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357 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Francis, saint

two years later by Pope Gregory IX., the former cardinal-protector of the order.

II. The Three Rules of the Order and the Testament of Saint Francis: The oldest rule, referred to above, no longer preserved in its original form, seems to have contained not much more than the three Scriptural commands in Matt. xix. 21; Luke

1. The First ix. 3; and Matt. xvi. 24. The at- Rule. tempted reconstruction by Mfiller as cribes to it too extensive a content, though Sabatier goes too far in the other direction when he limits it to these three sayings of Christ, which, according to Celano, formed the kernel of the rule, surrounded by certain other more detailed prescriptions. Sabatier's theory that these were gradual accretions, depending especially on de cisions of the yearly general chapter, needs further evidence to confirm it; the oldest biographers say nothing of any intermediate stage between the primitive rule and that. of 1221. The former, based upon the idea of poverty and self-denying labor in the cause of Christ, was intended fo: an associa tion of a similar kind to the Pauperes Catholici or " Poor Men of Lyons." It had little or nothing in common with the older monastic rules, Benedictine or Augustinian.

The rule of 1221 is more adapted to the needs of a monastic order intended to further the general ends of the Church and based upon the three usual vows, but laying special stress on that of poverty. It was drawn up by Francis himself, but under the influence of Cardinal Ugolino, as well as of the

2. The Rule learned and practical Caesarius of of 1221. Speyer and apparently of Brother Leo, who from 1220 on was the con stant companion of the founder. The matter of the primitive rule was included in it, but scattered among a large part of detailed directions, besides many edifying thoughts and pious outpourings of the heart, probably the work of Francis. But there is much in the new rule which breathes a different spirit. The humble founder, though re fusing the title of general of the order, and appear ing simply as " minister-general," sometimes with the addition " the servant of the whole brother hood," appears now at the head of a regular mo nastic hierarchy, consisting of provincial ministers over the provinces, custodes over smaller districts, and guardians over single houses. Definite rules for the novitiate, the habit, hours of prayer, and the discipline of the houses were modeled after the older monastic tradition. In place of the informal yearly gatherings of the brotherhood, there are now regular chapters at fixed times. Of special interest are the provisions for apostolic poverty and the ascetic life in general, which show this rule to be essentially a development of the older disci pline, with the obligation of poverty made more strict while that of other ascetic practises was miti gated, partly for the reason that the new Fratres minores were expected to be diligently occupied in exhausting labors.

The third rule, confirmed by Honorius Ill. on Nov. 29, 1223, has still less of Francis' own work in it. The edifying tone, the citation of the Scriptural texts, have disappeared from it. Instead of

the strong emphasis upon Christ's admonitions to his disciples with which the rule of 1221 had begun, 3. The Third the ,enumeration of the three tradi-

Rule. tional monastic vows is here substi tuted. The character of the order as a mendicant order, pledged to an ideal of the strict est poverty, comes out here, it is true; but these concessions to the spirit of the earlier rules are in termingled with a number of other prescriptions which clearly show the externally official character of the new statutes, framed in the interest of the papacy and in conformity with the other organs of the hierarchy. A cardinal appointed. by the pope as protector of the whole order was to super vise its activity. The conditions for entrance axe more definitely laid down; the Roman Breviary is expressly named as the obligatory basis of the daily devotions of priests belonging to it; and the preaching brothers have a more dependent position than before. In a word, the life here regulated is no longer the old free, wandering life of the first years, marked by apostolic poverty and loving, simple-hearted devotion to the Lord, but rather a carefully arranged quasi-monastic system, shorn of much of its original freedom.

Francis, as may be seen from more than one passage in the accounts of his last years, was unhappy about these changes. As a demonstration against them, he left what is called his " Testa 4. The Tes- ment," whose occasional reading to-

tament. gether with the rule was enjoined on the brethren. Its tone is rather plain tive than angry; it looks back in a spirit of regret to the primitive days of the first love. It urges unswerving obedience to the pope and the heads of the order, but at the same time emphasizes the necessity of following its principles, especially the imitation of the poverty of Christ. The brethren are commanded to oppose the introduction of any future secularizing influences, and at the same time are forbidden to ask for any special privileges from the pope. In spite of the direct command in the "Testament" against considering it as a new rule, the Observantist section of the Franciscans practically regarded it as even more binding than the formal rule, while the advocates of a less strict observance paid little attention to it, especially to its prohibition of asking for ecclesiastical privileges.

III. Development of the Order after the Death of Francis: The controversy about poverty which extends through the first three centuries of Franciscan history began in the lifetime of the founder. The ascetic brothers Alattliew of Narni and Gregory of Naples, to whom Francis had

1. Dissen- entrusted the direction of the order lions Dur- during his absence, carried through ing the Life at a chapter which they held certain of Francis. stricter regulations in regard to fasting and the reception of alms, which really departed from the spirit of the original rule. It did not take Francis long, on his return, to suppress this insubordinate tendency; but he was less successful in regard to another of an opposite nature which soon came up. Elias of Crotona originated a movement for the increase of the worldly consideration of the order and the adaptation of its