orthodox clergy, however, and were denounced as fanatics. Weltz now resolved upon a missionary tour to South America and was accompanied by Gichtel as far as Holland. There mysticism, the natural trend of his religious development and disposition, claimed him for his own, and Friedrich Breckling, a mystic preacher in Zwo11e, exerted a decisive influence upon him.
The external church service now seemed to Gichtel an obstacle to inner communion with God, and he felt himself called to take up, the battle

Gichtel	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	488
Gifftheil
against false church service, especially in Luther
anism. After his return to Germany he addressed
to his native city a letter filled with violent accu
sations against the clergy, whereupon he was im
prisoned, deprived of all civic rights, and exiled.
In 1665 he began his wanderings, and after a short
stay at the residence of Pistorius, a Pietistic preacher
of Gersbach in Baden, he went to Vienna to settle
some business affairs of Weltz. In 1667 he re
turned to Zwolle, where Breckling employed him as
chaplain, leader of the choir, and porter, but he
became involved in Breckling's dissensions with
his congregation and the consistory, and was exiled
from Zwolle and the whole province of Upper
Yesel. He spent the remainder of his life quietly
in Amsterdam, winning many converts to his views.
At first he earned his living by translating and
proof‑reading, but renounced even this work as in
compatible with the trust which leaves all care to
God.
	Gichtel was opposed to sects of his time such as
Quakers, Mennonites, and Labadists, nor was it his
desire to found a sect. Violent dissensions arose
among his followers, and at last only two of his
friends remained‑Isaak Passavant and Johann
Wilhehn Ueberfeld. After Gichtel's death, Ueber
feld became the leader of his Dutch adherents,
while his followers in Hamburg and Altona were
headed by Johann Otto Gliising. Gichtel's wri
tings were regarded by them as equal to the Bible,
and he himself was considered an elect instrument
of God. Traces of the sect were also found in Ber
lin, Magdeburg, and Nordhausen.
	In Amsterdam Gichtel became acquainted with
the works of Bohme, which he declared to be on a
par with the Bible, and his ideas were molded by
his study of this mystic, especially his discourses
on the struggle between the love and the wrath of
God, on creation, on the fall of Lucifer and Adam.
Like all the radical mystics of his period, he main
tained a polemical attitude toward the established
Church and toward the Reformation, which in his
opinion had contented itself with the destruction
of popery without putting anything better in its
place, while with B6hme he shared the combination
of Pietism and a mystical conception of nature.
From his general contempt of learned writings were
excepted only works on science " because of the
light of nature." Gichtel strove to reduce the ideas
of B6hme to practicality, and for this reason he
rejected marriage, regarding it as unchastity in the
sight of God and as a perversion of the original order
of creation, advocating the priesthood of Mel
chisedeck, and believing that man by prayer and
absorption into the death and blood of Jesus might
offer his soul as a sacrifice for others. With others,
especially with Alhardt de Raedt, a former pro
fessor of theology in Haderwijk, and with the finan
cial aid of Coenraad van Beuningen, mayor of
Amsterdam, Gichtel published the first complete
edition of B6hme's works (Amsterdam, 1682). His
own writings have been collected in seven volumes
under the title of Theosophia practica (Leyden,
1722).	(A. HEGLER t.) K. HOLL.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A life is contained in G. C. A. iron Harless,
	Jakob Bohme and die Alchymisten, Leipsie, 1882; and the
Theoaophia practica, Leyden, 1722, contains both his works
and a sketch of his life. Consult also: Ersch and Gruber,
Eacbkloptidie, section 1, lxY. 437 eqq.; ADB, ix. 147‑150
GIDEON (Septuagint, Gedeon, also called Jerubbaal) : One of the " Judges of Israel." He was a son of Joash, and one of the great liberators of Israel. He made an end of the predatory excursions of the Midianites, who, like modern Arabs, regularly invaded the country before the harvest and carried away the produce. Judges vi.‑viii. gives in detail his call in his native city Ophrah (the modern Far'ata, southwest from Nablus?), his experience, his preparation for the fight, his victory gained with help of a small band by surprising the enemy, his pursuit of the enemy over the Jordan and his second victory over the Midianite kings. On theocratic principles he refused the royal crown offered to him, a fact apparently confirmed by the ancient parable of Jotham. With the booty he made an ephod (Yahweh‑image or oracle‑dress, see Eraon), which according to the narrator caused the destruction of his house, through his son Abimelech, who killed the seventy sons of Gideon after the father's death. The name Jerubbaal is explained from a national standpoint vi. 31‑32. Robertson Smith reads the verse differently (Rel. of Sem., pp. 162‑163) as " the man who wars with Baal (provided Baal is a god) must die before (the next) morning." There are Arabic parallels for this. Originally the name may have meant: " Great or strong is the Lord (Yahweh or Baal?)." In order not to mention Baal, the name was afterward called Jerubboaheth (II Sam. xi. 21).
In this narrative Gideon appears a hero of royal stature, devoted to his people, of bold, enduring fortitude and yet humble before God and free from vain ambition before men. Criticism has made it probable that the narrative which treats of him is a composite from different sources and contains besides the interpolations of the Deuteronomic redactor and later additions. Distinction is made between two main sources which the redactor of the book combined. To one narrative belong the history of Abimelech (chap. ix.) and viii. 4‑21 (except the numbers in v. 10); and to the other (estimated as somewhat later) belong vi. 2‑6a, 13‑25; viii. 1‑3, 24‑27a. The section attributed to the first can not be an older version of the events recorded vi. 2‑viii. 3. One would rather suppose that the stories of two campaigns of Gideon, a westJordanic and East‑Jordanic, are united in the present narrative. .Since in both narratives the house of Abiezer is especially mentioned, Studer and Wellhausen have supposed that the campaign of Gideon according to the original record was undertaken as a family blood‑feud (viii. 18‑19), whereas the reinforcements of, the other tribes and the lessening of the force to 300 are later additions. But the characteristic narratives vii. 1 sqq. are certainly not by the redactor, and seem to, have good parentage. While the religious motive appears in these narratives, there is no reason for regarding them as much later than the time they treat. That Gideon's achievement was regarded as memorable and as one of God's greatest deeds of deliverance is' shown by Iaa. IX. 4, X. 26; Pa, 1XXXIIi. 11. C. VON ORELLI.

487	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	clichtel
difftheil
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The sections in the accounts of the history of Israel as given under AHAB, the appropriate sections in the commentaries on Judges (see JUDGES), especially those by Bertheau, Budde and Moore, and DB, ii. 171‑172; EB, ii. 1719‑22; JE, v. 880‑662; R. Bittel, Studien sur hebrdischen Archdologie, i. 97‑104, Leipsie, 1908.

GIESEBRECHT, gi"ze‑brest, FRIEDRICH WILHELM KARL: German Protestant; b. at Kontopp (50 m. s.w. of Posen) July 30, 1852. He studied in Erlangen and Halle (Ph.D., 1876), and from 1876 to 1879 was in charge of the courses in Old Testament exegesis end adjunct at the royal seminary for canons at Berlin. In 1879 he became privatdocent at Greifswald, and was appointed associate professor of Old Testament exegesis in the same university in 1883. In 1895 he was made honorary professor there, and since 1898 has been professor of the same subject at K6nigsberg. He has written Die hebrdische Prdposition Lamed (Halls, 1876); Der Wendepunkt des Buches Hiob (Berlin, 1879); Beitrage zur Jesaia‑Kritik (GSttingen, 1890); Das Buch Jeremias iibersetzt and erkldrt (1893); Die Berufsbegabung der alttestamentlichen Propheten (1897); Die Geschichtlichkeit des Sinatbundes (Konigaberg, 1900); Die alttestamentliche Schdtzung des Gottesnamens (1901); Der " Knecht Jahves " des Deuterojesaia (1902); Friede fur Babel and Bibel (1903); Grundzuge der israelitischen Religionsgeschichte (Leipsie, 1904); Die Metrik Jeremias (Gottingen, 1905); and commentary on Jeremiah in Hand‑Kommenlar zum Allen Testament (1907).

GIESELER, gi'ze‑ler, JOHANN KARL LUDWIG:
Church historian; b. at Petershagen (on the Weser, 35 m. w. of Hanover), Prussia, Mar. 3, 1792; d. at Gottingen July 8, 1854. He attended the Latin school of the Orphans' House at Halle and the University of Halle. In 1812 he became collaborator in the Latin school, but the following year joined the German army at the outbreak of the war of liberation. In 1814 lie resumed his activity as teacher, in 1817 he became doctor of philosophy and conrector at the gymnasium of Minden, 1818 director of the gymnasitun at Cleves, and 1819 professor of theology at Bonn. In 1831 he went to Gottingen where he showed administrative talents besides ability as scholar and teacher. His lectures treated church history, history of dogma and dogmatics. Several times he was prorector of the university, he served on different commissions, and was member of the Gbttinger Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften; as curator of the orphans' home, he dispiayed much practical benevolence, and he was an active freemason. His principal work is his Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte, one of the most remarkable productions of German learning, distinguished by erudition, accuracy, and careful selection of passages from the sources, given in footnotes. The first volume appeared at Darmstadt in 1824; the fifth and last, containing his lectures, and treating the period after 1814, at Bonn, 1857. An English translation from the earlier editions by F. Cunningham, was published at Philadelphia in three volumes, in 1836; another, from the last edition by S. Davidson, in five volumes at Edinburgh, 1848‑56 (revised and edited by H. B. Smith and Mary A. Robinson, New York, 1857‑81). The
work is characterized by the fundamental principle that every age or period can be understood only in so far as we allow it to speak for itself; the chief task of the historian is to judge objectively and from the sources. His main strength lies therefore in the careful observation of details rather than in a grasp of the unity of events. His standpoint has been characterized as that of a historico‑critical rationalism. Of his other writings may be mentioned: Versuch fiber die Entstehung and die fruhesten Schicksale der achriftlichen Evangelien (Leipsie, 1818), against the hypothesis of a primal Aramaic Urevangelium; Ueber den Reichstag zu Augsburg im Jahre 1630 (Hamburg, 1821); Symbolce ad historiam monasterii Lacensis (Bonn,, 1826); an edition of the history of the Manicheans of Petrus Siculus (Gottingen, 1846) and other works devoted to ancient or medieval church history. He treated of modern church history in Riickblick auf die theologischen Richtungen der letzten fiinfzig Jahre (Gottingen, 1837), and Ueber die Lehninsche Weissagung (1849). (N. BONwETSCH.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A sketch of Gieseler's life by E. R. Reepenning is in the last vol. of the Kirchengeschichte, and such a sketch is in vol. i. of the AIn. ed., New York, 1868. Consult: F. Oesterley, Geschichte der UniversitXat Gottingen, pp. 410 aqq., GAttingen, 1838; ADB, ix. 163 sqq.

GIFFORD LECTURES: One of the most important lectureships yet created. Its founder was Adam, Lord Gifford of Edinburgh (d. 1887), an able Scotch jurist and judge of the Court of Sessions, noted not only for his knowledge of jurisprudence, but also for his interest in literature and philosophy. By his will, recorded in the year of his death, the sum of £80,000 was bequeathed, to found a lectureship in Natural Theology at each of the Scotch universities, £25,000 going to Edinburgh, £20,000 each to Glasgow and Aberdeen, and £15,000 to St. Andrews. The terms of the foundation are noteworthy in that the lectures " may be of any religion or way of thinking, or (as is sometimes said) they may be of no religion, or they may be so‑called skeptics or agnostics, or freethinkers." The sole qualification is ability to deal as specialists in Natural Theology in the widest sense of the term as a " strictly natural science." The freest research is allowed, without regard to tradition or established belief. The first lectures were delivered at Edinburgh, Glasgow, and St. Andrews in 1888, and at Aberdeen in 1889. Some of the most noted scholars of the century have taught on this foundation, among them John and Edward Caird and Andrew Lang of Scotland, F. Max Miiller and E. B. Tylor of England, Otto Pfleiderer of Germany, C. P. Tiele of Holland, Emile Boutroux of France, R. A. Lanciani of Italy, and Josiah Royce of the United States. A full list of the lecturers and their subjects up to 1906 is given in L. H. Jordan, Comparative Religion, pp. 570‑571, New York, 1905.

GIFFTHEIL, gift'hail. LUDWIG FRIEDRICH: An enthusiast of the seventeenth century; d. at Amsterdam 1661. He was the son of an abbot in Wurttemberg, and became noted for his fanatical declamations against the established Church. His literary activity belongs to the period of the Thirty

Gifts
Gillespie	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	488
Years' War. He stood in connection with Fried
rich Breckling (q.v.) and other persons of the same
description, published letters of warning to the
rulers of Saxony and Brandenburg, Denmark and
Sweden, England and Holland, Spain and France,
and to Cromwell, whom he styled " field‑marshal
of the devil," while he called himself commander‑in
chief of the Lord Sabaoth. He published many
works in Latin, German, English, and Dutch, which,
like his actions, betray a passionate and vehement
temperament. 	(F. W. DIRELlus.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. Arnold, Unparteiische Kirchen‑ and Ketzer‑Hiatorie, iii., chap. x.; iv., sect. iii., no. 18, 4 vols.. Frankfort, 1700‑15.
GIFTS, SPIRITUAL. See CHARISMATA.
GILBERT, gil'bert, GEORGE HOLLEY: Congregationalist; b. at Cavendish, Vt., Nov. 4, 1854. He was graduated at Dartmouth College in 1878, Union Theological Seminary in 1883, and the University of Leipsic (Ph.D., 1885). He was professor of New Testament literature in Chicago Theological Seminary 1886‑1901. He has written The Poetry of Job (Chicago, 1888); The Student's Life of Jesus (New York, 1899); The Student's Life of Paul (1899); The Revelation of Jesus (1900); The First Interpreters of Jesus (1901); A Pr~imerof the Christian Religion (1902); and A History of the Apostolic Age (Chicago, 1906).

GILBERT, zhil"bar', DE LA PORREE, por"r"e' (Gilbertus Porretanus): Bishop of Poitiers; b. at Poitiers 1070; d. there Sept. 4, 1154. He studied in the episcopal school of Poitiers, then in Chartres under Bernard of Chartres, whose realistic Platonism he appropriated. In Paris he heard first William of Champesux, then his pupil and opponent Abelard, in Laon the famous theologians Anselm and Radulf. In knowledge he stood far above the average of the scholarship of his time. From 1125 to 1136 he was chancellor and presiding officer in the cathedral school in Chartres; in 1137 he became teacher of dialectics and theology in Paris; in 1141 he removed to his native city as leader of the episcopal school, and in 1142 he became also bishop. Two zealous archdeacons of his church denounced him in Rome for heresies in regard to the Trinity, and Bernard of Clairvaux became one of his chief opponents. Pope Eugenius III. postponed the decision to a council to be held in Reims in 1148. Gilbert was asked to furnish an authentic copy of his commentary on the De trinitate of Boetius. There were extracted from it four assailable sentences for the council at Reims, according to which he taught (1) that the divine essence was not God; (2) that the attributes of thepersons were not the persons themselves; (3) that the t.heologicai persons could not be predicated in any proposition (it would be wrong to say, for instance, that God is the Father); (4) that the divine nature was not incarnated. In knowledge of the Fathers and in dialectics Gilbert was far superior to his opponents, also to Bernard. The latter set up a confession of faith in opposition to Gilbert, but the cardinals .were against him. Bernard had to humble himself, although the pope approved his confession in a general way. Gilbert agreed to
purify his manuscripts from errors, and after reconciliation with his opponents returned to Poitiers where he administered his diocese until his end, much respected as a teacher; but he does not seem to have corrected his book. Gilbert's philosophy is a consistent realism, combined with the dialectic method of Aristotle. To the mystics he naturally appeared as the champion of a dangerous rationalism. Walter of St. Victor called him one of the "four labyrinths of France." But the earnest and solid character of the man, his devotion to the Church, and his personal piety are a guaranty that his doctrine and activity were not destructive although he asserted the right to liberty of scientific investigation. (R. SCHMIDt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gilbert's Commentary on the writings of Boetius are in MPL, lxiv., his Principia and three letters are in MPL, clxxxviii. The writings of Gaufredus, secretary to Bernard of Clairvaux against Gilbert are in MPL, elxxxv. Consult: Otto of Freising, Gestorum Friderici I. libri, book i., chaps. 48, 50‑61, in MGH, Script., xx (1868), 338‑491; Histoire litteraire de la France, vol. xii.; Berthaud, Gilbert de la Porrge . . et sa philosophie, Paris, 1892; Ceillier, Auteurs eacr6a, xiv. 342 aqq., 1119‑20, x. 654‑666; KL, v. 599‑601.

GILBERT, gil'bert (GUILBERT), SAINT, OF SEMPRINGHAM: Founder of the order of Gilbertines, or Sempringham Canons (Ordo Gilbertinorum canonicorum, Ordo Sempwingensis); b. at Sempringham (20 m. s.s.e. of Lincoln), Lincolnshire, England, about 1083; d. there Feb. 4, 1189. He was educated at Paris, and after being ordained to the priesthood in 1123 became parish priest at Sempringham and Tyrington. In 1135 he founded a house for seven destitute girls, who lived in strict seclusion, and after several other houses of the same type had been established, he requested Pope Fugene VII. to unite his foundations with the Cistercian order. The pope declined, however, and Gilbert then built houses for canons near the nunneries, separating the two with the utmost strictness. The canons were placed under the rule of St. Augustine, and the nuns under that of St. Benedict, but while the control of the entire community was vested in the hands of the monks, the nuns were regarded as owning the property of the order. To all the houses, which soon contained 2,200 monks and several thousand nuns, were attached almshouses, hospitals, orphanages, and similar institutions. Gilbert reached the age of 106 years, and was canonized by Innocent III. in 1202. The order of Gilbertines was suppressed by Henry VIII., after it had come to number twenty‑two double convents. It never spread outside of England. In its system of double convents the order offers a partial parallel to the order of Fontevraud (q.v.), while the employment of lay brothers to attend the monks and of lay sisters to attend the nuns recalls the religio quadrata of Cluny. (O. ZOCKLERt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources: The authoritative life, by a member of his order, is in W. Dugdale, Monaslicon Anglicanurn, vol. vi., pp. i.‑xcix. following p. 945 in the ed. of London, 1817; two shorter lives are in ASB, Feb., i. 567‑573; Walter Mapes, De nugis curialium distinctions#, ed. T Wright for the Camden Society, London, 1850; Ralph de Diceto, Opera historica, ed. 1V. Stubbs, no. 68 of Rolls Series, 1876; the works of St. Bernard of Clairvaux (q.v.). Consult: Helyot, Ordres monastiques, ii. 188 sqq.; A. Butler, Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, Feb. 4th; DNB, xxi.

489	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Gifts
Gillespie
325‑317; Rom Graham, St. Gilbert of Bemprinpham and the Gitbertines, London, 1901.
	GIL'DAS, called the Wise: Author of the oldest
historical work of Christian Britain; the De excidio
et conquestu Britannia ac flebili castigaEione in reges,
principes et sacerdotes, quoting the title from one
of the latest editors, Theodor Mommsen. It is
sometimes called the " Querulous Book," and was
divided by an early editor, Thomas Gale, without
good reason, into two parts, a Historic and an
Epistula. A tenth century chronicle puts the
death of Gildas in 570. All other traditions about
him, including his visits to Brittany and Ireland,
are doubtful. He states himself, according to the
most probable interpretation of a corrupt passage
of his work (MGH, Auct. ant., xiii. 3, chap. xxvi.,
Chronica minora, p. 40, 11. 16‑20), that he was born
in the year of the battle of Mount Badon [and that
this occurred in the forty‑fourth year before the
time of writing. Hence it has been inferred that
he was born in 493 and wrote c. 537], but the date
of the battle of Mount Badon is uncertain. Less
doubtful is the inference that the work was written
before 547 (cf. chaps. xxxiii. aqq.). And beyond
question the author was a well‑informed, Romanized
Briton, notwithstanding his clumsy Latin, who
judged his countrymen with a monk's severity and
criticized them with ruthless zeal [cf. W. Bright,
Early English Church History, Oxford, 1897, 24,
30‑32]. Other writings are ascribed to Gildas,
but without good authority. [He was a popular
saint in Brittany and was the reputed founder of
a monastery at Ruys, which became famous as the
place of retirement of Abelard. His work has
historical value chiefly from the absence of anything
better.] 	(F. Loolrs.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The work of Gildasisin MPL,Wx.327‑392; with the exception of chaps. ii it is in Haddan and Stubbs, Councils, i. 34‑107. The best editions are by T. Mommsen in MGH, Auct. ant., siii. 3, Chronica minora awe. iv.‑vii., part 3 (1898), 1‑110; and by H. Williams, with transl., London, 1899. There is an Eng. tranal. by Giles, London, 1841, reprinted in Bohn's Antiquarian Library, vol. iv. The life of Gildas by the monk of Ruys is in ASM, i. 138‑139, less fully in ASB, Jan., iii. 573‑574. Two lives are given by J. A. Giles, Vita quorundam AnploSasonum, London, 1854. For criticism consult: T. Mommsen, ut sup., pp. 1‑24, 91‑110; C. G. Schbll, De ecdesiastiae Britorum Scotorumque histories fontibus, Berlin, 1851; J. O'Hanlon Lives of the Irish Sainte, i. 471‑494, Dublin, 1875; A. de la Borderie, La Date de to naissance de Gildas in Revue Celtique, vi (1883‑85), 1‑13; A. Anseombe, St. Gildas of Ruys and Irish Regal Chronology of th Sixth Century, London, 1893; H. Zimmer, Nennius
viucatuB, Berlin, 1893; J. Briel, Saint Gilda8, abb6 de Rhuys, Vannes, 1908; DNB, xa.344‑346.
GILEAD. See PERNA.
GILES (GILLES), jfl (Fr.] or jailz [Eng.] (Lat. ,Egidius), SAINT: A saint of great reputation from the ninth century onward. Apparently he spent some time in Provence as a hermit, and was then at the head of a monastery founded by him, in the vicinity of which a town named after him SaintGilles sprang up (11 m. e.s.e. of Nunes). As the brief of Benedict 11. in favor of his monastery dated Apr. 26, 685 (Jafftz, Regesta, 2127), is a forgery, there are no certain facts for his biography. His
festival is Sept. 1.	(A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The subject is well discussed in DCB, i. 4749. The early life with commentaryiein ASB, Sept.. i. 284‑304; the Miracula are best given in Analeeta Bollandiana, ix. 393‑422, Paris, 1890; and the life by William of Berneville is published by G. Paris, and A. Bop, Paris, 1881. Consult: J. de Herval, Vie et culls de S. Gilles, Le Mans, 1875; E. Rembry, S. Gilles, sa vie, ass reliquee, son culte, 2 vole., Bruges, 1879‑82.
GILFILLAN, GEORGE: Clergyman of the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland; b. at Comrie (20 m. w. of Perth), Perthshire, Jan. 30, 1813; d. at Arnhalt, Brechin (8 m. w. of Montrose), Aug. 13, 1878. He studied at the Universities of Glasgow and Edinburgh, and from 1836 till his death was pastor of the School‑Wynd church at Dundee. He was a zealous worker for the cause of liberal and progressive thought, and was active in the promotion of mechanics' institutes, free libraries, and popular lectures. He brought to Dundee such lecturers as R. W. Emerson, Samuel Brown, and John Nicol the astronomer, and himself delivered several courses of popular lectures. Gilfillan is best known as a man of letters. Altogether he published more than a hundred books and pamphlets, including various critical editions of the poets. His most important works are, Hades, or the Unseen (Dundee, 1842), a sermon that was attacked by John Eadie and Alexander Balfour; A Gallery of Literary Portraits (Edinburgh, 1845; 2d ser.,1850; 3d ser., 1854); Bards tend the BIZle (1851); Christianity and Our Era (1857); Alpha and Omega (2 vols., London, 1860); Night : a Poem (1867); Modern Christian Heroes (1869), and Martyrs and Heroes of the Scottish Covenant (7th ed., 1903).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: DNB, xa. 352‑353.

GILGAMESH. See BABYLONIA, VIL, 3, § 2.
GILL, JOHN: English Baptist, Biblical scholar; b. at Kettering (14 m. n.n.e. of Northampton), Northamptonshire, Nov. 23, 1697; d. at Camberwell (2 m. s. of St. Paul's, London) Oct. 14, 1771. He attended the Kettering grammar‑school for a short time, became pastor at Higham Ferrers in 1718, and in 1719 entered upon a pastorate of fiftytwo years at Horsleydown, Southwark. In 1748 he received the degree of D.D. from the University of Aberdeen. He was a profound scholar and a voluminous author. His most important works are, The Doctrine of the Trinity Salted and Vindicated (London, 1731); The Cause of God and Truth (4 parts, 1735‑38), an able answer to Whitby's Five Points; An Exposition of the New Testament (3 vols., 1746‑48), which with his Exposition o f the Old Testament (6 vols., 1748‑63) forms his magnum opus (best ed., 9 vols., Philadelphia, 1811‑19); also A Dissertation on the Antiquit‑ of the Hebrew Language (1767); A Body of Doctrinal Divinity (1767); and A Body of Practical Divinity (1770).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Rippon, Brief Memoir of the Life and Writings of . . . John Gill, London, 1838; DNB, xxi. 355.
GILLESPIE, GEORGE: Scotch Presbyterian; b. at Kirkcaldy (11 m. n. of Edinburgh) Jan. 21, 1613; d. there Dec. 16, 1648. After his graduation from the University of St. Andrews he became chaplain to John Gordon, and in 1634 chaplain to John Kennedy. He became pastor of the parish of Wemyss in 1638, and of Greyfriars Church,

Gillespie ie	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	490
Giraldde Barri
Edinburgh, in 1642. He preached before Charles I.
at Holyrood Sept. 12, 1641, and received a pension
from Charles Nov. 16. In 1643 he was chosen a
member of the Westminster Assembly. Though
the youngest member of that body he proved to be
one of its ablest debaters. He took his leave of the
Assembly July 1.6, 1647. A few weeks later he
presented the confession of faith to the General
Assembly at Edinburgh and secured its ratification.
In Sept., 1647, he was elected to the High Church
of Edinburgh, and in 1648 he was moderator of the
General Assembly. His writings, which are almost
entirely controversial, include an anonymous
Dispute, against the English Popish Ceremonies
Obtruded upon the Church of Scotland (n.p., 1637),
of which the Scottish privy council ordered all
copies to be collected and burned; An Assertion of
the Government of Scotland (1641); and Aaron's
Rod Blossoming ; or, the Divine Ordinance o f Chureh
Government Vindicated (London, 1646). His works
were edited, with a memoir, by W. M. Hetherington
(2 vols., Edinburgh, 1843‑46).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: R. Wodtow, Hint. of the Suf
	ferings of the Church of Scotland, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1829
	1830; idem, Analecta, Glasgow, 1842 Hew Boot, Faeti
	eccleeim Scoticanm, 5 parts, London, 1871. Consult: W.
	M. Hetherington, Hiet. of Church of Scotland, pp. 182‑197,
	New York, 1881; DNB, xxi. 359‑361 (where other lit
	erature is indicated).
	GILLESPIE, GEORGE DE NOORMANDIE: Prot
estant Episcopal bishop of Western Michigan; b.
at Goshen, N. Y., June 14,1819; d. at Grand Rapids,
Mich., Mar. 19, 1909. He was graduated at the
General Theological Seminary in 1840, was ordered
deacon, 1840, and ordained priest 1843. He was
rector of St. Mark's, Leroy, N. Y. (1843‑45), St.
Paul's, Cincinnati, O. (1845‑51), Zion, Palmyra,
N. Y. (1851‑61), and St. Andrew's, Ann Arbor,
Mich. (1861‑75). In 1875 he was consecrated bishop
of the newly created diocese of Western Michigan.
He wrote The Season. of Lent (New York, 1877).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. 8. Perry, The Episcopate in America,
	New York, 1895.
	GILLESPIE, THOMAS: Founder of the Relief
Church in Scotland; b. at Clearburn (2 m. e. of
Edinburgh) 1708; d. at Dunfertnline (16 m. n.w.
of Edinburgh) Jan. 19, 1774. He studied at the
University of Edinburgh, then attended Dod
dridge's academy at Northampton, where he was
ordained Jan. 22, 1741. On Sept. 4 following he
was admitted to the parish of Carnock, near Dun
fermline. For refusing to take part. in the settle
ment of a minister who was opposed by the people
he was deposed by the General Assembly in May,
1752. After preaching to large open‑air meetings
during the summer be settled in Dunfermline the
following winter and formed an independent con
gregation there. In 1761 he joined Thomas Boston
(the younger), independent minister at Jedburgh,
in ordaining a minister over the parish of Colins
burgh. On Oct. 22,1761, the thrje congregations of
Dunfermline, Jedburgh, and Colinsburgh formed
themselves into a presbytery for the relief of Chris
tians deprived of their church privileges. The
Relief Church thus established united with the
Secession Church in 1847, the two forming the
United Presbyterian Church of Scotland (see PRESRYTERmNs). Gillespie's posthumous Treatise on Temptation was edited by J. Erskine (Edinburgh, 1774).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Lindsay, Life of T. Gillespie, ed. J. Harper, Edinburgh, 1849; G. Struthers, Hiet. of the Rise . of the Relief Church, Glasgow, 1843; Hew Scott,
Foeti ecdesim Scoticanle, iv. 580, London, 1871; DNB, xxi. 365‑366.

	GILLETT, jil'let, CHARLES RIPLEY: Presby
terian; b. in New York City Nov. 29, 1855. He
studied at New York University (B.A., 1874; A.M.,
1876), Union Theological Seminary (1877‑80), and
the University of Berlin (1881‑83). He was libra
rian of Union Theological Seminary, 1883‑1908,
as well as instructor in theological encyclopedia
since 1893 and secretary of the faculty since 1898.
He became registrar in 1908, and since 1900 has
been temporary curator in the department of Ori
ental Antiquities in the Metropolitan Museum, New
York City. He was literary editor of the Magazine
of Christian Ldterature, 1891‑97, and besides com
piling the general catalogue of Union Theological
Seminary (New York, 1886, 1898) and catalogues
of the Egyptian antiquities in the Metropolitan
Museum and of the stone sculptures in the Cesnola
collection of the same institution (1896), he wrote
the third volume of the Descriptive Atlas o f the
Cypriote Antiquities in the Metropolitan Museum of
Art (New York, 1903), and translated A. Harnack's
Das M6nehtum, seine Ideale and Geschiehte (New
York, 1895) and G. E. Kriiger's Geschichte der
altchristlichen Literafur in den ersten drei Jahrhun
derten (1897).

	GILLETT, EZRA HALL: American Presby
terian; b. at Colchester, Conn., July 15, 1823; d.
in New York City Sept. 2, 1875. He was graduated
from Yale in 1841, and from the Union Theological
Seminary in 1844. He was pastor of a Presby
terian church in Harlem (New York City) from
1844 to 1868, when he became professor of political
economy, ethics, and history in New York Univer
sity. Besides numerous articles in the American
Theological Review, the Presbyterian Quarterly, the
Historical Magazine, and other periodicals, his
publications include, The Life and Times of John
Huss (2 vols., Boston, 1861); History o f the Pres
byterian Church in the United States (2 vols., Phila
delphia, 1864); God in ,Human Thought (2 vols.,
New York, 1874); and The Moral System (1874).

GILLIN, JOHN LEWIS: Dunker; b. near Hudson, Ia., Oct. 12, 1871. He studied at Upper Iowa University, Fayette, Ia. (Lit.B., 1894), Iowa College, Grinnell, Ia. (B.A., 1895), Union Theological Seminary (B.D., 1904), and Columbia University (Ph.D., 1906). From 1895 to 1901 he was pastor of the Brethren church at Waterloo, Ia., and since 1905 has been connected with Ashland College, Ashland, O., first as professor of church history and social sciences (1905‑06), later as president (since 1906). He was also moderator of the General Conference of his denomination in 1904‑06. In theology he is, " in general terms, a modified Ritschlian," and has written The Dunkers ; A Sociological Interpretation (New York, 1906).

491	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	&11es le
		Qiraldpde Barri
	GILMORE, gil'mbr, GEORGE WILLIAM: Con
gregationalist; b. in London May 12,1857. He was
educated at Princeton University (A.B., 1883) and
Union Theological Seminary (1886), and in 1886 was
appointed by the United States Commissioner of
Education, at the request of the king of Korea, to
found the Royal Korean College at Seoul, Korea.
He remained in Korea with that institution until
1889, and after his return to the United States
taught in the Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute and
in private schools till 1893. He was then succes
sively instructor in English Bible (1893‑95) and
professor of Biblical history and lecturer on com
parative religion (1895‑99) in Bangor Theological
Seminary, Bangor, Me., after which he was pro
fessor of Old Testament language and literature
and the history of religion in Meadville Theo
logical School from 1899 to 1906. Since 1905 he
has been a member of the editorial staff of the New
Schaff‑Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge,
to which he has contributed the main portion of its
bibliography and numerous articles, especially on
comparative religion. In addition to many studies
in scientific and theological periodicals and book
reviews on 01d Testament subjects and comparative
religion, he has written Korea from, its Capital
(Philadelphia, 1892) and The Johannean Problem
(1895), and has compiled Literature of Theology
(under the editorship of Bishop J. F. Hurst; New
York, 1896).
	GILMOUR, JAMES: Scotch Congregationalist
and missionary; b. at Cathkin (5 m. s. of Glasgow)
June 12, 1843; d. in Tientsin (70 m. s.s.e. of Peking),
China, May 21, 1891. After studying at the Univer
sity of Glasgow (B.A., 1867; M.A., 1868) and at
Cheshunt Congregational Theological College (14 m.
n. of London; 1867‑69), he was accepted by the
London Missionary Society as missionary to reopen
the long‑suspended mission in Mongolia. Conse
quently he studied a year in the society's missionary
seminary at Highgate (a London suburb 4J m.
n.n.w. of St. Paul's), and Chinese in the city. In
1870 he left for Peking, and after a few weeks there
pressed forward into Mongolia. Until 1882 he spent
his summers with the nomadic Mongols, acquired
their language, adopted their dress, lived in their
tents and upon their food, and as far as possible
made himself one with them. He increased his hold
upon them by practising medicine. In the winters
he lived in Peking, ministering to such Mongols as
he found in need .of aid. In 1874 he married
and his wife shared his experiences and dangers.
In 1882 he made a visit home and was induced to
write his well‑known book, Among the Mongols
(London and New York, 1883), which tells so much
and so graphically about those nomads. In 1883
he returned to his exposed life. His wife could not
stand the strain and died in 1885, leaving two boys.
Solitary and sad, he took up work with the agricul
tural Mongols of Eastern Mongolia and carried it on
till his own death, which was hastened by his trials
and dangers. He was a missionary hero, lived for
the strange people he loved so much, and will go
down in the annals of missionary history as " Gil
mour of Mongolia."
BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. Lovett, James Gilmour of Mongolia, Lon‑
don and New York, 1892.
GILPIN, BERNARD: English clergyman, called "The Apostle of the North"; b. at Kentmere (17 m. s.w. of Keswick), Westmoreland, 1517; d. at Houghton‑le‑Spring (10 m. s.e. of Newcastleupon‑Tyne) Mar. 4, 1583. He was educated at Queen's College, Oxford (B.A., 1540; M.A., 1542; B.D., 1549), where he was elected to a fellowship and admitted to holy orders in 1542. He was one of the first scholars elected to Christ Church, on the completion of Wolsey's foundation by Henry VIII. To clear up his theological doubts he went abroad in 1552 and lived for several years in Louvain and Paris. On his return to England in 1556 he was made rector of Essington and archdeacon of Durham, despite the fact that he had now adopted the theology of the Reformation. Soon afterward he became rector of Houghton‑le‑Spring. His life at Houghton is said to have been a ceaseless round of benevolent activity; and his extensive charities here and throughout the northern counties soon won for him wide popularity, which, coupled with his Protestant views and his fearless denunciation of clerical vices, naturally made him enemies among the clergy. He was accused before Edmund Bonner, bishop of London, and would have been tried for heresy, and probably beheaded, but for an accident. While on his way to London for trial he broke his leg; and before he was able to continue his journey Queen Mary died. In 1559 he declined the bishopric of Carlisle, and in 1560 the provostship of Queen's College, Oxford. His most important charity was the foundation of a large grammar‑school at Houghton. A sermon preached by Gilpin before Edward VI. has been preserved (London, 1581; reprinted 1630).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. Carleton wrote a life in Latin, London,
1628, Eng transl., 1629. W. Gilpin, Life of Bernard Gitpin, London, 1752, reissued in Lives of the Reformers, vol. ii., 1809; A. A Wood, Pasti Oxoniensee, ed. P. Bliss, i. 129, ib. 1820; DNB, xxi. 378‑380.
GILSE, JAN VAN: Dutch theologian; b. Oct. 19, 1810; d. at Amsterdam May 24, 1859. At the age of eighteen he entered the Mennonite institute at Amsterdam, and after receiving his degree, eight years later, served as pastor at Koog and Zaandyk, and finally at Amsterdam. On the death of Koopman, Gilse was chosen his successor as professor of theology in Amsterdam representing the Mennonites, and held this position from Oct. 9, 1849, until he died. His collected essays and an anthology of his sermons were edited after his death, with a comprehensive biography, by P. J. Veth (Verspreide en nagelaten schriften, 5 parts, Amsterdam, 1860). Special mention may be made of his studies on the Muratorian Canon (q.v.), and on the meaning of the phrase " Catholic Epistles," which he believed to connote the epistles recognized by the Church Catholic and received as writings of importance among the books of the New Testament.
(C. SEPPt.)
GIRALD DE BARRI, called Giraldue Cambrensia: Welsh ecclesiastic; b. at Manorbier Castle (5 m. s.e. of Pembroke), Pembrokeshire, Wales, 1146 or
1147; d. after 1216. Ile was educated in Paris,

alassd de Barri	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	492
returning to Wales in 1172. His abilities and family connections with the Welsh and Irish nobility made him a fitting agent of the English crown in the effort to extend its power in Wales and to introduce the Roman hierarchy. The archbishop of Canterbury commissioned him to reform the diocese of St. Davids, particularly to introduce celibacy and to collect tithes. He carried the work through with a high hand and, as a reward for his success, was made archdeacon of Brecknock (1175). In 1176 the chapter of St. Davids chose him to succeed his uncle, David Fitzgerald, as bishop of that see, hoping that he might attain to metropolitan rank, independent of Canterbury. Owing to English opposition he retired and till 1180 lectured with much approval on canon law in Paris. He was commissary to the bishop of St. Davids, as royal chaplain attended Prince John in Ireland (11851186), and in 1188 accompanied Archbishop Baldwin through Wales, preaching the crusades. He did good service in keeping Wales peaceful and loyal after the death of Henry II (1189). In 1198, while he was living in retirement in Lincoln, the chapter of St. David again nominated him for bishop, but, as before, the archbishop of Canterbury would not have a Welshman. For four years Girald prosecuted a suit to obtain the see; he visited Rome three times, suffered many hardships and vicissitudes, but finally yielded, became reconciled with the king and archbishop, and spent the remainder of his life in retirement, devoted to literary work.
Girald wrote many works which are a strange mixture of truth and fiction, trivialities and important facts; his value as a historian is impaired by his vanity, partizanship, credulity, and use of legend and fable. Nevertheless he presents a picture of his time, and his information has importance in the absence of anything better. His descriptions of Ireland and Wales (Topographia Hibernia, Itinerarium Cambrite, Descriptio Cambritv) furnish about all that is known of land and people in his period. In hiss Speculum ecclesim and Gemma ecclesiastics he scourges the monastic life as he knew it. The Expugnatio Hibernim is the most important of his historical works. In De jure et stato Menevensis ecclesia he seeks to justify his claims to the bishopric. The De rebus a se gestis, De inr vectionibus liber, and Speculum electorum (letters, poems, addresses) are autobiographical and display his vanity and self‑confidence. There is an excellent complete edition of his works, ed. J. S. Brewer, J. F. Dimoek, and G. F. Warner (Rolls Series, no. 21, 8 vols., London, 1861‑91). The Itinerarium Cambritv has been published with translation and sketch of his life by Sir R. C. Hoare (2 vols., London, 1804‑06; the transl. is also in Bohn's Antiqua‑
rian Library, xli.). 	(C. ScxSLLt.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: A valuable work is J. Lynch, Cambrenaia
Everaue, ed. M. Kelly, 3 vols., Dublin, 1848‑52; also by
the same editor, S. White, Apologia. pro Hibernia adveraua
Cambri Calumniaa, ib. 1849. Consult Brewer's preface
to the ed. of the works mentioned in the text; Lanigan,
Beef. Hiat., cf. Index; Gerold le Galloia, in Memoirea de
facadEmxe sea sciences . . . de Ca en, 1887‑88, pp. 117‑180,
1889, pp. 3‑73; H. Owen, Gerald the Welshman, London,
1889
GIRDLE. See VESTMENTS AND INSIGNIA, ECCLE$IA$TICAL.
GIRDLESTONE, ROBERT BAKER: Church of England; b. at Sedgley (13 m, n.w. of Birmingham), Staffordshire, Oct. 3, 1836. He studied at Charterhouse, London, and Christ Church, Oxford (B.A., 1859), and was head of the translation department of the British and Foreign Bible Society 1866‑76, principal of Wycliffe Hall, Oxford, 1877,89, and minister of St. John's, Downshire Hill, Hampstead, 1889‑1901. He is an honorary canon of Christ Church. He has served on various committees and subcommittees connected with the Church Missionary Society, the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge, the British and Foreign Bible Society, the London Jews' Society, the National Protestant Church Union, and similar organizations. In theology he is a liberal Evangelical, but is conservative on Biblical questions. He has written Anatomy of Scepticism (London, 1863); Dies Ira, (1869); Synonyms of the Old Testament (1871); How to Study the English Bible (1887); Foundations oj the Bible (1890); Doctor Doctorum (1892); DecoterograPhs: Duplicate Passages in the Old Testament (1894); The Student's Deuteronomy (1899); Grammar of Prophecy (1901); Why do 1 believe in Jesus Christ (1904); The Churchman's Guide (1905); and Monotheism, Hebrew and Christian (1907).

GLABRIO, gld‑bri'S, MANIUS ACILIUS: Roman consul in the year 91, afterward banished and put to death by Domitian 95 A.D. He belonged to a family distinguished in Roman history from 200 s.C. till the end of the empire, especially in the second century, and has interest for church history because of certain fragments of epitaphs discovered by De Rossi in 1888 in an aisle of the catacombs of St. Priscilla on the Via Salaria near Rome. Because of the honorary epithets employed, the epitaphs can hardly refer to freedmen of the gens Acilia, but must mark the resting‑places of actual members of the family (cf. Prosographia imperii Romani saeculorum 1. 111., ed. E. Klebs, pp. 7,8, nos. 54‑59, Berlin, 1897), who were evidently, from the wording of the inscriptions, Christians or at least friends of Christians. Evidence thus appears to be offered that even before the time of Commodus (cf. Eusebius, Hist. eccl., v. 21) some of the prominent circles of the Roman nobility were favorably disposed toward Christianity, and perhaps actual conversions occurred. It is possible that Glabrio was put to death as a Christian (see DOAfITIAN).
(EDGAR HENNEKE.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. de Rosci, in Bullettino di archeolopia. criatiana, pp. 15 sqq.,103 sqq., table v.,1888‑89; W. Smith, Dictionary of Greek and & .,nan Biography, ii. 272, London, 1890 (gives early sources for a life).
GLADDEN, WASHINGTON: Congregationalist; b. at Pottsgrove, Pa., Feb. 11, 1836. He was graduated at Williams College in 1859, and held pastorates at Brooklyn, N. Y. (1860‑G1), Morrisania, N. Y. (1861‑66), and North Adams, Mass. (18GG1871). He was then a member of the editorial staff of the New York Independent 1871‑75 and pastor of the Congregational Church at Springfield. 11lass., 1875‑82, also editing the Sunday Afternoon (Spring;

493	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	C+irald de Barri
Glass
field) 1878‑81?. Since 1882 he has been pastor of the First Congregational Church, Columbus, O. He has written Plain Thoughts on the Art of Living (Boston, 1868); From the Hub to the Hudson (1869); Workingmen and their Employers (1876); Being a Christian (1876); The Christian Way (New York, 1877); The Lord's Prayer (Boston, 1880); The Christian League of Connecticut (New York, 1883); Things New and Old (Columbus, O., 1884); The Young Men and the Churches (Boston, 1885); Applied Christianity (1887); Parish Problems (New York, 1888); Burning Questions (1889); Santa Claus on a Lark (1890); Who Wrote the Bible f (Boston, 1891); Tools and the Man (1893); The Cosmopolis City Club (New York, 1893); The Church and the Kingdom (Chicago, 1894); Seven Puzzling Bible Books (Boston, 1897); Social Facts and Forces (New York, 1897); Art and Morality (1897); The Christian Pastor (New York, 1898); How Much is left of the old Doctrines p (Boston, 1899); Straight Shots at Young Men (New York, 1900); Social Salvation (Boston, 1901); The Practise of Immortality (1901); Where does the Sky begin t (1904); Christianity and Socialism (New York, 1905); New Idolatry and Other Discussions (1905); and The Church and Modern Life (1908).
GLANVILL, JOSEPH: English clergyman, connected with the school known as the " Cambridge Platonists " (q.v.); b. at Plymouth 1636; d. at Bath Nov. 4, 1680. He was educated at Exeter College, Oxford, but had a close mental affinity with the Cambridge school, especially with More. He took orders, conformed .at the Restoration, and held several church preferments, the last being the incumbency of the Abbey Church at Bath (1676) and a prebend at Worcester (1678). Among his numerous works, none equals for brilliancy his early essay on The Vanity of Dogmatizing (London, 1661), from a passage in which Matthew Arnold received the suggestion for his famous poem " The Scholar Gipsy." Lux Orientalis (1662) is a reproduction and defense of More's doctrine of the preexistence of souls. The attempt to find an empirical basis for supernaturalism led Glanvill, like More, to combine a singular measure of credulity with his philosophy in the work which in its final form (1682) bears the title of Sadducismus Triumphatus. It is nothing but a collection of ghoststories to support an ingenious argument on the possibility of spiritual existences under the form of witches and apparitions, with some chapters on the notion of spirit translated from More's Manual of Metaphysics. Besides the controversy to which this gave rise, Glanvill took a vigorous part in another on behlf of the new Royal Society and the right of free scientific inquiry. He comes into contact with the Cambridge School again in an essay on Anti‑Fanatical Religion and Free Philosophy which appeared with several others in 1676. In its fictitious narrative, a sort of continuation of Bacon's New Atlantis, he describes a visit to the happy imaginary country of Bensalem, depicts the character and teaching of the Cambridge divines under a thin disguise, and Offers what is really the most effective of the several contemporary vindications of the school.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the literature under CAMBRIDGR PLAxoxisTe, consult: The account of Glanvill's life and writings, by H. More, prefixed to Sadducismua triumphatua, London, 1726; A. h Wood, Atheno Oxonienses, ed. P. Bliss, iii. 1244, 4 vols., London, 1813‑20; DNB, xxi. 408‑409.
GLAS, JOHN: Scottish sectary, founder of the sect of Glassites or Sandemanians; b. at Auchtermuchty (17 m. w.s.w. of St. Andrews), Fifeshire, Sept. 21, 1695; d. at Perth Nov. 2, 1773. He was educated at St. Leonard's College, St. Andrews (M.A., 1713) and at the University of Edinburgh, and was ordained pastor of the Presbyterian church at Tealing, Forfarshire, May 6, 1719. Here he became an independent in his views, and in The Testimony of the King of Martyrs (Edinburgh, 1727) he denied the right of the civil authorities to interfere in religious matters. For his publication he was suspended by the Synod of Angus and Mearns Apr. 18, 1728, and deposed from the ministry Oct. 13. Despite the intercession of influential friends the deposition was affirmed by the commission of the General Assembly Mar. 12, 1730. Glas then formed an independent church at Dundee. In 1733 he removed to Perth, where he built the first church of the new sect. Here he was joined by Robert Sandeman, who married his daughter and became the leader of the sect in England and America, (see SANDEMANIANS). The works of Glas, in four volumes, appeared at Edinburgh in 1761, and in a more complete edition in five volumes, Perth, 1782‑83.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Walter Wilson Hist. and Antiquities of
	Dissenting Churches, iii. 261‑262, 4 vols., London, 1808
	1814; William Anderson, The Scottish Nation, ii. 307, ib.
	1870; E. Grub, Eccl. Hist. of Scotland, iv. 55, Edinburgh,
	1861; Hew Scott, Fasti ecclesim Scoticand, 5 parts, Lon‑
don, 1871; DNB, xxi. 417‑418.
GLASS (Glassius), SALOMON: Lutheran theologian; b. at Sondershausen (28 m. n.n.w. of Erfurt) May 20, 1593; d. at Gotha July 27, 1656. He occupies an honorable position among the strict orthodox who in the middle of the seventeenth century were preparing the way for a transition to Spener's attitude. From 1612 to 1615 he studied philosophy at Jena, and then went to Wittenberg for a year. His health obliged him to return to Jena, where Johann Gerhard had recently begun to lecture. A scholarship enabled him to enjoy for five years the lectures and daily intercourse of this " archtheologian and model dogmatician." Glass had already begun to make a special study of Hebrew with its cognates. In 1617 he was made
master of philosophy, and in 1619 adjunct professor in the philosophical faculty. Owing to his timidity, and perhaps also to conscientious scruples, he long refused to appear in public disputations or in the pulpit; when the university offered him the degree of doctor of theology, he hesitated to accept it,
even when commanded by his princely patrons. In 1621 he was appointed to the chair of Hebrew, which was usually considered a transition rom philosophy to theology. In 1625 he was called to Sondershausen as superintendent, and in the following year he accepted the doctor's degree from
Jena. But a greater distinction awaited him. Gerhard, on his death‑bed, htid designated his beloved pupil as his successor, and after some discussion the request was complied with in 1638.

Glass
Glosses
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
This position Glass occupied only two years. He was then summoned to Gotha by Duke Ernest I. as court preacher and general superintendent, and aided his sovereign in all his beneficial endeavors. Such a thorough Biblical theologian and a man of such practical piety could find no pleasure in the passionate scholastic disputes of those times, though he did enter the controversial field against the mystics who disparaged the authority of Scripture. To those who charged even such a man as Johann Arndt with heresy, he sail: "He who loves not Arndt must be afflicted with the spiritual dyspepsia." In his estimation the spread of pure doctrine availed little where it was not united with the life. Faithfully adhering in his own belief to the statements of the symbolical books, he yet maintained a conciliatory attitude in the syncretistic controversies which raged for decades with such animosity: He seems to have had no intimate relations with Calixtus, though he had with some of his friends and admirers. The duke, anxious for harmony, had asked for an opinion for his own information. Glass replied with great moderation, avoiding everything which could hurt the orthodox, but doing justice to Calixtus. Even his friend, the fanatical Michael Walther, did not dare to reject this opinion, though he soon afterward opposed it in essential points. The strict orthodox, however, disliked it so much, that, as it was published only after the author's death and without his name, doubts were raised as to its genuineness.
Glass's greatest scientific work is his Philologia sacra (Jena, 1623‑36), a kind of Biblicalphilological encyclopedia, which was extravagantly praised by his contemporaries as a key to all Biblical difficulties. It shows indeed, very great diligence and the necessity of following the general standards of higher instruction and scientific method. It rests on an extensive knowledge of Scripture and of Hebrew and rabbinical literature, and contains a valuable collection of illustrations and many acute linguistic observations. For the first time is found here an attempt at consistent study of the grammatical peculiarities of New Testament diction, the Hebrew coloring of which is shown. But its critical positions are taken from the narrow standpoint of the time, the grammar is not satisfactory, and its rhetoric and logic are antiquated. See ExEGEBIs OR HERMENEUTICS, III., § 7. GEORG LGEBCHE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A full list of Glass's works is given in
Hauck‑Herzog, RE, vi. 671‑672. Consuit: the preface to
Crenius' edition of the Opuscula, 1700; J. C. Zeumer,
Vitae professorium Jenensium, p. 141, Jena, 1711; ADS, ix.
218‑219; KL, v. 612‑613.

GLOAG, PATON JAMES: Scotch Presbyterian; b. at Perth May 17, 1823; d. at Edinburgh Jan. 9, 1906. He studied at Edinburgh (1840‑43) and St. Andrews (1843‑44), and held pastorates at Dunning, Perthshire (1848‑60), Blantyre, Lanarkshire (18601870), and Galashiels, Selkirkshire (1870‑90). He was Baird lecturer in 1869 and moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in 1889, while after his retirement from the active ministry in 1890 he was temporary professor of Biblical criticism in the University of Aberdeen
494
1896‑99. He wrote The Assurance of Salvation (Edinburgh, 1853); Justification by Faith (1856); The Primeval World, or, the Relation of Geology to Revelation (1859); The Resurrection (London, 1862); Practical Christianity (Glasgow, 1866); Commentary on Acts (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1870); Introduction to the Pauline Epistles (1876); The Messianic Prophecies (Baird lectures for 1869; 1879); Life of Paul (1881); Commentary on James (1884); Exegetical Studies (1884); Introduction to the Catholic Epistles (1886); Commentary on the Epistles to the Thessalonians (London, 1887); Introduction to the Johannine Writings (1891); Subjects and Mode of Baptism (Paisley, 1891); The Life of St. John (London, 1893); Introduction to the Synoptic Gospels (Edinburgh, 1895); and Evening Thoughts (1900). He likewise translated a number of German commentaries on various books of the New Testament.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. 8. Gloag, Paton J. Gloag. A Memoir. Edin‑
burgh, 1908.

GLOEL, JOHANNES: German exegete; b. at C6rbelitz (near Magdeburg) Apr. 22, 1857; d. at Erlangen June 16, 1891. He was educated at the gymnasium in Magdeburg, studied at Halle and Berlin, was for a time private tutor, then assistant preacher at the cathedral in Berlin. After acting for a short time as court preacher to the Prince of Reuss in Ernstbrunn he became inspector of the Silesian school of beneficiary students at Halle, and in 1884 undertook a journey to Holland for the purpose of study. Subsequently he became a teacher at the University of Halle and in 1888 professor at Erlangen where he taught three years. He was a man of wide education, thorough knowledge of his special branches, unwearied diligence and scientific courage. His' early death hindered the full development of his scientific labors.. He published Hollands kirehliches Leben (Wittenberg, 1885); Der Heilige Geist in der Heilsverkiindigung des Paulus (Halle, 1888); and Die jiingste Kritik des Galaterbriefes auf ihre Bereehtigung geprift (Leipsie, 1890). W. CABPARI.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The address of W. Caspari at the burial was
published, Erlangen, 1891.
GLORIA IN EXCELSIS, GLORIA PATRI. See LITURGIC, III.

GLOSSES, BIBLICAL AND ECCLESIASTICAL.
Origin and Development of the Terms (§ 1). Glosses in the Greek World (§ 2). Transference to the West (§ 3). Influence on Encyclopedic Works (§ 4). Modern Use in Biblical Criticism (§ 5).
	A gloss is a marginal note employed for explana
tion or illustration. The term is derived from the
Greek gl6ssa, " tongue, speech, dialect." The use
of marginal notes can be traced to classical times
when they were employed .to explain for Greek
		students the meaning of obsolete,
	I. Origin provincial or foreign words, especially
and Devel‑ such as occurred in the Homeric poems.
	opment of Indexes of the glosses were made to
the Terms. gether with their equivalents in the
		common speech, and thus began the
work of lexicography. (On the question whether
the New Testament phrase lalein glossais, etc.,
" to speak with tongues," has any connection

495	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Ma
Gtloeasses
with this usage cf. Bleek in TSK, ii. 1. 1829; see SPEAKING wITH TONGUES.) Glossa came to mean any word not in common use at any particular time or one used in a limited sense and so requiring elucidation. A synonym, glossema, came into use later when, especially in Alexandrian times, annotation of manuscripts was required because of the spread of the Greek language. Naturally this annotation developed from mere explanation of words to discussion of grammatical forms and then of subject‑matter. The use of glosses passed to the Romans, by whom the term glossarium was coined.
The ready‑made term glossa was applied to the marginal notes found in the Biblical manuscripts, such as the kere of the Old Testament (see KERI AND KETHIBH) and the explanations of Hebrew terms used in the New Testament. The term Glossce sacrce was used of the collections of difficult
passages which occurred in the Bibles a. Glosses in in various languages with the accom‑
the Greek panying elucidations, and soon came World. to be applied to the explanations alone.
How the glosses multiplied is understood when it is remembered that the earliest Christian teaching and preaching consisted in large part of rendering the Bible into the tongues used by the hearers. Naturally the difficult passages were annotated on the margin. The scope of the annotations was gradually enlarged, and came to embody the substance of oral and then of written tradition concerning the matter treated, especially matters which concerned the rendering of Hebrew terms. Such discussion and elucidation was particularly needed in the Greek world in connection with the Septuagint, where unusual Greek constructions were employed in the attempt to reproduce the Hebrew original, and with the renderings of Symmachus and Aquila. In cases of differences of text the marginal notes came to embody the different readings or at any rate to indicate them. From such collections as these, concerned in great part with the explanation of individual words, containing mainly excerpts from the most popular commentaries, developed the so‑called Glossce sacrce, of which a good example is the lexicon of Hesychius, either in its original or developed form. Others of this kind are the Lexebn synagog of Photius, the lexicon of Suidas, the so‑called Cyril‑Glossarium, the lexicon of Zonaras, the Etymologicum magnum, and the work of the sixteenth century compiled by the Benedictine Varinus Phavorinus (on these cf. J. C. G. Ernesti, Glosscv sanctorum Hesychii, Suidce et Phavarini, Leipsic, 1785‑86; F. G. Sturz, Zonarte gloss&, ib. 1818).
An activity, the exact analogue of that just described as applied to the Greek Bible, was exerted in the West upon the Latin, in which the necessities were of the same character. . But as the marginal notes consisted not only of explanations of individual words, but of longer remarks (cf. Tertullian, Adv. Valentinum, chap. vi. ), the term glossa came to mean the " assigned meaning of the passage," as for example in the Etymologice (i. 30) of Isidore of Seville and in a passage from Alcuin (MPL, ci. 858), though this did not exclude the older meaning of an elucidation of single words. But in
the case of Latin equivalents used to explain words in the text, it often occurred that they were written between the lines. From this the cus3. Trans‑ tom developed to reserve the margin ference to for the longer annotations which grew the West. into connected comment, to which in particular the term glossa in the singular was applied. Thus the word came to be equivalent often to " commentary," though it could still be used in its original sense of " explanation of obscure words." In the Middle Ages the word received a double connotation: it meant either explanation of single words or comment upon an entire work, such as the Bible. Some authorities used the term to designate the kere of the Hebrew Bible, others included part at least of the Masoretic apparatus. Then it meant any collection of exegetical explanatory remarks, whether written between the lines or on the margin or interjected paragraphically into the text. As an example of the kind of work to which this name was applied the work of Walafrid Strabo may be mentioned, a compilation from the writings of Alcuin, Ambrose, Augustine, Bede, Cassiodorus, Chrysostom, Gregory the Great, Haimo, Hesychius, Jerome, Isidore of Seville, Origen, Rabanus, and others, which for six centuries was the vale‑mecum of exegesis (see CATENJEE, § 8). The character of this work was, however, rather theological than philological. Mention should also be made in this place of the " Interlinear Gloss " of Anselm of Laon (d. 1117). From the fourteenth century on, many manuscripts of the Vulgate were enriched by the addition of these two works or of parts of them, together with the Postillce of Nicholas of Lyra and the Additiones of Paul of Burgos, written at the bottom and even so prirted. But with these there were also interlinear glossc,s which dealt with matters philological, some of which originated in the schools of the monasteries. Of course this same kind of work was done on other books, like the writings of Homer, patristic works, canons, hymns, legends, monastic rules, and the like. And these interlinear glosses natura#y developed into interlinear versions in the various tongues of the peoples to whom Christianity was conveyed.
In another direction these glosses developed into a kind of literature which anticipated the work of encyclopedia (see ENCYCLOPEDIA, 4. Influence THEOLOGICAL), of which Isidore's on Encyclo‑ Etymologiarum libri vigindi is a apeci‑
pedic	men (on this literature cf. S. Berger,
Works. De glossarhs et compendiis exegeticis,
Paris, 1879, pp. 7 sqq.) and represents a large class of works. Other works of this character are the 0lossce of Solomon III., bishop of Constance (d. 919), printed 1483; the Papicr elementarium doctrince erudimentum, compiled e. 1050 and often reprinted since the fifteenth century; the Panormia of Osbern of Gloucester (c. 1150, in Mai, Classicorum auctorum . . . tomi, Rome, 1836); the Dictionarilts sive de dictionibus obscuris of John of Garlandia, often printed; the Repertomu~r'~. vocabulorum and vocabulareum biblicum of Alexander Neckam (d. 1215); and the Breviloquus vocabularius, recast and edited by Reuchlin. That bilingual glossaries should develop is a matter of course.

Glosses
Gnosticism
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
The latest use of the word applies to those insertions which, in the course of the transmission of the text, have crept into the body of a work. They arise from the inclusion by a copyist of material which he found written between the lines or on the margin. This often occurs with set
g. Modern design though without evil purpose on Use in the part of the copyist and also Biblical through his mistake. The result,
	Criticism.	however, often is that it is impossible
		to discover whether a corruption of
the text occurs through an intended improvement
or through importation of a marginal note. Cor
rections of this sort are found in the text of the
original languages of the Bible, since the more a
book is used and copied, the more likely are such
corrections. This is the case with the Hebre•,V text.
A means of detection is often the comparison
of two or more translations (cf. Wellhausen's
edition of Bleek's Einleitung in das Alte Testament,
Berlin, 1893, § 269; F. Buhl, Kanon and Text des
Alten Testaments, Leipsie, 1891, p. 257, Eng. trans].,
London, 1892; and for the New Testament cf.
E. Reuss, Geschichte der heiligen Schriften des Neuen
Testaments, Brunswick, 1874, § 359, Eng. trans].,
2 vols., Boston, 1874). In similar fashion the old
versions were corrupted by the incorporation of
glosses. This is the case with the manuscript of the
Septuagint in spite of the criticism of such men as
Origen, Lucian, and Hesychius, and of the Vulgate
(cf. Z. Frankel, Vorstudien zu der Septuaginta,
Leipsie, 1841, §§ 11 sqq.; F. Kaulen, Geschichte der
Vulgates, Mainz, 1868, pp. 212 sqq., 266). For the
marginal notes and references of English Bibles,
which are of the nature of glosses, see B1BLES,
ANNOTATED, AND BIBLE SUMMARIES, II.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fabricius‑Harles, Bibliotheca Graces, vol. vi.
passim, Hamburg, 1798; J. G. Rosenmuller, Histories interpretationia sacrorum librorum, iv. 356 sqq., Leipsie, 1795; C. G. Wilke, Hermeneutik des Neuen Testaments, ii. 192 sqq., Leipsic, 1844; K. GSdeke, Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung, i.. § 13, Dresden, 1862; J. A. U. Scheler, Lexicographie latine, Leipsic, 1867; E. Steinmeyer and E. Sievers, Altlwchdeutsche Glosssn, i.‑iv., Berlin, 1879‑98; P. Piper, Literaturpeschichle and Grammatik der Althochdeutschen, pp. 35 aqq., Paderborn, 1$80; T. Hirt, Antike Buchwesen, Berlin, 1882; H. P. Junker, Grundrim der franzosischen Litteratur, pp. 15 sqq., Munster, 1889; F. Blass, Hermeneutik and Krilik, Munich. 1892; U. Wattenbach, Schriftwesen im Miltelalter, Leipsie, 1896; Krumbaeher, Geschichte, §§ 154, 216, 232 sqq.; KL, v. 708‑716; and the works on introduction to the Old and the New Testament.

GLOSSES AND GLOSSATORS OF CANON LAW
Terms applied to the commentaries and commentators upon canon law. The pattern for a treatment of canon law and of the collections which contain it was given about the beginning of the twelfth century in the Bologna school of Roman law among the so‑called " Legists," where in the second half of that century lectures were delivered on the work of Gratian, author of the first part of the Corpus juris canonici, the Decretum (see CANON LAW, IL, § 7). Alongside the Legists thus arose schools of Canonists, Decretists, and Decretalists. The resulting literary activity busied itself in glosses or short explanations first of words and phrases, later of the subject‑matter of the sources of canon law, which glosses were either interlinear or marginal.
496
The books of law were supplied with abstracts (summce), illustrations (casus) and rules (notabilia, brocarda). The usefulness of these earlier glosses and their continuous employment tended to produce still others until at length a comprehensive and rich body of comment developed which became digested into the Apparatus, lecturte, commenlarii of the period subsequent to 1400. Among the glossators on the work of Gmtian were his pupil Paucapalea, Rolandus Bandinelli (afterward Pope Alexander III., 1159‑$1), Rufinus, Stephen of Tournay (d. 1203), Johannes Faventinus, bishop of Faenza (1160‑90), Sicard, bishop of Cremona (11851215), and Johannes Teutonicus (d. 1245 or 1246). The work of the last‑named, which depends upon the labors of his predecessors, is the Glossa ordinaries (c. 1215) to the Decreta. The glossa ordinaries of the collection of decretals of Gregory IX. originated with Bernard of Botone, professor and chancellor of Bologna, who used the labors of Vincent of Spain (c. 1240), Gottfried of Trani (d. 1245), and Sinibaldus Friseus, later Pope Innocent IV. Among the glossators of the Liber sextus was Johann Andred, whose work is the glosses ordinaries upon the Libcr sextus; he also made the glosses ordiuaria to the Clementine. Inasmuch as the work of these men brought about reciprocal activity between the Church and the school, their results have not merely a literary interest, but a practical one, and they are of importance for the history of canon law.
(P. HINSCHIUSt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. Sarti and M. Fattorini, De clams archigymnasii Bononienais pro/essoribua, ed. C. Albicinius and C. Malagola, Bonona, 1888‑96; F. C. von Savigny, Geschichte des romischen Rechts im Mittelalter, vols. iii.vii., Heidelberg, 1843‑51; J. F. von Schulte, Geachichte der Quellen and Literatur des canonischen Rechts, vols. i.‑ii., Stuttgart, 1875‑77; R. Ritter von Scherer, Handbuch des Xirchenrechta, i. 254, Graz, 1886; KL, v. 716‑717.

GLYN, EDWARD CARR: Church of England, bishop of Peterborough; b. at London Nov. 21, 1843. He was educated at Harrow School and University College, Oxford (B.A., 1867), and was ordained priest in the following year. He was curate of Doncaster under C. J. Vaughan in 18681871, vicar of St. Mary's, Beverley, in 1872‑75, vicar of Doncaster in 1875‑78, and vicar of Kensington in 1878‑97, as well as rural dean in 1881‑97. In the latter year he was consecrated bishop of Peterborough. He was also chaplain to the archbishop of York in 1877‑93, honorary chaplain to Queen Victoria in 1881‑84, and chaplain in ordinary 1884‑97. His literary activity has been restricted to individual sermons and pamphlets.
GNAPHEUS, GULIELMUS. See FULLONIUS, GULIELMUS.

GNOSTICISM.
Gnosis and Gnosticism (§ 1).	Reliance upon Authority
Origin and Meaning (§ 2).		(§ 5). .
Sources (§ 3).	Its Dualism (§ 6).
A Religion, not a Philosophy	The Church and Gnosticism
	(§ 4).		(§ 7).
Gnosticism (derived from Gk. ,gnosis, " knowledge ") is a degenerate form of trite gnosis, the true meaning of which as regards Christianity is gained from the New Testament, and is the knowledge

497	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Glosses
		Gnosticism
and recognition of the divine plan of salvation
by means of a God‑given insight. According to
				the oldest tradition, the Lord said to
	r. Gnosis his disciples (Matt. xiii.11) : " it is given
and Gnosti‑ unto you to know the mysteries of the
		cisnL	kingdom of heaven." To the Apostle
				Paul, gnosis was a function of the
spiritual man (I Cor. ii. 11 sqq.), which every Chris
tian possessed in its essentials. But as " there are
diversities of gifts, but the same Spirit " the gift of
gnosis, as well, could be given to some one in special
measure (I Cor. xii. 4 sqq.). In a narrower sense,
the Apostle regarded gnosis as the discerning of the
ways in which the divine purpose of salvation had
led man, in particular the people of the Covenant,
in the course of history, and which, therefore, could
be gained only from Scripture. Paul was aware of
the moral dangers of such a gnosis; he knew that
the possessor of it might imagine himself to be some
what better than other men; nor was gnosis one of
the three things that abide (I Cor. xiii. 13). It is
a theological, more properly a theosophical, function;
and for that very reason must be subordinated to
faith, the specifically religious function. This con
ception is the one that has always been upheld by
the Church. Even where it might seem as though
the possessor of gnosis occupied a higher place than
the poor in spirit, yet the point is emphasized again
and again, that the possession of gnosis as such
does not carry with it the assurance of redemption;
and Clement of Alexandria, the ecclesiastical Gnos
tic, writes: " There are not, then, in the same Word
some ` illuminated (Gnostics) and some animal (or
natural) men '; but all who have abandoned the
desires of the flesh are equal and spiritual before
the Lord " (ANF, ii. 217).
	But not all were of this opinion. At quite an
early period in Christendom the contrary view
sprang up, which in the First Epistle to Timothy
(vi. ~0, R.V.) is aptly designated as " the knowledge
which is falsely so called." Not individuals alone,
but whole groups of such men, professing to be
Christians, called themselves Gnostics (Carpocra
tians, in Irenaeus, ANF, i. 350‑351; cf. Epiphanius,
MPG, xli. 373; Naasseni, in Hippolytus, ANF, v.
47 sqq.; in Origen, a loosely defined sect, ANF, iv.
570; cf. again, Epiphanius, MPG, xli. 321, 364, 641,
and other passages). They boasted, moreover,
" that they alone have sounded the depths of knowl
edge " (Hippolytus, ANF, v. 47; cf. I Cor. ii. 10),
and these " deep things " they pretended to have
" searched " through a speculative process not
founded upon Scripture. Irenaeus, who opposes
them, used the terra Gnostics in this latter signifi
cation, and since that time it has come to be the
current designation for them. But this, at best,
is only a formal qualification, the concrete analysis
of which is difficult in proportion to the diversity of
the phenomena to be comprehended under one gen
eral head.
	Gnosticism was not a specifically Christian phe
nomenon but belonged to religious history in general.
It happened quite often that Gnostic sects pro
fessed to be Christian when in reality they ha(' noth
ing in common with Christianity; so that Origen
justly said (ANF, iv. 585): " nor would Celsus,
			IV.‑32
in his treatise against the Christians, have intro
ducted among the charges directed against them
		statements which they never uttered."
	a. Origin On the other hand, many a religious sect
	and seemed to be independent which really
	Meaning. was only a variety of Gnosticism:
		e.g., the Mandaeans and the Manicheans
(qq.v.). At any rate the view that Gnosticism is
only a partial phenomenon of Christian metaphys
ics, and only to that extent important, is too nar
row; for, in order to understand Gnosticism com
pletely, it should not be looked upon with the eye
of the ecclesiastical historian and dogmatist, for
whom those forms of Gnosticism are alone of interest
which have acquired special significance in relation
to the progress of Christianity, for the investigation
of Gnosticism in religious history is yet in its rudi
ments, and has not hitherto produced convincing
results. On the one hand, Gnosticism is apt to be
closely associated with Hellenism, and is thought
to be explained by reference to Greek philosophy
(Joel), or, at any rate, in connection with the Greek
mysteries (Weingarten and others), a theory cul
minating in Harnack's famous epigram, " the
Gnostic systems represent the acute secularizing or
Hellenizing of Christianity" (Dogma, i. 226). It
is but an application of the same idea, to designate
Gnosticism as Christian Orphism (Wobbermin),
and by way of proof adduce the peculiar combination
of theogonic and cosmogonic elements with the
religious interest in expiation, consecration, de
liverance. Others refer to the religious and magic
sides of the Babylonian worship (Kessler: " the old
Babylonian "; Anz: " the late Babylonian "), as
though here was the native soil of Gnosticism, and
mention also the influences of Zoroastrianism, and
assume that the movement, as it spread over Chris
tian Greek territory, lost its original character.
However, no less expert an investigator than Jean
R6ville,, in Revue de l'Histoire des Religions, xxxviii.,
1898, 220‑224), opposed this reference of Gnosti
cism to Chaldaic and Persian sources with the re
mark that an Egyptologist might advocate, with
equal propriety, the derivation of Gnostic ideas
from Egyptian speculative schools; and indeed
Reitzenstein did derive a fair portion of Gnostic
views from Egyptian syncretism. And yet those
investigators might prove to be in the right who
refer the origin of Gnosticism to the speculations of
Babylonian or Zoroastrian priests. Bousset, taking
for his guide some data supplied by Anz, has lately
shown that the chief Gnostic problems are best ex
plained by those Oriental conceptions (the seven
and the meter; the mother and the unknown father;
dualism; the first man; elements and substance;
form of the redeemer; mysteries). In all the Gnos
tic systems he saw branches of a common tree
whose roots deeply penetrated the syncretistic soil
of the dying antique religion. And however it might
be in particular instances, in general he judged cor
rectly when be said; " Gnosis is not a phenomenon
that presses forward; it is rather backward and
stationary, a reaction of antique syncretism against
the rising universal religion of Christianity " (W.
Bousset, Hauptprobleme der Gnosis, p. 7, Gottin
gen, 1907). The doctors of the Church were right

Gnosticism	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	498
in resisting with all their might these tendencies among their congregations, even if they did not always use the right remedies.
[The Gnostics may be divided into: the Judaizing Gnostics; the Anti‑Judaistic Gnostics; the Gnosticizing pagans; the Ophites; and later the Manicheans and New Manicheans. The chief among the Judaizers were the followers of Basilides (q.v.), of Valentinus (q.v.), of Cerinthus (q.v.), and of Bar desanes (q.v.). The greatest leaders of the AntiJudaizers were Saturninus (q.v.), Cerdo (q.v.), and Marcion (q.v.). One curious sect of them were the Archontici described by Epiphanius (Hcer., xl.). Their founder was a hermit of Palestine, named Peter, but their principal seat was in Armenia. According to their sacred books there were seven heavens each with an archon or ruler, whence came their name; there was also an eighth heaven where dwelt the " mother of light." The ruler of the seventh heaven was the God of the Jews, and the Devil was his son. They rejected baptism but anointed the dying with oil and water to protect them from the archons of the lower heavens. See also DOCETISM. Among the Gnosticizing pagans were the Borborites or Borborians (dirt‑eaters, from Gk. borboros, mud). See also the articles on CARPOCRATES AND THE CARPOCRATIANS, SIMON MAGUS, ANTITACTM, PRODICIANs, NICOLmTANs, OPHITEB, and CAINITEB. For an account of the later developments of Gnosticism see ENCRATITEE, MANDMAN$, MANICHEANs and NEw MANICHEANB.]
The Gnostic writings were of all kinds: Gospels (of Eve, Mary, Jude, Thomas, Philip, etc.); Apocalypses (of Adam, Abraham, Nico‑
3. Sources. theus, Zoroaster, etc.); Acts (of Peter, John, Thomas, Andrew, and Matthew); hymns (Naaaseni, Bardesanes, " Books of Jed "); odes (Basilides); psalms (Valentinus, Bardesanes, Marcionites); and homilies (Valentinus). Then, too, the Gnostics had their theological literature; dogmatic and philosophic treatises (Isidore, Valentinus, ThI•odotus, Bardesanes, Marcion); critical investigations (Ptolemmus, Apelles); commentaries on sacred writings and prophetic revelations (Basilides, Heracleon, Isidore); mystery books (PistilSophia, " Books of JeQ," etc.). Of all these books, only a taw have been preserved; but enough to apply a check to the heresy refutations (see below), and to give an insight into the Gnostic beliefs and ideas. Preserved intact are: (1) The letter of the Valentinian Ptolema;us (see VALENTINU$) to Flora (Greek text edited by A. Harnack in H. Lietzmann's Kleinee Texte,No.9, Bonn, 1904); (2) Pistil‑Sophia, the two " Books of Jell," and a Gnostic work of unknown origin, in Coptic (ed. C. Schmidt, Leipsic, 1905; see OPHITEs); there is an Eng. transl., Pistil Sophia. A Gnostic Gospel (with Extracts from the Books of the Saviour appended). Originally translated from Greek into Coptic and now for the first time Englished from Schwartze's Latin Version of the only known Coptic MS. and checked by Am4lineau's French Version, with an Introduction by G. R. S. Mead (London, 1896); (3) three Gnostic writings of the second century: " Gospel according to Mary," " Wisdom of Jesus Christ.," " Acts of Peter," in Coptic (not yet published. The " Gospel of Mary "
is the source which Irenaeus used for his account of the Barbelo‑Gnostics: cf. C. Schmidt, in Philotesia fiir Kleinert, Berlin, 1907). There are also preserved many fragments, especially in Clement and Origen, which afford much information about Basilides and Isidore, Valentinus and Heracleon, as also about the Valentinians of the Oriental school (the so‑called Excerpta Theodoti). Bardesanes has quite a different aspect when he is seen not only by the light of the polemics of Ephraim, but also by that of his own ideas, as shown by one of his pupils, in the " Book of the Laws of the Lands " (Spieilegium Syriacum, Syriac, Greek, and English, ed. Cureton, London, 1855). Again enough is known of Marcion and Apelles for a clear conception of their work.
The polemics of the ecclesiastical writers against heretics are, at best, but a secondary source, and that strongly colored by both defective knowledge and personal ill‑will; although still a ,valuable source of our acquaintance with Gnosticism. Unfortunately the earliest writings of this kind (by Agrippa, Castor, Justin, Rhodon, Philip of Gortyna, Modestus, Hegesippus; see the separate articles) have been lost. In all probability, however, their substance was incorporated into extant writings on heresies by Irenmus, Tertullian, Hippolytus, Epiphanius, Theodoret of Cyrrhus, into the so‑called " Catalogues of Heretics " of the pseudo‑Tertullian and are treated in the works of Philastrius, Augustine, Pra;destinatus, etc. There is also a pagan tract on the subject: the discourse of Plotinus, Adv. gnosticos (Ennead, ii. 9).
The chief defect in all these expositions and refutations is the impossibility of adapting oneself to the opponent's platform; the eager4. A Relig‑ ness to impute to him motives and in‑
ion, not a tentions such as he either has not at Philosophy. all, or at least does not hold and pursue in the manner charged against him. The combaters of the heretics seem to maintain again and again that the speculative utterances of the Gnostics are merely philosophical, not religious; merely cosmological, not soteriological. This view is false. In the sense of the Gnostics, gnosis is religion; knowledge is redemption: to know, that is to be redeemed, is possible only for the spiritual man who has come from heaven and is prepared for eternity. Hence Gnostics and spiritual men become synonymous terms, and gnosis is the gift of grace which is imparted to the spiritual man in his very cradle and develops with his growth, resolving the riddles that surround him. " We are freed by the knowledge of these things: who we were, what we have become; where we were, and whither we were brought; whither we hasten and whence we were delivered; what birth is, and what regeneration " (MPG, ix. 696). The means of solving these questions varied, in each case, according to the spiritual elevation of the questioner: dualistic and pantheistic, mythological and pagan, Oriental and Hellenistic; mystical and profoundly thoughtful, speculations contributed their several strands to the composite fabric. Yet even in so abstr use a product as the philosophy of the Books of Jest, redemption is still brought back to the divine

499	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Gnosticism
revelation as manifested in Christ. Now the surest sign that this gnosis was a matter of religion and not of philosophy was the fact that its advocates made efforts to form associations; although it was not always clear where the school stopped and the church began, nor were Gnostics like Valentinus to be classed with the Oriental sectaries included under the designation of Ophites (q.v.), with whom organization on a mystic basis can be shown most distinctly. Still, not among these alone, but rather almost everywhere in Gnostic communities, mystic consecrations and symbolic rites of the utmost variety were customary alike at the beginning and end of religious services: such as induction into the bridal chamber, branding the right ear, baptism with water, fire, and spirit, anointing, celebration of communion, unction of the dying, and so on. Nor is it to be overlooked, that the religious way to salvation is also accompanied by the moral way. The spiritual man either strives to suppress and annihilate that which still fetters him to the material, by weakening and mortifying his body; or, thanks to his exalted state of mind in the possession of salvation, he believes himself exempt from accountability in respect to the deeds of his body, thus giving free course to the sensual desires, since they can not stain the spirit. In short, both asceticism and libertinism were prevalent among Gnostic sects.
It is, finally, of particular significance that the heretical gnosis too was founded upon revelation authorities, and so emulated or‑
g. Reliance thodox Christendom. The founders
upon	of sects and the foremast oracles of the
	Authority.	Spirit drew power and instruction
		from direct converse with deity;
prophecy stood in high esteem; great value was
laid on tradition: whereby, just as the Church did,
they contrived to link themselves to primitive
Christianity. Basilides named Glaukias, supposedly
an interpreter of Peter, as his teacher; Valentinus_
professed to have heard Theodas, a disciple of Paul;
the Naasseni referred to James, brother of the Lord,
and in like manner they esteemed Scripture tradi
tion highly, although most of the Christian Gnos
tics saw the enemy of their gnosis in the God of the
Jews, and consequently rejected his book, the Old
Testament. Nevertheless the documents of primi
tive Christianity, in so far as they could trace them
back to the Apostles, ranked with them as Holy
Scripture; even though they tried first to render
them orally acceptable by means of doeomatic inter
pretation. Above all, however, they enriched sa
cred literature with their own productions (cf. 3,
above).
	Then the	radical Gnostic tendency that gave
special offense to the orthodox mode of thinking
		was its dualism which was strongly
6. Its opposed to orthodox Christianity,
	Dualism.	based on monism. This dualism was
		plain in every way, and may be treated
under the following heads: (1) Dualism in theol
ogy and cosmology: for the Gnostics separated the
supreme God and the creator of the world. So, too,
in the elaborated forms of gnosis, the supreme God
was considered as the God of the new covenant, the
creator of the world as the God of the old covenant; but in seeking to show the highest honor to Christianity by separating its God from the God of Judaism, they thereby uprooted Christianity from the very soil in which it had been planted as a historic religion. (2) Dualism in Christology: the divine eon, sent from on high to redeem the spiritual that is in the material, was Christ, but a sharp distinction was drawn between this supermundane Christ and the historical Jesus. With the latter the eon either merely contracted a temporary union (joined him in baptism, but forsook him before death); or the Jewish Jesus was only the manifestation of the heavenly redeemer, who was obliged to assume a body in order to become visible; or, lastly, the entire visible apparition of the redeemer, his birth, life, and death, was in semblance only. (3) Dualism in anthropology: men were distinguished as spiritual men, in whom the divine portion to be redeemed lived bound to the material portion; and as material men, who, having deteriorated into matter, were not an object of redemption. There were besides, in certain cases, the men " of soul," who were destined to a certain degree of blessedness, and for whose understanding the verities of salvation had to be clothed in their historic dress. (4) Dualism in soteriology: redemption was separation of spirit from matter: a. beginning even at present; hence there was either mortification and contempt of the material, by way of asceticism, or else libertinism. b. The process became complete in the future: hence there was rejection of the primitive Christian hopes as to a future life: especially the belief in the resurrection of the body.
The Church did right in opposing this dualism with all possible vigor. The crisis evoked by the assaults of Gnosticism was the greatest
	The	and most momentous in its conse
Church and quences of all the convulsions to which
Gnosticism. Christianity was exposed in the course of its growth in the soil of antique civilization. Had Gnosticism not been overcome, then Christianity had forfeited its peculiar genius; torn loose from its historic foundation, it would have been drawn into the general vortex, thus perishing ‑ like the religions of collapsing paganism. The danger was especially serious in so far as the still immature organization of the congregations, only partly formed and insecurely established as they were then, was easily accessible to perversions and offered the enemy various points for attack. Men of might then strove to strengthen this organization, by creating the standards the acknowledgment of which was absolutely required of every one who would be a Christian; such as the Apostles' Creed, the collection of Apostolic writings, the Apostolic office. Like shrewd physicians, too, they did not scruple to inject into the sick body some of the poison that threatened to destroy its life, and in fact, both in faith and in manners and customs, the ancient catholic Church distinctly showed the influence exerted by the vanquished syncretism on its successful conqueror.
Gnosticism was indeed the bastard offspring of genuine, real gnosis; yet injustice would be done if it were forgotten that amid the well‑nigh inex‑

Gnosticism
Goa, Archbishopric of
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
800
tricable tangle of the most heterogeneous tendencies and strivings, there lurked many a sublime invention. The reader of the Books of Jeff, to be sure, is not prepared by their introductory strain of beautiful praise for the living Jesus to be plunged afterward into that ocean of barren formulas in magic, the bulk of their contents. On the other hand, the reader who lays aside the Naassenian Hymn without feeling its inward hold on him, may well begin to ask himself, does he know what religion is? Athwart the transparent envelop of Valentine's wonderful cosmic poem may be caught gleams of the loftiest and profoundest ideas in a very noble setting. G. KRfGER.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: For the extant literature of the Gnostics consult: the edition of Ireneeus by A. Stieren, i. 901971, Leipsic, 1853; the Piatis Sophia, ed. M. G. schwartze and J. H. Petermann, Gotha, 1851‑53 (Coptic and Latin), cf. the Fr. transl. by E. AmMineau, Paris, 1895, Eng. transl., mentioned above in § 3; Codex Brucianus, ed. C. Schmidt in TU, vii. 1‑2 (1892); idem, in SBA, 1896, pp. 839‑847; Harnaek, Geschichte, i. 143201; idem, Zur Quellenkritik des Gnosticiamus, Leipsic, 1873, and cf.: G. Volkmar, Die Quellen der Ketzergeschichte bis sum Niconum, Leipsic, 1855; R. A. Lipsius, Zur Quellenkritik des Epiphanios, Vienna, 1865; H. St4helin, Die gnoatiachen Quellen Hippolyts, in TU, vi. 3 (1891); J. Kunze, De hiatoria: gnoaticiami fontibus, Leipsic, 1894.
On the system in general the fullest discussion is still J. Matter, Hist. critique du gnostieiame, 3 vols., Paris, 1843‑44. Consult further: A. Neander, Genetiache Entwickelung der vornehmsten gnostischen Syateme, Berlin, 1818; idem, Christian Church, consult Index; E. Burton, Heresies of the Apostolic Age, Oxford, 1829; J. A. Mohler, Der Ursprung des Gnosticismua, Tubingen, 1831; F. C. Baur, Die christliche Gnosis oder die christliche Religionsphilosophic, ib. 1835; R. Massuet, in Stieren's Irenaus, ut sup., ii. 54 zqq.; R. A. Lipsius, Der Gnosticismus, Leipsie, 1860; W. M6hler, Geschichte der Koemologie in der griechiscben Kirche, Halle, 1860; E. Amdlineau, Esasi our Is gnosticism egyplien, Paris, 1866; T. Mansel, The Gnostic Heresies of the First and Second Centuries, London, 1875; J. B, Lightfoot, in his Commentary on Colossians, ib. 1879; M. Joel, Blicke in die Religionageschichte, i. 114‑170, Breslau, 1880; G. Koffmane, Die Gnosis nach ihrer Tendenz and Organisation, ib. 1881; A. Hilgenfeld, Die Ketzergeschichte des Urchristentum, Leipsie, 1884; C. W. King, The Gnostics and their Remains, London, 1887; A. Dieterich, Abraxas. Studien zur Religiontgeschichte des spateren Altertums, Leipsie, 1891; G. Amich, Das antike Mystertenwesen, GSttingen, 1894; A. Harnaek, Untersuchungen iiber das gnostische Buch Piatis‑Sophia, in TU, vii. 2 (1891); idem, Dogma, passim, consult Index; H. Gunkel, Sch6pfung and Chaos, G6ttingen, 1895; G. Wobbermin, Religionsgeachichtliche Studien zur Frogs der Beeinftussung des Urchristentuma durch das antike Mysterienwesen, Berlin, 1896; W. Anz, in TU, xv. 4 (1897); M. Frledlitnder, Der vorchristliche
END OF VOL. IV.
jadische Gnosticiamus, GSttingen, 1898; G. R. S. Mead, Fragments of a Faith Forgotten; Sketches among the Gnostics of the frst two Centuries, London 1900; E. H. Schmitt, Die Gnosis. Grundlagen der Weltanschauung einer edleren Kultur, Leipsic, 1903; E. Preuschen, Zwei gnostische Hymnen, Giessen 1904 R. Reitzenstein, Poimandres, Leipsic, 1904; E. Bischoff, Im Reiche der Gnosis; die mystiachen Lehren des judischen und christlichen Gnosticismus, Mandaismus and Manichdismus and ihr babylonisch‑aserater Ursprung, ib. 1906; W. Bousaet, Hauptprobleme der Gnosis, G6ttingen 1907; E. Buonniuti LoGrnosticism, Rome, 1907; DCB,ii.678‑687; KL v.765775; the literature under the articles named in tho first paragraph of this article, the text‑books and treatises on the church history of the period, and the works on the history of dogma.

GOA, ARCHBISHOPRIC OF: A metropolitan see in Portuguese India, founded in 1534 by Paul III. The first bishop was the Franciscan JoS,o Albuquerque, consecrated in 1537. After the extension of Christianity by the labors of St. Francis Xavier (q.v.), who landed at Goa in 1542, Paul III. raised the see to metropolitan rank in 1557, assigning to it as suffragan bishoprics Cochin, Malacca, and Macao, the last‑named including the oversight of the Chinese and, from 1576, the Japanese missions. About 1570, three‑fourths of the 200,000 inhabitants of the city were Christians. The increasing conquests of the Dutch diminished the importance of the city, and in 1753, in consequence of a plague, the residence of the Portuguese viceroy was removed to New Goa or Panjim (5 m. to the westward), which became the seat of government in 1845. The ancient city is now little but ruins, with few inhabitants; its most remarkable remaining monuments are the churches, of which that containing the body of St. Francis Xavier is a place of pilgrimage for the Roman Catholics of all India. The later history of the mission which was once so flourishing is an unhappy one. In the seventeenth century the Portuguese government, relying on the right of patronage originally conceded by the pope, made claims which could not be admitted, and on their rejection deliberately organized a schism which maintained its existence for over two hundred years, the consequences of which are not yet effaced.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. A. E. de Silva, Catholic Church in India, Bombay, 1885; C. Dellon, Hist. of the Inquisition at Goa, London, 1748; Life of Bishop Hartmann, Calcutta, 1868; J. P. Kirsch and V. Lukach, Illustrierte Geschichte der katholischen Kirche, pp. 493, 547, 577, 601, Munich, 1905; KL, v. 775‑780.