151	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	cooceins
a discussion on the beet means of opposing Luther. From this time he employed his pen for the cause of Romanism.
His one ambition was to meet Luther in a public disputation, and with the aid of Aleander he succeeded in being admitted to private negotiations with Luther. His polemical attacks and invectives overshot the mark oo that even the Roman Catholics disapproved of his actions. Though without friends or money; his zeal increased the more, and he never tired of fording ways to obstruct the cause of Luther. He even Controversy recommended the suppression of the with Luther. University of Wittenberg. In 1521 he offered his service to the pope, but nobody cared for him at Rome. It was not till 1522 that his fast treatise against Luther apneared‑De gratis aacramentorwn ltber unt6 Joannis Cochloi adversua aeaertionem M. Luthera (Strasburg). Luther replied with his Adveraua armatum virum Cocleum, which again was answered by Cochleeus in Adveraua cucullatum minotatcrum Wilcennbergenaem . . . . De aacrorurn gratis, iterum (1523).
In the autumn of 1523 he went to Rome as he did not feel himself safe at Frankfort, but returned early in 1524. Meanwhile his patrons and friends at Frankfort had joined the opposing party. Cochlaeue accompanied Campeggi, the papal nuncio, to the Convention of Regensburg as interpreter and member of the commission which discussed the reform of the clergy. His position at Frankfort becoming untenable, he fled to Cologne in 1525, and in 1526 received a canonry at St. Victor's in Mainz. He attended the Diet of Speyer in 1526, but his hope of holding a disputation with Luther was not fulfilled. Although Luther had ignored him after replying to his fast treatise, Cochlarus was indefatigable in writing polemical
Disappoint‑ tracts against Luther and the Refor• ments of his oration. After the death of Hierony‑
Later Life. mus Emser in 1528 he went to Dresden as adviser and assistant of Duke George of Saxony in his literary feuds with Luther. He followed the duke to the Diet of Augsburg, and was one of the Roman' theologians commissioned to refute the Augsburg Confession. His attacks found little favor with the Romaniste, and Johann Eck became the chief author of the Confutatio. Cochls;m'a hope of receiving financial support from Rome proved illusory, and it became more and more difficult for him to get his numerous unsalable pamphlets printed. In 1534 or 1535 George of Saxony secured for him a canonry at Meissen. Subsequently he was provost of St. Severue at Erfurt until 1539. The death of George was a severe blow for him, and for the cause of Romaniem. As the progress of the Reformation in Saxony made it impossible for him to retain his eeclesisatical ofces, he accepted in 1539 a canonry from the cathedral chapter fn Breslau. King Fer dinand called him to the diets of Hagenau, Worms, and Regensburg, but here again he was ignored. He followed with zeal the preparations for the Council of Trent without being able to take part in it. He remained the same zealous champion of Roman Catholicism to the end, although he found
little recognition, and, to complete his tragic fate, Pope Paul IV. put his name on the Index.
Cochlasus's Hietarid Humitarum libri xii. (Mainz, 1549) is still valuable, but the work which has made his name popular to the present is his history
of Luther, Commentaria de actia et
His Most scriptis Martini Lutheri Saxonia chroImportant nographiee ex ordine ab anno Domini Works. 1617 uaque ad annum. 161,6 inclusive
	fAditer conscripts (Mainz, 1549). The
book became the model and source for many later
polemical productions, and the view expounded in
it that the whole Reformation was nothing but an
incidental jealousy between the Dominican and
Augustinian orders was believed even by intelli
gent men. 		(T. KOLDz.)
Btsraooasra:: U. de Weldige Cremsr, Ds Joannros Coeelai tern es sA'ipais. Munster, 1885; $. Otto. Jobannea CorAiaua der Humanist, Breslan. 1874; F. Oess, Johannn Codlaw der Geyner Lathers, 1Aipsio, 1888; M. 8p" Jobannes Corhkeas. Lebensbild, Olin, 1898; J. Koedin, Martin LudR, Vim, 2 vols., ib. 1903.
CODMAR, RODERT: Protestant Episcopal bishop' of Maine; b. in Boston, Mass., Dec. 30, 1859. He was educated at Harvard (B.A., 1882) and at the Harvard Law School, from which he. was graduated in 1885. After practising a few years, however, he determined to take orders, and accordingly studied at the General Theological Seminary, from which he was graduated in .1894. After his ordination to the priesthood, h® was rwtor of St. John's, Roxbury, Mass., until 1900, when he was consecrated third bishop of the diocese of Maine.
CON, GEORGE ALBERT: American philosopher; b. at Mendon, N. Y., Mar. 26, 1862. He was graduated at Rochester University (B.A., 1884) and Boston University (Ph.D., 1891), and as traveling fellow of the latter institution spent the year 1890‑91 at the University of Berlin. He was professor of philosophy in the University of Southern California 1889‑90 and acting professor of philosophy in Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill., 1891‑93. Since the latter year he has been John Evans professor of philosophy in the same institution. He was lecturer on the psychology of religion in Boston University in 1900. He has written The Spiritual Life : Studies in the Science of Religion (New York, 1900); The Riligion of a Mature Mind (Chicago, 1902); and Education in Religion and Morals (1904).
COELDE, DIETRICH (Dietrich of Munster). See Fa"cls, SAINT, oF Assml, exD THE FasrrcwCAN ORDER.
C(ELE‑YRIA (" Hollow Syria "): The early name for the valley which separates the parallel ranges of Lebanon and Anti‑Lebanon. In later times the name came to have a wider application and to include the whole of southern Syria except Phenicia (of. Josephus, Ant., XIV. iv. 5). It therefore contained nearly all the cities of Decapolis within its limits. Though the name does not occur in the Bible, it is frequently mentioned in the Apocrypha (I Eed. ii. 24, 27, iv. 48, vi. 29; I Mace. x. 69; II Mace. viii. 8, x. 11) and by Josephus (Ant., XIII. iv. 2, XIV. ix. 5, xi. 4) and other writers. It hag

o0m~ yria
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
a legendary history of its own, attested by curious monuments. At Herak Nfih is shown the grave of Noah, one hundred and thirty‑two feet long; and on the opposite side of the plain is the tomb of the prophet Beth; while the temples at Baalbek (q.v.) have astonished the world for many centuries. Long before " Toi, King of Hamath," sent presents to David (II Sam. viii. 9‑11), the Hittites of that region were sufficiently powerful to contend there for supremacy with the Pharaohs of Egypt.
This remarkable valley, now called el‑BiSkA.'a, " the deft," extends to the northeast, from Jubb Jentn, under Hermon, for about one hundred miles, having an average width of seven miles. Its surface as seen from above seems to be quite level; but this appearance is deceptive. It is, in fact, an elevated plateau rising gradually northward, until, at the northeast end, it is nearly four thousand feet above the level of the sea, a cold, rugged, and barren region. The northern end is drained by the Orontes, called el'Asy, " the rebellious," because its course is northward, contrary to the other rivers of Syria.. Its most southern source is at Lebweh, the Libo of the ancients. The main source is the copious fountain that flows out from under the cliffs of Lebanon, near Mughiirat al‑RShib. Passing below Hama'a Htirmul, a unique monument with hunting scenes carved upon its four sides, the Orontes irrigates the extensive plains of the Biblical Riblah (II Kings xxv. 6) and the equally fertile region around the small lake of Kedes. The shapeless ruins near Tell Neby Mindau may mark the site of the chief city of the Hittite kingdom. Issuing from the artificial lake of Hades, six miles south of Hums, the river pursues its winding course through the land of Hamath, past the extensive ruins of Apamea, and along the eastern foot‑hills of the Nusafrfyeh Mountains, where it turns westward, and, passing by Antioch, it enters the sea near the base of Mount CWus. The central and southern portions of the BukA'a are comparatively level, and their. fertility and beauty are entirely due to the abundance of water. Perennial streams descend from the mountains on either side, and copious fountains rise in tile plain itself, in such positions that the water can be conducted to all parts of its surface. The center and south of the BuU'a is drained by the LttAny, the ancient Leontes, one of the longest and largest rivers of Syria. It rises at 'Ain alf3111tfn, above Baalbek, and is joined, as it flows southward, by many tributaries, among them el BerdAny, which descends from snow‑crowned Lebanon, and the large remitting fountain near 'Anjar, that flows out from the very roots of AntiLebanon, near the site of the ancient Chalcis. Below Jub Jentn the LUny enters a profound gorge, along which it has worn its way through southern Lebanon to the sea, near Tyre. For the history see SYRIA.
Btslaoassrirre G. A. Smith, Historical Geography of the 11011/ Land, pp. 688‑539, 553, London, 1897; W. 8mitb, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, p. 1071, London, 1878, and the literature under Saws.
C(ELICOLE, et"li‑cb'lf (" Heaven Worshipers ")
A name applied to a Christian sect extant in northern Africa in the time of Augustine (cf.
168
Epist., xliv., NPNF, i. 289). They doubtless owe their name to controversial polemics. They seem to have laid special stress on adoration of the deity without images, and to have been closely related to the Eastern Hypsietarians (q.v‑)‑ An edict of the emperors Honorius and Theodosius IL, 408 (Cod. Theodos., XVI. v. 43), awarded the houses of worship of the Coelicohe to the Catholic Church; and in the year following (409) it was further decreed that the Caelicolm must either adopt the Christian faith within a year or incur, in the contrary case, the penalty imposed upon heresy (Cal. Theodos., XVI. viii. 19). G. Klttaxlt.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Scharer, in Sitaungabaiclde der Berliner Akademie, 1897, pp. 209‑225; J. M. 8chr2Sekh, CArietlSche Kirchengeschichfe, vii. 442‑444, Leipsio, 1780.

COELLft, coin, DANIEL GEORG IKONRAD VON: German theologian; b. at Oerlinghausen, LippeDetmold, Dec. 21, 1788; d. at Breslau Feb. 17,1833. He was educated at Marburg, Tiibingen, and G6ttingen, and became privat‑docent at Marburg 1811, associate professor of theology 1816, and professor of theology at Breslau 1818. In a spirit of moderate rationalism he wrote Historische Beitrdge zur Erlduterung and Berichtiguung der Begri fe Pietiamus, Mysticismus and Fanatismtis (Halberstadt, 1830). His zeal for the union of the two leading Protestant denominations of Germany was shown by his Ideen Wier den inneren Zusammenhang der Glaubenseinigung and Glaube‑einigung (Leipsio, 1823). The celebration of the jubilee of the Augsburg Confession caused him and his friend David Schulz to publish their Ueber theologische Lehrfrei.heft auf den evangelischen Univernttilen and deren Beschrankung durch symbolwche Bucher (Breslau, 1830), in which they condemned the Confession as antiquated and advocated the preparation of a new creed. Their position was attacked by Schleiermacher, and they replied in their Zwei Antwortschreiben an Herrn D. Friedr. Schleiermacher (Leipsic, 1831), the controversy ending in a practical defeat for the older theologian. In addition to numerous contributions to periodicals and to his academic writings, Coelln edited the first volume and a half of the third edition of Wilhelm Monseher's Lehrbuch der christlichen Dogmengeschichte (Cassel, 1832‑34), but his chief work was the BibWche Theologie (ed. D. Schulz, 2 vole., Leipsic, 1836), which was long the standard on its subject, especially for the Old Testament.
(G. Fxerrgt.)
Bmwomsrer: A memoir by D. Schulz was prefixed to the
Biblieche Tha<olopie. Consult ADB, iv. 391.

COEMGEN, kem1gen (]KEVIN), SAINT, OF GLEBDALOUGH: A very popular Irish hermit saint of the fifth century, whose story is given here as typical of those of his kind.* He is said to have
* With regard to the alleged histories of the early Irish saints the Bollandists remark (June, iii. 331, cm. hist. to life of 8. Molingus or Dayrgellue): "To such a degree are the same things related. of all Irish saints that it is difficult to believe them‑ For example, baptism is received from an angel, future sanctity is foretold in boyhood, the hermit life is followed in a hollow tree, a forward woman showing her preference too boldly is flogged, and there in a wonderful power over the animal world."

188	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	o"oia"i Yria
died June 3, 618, at the age of 120 years. His parents were Christians and had their son educated by Petroc, a pious Briton, and by holy men in Ireland. When a young girl showed a liking for Cmmgen he flogged her with nettles. Finding a lonely valley with a lake overshadowed by mountains (Glendalough, County Wicklow, 8 m. n.w. of Rathdrum), he settled there, living in a hollow tree, and subsisting on herbs and water. Afterward he was admitted to the priesthood, and returned to Glendalough, were he founded a monastery. Then he withdrew some little distance, giving orders that no one should come to him, and spent four years in his new retreat in fasting and prayer. For a time he was prevailed upon to leave his hermit life and rejoin the monks in his monastery, but he soon returned to solitude. The birds and beasts were his familiar companions, " the branches and leaves of the trees sang sweet songs to him," and he received celestial visitors. Then he was seized with the desire of wandering, visited holy men in various parts of Ireland, and had in mind a longer journey, but gave it up on the advice of a hermit, who told him that " it was more becoming for him to fix himself in one place than to ramble here and there in his old age, as he could not but know that no bird could hatch her eggs while flying." So he went back to his hermitage. When the king of Ireland invaded Leinster Ceemgen advised the local king to fight for his country; and the invader was utterly defeated and slain. Remains of Cmmgen's monastery still exist in Glendalough and a cave is shown as " St. Caemgen's Bed."
BIBLIOGRAPHY: ASB, June, i. 303‑313; Lanigan, Ecel. Hist., ii. 43‑50; G. Petrie, The Ecclesiastical Architecture of Ireland, pp. 170‑174, 247‑267, Dublin, 1845; J. Hesly. Ineula sanctorum pp. 414 eqq., Dublin, 1890.
CCENOBITES. See Moxesnclsnr.
COLT, STANTON: Ethical culturist; b.atColumbus, O., Aug. 11, 1857. He was graduated at Amherst in 1879, studied at Columbia and the University of Berlin (Ph.D., 1885), and after aotr ing as pastor of the South Place Chapel, London, E. C., in 1888‑91, withdrew from the ministry, and in 1892‑93 was head of the University Settlement in New York. Since 1897 he has been chairman of the Moral Instruction League, London, and was also lecturer for the West London Ethical Society in 1892 and 1906. In theology he denies the need of a belief in immortality or in supernatural beings, and would transform churches into ethical societies. He is editor of the weekly Ethical Review, and has written Neighbourhood Guilds (London, 1890) and Die ethischen Bewegungen in der Religion (Leipsic, 1890).

COKE, THOMAS: First Methodist bishop; b. at Brecon, Wales, Sept. 9, 1747; d. at sea on a voyage to Ceylon May 3, 1814. He studied at Jesus College, Oxford (B.A., 1768; M.A., 1770; D.C.L., 1775); took orders in the English Church and became curate at South Petherton, Somerset; fell under Methodist influences and in 1777 openly joined that body and attended the conference at Bristol. He gave much help to Wesley, who styled
him " his right hand "; in 1782 he became first president of the Irish conference; in 1784 he was set apart by Wesley at Bristol as " superintendent " for America. Wesley did not approve of the title bishop, which the American conference adopted in 1787 at Coke's instigation. The latter, with two elders, arrived in America, Nov., 1784, and proceeded to the famous Christmas conference at Baltimore, at which he ordained Francis Asbury as superintendent. With Asbury he drew up the Doctrines and Discipline for the Methodist Church in America. He made nine voyages to America (the last in 1803) and fulfilled his duties there energetically and well. He was a leader in England after Wesley's death (1791), and was indefatigable in the cause of missions. In 1813 he wished an appointment from the government as bishop of India and offered to return to the Established Church; when the proposal was rejected he furnished funds himself to establish a Methodist mission there, sailed with a band of helpers, but died on the voyage. His numerous publications include Extracts of the Journals of the Rev. Dr. Coke's Five Visits to America (London, 1793); a life of John Wesley (1792), prepared in collaboration with Henry Moors (see War, 1OHN); A Commentary on the Old arid New Testaments (6 vole., 1801‑03); A History of the West Indies (3 vole., Liverpool, 1808‑11).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lives were published by: S. Drew, New York, 1837, and J. W. Etheridge, London, 1860; of; L. Tyerman, Life and Times of John Wesley; vol_ iii., ib. 1871; W. Moister, T%e Fat%er of our Missions, ib. 1871; DNB, m. 247‑249.

COLANI, o8"lla"ns', TIMOTHEE: French theologian; b. at Lem6, near Sains (190 m. n.e. of Paris), department of Aisne, Jan. 29, 1824; d. at Grindelwadd, Switzerland, Sept. 2, 1888. He was a son of the Reformed minister at LemA, and a zealous adherent of the Rweil, who brought him up in a narrow dogmatism which was enhanced by influences at Neuch&tel and by the Moravians of the Korathal. At the age of sixteen he went to Strasburg to study theology. Influenced by Reuse, he devoted himself to the study of the New Testament, and also studied philosophy, history, and literature. In 1845 he finished his academical studies and published a dissertation on KanVs religious philosophy. Two years later he obtained a theological licentiate by a treatise on the idea of the absolute. He was also a contributor to La R& formation au196&tne sincle, edited by Edmond Scherer at Geneva, which represented the individualistic ideas of Vinet.
He now considered it his duty to contribute to the regeneration of theological science in France. An impulse had already been given by the Strasburg faculty, but without lasting effect; and the orthodoxy. of a Grandpierre and Adolphe Monod had full sway. In 1849 Edmond Scherer, till then professor at the independent theological school in Geneva, published his two letters on criticism and faith, in which he pointed out a revision of church dogmas and the return to the original ideas of the Gospel as the task of modern theology. Coltini soon joined him and together they founded the

Colani
Coleridge
Revue de thdologie d de philoeophie chritienne, which under Colani's direction became the organ of the " Strasburg School." From 1858 Colani preached often, and in vol: xiv. of the Revue he developed his ideas on the sermon. The attacks upon his manner of preaching induced him to publish first some of his discourses (L'Individualisme chr&ien, La Sacerdoce universal, LIdueatiion protestante), and afterward three collections, Sermons pr&Aks a Strasbourg (Strasburg, 1857), Nouveaux sermons (1860), and Quatre sermons pr&h6s d Nimes (1861).
The fame which Colani had acquired seemed to point him out for one of the first places in church or school; but the authorities were afraid to sanction officially his ideas. For this reason he had to support himself for years as private tutor. His appointment in 1861 as lecturer on French literature at the Protestant Seminary in Strasburg raised a storm of protest. Still greater and louder was the protest when, a few months later (May 15,1862), he was appointed pastor of the French congregation of St. Nicolas, and two years later professor of homiletics in the theological faculty and professor of philosophy at the Protestant seminary. in 1864 he was made doctor of theology after publishing his noteworthy work J&us‑Christ et lee croyances mesaianiquea de son temps (Strasburg, 1864). Toward the end of that year he commenced his lectures on homiletics, cateohetics, and liturgics in the theological faculty, and on philosophy at‑the Protestant seminary. His lectures, distinguished by scientific depth, keen judgment, and elegant form, attracted a large audience. In 1866 he resigned the pastorate to devote himself wholly to his two professorships. The war of 1870, however, compelled him to leave Strasburg; he joined Gambetta at Bordeaux, and devoted himself to politics. He now renounced theology, but took part as a lay delegate in the deliberations at the synod of the Reformed Church of France in 1872, and with great eloquence advocated Protestant liberty. For a time interested in an industrial undertaking at Royon, Colani founded in 1876 a literary journal, Le Courrier littftire, published at Paris. He afterward became sublibrarian of the Sorbonne, editor of the Gambettistic journal La Republique frangaiae, and contributor to La Nouvelle Revue. He was chosen as editor of Le Temps in 1888, but his death intervened. Over against the rationalistic and orthodox intellectualism Colani emphasized again the mystical and ethical element in Christianity; and against the principle of authority, the right of historical and inner criticism. He brought about a change of the Protestant theology of France in a strictly scientific sense. T. GamoLD.
BzzuoaaAPHi: A biographical mtioe may be fonad in rel, Strasburg, 1888, non. 40 eqq., and another by J. Reinach in a posthumous volume of Basis, Paris. 1895.
COLARBASUS, COLARBASIANB. See VALWTWUS AND HIS SCHOOL.
COLEMAN, LEIGHTON: Protestant Episcopal bishop of Delaware; b. at Philadelphia May 3, 1837; d at wihnington, DeL, Des 14, 1907. He was educated at the Protestant Episcopal Academy in his native city and the General
THE NEW scHAFF‑HERZOG
154
Theological Seminary, New York City, from which he was graduated in 1881. He was rector of St. Luke's, Bustleton, Pa. (1881‑83), St. ,John's, Wilmington, Del. (1883‑68), St. Mark's, Mauch Chunk, Pa. (1866‑74), and Trinity Church, Toledo, O. (1874‑79). From 1879 to 1887 he resided in England, and on his return to the United States was rector of the Church of the Redeemer, Sayre, Pa., in 1887‑88. In the latter year he was consecrated bishop of Delaware. He was chairman of the American Church Temperance Society 1900‑06 and frequently member of important ecclesiastical committees. In theology he was a Catholic Churchman, arid as such energetically maintained the cardinal doctrines of the Church and Christianity. He published: History of the Lehigh Valley (Philadelphia, 1868); History of the American Church (London, 1895); and Popular History of the American Church (1905).
COLEMAN, LYMAN: Congregationalist; b. at Middlefield, maw., June 14, 1796; d. at Easton, Pa., Mar. 16, 1882. He was graduated at Yale 1817; was principal of the Latin Grammar School at Hartford 1817‑20; tutor in Yale 1820‑25; student of theology, and for seven years pastor of the Belchertown (Mass.) Congregational Church. He resigned, spent two years in foreign travel, held various positions, until in 1862 he became professor of Latin in Lafayette College. He published: Antiquities of the Christian Church (Philadelphia, 1841), a translation and compilation from Augusti's Chriatltcke Archdologie and other German works; Ancient Christianity Exemplified (1852); Historical Text‑book and Atlas of Biblical Geography (1854); and Prelacy and Ritualiam (1869).

COLENSO, JOHN WILLIAM: Bishop of Natal; b. at St. Austell (13 m. n:n.e. of Truro), Cornwall, Jan. 24, 1814; d. at Durban, Natal, June 20, 1883. After taking his degree at Cambridge (St. John's College) in 1836, he was an assistant master at Harrow (1839‑42), and then returned to St. John's, of which he had been a fellow since 1837, as tutor for four years. From 1846 to 1853 he was vicar of Foracett St. Mary in Norfolk, and in 1853 became the first bishop of the new see of Natal in South Africa. He worked zealously for the conversion of the natives, for whom he wrote manuals of instruction both sacred and secular in the Zulu language, as well as a Zulu grammar and dictionary. Suspicion as to his orthodoxy was groused by his commentary on the Epistle to the Romans (1861); and when his Pentateuch and Book of Joshua Critically Examined (7 parts, London, 1862‑79) began to appear, its line of thought (originally suggested to him by‑ the questions of his simple Zulu converts) and especially his calling in question the historical accuracy and traditional authorship of these books, wherein he anticipated many of the ideas of later scholarship, aroused a perfect storm of opposition. His metropolitan, Bishop Gray of Cape Town, put him on trial and deposed him at the end of 1883, while his book was condemned in the following year by both houses of the Convocation of Canterbury. Denying Bishop Gray's jurisdiction, Colenso appealed

166	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Colani
		Coleridee
to the Crown, and the judicial committee of the
Privy Council pronounced 'his deposition null and
void. A state of schism ensued, Colenso main
taining himself as still lawfully bishop of Natal,
while out of communion with the rest of the An
glican body in South Africa, which set up the
bishopric of Maritzburg to take the place of Natal.
	Bishop Colenso was a warm friend of the Zulus,
and in the later part of his life alienated many of
his English adherents in South Africa by his advo
cacy of their cause. In 1875 he visited England
to obtain justice for a native chief against the local
authorities, and in the war with Cetywayo in 1879
and following years he stood boldly for right treat
ment of the king and his people regardless of the
fears and selfish interests of the colonists. Be
sides the works already mentioned, he published
two volumes of Natal Sermons (London, 1866‑68)
and The New Bible Commentary by Bishops and
Other Clergy of the Anglican Church [i.e., the
" Speaker's Commentary," ed. F. C. Cook, which
was gotten up largely to answer his views] Crit
ically Examined (6 parts, London, 1871‑74).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: For list of writings by and on Bishop
	Colenso, consult: G. C. Boase and W. D. Courtney, Bib
	liotheeea Cornubiensis i. 76‑79, iii. 1125‑27, London,
	1874‑‑81; Life is by G. W. Cox, 2 vols., ib. 1888; DNB,
	xi. 290‑293.
	COLERIDGE, SAMUEL TAYLOR: A famous
English poet, philosopher, and critic; b. at Ottery
St. Mary (12 m. e. of Exeter) Oct. 21, 1772; d.
in London July 25, 1834. After gaining a thor
ough knowledge of the classics, and of Shakespeare
and Milton, at the " Bluecoat School " in London,
he was sent in 1791 to Jesus College, Cambridge.
He suddenly left the university without a degree
in 1793, and enlisted in a regiment of dragoons,
from which, however, his friends procured his dis
charge not long afterward. He decided now to
devote himself to a literary career, and joined
Southey at Bristol, forming part of a group of en
thusiastic young men who hailed the French Revo
lution as the beginning of a new order of things.
They dreamed of founding a sort of communistic
colony, to which they gave the high‑sounding
name of Pantisocracy, on the banks of the Susque
hanna. Southey soon saw the futility of the un
dertaking, and withdrew from it; and Coleridge
settled for a while at Nether Stowey, near Bridge
water, in Somersetshire, whither presently Words
			worthalsocame. The twofriends,dur
		Life.	ing their long walks and talks, felt the
			need of applying their principles of free
dom to literature, and especially to poetry. They
broke altogether with the stiff, artificial style which
had been the rule of the eighteenth century, and
boldly proclaimed their intention of going straight to
nature for both subject and manner of treatment.
Their first appearance in print after this decision
was taken‑anonymous, so little confidence had
they in its reception‑was with the epoch‑making
book Lyrical Ballads (1798), which is usually con
sidered as marking the formal beginning of the
English romantic movement. Coleridge's con
tributions to the book were only four in number,
of which "The Ancient Mariner" was the most
important. In fact, there is probably no poet in the whole range of English literature to whom so high a rank has been universally conceded on the basis of so small a body of first‑rate poetry, including, besides the poem mentioned, especially " Christabel," " Kubla Khan," and " Genevieve." Coleridge made a trip to Germany in the company of Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy, spent some time at GSttingen, and became absorbed in the philosophy of Kant, which he was the first to introduce to his countrymen. Indeed, the main purpose of his later life was the interpretation and enforcement of its principles. With the exception of a year in Malta and Rome, he spent most of the time until 1810 with his friends in the Lake District, after which he went to London, and for the last nineteen years of his life was an inmate of the house of Dr. Gillman at Highgate Hill. Gillman's influence and care finally succeeded in weaning him from the opium habit, to which, at first under the stress of physical suffering, he had become enslaved. He planned many books, and partly executed a few; but he exerted more power in wonderful conversations with his friends, including a large number of younger men who, as his reputation for transcendental wisdom increased, resorted to him as an oracle. The combination of manifold gifts which he possessed was, in a way, a hindrance to achievement. He was too much of a poet to be a strict philosopher, and too much of a philosopher, at least in his later life, to give free play to his marvelous poetic faculty. Moreover, with all his learning, he was lacking in the energy necessary to fuse into one whole, according to a definite plan, the scattered material of which his mind was full. He was a very great critic; in fact the decided opinion of so competent a judge as Mr. Saintsbury (History of Criticism, iii. 230, London, 1904) is that he deserves in this capacity the third rank, surpassed only by Aristotle and Longinus. Not the least of the services which he rendered as a critic was the restoration of Shakespeare to his rightful position, after the oblivion into which the eighteenth century had cast him.
Coleridge had especially what is called a " seminal " mind; there was probably no one in his generation who sowed the seeds of so many ideas which were destined later to bring forth much fruit. Even more than in poetry, he was the originator of new tendencies in religious thought. On account of the desultory and fragmentary way in which he left his reflections, it is not easy to bring his views into a clear and definite system. While some have seen in him a convinced defender of revealed religion against deism and pantheism, others have thought that he was a pantheist himself, or at least a thorough Neoplatonist. There is no doubt that he passed through successive phases of belief, from the empirical philosophy through pantheism to Christian theism. His Religion In his youthful ambition for freedom,
and Philos‑ he cut loose from the dogmas of the ophy. Church of England and threw in his lot with the Unitarian movement. Of his German masters he followed Kant most closely, though he went a good deal beyond him

colerume	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	188
coliguy
in a positive direction. At the same time he adopt
ed not a few Neoplatonist ideas, and so finally by
this eclectic process built up the fabric of belief
which is found in his Biographia literaria (1816),
still more in his Aids to Refection (1825), and
also in his essay On the Constitution of Church and
State (1820).
	Coleridge recognizes the equality of the claims
of belief and knowledge; but as he wishes to hold
the entire content of revelation, especially the spe
cifically Christian doctrines, he is anxious to show
the reasonable nature of revelation. The Chris
tian faith is a perfect completion of human reason;
but the less this truth is generally recognized the
more necessary it is to clear away misunderstand
ings which lead to false conclusions. At the be
ginning of his intellectual process man must know
himself, in order to rise to the knowledge of God,
in whose likeness he is created. Now man finds
in himself a spiritual element, which is his will.
This will, however, is limited on one side by the
law of conscience, on the other by the existence of
evil. In accordance with this foundation, religion
is essentially ethical‑its aim a practicl one, the
moral and intellectual elevation of' mankind.
Questions of Christian doctrine must thus be de
cided by the practical reason rather than by the
intellect. Speculative thought has no place in
religion but the formal and negative one of show
ing that the Christian doctrines do not contradict
human reason. This practical reason, the source
Of our religious knowledge, is the gift of God, who
is himself the highest Reason and in whose light
we see light. It is an intuitive power, and the
ideas perceived by it are of a true reality. In re
gard to; the relation of this practical reason to Holy
Scripture, Coleridge says that the Gospel must be
taken at its own valuation‑not as a theological
system of theoretical propositions designed to en
large our knowledge, whether ethical or metaphys
ical, but as a historical narrative recounting or
explaining certain facts which, though they. are doc
trinal truths, are none the less facts. The Bible is
inspired only so far as it brings the voice of God
to the heart.
	Everything must be considered in the light of
the significance it has for the moral life of man
kind‑ The ethical character of Coleridge thus
comes out especially in his doctrine of sin, regen
eration, and justification. Sin has its source in
the will, which inclines to evil and thus' loses its
freedom and power for good; but it can liberate
itself once more, by renewed subjection to the light
of God in the conscience, to become again a ,ra
tional will. This is regeneration, by which man
recovers the possibility of vital intercourse with
the divine spirit. Redemption is thus an ethical
act Of the subject, and there is no room in this
scheme for an objective redemption. Salvation is
indeed said to proceed from Christ; but his person
as well as his work remains a mystery, since the
capacity of suffering is inconsistent with his divine
attributes, and a vicarious sacrifice with ethical
conceptions. In the attempt to include the whole
content of revelation, Coleridge admits the possi
bilitY of believing doctrines which transcend hu‑
man reason. Some of these, like that of the Trinity, he does not consider objects of the practical reason, although he says that the true idea of God includes such a notion. His understanding of it is based on Neoplatonism. The Logos, the divine light, is immanent in humanity. He has revealed bimself in history, in religion, as well as in philosophy and poetry‑most perfectly in Christ and Christianity, but Socrates and Plato have a place beside Paul and John. The Logos leads mankind to ever higher moral and intellectual development, not only in this life but also in the next; and thus the restoration of all things is made possible.
It is not surprising that the attempt to widen Christianity into a religion embracing all that is true, good, and beautiful in the world should have met with strong opposition and equally strong approval. Coleridge's modest earnestness, the pacific tone of his argument, the mystical element in the intuitive reason, the emphasis laid upon the ethical side of Christianity, the reconciliation of faith and knowledge, the recognition of good in any form, and the wide freedom given to individual conceptions were characteristics which appealed to many minds in that pe:4od more than any other form of Christian belief. Those who were influenced by this teaching, though they did not go so far as to found a new church, took up some element or elements of it and developed them further along the same lines; and it is not too much to say that Coleridge was the originator of the Broadchurch or liberal movement in the Church of England which was so striking a feature of the nineteenth century.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Materials for a life are found in his own Biopraphia literaria, ed. with notes by his nephew, H. N. Coleridge, for Bohn's Library, 1866; in the Table Talk and Omniana, ed. for the same series by T. Ashe, 1888, re. published by Bell, 1905; and in his Miscellanies, ed. Ache, 1888. Various Letters appear in Sir H Davy's Fragmentary Remains, London, 1858; in C. K. Paul's W. Godwin ib. 1876; in Eraser's Magazine, July, 1878; Westminster Review, April and July, 1870; and in E. V. Lucas's Charles Lab and the Lloyds, New York, 1898. Coleridge Bibliographies are provided by R. H. Shepherd, London, 1901, and by J. L. Haney, ib. 1904. Lives are by: J. D. Campbell, ib. 1894 (a critical study of the life, not going into the literary work); A. Brandl, Berlin, 1886, Eng. transl., London, 1887; H. Caine, ib. 1887; W. Pat‑, in Appreaiations, ib. 1889; H. D. Trail], in English Men of Letters Series, ib. 1890; cf. L. Stephen, Hours in a Library, ib. 1892; W. Watson, in Excursions in Criticism, ib. 1893. Consult further the essays by W. G. T. Shedd and J. Marsh in the Complete Works of coleridge, i. 9‑64, 67‑110, New York, 1856; J. Tulloch, Moeement of Religious Thought in Britain, pp. 1‑40, ib. 1886.
COLET, JOHN: One of the " reformers before the Reformation"; b., probably in London, 1466 or 1467; d. there Sept. 16, 1519. He studied at Oxford and on the Continent. In 1497 he began to give lectures on the New Testament at oxford. Rejecting the allegorical interpretation and the scholastic method, he aimed to get at the sense, and
he showed independence by suggesting that the first chapters of Genesis were poetry. At Oxford he met Erasmus and became his intimate friend. In 1504 he was made dean of St. Paul's and took the degree of D.D.; he .introduced expository preaching and a perpetual divinity lecture on three days in each week. In 1505 he inherited a fortune

157	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	vzr
from his father, the greater part of which he shortly after applied to the foundation of St. Paul's School. In 1509 he prepared in English a little treatise, on Latin accidence for the boys in St. Paul's School, to which William Lilly, head. master of the school, furnished a syntax; it was probably printed about 1510, and has been reprinted many times since, even as late as 1836. A Right Fruitful Admonition concerning the Order of a Good Christian Man's Life Made by the Famous Dr. Cold was first printed in 1534; later it came to be known as Daily Devotions, or the Christian's morning and evening sacrifice, and to include matter not by Colet.
BIBLIOasApar: His manuscripts have been published with tranel. and notes, 5 vols., London, 1887‑74, by J. H. Lupton, who edited and translated Erasmus's life of Colet, ib. 1883, and wrote A Life of Dean Colet, ib. 1887 (the best modern life). Consult: F. Beebohm, Three Oxford Reformers, Colet, Eraamus, More, ib. 1887; A. J. Mason, Lectures on CoiA Fisher, and More, ib. 1895; DNB, xi. 321‑328.
COLIGIQY, cb"li"nyi', GASPARD DE: French statesman and Jburuenot leader; b. at ChAtillonsur‑Loing (80 m. s.e. of Paris) Feb. 16, 1516; assassinated at Paris Aue. 24. 157, He was the second son of Gaspard de CbAtillon, marshal of France (d. 1522), and Louise de Montmorency, a sister of the famous constable of France, but became the head of the family in 1533. He had thorough military and diplomatic training, and at the same time a character of singular purity. He fought with great distinction against Charles V. (1542‑44), and in 15_ 47 was made commander of the French infantry. In 1552 he was made admiral of FranOe.
and in 1555 igovernor. of Picardy. As :. Life to such he signed the armistice of Van‑
r559. Con‑ celles Feb. 5, 1156; but when Henry version to II. broke it he fought valiantly, de‑
Protestant‑ spite his disapproval of the act, and ism. after the defeat of the constable at
		St. Quentin, Aug. 10, 1557, he actually
,%ved Pgr~' by holding the city of St. Quentin for
seventeen days, thus enabling the French to reor‑
ganize their army. On its surrender he was carried
a prisoner into the Netherlands, where he was con
fined first at Sluis and then at Ghent, until ransomed
tA en_ormous expense after .h . Rea.e of Chfi.tean‑
Cambr6sis (Apr. 3, 1559). But from the prisons of
~h~il'g 11, he rnturned a Protestant. He was not
entirely a stranger to the Reformation. His mother
was familiar with the " new ideas," and had refused
to allow a priest to attend her at death. Ri t~ utor,
	icoh Bdraui_d. was a friend, of ,rasm ,s. His wife,
Charlotte de Laval, was strongly attracted .by the
movement; his brother Odet later joined the Re
formed, and his other brother Andelot had openly
embraced Protestantism. In his long imprison
ment Coligny had leisure toQ,_nia .i .writ
sent him by Andelot. H, is resolve‑ to break with_
the established faith was ~tren~echenef~. a 1 . . pr
fro‑ m Calvin, dated Rent= 4_ 16hK
Through the sudden death of Henry II. (1559), and the accession of Francis II., the Guises gained full control, whereupon Coligny retired from court and resigned the governorship of Picardy (1560), though he retained his post as admiral. He did not openly acknowledge his belief until July, 1559, ins
fully aware that his step might be fatal‑fa‑his family. Meanwhile the public discontent at the usurpation of the Guises reached a climax. The conspiracy of Amboise in 1560 amply shows the state of popular opinion in France. At the Convention of the Notables at Fontainebleau (Aug. 21‑26, 1559) Coligny made brave but inefficient attempts to gain more freedom of worship for the
Protestants, but the sudden death of 2. rg6o>‑66. Francis II. (Dec. 5, 1560) changed
	the whole aspect of affairs. Cath
e 'r~ne~de'_ Medici b°came rent for her eon Chnrlm
JY~,., then ten years of age, and adaDted a policy of
accommodation which furthered the spread of
Protestantism rr ~ahoutz France so that when
Coligny again pleaded for his coreligionists at the
assembly of the States‑General at Orldans (Dec. 13,
1560) his words were not ignored. Persecltion_
ceased, toleration was shown on bothsidegs, and
there were fair prospects of ending the conflict
with a peaceable settlement. But on_	1~,L,
the massacre of VasV took place. and a month
later the first religious war hegm with the accupw
tion of Orltans by Andelot _, On one side were the
13.oman Catholies, the Guises, and Anthony of
Navarre; on the other, the Protestants, Coligny,
the Prince of Condos, and Henry of Navarre; and
between the two parties, the court, the king, and
Catherine de' Medici. The war actually ended with
the assassination of Francis of Guise by Jean Poltrot
de Morey, in the camp before Orldans, Feb. 24,
1563; and on Mar. 19 peace was concluded at
Amboise, by which freedom of conscience, and,
within certain limits, liberty of worship were
‑$af ffie~fia£rec~of the house of Guise for Coligny was only deepened by the events. Poltrot declared that he had been encouraged to murder Francis of Guise by Coligny, Beza, and others, but Coligny was acquitted by the Assembly of Notables at Moulins (Jan. 29, 1566).
	Four years of peace followed. But in the mean
time the development of affairs in the Netherlands,
the imprisonment of Egmont and Horn (Sept. 9,
1567), and rumors of a plan to eant the prince of
Condo and execute Coligny so aroused the ~rotee‑
tanIg tlt,~hey ilthe second religious war.
The scheme of seizing the king at Monceaux, near
Meaux, failed (Sept. 27, 1567), but the victory at
St. Denis (Nov. 10, 1567) led to the brief peace of
Longjumeau (Mar. 23, 1568), by which the agree‑
	ment of Amboise was renewed. With ‑
	3. =566‑7a. in the year, however,,the third relie‑
The Mas‑ 'qua war began. It ended with the_ sacre of St. peace. of St. Germain (Aug. 2, 1570),
Bartholo‑ after the battles of ~tunac, Moncon‑
mew. tour, and Arnay Is Due, and gave the
	P~testan~ta freedezlf conscience and
worship tother with_eities of safety. Mean
while Charles IX. had become averse to the Spanish
direction which French politics had.lately shown.
Coligny was called to Blois Sept. 12, 1571; and
the king seemed to listen to him with confidence.
The negotiations for a marriage between Margaret
of Valois, the sister of the king, and Henry of
Navarre finally succeeded, and were regarded as
favorable to the Protestant cause. ' The wedding

aou~ 	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	158
.,ceremony was celebrated Aug. 18. But Aug. 22, when~oligny_returned from the Louvre to his house (the present No. 144 Rue de Rivoli he was fired upon twice and slightly ~w~o~unded by
The next day the kingqueen dew w'a e'r'~
him. On the way bac to the..	the king
confessed to his moths at ~o~ligny	urged him
	to retain the royal power in his own hands. The
	queen mother, already an avowed enemy of Coligny,
	low resolved to destM both him and his adheilnts.
	All arrangements having been quickly completed,
the massacre of the Hugnenota (q„v .) was	,gun at
	four o'clock on Sunday, Aux. 24,_St_Barthplomew's
	Day. The rat ob_'eeot_of attack was Coligay. who
	was slain, thrown from_the window. his head cut off,
and his body dragged through the st_ree~gpij
otgallows of Nonttau_,c_on. After a few dava his corpse was taken down and .b1 Marshal Montmorency, and after many vicissitudes it was reinterred in a fragment of the wall of his ancestral castle (which was destroyed during the French Revolution) on Sept. 7, 1851. From Paris the massacre 6R read throughout Franoe,,ineither Kx_ n.vP_ rank. nor learning. The gqimated number of Huguenots killed varies between 10.000 an 10 .O0, but may most probably be reckoned at 5,000 in the capital and somewhat over 20,000 in the rest of France. At the command of the king the Parlia‑rlient A_elared Coligny guilty of high treason and pronounced his children infamous (Oct. 27, 1572), although this decision was reversed by another of the same body on June 10, 1599. A solemn To ,Deum was sung&Uhe Vatican by C
regnrt XIIL, who ab9.~61'i. paint threfrsresenting the, wounding of Colignyt the conference concerning the massacre, and its execution. On July 17, 1889. a marble atatne was erected in honor of Coligau„by Protestant subscriptions and in disregrid of Roman Catholic protests, in the Rue de
Rvoli near the place where he was wounded.
The literary work of Coligny was scanty. His account of the siege of St. Quentin,written in admirable style, was first printed under the title Mftoires de l'amiral de Coligny (Paris, 1623; Eng. transl. by D. D. Scott, Edinburgh, 1844), while a number of briefer works and letters are scattered in various journals, and his military regulations have been edited by M. L. Cimber and F. Danjou (Archives curiettses de l'histoire de France, series i ,
Vol. viii.). 	(THEODOR ScaoTrt.) .
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The first life was written at the request of the family by F. Hotmenn, Gaaparia Colonii: . . . vita, Leyden, 1575, Eng. travel., London, 1598, Fr, tranal., Paris, 1578. An excellent account is by E. Bereier, Colipny avant lea yuerres de religion, Pane. 1884. Eng. trannl..The Barber Life of Colipny, London, 1885 (comes down to 1580). A still more elaborate life was begun by E. Maroke, Gaspard yon Colipny. $ein Lsbert and daa Fmnkreich seiner Zeit, Vol. i., part 1, Stuttgart, 1892 (comes down to 1582). Consult further: J. Delborde, Gaspard do Coligny, Paris, 1879‑83; A. Meylau Vie de Gaspard de Colipny, ib. 1882; W. M. Blackburn, Admiral Colipny and as Rise o/ fAa Huguenots, Philadelphia. 1889: C. Bust, L Amiral de Colipny at lea paarraa de relspion, Paris, 884; W. Beasnt, Gaspard de Colipny, London, 1894: Cambridpa.Modem History, Vol. iii., chaps. i., vii., viii., New York, 1905.
On the Massacre of St. Bartholomew consult: W. 801d an, Geackichie des Proteatantiamua in Frankrtich, Leip‑
sic, 1856 (still the best); H. White, Massacre of 3t. Bartholomera, New York 1888; H. M. Baud, Rise of the Huguenots, ib. 1879; H. Baumgarten, Vor der Bartholomduanarht, Strasburg, 1882.
'	COLIGftY, ODET DE: Cardinal of Ch$tillon,
brother of Gaspard de Coligny; b. at the castle of
Ch&tillon‑surLoing (75 m. s.e. of Paris), depart
ment of Loiret, July 10, 1517; d. at Canterbury,
England. Mar. 22. 1571. He received a cardinal's
hat from Clement VII. in 1533, and in 1534 went
to Rome for the election of a new pope; and,
although he had not yet been ordained priest, he
was made archbishop of Toulouse, and, in 1535,
bishop count of Cambrai, which raised him to the
rank of a nobleman of France. In 1580 Pius IV.
named him grand inquisitor of France, but the
opposition to the institution on the part of the
Parliament of Paris relieved him from the odious
duties of the position. During the reign of Henry
II. (d. 1559) he was apparently indifferent to the
religious dissensions, but in April. 1561, he publicly
accepted the Reformedlsith. He nowtook seti~
part_wth his_brother in th,g relimgyg quarrels and
reed;teed hetwega the Ht iP Qtgand C!athenP de'
	edici. In 1562 he was dge_la~,,bergtaiepl by .i hP ln_
yuisition. He fl aLto‑~relinquished his title of
cardinal, calling himself the count of Beauvais, and
served in the field in the religious Ware. In 1b68 he
went to London, where Queen Elizabeth showed
many masks of favor to him and his wife (" Mme. is
Cardinals "). While preparing to join his brother at
La Rochelle, he _was ppisoned, as it was rumored,
biL h
	ie__valet __at _th~ inat~Ca .h r;ne d .'
Mediei. He wrote Lea Conatitrttona synodales (Paris,
1554), and a number of unpublished letters are
in the Biblioth5que Nationals in Paris and the
Record Office in London. He is buried in the
Canterbury cathedral.
G. BoNaT‑MAVar.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bouchet, Prsuvee do 1'hisWiro pEn6alopiqus de la maison de Colipny, Paris, 1882; G. Bonet‑Maury, Lee mipinu de la rt/orme 3 Beauvais, ib. 1874; Becquerel, Souvenirs historiquea our i'Amirol Colipny, as famine et as seipnaurie, Paris, 1878; L. Marlet, Le Cardinal do Chdtiuon, ib. 1883; idem, Conupondancs d'Odet de Coiipny, ib. 1885; E. G. Atkinson, The Cardinal of Ck8tinon in England, 1568‑71, London, 1890.
COLLECT: A short prayer which forms a normal part of the mass and breviary offices in the Roman Catholic Church, as of the communion service and morning and evening prayer in the Anglican communion. Like the epistle and gospel which follow it in the altar service, it changes with the day or season, and on festivals has reference to the event or person commemorated. It is usually concise, and its normal structure embraces an invocation, a reason for the petition, the petition itself, the benefit hoped for from its granting, and the conclusion pleading the merits of Christ, since most
collects (especially the ancient) are addressed to God the Father. Many of the collects now in use can be traced beak to the sacramentaries of Gelaaiua end Gregory the Great, if not farther.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Bright, Ancient Collects. London, 1881;
DCA, i. 403‑404: %L, iii. 803‑BOb: McClintock and Strong, CydopmaTia. ii. 408‑410 (valuable).

COLLEGIA NATIOBALIA (PO111"IP7CLi) : The name of several trammg‑schools in Rome for missionaries destined to labor in Christian but not Roman Catholic countries. Their original foundation was due to Ignatius Loyola, who established the first of them for Germany in 1552. The later ones are all modeled after this, the Collegium Germanicum. After a short period of prosperity, it declined and was in a poor condition when Gregory XIII. restored it in 1573, following up this action by the foundation of Greek (1577), English (1579), Hungarian (united in 1584 with the German), Maronite (1584), and Thracian‑Illyrian colleges, as well as
three similar institutions at Vienna,
Origin and Prague, and Fulda. The system reEsdy ceived two notable additions on the
	History.	foundation of the English College.
		Candidates for admission were to be
received only after several months' probation ‑and
the taking of a vow never to abandon the clerical
state and to be always ready to return to their na
tive country and work there at the bidding of their
superiors. Five special privileges, moreover, con
siderably facilitating ordination, were conceded to
those who were thus received. These two points,
with their analogy to monastic conditions, made
the colleges almost monastic congregations, whose
superiors were the cardinal protectors assigned to
them. The revised statutes, however, given to the
German College in 1584 forbade the reception of
those who had already taken the vows of an order,
or the taking of such vows by a member of the
college, as this would have been inconsistent with
their lifelong dedication to their special work.
Some of Gregory's foundations, including those at Prague, Vienna, and Fulda, lapsed in course of time. The German‑Hungarian, Greek, English, and Maronite went on, and Clement VIII. added a Scottish College in 1800. On the establishment in 1822 of the Congregation de Propaganda Fide the oversight of the colleges gradually passed into its hands
in all essential points. Under its
Later De‑ auspices the Collegium Urbanum de velopment. Propaganda Fide was founded by Gregory XV. in 1827, and the Irish College a year later. Other new or revived foundations outside of Rome with similar aims were those of Vienna, Prague and Loreto (1827), Fulda (1828), the archiepiscopal seminary of Prague (1838), the Greek seminary at San Benedetto in Ullano (1732), and the Chine at Naples (1738). By the middle of the nineteenth century the Mar onite College had been united with the Urbanum, and a number of others founded, including a Greek seminary at Palermo; a Swiss at Milan; the great Snmminaire des Missions ttrang6res for China and the neighboring regions and the 8Eminaire du SaintEsprit for the French colonies, both in Paris; an Irish college there and at Dousi, and four colleges in Ireland itself, at Dublin, Younghall, Thurles, and Carlow, the last destined for foreign missionaries.
Of the national colleges erected in Rome the German, Greco‑Ruthenian, English, Scottish, and Irish are still in operation. These all train their studenta for work in a definite geographical area;
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
even the general Collegium Urbanum educates each student for his own native country, and as a rule sends him back there. The constitutions of all these colleges follow more or less
Present	closely that of the German College.
	Satus.	The students, drawn as far as possible
		from the country in which they are to
work, are under the direction of some order, usually
the Jesuits. They remain in a permanent relation
of intercourse with the rector of their college, who
in his turn is subject to the Propaganda. There
are a number of other more or less sim1ar insti
tutions in Rome which must not be confounded
with the national colleges. These serve for their
respective countries (North and South America,
Belgium, Poland, Bohemia, Switzerland, France)
as homes for the students coming thence to attend
the lectures of the Collegium Romanum; only the
North American and the Polish have the status of
collegia pontificia, i.e., under the immediate super
vision of the pope. (See Cvale.)
(E. FR1aDHmmao.)
BawOGAAml: O. Major, Die Propaganda. Gottingen, i. 73‑91. 225‑‑245, Gottingen, 1852; A. Belleeheim, William Cardinal Allen and dis enOischen Semnaro nut den Fete land., Mains, 1885; %L, iii. 810‑848 (very extended treatment). On the German College: Dae dmtede Collepiun in Ram, Leipeio, 1848; A. $teinhuber, lieeehiekta da ColWum permaniounrhungaricur» in Born, 2 vole., Fteiburg, 1894.
COLLEGIAL OR COLLEGIATE CFIURCHES: In the Roman Catholic Church, churches served by a body of canons, regular or secular, living together in coltegia; and in the Anglican Church, by a dean and a number of canons, while the cathedral churches are always served by a bishop. In New York City the term " Collegiate Church " is best known as applied to a oorpoihtion in the Reformed (Dutch) Church which owns considerable property, out of whose rental the deficit in the support of four churches with their clergy and chapels is met.

COLLEGIALISM: [A term denoting a conception of the relation between Church and State which developed in Germany in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The name, first used by J. H. BBhmer of Halle (d. 1749), was derived from the Roman law, which, before Constantine, considered the Christian congregations as collegia ildicita (" illegal associations ").j
The school of natural rights, which has been running its triumphant course since the middle of the seventeenth century, teaches as follows: the State is not a divine foundation and institution, but a corporate unity, founded by means of a social compact of free men (padum unionw); under this bond the " powers that be " have arisen by virtue of an additional compact, or padum aubjedionia. Furthermore, neither is the Church any longer a divine institution, but a codlegittm which has grown up in the State through a social compact. According to these doctrines, the medieval idea of the unity of Church and State, of unum corpus chrutianum, is given up. The State has no longer in common with the Church the object of promoting the spiritual welfare of men, but the object of the State is the prosperity of its subjects: the State is an object in itself. Several religious associations

OollensasiOW
oollias	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	180
are conceivable side by side; and, intrinsically regarded, all these associations stand on a perfectly equal footing: there is no internal warrant given for any difference of treatment among them on the side of the State. Still again, if the Church is only one association within the State, it is of course but logical that the Church governs itself and administers its affairs independently, and that the sovereign State authority exercises over this association, the same as over other associations, merely a right of surveillance.
On the basis of this doctrine of natural right, territorialism (q.v.) had maintained, in theory, the independence of the Church; but it was collegialism, an elaboration of territorialism, that carried that doctrine to its logical conclusion. The first and foremost exponent of collegialism is conceded to be Christoph Matthaus Pfaff (q.v.). Its adherents include Mosheim, G. L. BBhmer (whose views are embodied in the Prussian common law, his Princtpia juris canonici apeciatim juris ecclesiastici, Gbttingen, 1762, having been used in the revision of the ecclesiastical law), Georg Wiese, Schleiermacher, Puchta, and others. It may be summarized as follows: The Church as a voluntary association has only two classes of members, teachers and hearers‑not the three estates of nobility, clergy, and people (Germ. Wehr‑, Lehr‑ and Nahrstdnde~‑‑a,nd these two classes stand side by side with equal rights, the teachers having no sovereign authority over the hearers.
	In this way the rights of the third estate become
still more sharply emphasized than was the case
under territorialism. As free associations the
churches are self‑governing (jura sacrorum collegi
alia); the State has only the same rights, as affect
ing them, that it has in relation to any other also
ciations existing in the State; that is, only the
right of supervision, the jura saerorum majestatica.
And these latter are restricted by the exponents of
collegialism to actual rights of supervision; so that
the power inherent in association is guaranteed the
character of a real government. . At the same time,
this power of association may be made over by an
act of transfer to the State ruler; and the expo
nents of collegialism teach that this was the case in
Germany by virtue of a tacit transfer. The rights
of the State sovereign over the Church are therefore
not identical with the State's rights (as, in terri
torialism), but they are the power of association as
conveyed per pactum, which is to be distinguished
from the sovereign's inherent rights in the way of
State surveillance. Although this system has been
able to change practically nothing in actual con
ditions, nevertheless, by defining more sharply
than did territorialism the division between Church
and State, between power of association and State
sovereignty, it has prepared the way toward the
modern . comprehension of things and the modern
construction of the constitution of the Church. See
CHURCH AND STATE. 	E. SEHLING.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. J. Stahl, %irchenvafassunp each Lehre and Redd der Proteatanten Erlangen, 1840; A. L. Richter, GeschioW der evanpelischen Kirchenver/aesum in Deutschland. Leipeie, 1851; O. Mai‑, Grundlapen des lutheriscAm Kirchenregimenta. Rostock, 1864; K. Rieker, RecUicha Stellung der evanpelischen Kirche DeutwAlands, Leipsic, 1893.
COLLEGIARTS (RHY1fSBURGE1t8): A branch of the Remonstrants in Holland (see RzmorrsmRArlTS). In 1619 the Remonstrant minister Christopher Sopingius was dismissed at Warmond, whereupon Gysbert van der Kodde proposed that the congregation hold services without the ministrations of a clergyman. Such exercitia or colloquia prophetica were common in the time of the Reformation. One prayed and read and any one who felt inclined addressed the congregation. At first meetings were held every month, afterward every week. After the death of Prince Maurice (1625) the Remonstrant ministers were allowed to return, but Van der Kodde opposed the settlement of a minister at Warmond and, with a number of followers, removed to the neighboring village of Rhynsburg (3 m. n. of Leyden), where they continued their services.
The example of Rhynsburg was followed and collegia were formed in various places, one of which (at Rotterdam) lasted till 1787. Delegates met annually at Rhynsburg, where the Lord's Supper was celebrated and adults were baptized. A result of Spinoza's residence at Rhynsburg (1661‑64) was that many Collegiants accepted his ideas and rejected prophecy and miracles. This, caused a split, and for years two parties met sepaaatelyuntil a reconciliation was effected at the beginning of the seventeenth century.
	The Collegiants believed that Christianity had
sadly degenerated through the influence of the
sects. They claimed freedom of speech for all
and mutual toleration. They did not desire to
establish a new Church and admitted all Christians
to their meetings. They were noted for benevo
lence, especially for caring for the poor and for
orphans. They did not seek public offices and they
had a borror of war. Their significance lies in the
fact that they defended the principle of the Refor
mation‑the right of the individual in matters of
religion‑against those who wished to limit this
right. 	H. C. RoGGHt.
	The influence of Polish Socinianism is discerned
in two particulars, in the liberal type of doctrine
and in the practise of immersion. The Collegiants
drew largely from the Mennonites, who had no
adequate educational facilities and were attracted
by the able exegesis of the Bible in the Collegiant
meetings. The last meeting seems to have been
held May 27, 1787. 	A. H. N.
BnswoaaAPHY: J. C. van Slee, De Rijnabwver Collepianten, Haarlem, 1895 (beet); J. M. Sehraok, %irchenpeschiehts, v. 330‑331,10 vole., Leipeic,1804‑12; H. Grtgoire, Hietoiredes seeks relipieuses, v. 328 eqq., 6 vole., Paris, 1828‑45; J 1,. von Moeheim, Church Historg, cent xvii., book iv., phap. viii., London, 1863; %L, iii. 607‑908.
COLLENBBUSCH, SAMUEL: German mystic; b. at Wicklinghausen (a suburb of Barmen) Sept.
1; 1724; d. at Barmen Sept. 1, 1803. He studied medicine at Duisburg and Strasburg, in the latter
place becoming interested in mysticism through the large collection of works on that subject and on
alchemy found there. For a time he engaged in experiments in alchemy, but after repeated failure returned to Duisburg and took up the practise of medicine. In 1784 he removed to Barmen.

Lei	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
His reading included Leibnitz's Th6odic* and the writings of Anton, Oetinger, and Bengel, by which his tendency toward a mystic piety was strengthened. In Duisburg he had won a place in the circle in which J. G. Hasehcamp was leader, and in Darmen he was brought into relations with a similar circle, the characteristic of which was a deep and earnest piety. He became interested in problems of dogmatics, particularly in soteriology and eschatology.
His system is to be understood from the standpoint of the new learning. To the question, Why has God sent his Son into the world? the answer was given in the words of Rom. viii. 4: That the ordinance of the law might be fulfilled in us. Christ as the antithesis of Adam, who brought death on man, offers life, and this has come about through the love of God, which induces faith. But in his doctrine of the Christ he held a thoroughgoing Kenosis (q.v.) as beat expressing the self‑humiliation through which Christ achieved salvation. Going with this was a strong opposition to the doctrine of predestination. For him revelation was history, and Biblical history the story of redemption, finally accomplished on the cross. The force of his exposition gained him large influence, and his teaching, extended by the labors of his disciples Krafft, of Erlangen, and G. Meuken, had a formative bearing upon the newer theology as represented by Thomasius and Hofmann. His outlook upon this life gave a practical turn to the activities of his followers which is expressed in the Missionary Society and Mission House of Barmen. (H. CREMERt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: For his doctrines consult: Brkldrunp W liacher Wahrheifen, 2 vole., Elberfeld, 1807‑16; Golden@ Aepfel in erolbernen flchalen, Barmen; 1854; F. W. Krug. Die Lehre des Dr. Collenbusch, Elberfeld, 1846. For his life consult: MiWieerolungen Gus dem Leben and Wirken 8. Coilanbuach in Barmen, Barmen, 1853; B. C. E. Ehmann, F. C. Oetinper's Uben and Briefs, pp. 778‑798, Stuttgart, 1859.
	COLLIER, JEREMY: Nonjuring English cler
gyman; b. at Stowe Qui or. Quire (5 m. n.e. of
Cambridge), Cambridgeshire, Sept. 23, 1650; d. in
London Apr. 26, 1726. He studied at Caius College,
Cambridge (B.A., 1673; M.A., 1676), took orders,
and was rector at Ampton, Suffolk, 1679‑85, then
resided in London. After the Revolution he wrote
a number of bitter political pamphlets on the Jacob
ite side, and made himself offensive to the govern
ment by, his conduct; he was twice imprisoned
(1688 and 1692), but was treated leniently on the
whole; was made bishop by the nonjurors in 1713.
He led a life of great literary activity; his Short
View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the
English Stage (London, 1698) was a vigorous attack
and was vigorously resisted; it is hypercritical and
too vehement, nevertheless it marks the beginning
of a better day for the English drama. His Essays
(complete collected edition, 1722) are interesting
and not without historical value. His work of
most permanent value was An Ecclesiastical His
tory o f Great Britain to the End o f the Reign o f Charles
11. (2 vole., 1708‑14; ed. with life by T. Lathbury,
9 vols., 1852). He published also The Great His
torical, Geographical, Genealogical, aced Poetical
Dictionary (4 vols., 1701‑‑21), a translation and
		III.‑11
continuation of Moreri's Didionnaire historique, and translated the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius (1701).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: There is an extended notioe in DNB, a.
341‑347, with referenoee to literature.
COLLINS, ANTHONY: Deist; b. at Ideworth (2 m. s.w. of Brentford, a s.w. suburb of London) or at Heston (3 m. w. of Brentford) June 21, 1676; d. in London Dec. 13, 1729. He studied at Eton and King's College, Cambridge, and in the Temple, London, but never practised law. He was a man of means, possessed of no slight ability in practical affairs, amiable and , blameless in private life. Locke was his intimate friend, and during visits to Holland in 1711 and 1713 be became acquainted with Le Clere and other scholars there. After 1715 he lived in Essex and was justice of the peace, deputy lieutenant, and treasurer of the county. His works are noteworthy more for the commotion they occasioned than for their intrinsic merit. The best known is A Discourse of Free‑Thinking (London, 1713), in which he asserts that sound belief must rest on free inquiry, and hints that the adoption of rational principles would exclude a belief in supernaturalism. Richard Bentley made a reply (Remarks . . . by Phileleutherus Lipsiensis, 1713), in which he showed many defects in Collins'scholarehip; Swift also entered the lists with Mr. Collins'e Discourse of Freethinking Put into Plain English by Way of Abstract for the Use. of the Poor (1713). Earlier works were An Essay Concerning the Uae of Reason (1707), Priestcraft in Perfection (1709), and A Vindication of the Divine Attributes (1710); in the last‑named he maintains that we can have a true, even if limited, knowledge of the divine attributes. In 1715 he published A Philosophical Inquiry Concerning Human Liberty, a defense of determinism. A Historical and Critical Essay ors the Thirty‑nine Articles (1724) elaborates an argument of Priestcraft in Perfection that the twentieth of .the Thirtynine Articles is fraudulent. In A Discourse on the Grounds arid Reasons of the Christian Religion (1724) he assumes that the fulfilment of prophecy is the only valid proof of Christianity, and, since such fulfilment can be found only by taking unwarranted liberties with the text, he argues that Christianity has no valid proof. A reply to this work by Edward Chandler.(q.v.) called forth The Scheme of Literal Prophecy Considered (1726). Collins's works were published anonymously, but their authorship was really no secret. See DE1sM, I., 1 5.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. Stephen, History of English Thought,
2 vole., London, 1881; J. Cairns, Unbelief in the Eight. eenth Century, pp. 37‑78, ib. 1881; DNB, m. 363‑364.
COLLINS, WILLIAM RUSSELL: Reformed Episcopalian; b. in New York City Dec. 14, 1862. He was graduated from the Reformed Episcopal Theological Seminary at Philadelphia in 1888, and was minister and rector of Emanuel Church, Baltimore (188791); assistant rector of St. Paul's, Philadelphia (1891‑93); and rector of Christ Church, Cumberland, Md. (1893‑97); Trinity, Ashtabula, O. (1897‑1900); Church of the Reconciliation, Brooklyn (1900‑02); and St. Paul's, Woodlawn Heights, New York City (since 1903). Since 1903 he has also been professor of liturgiology

	SU70r
	glors in the Bible	THE TNEW SCH~' ‑H' RZOG	182
and ecclesiology and of the literary study of the English Bible in the Reformed Episcopal Seminary, Philadelphia. In theology he is an adherent of moderate Calvinism, being likewise opposed to ritualism and to the higher criticism.

COLLYER, ROBERT: Unitarian; b. at Keighley (31 m. n.e. of Manchester), Yorkshire, England, Dec. 8, 1823. He was a mill‑hand from 1832 to 1838, and a blacksmith in England and America from 1838 to 1859, being also a local Methodist Episcopal preacher during the latter ten years of this period. He emigrated to the United States in 1850, and nine years later, becoming a convert to Unitarianism, went to Chicago as pastor of Unity Church, where he remained until 1879. He then accepted a call to the Church of the Messiah, New York City, holding this charge until 1903, when he became pastor emeritus. He has published several volumes of discourses and addresses, a biography of A. H. Conant (Boston, 1868), and collaborated with J. H. Turner in the History of the Town and Parish of Ilkley (London, 1886).

COLLYRIDIARS: A sect of women, mentioned byEpiphanius (Har., Ixxviii.=lxxix.), who came from Thrace to Arabia, and seem to have espoused a peculiar form of devotion to the Virgin, offering to Mary, on appointed days, a cake or loaf (Gk. kollyris). While there are not wanting religious and historic. analogies to this custom, they nevertheless come short of certain. application. According to Jer. xliv. 19, the Jewish women in Egypt prepared cakes for the queen of heaven (cf. RSsch, Astarte and Maria, in TSK, lid. 265 sqq.). Ceremonial pastry was likewise a feature of the Thesmophoric rites in Athena (cf. Mommsen, Faste der Stadt Athen im Afertum, Leipsic, 1898). There is possible, also, some misconception of a Christmas custom (cf. Mbller, Kirchengeschichte, i. 535, Freiburg, 1889).. Indeed, to this day in modern Greece the word kolloura is used for a kind of cake, and in certain of the Ionian Islands such a kolloura is consecrated and consumed on Christmas eve in the family circle with all sorts of ceremonies (cf. B. Schmidt, Das Volksleben der Neugriechen and das hellenische Altertum, i. 62 sqq., Leipsie, 1871).
G. KR$GER.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: O. W. F. Waleh, Historie der Ketzereien, iii. 625‑834, Leipsie, 1768; J. L. von Mosheim, Institutes of Red. Hist., ed.' W. Stubbs, i. 317, London, 18&3; Neander. Christian Church, ii. 378.

COLMAN, SAINT: Third abbot and bishop of Lindisfame; d. on the island of Inishbofin, off the coast of County Galway, Ireland, Aug. 8, 676. He was a monk of Iona, and succeeded Finan (q.v.) at Lindisfarne in 661. The dispute between the Roman and Irish parties in England came to a crisis shortly thereafter. Colman was the leader of the latter at the Synod of Whitby (q.v.) in 664, and when he was defeated, with the Irish monks and about thirty of the English, he left the country, taking with him the bones of Aidan (q.v.). They went first to Iona, and, after four years there, to Inishbofin. Dissensions crising between the Irish and English, Colman founded a new monastery
far the latter on the mainland, but himself remained on the island.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bede, Hiet. ecel., iii. 25‑27, iv. 1, 4, 24; W. Bright, Early English Church History, pp. 221‑232,
Oxford, 1897.
COLOGNE, ARCHBISHOPRIC OF: The rise of the city of Cologne is connected with the transplantation by Augustus of the Germanic tribe of the Ubii to the left bank of the Rhine. Their capital was Oppidum Ubiorum, in the year 50 made a Roman veterans' colony (Colonia Agrippina). It became the political and military headquarters‑of the province of Lower Germany, and soon the most populous town on the lower Rhine. If the remark of Irenaeus (I. x. 2) about Christian communities in the Germanic provinces is to be taken literally, it would indicate an antiquity for the church of Cologne extending into the second century. The first certain datum is reached with the participation of Bishop Maternus in the Synod of Arles (mentioned by Eusebius and Optatus), and with some fourth‑century inscriptions given by Kraus. The small number of the latter shows that Cologne was a less important Christian center than the neighboring Treves; with which agrees the mention of the church there as a conventiculum by the pagan writer Ammianus Marcellinus in 355. The list of bishops goes no farther back than Maternus, and the attribution of the same name to the legendary founder indicates that tradition knew of no earlier bishop. His successor, Euphrates; is mentioned as a participant in the Synod of Sardica by Athanasius; his name does not occur in the lists, and was probably erased in consequence of a later (Frankish) legend which figmatized him as an Arian, and asserted that he was deposed by a synod at Cologne in 346. The mention by Venantius Fortunatus of Carentius, who does not occur in the lists, shows that they are not to be depended on; and the same conclusion follows from the fact that only four names are given for the first three centuries. It is probable, though not certain, that the church of Cologne lasted through the downfall of the Roman power and the Frankish conquest, in the first years of which it is possible that the bishops gained or claimed metropolitan rank; but the metropolitan system soon lost its importance in the Frankish kingdom, and the occupants of the see appear as simple bishops in the eighth century. The elevation of Cologne to a metropolitan see did not take place until the consecration of Hildebold about 795; the suffragan sees were at first the Frankish Lidge, the Friesian Utrecht, and later the Saxon Minster, Osnabrack, Minden: and Bremen. The actual diocese of Cologne was a very large one. Under the rule of Philip of Heinsberg (1168‑91) its previous possessions were enlarged and consolidated by purchase and exchange, and after the downfall of Henry the Lion the duchy of Westphalia and Engern (Angraria) was added (1180). From this time on the archbishops were the most powerful princes in northwestern Germany.
(A. HAUCK.)
The archbishops of Cologne were prominent in the conflicts of the Hohenstaufens with their enemies, and Engelbert I., count of Berg (1216‑25), was the

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
volhrer
Colors in the 81ble
leading magnate of Germany and the administrator of the empire during the absence of Frederick II. in Sicily. A position of equal importance was held by Conrad of Hostaden (1238‑61) for a time after Frederick's deposition, when he was papal legate for Germany, anointed William of Holland at Aachen, and, according to the traditional prerogative of his see, crowned Richard of Cornwall as his successor. The history of the next two centuries is largely a record of strife arising out of contested imperial, papal, and archiepiscopal elections, until the rule of the sixty‑sixth incumbent of the see, Herman IV. of Hesse, called the Peacemaker (14801508), brought about many reforms. Herman V., count of Wied (see HERMAN OF WIED), became a favorer of the Reformation in the last five years of his rule, and was deposed and excommunicated in 1546, and the same was the case with Gebhard II., Truchsess of Waldburg (1577‑83; see GEBHARD II.), while the young Ernest, prince of Bavaria (15831612), set no very creditable example to his flock. His nephew Ferdinand (1612‑50) followed him, and did much to repair the damage already wrought to the Roman Catholic cause; and his nephew, again, Maximilian Henry ruled the great archdiocese from 1650 to 1688 with such a lack of political wisdom that it was laid waste by contending armies, and French influence became predominant. Under another Bavarian prince, Joseph Clement (1688‑1723), the external history of Cologne was bound up with that of the general European conflicts. His secular interests so preoccupied him in the earlier part of his reign that he did not even take up his spiritual functions until 1707, when he was consecrated at Lille by Fdnelon, and thereafter devoted himself zealously to the promotion of religion. The last archbishop of the Bavarian house was Clement August 1. (1723‑61), brother of the Elector Max Emmanuel; but the house of Austria supplied an archduke, brother of the Emperor Joseph II., Maximilian Francis (17841801), who was driven out by the French and spent his last days in Vienna. The diocese was divided by Napoleon, and the ecclesiastical conditions were full of confusion until 1821, when the archbishopric was reconstituted with a diminished territory, and with Treves, Munster, and Paderborn for suffragana. The most notable of the nineteenth‑century archbishops was Clement August II., Baron DrosteVischering (1835‑45),whose episcopate was marked by a vigorous conflict with Hermesianism and with the Prussian government over the question of mixed marriages (see DR08TE‑VISCHERING).

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: T. J. Lacomblet, Urkunden
	buch ffr die Geschichte des Niederrheina, 4 vols., DOssel
	dorf, 1840‑58; MGH, Script., xiii (1881), 282 sqq., xvii
	(1861), 723 sqq., xxiv (1879), 332 eqq. Consult: E.
	Podlech, Geachichte der Erzdibmw K61n, Mainz, 1879;
	C. A. Ley, Kbdniache Kirchengeachichte, Cologne, 1882;
	F. Lau, Die erzbiach6Richen Beamten in der Stadt KAIn,
	Lfibeck, 1891; A. J. Binterim and J. H. Moovern, Die
	ErzdiBeeae Kti1n, Diisseldorf, 1892; Rettberg, KD, vol.
	i.; Friedrich, KD; Hauck, KD, vole. i: iii.

COLOMBIA: A republic of northwestern South America, bounded on the north by the Caribbean Sea and Venezuela, on the east by Venezuela and Brazil, on the south by Brazil and Ecuador, on the
west by the Pacific Ocean. No exact figures are available for either the area or the population, but an estimate of the former is 473,000 square miles and of the latter 4,000,000 souls, including 500;000 whites and 1,500,000 or more half‑breeds.
The constitution of 1886 declares the Roman Catholic religion the religion of the nation, but that the Catholic Church shall not be a State Church, and grants religious toleration. Ecclesiastics are excluded from public office, though Catholic priests may be employed in public instruction and charity. The buildings of the Catholic worship and clergy are exempt from taxation. A concordat was made between Pope Leo XIII. and the republic, Dec. 31, 1887 (see CONCORDATS AND DELIMITING BULLS, VI., 6). The church organization is as follows: Archdiocese of Bogotg (founded 1563), with the suffragan dioceses of Ibagu6 (1900), Nueva Pamplona (1835), Socorro (1895), and Tunis, (1880); archdiocese of Cartagena in the Indies (diocese, 1534; archdiocese, 1900), with the suffra,gan dioceses of Santa Marta (1534) and Panama (1534); archdiocese of Medellin (diocese, 1868; archdiocese, 1902), with the suffragan dioceses of Antioquia (1873) and Manizales (1900); archdiocese of Popayan (diocese, 1546; archdiocese, 1900), with the suffragan dioceses of Garz6n (1900) and Pasto (1859). There are also two vicariates apostolic, Casanare (1893) and Goajira (1905), and three prefectures apostolic, Caquet$, (1904), the East (1903), and San Martin (1904). A delegate apostolic and envoy extraordinary of the pope resides in Bogotd.
Protestants are represented by the few foreigners resident in the country. There is a Presbyterian mission in Bogotd,. Elementary education is free, but not compulsory. Public education is organized and administered in harmony with the Roman Catholic religion; all education is largely in the hands of congregations. WILHELM GOETZ.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. S. Pereira, Lea L0tala‑Unie de Colombie, Paris, 1883; R. Nudes and H. Jalbay, La R&puUiqw de
Colombie, ib. 1898; W. L. Scruggs, Colombian and Veneo‑
uelan Republics, Boston, 1905.
COLONNA, EGIDIO. See &GIDIUS DE COLUMNA.

COLORED METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH. Seo METHODISTS, IV., 8.

COLORS IN THE BIBLE.
I. Color‑Perception and Color‑Nomenclature. II. Coloring‑Materials. Purple (§ 1). Scarlet (§ 2).
III. Symbolical Significance. White (§ 1). Scarlet, Purple, and Blue (§ 2).
I. Color‑Perception and Color‑Nomenclature: A Midrash story (Bamidhbar Rabbah xii.) indicates that red, blue, purple, and white fire were collectively a symbolic representation of the being of God. In the old Semitic 'scale of colors green and blue were not distinguished, so that sea., grass, and sky appeared of the same tint. The Semite has as yet no distinct word for the blue of heaven, People remaining in primitive conditions paint themselves either red or yellow. But among the

O 1°nm~ the Bible	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	184
Semites there is noword for "yellow,"and that color plays no part in the cultus. The same word in the Old Testament applies to the green of the leaf, the yellow of the grain, and the paleness of the countenance; another word is used for the blood‑red or brown skin‑color of men, the brown of the horse or the cow, and the yellow‑brown of the lentil; still another stands for the raven‑blackness of the hair, for the color of the skin [when tanned by exposure], and for the gray of the morning twilight.
II. Coloring‑Materials: At the head of coloringmaterial in the Bible stands purple. For this the Old Testament had no appellative; it had only special words for the purple‑red, to which as a dye it gave a name, and for purple‑violet, to which it applied the name of the shell‑fish. The Septuagint and Latin translations render the latter by hyacinthus and use the word for both the blue stone and a blue flower. Purple was an early monopoly of the artistic Phenicians of the Mediterranean coast.
The mussel which produced it was :. Purple. afterward found on other coasts
(Ezek. xxvii. 7, where " Elisha " probably means the Lacedaemonian coast). Thyatira was later celebrated for its purple (of. Acts xvi. 14), though Tyre was the place where it was first made. The mounds near the latter place prove what the shell‑fish was from which the dye was obtained. There are a number of varieties of fish which furnish a red or violet liquid, but their product fades on exposure to light and air. The varieties which furnished the old purple dye were the Murex trunculus and the Murex brandaris. The dye is not the blood, but a slimy secretion. At first this is not purple or red, but whitish, changing through yellowish and greenish tints to purple and making an unfading dye. Pliny says (Hilt. nat., ix. 62) that the purple of Tyre was best when it was like coagulated blood and when looked at from above ran into black while from the side it reflected the light. Of the purple‑blue he said that it was a cold color, like the angry sea.
Scarlet is a red which has more of yellow or brown in it than has the purple. It was obtained from an insect (coccus a7icis) which fed on oaks and shrubs, supposed to be a product of the tree, hence called coccus, " berry," and the oak on which it was found was called the " berry‑bearing oak." The Pentateuch recognizes the insect and names it the " shining worm." The Persian name kirm found its way into late Hebrew (II Chron. ii. 6, 13; iii. 14); and the word scarlet, since the Middle Ages the name of the coloring obtained from this insect, is a loan‑
word from the Turkish. This was Scarlet. among Greeks and Romans the color
of the outer garments of soldiers, hence according to Matt. xxvii. 28 the soldiers put a scarlet, cloak on Jesus (Mark xv. 17; John xix. 2 makes it purple). The coccus ilicis is still a source for this coloring‑matter, though less extensively used than the coccus cacti of Mexico and Peru. Another red coloring‑matter, " vermilion," is mentioned as a material for painting walls and images (Jer. xxii. 14; Ezek. xxiii. 14). This is a mineral red, in the Septuagint miltos, elsewhere meaning 91 crayon," also " oxid of lead " and " minium."
These four mineral reds were used by the ancients, who did not always discriminate in their employment of the names. The henna used in the East as a means of beautifying the person is not mentioned in the Old Testament. The Talmud and Targum wrongly find in Isa. iii. 16 a hint at painting the eyes with, a red or yellow‑red powder, though kohl, used to darken eyelids and eyebrows, was a favorite cosmetic among the Hebrews (Ezek. xxiii. 40; II Kings ix. 30). When it is said that the Lord will make the foundations of the New Jerusalem of sapphires, the pinnacles of rubies, and the gates with carbuncles the question arises why sapphire‑blue is appropriated to the foundation and fiery‑red to the battlements and walls, and it also leads to the problem of the symbolism of Biblical representations and to that of the cultus founded upon the Pentateuch. The Babylonians divided the various colors among the " seven lights of earth," and (Herodotus, i. 98) the seven concentric walls of Ecbatana had each its own color.
III. Symbolical Significance: Purple, blue, scarlet, and white are the four colors of the Mosaic cultus. Philo and Josephus associate these colors with the four elements, the sea (purple), the fire (scarlet), the air (blue), the earth (white), combinations which are purely arbitrary. The four colors were used in the outer curtains, the veil, the entrancecurtain, and the gate of the court, as also in the ephod, girdle, and breastplate of the high priest. The first three were used in the pomegranates about the hem of the robe of the high priest. Exclusively blue were the robe of the high priest, the lace of the high priest's breastplate, the lace on his miter, and the fifty loops of the curtains. Exclusively white were the breeches and miter of the high priest. The cloths for wrapping the sacred vessels were blue, scarlet, or purple. White were also the clothes of the lower priests. Add to this the blue ribbon and the fringe of the Hebrew dress, and there is seen at once the use and application of the colors employed in the Hebrew service. The red is used only once (Ex. xxvi. 14); the sealskins which covered the tabernacle were dyed that color. Black is excluded everywhere, as well as yellow and green. That purple, blue, scarlet, and white only were used is not accidental, but the outgrowth of the consciousness of their significance. The reason for the use of the white to the total exclusion of the black is easy to perceive. Black, as it absorbs all colors and thus buries the light, is the symbol of death. But activity, life, light, holiness, and joy, on the one hand, and cessation, death, darkness, malice, and sorrow, on the other hand, are Biblical contrasts, of which white and black are the representatives of this twofold series of opposites. White, however, reflects the light; hence it symbolizes purity and victory. While the third rider of the Apocalypse sits on a black horse, bringing with him famine and death (Rev. vi. 5), the Persian horses in the eighth vision of Zechariah are white, be‑
e. White. cause no worldly power had ever shown a more noble disposition toward Israel than the dynasty of the Achaemenidie, which set the exiles free and promoted the building of the

186	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Colors in the Bible
		Columba
temple. The first of the four apocalyptic riders has a white horse (Rev. vi. 2); for he went forth to conquer. The " Ancient of Days," i.e., the Ever‑living (Dan. vii. 9), appears in a garment white as snow; even the hair of his head is like the pure wool. And thus, likewise, the glorified Christ (Rev. i. 14). Even the throne of God which Ezekiel saw was white. White denotes the victory of the light; hence it is clear why the garments of the priests were white. Even the high priest wore the so‑called golden robes over the white ones; and in the temple which Ezekiel saw in his vision the priests wore white garments only. The robes of the priests are, according to their natural color, white, as the angels and blessed appeared to the seers, and as the garments of Jesus became white " like the light " on the mount of transfiguration. God is light, and gives light, or he is holy, i.e., holy love. The colors in the garments of the priests have reference to their office; viz., to act as the medium between God and his congregation, it is their duty to go before the people in holiness and purity.
The three other colors axe not inherently sym bolid as is white. Strictly speaking, white is not a color. No color is inherently symbolic, but gains symbolic value by its associations. It is true that the colors produce psychological effects, and that in proportion to their relation to the yellow‑red; bright‑red is disquieting, while blue is soothing. But this does not create symbolism. Thus green is the color of hope because associated with plantgrowth, with the period to which people look forward in winter. Connected with white is its opposite, scarlet, as the emblem of fire. The dark‑red horses in the first vision of Zechariah bring about bloody war; and the yellow‑red, a consuming fire. But light and fire are opposites according to the ethical idea of Holy Writ; viz., the light is the symbol of communicating love, the fire, that of consuming anger. When Isaiah describes the sins of his people he speaks of them as being red like scarlet, not like purple. The scarlet along with the white in the high priest's garment means, therefore, to say that he is not only the servant of the God of love, but also of the God of angef (Ex. xx. 5). As to the purple and blue, which are always connected, be it along with white and scarlet, or between, as they are only two kinds of one and
2. Scarlet, the same purple color, which again is
		Purple, not a natural but an artificial color,
	and Blue. consisting of red and violet, they refer
			to a twofold attribute of the royal
King the purple to the majesty of God in his
glory, and the blue to God's majesty in his conde
scension. The purple of the garments of the high
priest denotes, therefore, that he is a servant of that
God of whom the song at the Red Sea says, " The
Lord will reign forever and ever" (Ex. xv. 18);
and the song of Moses, " And he was king in Jeshu
run " (Deut. xxxiii. 5). The red color of the red
heifer, whose ashes, mixed with water, were to
be used in purification of the unclean, had also
a symbolical signification. Red is the color of
blood, which, again, is the life. The animal in
tended as antidote against uncleanness through
contact with a dead body was to be Without blemish, and upon which never came yoke, and thus represented in its color a picture of fresh and vigorous life. It may be that the colors of the twelve precious stones which were on the breastplate of the high priest had a symbolical significance as to their relation to the twelve tribes whose names were engraved on them (Ex. xxviii. 17‑21). This at least may be derived from Jewish tradition.
(W. LOTZ.)
BIBwoaRAP87: F. Delitesoh, Iris. Farbenaiudien and Blumenatacke, Leipeio, 1888; G. Perrot and C. Chipiee, Hiet. of Art in Sardinia, Judma, Syria and Asia Minor, i. 109‑370, London, 1890; Beneinger, Archdolopie, pp. 289‑270; Nowack, Arrhuolopie, pp. 283 eqq.; E..C. A. Riehm, Handw6rterbarh dee bibliaden Altwtume, pp. 436 eqq., Bielefeld, 1893‑94; EB, i. 889‑877; DB, i. 457468; JE, iv. 174‑178.
COLOSSIANS, EPISTLE TO THE. See PAUL THE APosTLE.

	COLUMBA, SAINT (in Ireland and the western
isles known as Colum‑cille, " Columba of the
church ") : The apostle of the Picts; b. at Gartan
(25 m. w. of Londonderry), County Donegal, Ire
land, Dec. 7, most probably in the year 521; d.
on the island of Iona June 9, 597. He was of
royal blood on both his father's and his mother's
side and akin to many powerful families. His
studies were begun under Finnian of Moville and
		continued with Gemman, an aged bard
In Ireland. of Leinster, with Finnian of Clonard, and with Mobhi, the head of a monastery at the present Glasnevin, near Dublin. About 546 he founded his first monastery, at Derry (Londonderry), and during the next fifteen years added about forty others, the most famous being at Durrow (about 50 m. w. of Dublin), his most important establishment in Ireland, founded in 553, and at Kells (35 m. n.w. of Dublin), founded at an uncertain date.
In 563 he left his native land, actuated doubtless by the love of wandering, and, possibly, other motives. A bloody battle took place in 561 between Columba's clansmen and the followers of the king, and the Irish accounts state that Columba instigated it because the king had violated the right of sanctuary at one of his monasteries, and had also given what he considered an unjust decision against him concerning the ownership of a book (see FmNuN, ,SAINT, of MoviLLE). Ad an tells of an attempt to excommunicate him at a synod at Teltown in Meath; it is not known when it was held or what was the charge, but presumably it was an effort of the king to retaliate. According to an Irish legend Columba's conscience troubled him for his part in inciting strife and bloodshed, and, on the advice of a friend, he decided to go into exile as penance, to win as many souls for Christ as lives had been lost in the battle, and never to look upon his native land again. If this be true he modified his determination, for he returned to Ireland more than once In Scotland. and continued prominent in Irish affairs. Missionary zeal is indicated by his choice of a refuge. With twelve associates he established himself on the island of Iona (q.v.), off

Columba	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	lee
Comenius
the west coast of Scotland, on the border between
the territories of the Picts and the Scots (Irish) of
British Dahiada, whose king, Conall, was his kins
man. It was an admirable center for missionary
work. At first he labored chiefly among his coun
trymen, whose Christian faith was sorely tried by
their heathen neighbors. Then he proceeded through
Pictland to the court of King Brude, near Inver
new. He converted the king (565), and the people
followed as a matter of course. During the follow
ing years he visited in person nearly all of modern
Scotland. Everywhere he founded churches and
monasteries, adding their charge to those already
under his rule in Ireland. When Conall died (574)
his successor, Aidan, sought and obtained inau
guration at Columba's hand. In 575 he attended
a convention at Drumceatt in northern Ireland.
It was proposed there to abolish the order of bards;
but Columba, who not improbably belonged to the
order himself, succeeded in having measures adopted
looking toward reformation rather than annihilation.
He also secured a more independent position for
Aidan and his kingdom.
	Columba was fond of fine manuscripts, and during
his last years spent much time in transcribing.
On the day before his death he was at work upon
the Psalter and reached the end of a page with the
words: " They that seek the Lord shall not want
any good thing " (Ps. xxxiv.10). " Here," he said,
" I must stop; let Baithene [his cousin and suc
cessor as abbot] do the rest." When the monks
entered the church for matins the next morning
they found him lying before the altar, and, with a
feeble effort to give his blessing, he passed away.
Columba was impulsive and at times, perhaps,
failed to curb an imperious temper. But his faults
were those of his race, and were lightly regarded
			in his time. He was emphatically a
		His	man of action, born to lead and also
	Character. to win. Adamnan describes him as
			"like an angel in countenance, of
polished speech, holy in work, of most excellent
disposition, great in counsel, through thirty‑four
years living as an island soldier [of Christ]. Not a
single hour would he allow to paw without devoting
himself to prayer, or reading, or writing, or at least
to some manual labor. Day and night, without
any intermission, he was so occupied in unwearied
exercises of fasts and vigils that the special burden
of any one labor might seem beyond human pos
sibility. And meanwhile he was dear to all, always
showing a cheerful, holy face, and was gladdened in
his inmost heart by the joy of the Holy Spirit."
Three Latin hymns are attributed to Columba and
several Irish poems of more or less doubtful gen
uineness. The Rule o f St. Columba is a collection of
maxims for a solitary living near a monastery
rather than a monastic rule properly so called.
Bntroaasray: For the hymns consult J. H. Todd, The
	Book of Hymns of the Ancient Church of Ireland, ii. 201
283, Dublin, 1889; The Altus of 3t. Columba, ad. by the
	Mwqued of Bute, Edinburgh, 1882; Bernard and Atkin
eon. The Irish Libor Hymnorum, for the Henry Bradshaw
	Society, xlii (1898), i. 02‑89, ii. 23‑28, 140‑172; for the
	Irish poems, W. Reeves, Life of $t. Columba. pp. Ixaviii.
	brriz., 204‑277, 285‑289, Dublin, 1857; for the rule,
Haddan and Stubbs, Councils, ii. 119‑121; W. F. Skene,
Cddio $oogand, ii. SoB‑509, Edinburgh, 1877. The stand‑
ard life is by Adamnan [679‑7041, edited with notes and dissertations by W. Reeves, Dublin, 1857, new ed., with Eng. tranel, and an unfortunate rearrangement of the notes by W. F. Skene, Edinburgh, 1874. A useful edition of Adamnan's work is by J. T. Fowler, Oxford, 1894, transl. 1895; it is newly translated by W. Huyeshe, London, 19o8, and is in MPL, Ixxxviii. For other lives, etc., consult ASS, June, ii. 180‑238; J. Colgan, Trias thaumaturpa, pp. 317‑514, Louvain, 1647; Lanigan, Hod. Hist., ii. 108‑181, 238‑259; C. F. R. de Montalembert, Los Moines d'occident, iii. 99‑331, Paris, 1868, Eng. tranel. printed separately as St. Columba, Apostle o/ Caledonia, London, 1868; W. D. Killen, Ecclesiastical History of Ireland, i. 30‑39, London, 1875; W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland, ii. 52‑55, 79‑84, 85 eqq., 487‑507, Edinburgh, 1877; A. Bellesheim, Geschichte der katholixhen %irche in Schottla nd, i. 275, Mains, 1883; J. Healy, Insula sanctorum, pp. 291‑331, Dublin, 1890; G. F. Maolear, Apostles of Mediaroal Europe, pp. 41‑$6, London, 1888; E. A. Cooke, 3t. Columba, his Life and Work, Edinburgh, 1893.
COLUIIBAft, SAINT (called also the " Younger Columba "): Abbot of Luxeuil and of Bobbio; b. in Leinster, Ireland, c. 550; d. in Bobbio (37 m. n.e. of Genoa) Nov. 23, 615. Like his older namesake and so many of his countrymen, impelled by the love of wandering and the longing for the ascetic life, influenced also by the admonition of an aged female recluse, he left parents and home. For many years he was a member of Comgall's monastery at Bangor on Belfast Lough. Then with twelve companions he went by way of Britain to Gaul (c. 590). Christian life on the Continent was then suffering from the irruption of the barbarians, which had destroyed the old civilization and settled large bodies of heathen in many places. Columban and his company were well received at the court of Guntram, king of Burgundy (d. 593), and established themselves in the wilderness of the Vosges, at the site of a ruined fortress, Amagrates (Anegray), in the present departmentof Haute‑Safe (590‑591). AB the number of monks increased he founded another monastery eight miles distant, amid the ruins of Luxuvium (Luxeuil, 72 m. n. e. of Dijon), once famous for its warm baths. The little band brought with them their Irish teachings and customs and comported themselves to a large extent independent of the diocesan bishop. Nevertheless, they suffered little interference. Their date for Easter gave most offense, and Columban saw fit to send letters defending his practises to Pope Gregory the Great, to a synod of Gallican bishops (603), and to a later pope, probably Sabinian. In 610 all Irish monks were expelled from Burgundy, not, however, because of religious differences, but in consequence of the boldness with which Columban rebuked the vices of the king, Theodoric, and of the court. It was intended to send them back to Ireland, but at Nantes they were allowed to go at will. After spending some time with Clothair II., king of Neustria, at Soissons, Columban went to Theodebert, king of Austrasia, at Metz, and at the king's request undertook missionary work among the heathen Alemanni and Suevi. He settled at Bregenz, at the east end of Lake Constance, but in 612 his old enemy, Theodoric, defeated Theodebert and seized his dominions. Columban then crossed the Alps, tarried for a while at Milan with Agilulf, the Lombard king, and wrote there a treatise against the Arians, which is not preserved. In 614

187	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	oil:
Qomemias
he established himself at Bobbio, restoring an old basilica for a monastery and building a new church to the Virgin. For many years this monastery remained a center of learning and study, while Luxeuil became the most famous house in Gaul with affiliated foundations extending from Lake Geneva to the North Sea. Columban was a man of strong convictions, unwavering, and courageous, but also headstrong and stubborn. His, writings in many passages breathe the true spirit of the Gospel but in others show a tendency to formalism and l4~ality. He counseled moderation in ascetic practises, but was himself overrigoroua. He addressed the pope with all respect and acknowledged Rome as the metropolis of the Church. His learning was genuine and he is eminent among the writers of the Merovingian time. He shows an acquaintance with Vergil, Horace, and Seneca, perhaps also with Ovid and Juvenal; he had some knowledge of Greek, and was well read in Christian Latin literature. The most important of his extant works are his letters and his monastic rule, which consisted originally of two parts, the first commonly known as the Regula S. Columbani, containing ten chapters giving general rules for the monastic life in a spirit of moderation and Christian freedom; the second, the so‑called Regula ctenobialis fratrum Hibernensium, gives punishments for offenses of monks and imposes rigorous penalties for trivial faults. In its existing form it has been added to from old Irish sources, which doubtless were also used originally by Columban. There are frequent indications that he used the Basilian rule, as well as reminiscences of Cassian and Pachomius (cf. 0. Seebass, Ueber Cdumban von Luxeuila Klosterregel and Busabuch, Dresden, 1883).
OTro SEESesa.
BIHLIO(38APHY: Columban'e works, excepting a commentary on the Psalms (found in 11 codice irlandere dell'Ambroeiana, ed. G. I. Ascoli, 2 vole., Rome, 1878‑79), are in MPL, lxxx. The letters, ed. W. Gruudlach, are in UGH, Epiat., iii (1891), 154‑190. All the other works have been published by O. 6eebase in ZKG, xiv (1894), 78‑‑92,430‑448, xv (1895), 38&‑386, xvii (1897), 215‑234. Columban'e life by Jonas, a contemporary monk of Bobbio, is in MPL, lxxxvii., Eng. trang.‑ by D. C. Munro in Tranalationa and Reprints published by the Univ. of Pa., ii. 7, Philadelphia, 1895; also, ed. Kruach, in Mi*ilunpen den Institute fUr 6aterreichiadee Geachichte%reehunp, xiv. 385 eqq., Innsbruck, 1893. Consult Lanigan, Ecd. Hire., ii. 260‑299, iv. 348 eqq.; G. F. Unclear, Apostles o/ Mediaeval Europe, pp. 57‑06, London, 1888; J. Healy, Inauta eanctonsm, pp. 370‑381, Dublin, 1890; T. Olden, The Church o/ Ireland, pp, 91‑98, London, 1892; Hauck XD, i. 240‑276.
COMBA, EMILIO: Waldensian; b. at San Germano, Waldensian Valleys, Italy, Aug. 31,1839; d. at Guttannen, 9 m. a .e. of Meiringen,Switzerland, Sept. 3, 1904. He studied at Torre‑Pelliee and at Geneva (under Merle d'Aubigno), was ordained in 1863, and until 1872 was an evangelist,chiefly in Venice. In Sept., 1872, he became professor of historical theology and homiletics in the Waldensian college, Florence. He was also for many years pastor of a Waldensian church in Florence, and after 1873 the editor of the monthly Riviata Crietiana which he had founded. He defended with learning and sueeess the proposition that the original Waldensians date from Peter Waldo in the twelfth century and
not from the days of the apostles,. also that they had much to learn from the Protestant Reformers of the sixteenth century. His publications are very numerous. Besides reprinting in his Biblioteca dells Riforma Italiana Sec. %Vl. works of Vergerio (1883), Vermigli (1883), Valdes (1884), Ochino (1884), Parravicino (1886), and Virginio (1886), he wrote Francesco Spiera (Florence, 1872), Enrico Arnaud (1889, also in French,Henri Arnatut,La Tour, 1889), and 1 nostri protestanti, 2 vols., Florence, 1895‑97; but his life‑work was upon the history of his own people, drawn from the sources, which he told best in the Hiatoire den Vaudois (Paris, 1901); unfortunately he brought out only the first part, De Valdo h la reforrne. The English reader has these researches in their earlier form in the History of the Waldenses of Italy, from Their Origin to the Reformation (London, 18$9).
COMBEFIS, can"be"ff, FRAH9OIS: Patristic scholar; b. at Marmande (30 m. s.e. of Bordeaux), France; Nov., 1605; d. in Paris Mar. 23, 1679. He studied with the Jesuits in Bordeaux, and joined the Dominicans in .1624; taught philosophy and theology in various houses of his order, and in 1640 was sent to Paris; here he soon retired from teaching and devoted himself to the preparation of texts, translations, etc., of the works of the Fathers. His publications include Novum auctarium Grtecolatince bibliothecw patrum (2 vols., Paris, 1648), a work which was not well received at Rome because of certain statements about the Monothelite controversy; Btbliotheca patrum concionatoria (8 vols., 1662; reprinted 1747); a complete edition of the works of Basil the Great (2 vols., 1679); the works and fragments of Amphilochus, Methodius, Andrew of Crete, Maximus, and others.
COMBER, THOMAS JAMES: Baptist pioneer missionary to the Kongo; b. in Clarendon street, Camberwell, London, Nov. 7, 1852; d. at Loango, French Kongoland, June 27, 1887. He studied at Regent's Park College, was sent in 1876 by the Baptist Missionary Society to western Africa, labored in Victoria and the Kamerun, and the next yeas was sent into the Kongo. After a brief visit to England in 1878‑79 he returned to his post. In 1882 he reached Stanley Pool and conducted missionary operations. In 1885 he paid another visit to England, but before that year closed was again at work in the Upper Kongo. There sickness overtook him and he hastened to the coast, only to die. His work was in new fields of difficulty and danger.
RIHLIOa8APH7: J. B. Myers, T. J. Comber, Missionary Pioneer to au Congo, London, 1888.
COMENIUS,co‑mb'nf‑us, JOHANNES AMOS (LatinizedfromKomenski,ko‑men's1d): Moravian bishop; b. at Niwnitz (near Ungarisch‑Brod, 48 m. e. of Brfnn), in Moravia, July 28,1592; d. at Amsterdam Nov. 15, 1670. In his sixteenth year he entered the Latin school, and in 1611 was able to enter Herborn University, where he came under the influence of the encyclopedist Alsted. After an educational journey as far as Holland, he completed his studies in Heidelberg under the care of Pareus. Returning to his home in 1614, he took charge of the high

Comenins	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	lee
Commendatory Letters
school at Prerau. He was, in 1616, ordained in
the church of the United Brethren, becoming pastor
at Fulnek, 1618. The misfortunes which, during
the Thirty Years' War, came upon the Evangelicals
in Bohemia and Moravia visited him. In 1621 the
Spaniards burned Fulnek, and the plague robbed
Comenius of wife and child. From 1624, when the
Evangelical ministers were driven from their pul
pits, until 1627, when all Evangelicals were ban
ished, he traveled among his scattered comrades
and lived in the mountain castles of the nobility,
ministering to his brethren in the faith. He then
accompanied some of them to Poland, where others
had preceded them, and in the border city Lissa,
under the protection of Count Leszczynski, there
sprang up a flourishing Protestant population
whose gymnasium under Comenius grew into great
fame. His text‑books, practical works, and reform
of educational methods brought him into contact
with other states. In 1641 he went to England
and Sweden, and in 1650 to Transylvania. From
1832 he had been senior bishop, and from 1648 the
only bishop of the Brethren's Church. Returning
to Lima shortly before the Swedish‑Polish War,
he and the Protestants were banished by the Poles
in revenge for the victory of Charles X. He fled
to Amsterdam, where he lived in high honor and
busied himself in literary labor, in the care of his
seattered brethren, and in the training of youth.
	He was a man of varied talents. To his church
he gave in 1626 the Psalter in ancient verse‑form
and in 1659 a new edition of the hymnal; he was
also its foremost preacher; his two books " The
Labyrinth of the World and the Paradise of the
Heart " (1623) and " One Thing Necessary " (in
the latter of which the man of seventy‑seven years
gives the harvest of a rich and tireless life) will
live among the classics of Christian teaching. He
was no less great in his activity as bishop. But
the different forms of government, and the current
confessionalism with its emphasis on "central
dogmas," seemed to him only to confuse the com
mon man. Peaceful by nature, he tried to combine
excellences and develop good qualities wherever
he found them. His claim to world‑fame rests
upon his work as pedagogue. Here he owed much
to his church and its catechetical system. The
"Door to Language Opened," tranelatedwithin &few
years into fifteen languages, and the "World,Por
trayed" (Erg. tranal., by C. Hoole, reprint, Syracuse,
N. Y., 1887) were the most famous of his works.
In this labor also it was his religious nature which
controlled him. Here he developed what later
made the names of Rousseau and Pestalozzi famous.
The child should grow into knowledge by assimi
lation, should not be forced but should be assisted,
to know, to think, and to speak. But the object
should ever be to understand all that is worth
knowing of God, the world, and oneself. The end
of his pedagogical labor is " universal knowledge,"
the striving for universal education, the founding
of scientific academies, the translation of the Bible
into all languages, the creation of a universal
language, and the establishment of congresses of
religion. When he had been almost forgotten
Herder rediscovered him by bringing to light one
of the most beautiful of his works. In 1890, at the third centenary of his birth, the Comenius Society was founded to perpetuate his name and labor.
(P. KLEINERT.)
BiatIoa8APH7: The important literature is found in the Comeaim‑9tudiea, 6 parts, Znaim 1892‑93 and in the publications of the ComeniutGeeellechaft, Berlin, 1892 eqq. Consult: H. F. von Criegern, J. A. Comenius als TAeolop, Leipsic, 1881; J. Beeger and E. Zoubek, Comeniu8 naah seines Leben and Srhrifkn, ib. 1883; L. W. Seyffarth, Comenius each seinem Leben und. pddapopiader Bedeutunp, ib. 1883; R. H. Quick, in Essays on Educational Reformers, privately printed, 1887; J. Kvaosals, J. A. Comenius; 8ein Leben and seine Schriftem Leipsie, 1892; S. S. Laurie, J. A. Comenius, . . his Life and Educational Works, Cambridge, 1885, Syracuse, 1893. Consult also J. A. Comenius, The (Treat Didactic, now for the First Time Enpiished, with Introduction by M. W. Reatinpe, London, 1896 (gives a bibliography).
COMES. See PERICOPL.

COMGALL, SAINT, .OF BANGOR: Founder of a famous Irish monastery at Bangor on the southern shore of Belfast Lough. He flouris~the latter half of the sixth century and was a friend and associate of Columba, Brendan, and other monastic founders. He established many monasteries, that at Bangor in 554 or 558, and is said at one time to have had 3,000 monks under him there and in affiliated houses. A so‑called rule of Comgall is extant, consisting of thirty‑six quatrains written in Irish; it is of great age and may possibly have formed the basis of Columban's discipline at Luxeuil and Bobbio, and of that at St. Gall. The " Antiphonary of Bangor," a book of anthems compiled for the congregation at Bangor, written, it is supposed, soon after 680, preserved at Milan, contains an alphabetical hymn in Comgvll's honor.
BIHLIOGBAPHl: ASB, May, ii. 577‑587; Lanigan, Bed. HiA,,ii. 61‑8; W. Reeves, Ecclesiastical Antiquities of Down. Connor, and Dromors, pp. 93 et passim, Dublin, 1847; J. O'Hanlon, Lives of the Irish Sainte, v. 152‑185, Dublin, n.d.; J. Healy, Insula sanotorum, pp. 364 sqq., Dublin, 1890; The Antiphonary o/ Bangor, ed. F. E. Warren for the Henry Bradshaw Society, 2 vols., London, 1893‑95.
COMMANDMENTS OF THE CHURCH (prmcepta or mandate eccleaim): The title of a section of the catechism of the Roman Catholic Church. The Church of the Middle Ages was not familiar with it: The Council of Trent (session vi., canon xxii.; session xxii., passim) uses the phrase for regulations which the Church sets forth authoritatively for the guidance of the faithful, especially in the province of devout morality; such commandments complement the commands of God (prtecepta Dei), as learned from the Bible. The Jesuit Petrus Canisius (q.v.) made the doctrine of these commandments a part of the catechism. He prepared a brief summary of those devotional precepts of the Church which he regarded as the most important for the life of the people, five in number, and since his time it has been usual in the Roman Church to speak of " Ten Commandments of God and five chief commandments of the Church." The latter commandments, as Canisiue selected them, are as follows: (1) Thou shalt observe the appointed feasts of the Church. (2) Thou shalt hear mass and the sermon every Sunday. (3) Thou shalt observe the fasting seasons. (4) Thou shalt

189	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	Q°en,iuas,tory Letters
confess thy sins at least once every year, and this to thy regular parish priest. (5) Thou shalt seek the communion at least every year at Easter. These commandments were adopted in almost all catechisms after Canisius. In countries where the Roman Church is not supported by the State, an additional sixth commandment has been widely introduced into the catechism: Thou shalt provide according to thy means toward the support of the Church and the priests. Pius X. formulates these commandments more strictly and detailed as follows: (1) Thou shalt attend holy mass on all Sundays and festivals of obligation. (2) Thou shalt observe the lenten fast, the four ember‑days, and the vigils of obligation; thou shalt eat no meat on prohibited days. (3) Thou shalt confess at least once every year, and at Easter communicate in the parish church proper. (4) Thou shalt pay the bounden or customary dues to the Church. (5) Thou shalt not wed in forbidden seasons; namely, from the first Advent Sunday till Epiphany and from the first Sunday in Lent until the octave after Easter.
In the Greek Church the following commandments are in force: (1) Every one shall be present at the principal hours and the liturgy on all Sundays andfestivals. (2) Observe the four greatfasts. (3) Reverence the clergy, and especially the father confessor. (4) Confess regularly four times a year, in particular at Easter. (5) Beware of heretical books and intercourse with heretics. (6) Make intercessions for every estate, especially the clergy, the government, and benefactors of the Church. (7) Keep not aloof from any specially prescribed fasts and processions. (8) See to it that the Church does not suffer in her incomes. (9) Take no part in stage performances and adopt no strange manners. It is probable that Petrus 'Mogilm was indirectly influenced by Canisius in the matter of minutely specifying the chief commandments act forth by the Church beside the commandments of God.
F. KATrENHUsCB.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Roman Catholic: P. Canidue, Summa dOotrinsr drietiano in three editions, the " larger," 1555; .. amalleet," 1568; •~ small,,. 1558; Compendio delta dotbins chriabwa (the catechism of Pius IX.), Rome. 1905 (also in three forms); O. Brauneberger, Enutehunp and crate Entwickdunp der Katechismm des . . . P. Caniaius. Freiburg, 1893; F. Loofa, 8ymboiik, i. $07 eqq., Freiburg, 1902; KL, v. 181 eqq., vii. 288 eqq.
Greek: Confessio orgodoxa des Petrae MopUae, part 1, questions 87‑95, in Monuments fidei eecleuor orisntalia, ed. E. J. Kimmel, vol. i., Jana, 1850; w. Goes, Symbdik der priachiwhen Kimhe, pp. 379 sQq•, Berlin. 1872; F. Sattenbusch, Conteaaionskunde, i. 510 eqq., Freiburg, 1891; F. Loofa, ut sup., i. 182 sqq.
COMMETfDA: A technical term for the administration of an ecclesiastical office, especially of the temporalities connected with it, committed to a person who has no actual right to the office. Normally, according to canon law, commendce are granted only in order to provide for the administration of the office in the case of a vacancy or of the incapacity of the holder; only to a qualified person who already holds an ecclesiastical office; and to him merely as administrator. The custom gave rise, however, to great abuses. The Avignon popes especially used this means to bestow the
incomes of benefices upon persons whom the prohibition of pluralities prevented from holding the benefices themselves; they were granted for life, and without any obligation to the discharge of the duties of the office. Thus abbeys were frequently granted in commendam to secular clergy. This latter practise was so deeply rooted that the Council of Trent, which attempted to extend to the whole system of irregular commendw the law against pluralities, was not able to do more than regulate it. Temporal rulers often in like manner " commended " monasteries and churches, with their property, to laymen, in order to reward their services by the enjoyment of the temporalities, on a pretext of protection. (C. T. G. v. SCHEUxr.t.)
BIHLIOoBA,m7: L. Thomasmn, Vetue et nova ecclesix diaciplina, P. I. 1, iii., chaps. 1o‑21, Lucca, 1728; Richter,
KirahunreA4 p. 1323; Friedberg, Kirchenrecht, p. 325.
COMMENDATORY LETTERS (LITER: FORMAT): Letters of introduction and recommendation (called also liters, canonicce) given in the early Church to Christians traveling from one place to another. The use of such letters is extremely ancient, dating from the time of the New Testament (Acts xviii. 27; Rom. xvi. 1, 2; 11 Cor. iii. 1), and is readily explicable from the 6lose mutual relations of the communities and their generous hospitality. On the other hand, II John 10 forbade the reception of one who was unsound in doctrine, and it accordingly became necessary for a traveler to be able to prove his orthodoxy (cf. Didache xii. 1), this usually being done by a letter of commendation written by the head of the congregation. These letters must be distinguished from the official communications of the congregations with each other, of which an entire series antedating Irenmus is either extant or known by title. Another category, which may be traced to the third century, is formed by the " letters of peace " readmitting excommunicated members of the Church. Later, however, " letters of peace " connoted the certificates given those who intended to visit the emperor or high dignitaries of the Church and showing that the recipient of the letter was making his journey with the approval of the writer. After the fourth century these letters were distinguished, in their turn, from the " letters of introduction,',' which were given only to persons of rank. As early as the end. of the second or the beginning of the third century the bishops seem to have announced their elections by letters and to have exchanged letters of recommendation, while in the same manner they reported their celebration of festivals, especially of Easter. There were also general encyclicals, and special regulations have been preserved regarding all problems connected with letters of commendation and introduction.
Letters of both these types were forged at a very early date, as is clear from the complaint of Dionysius of Corinth during the reign of Marcus Aureliu6, and by the time of the great councils from the fourth to the seventh century these forgeries had increased to such an extent that letters were required to have a definite prescribed form, and were accordingly termed formatm or canonicce. It is uncertain whether the designation formats refers to

Commentaries	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	170
Qommodus
the fact that they were modeled on public docu
ments, or whether it is derived from forma in the
sense of " seal," or whether the rigid phraseology
gave rise to the epithet.	(A. HAHNAC%.)
BreLIOOaAPHr: Bingham, Ori~nes, gVIL iii. 6‑8, cf. II.
iv. 5, and references given there to earlier literature; DCA,
i. 407‑408.
		COMMENTARIES. See Exwmmls oa Hi&H
x=EuTlcs, IV., § 2, and bibliography; see also
the articles on the different books of the Bible for
commentaries on particular books.
COMMERCE AMONG THE ANCIENT ISRAELITES.
			Trade Routes Through Palestine (¢ 1).
			The Beginnings of Hebrew Commerce (§ 2).
			Solomon (1 3).
			The Two Kingdoms (§ 4).
			After the Exile (5 5).
		Palestine lay on the chief commercial high
ways of the ancient world, being traversed by the
roads which connected Babylon and Egypt, and
by the routes which united the more distant East
with the Mediterranean. From Egypt the great
military road ran along the coast to Beirut and then
inland to Assyria, while south of Mount Carmel a
branch traversed the plain of Jezreel, and crossed the
Jordan on its way to Damascus and the Euphrates.
Gaza was the terminus of the road connecting
				Akabah and southern Arabia with the
		r. Trade Mediterranean, while the second great
		Routes	road out of Arabia ran along the east
	Through ern edge of the east‑Jordan district
	Palestine. northward to Damascus. Active com
				merce early developed along these
routes. As early as 3000 B.c. Sargon I. and Gudea
of Lagash obtained cedars from the Amanus as
well as stone and timber from Phenicia. The
Egyptian trade with Syria developed but little later.
This interchange became important even at this
early period inasmuch as each region lacked some of
the products of the other. Egypt obtained its silver
from Asia, while Babylon needed gold from Nubia;
Amanus and the Lebanon were the sources of
timber; Arabia produced perfumes and spices.
The middlemen were, in the main, in the oldest
time the Phenicians, who by virtue of their geo
graphical position were well qualified to perform
such a function. By 1500 B.c. Phenicia controlled
trade with Egypt, while for the East the Arameans,
somewhat later, assumed a similar position. In
the South the trade with Arabia and India passed
through the hands of the Minwans, who had centers
for trade with Damascus in their North Arabian
province of Muzri, as well as on the coast, their
warehouses being at Gaza.
		Through their settlement in Canaan the Israel
ites became interested in this system of commerce,
	although it was not until they had assimilated the
culture of the region that they could take part in
				trade. Nor did they, at first, need
	2. The Be‑ commerce, since the native productions
	ginnings of were sufficient for them. Trade ac
		Hebrew cordingly pursued its old course un
	Commerce. disturbed, and Canaanite and Pheni
				cian retailers traversed the land with
their wares, so that " Canaanite " long remained a
synonym for " merchant " (Job sH. 6; Isa. xxiii.
8; Hos. xii. 7). Within Palestine salt was an article which could be obtained only by trade from the Dead Sea. When, however, in the reign of Solomon, Israel was secure against foreign aggression and had assimilated the Canaanites, it sought its share in international commerce. Trade with Phenicia increased as the development of culture created needs not met by native products and workmanship. Solomon imported from Tyre timber and artisans (II Sam. v. 11; I Kings v. 13‑18). The establishment of the northern kingdom by the house of Omri had a powerful influence on trade and the development of Phenician industries. Purple, products of the loom, and works of art in brass, silver, gold, and the like found ready purchasers among the Israelites, who gave in return the surplus of their oil, wheat, honey, and similar exports (I Kings v. 11; Ezek. xxvii. 16 sqq.). There was also an active trade in slaves (Amos i. 9), and the tribes of Zebulun and Issachar, settled near the Phenicians and along the trade routes through the plain of Jezreel, were the chief middlemen (Deut. xxxiii. 18‑19).
Solomon cooperated with the Phenicians in voyages from Ezion‑geber on the Red Sea to Ophir, the land of gold, which apparently lay on the southern coast of Arabia (see OPHm). In their " ships of Tarshish," as the vessels were later called when Tarshish became their port of destination, the crews of Hiram of Tyre sailed with the officials of Solomon, returning with gold, silver, ivory, apes, and peacocks
(I Kings ix. 26‑28; cf. x. 22 and 3. Solomon. Benzinger's commentary ad loc.).
The account of the queen of Sheba seems to show that trade was carried on with the Minaeane, who were succeeded by the Sabeans, and Minaoan Midianites are described as merchants and leaders of caravans (Gen. xxxvii. 28, 36). At a later time Ezion‑geber and the road leading to it came under the sway of the Edomites, but the attempt of Jehoshaphat to resume control of the Red Sea ended in failure (I Kings xxii. 48‑49), and there is no record of further really successful undertakings of a similar character.
It is obvious that trade with Egypt was active in the reign of Solomon, especially as he was connected by marriage with the Pharaoh. After the
division of the kingdoms, Israel tra4. The Two ded with Phenicia and Syria rather
Kingdoms. than with Egypt, while Judah dealt with its southern neighbor, although in all other respects it was cut off from international commerce, since the trade routes ran through the northern kingdom. Commerce was likewise carried on in the north with the Arameans. Solomon obtained horses from Mu~ri in northern Syria and from Kug (Cilicia) through the Arameans and Hittites (I Kings x. 28‑29, according to the correct reading). Later, when Israel came under the political domination of the Arameans, commerce increased correspondingly, and Israelitic merchants in Damascus had at one time their bazaars in the markets just as Damascus traders had theirs in Samaris (1 Kings xx. 34), although what the articles of commerce were is unknown.
Previous to the exile, however, Israel was not a

RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Commentaries Commadne
commercial people, nor was trade the occupation of a large portion of the population. Neither the earlier legislation nor the Deuter‑
	5. After onomist took commerce into con
the Exile. sideration or regulated it. The cap
		tivity,, on the contrary, altered the
entire condition of affairs. In Babylonia com
merce was highly developed, and many of the exiles
had no alternative but to take part in it. In
Palestine, on the other hand, the Israelites were at
first too poor to engage in trade, which was still
in the hands of Phenicians, Edomites, and other
foreigners (cf. Neh. x. 31, xiii. 15‑22). Not until
the Greek period did the Jews again become mer
chants; but during this epoch there were colonies
of Jews engaged ip traffic in Alexandria, Antioch,
Asia Minor, and Greece, and even in Rome. For
the means of transportation see Ass; CAMEL;
HORSE; MULE. 	I. BENZINGER.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. Hersfeld, Handslgeachiehte der Juden des Altertums, Brunswick, 1879 (the one book); F. Buhl, Die socialen Verhdltnisse der 1eraeliten, pp. 78‑83, Berlin, 1899; Schfirer, lleschichte, Index, sm. "Handel," Eng. transl., Index, e.v. "Trade"; DB, iv. 802‑808; JE, iv. 186‑188; BB, iv. 5146‑‑99 (exhaustive).
COMMIXATIOIif SERVICE: An addition to the usual service on Ash Wednesday in the Prayerbook of the Church of England, designed by the Reformers to take the place of the ceremony of sprinkling ashes on the congregation in token of penitence. It consists of the recitation of the curses pronounced by God against impenitent sinners in the Old Testament (whence its name, commination‑" threatening "), and of Ps. li. and other penitential prayers. In the revised Prayer‑book of the American Episcopal Church is a modified form called "A Penitential office for Ash‑Wednesday."
COMMODIARUS, cem‑mo‑di‑Anus: Early Christian poet of the middle of the third century. His birthplace is unknown, but his close contact with Cyprian makes it likely that he spent at )east his manhood in North Africa. By birth a heathen, after groping from one superstition to another, he was converted by becoming acquainted with the Scriptures. A manuscript calls him bishop. He is the oldest known Christianpoet writing in Latin, and seems to have written for the common people. His form of verse, though externally hexameter, deviates from the strict principle of quantity in favor of accent, and his verse must have been painful to the educated. For that reason, no doubt, he is ignored by the Fathers, though heretical views might have had much influence, for he was a Patripassian and a Chiliast. Hence his writings are designated in the decree of Gelaaius as " apocryphal" (MPL, lix. 163); nevertheless, this very disapproval shows that he still had his readers. The Instructionm and the Carmen APologeticum are all that have survived. The former (of 1,259 lines, divided into two books of forty‑one and thirty‑nine [thirty‑eight] separate poems, mostly acrostic in form) treats in book i. of the heathen, contrasting their religion with the Christian faith; at the same time Christians are reprimanded for being too intimate with their heathen neighbors; the conclusion is a polemic against the Jews. The second
book has sober exhortations for all classes of Christians. Between the two parts are instructions which treat of Antichrist, of the resurrection, and the final judgment. The Carmen Apologeticum (of about 1,060 lines) begins likewise with the heathen and continues with a dogmatic‑historical review of the Christian faith; in the second part is a description of the end of the world, containing among other things references to the invasion of the Goths (249 A.D.?) and the appearance of two Antichrists among the heathen and the Jews (though the Instructiones knew only of one). From his writings Commodianus appears to have been a Christian of strong principle§ and robust nature; he is never extreme and does not commend the aspiration for a bloody martyrdom; his diction is faulty, but his thoughts often border on the sublime, and at times he is successful in satire. Surprising are his aversion to the Roman government (cf. Carmen, line 887) and his leaning toward the Goths, as though he were aware of the coming union of Christianity and the German world.
(B. DOMBARTt.)
BIHLIOasAFH7: The works are in MPL, v., and (beet) ad. Dombart in CSEL, xv., 1887. Eng. tranel. is in ANP, iv. 203‑218. Consult: W. S. Teuffel, Qesehichte der r6miscAen Latteratur, P. 972, Leipeic, 1890: Harnack, Lideratur, i. 731, ii. 2 pp. 433‑449; KrOger, History, pp. 317‑320; KL, iii. 701‑704; DCB, i. 610‑811.

COM'MO‑DUS (MARCUS AURELIUS COMMODUS ANTONINUS) : Roman emperor 180‑192. The son of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina, he inherited far more his mother's than his father's character, and spent his time in games and dissipation, leaving the government in the hands of his favorites. Utterly indifferent to religious questions, he left his Christian subjects in peace. At the beginning of his reign the effects of his father's policy were still felt; but before long persecution ceased throughout the empire, to which Eusebius (Hist. eccl., V. xxi. 1) attributes the accession of large numbers of converts. According to Irenteus (IV. xxx. 1) some of these were found even in the imperial household. Among these was Marcia Aurelia Cejonia Demetriaa, who seems to have been responsible for the tolerant attitude of the government. She was the daughter of a freedman, but brought up by Hyacinthus, a Christian. Hippolytus, her contemporary, calls her (Philos., ix. 12) " the pious concubine (ira;L) of Commodus," and mentions important services rendered by her to Christian exiles in Sardinia. Dio Cassius also speaks of her benevolence toward the Christians and her intercession for them with Commodus, " with whom she could do anything " (lxxii. 4). In these days she was probably a catechumen; neither Christian nor pagan authors speak of her absolutely as a Christian. The difficulty of understanding her relations to the Roman Church in connection with that in which she stood to the dissolute emperor are lessened by recalling the fact that the regular concubinage in which she lived with Commodus at this time was not forbidden by either secular or ecclesiastical law, and that there is no evidence of her taking any personal part in the corrupt practises by which she was surrounded. After the assassination of Commodus, she married

Common Lift	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	172
the freedman Eclectus and remained at the court of Pertinax. When he in turn, together with Eclectus, had been murdered by the pretorian guards, the new Emperor Didius Julianus, yielding to their demands, ordered Marcia's execution.
VICTOR SCHULTZE.
BIBLIo6RAPH7: B. Aube, Lee CAraiene dans 1'empire Romain, pp. 1 eqq., Paris, 1881; T. Beim, Ron and das Qhriatentum, pp. 634 eqq., Berlin, 1881; H. Schiller, (lo‑, achichta, der romischen Kaiserwit, I. ii. 680 sqq., Goths, 1883; Neander, Christian Church, vol. i. passim; Moeller, Christian Church, i. 166; Schaff, Christian Church, ii. be; DCB, i. 611.
COMMON LIFE, BRETHREN OF THE.
Geert Groote. The First Community (¢ 1). Busch's Account Inaccurate ($ 2). The Life of the Brethren an Active One (¢ 3). Prejudice and Opposition (¢ 4). Characteristic Features (§ b). The Various Houses (§ 6). The Houses for Women (§ 7). Different Names (§ 8). Dress (¢ 9). Organization and Discipline (J 10). The " Modern Devotion " (¢ 11). Daily Life (§ 12). Tendency to Asceticism (¢ 13). The Copying of Manuscripts (§ 14). Their Influence and Importance (¢ 1fi). Their Limitations (§ 16). Their Influence on Education, Literature, and Art (¢ 17).
The Brethren of the Common Life (Fratres communis vine) were a religious association of a semimonastic nature which flourished in the transition period between the Middle Ages and the Reformation. It dates from the second half of the fourteenth century, when the northern Netherlands were the scene of constant conflicts of the nobility among themselves, with their vassals, and with the towns, which had notably increased in wealth and power since the Crusades. This increase in power had given rise to a lively interest in political, social, and ecclesiastical questions, and the growing love of liberty had shown itself in a wide‑spread antagonism to the clergy, which was fostered by the development of scientific study, and still more by the mysticism which was then so popular, in contrast with the hard and unbending scholasticism of an earlier period. Two men especially represented this warmer and more earnest religious feeling‑Jan van Ruysbroeck (q.v.), a priest of Brabant, and Geert Groote (q.v.), a citizen of Deventer, who was the founder not only of the influential congregation of Windesheim (q.v.) and the monastic reform that proceeded from it, but also of the Brethren of the Common Life.
Groote makes his appearance in the time of the great Western Schism (see SCHIsM) and of the " Babylonish exile " of the popes (see AvIGNON). By the counsel of Ruysbroeck, then eighty‑four years old, and with the bishop's license, he began to preach repentance throughout the
:. Geert diocese of Utrecht. Crowds flocked to Groote. The hear him from all classes, at DevenFirat Com‑ ter, Zwolle, Leyden, Delft, Gouda, and
	munity.	Amsterdam. But when he attacked
		the sins of the clergy and the lazy
beggary of the monks the bishop forbade his
preaching after four years, and he retired to his
native town of Deventer. Here he matured his
plan, already conceived, for enabling those who had been converted to a pious Christian life to carry out practically their desire for perfection. He gathered a few friends around him, who regarded him as their head until his death, after which the leadership was taken up by Florentius Radewyns (q.v.). It was not originally a quasimonastic community separated from the world, with a definite system of common life and work. This is evident from the fact that several of Groote's friends, such as Jan Brinckerinek (q.v.), belonged to the circle without deserting their own monastic associations. It was only after the founder's death that the community was shaped by Florentius in a direction that promised greater stability and growth.
This view, as put forth and justified by Gerretsen in his biography of Florentius (Nymwegen, 1891), differs in not a few important particulars from that previously held by such writers as Acquoy, Hirsche, and Grube. According to their view, which rests mainly on the Liber de origins devotionis modemte by Jan Busch (q.v.), Groote sought to create a better type of clergy by educational influence upon the young, and supported many poor students at the cathedral school of Deventer by giving them manuscripts to copy for his library. After a while he handed over the care, both temporal and spiritual, of these youths to his younger friend Florentius, who took them into his own house and had them work under his direction. Then one day, according to Busch's account, Florentius suggested that it would be more economical, as times were hard, if they should all combine their resources and live in common. Groote at first feared that the jealousy of the mendicant orders would be aroused, but finally bade him go on in the name of the Lord.
	Busch, however, reads into the earliest history the
practise of later times, which even then was casual
		and not of primary importance. It
Z. Busch's is true that Groote, and still more
Account In‑ Florentius, cared for poor scholars;
	accurate.	but these were not a part of the brother
		hood, and left when their education
was completed. There are other inaccuracies in
Busch's account. Relating that Groote on his
death‑bed answered the question of his adherents
by saying that Florentius should be their head, he
understands this of the Deventer house and brothers,
while it is clear that Groote meant the movement
as a whole. The final choice of a head for the
Deventer house was long delayed; the deed for its
purchase in 1391 indicates a joint rule by Floren
tius, Brinckerinck, and Gronde, and Florentius
was not made sole head until later‑probably
between 1391 and 1396, by which time a more
definite organization had been rendered necessary
not only by the growth of the brotherhood and the
foundation of new houses, but as a means of pro
tection against external attacks. As long as Groote
lived his influence was a sufficient shield for his
converts; but soon after his death so great hos
tility showed itself among the citizens that the
Brethren scarcely dared to appear in the streets,
and a municipal official converted by Groote was
obliged to interpose. Yet Florentius succeeded in
carrying on the work‑at first in his own presby‑

173	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Common Zdfs
WM and when that grew too small in a rented
house near‑by, exchanged in 1391 for another which
had been inhabited by a community of pious women.
	But even after the organization had crystallized
still fprther there remained a fundamental differ
ence between it and the Windesheim congregation.
Both institutions sprang from the same spirit of
"modern devotion"; but while some thought they
could preserve this spirit only in the monasteries
where they knew it to prevail, the Brethren of the
Common Life felt called to help on the spread of
that spirit by preaching to the people, by caring
		for the education of the young and
3. The Life especially those who were to be priests,
	of the and by the mighty influence of a godly
Brethren an life lived in the world. The asso
Active One. ciations of serious pious men which
		thus began to spring up in various
places, followed by the foundation of houses for
the community life of women, had features of
novelty which excited attention and not infre
quently disapproval. As a loose and informal
association, the Brethren were classed by many
with the Beghards and Beguines (see BEQHARDs),
		and thus fell under suspicion of heresy;
4. Prejudice as communities somewhat resembling
	and Oppo‑ the monastic orders, they incurred the
	sition. jealousy of the latter, especially of the
		mendicants by the very difference
that they did not beg but worked for their living;
as communities of workingmen, again, they were
regarded as competitors by the ordinary working
men and women. It was some time, therefore,
before they could secure general permission for the
formation of their communities and the acquisition
of land. Formal opinions as to the lawfulness of
their position were frequently sought from the
authorities, both by their friends and by their
enemies. The most important of these opinions
is the unprejudiced and favorable one pronounced
in 1393 by Abbot Arnold of the Benedictine abbey
of Dickeninge, in the province of Drenthe (Holland),
and now extant in the Royal Library of The Hague.
With this may be classed another procured by the
Brethren from the law faculty of the new Univer
sity of Cologne, when the first was not accepted by
their opponent Matthias Grabow, who had asked
for it. According to both the following seem to
have been regarded as the characteristic features of
the new organization: (1) They wished to live a
common life extra religionem; that is, without ta
		king the ordinary monastic vows. (2)
	g. Charac‑ They lived by their work, rejecting
	teristic mendicancy. (3) They lived in com
	Features. muni, men and women separately and
		thus without marriage, sharing freely
with each other, so as to gain the advantage of
mutual influence and brotherly exhortations. (4)
They rendered voluntary obedience, not con
ditioned by a vow, to a leader chosen from their
brotherhood. (5) They edified each other and
people outside by the reading of the Scriptures in
the vernacular. Of These points, what principally
struck people in general was their living in common,
whence their name; but their living thus without
monastic vows was what seemed to the older relig‑
ious communities dangerous, and was the chief ground of the attacks upon them up to the Council of Constance. But if they differed from the monks in feeling it unnecessary to leave the world and bind themselves by solemn vows, they had many of the characteristics of the monastic life‑obedience, absolute while it lasted though not irrevocable, celibacy, poverty in the sense of common ownership; and they only seemed to stand in contrast with it because so many monasteries had fallen away from their original principles.
Nor had either founders or followers any idea of departing from the teaching of the Church. What they strove for was an ever‑increasing reformation in life‑the life of the Church and the life of the world. The statutes of their houses show plainly enough what was the main thing in their minds. Those of the community at Herford may be quoted: " For the promotion of our souls' salvation, as well as for the edification of our neighbor in the purity of the true Christian faith and the unity of our Mother the holy Christian Church, we will and intend to live a pure life, in harmony and community, by the work of our own hands, in true Christian religion and the service of God. We purpose to live a life of moderation, without beggary; to render obedience with reverence to our superiors; to wear a humble and simple habit; diligently to observe the canons of the holy Fathers, in so far as they are of profit; diligently to apply ourselves to the virtues and other holy exercises and studies; and not alone to live a blameless life, but to give a good pattern and example to other men."
The mother house of Deventer has an interesting history, extending to 1574; here Erasmus was a student for several years, and learned Greek from the distinguished scholar Synthis (Binder). The next in age and importance, that of Zwolle, also founded by Groote himself, was governed with wisdom and energy from 1407 to 1456 by Diderik van Herxen, a writer of note, who made it a center of colonization. It held together
6. The until 1590. Thomas h Kempis and
Various	Jan Busch both probably taught in
	Houses.	the school here, and were certainly
		inmates of the house, as was Wessel,
the most significant precursor of the Reformation.
Hoorn (1385) and Ammersfoort (1395) were the
only other foundations in the lifetime of Florentius.
Of importance for the history of the movement in
the northern provinces where it originated are
Delft (1403), Hulsbergen (1407), Gouda, Hertogen
bosch, and Doesburg (1425), Utrecht (1474), and
Nymwegen '(1592). In the southern Netherlands
Lidge was the first town to receive a colony of the
‑Brethren, and was followed by Louvain, Ghent,
Brussels, probably Antwerp, Mechlin, and Cam•
brai. The earliest settlements in Germany were
due to the labors of Heinrich von Ahaus (q.v.), who
founded the three most famous German houses,
those of Munster, Cologne, and Wesel, of which
the second lasted on until its secularization by the
French in 1802, and has an interesting connection
with the early history of printing. Others were
early founded at Osnabrtick, Emmerich, Treves,

Gammon Lift	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	174
Herford, Hildesheim, Cassel, Butzbach, Marburg, Kbnigatein, Rostock, and Culm (1473, the farthest point reached to the eastward). The Herford community, which (see below, § 18) went over bodily to the Reformation, remained in existence as a Lutheran brotherhood until 1841.
Even before the foundation of the first house for the brothers, Groote had presented (1374) to the burgomaster of Deventer a dwelling owned by him, to serve as a home for poor women, either unmarried or widows and without any monastic ties. The house did not seem at first to prosper, either under Groote or under his successor Jan van Gronde, who was an able preacher, but lacked the special gifts required. The sixteen women lived much as they pleased, and did little work, so that poverty pressed them and the outlook was discouraging, when in 1393 Brinekerinck took charge of the house and put new lifh into it,
7. The with constant spiritual care and strict Houses for discipline. As in the case of the
	Women.	brothers, new houses were soon
		founded, which offered a striking con
trast to many of the nunneries, in the degenerate
condition in which the latter too often were.
The rapid spread of these houses affords a proof of
the strength which the spirit of free devotion pos
sessed in its earliest days. In the first half of the
fifteenth century, at least eighty‑seven of these
communities sprang up, nearly all in the Nether
lands. Usually there was only one in a town,
though Zutphen had three, Deventer five, and
Zwolle six. Many of them, however, transferred
themselves before long to the Third Order of Saint
Francis or adopted the rule of the Windesheim
nuns, though such a change does not seem to have
involved the total severance of relations with the
brothers and sisters of Groote's society. The sisters
were very commonly known, not only in Deventer
but elsewhere, as Beguines‑‑the name frequently
given in those days to the tertiarics of the mendi
cant orders and other non‑cloistered associations of
women. The rule which governed them is known
from the extant statutes of more than one house;
it does not differ essentially from that of the ter
tiaries under the charge of the Utrecht chapter.
Their dress was gray in color, rather old‑fashioned
in cut, so that they were frequently objects of
ridicule. Their food was as simple as their dress.
There seems to have been no definite age‑limit for
reception; at Deventer girls of nine and women of
fifty were admitted. Each house was ruled by a
mistress, and had other officials corresponding,
mutatis mutandis, to those of the brothers. They
occupied themselves in all kinds of women's work,
as it was then understood; occasionally in nursing,
teaching girls, and copying manuscripts. Outside
of the Netherlands their extension was greatest in
Germany, where they seem to have reached a con
siderable number in the middle of the fifteenth
century.
Besides the names most usually employed by themselves (fralres vitce communis or bonce voluntatis), the Brethren had a variety of popular appellations in different places. Thus they were called, from their manner of delivering not format sermons but
plain talks, fratres coUationum or collationarii; because they imitated the apostles in their manner of living, " apostolic brothers "; from 8. Different their diligence in copying manuscripts,
	Names.	" brothers of the pen "; where they
		had schools, " school brothers " ;
" cowled brothers " or " blue brothers," from their
habit; and various other names taken from the
saints to whom they were specially devoted as
patrons or examples, Gregory, Jerome, Michael,
George, Martin, and Mark. The names of " Lol
lards " or " Nollards " seem also to have been
applied to them by their enemies.
Since they made no vows on entrance, each brother could leave at any time without incurring ecclesiastical penalty. For this reason, as well as because they considered it possible to combine the interior life with mingling in the world, the title of religiosi was frequently denied to them.
	g. Dress.	Their clothing consisted in a uniform.,
		simple, but dignified outer garment of
black or gray linen, confined at the waist by a
black woolen girdle; for clerics it reached to the
feet, for novices and lay brothers only to the knees.
Beneath this was worn a rough shirt, to be washed
once a month in summer, every other month in
winter, and drawers of the same material. The
cloak was a bluish‑gray, and a black hood or cowl
covered the head.
The inmates of the houses were divided into three classes‑priests and clerics, laymen, and probationary candidates. The first class performed all spiritual and ecclesiastical functions, the second the domestic tasks of house and garden; but all were brothers. The time of probation ranged from two or three months to a year. Each new brother was free to dispose of his property as he chose; but if he gave it to the house he could not reclaim it on leaving. Every house had a head called the rector, not as among the Windesheim communities, the prior; there was an effort to avoid imitating monastic usage in such details. In io. Organ‑ the sisters' houses the confessor was ization and also called rector. The rector was Discipline. chosen with the greatest care; later, the choice was not left wholly to `„he individual house, and if no suitable person were among the community, one was sent from another house. All the members were pledged to obey him; without his permission none could leave the house or go anywhere except to church. In the rector's absence one of the clerical brothers in his place decided all questions that did not admit of postponement. If there were any complaints against the rector, it was the duty of the priests to consider them. Next to the rector's, the office of procurator was of importance; he had charge of the external relations of the house, of the buildings, of receipts and purchases. In the larger houses a cellarer was also required. One of the most important officials was always the librarian, who not only was custodian of the books, but supervised the copying industry and provided the materials for it. Other officials mentioned are a novice‑master, a precentor, a sacristan, an infirmarian, a cook, a gardener, etc. For purposes of discipline a chapter of faults (as

176	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Common Lilt
distinguished from the occasional particular chapter for the discussion of the affairs of the community) was to be held at least once a week. First the youngest brother was to kneel in the midst and accuse'himself of any breaches of the statutes or customs of the house; but (with the sober common sense which characterized all the regulations) he was not to presume to go beyond two. Having asked pardon for his faults, accepted the penalty imposed by the rector, and promised amendment, he returned to his place and the next in order followed. If the penalty of expulsion were inflicted, in case of a grave offense, such as heresy, immorality, or theft, the rector decided how much the offender might take with him in addition to his clothes, which were always allowed. Besides these domestic gatherings, there were yearly meetings of representatives of a group of related houses. These, with the visitations, formed a means of keeping up an essentially united spirit in the everincreasing circle of communities; they were instituted soon aftea the death of Florentius, and took place on Low Sunday, first at Zwolle and then in different places, such as Groningen, Hertogenbosch, and Emmerich.
At the very foundation of the whole life lay the moderns devotio, daily progress in communion with God, out of a spirit of love and a pure heart. The means to this were the knowledge of self, the continual struggle to conquer the baser desires, to abase pride, to despise temporal things, to break down self‑will. To this end were directed all their spiritual exercises, their early rising
x r. The and their hard work, their speech and
"Modern their silence, their submissive obedi‑
Devotion." ence. The man who asked to be received into the brotherhood could not but know that he" desired a good work." That was the purpose of the care shown in admitting new members, the time of probation, the oversight of the novice‑master, before they could be added to the list of the " perpetual " or " canonical " brothers.
The life of each daywas strictly organized. The bell rang at three each morning, and at half‑past three all must be ready to rise and offer the firstfruits of the day to God in prayer and meditation. From that hour until nine at night, when the brothers went to bed, every hour (with the exception of the periods for meals and recreation) was divided between work and spiritual exercises. The work was varied; the educated clerics spent a good deal of time in copying manuscripts, and many of the laymen learned the art from them, but there were all kinds of other tasks. Humil‑
i2. Daily ity was especially insisted upon; it
	Life.	was common for the Brethren to con
		fess their sins not only to a priest but
to each other, a custom which gave rise among
outsiders to a suspicion of their orthodoxy. The
spirit of submission in which they were taught to
accept reproof and chastisement from superiors
was shown also in the patient bearing of sickness or
suffering. A regular feature of the life was the
collationes or conferences‑edifying discourses, fre
quently diversified by question and answer, or
taking the form, of a dialogue for a longer time. These were of two classes, one destined for outsiders to whom on Sundays and holidays the doors of the house were open, and always in the vernacular, the other taking place daily among the inmates of the house at the time of their midday or evening meal (the name probably coming from the use of the word collatio in the sense of a common meal).
The life of the Brethren could never, as has been seen, have been a luxurious one; but its ordinary limitations did not suffice the devotion of some, who attempted to strengthen themselves still further against temptation and increase theirpower of despising temporal things by accustoming themselves to specially poor and distasteful food, or by wearing a torturing hair‑shirt. If they found their health was being injured by these austerities, they thought of some other way to practise mortification and abandoned what had proved excessive‑though this exercise of common sense, in the spirit
of the time and especially of the relig‑
:3. Tend‑ ious life of the time, was frequently
ency to As‑ justified by an appeal to some vision
ceticism. or revelation. The spiritual life of the
Brethren was largely nourished on Holy Scripture, to the study of which a special section is devoted both in the Herford statutes and in the Reformatorhum vitae clericorum. The quiet morning hours were consecrated to this, and all unnecessary running about was accordingly forbidden. Systematic meditation on spiritual things was another feature; each day had its special subject‑Sunday the kingdom of heaven, Monday death, Tuesday the mercies of God, Wednesday the last judgment, Thursday the pains of hell, Friday the sufferings of Christ (which they were also to contemplate during mass), and Saturday their sins. From this practise arose many little books of written meditations, some of which, like the various Specula (monachorum, Bernardi, peecatorum), enjoyed wide popularity.
Among the great variety of trades and occupations by which the Brethren sought to provide for their own subsistence, and at the same time to have enough left over for works of charity, that of copying manuscripts held an important. place. Florentius had specially commended it to his immediate associates, who were principally clerics, as the most becoming for them; and the increasing practise of it became a permanent blessing to the Christian world. A large number of manuscripts are still
extant, in private and public collections r4. The of Holland and Belgium especially,
Copying of which were written in the houses of Manu‑ the Brethren. Those most frequently scripts. selected were liturgical books, the
Vulgate, the Fathers, and works of spiritual edification. They had the custom also of compiling collections of the most striking passages from the books they read or copied, sometimes with the addition of reflections by the compiler. These anthologies (rapiaria) are not always written) throughout by the same hand. Perhaps the work was taken up by another after the death of the first compiler, or several small collections were fused into one. The most diverse authors are met with

Common Life
Qommoa Prayer	THE NEW SCHAFg‑gERZOG	178
in them: some classical, especially Seneca; some patristic, most frequently Augustine, Bernard, and Johannes Climacus, to whom Gerson may be added; and some from their own circle, like Thomas it Kempis or David of Augsburg, the author of the Speculum monachorum particularly cherished and commended by Florentius.
	Such a life as has been described was the best
defense of the Brethren against all attacks which
could be made upon them. Even if there are some
things in their system which seem to our minds
exaggerated or objectionable, it is impossible to
deny their importance to the Church's history. In
attempting to sum up this importance, it is neces
sary to say at once that, with our fuller knowledge,
they can no longer be described, in the way once
customary, as precursors of the Reformation.
None the less, their influence, both personal and
corporate, was an inspiring and a purifying one.
They took different ground from the already exist
ing " religious " communities when they showed
that free‑will offerings made in a spirit of devotion
		might serve God and one's. neighbor
:g. Their In‑ acceptably, from both the ethical and
fluence and		the social standpoints; that a life of
Importance. piety was possible in the midst of
		daily labor and intercourse with the
world in its lower and earthly as well as its higher
spiritual tasks. Such separation from the world
as they practised was not a flight in the false and
one‑sided conception of devotion and the service of
God, but was intended to render positive service to
human society. Their ideal of true inner piety,
springing from the love of the heart, had a powerful
influence on many who were merely externally
members of the Church, especially such priests and
monks as were performing their service in a mere
formal spirit. To say nothing of their direct influ
ence on the clergy by education of young candi
dates for orders, they stirred up many a secular
priest to a more faithful care of souls, a greater
diligence in imparting spiritual gifts by preaching
and teaching. The " conferences," offering relig
ious instruction to the plain man in his mother
tongue, had an effect that extended far beyond the
walls of the houses; and the same is true of the close
adherence to Scripture and its application to the
practical details of every‑day life.
But the best preaching is that of example; and this spoke so eloquently to the people that everywhere, except where hostility was stirred up against them by the jealousy of bad priests or monks, their life was revered. Municipal authorities, private citizens, parochial clergy were forward to help them in their work. After the Church had pronounced a formal approval of their work at the Council of Constance, bishops, cardinals, and popes were desirous to assist it in every way, as by the granting of many privileges, even including special indulgences.
The "modern devotion" which has been described, with its insistence on conversion and real sanctification, has been compared not altogether unjustly by Acquoy with Methodism, and by Ritschl with Pietism; but both comparisons are only true up to a certain point. The system of the
Btethren was far more ecclesiastical than either of
the others;	the Word by which alone new life can
be planted	and nourished takes a less prominent
place with them. Instead of it, they have their
self‑chosen exercises and meditations. This is only
natural, in view of the traditional church teaching
which, with their Semi‑Pelagian scheme of salvation
requiring absolutely their own cooperation, they
	fully shared. In their meditations
0. Their the life and sufferings of Christ counted Limitations. more as an example and encouragement for their own trials than as the sacrifice for their sins and the sins of the whole world. Justifying faith, as the source of the new life called into existence by the grace of God, as the synthesis of religion and ethics, meant less to them than the process of sanctification. They lacked both the deep consciousness of sin and the certainty of faith in the healing grace that blots out sin. Thus they emphasized, indeed, the freedom of the will, but not that which makes it free, the operation of the Holy Ghost through the, Word; they stood out as a free association compared.with the monasteries, but not free with the perfect liberty of the children of God. Attempts at reformation of Christian life in those days, whether of individuals, monastic communities, or the whole Church, thus remained restricted to the region of externals; they did not touch the heart of the matter. The longdesired reformation could not be brought about in the way offered by the Brethren of the Common Life. When Luther's call to repentance and his preaching of faith penetrated into their houses some of them thought they had all that was required in the inward reality of their devotion, not knowing the true freedom; others closed their ears to the proposal of what seemed innovations; others, again, were influenced by the intellectual power of the humanist forces that took the side of the Reformation; and some few, like the brothers of Her ford, gave themselves up to the gospel of free grace, winning Luther's word of praise that he could gladly suffer such houses, and wished there were more of them. But nearly all the communities began to decay from this tune; and as the old ones were dissolved new ones did not arise to take their place. Their organization had not, on the one hand (as the Windesheim monks had always said), the security of vows and complete renunciation of the world; nor, on the other, was it adapted to fulfilling the high demands of the spiritual life, on the plane on which the Reformation, following the Word of God, had set it; the old bottles could not be filled with the new wine.
A word remains to be said of their more specifically educational and intellectual influence, which was considerable and excellent, although it has been often misunderstood. The old view; represented by Cramer, Von Raumer, and K$mmel, ascribed to them a very far‑reaching effect upon the school system and upon the improvement of the curriculum and the methods of teaching. But careful recent investigation shows that this was much exaggerated. There were not many places where the schools belonged to the Brethren or were under their direction. Most of the houses educated only

177	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Common Lift
		Common Prayer
young candidates for orders; they seldom supplied
teachers to the public schools except in special
cases. Nor did they possess a particular educa
		tional method of their own, outside of
r7. Their In‑the general principles followed in their
	Buence on houses. Their influence, in fact, was
	Education, mainly that of their sincere Christian
	Literature, piety, which had its effect on all who
and Art. came within their sphere. In this
		way, beginning with Groote himself
and his relation with Petrarch, as well as his own
humanistic studies, a friendship sprang up between
them and the leading German humanists which had
notable results. Men like Cela, Hegius, Sinthis,
and Arsenius at Rostock imbibed from the Brethren
a simple Christian piety which was one of the great
causes of the difference between the tendency of
German and Italian humanism. In this sense both
the Reformation and the liberation of the sciences
which proceeded from it were indebted to the
Brethren. They were not hostile to art; their
churches were adorned to the best of their power,
and in miniature‑painting they have left some
creditable results. From the literary standpoint,
their own productions, whether original or com
piled, are mainly in the department of ascetics.
Poetry occasionally found a home among them;
and Heinrich of Alkmar, the author of Reineke Vos,
came from the Zwolle house. Of special importance
to popular culture is the fact that they showed a
strong tendency to write in the vernacular or to
make translations into it. Besides the Scriptures
and other spiritual works (e.g., a German verse
translation of the " Imitation " made at Cologne),
	they circulated numerous books in the vernacular
of a historical or otherwise educational nature; in
the earlier period they engaged not only in the
	copying of manuscripts, but also in the work of
	adorning them with miniatures and illustrations,
and even of preparing the parchment for them, and
of arranging libraries; and with the invention of
	typography, not a few houses set up presses and
sold printed books, thus contributing in a new
way to the general spread of learning.
			L. SCHULZE.
Brswooasrar: For the founders the sources are in the
" Life " by Thomas b Kempie in his Chronicon monasterii
S. Apndia, ed. Rosweyde, Antwerp, 1815, 1822, Eng.
transl. by J. C.. Arthur, London, 1905. Consult: G.
Bonet‑Maury, Gerard de Groote d'aprds des doeumente
in&dits, Paris, 1878; K. Grubs, Gerard Groot and seine
Stiftungan, Cologne, 1883; $L, v. 1288.
	For the brotherhood the sources, besides Thomas
Kempis, are Scriptum Rudolyhi Dior de Muden de Magietro G. Grove, in G. Dumbar, Analecta, pp. 88‑244, Deventer, 1719‑22; J. $uschius, Chronicon Windeshemense, ed. K. Grubs, pp. 1‑375, Halle, 1888. Consult: C. H. M. Delprat, Over de Broederschap roan Geert Groot, Arnhem, 1858; J. G. R. Aequoy, Het %looder Is Windesheim en sirn invloed, 3 vole., Leyden, 187580; B. Kettlewell, Thomas h %empis and the Brothers of ,the Common Life, 2 vole., London, 1882‑84; E. M86ius, Charneteristik der Brflder den pemeinsamen Labms, 1887; G. Bonet‑Maury, De opera scholastics fratrum communis roils, Paris, 1889; G. Honing, Die Brilder den pemeinsamen Lebena and am Bedeutunp far ihre Zest, GGtersloh,.1894; Dabner, Brider den pemsinaamen Lebene in Hildesheim, Leipsie, lW3; 3. H. Gem, Hidden .Saints, a Study of the Brothers of the Common Life, New York 1907; Heimbucher, Orden and Konprepationen, 1. 398, 408, 409‑410, ii. 328 eqq., 335; Pastor. Popes, 1. 147‑148, 150; $L, iv. 1924 sqq.
111‑12
COMKOR PRAYER, BOOK OF.

Early Forms (§ 1). First Prayer‑book of Edward VI. (1 2). Second Prayer‑book of Edward VI. (1 3). Liturgy of Elisabeth (1 4). Last Revision (¢ 5). Irish and Scotch Prayer‑books (1 8). American Prayer‑book (1 7).
The Book of Common Prayer is the only official service‑book used in the Church of England and its affiliated bodies. Although the service‑books of the English Church before the Reformation were mostly in Latin, English primers, originating, probably, in still simpler manuals of great antiquity, were in use at the beginning of the fifteenth century. The Portiforium secundum usvm Sarum, or " Primer of the Salisbury Use " (c. 1400), is clearly the basis of the Book of Common Prayer, and contains in English: (1) Matins and Hours of our Lady; (2) Evensong and Compline; (3) The seven penitential psalms; (4) The fifteen gradual psalms; (5) The Litany; (6) Placebo; (7) Dirige; (8) The psalms of commendation; (9) Pater noster; (10) Ave Maria; (11) Creed; (12) The ten commandments; (13) The seven deadlysins. Marshall's Prymer (ante 1530 and 1535) and Hilsey's Prymer (1539), set forth at the command of
:. Early Cromwell, led the way, with others,
	Forms.	for The Pryner Set Forth by the King's
		Majesty (1545), which omits Nos. 4, 6,
10, and 13 of the aforesaid contents, but makes
several additions as of the Calendar and "certain
godly prayers." The litany contains petitions re
questing the prayers of angels, saints, and mar
tyrs, and to be delivered from the tyranny of the
Church of Rome; and the Dirige has prayers for the
dead. The former was compiled by Cranmer from
the old litanies and the, litany prepared by Me
lanchthon and Butzer in 1543 for Herman (q.v.) of
Wied, archbishop of Cologne. Before the Prymer
of 1545, convocation had authorized, in 1537, The
Godly and Pious Institution of a Chrysten Man, con
taining the Lord's Prayer, Hail Mary, Creed, dec
alogue, the seven sacraments, etc., and in 1543 the
same, corrected and altered, entitled A Necessary
Doctrine and Erudition for any Chrysten Man. The
former was called " The Bishops' Book"; the latter,
"The King's Book"; and both, with the Articles of
1536, contain the authoritative opinions of the
Church of England during Henry VIIL's reign,
and exhibit, on the whole, a retrogression in matters
of doctrine. A commission, appointed in 1547 to
revise the church‑service, published March 8, 1548,
as a first instalment, The Order of the Communion,
framed in its new portions on Herman's CtmattUa
tion, from which the Exhortation, the Confession,
and the Comfortable Words are derived. It was
a tremendous step in the direction of reform; for
it ordered the communion to be solemnized in
English, and restored the cup to the laity.
The First Prayer‑book of Edward VL, pub. lished June 9, 1549, differed from the Prayer‑book now in use as follows: Matins and Evensong began with the Lord's Prayer, and omitted all prayers after the third collect. The Lamy contained a petition for deliverance from the tyranny of the

THE NEW,SCHAFF‑HERZOG	178
bishop of Rome, while it omitted the invocations formerly addressed to the Virgin and other saints. The Communion Office began with an introit, and omitted the Decalogue; the Virgin was mentioned by name in the praise given for the saints; the sign of the cross was used twice in the consecration of the elements, and the formula of administration contained only the first clause of that
	a. First	now in use; water was mixed with
	Prayers	the wine. In the Baptismal O face
	book of forms for exorcism, anointing, and
Edward VI. trine immersion were provided. In
		the offices for Confirmation, Matri
mony, and the Visitation of the Sick the sign of the
cross was retained; in the first, the candidate made
no promise, in the second, money was given to the
bride, and, in the third, the sick, might be anointed;
the Burial‑Service contained a prayer for the per
son deer and a special service for communion.
The Collects, Epistles, and ‑ Gospels.were almost .
identical with those in the Sarum Missal; much of
the . new matter introduced was taken from Her
man's Consultation. The ordinal, entitled The
Forme and Manner of Makyng and Consecrating of
Arehbishoppee, Biehoppes, Priestea, and Deacons
(1549), was published separately, and differed from
the present office in requiring the chalice and paten,
as well as the Bible, to be placed in the priests'
hands, and the pastoral staff to be committed to
bishops before the words, " Be to the flock of Christ
a shepherd."
The Second Prayer‑book of Edward VL, published in 1552, went much farther in the Protestant direction. It introduced: (1) the sentences, exhortation, confession, and absolution at the opening of the service; (2) the Decalogue in the communion offioe; (3) the use of the Litany on Sundays. It omitted: (1) in the Communion‑, Service: the Introit, the name of the Virgin in the thanksgiving for the Saints, the sign of the cross in consecration, the invocation of the
3. Second Word and the Holy Spirit, the admisPrayer‑ ture of water with wine, and the first book of clause of the present form at the Edward‑ VL delivery of the elements; (2) in Baptism, the form of exorcism, the anointing, and the trine immersion; (3) in Confirmation, the sign of the crow; (4) in Matrimony, the sign of the cross and the giving of money; (5) in the Visitation of the Sick, the allusion to Tobias and Sarah, the anointing, and the directions about private confession; (6) in the Burial‑Service, the prayers for the dead and the Eucharist. The most important change referred to the presence of Christ in the consecrated elements as not differing from his presence to the prayers of believers. As the influence of Luther's Service of 1533 colored the first liturgy of 1549, so that of Butaer, Peter Martyr, Valerandus Pollanus, and John 3 Lasco may be traced in the second liturgy of 1552.
The Liturgy of Elizabeth (1560) agreed substantially with the book of 1552, except "with one alteration, or addition of certain Lessons to be used on every Sunday in the year, and the form of the litany altered and corrected, and two sentences only added in the delivery of the Sacrament to the
communicants, and none other or otherwise"; and " that such ornaments of the Church and of the ministers thereof shall be retained and
	4. Liturgy	be in use as was in this Church of Eng
of Elizabeth. land, by authority of Parliament, in
		the second year of King Edward VI.,
until other order shall be therein taken, etc."
(1 Eliz. c. 2, April 28, 1559). The prayers for
the queen, and for the clergy and people, and the
collect, " O God, whose nature," etc., were intro
duced, but placed at the end of the litany; and
one of two collects for the time of death was omitted.
Some further changes were made early in the neeigm
of James I., including the addition of forms of
thanksgiving on various occasions and of questions
and answers on the sacraments in the catechism
(see HAmpToN COURT CONFERENCE).
In 1645 (Jan. 3) Parliament took away the Book of Common Prayer, and established the Directory, which rejected the Apocrypha, discontinued private. baptism, sponsors, the sign of the cross, the weddingring, and private communion, removed the communion‑table into the body of the church, abolished saints' days and vestments, the burial‑service, and the public recitation of the Decalogue and of the creeds, though the Deealogue and the Apostles' Creed were subsequently supplied.
The last revision of the English Pmyerbook was made in 1662. Among the important changes were, (1) the extracts from the Bible‑except the Psalter (which is Coverdale's text of 1539), the Decalogue, and the sentences in the communion‑servicegive the text of the Authorized Version; (2) the separate printing of the Order for Morning and Evening Prayer, with the introduction of the last five prayers from the litany, and of the Occasional Prayers, augmented by a
5. Last .second prayer for fair weather, the
	Revision.	two prayers for the ember weeks, the
		prayers for Parliament and All Condi
tions of Men, as well as the General Thanksgiving,
and a thanksgiving for restoring public peace at
home; (3) some new collects, epistles, and gospels
were supplied, and verbal changes made, such as
" church " for " congregation," and " bishops,
priests, and deacons," for " bishops, pastors, and
ministers"; (4) the exhortations in the commu
nion‑service were altered; the rubrics relating to
the offertory, the placing of the bread and wine on
the table, and their disposition, directing the form
of consecrating additional bread and wine, and the
covering of: the elements, were added; the last
clause respecting departed saints was added to the
Prayer for the Church Militant; and in the Order
in Council (1552), at the end of the office, the
phrase "corporal presence" was substituted for
"real and essential presence "; (5)‑among the more
important additions in the rest of the book are the
Office for the Baptism of those of Riper Years, the
Form of Prayer to be used at Sea, new psalms in
the Churching Service, and the last five prayers in
the Visitation of the Sick.
The Prayer‑book of 1549 was used first in Ireland on Easter‑day, 1551; and the Irish Act of Uniformity authorized a Latin version. The book of 1552 not having been ordered for observance, the Irish

170	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Parliament, in January, 1560, passed an Act of Uniformity, authorizing the Prayer‑book set forth in England, and the Latin version 6. Irish and (made by Haddon) for the benefit of
Scotch	ministers unable to use English, and
Prayer‑	because there was no Irish printing‑
	books.	press, and few could read Irish. The
		use of the Book of 1662, approved by
the Irish Convocation (August‑November, 1562),
was enjoined by the Irish Parliament in 1666.
Since the disestablishment of the Irish Church in
1870, a revision of the Prayer‑book has been made,
strongly " evangelical " in tendency. In Scotland
the Prayer‑book had. been in general use in the
time of Elizabeth (between 1557 and 1564); but
the Scottish bishops being averse to the adoption
of the English Book, urged by James I., in the
next reign framed a book of their own on the
English model, with certain variations, which,
though sanctioned by royal authority and printed,
never came into general use. The English Book,
except the Communion Office (flamed upon the
Book of 1549), is now used by most of the ministers
of the Episcopal Church in Scotland; but the
Scottish Communion Office is still preferred in many
places.
The . American Prayer‑book is framed closely upon the model of the English book, and was the work of three successive General Conventions (1785, 1786, 1789). It was adopted substantially in its present form by the General Convention of 1789, with many. variations from the English book, of which the following are the most 7. American important: it entirely omits the Atha‑
Prayer‑ nasian Creed, the Absolution in the book. Visitation Office, the Magniftcat and the Nunc dimittis, the Commination, and the versicles after the Creed; it leaves optional the use of the cross in baptism, of the words " He descended into hell " in the Geed, of the Gloria Patri between the Psalms, and altogether considerably enlarges the discretionary power of the minister. It adds to the number of the Occasional Prayers also a form of prayers for the Visitation of Prisoners, a form of prayer, etc., for the Fruits of the Earth, a form of Family Prayers. A form for Consecrating Churches (resembling that published by Bishop Andrewes) was provided in 1795, and an office of Institution in 1804. The change of " Absolution 11 into "Declaration of Absolution," of " verily and indeed taken " into " spiritually taken " (Catechism), and the permission of using an alternative formula instead of " Receive the Holy Ghost," ere. (Ordinal), are as significant as the introduction of the prayers of invocation and oblation in the Communion Office, which was insisted on, as rendering the liturgy more in accordance with primitive models, by the Scottish bishops in the Concordat drawn up prior to their consecration of Bishop &&bury‑. The changes rendered necessary by political and local causes need not be mentioned: in the Thirty‑nine Articles, the eighth does not mention the Athanasian Creed, the twentyfirst is omitted, and the thirty‑fifth printed with s proviso.
A strong desire arose in, the latter part of the
nineteenth century for a revision in the direction of liturgical enrichment and increased flexibility, which resulted, after careful consideration at three General Conventions, in the final adoption in 1892 of a considerable number of changes, many of which, as the restoration of the Magniftcat and Nunc Dimittia, brought the book into closer harmony both with the English and with the earlier models. See Lrrunalcs; LrrusG:cAL Foamvws; and TmmTxN1Na A$mcras.
J. I. MOMH10nT.
BInmoaRAP87: Reprints or faedmila reyroduetione which 	are noteworthy are: Book of Coretneoa Prayer front the original M.9. attached to the Ad of Uniformity of INS, London, 1892; Book of Common Prayer of 16.¢8, fsodmile, i 'b.
1898; Prayer Book of Queen Blisabalk .... from Originate. its. 1898; Firs Prayer Book of Edward W., its, 1908, 1908; Second Prayer Book of King Edward Vl.. its. 1905. Consult: J. H. Blunt, Annotated Book of Con" Prayer, its. 1890; E. Cardwell. The; Too Books o/ Comfnon Prayer set forth . . . in eke Reign of d Vl., its. 1852; C. E. Hammond, Liharoias Eastern and Western, its. 1878; W. M. Campion and W. J. Besemaonk Prayer Book Interieawed, its. 1880; W. Maakell, Ancient Liturgy of Me Church of England, its. 1882; A. T. Wirgmann, Tks Bagiiak Reformation and the Book of Common Prayer, 1631‑1660, Milwaukee. 1887; F. A. Gaequet, Board V1. and the Book of Common Prayer, London, 1891; J. Cornford, Book of Consnwn Prayer with Explanatory Notes, its. 1897; J. C. Jones, Concordance to the Book of Common Prayer, Philadelphia, 1898; J. Dowden, Workmanship of Me Prayer Book, London, 1B9; L. Puller, Hist. of the Book of Common Prayer, its. 1900; E. Daniel, Prayer‑Book; its History, Language aced Contents, its. 1901; H. Gee. E;iaabetkan Prayer Book and OrnattestW. its. 1902; F. Procter and W. H. Frees, New Hid. of the Book o/ Common Prover, its. 1905; A. R. F‑t. Guide to the Study of the Book of Common Prayer, its. 1904; M. McColl, The Royal Commission and the Ornaments Rubric, its. 1906.
On the American Prayer‑book consult: C. M. Butler, Hid. of Book of Common Prayer, New York, 1880; J. H. Garrison, The American Praver Book, its PrindpW and eke Lao of its Use, Philadelphia, 1887; C. E. Stevens, Genesis of eke American Prayer Book, New York, 1898; W. R. Huntington, Short History of the Book of Common Prayer, its. 18M.
COMMU1fICATIO ID101IATUM.
Doctrine before the Reformation (4 1). Luther G 2). Brens, Chemnits, and their Followers U 8). The Formula of Concord (1 4). Later Lutheran Theology (¢ 5).
In Lutheran dogmatics Communicatio Idiomatum (" communication of the attributes or properties ") is a term referring to the relation between the divine and the human nature as united in the one person of Christ. The thought which it expresses aims to establish the connection between the unio peraonalis and the communio nalurarum. Having for its purpose to illustrate the undivided personal life and work of the God‑man on the basis of the twofold nature united in hime. it. standg ill the closest connection with the historical appearance, of Jews, since it undertakes to give the final dogmatic declaration concerning the person of Christ.
The doctrine starts with the assertion that by virtue of the incarnation of the Bon of. God as the second person of the Divine Trinity there.exists an undivided subject of the God‑man by virtue of the initiative of the Logos assuming tile human nature so that both natures, the divine and the human, are indissolubly and perfectly connected with one another. in, personal unity. The dogmatic formu‑

gammanloatio rdiowAtam	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	180
Communion of saints
lotion of the ancient Church limited itself to fixing the fact of the incarnation‑one divine‑human person (Gk. hen prosapon or mia hypostasis) of perfect and like essence with God _. Doctrine according to the divine nature, of per
before fect and like essence with man accord‑
the Ref‑ ing to the human nature, vindicating
	ormation.	the integrity of both natures in the
		union and within the personal unity
and retaining its plainly indissoluble connection
(Chalcedonian Statement of 451). When the
question as to the natures of the God‑man turned
into that concerning the will and volition in the
Monothelitic controversy, it was natural that the
statement of the integrity and absolute connection
already made concerning the natures should also
be extended to the thelftatsa and energeia, as ad
hering to the natures, constituting their essence
(Constantinopolitan Creed of 680‑681; cf. R. See
berg, Dogmengeschichte, i., Ixipsic, 1895, pp. 221
222, 230). John of Damascus tried to define more
clearly the communication of the properties. By
virtue of the " penetration " (Gk. perrichar") of
both natures in the personal unity each commu
nicates to the other of its own, and it may therefore
be said: " the Lord of glory was crucified," and on
the other hand: "this man is unereated " (De
fide orthodoxa, iii. 3‑4). The penetration proceeds
indeed from the deity (iii. 7, end), but after the
divine nature has once penetrated the flesh it
allows also the flesh to penetrate it. The pene
tration is so far mutual; the human, without abro
gating its essence, becomes divine, the human
knowledge of Christ is enriched with all wisdom, the
human will becomes almighty by 'means of the
permeating divine will, the flesh making alive. An
advance in this direction in medieval scholasticism
was the less possible as the notion of God became
more and more opposed to everything changeable,
creature‑like, human, and as the disinclination
grew to revise the foundations on which rests the
doctrine of the communica& idiomatum.
It was with no theological scientific interest, but to help faith, that Luther from the very start emphasized the fact that the Son of God had assumed so much of our flesh and blood that we have now become one flesh with him. To this end he emphasized the truly human being and human development of Christ, without limiting thereby the divine essence of the Logos; every‑
a. Luther. thing that Christ does or suffers he refers back as being done and suffered by God, but without an equal extension to both natures. Starting with the unity of the God‑man, he went so far in the assertion of the union of natures and the communication of the properties that he supposed that the divine nature gives its propertyto the human, and again the humanity also to the divine nature. Influenced especially by the controversy over the Lord's Supper, he gave the human nature of Christ a share in the illocal existence of the Logos, and this since the unity of persons on which this communication rests exists from the moment of the incarnation.
The Wurttemberg theologians, headed by Johann Brenz, took up Luther's conception most decidedly
and carried it to its logical conclusion, viz., that by means of the personal union of both natures in the incarnation the humanity of Christ is also everywhere where the divinity is, so that all communication of the natures and their properties actually existed with this accomplished unity; and that for the subsequent exaltation of Christ there re‑
mained only the emerging and mania. Brenz, festation of what actually existed. Chemnitz, Hereby the truth of the human nature and their and development was the less obFollowers. scured, since they retained not only the statement " God has suffered and died," but also advanced to the assertion that even the divine nature has in its way taken part in the suffering of Christ. " The properties and acts of these natures have their condition, that one communicates its properties or acts to the other, which is called the ' communicatio idiomatum' " (Brenz, De lx'6ello Bullingeri, p: 105). The Lower Saxon theologians, headed by Martin Chemnitz, shrank from this logical carrying out of the unity of person with reference to the communion of the natures and their properties, and endeavored to maintain in spite of the unity of the person the lasting difference of the natures as well as that of the two states of Christ. But this does not mean that an essential difference existed between the Saxon and Swabian doctrine with reference to the suppositions and foundations themselves. For .Chemnitz himself expressly denied that the hypostatic union or the personal indwelling of the entire fulness of the deity in the assumed human nature had become " in the course of years, progressively greater, closer, fuller, and more perfect," and rather asserted this indwelling " from the first moment of the hypostatie union " (De duabus naturis, p. 216), and most decidedly declared against the assumption that God can be placed somewhere without placing there also the humanity assumed by him (p. 203).
The statement of the doctrine of the co‑mmunicatio idiomatum as developed in the Formula of Concord is thus plainly unintelligible in all points, if detached from the immediate interest of faith. Starting therefore with the so‑called propoaitionea psraonales (God is man, man is God) concerning which, according to the statement, no difference existed between the Philippietic and the Swiss theologians, they ped to the statement of the communwatw idwmatum based upon the generally acknowledged personal union of the natures and to be interpreted by it. They asserted first the genus
idiomaticum, that kind of communi4. The cation of properties whereby the Formula common properties are to be ascribed of Concord. to the person of the God‑man with distinction of the natures. For example, the son of God was born according to the human nature, the son of man is almighty according to the divine nature. Here, too, there was agreement with their opponents, but the difference of the meaning which was discerned in the expression results from this, that on the part of the Reformed this communicatio was only considered as a dialeetics prodicatio, not as a realis commvnicatio.
It is evident that in the confession of the Lutheran

181	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Communloatio Idionnatum
		Communion of Saints
	Church the question was not decided, whether and
	in what respect all divine attributes of the divine
	nature were communicated to the human, but that
	the attempt was made merely to point out those
	properties whose communication was immediately
	connected with the reality of the work of redemption
	and the functions of Christ based thereon (Solids
	Declaratio, viii. 55). Concerning the manner of
	the communication they were satisfied to assert
	that it really took place, but without fusion and
	equalization of the natures, after the manner of
	personal union (viii. 63‑64). The immediate in
	terests of faith at the time, according to which the
	statement must be interpreted, were thus satisfied,
	and they were satisfied also by knowing that the
	divine omnipotence, power, majesty, and glory
	showed themselves in, with, and through the
	assumed human nature,"when and how it seemed
	good to Christ," namely where his office " as me
	diator, head, king, and high priest " required it
	(of. viii. 78). And this irrespective of the general
	statement that wherever the person of Christ is
	it is as God and man (viii. 82); for this statement
	also is not meant to be conceived of as an ab
	stract one, but as one of Christian faith, for which
	the God‑man is just this, since otherwise it would
	not consider him as being able to save (of. F. H. R.
	Frank, Die Theologle der Konkordienformel, iii.,
	Erlangen, 1862).
		The Lutheran theology which followed the
	Formula of Concord has contributed little toward
	advancing the doctrine of the communicatio idio
	matum (cf. H. Schmid, Die Dogmatik der evange
	lischen lutherischen Kirche, Gatereloh, 1893, pp.
	226 sqq., 234 sqq.). Wherever in modern theology
	the original position of the Church has been abol
	ished‑which necessarily led to the question per
			taining tothe communimdo idiomatum
		g. Later ‑that the second person of the Trinity,
		Lutheran hypostatically conceived of, in the
		Theology. act of incarnation assumed the human
			nature for a personal, from that time
	lasting and existing union, the question can be no
	more of further advancing that doctrine of the com
	munication of the properties in the old ecclesias
	tical sense. Modern Lutheran theology which par
	ticipates in that old ecclesiastical suggestion has
	abided mostly either by the statement of the con
	fession and the corresponding doctrine of the the
	ology of the seventeenth century, or has endeavored
	to bring about the dogmatically necessary advance
	by revising and recasting more minutely the foun
	dations on which rests the doctrine of the com
	munication of the properties, especially by amu
	ming a self‑limitation, a kenosis of the Logos at the
	incarnation, without, however, a general agreement
	or adoption within the Lutheran Church. See
	CHRISTOLOGY, VIII.	R. SEEBERO.
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: Consult besides the works cited under
		Cesrsror.oo: by Baur, Dorner. Thornsaius, Liebner,
		Kahnis, Frank, Nitsach, Lipsius, Gene, Brans, Dausous,
		Heppe, 8chneakenburger, and Hodge: J. Wigand, De
		communications idiomatum, Basel, 1568; H. E. Jacobs,
		Book of Concord, i. 519, 630. &32‑833, 641, Philadelphia,
		1893; H. $chmid. Doctrinal Theolow o) the Evangelical
		Lutheran Church, Eng. transl., ib. 1889; Neander, Chris
		tian Church, ii. 489, 501‑b02, iii. 159‑162, 183, iii. 340.
COMXUIYION. See LORD'S SUPPER.
COMMUPION OF THE DEAD: In the ancient church the custom existed of putting a piece of the eucharistic bread as viaticum into the mouth of Christians who by sudden death had been prevented from communing. The practise was prohibited by the synods of Hippo (393), third of Carthage (397), Auxerre (578), and the second Trullan (692). Balsamon states that bishops were given the Eucharist after their death, to protect them from demons while on their way to heaven. This idea was at the bottom of the custom. Later, a piece of the consecrated bread, instead of being put in the mouth of the corpse, was simply laid upon the breast, and buried with it. Gregory the Great tells (Dialogi, book ii.) how Benedict of Nursia did this in the case of a young monk who had left his monastery and gone home without permission, lest the earth should refuse to harbor his dead body. The monk Yso relates in the ninth century that when the body of Othmar, abbot of St. Gall, was moved, under his head and upon his breast were found round pieces of bread. Yso was ignorant of the object of the bread‑showing how entirely the early custom had vanished even from memory.
BLBLI0aSAPHY: F. %. Kraus, RaaLEncyklopildie der cAristlichen dldertk4mer, ii. 886, Freiburg, 1886: Binghaw, Oripinee. book xv.; Hefei% Conogienpeachichte, ii. be; H. M. Luokoak, Eucharistic Sacrifce and Intercession for the Departed; London, 1907; DCA, i. 535.
COMMUIPIOR OF SAINTS: A dogmatic term,
found in the Apostles' Creed, though slot in the
doctrinal formulas of the Eastern Church. The
time and motive of its insertion in the ancient
baptismal. symbol and the meaning originally at
tached to it are still matters of controversy among
theologians. The earliest certain evidence for the
inclusion of the words sanctorum communionem in
the creed is furnished by Faustus, bishop of Riez in
the south of France, in the second half of the
fifth century, from whose use it may be inferred
that the clause was received as of unquestioned
		antiquity in the wide region repre
	Early Tes‑ Rented by Faustus, andethat he knew
	timoniea to no form of the creed without it. He
	the understands it specifically in the
	Formula. catholic sense of the word " saint,"
		already pretty definitely established
in his time, and refers it to the saints in their state
of perfection in the other world. Not much later
are the pseudo‑Augustinian sermons cexh. and ecxlii.,
which quote the words as part of the creed, and
interpret them as meaning communion " with the
saints who have died in the faith which we have
received." A still older, though not so well
authenticated witness is that of the Explanatio
symboli, composed, according to Gennadius, by
Bishop Nicetas‑‑probably not Nicetas of Aquileia,
but one who lived at Remesiana in Dalmatia as a
missionary bishop about 400, and was a friend of
Paulinns of Nola. His words have evident ref
erence to the baptismal formula, and are important
as showing a wider reception of the clause than
could have been argued from Faustus alone.
Here it seems to adopt the same interpretation as
that borne by the words of Faustus. This amounts

Communionmmunismof ate	THE NEW	T‑HERZOG	180
to saying that in the earlier period at which we know of the clause the only meaning assigned to it is a different one from that which it bears in modern Protestant theology‑though this is not to say that it was introduced for the purpose of sanctioning the cultus of the saints and defend‑
	Naaniag.	ing it against attack.. The question
		is whether this meaning was borne
by it at the time of its origin, which must have
preceded the date already mentioned by a suffi
cient interval to allow it to attain the wide reo
ognition already seen. The words were certainly not
used, before they became part of the creed, with
reference only to the perfected saints in heaven,
but rather to the fellowship here below of those who
are sanctified in Christ, just as the Church on earth
is called holy. The controversy between Augustine
and the Donatfsts turned on the question whether
the existence of the ecclesia sancta depended on the
expulsion of all those whose character gave them
no right to belong to it. And so Nicetas calls the
existing Church, whose members are only later to
attain the fulness of the communio sanctorum, a
eoWegatio sanctorum. It is at least a plausible
theory that the clause was originally put into the
creed to express in the widest sense the fellowship
of all the saints, existing already here and to be
perfected hereafter; and that the narrower inter
pretation came in under the influence of the in
aeasing cultus of those whom we now call the saints.
This view would bring the clause into connection
with the Donatist controversy; while the sectaries
boasted of their " communion of saints," the catho
lie Church desired solemnly to testify to its belief
in that same blessing, and its confidence of possess
ing it. But the theory is weakened by the fact
that the North African Church recited the creed
without this clause. The theory that communes
saneforum is a rendering of the Greek koanania tan
hagian, " holy things " in the neuter sense, as in
the vensicle of the liturgy to hagia tois hagioie, may
be dismissed.
I. Theory, History and Ctiuaum.
The Communist Theory (/ 1).
History (1 2).
Historical Examples (6 3).
Criticism (i d).
II. Communism in Ameries.
Type and Character of American Communism (S 1).
1. The Adonai Shomo.
8. The Altruist Community.
	L Theory, History, and Criticism: The words
communism and socialism are often used synon
ymously; but this usage leads to confusion. As
the opposite of individualism, socialism is merely
the general view that, in the organization of soci
ety, the welfare of the whole shall take prece
		dance of the rights of individuals. It
	1. The is not something absolute, but ad
Oommnniatmits of degrees, according to the ex
	Th‑rY. tent to which it recognizes individual
		ism. Communism, or collectivism, on
the other hand, is a definite system. It is a theory
an to the distribution of property in the interest
It is worth remarking that the Roman Catholic Church, strongly as it presses the veneration of the saints in the narrower sense, has never confined itself to this meaning in its interpretation of the clause, but is rather inclined (as in the Catechiamua Romanvs) to expound it as an expansion or complement of the preceding " Holy Catholic Church." To this communion belong the members of the Church on earth (the Church militant), those in purgatory (the Church patient), and Roman the saints in heaven (the Church Tri‑
Catholic In‑ umphant). The communion is em
terpre#aUon. phssized by the prayers which the
	last‑named offer for their brethren on
earth and in purgatory, sad by the doctrine of the
treasure of the merits both of Christ and the saints
which are available for the Church on earth. In a
somewhat similar manner Luther explains the clause
under discussion se an alternative expression for
" Holy Catholic Church," translating it rather se
" the fellowship of the saints "; he understands,
however, different terms far the sharing of the
blessings, and knows nothing of saints is the narrow
sense. The older Lutheran theologians followed
this view; and the Calvinist confessions do not
differ widely from it, explaining that those who are
sanctified in Christ's fellowship are bound to a
mutual sharing of all the benefits they receive
from God. 		(J. Kassxinit.)
BmraoqaArat: H. B: Wilson, The Communion of Basab, Oxford, 1861; W. Redo, Tte Communion of Saints, London, 1893. Discussions will generally be found in leer trees on the creeds, such as: C. P. Csspari, QwiTen our (Jaedliehte dee Tautsymboie, Leipsi0. i886‑75; H. Cremes, Zeus Rmnpj urn das Apadolicwn, Berlin, 1893; T. Zvm, Des apwtoliache &y‑bol, NmaLnberg, 1893; O. ZSot>ar, Zuan Apostoiikumebeit, Munich, 1893; F. Hrttenbusoh, Das apoefotiedae Symbol, Leipei0. 1891‑1900: A. Hahn, 8ymbold and Olaubsaeropdn der alien Rirehe, Bresfan, M7; A. Harnaak, Tlb Ate' Creed. London, 1901; A. C. MaGitfert, Apostles Creed, New York. 1902; RA Y. 1621‑22.
COl®IQMOR OF THE SICK. See Loan's SOPrsa, V., 12.
C01CMUNISII.
a. The Amen. eooietY.
4. The Church Triumphant. Soreehanity.
& The Ephrata Community.
John Conrad Beieeel. The Buildines (f 1).
OeBsnisationandDooainas(f 2).
Growth and Decline (; 3).
8. The Harmony Society.
7. Iaaris and New Iosris.
The Perfectionists or Oneida Cue.
munitY.
9. The Separatists.
10. The Shakers or the Millennial
Church.
Origin and Early History (¢ 1).
Doctrines Q 2).
Organisation and Government (!i 3).
Religious Services. Present States
<5 a).
of humanity and morality, and forms a definite social and economic system. It demands the abolishment of private property and the ownership of all industries and utilities by the State. Property is divided into two classes: one of things intended for consumption‑food, clothing, and the like; the other of things serving for productions‑land, machines, factories, etc. According to communism, the interests of society sic best served when all productive property belongs to the community. The individual then is an employee of the State, and hse a right only to those commodities that are apportioned out to him from the common

lea
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
0
storehouse in remuneration for his contribution to the common work. The communist maintains that many of the existing economic evils would be removed by such a system. Production, he believes, would regulate itself automatically; there would be no more crises caused by overproduction; and there would be no more strikes. Besides, by concentrating the industries the work‑day would be shortened, thereby allowing more time for intellectual enjoyments. Poverty would disappear, and also the kindred evil, wealth. The source of all evil passions and crime, private property, would be removed. Jealousy, selfishness, egoism would be meaningless. The whole social and economic world would be unified; there would be only one government, and that by the people. The whole of humanity would form one happy family. Since the basis of this system is the equal enjoyment of this world's goods, it is evident that the kind of communism here described is thoroughly materialistic. It is to be distinguished from ascetic communism, in which it is contempt for things earthly that leads to renunciation of private property.
History shows that the higher the civilization of a country the more highly developed have been
` the forma of private property. Among 9. History. Slavic peoples the land surrounding the village is still held in common. The Germanic peoples early divided the arable land; but in modern Germany forests have remained common property to a great extent, and likewise pasture‑land till near the end of the nineteenth century. Communism as a theoretical system first appeared among the Greeks, the most famous example being furnished by Plato's " Republic." Aristotle recognised its impracticability, but believed that the use of private propeaty ought to be regulated by law in the interest of this public. Similar reactions against the division of society into rich and poor are found in the Orient, where disdain of riches leads to renunciation of property; the Buddhist monks are particularly noteworthy. Christianity pointed a new way. True, Christ taught that earthly treasures are unimportant compared with things eternal (Matt. xvi. 28); but for this very reason both poverty and riches are of like import to the Christian. Both were considered only from the standpoint of the moral dangers they bring with them. 8o far from commanding renunciation of earthly goods, Paul declared work and remunerative work fundamental for every Christian (Eph. iv. 28; II These. iii. lo); and Jesus emphasized the duty of faithfulness where private possessions are concerned (Luke xvi. 11). The New Testament teaches complete self‑denial, but not communism; and to conceive of the first congregation in Jerusalem as communistic is to mi, understand both the passage describing it (Acts ii.v.) and Christianity (cf. O. Holtzmann, in ZKG, xiv., 1893,. p. 327; Nathusius, Mitarbeit, p. 402; W. Rowher, Grundlven der ~aciarrat~konomie, Stuttgart, 1892, p. 199). The later communistic interpretation of Christianity was due to two causes: the taking up into Christian thought of the heathen contempt for matter as such, and the substitution of the Law for the Gospel. In its Chria‑
tian garb communism has been based upon aeceti eism, or upon greed disguised as asceticism, as with the Circumeelliones (q.v.) of the Donatist controversy (see DOxATIBM). The idea that communism is ethically a higher form of possession than individualism was common in the Church throughout the Middle Ages. This made it easy for the Church to move the people to surrender their property.
[Strong communistic iandencies appeared among the medieval Waldenses, Apostolic Brethren, Begbards, and Lollarda. But the moat important medieval communistic experiment was that of the
Taborites (q.v.), the radical Bohemian 8. Histor‑ party in the Hussite wars. Among
teal Em‑ the articles set forth by them in 1420
ales. were the following: " In these days
			there shall be no king, ruler, or sub
	ject on the earth, and all imposts and taxes shall
cease; no one shall force another to do anything, for
	all shall be equal brethren and sisters. As in the
town of Tabor there is no mine or thine, but all is
	held in common, so shall everything be common to
	all, and no one own anything for himself alone.
	Whoever does so commits a deadly sin." All were
	required to deposit their possessions in a common
	treasury. Later each carried on his own industry,
	but brought all the surplus product for common use.
	The more radical of the Tabontes insisted upon
	community even in wives (see ADAMrr=, 3;
	and Nicorarraxa). At first the Bohemian Bmttr
	ran (q v.) required all who would enter their
	fellowship to renounce property and rank, and
	schism occurred (1481) when the dominant ele
	ments decided to relax the conditions of member
	ship in the body, in favor of nobles and gentry.
	In the early Reformation time Thomas Miinzer
	(q.v.), influenced by Nicholas Storch (see ZwIOBAU
	PRO	), made a determined and enthusiastic
	effort to overthrow the existing order with its in
	justice and opon, and to establish a kingdom
	of Christ on earth, conceived of as communistic
	or semiaommunistic. The revolutionary peasants
	(see Pnesexze' Was) did not demand absolute
	community of goods; but the forts for timber,
	fuel, and game, the streams for fish, exemption
	from oppressive taxes, rents, and imposts; and a
	free enjoyment of the products of labor by the
	laborer were earnestly insisted upon. All of the
	Anabaptists recognized the obligation of contribu
	tingfreely of their means for the supplying of the
	needs of brethren, and many of them taught and
	practised a thoroughgoing communism. This is
	true especially of the Moravian Anabaptists, who
	established larger households, in which thousands
	lived in a communistic way under a general super
	intendent. (Consult on medieval and sixteenth
	Mntury communism: 8. Hautsky, Communism i»
	CMtrd Europe in tM Time of the Refomateon,
	London, 1897, and J. Loserth, Der Commwriamua
	der MN4rsac)un WWOMufer, Vienna, 1894.)

In the aiateenth con 	A. H. N.).
fury the propaganda fez communism &named the form of fiction., The most important work of this character was the Utopia (1518) of Sir Thomas More (q.v.). Communiam in its present form may be acid to bow

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	184
begun in the party of the Mountain in the French Revolution, when Marat maintained that equality of rights leads to equality in. enjoyment. Thus communism was robbed of its religious guise and placed upon its present materialistic basis. However, the real father of modern communism was Saint‑Simon (q.v.). His ideas were taken up by Fourier (d. 1837); Enfantin (d. 1864), who advocated community of women; and others, including Cabet (d. 1856), who founded communistic colonies in America (see below, IL, 6). Later Karl Marx (d. 1883) attempted to reduce the more or less obscure and idealistic thoughts of Saint‑Simon to a cold logical system by deducing common ownership from the nature of property. The position of the radical social party in Germany to‑day is founded upon the theories of Marx. A product of the latter‑day communistic thought was Edward Bellamy's ,Looking Backward (1888). The philanthropic aims of the later communism have attracted certain of the clergy, as they did earlier the contemporary of Saint‑Simon, Robert Owen (q.v.); but the result is a new mixture of the ideas of Christian asceticism, based on a misunderstanding of the Gospel, with the materialistic desires of the multitude. A like tendency, with the same confusion of thought and result, appears in the Roman Catholic Church in Lamennais (q.v.) and other Frenchmen. The theories of Henry George (d. 1896) differ from communism in essential points and are only allied to the latter.
Like many other things, communism is beautiful in theory; but it does not work in practise. The
successful control by the government 4. criticism. of isolated utilities forms no argument
~pr the common ownership of everything. Granting that the entire industrial world could be organized under a single management, on what principle would the fruits of the common work be divided among the individual members of society? According to the needs of the individual, or the amount of his production? according to the number of hours employed, or according to the quality of his work, physical or intellectual? Such practical considerations show that thoroughgoing communism is only a theory. We are neither machines nor slaves; yet such a system would, in effect, condemn the whole of humanity to penal servitude. There would be no‑ longer any individual endeavor, for all articles of use, whether pig iron, potted ham, or poetry, would be forthcoming at the command of some general committee. Even a philosopher would be prohibited from spending his leisure hours in pleasant meditation; for in a communistic society all philosophical problems would have been solved, and further speculation must be considered dangerous to the existing social organization. Such an offense would constitute a sort of less‑majesty. Arguments for communism are superficial and can be met by a simple appeal to the nature of man as a full moral agent. Communism based upon an equal enjoyment of this world's goods is unchristian and is not supported by revelation. God makes men to differ from one another, and this fact is recognised in the Bible. The institution of private I
property is supported by every passage in the Bible where property is mentioned; and, in fact, it is a postulate of Christian ethics. Is it not through accumulating that the Christian is to make himself a useful member of society ?
(M. voN NeTsusrvst.)
II. Communism is America: [Almost from its discovery America seemed marked out as the home of communistic experiments. The Jamestown charter (1606) included a provision
	Type and	for a common storehouse, and the
	Character	Pilgrims for a time maintained some
	of Ameri‑	features o€ communism. More direct
	can Com‑	and systematic attempts to embody
	monism.	the idea in practise were the Labadiet
		community in Maryland (1680; see
LABADIE, JEAN DE, LASnnrems) and the community
of the " Woman in the Wilderness " in Pennsyl
vania (1694). It is significant of the hopes which
were entertained concerning America that such
communistic bodies as the Shakers, Harmonists,
Separatists, Amana.Society, and Icarians (see be
low) were growths transplanted from other lands.
The teachings of Owenism, Fourierism, and Cabet
iem were tested here, as well as in later times those
of Marx and his school. In many of these the re
ligious principle was central. Other efforts disre
garded the religious basis and were either purely
social or a mingling of the social and economic.
Some of those which started as religious move
ments became purely economic. Of early founda
tions only the Oneida Community, the Amana So
ciety, and the Shakers are now in existence. Where
the basis was the thought of a single mind empha
sizing personal idiosyncrasy, and where the essay
was made in ignorance of vital and economic laws
success could be only temporary. ]Division and
dissension soon wrought the ruin of the experiment.
Some of these essays at a communal life left their
impress upon both life and literature. Such a one
was Brook Farm, which figures in the works of
Hawthorns, Alcott, and the New England writers
of their time. The tendency of the last two dec
ades has been away from a strictly communistic
and toward a cooperative type of society. The
life of these experiments is not yet sufficiently ex
tended to afford basis for judgment as to the per
manence they will attain. The more important
of them are the following.]
1. The Adonai Shomo (" the Lord is there "): A religious society holding the doctrines of the Second Advent, which existed in Massachusetts 1861‑96. Its founder, Frederick I. Howland, a Quaker of New Bedford, was converted to the Second Advent doctrine under the preaching of William Miller (q.v.) in 1843. Believing that he had received the gift of inspiration in 1855, he formed an association in 1861 with other like‑minded persons, who settled in Athol and afterward in Petereham, Mass. The fundamental principles. of the society as given by one of its presidentswere: "The Jesus, the Mystery of Christ, and belief in times of restitution of all things, of which God hath spoken by the mouth of all his holy prophets since the world began; and that the elect, by grace through said faith, will attain to the Melchisidekpriesthood,which

lea	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Communism
is after the power of an endless life." Allpossessions were held in common; the seventh day was observed as the Sabbath, and the Lord's Prayer was presented as the offering of the morning and evening sacrifice. Howland held also that the true followers of Christ had already begun the eternal life. The Adonai Shomo never had more than twentyfive or thirty members. It possessed 840 acres of laud and a dwelling. It was chartered in 1876. In 1896, only one of its members surviving, the charter was annulled by the State Supreme Court; and in the following year the property was sold.
W. H. LARHAHEE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. F. Hager, in American Socialist, 1877; W. A. Hinds, American Communities. pp. 403‑407, Chi‑
cago, 1908.
8. The Altruist Community: A society occupying a small estate at Sulphur Springs, on the MisBissippi River, 23 m. s. by w. of St. Louis, Mo. It was founded by Alcander Longley, who had been a member of the North American Phalanx (one of the most successful of the American communities based upon Fourieristic principles) and of the Iearia Community (see below, 7) and also a member and director in several cooperative stores and colonies. It allows equal rights and privileges to all its members, both men and women, in all the business affairs; and it makes no interference with the marriage or family affairs of its members, or with their religious, political, or other opinions. It carries on a poultry and gardening business. It has few members, but additional ones will be received as fast as they can be profitably employed. The society has also headquarters at St. Louis, with a printing establishment where its monthly journal, books, and tracts are published.
W. H. LARRABEE.
BIBwooaAPHr: W. A. Hinds, American Communities, pp. 486, 487, Chicago, 1908; The Altruist, St. Louis (a monthly);
A. Longley, What is Communiamt St. Louie.
8. The Amam& Society: Located at Amana, Iowa. The origins of the society go back to the revived communities of the "inspired" in Germany in the first quarter of the eighteenth century (see INapnmD, THE). The annoyances which the members of these revivified congregations suffered at home because they separated from the State Church, refused to send their children to the public schools, declined to bear arms, serve in war, take oaths, and the like, led to their emigration to America. Under the lead of Christian Metz, Barbara Heinemann (see INBPMED, THE), Councilor G. A. Weber of Lich, and a manufacturer of Ronneburg named Mbrachel, they bought a tract of land near Buffalo, N. Y., where they built six villages, besides two in Canada. About 800 persons came during the years 1843‑46. They gave their settlement the name Ebenezer, and engaged in agriculture and cloth manufacture. In 1854 a tract was bought on the Iowa River, on which seven villages were laid out, and the colony removed thither during the ensuing ten years. The community was incorporated m 1859 as the Amana Society, under a constitution providing that all property should be held in common, that agriculture, manufacturing, and trade should furnish the means of sustenance,
and that the surplus should be applied to communal improvements and educational and benevolent purposes. Metz was the head till his death in 1867, when he was succeeded by Barbara Heinemann (who had married Georg Landmann). Since her death (1884) no member has received the gift of prophecy.
The fundamental doctrine of the Amana Society is that " God can now as well as of old inspire men to declare his word and will, and thus act as messengers of divine teaching to the world." This gift is not continuous, but is supposed to fall upon special persons. The utterances of all the society's prophets have been recorded and are read at the meetings along with the Scriptures. The doctrines of the Trinity, justification by faith, the resurrection of the dead, and the final judgment are inculcated in the catechism. The Lord's Supper is celebrated whenever inspired direction is given to do so, and then with peculiar observances; baptism is not practised.
The basis of the communistic system is wholly religious. Persons joining the society surrender all their property and all claim to wages, and are promised in return board and dwelling, support in old age, sickness, and infirmity, and an annual allowance for clothing and other expenses. If they withdraw, they receive back what they originally contributed to the common fund. Marriage is permitted; but those who marry lose their standing for a time. Membership is of three orders, of which the first includes the youth and probationers. A thorough inquisitorial examination of the spiritual condition of the whole community is held every year. The temporal government of the society is vested in a board of thirteen trustees, who are chosen annually by the male members. A suit brought for the dissolution of the Amana Corporation on the ground of its carrying on a secular business was decided by the District Court in Iowa in 1905 in favor of the society. The society reports (1906) a membership of 1,770, and property aggregating in value $1,750,000.
W. H. LARRABEE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The society has issued A Brie/ History of
the Amana Society (Amana, Ia., 1900). Consult W. A. Hinds, American Communities, pp. 301‑326, Chicago, 1908; C. Nordhoff, Communistic Societies of as United States, New York, 1875; A. Shaw, Life in as Amana Colony, in The Chautauquan, viii (1888), pp. 300 eqq.; K. Knortz, Die wahre Inapiratio»spemeinde in Iowa, Leipeie, 1896; R. Ely, Amana; A Study of Religious Communism, in Harper's Magazine, or (1902), pp. 659 sqq. See the bibliography of IxePIszn. THB.
4. The Church Triumphant, 8oreshanity: A religious society at Estero, Lee County, Fla., whither its headquarters were removed from Chicago in 1903. It was founded in Chicago in 1886 by Dr. Cyrus R. Teed, who claimed to have experienced a spiritual illumination in 1870, with a revelation of the system which he denominated Koreshanity (from Koresh, the Hebrew equivalent of his own name, Cyrus), while a practising physician of Utica, N. Y. The system is based on the Koreal:an cosmogony, which holds that the universe is a hollow sphere, whose physical body is the earth, and that men live in the inside of the cell. The sun, moon, planets, and stars

Communism	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	188
are all within the globe. The earth is supposed to
be eternal, a great battery continually renewing
itself. Alchemy, rather than chemistry, is held to
be true, matter and spirit to be interchangeable
and interdependent. God is a personal being, in
vested with a trinity of specific attributes; Jesus
Christ was God Almighty, and the Holy Spirit was
the product of his transmutation or of the burning of
his body. The coming of the Messiah isthe fruition
of an evolution through a succession of reincarna
tions. The divine seed was sown 1,800 years ago,
and the first fruit is another Messianic personality,
who is affirmed to be now in the world, declaim
ing his scientific gospel. Reincarnation is the
central law of life and identical with resurrection,
which is reached through a succession of reem
bodiments. The origin and destiny of man are
found in God. The standard of Koreshan purity
is the virgin life of Jesus. The Bible is accepted
as the best written expression of the divine mind,
and its truth is demonstrated . by Koreshanity.
The Koreshan government has as its principal di
visions the Church Triumphant, the College of
Life, and the Society Arch‑Triumphant. There
are also three general orders: the investigative
court, the marital order, and the communistic and
celibate order, the last being the highest and most
central of the three. The following of Koreshanity
is estimated at about 5,000, and the property at
$250,000. The town of Estero includes an area
of 110 square miles. 	W. H. LA$$AmEE.
BrHLaoaaAPHl: The literature of the society comprises: C. R. Teed's %oreah. The Immortal Manhood; L. Page Borden, The Logo# or Word Book; C. R. Teed and U. (l. Morrow, The Cellular Coenodopd, a amen of pamphlets explaining the principles of the society, all published at Estero, and The Flaming Sword, the periodical of the community. Consult also W. A. Hinds, American Connunitiee, pp. 471‑488, Chicago, 1908.
6. The Ephrata Community: A society founded in Lancaster County, Pa., in 1732 by John Conrad Beissel (b. at Eberbach, 12 m. e. of Heidelberg, Germany, 1690; d. at Ephrata July 6, 1768). He is said to have been converted in 1715, to have come under Pietistic influence,
1. John and	y to have been affected
Conrad b the ideas of Gottfried Arnold el'
The (q v.). In 1720 he emigrated to Buildincs. America, intending to join the community of the " Woman in the Wildernes," on the banks of the Wissahickon; but finding that society no longer in existence, he joined the Dunkers (q.v.) in 1724. Later he became convinced of the duty of celebrating the seventh day as Sabbath and published Das Budrlein vom Sabbath (Philadelphia, 1728). He then withdrew from the Dunkers and adopted a solitary life in a cabin on the Cocalico Creek, where he was joined by three men and two women. About this nucleus a community was formed, composed mainly of Dunkers, and in 1733 a conventual mode of life was formally adopted; buildings for the accommodation of the members were erected, of which those constructed in 1746‑47 are still standing (near the borough limits of the present town of Ephrata, 19 m. s.w. of Reading). They were made entirely of wood, and the use of iron
was long avoided in the entire life of the community. The sister house shows the method of construction, being divided into some fifty cells, each about six feet long by five wide, containing a window eighteen inches by fourteen and a door sixty inches by twenty, while under the window was a bench about eighteen inches wide upon which the occupant slept with a block for a pillow. The halls were so narrow that they permitted the passage of only one person at a time. The walls of the Baal, another early building, are still hung with charts, illustrated texts, and drawings made by the inmates in the early days, all done with the quill pen; and in the library. are preserved manuscript hymn‑ and tune‑books done not later than 1750.
The community was organized upon a basis of voluntary celibacy, those who were married living apart. In the neighborhood gradually gathered a number of persons who accepted the
2. Organ‑ religious principles of the community isation and except those of celibacy and oommu‑
	Dootrines.	nism. Within the community the
		members assumed monastic names,
and the founder was 4mown as Friedsam and Gott
recht. A small tract of land was acquired, all the
work on which was done by the members. In
1740 the holding of property by individual mem
bers was declared sinful, and all who joined the
community were required to surrender all they
had to the common fund; in 1786 this regulation
was abolished. The religious mysticism which
underlay the society assumed that true Christian
ity could be attained only by overcoming the bonds
of the flesh, and true wisdom was to be sought by
union with the celestial Sophia. Man originally
combined in one perfect being the male and the
female elements, which condition, lost at the Fall,
is to be regained in the body of Christ. To the
attainment of perfect happiness there is necessary
right living, purity of life, renunciation of self and
of human love and marriage, meditation, and
praise of Christ, all of which lead to the mental
state where the celestial male and female elements
shall be united. The New Testament was ac
cepted as the bond of faith, trine baptism was
practised with the laying on of hands while the
candidate knelt in the water, the Lord's Supper
was celebrated on the evening of the Sabbath to
gether with washing of feet, and love‑feasts and
night services were held as occasion demanded.
The community was opposed to the taking of oaths
and to bearing arms, though the buildings were
opened as a refuge after fights on the frontier, and
after the battle of Brandywine the place served as
a hospital with the members of the community as
nurses. Compensation from the British govern
ment and from the State of Pennsylvania for these
services was refused on the ground that it would
be a temptation to worldliness.
By 1740 thirty‑six men and thirty‑five women had united with the society. Its largest membership is given as 300. While the society regarded agriculture as its principal business, it possessed the second printing‑press set up in the State, had a paper mill, and . also saw mills, grist miUs, and other like enterprises. It furnished the

187
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
paper, and is believed to have printed and bound a part of the edition of Christopher Sower's Bible,
published at Germantown, 1743 (see s. Grmrth SOWER, CHalssTors>n;). The school
and maintained by the brethren enjoyed a Decline. high reputation, and drew students from Philadelphia and Baltimore. The community was celebrated also as a musical center, and the founder was a prolific writer of hymns and music. His G6Wwlee Liebe and Lobeagetdne, printed by Benjamin Franklin in 1730, are believed to be the earliest books of German poetry printed as native productions in America.
	After the death of Beiesel in 1788 the society de
clined; and in 1814 the remaining members be
came incorporated as the Seventh‑day Baptists,
German, receiving authority to hold the land and
buildings in trust for religious and educational pur
poses. Their principles and practises are substan
tially those of the Ephrata Community, with the
elimination of the communistic and celibate prin
ciples. They have congregations in the counties
of Bedford, Franklin, Lancaster, and Somerset,
Pennsylvania, a bishop emeritus, six active and
two retired ministers, and about 250 members.
They possess an estate of 110 acres, and the total
value of all property is about $100,000. The num
bers are not increasing, and in 1907 one of the
churches united with the Seventh‑day Baptist Gen
eral Conference. 	W. H. LAaxssaa.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Chronicon Rphraknrsr a Hid. of the Com‑
munity of Seventh Day Baptists at Ephrata, finished in
1788, Crenelated by J. M. Hark, Lancaster, Pa, 1889
(carries the reader to the death of the founder); C. Nord
hoff, Communistic Societies, pp. 133‑131, New York, 1875;
O. $eidensticker, in The Century Mapasine, vol. i., no. 1,
1881; $. G. Fisher, The Making of Pennsylvania, Phile
delphis, 1898; J. F. 13aehee, The German Sedorian, of
Pennsylvania. Critical and Legendary Hiss of Ore Ephrata
Cloister and the Dunker#, Philadelphia, 1909; W. A. Hinds.
American Comrrsunibise, pp 18‑24, Chicago, 1908; A
H. Lewis, in The Sabbath Recorder, Puinfield, N. J., May and June, 1906.
8. The Harmony Society: Founded in Pennsylvania and Indiana by Georg Rapp (q.v.), who came to America with a number of followers from Wtirttemberg in 1803. Five thousand acres of land were bought in Butler County, Pa., as a site for a settlement, to which the name Harmony was given. Other follower's of Rapp came the next year and the organization, of the community was completed in 1805. The members placed their property in a common fund, covenanted to labor for the good of the community, and promised to make no demand, in case of withdrawal from the society, for compensation for their labor or that of their children. In 1807 they gave up marriage; in 1818 they renounced the right of receiving back their original contributions in case of withdrawal, and the records of these contributions were burned.
The site of the colony proving unsuitable in some respects, 30,000 acres of land were bought in PO‑‑Y County, Ind., in 1814 and a new settlement was founded. Agricultural and manufactur ing enterprises were undertaken on a liberal scale, and a considerable trade was bufit up. But unpleasant conditions developed, and the property was sold in 1824 to Robert Owen (q.v.), who es‑
tabli®hed another community upon it. Rapp and his associates returned to Pennsylvania, and settled at Economy, on the Ohio River (17 m. n.w. of Pittsburg), which remained the home of the community during the rest of its existence. In 1832 the society suffered severe loss by the withdrawal of 250 members following a disaffected leader, whose claims it was deemed expedient to satisfy by the payment of upward of $100,000.
While they were without any religious organization separate from their community and had no written creed except the Bible, the Harmonists made the salvation of their souls their supreme object. They believed that Adam was created in the likeness of God, androgynous; that he became discontented when God separated the female part from him, and this was the fall of man; that the celibate state is the more pleasing to God; that in the renewed world man will be restored to the dual Godlike and Adamie condition; that Jesus was born in the likeness of the Father, a dual being, and taught and commanded a community of goods. A cardinal point of their doctrine was that the coming of Christ and the regeneration of the world were near at hand; and one of their aims was to be in readiness for the event. All who sought admission to the society were required to make a complete confession of sins to one of the elders.
The society declined rapidly during the later years of the nineteenth century. In 1890 the j United States Census gave the number of members as 250; in 1900 there were nine. After a period of financial strain, of lawsuits brought by seceding members, which were decided in the society's favor j in the Supreme Court of the United States, their property was sold in Apr., 1903.
W. H. LABRABEIo.
	Bnlwoa81PBr: W. A. Hinds, American Communities pp'
		69‑98, Chicago, 1908; A. Willisms, The Harmony Soci
j sty at Rcononsy, Pd., Pittsburg, 1866; C. Nordhoff, Con,
saunis&c Societies, ew York, 1878; G. B. Lockwood,
Nero Hammy C‑ursidees, Marion. Id., 1902; W. G.
Davie, The Passing of the Rappisu, in Guntons Magasine,
uv (1903), 20 eqq.; J. A. Bole, The Harmony Society,
Philadelphia. 1904; F. Podmore, Robert Owen; a Bi‑
ography, 2 vole., New York, 1907.
7. Itoaria and New Icaria: A society formed in 1848 by French immigrants who settled in Texas under the leadership of Nienne Cabet, a French revolutionary agitator connected with the society of the Carbonari, author of several historical and socialistic works, and a member of the French Assembly of 1831. His radical utterance against the French king and ministry led to his expulsion from France, but, in 1840, he returned and gained many thousand adherents to his socialistic theories through his fanciful descriptions in Le Voyage err Icarie (Paris, 1842) of an ideal society in which all class distinctions were abolished and equality prevailed, and through their promulgation in the journal Le Populaire. In 1848 he purchased land in Texas for the purposes of a colony. The country being wild and practically inaccessible, it proved unfit for the purpose. Homes were procured for the baffled and disappointed immigrants, several hundred in number, who had suffered great hardships

Oommunism	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	188
in fruitless efforts to establish themselves on this site, in Nauvoo, Ill., then recently abandoned by the Mormons (q.v.). The society was afflicted with dissensions that resulted in several accessions and the founding of new colonies, which had only short lives.
The community at Nauvoo removed to Iowa in 1860, and was again involved in a controversy in which legal measures were employed. By a settlement in 1879, one of the parties remained on the site and retained the name, Icaria; while the other formed a new settlement, named New Icaria, on the Nodaway River. The older colony lived only a short time; while the community of New Icaria existed till 1895, when it was dissolved by the unanimous vote of the twenty‑three remaining members.
The Icarian Community was organized without any religious basis. Complete tolerance was given to individual opinion in matters of religion so long as its expression did not provoke dissension. The society was a pure democracy, in which a complete community of goods was contemplated. Direction was vested in a general assembly of all the members, whose decisions were carried into effect through officers elected annually. Transgressions of the principles, laws, and regulations of the community were punished by public censure, deprivation of civil rights, or exclusion of the transgressor, according to the gravity of the offense.
W. H. LARJIABEE.
BtamoaSAPBT: W. A. Hinds, American Communities, pp.
361‑396, Chicago, 1908; C. Nordhoff, Communistic Societies, New York, 1875; A. Shaw, Icaria. A Chapter in the Hut. of Communism, ib. 1884; J. Prudhommeaux, Icarie et son iondateur ftienne Cabot, Paris, 1907 (a large volume of more than 700 pages).
8. 'The Perfectionists or Oneida Community: Founded in 1845 by John Humphrey Noyes (b. at Brattleboro; Vt., Sept. 6, 1811; d. at Niagara Falls, Canada, Apr. 13, 1886). He was graduated at Dartmouth College in 1830, studied theology at Andover and Yale, and was licensed as a Congregationalist minister about 1833. Avowing a belief that the second coming of Christ had occurred within a generation and professing the doctrine of Perfectionism (q.v.), he withdrew from the ministry an‑1 retired to his home in Putney, Vt. There he established a Bible class, which grew into an association of Perfectionists and was organized in 1845 into the Putney Corporation. Adverse public opinion gradually developed especially against its views respecting marriage. In Nov., 1847, Noyes and other members withdrew and with new recruits settled in Central New York, where, in Sept., 1848, a new community was formed, " for the establishment of the kingdom on the principles of heavenly association," of which the renunciation of any claim to private property was one. The remainder of the Putney community joined them in June, 1849. Besides the main ;;ommunity at Oneida, N. Y., six branch societies were maintained for a time, but all these were eventually given up except one at Wallingford, Conn. Agricultural and small manufacturing industries were carried on, and the products of the community acquired a wide reputation for excellence.
The Perfectionists had a peculiar theory of the sexual relations which they called complex marriage, and the marriage contract was regarded as an affair of the community. Couples were united temporarily according to their preferences under the supervision of the society, but a permanent exclusive attachment of one person to another was regarded as wrong. Children who had reached an age to bear separation from the mother were put into the children's house to be cared for by nurses during the day and returned to their mothers at night; later they were passed to a second department, and the mother resumed her place in the household. A unique feature of the society was a system of mutual criticism to which all were subject, .and in which all might take part. This constituted the principal means of discipline and government.
The pressure of public opinion against the doctrines and practises of the Oneida Community became so strong that the community yielded and gave up the system of complex marriage in 1880. Finally, Jan. 1, 1881, the community organization was dissolved and the society was converted into a joint stock company. The Oneida Community was exceptionally well managed and enjoyed a prosperity and harmony seldom found in such enterprises. At the time of dissolution there were 306 members at Oneida and Wallingford and the new company started with a paid up capital of $600,000. The present capital stock is $1,200,000 held by about 250 stockholders, of whom not far from 120 are connected with the factories or offices of the company. Employment is given to some 800 people in addition to the resident stockholders. W. H. LARRABEE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: For history consult W. A. Hinds, American Communities, pp. 181‑231, Chicago, 1908; C. Nordhoff, Communistic Societies, New York, 1875; J. H. Noyes, Hint. of American Socialiems, Philadelphia. 1870; A. Eetlake, The Oneida Community, London, 1900; H. Dixon, New America, London, 1867 (a criticism to which Mr. Noyes replied in Dixon and his Copyists, Oneida, 1871); J. H. Noyes, Handbook of the Oneida Community, Oneida, 1871. The doctrines of the community appear in the writings of Noyee‑The Perfectionist, Putney, Vt., 18431846; The Bersan, ib. 1847; Religious Experiences, 1850; On Scientific Propagation, 1873. From 1854 to 1874 the organ of the community was The Circular.
9. The Separatists: A society of German origin, which settled in Zoar, Tuscarawas County, O., 1817‑19. The movement gathered first in Wiirttemberg around Barbara Grubermann, a Swiss refugee to Germany, whom those who separated from the German State Church (whence the name) accepted as their leader. On her death Joseph Baumeler (Bimeler; d. 1853) became the head of the movement, and, securing the aid of some English Quakers in the persecution which followed, led the emigration of his followers to the United States. The first intention was not to adopt the communistic principles, but the diversity of station among the members and the great inequality of means seemed to make this necessary. Marriage was discouraged in the beginning, but was adopted a few years later. The society reached its largest membership about 1832 through immigration from Germany, when it numbered about 500 persona. The

189	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Communism
original enthusiasm continually declined and the society was finally dissolved. On Sept. 13, 1898, the property was allotted to the remaining members, 222 in number.
	The articles of faith of the Separatists embraced
belief in the Trinity, the fall of man, return through
Christ to God the Father, and recognition of the
Holy Scriptures as the ultimate authority. All
ceremonies were rejected, all ecclesiastical con
nections and constitutions were repudiated, and
such signs of respect as uncovering the head, bend
ing the knee, and the distinctions of courtesy in
forms of address were refused as according to mor
tals honors which were due to God. Members were
of two classes. Minors and those who had not signed
the covenant constituted the first class, and were
eligible to full membership on coming of age or
after a year's delay following application. The
candidate for the second class or full membership
signed a covenant giving up all his property, his
present and prospective rights, titles, and posses
sions, to the society forever, and obligated himself
to give obedience to the trustees. In the early
period of the society the children were under the
care of the trustees; but later they were left with
their parents. The government of the community
was vested in a standing committee of five members,
under whom a board of three trustees directed
business affairs. 	W. H. L&RRABEE.
BrBwooaAr$y: E. O. Randall, Hiet. of ae .Zoar Society,
Columbus, O., 1899; C. Nordhoff, Communistic Societies.
New York, 1875; W. A. Hinds, American Communities,
pp. 99‑131, Chicago, 1908. The society issued Baumeler's
Works in three volumes, regarded as inspired, and also
collections of hymns byBarbam Grubermann and Baumeler.

10. The Shakers or the Xillennial Church: A body of believers living in communistic celibacy, who hold their founder, Ann Lee (q.v.), to have been a prophetess inspired by God, and the doctrines which she taught to be divine revelations. Their origin is connected with a revival that followed the demonstrations of the so‑called French Prophets in England (see FRENCH PROPHETS), who exhibited under religious excitement marked physical manifestations. Some members of the Society of Friends in Manchester, England, of whom James and Jane Wardley were the most
	1. Origin	prominent, came under the influence
	and Early	of the revival, and were joined by
	History.	Ann Lee and her parents. From their
		movements under religious excitement
these people were called " Shaking Quakers " or
" Shakers." They were subjected to persecution,
and the leader and some of the members were
imprisoned. On Jan. 5, 1762, Ann Lee married
Abraham Standerin, a blacksmith, and became the
mother of four children who died in infancy. She
then learned that celibacy was the holy state, for
proclaiming which doctrine she was sent to
jail, where, in 1770, she experienced a vision
of Jesus Christ, in which she claimed to have
received a revelation " of Christ's kingdom and
glory, of man's loss, and the way of redemp
tion." From that time she was acknowledged
as a mother in Christ and called "Mother Ann."
In obedience to one of these revelations, she
came to America in 1774, with a few other members of the society. The band supported themselves by labor for two years, and then settled in Niskeyuna, now Watervliet, N. Y. They attracted much attention, and prejudices were aroused against them, under the influence of which they were imprisoned, but were released by Governor George Clinton. A revival in the Baptist Churches of the vicinity brought additions to their number. Through numerous visitors from New York and the New England States to the settlement knowledge of Shaker doctrine was widely spread. Mother Ann, with five other members of the society, made a journey through New England of more than two years' duration, preaching and prophesying, but not without many triads and sufferings. After her death in 1784 she was succeeded by James Whittaker, under whom the first Shaker meeting‑house was built, at Mt. Lebanon, N. Y.; and he in 1787 by Joseph Meacham, followed by Lucy Wright (d. 1821), who were all active in founding other societies in New England, New York, and the West. These new communities were generally the fruits of revivals, upon which the Shakers laid great stress. They were actively interested in the great revival in Kentucky at the beginning of the nineteenth century. James Meacham with two companions set out on a missionary journey from Mt. Lebanon Jan. 8, 1805, and traveled on foot to Lebanon, O.; thence into Indiana and Kentucky, where several societies were formed.
According to one of its books, the Shaker Church rests upon the principles of virginal purity, Christian communism, and separation from the world. It holds that God is a duality, male and female; that Adam was dual, having been created in God's image; that all spirits are also dualities, male and female; and that Christ is the highest 2.Lootrines.of spirits, appeasing first in the person of Jesus, representing the male, and later in the person of Ann Lee, representing the female element of God. It teaches that the religious history of mankind is divided into four cycles, which are also represented in the apiritworld, each of which has its appropriate heaven and hell. The first cycle included the antediluvians; the second, the Jews up to the coming of Jesus; the third, those who lived up to the appearance of Ann Lee; and the fourth and last is the present dispensation, the heaven of which is in process of formation and will supersede all other heavens. The Shaker Church is, therefore; the Church of the last dispensation; and its establishment marks the dawn of the day of judgment, or the beginning of Christ's kingdom on earth. It is held, further, that the Pentecostal Church was established on right principles, that the Christian Churches rapidly and fatally fell away from it, and that the Shakers have returned to this perfect doctrine and practise. The Shakers reject the doctrines of the Trinity, of the resurrection of the body, and of the atonement. They consider Jesus and Ann Lee elders of the Church, to be respected and loved, but not objects of worship. They are spiritualists, believing fully in the reality of spiritualistic communications.

Oom>~n~ 8eUrion
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
There are three orders of membership. The first, the novitiate or outer order, consists of those who receive the faith, but choose to live in their own families. The second or junior g, organ‑ order is composed of those who, being isstiem and under no charges or bonds to prevent
Govern‑ their living in community, choose to
	went.	enjoy the 'benefits of that situation
		without entering into full member
ship. They retain the title to their property,
though they may give the use of it for the time to
the family. The third order is made up of those
who become full members and dedicate themselves
permanently to the society. Should such mem
bers afterward withdraw, they take nothing away
as a matter of right, but in practise " no person
who withdraws peaceably is sent away empty."
The government of the community is vested in a
ministry composed of four elders, two of each sex.
Of the several ministries, that of Mt. Lebanon,
N. Y., is recognised as the central executive of all
the societies. Subordinate to the ministry are two
male and two female elders in, every fully organized
community or family in each society, having charge
of its spiritual affairs, and two deacons and two
deaconesses subordinate to the elders and having
charge of the temporal concerns. A Shaker village
usually includes two or more families of thirty or
forty persons each, living in unitary houses, hav
		ing their own households, and being
4. Religious independent in domestic affairs.
services.	The religious service includes ad‑
Preoeat	dresses,. singing of hymns and an‑
	StAtus.	thems, and a characteristic rhyth‑,
		mica[ marching, accompanied by other
muvements, in which all take part. These ex
ercises are supposed to be a survival of move‑
I. Definition and Names. II. History of the Discipline.
Reasons for Its Recent Origin (;1).
Prejudice Peculiarly Potent (12).
Preparatory Work (1 3).
Max M111ler and Recent Developments (f 4). III. Aim and Scope. IV. The Methods Employed. V. The Auxiliary Sciences..
The Method of History (; 1).
The Facts of History (1 2).
Comparative Mythology and Folk10‑.(13).
Other Allies (§ 4)., VI. The Results.
1. In Primitive Religion.
a. Primitive Religion in the Psychological Sphere.
Animism Defined (1 1).
190
mente characteristic of the founders of the society.
The Shakers had at one time eighteen societies.
The present number is fifteen, with about twenty
five families and about 1,000 members. No exact
evaluation of their property has ever been made,
but it is believed to be worth between =3,000,000
and $5,000,000. 	W. H. LARRIBEE.
BIDwomAPHl: For Vet of Shaker literature consult J. P. MacLean, A Bibliography of Shaker Literature, Columbus,. O., 1905. For the history consult: H. Elkins, Fifteen Years in As Senior Order of Shakers, Hanover, N. H., 1858; F. W. Evans, Compendium of the Origin, History, Principles, . . . of the United Society of Belisaers in Christ's Second Appearing, New York, 1858; C E. Robinson, Concise Hint. of the . . . Sgakars, E. Canterbury, N. H., 1898; W. A. Hinds, American Communities, pp. 82‑88, Chicago, 1998; Anns White and Leila S. Taylor, Shakerism, its Meaning and Message, Columbus, O.. 1904. For the doctrines and pmctiew consult: F. W. Evens, ut sup.; idem, Second Appearing of Christ, Boston, 1863; idem, Tests of Divine Inspiration, New Lebanon, 1868; idem, Celibacy from the Shaker Standpoint. New Lebanon, 1886; idem, Shaker Communism, London, 1871; Testimony of Christ's Second Appearing, 4th ed., Albany, 1866; H. L. Ends, Shaker Sermons [Lebanon, N. Y.), 1879.
Biswooasra: of the general subject: Besides the works of Nordhoff, J. H. Noyw6 and W. A. Hind,, mentioned under the societies above, all of which deal more or less with general features, consult: H. A. James, Communism in America, New York, 1879; V. Stecoanella, Del Comunismo, Rome, 1882; L. Fell; Bntwickdungageschichte den Bipentuma. Leipsic, 1883; M. Kaufmann, Socialism and Communism, London, 1883; E. de Laveleye, Ls Socialieme mntsmporain, Paris, 1888 ; D. Bergetram, (Communism ocA SoeWisrn, Stookholm,1M; A.Hau* DerKmunismus im chriatlichen Oewands, Leipsic; '1'891; B: Malon, Le Sociolisme int&prcl, Paris, 1893 R. Pohlmann, Gesthirhte den antiken $ommunismus and Socialismus, 2 vole., Munich, 1893‑1901; K. Kauteky, Communism in Central Bwops at the Time of the Reformation. London, 1897; M. Von Nathusiue, Die Mitarbeit der Kirche an der Losung der sosiafen Frays, Leipsic, 1897. Phases of the subject are treated under CsannseN Socutrnm and socrsrress.
COMPARATIVE RELIGION.
Idea of Soul, how Obtained U 2).
Anthropomorphic Conception of
Causation (¢ 3).
Incipient Dualism (¢ 4).
Magic‑Natural, Mimetic, Sympr
thetio (1 6).
Metempsychosis (f d).
Myth Defined (f 7).
Explanations of Myth (1 8).
b. Primitive Religion in the Social
Sphere. p (1 1).
Totemism Defined (1 2).
Marks of Totemmm (§ 3).
Its Supposed Origin (1 4).
Its Ritual; the Mysteries (1 6).
Blood‑Brotherhood (¢ 0).
a. Primitive Religion in the Ethical
Sphere.
Things Taboo (1 1).
L Definition and Names: Scientifically considered, " Comparative Religion " is the second of three stages of study‑the History, Comparison, and Philosophy of Religion; but because of the newness of the discipline and because the collection of data is still in progress, the term as popularly employed includes all three stages, and this usage is, for the time at least, justified by the state of the science. Other phrases have indeed been proposed as substitutes, among which the most
Characteristics of Taboo (1 2). Penalties of Breach of Taboo (f 8).
d. Primitive Religion in the Sphere of Cult. Communal Sacrifice (4 1). Honorific Sacrifice 0 2). Piaoular Sacrifice U 3). Human Sacrifice (1 4).
2. In National.and Universal Religions.
a. Dependence on Tribal Religion.
b. Common Features. Psychological (§ 1). Social (1 2). Ethical (1 3). Cultio (1 4).
a. Modifications Due to Ethnic or Local Differences.
d. Parallel Lines of Development.
fitting is "The Science of Religion "‑a name, against which three objections are urged: (1) the other term is. now in possession, and popular usage in language is conservative; (2) rigid scientists affirm that for the present stage the term " science " is too ambitious; (3) religionists shrink from admitting that the rigorous methods of investigation implied by " science " may be applied in the sacred sphere of religion. To these objections the reply may be made that " science rr does not imply

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
knowledge completed, but only knowledge verified and systematized so far as the state of learning permits. To the third objection it must be opposed that science admits no bar to its investigation. It claims all spheres as rightly its own and is not deterred by the charge of irreverence: indeed, its only reverence is for verified fact, before which alone it bows. Hence the time is near when the expression " Science of Religion " may be admitted, and when the entry of the scientific method into religious . inquiry will be not only permitted, but privileged. The term " Comparative Religion " is employed in this article as beat expressing the common conception of what is here to be discussed.
	II. History of the Discipline: This discipline lie
comparatively new.. Max Muller remarked just
before his death that within his own recollection
the " History of Religion " (Religionsgeschichte) em
braced only Christianity and Judaism (Littell's
Living Age, Dec. 31, 1898). The religions of Greece
and Rome were classed as " superstition " or
"mythology," and other religions were practically
		unknown. For centuries, up to the
i. Reasons Elizabethan era, the only other faith
for its within the ken of Christians was Mo‑
Recent	hammedanism, and candid or sym‑
	Origin.	pathetic examination of the faith of
		the other by the adherents of either
was precluded by the antagonism engendered by
centuries of warfare. Before Comparative Re
ligion could come into being, two things were neces
sary: the existence of many faiths had to become
known, and recognized as religion. For the first, the
age of travel and discovery begun by the fifteenth
century was necessary; for the second, a process of
education in candor and a grounding in the his
torical method were essential. Lack of informa
tion and prejudice were the two barriers against
the new science, and the second was the more diffi
cult to surmount. Three centuries were occupied
in the collection of data the importance of which
was of course at the time unrecognized; even the
direction in which it bore was unnoted. For the
discovery of the pertinence of this body of facts to
religious inquiry further illumination was needed
which came only in the nineteenth century in the
discovery of some of the ethnic sacred books and
in the growth of the science of anthropology.
To discern the nature and difficulty of the obstacle interposed by prejudice is not easy in this more tolerant age. It is easy to forget that the native attitude of religion is exclusive and intolerant. When some Christians could declare of others that the latter were "unregenerate'.' and could do no good thing, and that, if .they could, it could not be pleasing to deity, other faiths could scarcely be judged on their merits. This attitude of Christianity toward other religions may
3. Preju‑ be illustrated by two examples: (1) by
dice Pecul. the naive explanation given by Ro‑
iarly	man Catholic missionaries of monas‑
	Potent.	ticism, the mass, the rosary, and like
		parallels of Catholic practise found in
non‑Christian lands‑‑they, were, the mocking de
vices of the devil; (2) by the curt censure admin‑
O mp"~a~ Religion
istered by Franks to the pioneer missionary Ziegenbalg, who had sent home a book on the Hindu faiths: "You were not sent to India to study Hinduism, but to preach .the Gospel." Further, this attitude of contempt and acorn was changed into something like hate when it was discovered that many of the claims put forward for Christianity were duplicated by " blasphemous " claims for the other faiths. Thus each of the " book religions " claims inspiration for its scriptures. It then seemed that such claims must either be unqualifiedly denied or the inspiration of the Christian Bible be given up. The unscriptural dogma that the voice of God was :heard for only a few centuries and only in a limited area closed the ear and the eye of Christianity to testimony that he had spoken to others than the chosen people in lands other than the " Holy Land." Hence the view concerning other religions entertained by Christians is well expressed in the title of more than one book or chapter on religion‑" The True Religion and the False Religions."
Comparative Religion in its original phase is an outcome of Comparative Linguistics. Two events precipitated the formation of the discipline: first, the opening of India with the learning of Sanskrit and the discovery of the Vedas and other literature of the country; second, the (somewhat earlier) finding of the Zend‑Avesta, resulting in the discovery that Hindus, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Teutons, Slavs, and Celts spoke languages which were akin. This led to the knowledge that these peoples had gods who were related and had inspired faiths which were not unlike. Comparative Linguistics led to Comparative Mythology, and the step to Comparative Religion then became easy and short. The man to whom more than to any other the praise is due for leading .the way to this result is the famous Oxford professor already mentioned, F. Max Miiller.
In thus giving the chief meed of praise to the celebrated Sanskritist, no injustice is intended or done to those who preceded him. All great discoveries have their adumbrations. The gestation of the science of religion was a.Jong one. The Religeons of the World (London, 1653), by. Alexander Ross, was a prophecy of coming interest in the non‑
e Christian faiths, though to the author they were still " false " religions. B. Picart and J. 1~. Ber nerd (C&tmonws et coutumes de tour les peuples du morale, 9 vols., Amsterdam, 1723‑43, partly translated in Ceremonies and Religious Customs of the . . . World, 6 vols., London, 1733‑34) discovered in other religions the degenerate descendants of a pure primitive faith‑‑the comparative method began here. J. G. von Her 3. Prepara‑ der (Ideen zur Philoaophie der (3otory Work. schichte, 4 pare Leipsic, 1784‑91) laid a broader basis in a sort of anthropology which was to concatenate mankind and his faiths. C. Meiners (Grundrim der Gsschicjte Idler RelWonen, Lemgo, 1785, and Allgemeine kritisehe Geschichte der Religionen, 2 vols., Hanover, 1808‑07) proved that the historical spirit as against the dogmatic had entered the sphere of religious investigation. Charles Dupuis (Origins de

comparative religion	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	199
tour les cultea, Paris, 1795) anticipated Herbert Spencer and Mr. Tylor in attempting to derive all religion from some one root, in his case the worship of the great powers of nature. G. W. von Hegel (Philosophic der Religion, Berlin, 1832) anticipated still another line of modern research; investigation of savage or primitive belief and practise.
But undue emphasis has often been laid upon the work a these and other forerunners, such as the Deists in England. They were prophets rather than achievers, their methods speculative rather than historical. The real start was made by Max: Willer. Despite the criticism by Mr. Jordan (Comparative Religion, pp. 150 sqq., 521 sqq., New York, 1905),no one did so much as Professor Milller to establish the new science. No series of works,
hardly any collection of other vol4. Max umea which could be made, has so
Willer and stimulated the study as the Sacred Recent De‑ Books of the East. Since Max Willer's velopments. first approach to the study in the Rig
Veda Sanhita (6 vols., London, 18491874) the development has been rapid. Tomention only the great names, C. P. Tiele and C. de la Saussaye in Holland, Riville, father and son, in France, Herbert Spencer, E. B. Tylor, J. G. Fra7xr, S. Hartland, and Andrew Lang in England, D. G. Brinton and James Freeman Clarke in America, have uncovered a wealth of material long buried and have shown how it is to be intelligently‑ employed. In this development two schools have grown up. The first, of which the Oxford professor was the leader, was the linguistic school, which sought by investigating purely linguistic material, the roots and changes of words and the structure of language, to determine the development of religious ideas. The result was often a forced method of explanation which was obviously inadequate. A school developed in the second half of the nineteenth century to which the name of the anthropological school has been given, the fundamental method of which is historical, which examines data gathered from all regions and times, and upon the basis of comparative psychology and anthropology explains the resemblances and differences in religious beliefs and practises and their origins. In the hands of this second. class, which of course does not discard linguistic data, the science has rapidly taken form, materials fall easily into their appropriate setting, and the law of evolution is revealed as operating in the field of religion with a distinctness which is almost beauty.
III. Aim and Scope: The aim of the study includes the collection, collation, and explanation of religious phenomena in order to, discover the nature, genesis, development, and laws of religion. From what has already been said of the preconceptions with which early investigations were conducted, it is evident that so comprehensive a purpose was not originally in view. Early studies were polemic as against ethnic faith and practise, apologetic as concerned Christian faith and practise. But the PrOgresa of the study has already compelled a modification of earlier estimates of other religions and
an increasing gentleness in discussing them. The statement can no longer be made without challenge even from Christians that the world outside Christendom is an " immense welter of errors " (Calvin). In living non‑Christian religions (Mohammedanism Buddhism, Confucianism, Parseeiem), as in those that have fallen (the religions of Egypt and Babylonia), are recognized mighty truths, and the claim to the exclusive possession of these by Christian dogmatists is no longer made, or if made is disallowed. There results (1) an increasing appreciation of the discovery that religion is one, in different stages of growth, and (2) a growing willingness to grant to all religious faiths impartial examination and candid recognition of whatever excellencies, they may possess. The endeavor is made to discover whether there be a common basis for all forma of religion, and if so, what it is, and to set forth the nature, origin, growth, and laws of religion in general.
The scope of the science is involved in the foregoing. No place, time, or people from which evidence or testimony can be gathered is exempted from its examination. Evidence from neolithic graves in the shape of vessels or implements (which bespeak belief in the continued existence of the defunct), or from modern savage life, involving belief in obligations to powers superhuman, is no less pertinent than are the injunctions of Zoroaster, Confucius, the Buddha, or the Christ. Neither the religion of Jesus nor the mysteries of the Australian Bushman may be excluded from the inquiry. Moreover, facts and practises once thought purely social or merely utilitarian are now seen to be informed with the religious spirit. The area of religion has been immensely widened during the progress of the investigation. It has been no uncommon thing for a book to assert of some tribe that it had no religion, though the volume contained accounts of whole series of acts which were only and all religious. Such mistakes arose in the author's too narrow conception of what religion is. A further discovery is that the very comprehensiveness of the influence of the supernatural is the life of the savage makes it necessary to ask of his every act whether or not it be religious or at least have religion as an element. Hence the examination covers not only the " great " religions, but also primitive faith and all the gradations which lie between.
IV. The Methods Employed: Comparative Religion is an inductive science. Its operation is threefold: (1) collection and verification of facts (the historical method); (2) collocation of these verified data to ascertain their relations and interrelations (the comparative method); (3) explanation of the results reached by the other two methods upon a psychological basis, referring local features to ascertained mental habits of the tribes, groups, or peoples where those features are manifested, and universal features to general characteristics of the human mind (the psychological method). A fair illustration of the combined operation of these methods, uniting the extreme past with the present and with world‑wide belief, is presented is the following case, which is but one

198	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	Comparative Relisioa
out of many which might be chosen. The skulls of neolithic man sometimes bear unmistakable traces of trepanning during life‑an operation which must have been excruciating torture ,in times when the only instruments were flints and there were probably no anesthetics, and an explanation was long sought in vain. It has recently been discovered, however, that in cases of epilepsy modern Kabyles trepan the patient and then conjure forth the obsessing spirit which they believe to be seated in the brain, causing the affection. Alongside these two facts is put a third, viz., wide induction has proved that primitive peoples of diverse race and habitat attribute diseases, especially mental affections, to obsession by spirits. The neolithic fact receives a most probable explanation from the modern Kabyle practise, while the psychological habit is made clear from a wide circle of induction.
Y. The Auxiliary Sciences: Comparative Religion is necessarily dependent upon a number of auxiliary sciences. Its most intimate associations are with the science of history in its modern form. To this a twofold debt is due, first for the historicocritical method. The phenomena under investigation are by nature elusive, and the observer is
liable to error because his point of view r. The differs from that of the people whose
Method of actions and beliefs he ‑studies. The
$istory. motives a Christian imputes to wor‑
shipers belonging to another religion may be quite other than the real motives. Moreover, the phenomena lie in a realm where voluntary testimony is seldom given, because primitive peoples believe that between them and their deities exists a confidential relation which would be endangered by reporting to a stranger in what that relationship consists. So there is necessitated in this kind of investigation relentless criticism of alleged facts, which have to be pursued to their very lair and dragged out naked of falsehood and stripped of misconstruction.
A second debt is incurred by the access given to the great body of facts presented by history. This storehouse, new treasures from which are constantly coming into'use, is being worked over and over as more accurate knowledge illumines both the items and the tout ensemble. An example of the way in which this is being accomplished is furnished by the history of Greek religion. A half century ago Greek religion was regarded as thoroughly known It had been for two millenniums the source of literary allusion and flavor; nearly all Western literature is seasoned with Attic salt. Yet in the light of phenomena, some of which had been on record all the time (as in Pausanias and Herodotus), and others which have been gained by modern research like the investigations at Mycenw and in Crete and Cyprus, the entire history of Greek religion is being rewritten, the Olympic pantheon is traced to its elements, and the construction and growth of
a national faith is revealed to the mods. The Facts ern observer. Still another depart‑
of History, ment, that of travel, is proving rich
treasure trove. Sailors and merchants, travelers, and trained observers whose business it is to discover what is done and thought IIL‑13
by other peoples, officers in government service who by long residence have come to know thoroughly the tribes among which they lived, and faithful missionaries furnish material which only the trained investigator can appreciate. The very detachment from each other of the reports made by these observers proves of the greatest value; for example the use of the swastika as a symbol with religious significance is proved for practically all quarters of the world in remote antiquity and in the living present, and the " bull‑roarer " is discovered to be nearly ubiquitous as a sign of the performance of the mysteries of primitive tribes. Other departments of history, such as art and architecture, have their pregnant lessons and indispensable use. The subdepartment of ceramics has contributed to the history of Greek religion some of its most convincing material. On the value of the history of architecture there is no need to dilate; the mere mention of it suggests reverence and worshipful toil as represented in structures from the reed booth of the fetish‑worshiper to the peerless Parthenon.
Newer and younger offshoots of the historic spirit are Comparative Mythology and Folk‑lore. The key to appreciation is understanding, and the world had largely forgotten its infancy. Upon the recovery of his memory depended man's
3. Com‑ understanding of nearly the whole of
parative primitive religion: When the pracMythology tises of modern primitive tribes stand and Folk‑ out as the parallels of the practises of lore. the Greeks and Romans, what once seemed foolish or inexplicable in the latter and " curious " in the former received explanation as performances of the childhood of the race. How could human beings trace their descent from animals or plants on the one side, or from deities on the other? These things were done and were accepted as facts. As the doings of the childhood of humanity they have their perfect explanation. Thus Comparative Mythology and Folk‑lore by recovering the methods of thought of the race in its childhood have contributed much to the understanding of such " oddities."
No slight debt also is due to the mental sciences, particularly to psychology, though in this department a part of the obligation is repaid by return contributions. Psychology has exposed the method of operation of the mind of savage and epileptic, of individuals and of the crowd. . In turn, epidemics like that of the dancing mania 'of the Middle Ages, communication of prophetic frenzy like that of Saul, the mental operations of an Elisha and a Mohammed, and the'. working of re‑
4. Other vivals are explained upon sound Allies. principles and reveal the methods by which religious acts began, became customary and authoritative. It may seem out of place to claim as an ally of Comparative Religion the sciences of geology and paleontology. Yet a moment's consideration of the example of the neolithic trepanning referred to above will show that the dating of the early subject of the operation must depend upon the pronouncements of geology upon the environment in which the relics were

Comparative Religion	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	194
found. Similarly, paleontology has no little to say as to the relative height of man in the scale of being in the age to which the trepanned is referred. Many other facts, all significant' in settling the question of the age of man on the earth‑an important factor for the evolution of religion‑might be adduced to show the dependence of Comparative Religion on the one side, and the helpfulness of geology and paleontology on the other in the quest for the origin and authority of religious ideas.
VI. The Results: What are the accomplishments of a branch of study thus defined, thus born and developed, with such an aim and scope, using such materials, and with such auxiliaries? It has discovered and oriented the whole realm of primitive religion, has discovered the conditions under which were originated what may be called the organized religions and has established their part and value in the uplift of the race, and has discovered a genetic relationship between the two varieties; it shows that all religion is one in various stages of development, that religion is a development, and that man is one in acknowledging by action in all times and places of which there is record an impulse to worship a being or beings whom he deems greater than himself.
1. In Primitive Religion: The distinction between " primitive " and " organised " religions is difficult to make. Mr. Frazer (Golden Bough, i. 348, ed. of 1890) gives as the marks of primitive religion the following: (1) no special class is set apart to perform rites; (2) no special place is designated for this purpose‑there are no temples; (3) spirits, not gods, are recognised; (4) the rites are magical, rather than propitiatory. But no one of these marks can be held everywhere to delimit the two spheres. The shaman shades into the priest. A temple is not necessarily a structure, and in primitive religion localities are the residence of spirits where they are worshiped. Moreover, gods have been found among some of the tribes lowest in the scale of being, and magic versus prayer is an insecure test. It is proved in some cases that primitive religion passed by degrees from this stage to that of organized religion, notably so in the cases of Greece and India. While then Mr. Frazer's tests individually break down, it may yet be held that the total effect of his distinctions make a practical line of demarcation.
a. Primitive Religion in the Psychological Sphere: Animism is usually but loosely defined as " the doctrine of souls and spirits." A more lucid statement is that animism means that stage in human development in which man ber. Animism lieves in the parity of all existences
	Defined.	so far as their possession of sentient
		life is concerned. Men in that stage
may hold that a stone, a tree, a mountain, a stream,
a wild animal, a heavenly body, a wind, indeed
any object within the realm of real or fancied ex
perience, possesses just such a " soul " as he con
ceives himself to have, and that it is animated by
desires and moved by emotions parallel to those
he perceives in himself.
The question how man came to possess the idea
of soul has been answered in two ways, both of which reproduce reasons given under primitive conditions for asserting the existence of a non‑corporeal yet intracorporeal entity. The phenomena leading to such a conception are (1) those of dream life, (2) the difference between the waking and.the sleeping state, or between life and death. If in a company of primitive hunters one
2. Idea of sleeps in his companions' presence and Soul, how in that sleep has a dream which upon Obtained. waking he relates, stating that he has been upon the chase, he and his companions make and accept the explanation that some part of him not his body has been away, and no reasoning could convince him that the dream experience was unreal. In this way in part the conception that man is a duality manifested itself. But the fact that nothing had been seen to go and return invested the fugitive part with a character expressed in many languages by the equivalent of " spirit " (I.at. spiritus, " breath "), and this spirit was regarded as an intangible but very real entity. The second line of experience corroborated and strengthened this impression. The superficial difference between a living and a dead body is the absence from the latter of the breathing function. The last act observable in the dying is the expulsion of the final breath. It is no wonder then that man in his primitive philosophy began the habit of speaking of his second part as the " spirit " or breath. And that the phenomenon of sleep is also explained by absence of the spirit from the body, is proved by the fact that existent tribes do not permit a sleeper to be waked suddenly lest his spirit have not time to return and he die. To these two lines of what had the force of convincing evidence to early man a third must be added, viz.: the appearance in dreams of those who had died. Such visions were accepted as realities in advanced stages of civilization (cf. Augustine, De eivftate dei, xviii. 18), confirmed the belief already accepted of a dual existence of man, and had other momentous results. They opened up the entire region of a future existence, as well as other beliefs which still survive as " superstitions."
A fact which had great influence on man's early conceptions was that many of the events which he witnessed were traceable to visible causes. In the infancy of the race death was probably in a large proportion of cases due to external causes. Death was not always "the inevitable." * And since man himself caused death and knew himself the agent of that change, when death resulted from visible causes he attributed to the material agent conscious and determined action. Even when death came from what axe now termed natural causes, he would seek and find causes of the same sort. So that both disease and death were regarded as consciously brought about, if not by visible means,
e For cam where death in even yet regarded as an abnormal event, consult: E. Crawley, Mystic Rose. pp. 2827, 80, 87, 88, 89, 85, 95, New York, 1902; L. Deere, Three Years in A/rim pp. 75, 512, London, 1898; C. B. Moss. In the Andarnans, p. 123. London, 1903; B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 478, London, 1899; J. Macdonald, in Folklore, iii. 344.

198	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	Comparative Zelision
then by beings mysterious in their nature and mode of working. Thus to practically all objects he at‑
tributed life, power, emotions, and deg. Anthro‑ terminative acts such as those he felt pomorphic or committed. So he came to apply Conception his experience (supposed or real) to of Causa‑ all existence; all events were effects,
	tion.	though he could not detect the causes.
		If the spirit could go unperceived
from the sleeping or moribund and participate in
the hunt or leave the forsaken one dead, if the
dead could reappear in the dream, were there not
other spirits which interfered with human action,
helped or thwarted human effort, inflicted disease
and death? Thus man was furnished with a primi
tive philosophy which answered his queries iu a
way that seemed conclusive and satisfied his de
sire for explanation. With this may be compared
the habit of calling a pestilence a " visitation of
God " instead of considering it the inevitable con
sequence either of ignorance or of disregard of
natural law. Objects which to modern man are
inanimate to early man had both life and soul;
they had power which they employed determi
natively. Into animal, plant, and inorganic
substance were read the nature and qualities of
humanity. In accord with this belief modern sav
ages talk to the beasts they,slay, smoke the pipe of
peace with the dead bear, and attempt to deceive
the trapped tiger so that its kin or its ghost may
not exact vengeance. And beside these tangible
things there were imagined innumerable spirits
until the world swarmed with them, and forest and
field, glen, hill, and stream were peopled with spirits
having power and purpose to work weal or wo to
humane.
But it would not be long before man came to the conclusion that the results of his own efforts were not always commensurate with what he, seemed to have the right to expect. That the spirits about him interfered either for good or ill was a natural conclusion. Spirits were roughly di;. Incipient vided into the well‑disposed and the
	Dualism.	spiteful and malicious. This is the
		belief constantly encountered among
primitive peoples, some of whom dare not move
during the night, so great is their fear of the ghosts
which lie in wait. And when such belief is estab.
lished, a demonology is created out of which de
velops the whole hierarchy of evil; while out of
the conception of good spirits come angelology and
theism of various sorts (see DiomoN).
But man would carry this process further. He knew himself subject to menace and blandishment, to tricky bluff or actual force, he was conciliated by gift or persuasion and made hostile by assault or trespass. To the spirits he attributed the same qualities. So that threats and bluffs were used against the spirits (even against the gods), magic was employed to overpower them, gifts and persuasion were tried to render them complaisant. Out of this developed the cults and the practise of magic and witchcraft in all their varieties.
In magic particularly lies a result of this reasoning. Magic may for convenience be divided into natural and sympathetic. The former is the use
of anthropomorphic devices to gain one's end from
the spirits. Chinese sailors carry paper junks to
throw overboard in a hurricane so that when the
mimic bark sinks in the waves the storm spirits
may suppose that the real ship has sunk and be
satisfied. Gongs are beaten to frighten away un
welcome spirits. A herb which is supposed to
have qualities obnoxious to a spirit is burned that
the smoke may keep off the undesired. In these
		and other ways natural magic works.
	S. Magic‑ Sympathetic magic in one of its va
	Natural, rieties depends upon the supposed
	Mimetic, fact that like affects like, any effect
	Sympa‑ may be produced by an imitation of
	ihetic. it. Rain may be caused by scatter
		ing of water, a thunder‑storm by imi
tation of the sound and by scattering sparks to
imitate the lightning, a yam field may be made
fruitful by burying in it a stone shaped like a yam,
	or the yield of a palm is increased by hanging on
the trunk or laying at the root a atone or other
	natural object which looks like the date or the
	coconut. An enemy is made to suffer by per
	forming operations upon a wax image which rep
	resents him. Another variety depends upon the
	supposed sympathy between a man and his be
	longings. His hair, nail‑parings, any article of
	clothing, even his shadow or his name, may be
	used against him. His footprint on the sand is
	sufficient, if one knows how, to work him ill. And
	that some men claimed, perhaps honestly, to be
	expert in these practises and that the claim was
	allowed is a matter of history. Thus the witch
	and shaman and medicine man had their careers
	prepared, ready to practise on spirits and men, and
	with all the terrible consequences known to history.
	An interesting group of results from the con
	ceptions of the animistic stage is that which centers
	about metempsychosis in its various forms. Meta
	morphosis, transmigration, lyoanthropy, are but
	variant shapes of the same idea. If man, animals,
	and plants (and eventually spirits and gods) are
	on the same plane of existence, exchange of form
	and being might be brought about either purposely
	or by accident. So in the 550 births of the Buddha
	he passed through every grade of being‑vegetable,
	animal, human, and divine. That a man should
	be transformed into an animal seemed not strange,
	and Circe 's miracles were not only credible but
		reasonable to Homer's hearers. Fur
	6. Metemp‑ ther, the exchanges were not con_
	sychosiL fined to the lower order of beings.
		Why should not a spirit take posses
	sion of a human body, or why should not a god
	become incarnate? With spirits good and bad all
	about, eager to exercise their power, the virgin
	birth of a god (a common thesis in religion) and
	obsession of a human by evil spirits are but oppo
	site consequences of the theory of equality of be
	ing. Moreover, if the soul is so loosely attached
	to its tenement that in sleep it goes forth to ad
	ventures the idea of a wandering soul consciously
put forth in the interest of its owner or of some one
who has power over him becomes possible and ap
parently actual. The lineage of the mahatma
idea of modern theosophy is thus revealed. But

Comparative Religion
if the soul or life could be thus isolated, it might perhaps be laid aside or deposited in some safe place, thus rendering its possessor immune in the midst of some deadly encounter. This motif rules in many folk‑lore cycles and even invaded the Old Testament.
A final psychological effect is discovered in Mythology (Gk. mythos, "narrative "). In modern usage the word has two meanings: (1) the branch of investigation which deals with the narratives about gods and demigods, heroes, creation, origins, and the like; (2) the narratives themselves. A
myth is a story, on a subject kindred q. Myth to those just mentioned, now admitted
Defined. to be untrue and often irrational, but
to its first hearers and their immediate descendants self‑evident. It shows primitive reason working according to primitive logic, seeking to explain a real or a supposed fact .*
Magic is primitive science, myth is primitive philosophy. Thus the sacred atone at Delphi, a fact, wsa accounted for by the myth that it was the atone by which Chronos was deceived when Zeus was born, which he disgorged some time later. The Crayfish Clan of the Choctaws explained their name and origin by the myth that the first of the clan were crayfish which were coaxed from their shells, taught to stand up and use their claws, finally becoming ancestors of the Crayfish Clan. Gen. vi. 1‑4 is a myth accounting for the reputed giants as the product of a union between spirits and women.
When larger experience and growing mentality discredited these tales, various attempts were made to account for them. Xenophanes (sixth century s.c.) and Porphyry (d. 303 A.D.) regarded. them as inventions to inculcate moral truth. Theagenes (c. 520 s.c.) and Empedocles (c. 444 H.c.) regarded them as allegorical expressions of physical
philosophy. Aristotle looked on them
8. Expla‑ as intended to inculcate respect for
nations of legal and social institutions (" MetaMyth. physics," XI. viii. 19). Eubemerus
(e. 300 s.c.) accounted them the imaginative rendering of history‑e.g., the gods were deified men. Of modern theories Herbert Spencer's revives Euhemerism. Max Milller and the philological school attributed myth to a " disease of language " by which events narrated of one object were attributed to another bearing the same or a similar name. The anthropological school accounts for myth by making it a "disease of thought" taking its rise in animism. Thus later Egyptians were perplexed by the animal forms of their deities and accounted for the supposed fact by the story that the gods took refuge from their enemies in the animal bodies. To modern man both the supposed fact and the explanation are irrational; to the Egyptians the fact was real and the explanation all‑sufficient under the hypothetical parity of being. The distinction between myth, religion, and
* 1'rof. N. S. 8hater has, without intending it, given a good description of the mythological process: " The oom‑
moneet misuse, of the reason sad the imagination is to sup‑
port an irrational motive which is strong enough to be mastering, yet is felt to need explanation " (The Neiph6or, p. 288, Boston, A1).
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
theology should be clearly .made. Theology is man's belief about the gods, myth is the tale he tells to account for his belief in them, religion expresses his practical attitude toward them (cf. A. Lang, Custom and Myth, pp. 45 eqq., New York, 1886)
b. Primitive 8eligion In the Social Sphere: The institution of totemiem can oe understood only by recognising that kinship as reckoned by civilised society is very different from kinship under
primitive conditions. To the civ:. Kinship. ilized, kinship is a matter of degree.
Under the tctcmigtre regime it is absolute and reckoned not by family but by the clan or totem gene. It is not even solely a matter of birth, but may be acquired (gee below, BloodBrotherhood). The absoluteness of this tie is shown by W. R. Smith, Rd. of Sam., pp. 272‑273, 277: " In a case of homicide Arabian tribesmen do not say ` the blood of M or N has been spilt,' they say, ` our blood has been spilt.' " The clanbrethren are all of one blood, no others are of their blood. And the contrariety of this form of relationship to drat current in civilized communities is sharply expressed by the statement that under it husband and wife are not kin, that in moat cases father gad children are not kin, but that mother and children are. Totemiam is then an affair of the community. But since all community matters are under primitive conditions religious, the interest of comparative religion is the subject becomes evident.
Totemism " is the name for the custom by which a stock (scattered through many tribes) claims descent from and kindred with moms plant,
animal, or other natural object. It s. Totem‑ is a state of society and cult . . . in
ism De‑ which seta of persons, believing them‑
8ned.	selves to be akin by brood, call each
other by the name of some plant, beast, or other, object in nature " (A. Lang, Custom and Myth, p. 260). Jevons shows another phase when he says that it is " the alliance of a clan with an animal (or plant or other .natural object) species" (Introduction to Hist. of Religion, p. 120). W. R. Smith makes the proofs of the existence of totemism is any one place to depend upon " (1) the existence of stocks named after plants and animals; (2) the . . . conception that the members of the stock are of the blood of the eponym animal or are sprung from a plant of the species chosen as totem; (3) the ascription to the totem of a sacred character " (Kinship, p. 188).
Because the matter has been confused (e.g., by Mr. Frazer, Encyclopaxlia Britannica, " Totemism," sad in his Toteriiism, London, 1885, and others), it must be noted (1) that totemiam is a community
affair, and individual only as the in3. Marks of dividual‑ is a part of the community;
Totemism. (2) the totem is always .a species,
never an individual, except in the (rare) case of the heavenly bodies; (3) it involves both sexes, never one alone; (4) the solidarity of the human clan is treated se absolute, as is that of the animal species. Thus is to be corrected Mr. Frazer's statement that there are three kinds of

197
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
comparative 341W‑
totems, "the sex‑, individual‑, and clan totem."
There is but one, the clan‑totem; the " sea‑ and
individual‑totem " belong in a totally different
realm, do not affect kinship or descent or society,
and have but one thing in common with clan
totem, viz.‑ that neither is eaten. The totem tie is
like the family name: a man becomes a Brown,
Jones, or Robinson by being born into the family;
	similarly, a man is born into the wolf, bear, or
beaver clan. `, But whether a particular Brown
	shall be named William or Clarence or some other
	" Christian " name is fortuitous; similarly whether
	the " individual‑totem " shall be wolf or oak de
	pends on what the individual sees in his puberty
	watch or chooses under advice. The two things
	are discrete. With these fundamental character
	istics go certain vital accompaniments. First, re
	lationship is usually traced through the mother;
	second, marriage is prohibited between members
	of the same totem gees. Husband and wife are
	of different blood and are not made kin by mar
	riage. The totem bond overrides what is now
	blood‑relationship; half‑brother and sister not of
	uterine relationship may marry, they are .of differ
	ent gene (Cf. II Sam. xiii, 13 and Gen. xii. 13, xx.
	2, Abraham and Sarah were probably half‑brother
	andsister). And, finally,toallmembersofanytatem
	gene the corresponding animal species is sacrosanct.
Totemism is a human institution, subject therefore to the changes of advancing civilization. In one place it may appear in its bloom, in another only the vestiges may remain. Thus in North America and in Australia it appears complete, only its vestiges are discernible among the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and Hindus. It passes through several stages, each of which reveals a relationship to the institution in its prime. The salient evidences of the former existence of totemism in any place are: (1) the tradition of the sacredness of an animas species, (2) a clan name the same as that of an animal or pant species, (3) a place name derived from a clan name, (4) an animal epithet given locally to a deity, (fi) images of an animal associated with a deity, (8) an animal used as a badge or mark, (7) myths accounting for the place of the animal in the cult.
The origin of totemism can be only conjectured; but granted the truth of the hypothesis put for ward to explain the origin, every subsequent stage can be fully accounted for on the basis of known
		laws. The accepted explanation is
4. Its Sup‑ that the institution arose under ani
	posed mistic conceptions of existence. In
	Origin. the struggle for life man sough• allies.
The supposedly superior quality of some animals or plants made them seem desirable in that relationship and the pact was made. In later stages the notion of kinship and then of descent entered as explanations of the fact once imagined as real. Meanwhile the living and the dead animal were treated as was the living or dead human; in Egypt corpses of both were mummified, in Greece they were buried or burned. But from sacredness to godahip was but a stage, the individual became deity‑‑so with the cat, bull, crocodile, O°•. in Egypt, and in Greece the horse, arouse,
snake, ram, even the lobster. But thought grew more anthropomorphic, and the animal head was placed on a human body (so in Greece and Egypt). Next the animal came to represent deity, and finally was simply sacred to him. The relationship of totemism to religion is thus in part revealed, though there are other connections. That out of this came in part zoolatry, idolatry, and even polytheism is demonstrable.
Totemism had a ritual which affected the crises of life. As an infant born a Christian must be baptized, perhaps confirmed, before the fulness of his birthright is his, and as at marriage and death the Church has its functions, so with totemism.
At birth the totem mark is tattooed g. Its Rit‑ or painted on the infant or the totem ual; the formula is repeated. Before being Mysteries. admitted to rank as a brave the neo‑
phyte undergoes ordeals, while even at marriage appropriate rites occur and at death the member may be laid in a grave shaped like the totem. Of all these ceremonies the most important is the initiation in the " mysteries " of the tribe, a fact only recently discovered. Evident in many cases is the connection of these mysteries with the power of reproduction, in itself no less a mystery to civilized man than to the savage. The use of the phallic emblems is proved in many cases. The initiation takes place at puberty. Each sex has its ceremonial from which the other is barred. The initiations take place in secluded spots, often at night, and a well‑understood signal is displayed or the " bull‑roarer " is employed to warn away the profane. The neophyte is instructed in the privileges and duties of adulthood and submits to severe ordeals. The dance, having religious par port, is among the aceompanimente, and not Wdom there is a mimic death, burial, and resurreclion, implying ethical or eschatological reference.
The usual method of entrance into a totem clan is then by birth and initiation. But since the conception of the tie was that of a common blood flowing in the veins of the clan, it was conceived that this fact could be artificially pro‑
6. Blooms duced. To make a man not a brother
Brother‑ take that relationship it was neces‑
	hOOd.	vary that the blood of each should
		flow in the other's veins. Accord
ingly, if an individual wished to become a member
of another clan, blood was drawn from his veins
and transferred to the body of one or more of the
clan, while he absorbed blood from some member
of the same. This was done by making incisions,
often in the arms, and putting the bleeding parts
together; transfusion was supposed to take place,
Or each sucked blood from the other's wound, or
the blood of both was mingled with a medium and
both partook of the mixture; or a gWrifieW ant.
Mal was slain and both partook of the blood, a
common fluid thus flowing in the veins of both.
c. primitive religion the 31thioai fthare: Taboo (Polynesian, " strongly marked „) denotes whatever is prohibited under. severe (supernatural) Penalties. In primitive life it controls the entire
life of the adult. It governs 's his food and drink, his Mwr'W and social r1kti011B, the disposition

p=rwwtive Zslision	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	198
of property and the choice of his wives. An infraction of its laws . . . means exile or death " (D. G. Brinton, Religions of Primitive Peoples, p. 38, New York, 1897). . " In the earliest phases of religion the law is essentially prohibitory. It is in the form of the negative' thou shalt not.' . . . The taboo extends its veto into every department of primitive life. It forbids the use of certain articles of food or raiment; it hallows the sacred areas; it lays restrictions on marriage; . . it denounces various actions, often the most trivial and innocent, and thus lays the foundation for the ceremonial law " (idem, p. 108).
The character of the institution is seen in the things it prohibits. (1) The sanctuary, with all its furnishings, vestments and the like, is taboo.
Intrusion renders the intruder, man r. Things or beast, the property of the god.
Taboo. (2) Persons are taboo. A chief may
not be touched nor any of his possessions, while what he touches becomes his‑he represents or is deity. Similarly, priests, shamans, attendants are sacred persons. The sick are often taboo and are removed that they may not " infect " the house. Especially taboo is the woman in childbirth (see DEFILEMENT AND PURIFICATION, CEREMONIAL). A corpse is taboo, and infects all who come into contact with it. (3) Blood is of all things taboo. Sacrificial blood was caught in vessels that it might not infect the ground. Its sacredness in covenants is a matter of history and survives in Christian theology. It was not eaten bysacrificers,,but was sacred to deity. By association of ideas things red are taboo. In Africa red earth may not be trodden or red berries eaten. In Japan entrances to holy places and bridges reserved for the Mikado's use are red. (4) A name may be taboo, that of God or of the chief or of the dead. Even the syllables which composed a name may not be used, and new ones have to be employed in their place. Thus the quadriliteral name of God was not used by the later Jews, and out of a device to avoid it arose the name Jehovah (see YAawER). (5) The hair and the beard may be taboo. The Naairitic vow of the Hebrews (see NAZIRITE) is in point, and the sacrifice of the hair is a frequent fact. (6) The totem animal species is taboo to all of the clan. (7) Time may be taboo. This is the origin of the Sabbath, derived from preSemitic Babylonians. (8) Whole groups of things may be taboo, as food, or the use of food for a period may be taboo. (9) The paraphernalia of the mysteries are taboo.
A characteristic of taboo is its transmissibility. An article which has become taboo communicates this quality to whatever comes into contact with it, this second to a third, and so on. The same is true of persons (cf. Isa. lxv. 5, which should read " which say, keep by thyself, come not near to
me; for else shall I sanctify thee," i.e., z. Charac‑ make thee taboo). Contact of a per‑
teristics son ceremonially unclean with sacred
of Taboo. vessels was forbidden (cf. Vergil,,Rne‑
id, ii. 717‑720 for a fine illustration). Taboo might be communicated in several waysby touch, as in the preceding cases; or by a look,
as when the African king may not look at a river; or through the ear, as when a man who hears of a death in his family becomes unclean; or through speech, as when a man pronounces the name of a chief. The duration of a taboo varies. It may be perpetual, as of a sanctuary and its appurtenances; or of a chief or other sacred person, during his lifetime. Or it may be temporary, depending upon purgation by ceremonial, or by expiration after a conventional period (as in mourning). Similarly, a taboo may be natural (after a fashion), like that of the sanctuary or chief; or arbitrary, like the taboo of food for a day by Saul (I Sam. xiv. 24 sqq. ). The explanation of taboo is that it was connected with the supernatural. Fear of offense of the potent powers which were supposed to exist and of consequent evil to self or kin or possessions seems to be the bottom fact. That a tree in a sacred domain is taboo is easily explained. But it has not been so clear why a newborn babe, a woman in childbirth, a corpse should be taboo. The reason is that under primitive conditions whatever deals with the mysteries of the beginning or end of life has the aspect of awe. Man stands in awe of the mystery of life and death. Taboo involves therefore (1) caution against things holy (for the things' sake) and things unclean (for the person's sake); (2) purification from the contact with holy things so as not mediately to convey holiness to other things (as when the priest washed after exercising his office before putting on his ordinary apparel); (3) purification from contact with the unclean to restore a lost condition of purity.
Some taboos are from their nature fatal. The murder of a clansman or the killing of a totem animal involved either the execution of the culprit or (which amounted to the same thing) his exile from the clan. In the latter case he was in the position of the masterless man of feudal times, whosoever
found him could kill him without fear 3. Penalties of the blood feud (cf. Gen. IV. 14). of Breach An absolute taboo, breach of which of Taboo. was death, is given I Sam. xiv. 24,
44. The basis of this was a rude sovial utilitarian ethics. Were the offender not punished, the offended spirit might avenge himself on the tribe (cf. I Sam. xxi. 1). But all breaches were not so serious; even primitive man has a sense of proportion. Means of purification were hit upon in accordance with primitive philosophy. The principal agents were water and fire, often accompanied by gifts. In Madagascar a babe is kept in the presence of fire and lifted over or through it when first taken from the house. Many tribes use water or a decoction, some applying it by aspersion. Christian baptism, whether by aspersion or immersion, has a long ancestry. Other means were the touch of a sacred person, as of a chief, a priest, or a child.
The effect of taboo on ethics is profound and farreaching, beyond what has been adduced. So with totemism, especially in inducing fidelity and educing gratitude. On the other hand, suggestion (a subject only just becoming understood) had tremendous power ethically, working along all the lines already suggested. The thought that the

199
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
auperastural interferes to secure justice and right, always powerful in the primitive realm, still works in civilized society, as may be seen in the oath and the otherwise meaningless ceremony of kissing the Bible in court, which is the last vestige of the primitive, ancient, and medieval ordeal. The influence of the transmigration upon ethics may be seen in the written records of religious peoples, and heard in the naive explanations of tribes yet without writing, as they tell why this one became a snake and that one a noble animal. Distinctions between modes of existence are made by savages and attributed to ethical or non‑ethical behavior in this life. To this contributed belief in the return of the dead. A crude heaven and hell is found among savages as a cardinal doctrine of belief, in which existence hereaft~r is conditioned by conduct in this life; reward and retribution are the salient ideas.
d. Primitive religion in the Sphere of "t: The most characteristic and illuminative facts in this region are connected with sacrifice (Lat. sacritcium, Gk. hierourgia, " action within the sphere of things sacred "). In modern usage the word implies painful or costly self‑denial. In this it follows the later developments of the institution, in the earlier phases such a sense was entirely lacking. The motive of sacrifice is to initiate or maintain friendly relationship with the supernatural, or to recover it if lost, the end being the blessing of mankind. That it had its origin as far back as the animistic stage is clear both from the forms and the conceptions attached to the rite and from the anthropopathie views of the supernatural powers with which sacrificial communion was had. Sacrifice as seen in history may be treated as communal, honorific, and piacular.
A full definition of communal sacrifice embraces the following. It is in its primitive form a festal meal, with the god and his worshipers as participants, a meal equally necessary to both parties to it, the essential part of which was a slain victim;
the title to participation was vested :. Commit‑ in kinship as then conceived; the meal
nal Sacri‑ was both a pledge of the tie of kinship fice. and a means of its continuance; the
celebration was a community affair, and the entire consumption of the victim was a necessity. The unfolding of the definition requires the remark that sacrifice antedated the idea of property (cf. Jevons, pp. 385, 390, and the authorities cited there). The leading idea was not a gift to the god, but a meal in which god and worshipers partook in common of a victim (Smith, Red. of Sem., p. 226). The notion of the kinship of gods and men is an old one of which the " Our Father " of the Lord's Prayer and the line of Aratus quoted by Paul (Acts xvii. 28) are late expressions. It is animistic in origin, arising in the conceived parity of all existence. The god was of the same .stock as his worshipers, and commensality implied all that these mutual relations involved. The meal was festal. Observers have often remarked that the earlier stages of religion seem less afiiicted with awe than the later‑ Instances as wide apart as the Vedic religion compared with the Brahmanic,
Comparative Aelision
and the celebrations of the period of the Judges and the Priestly sacrifice of the Hebrews confirm this. The normal spirit was that of music, dancing, and mirth. Of this meal the god was a partaker, not the only recipient. That the deity should eat was a notion not at all abnormal, and is illustrated by the fact that the dead were supposed to need nourishment and were supplied, often by channels opening into the grave. Advancing culture modified this idea, and to gods was given the blood or the fat or both, and later the food was suited to the spiritual nature of deity, being etherealized by fire. But for long the gods were supposed to require nourishment. In Egypt records exist of the threat that were not the gods complacent the magic word of power would be uttered which would blot out the worlds and starve the gods out of existence. Anthropopathism was carried to its logical limits (of. Judges ix. 13). Inasmuch as kinship was a matter of blood, as a part of the feast a slain victim was required; without blood there was no sacrifice (Smith, Rd. of Sent., pp. 280, 376). The mystic sacrifice of totemism and the camel sacrifice cited from Nilus when a camel was torn in pieces alive and eaten on the spot (cf. G. Allen, Idea of God, pp. 323‑324, London, 1897; J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena, p. 482, ib. 1903; J. M. Robinson, Pagan Christa, pp. 110 eqq., ib. 1903; J. G. Frazer, Golden Bough, iii. 134 aqq., ib. 1900; Rtville, " Hibbert Lectures," pp. 89 eqq., ib.1884) may as a survival point to the time when the victim was eaten raw and in the blood. The totem as a mystic sacrifice appears as the only case in which the animal was eaten by its human kin, except in case of dire necessity. The explanation of this mystic rite is that it was an actual eating of the god to renew the kinship and to obtain some share of his qualities, as a savage devours the heart of his slain enemy that he may absorb the courage and skill of that enemy. The explanation of the law of consuming the entire animal is not easy. It may have been that nothing might be left to cause a breach of taboo, or it might have been a desire to obtain as much of the feast as possible. The Jewish Passover is but one case out of many that may be adduced for the custom.
The origin of honorific sacrifice was likewise anthropopathic. Man's conception of deity led him to attribute to the gods the same s. Honor‑ pleasure in gifts as he himself felt, so ifio Sacri‑ that honorific sacrifice in perhaps
	fice.	three varieties developed out of vary.
		ing experience, viz.‑ emergential, im
plying teal communion when a favor was de
sired; periodical (a form which the communal
came to take), having the idea of tribute; and pi
aeular, which became the general type when the
idea of sin (by no means a primitive idea) came
into experience. Honorific sacrifice was the effect
of transferring to deity the position, attributes,
and qualities of a ruler. As the chief was pleased
with gifts and kindly disposed to those 'who made
them and in emergencies .would grant his favor
to a donor, and as he demanded them as tribute,
deity was regarded as governed by the same mo
tives. Out of this grew the gifts and libations at

Comparative Religion	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	200
the beginning of an enterprise of whatever sort, the thank‑offerings for the like when successfully accomplished, the periodical precative offerings at seed‑time and the thank‑offerings of harvest.
That piacular sacrifice in its earliest phases involved no more than that the deity was temporarily estranged is the conclusion of W. R. Smith and most anthropologists. But the seriousness of the estrangement grew in the mind and came to dominate the whole conception of sacrifice.
3. Piacular It became necessary for community
	Sacrifice.	and individual to take note of actual
		and putative transgression which re
quired purgation at stated intervals, that the rela
tionship of god and people might be reestablished.
While honorific sacrifice continued and the old
feast‑sacrifice tried to hold its own, the type which
expressed atonement came to be regarded as sacri
fice proper. The idea of an angry god to be pro
pitiated became regnant in, theology, the atoning
sacrifice, devoted to the deity, became dominant
in cult.
The question of human sacrifice is difficult. That it was primeval is improbable, that it was primitive is certain. The cases of foundation sacrifice, of human victims offered to rivers, and particularly the redemption of the first‑born are decisive. That after savagery was left behind it was an extreme measure appears from II Kings iii. 27. In times of famine the German tribes offered sacrifices of increasing worth, the last and noblest thelife of the chief, if the gods did not take pity.
4. Human Yet that at an earlier period the sac‑
	Sacrifice.	rifice of a guilty tribesman was re
		quired is proved not only by such
narratives as Josh. vii. 25, but by the primitive
law of blood‑revenge, a life for a life. Substitution
came in time in both spheres, divine and human;
but the redemption of the first‑born, man and
beast, common to many nations, speaks for the
absolute surrender of that first‑born in the primi
tive age. Substitution in divine affairs is anthro
popathic. An offended clan with a blood‑feud
would compound for a lesser victim or a money
consideration, so would the deity. This was car
ried so far that among some peoples, as in Mexico,
the mimicry of sacrifice of the human was per
formed upon a puppet of dough, or, as in Egypt,
the maiden sacrificed to Father Nile was an image
of mud formed on the bank of the river. But this
mimicry is no less decisive of the former fact of
human sacrifice than is the play of the rape of the
virgin of the earlier marriage by capture.
2. In National and Universal Religions.‑‑a. Dependence on Tribal Religion : It is but asserting the evolution of religion to declare that the verdict of historical investigation is that the, great religions developed out of preexisting religion. This is true both of the " personal " religions which owed their origin in each case to a great teacher and of those faiths which can be traced to no single founder. The indebtedness of Zoroaster to the Indo‑Persian " Urreligion " is made out; the rise of Brahmanism out of vedism and the evidences of animistic and fetishistic belief in the hymns of the Rik carry the ancestry of the great religions of In‑
dia back to its roots in primitive faith and practise; recent study in the religions of Greece and Rome (Harrison's Prolegomena and Granger's Worship of the Romans) is leading to similar animistic paternity in the faiths of Homer and Vergil; Moses built on old Semitic foundations and Jesus on Mosaism; Mohammed combined elements from Judaism, Christianity, and the earlier Arabic religion. In the Chinese Book of Rites there is embedded evidence of the old magical r6gime against the repeated assertion of an original monotheism against which every detail of history cries out. An element of proof in this direction consists of survivals or " superstitions." This last word etymologically explains itself and the argument. It tells of something superstans, " remaining over " (from a former condition of things). And it is the discovery by modern investigators of the fact of survivals in religion and of the other fact that psychological law is constant in the mass which has brought the roots of religion to light. The one example of the " harvest‑maiden " may be adduced, a practise still followed in many parts of Europe which leads in direct recession back to the worship of Core or the earth‑maiden, and thence to the corn‑spirit of each plot of land, and thence into sheer animism (Frazer, Golden Bough).
b. Common Features: The great religions all show two conflicting methods in their psychological operations. One is the enunciation of crystallized dogma, the formulation of regulations which, once expressed, are expected to govern permanently the life of man. This mode of thought defines God, man, the relations of each
i. Psycho‑ to the other and to the universe, and logical. endeavors so to express duty that that expression shall wholly enaphere man's entire life of thought and act. It creates an orthodoxy to repudiate which involves the charge of heterodoxy, not seldom of atheism. The other method notes the freedom of thought, the elusiveness of the idea of the supernatural, the indefinableness of the spiritual, and claims the right of the individual soul to achieve in its own way right relationship with God, man, and the universe. These two roads to right relationship, the dogmatic and the mystic, opposed in the main though they are, show often a curious effort to come together. The dogmatician loses himself in metaphysical vagueness, while the mystic, turning aside to lonely contemplation, finds himself at the head of a community and formulates rules of guidance for his followers.
A second psychological tendency is that which envelops as with a halo the founder of the religion, if a founder there be, and conceives him as in a special sense divine. Even Mohammed, who disclaimed miracle, was by his own generation reported to have performed miraculous deeds. The habit of. forming legend concerning a religious leader is the operation in the religious sphere of that which works in all spheres. lEsculapius became a god, Lycurgus was thought impeccable, Frederick the Great and Washington might have been as religiously sinless as they are politically, had their activities been in the religious sphere.

1401	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	Comparative Religion
The extent to which use of religious legend runs is governed largely by the need created by dogmatic assertion, by the necessities of the system developed. Operating in another region, each religion sees in its own scriptures the very word of God, and from this word the dogmatician draws his proof texts for his closely cut definitions, while the mystic seeks from the same source justification for his wildest imaginings and even for his antinomian practise. Common psychological action is observable in the religions which perceive in the physical something by nature so opposed to good that conquest over the body, even to its destruction, becomes a religious necessity. And this conquest is sought by the same two methods; either by an asceticism which starves and so vanquishes the material, or gives it free rein and destroys it by extreme license. The development in so many regions, in India, China, Arabia, Greece, Rome, Peru, and Mexico, with features which repeat or caricature Christian monasticism, is one of the facts of history.
Socially, it is rarely that religion becomes the controlling factor in advanced stages of civilization. Mohammedanism was unique in that it welded together the Arab tribes into a whole in which intense tribalism was merged into fanatical religious fervor. Society and religion interact. Religion responds to the change made
	s. Social.	by the transformation of pastoral into
		agricultural and commercial life, and
modifies its idea of God and of the service due him.
Yet there is always a conservative element opposed
to these transformations in life of which the Rech
abites (q.v.) in Israel are fairly representative.
The factors which are influential in the develop
ment of society and of culture are, however, in early
stages the care of religion. The first tribunals are
the sanctuaries, where the god pronounces judg
ment. Physical ills are first treated by the priests
learned both in simples and in the magic spells
which condition their correct use. Astronomy de
velops in the priestly schools; mythology gives
way to philosophy in priestly speculation; music
is often.the development of the service at the
shrine; architecture and art make their noblest
flights in the erection and adornment of the sanc
tuary. Yet these arts and sciences emancipate
themselves from the thraldom of the priesthood,
become independent and even opposing forces, and
the interaction of these forces, no longer one but
many, contribute to the diversity and so to the
development of society.
It is the natural result of the early dominance of religion in the life of man that religion sought to control ethics. Yet the moral sense and the religious haVC interacted throughout history. Ethics itself has a history, a development. No absolute standard of ethics is yet attained, nor is it likely that the highest standard of conduct
	3. Ethical.	now ideally possible will not have to
		give way to one still higher. That is
the law of history. It is asserted, and with rea
son, that religion has offended against the ethics
of a later age, sometimes of its own age. Samuel
hewed Agag in pieces " before the Lord "; Serve‑
tus was burned as a heretic; the Quakers were persecuted for righteousness' sake in godly Massachusetts; and it was the moral sense which did away with that religious but immoral institution, the Inquisition. Religion, in primitive stages the arbiter of conduct, in the organized religions has had to submit to the dicta of moral consciousness. The relations of the family and the intercourse of man in society have had much to do with the advancement of morals; but religion gives its sanction to the development and elevates the standard by introducing consideration of the divine. And it is memorable that in most regions the most powerful incentive to right living has come through the religious teaching upon eschatology. The concept that happiness in the future life is contingent upon right conduct in this life constitutes an appeal to that powerful and ever‑present motive, desire for one's welfare. A powerful adjunct to the forces developing morality are the codes put forth from the heart of the sanctuary.
When the organized religions came into existence the sense of the holiness of God and of the sinfulness of man produced the idea of a chasm between deity and humanity. The bridge of that chasm was the cultio institution of the sacrifice, the mediator between god and man being the sacrificer.
So sacrifice, which in the earlier stages 4. Cultic. of religion had been the sign of the
community of god and man, became an at‑one‑went, the means of reintroducing a harmony which had been lost. But the right method of offering this appeasing gift had come to be almost as important as the gift itself, so that a ritual developed which fell into the hands of a class claiming the knowledge and therefore the right exclusively to perform the sacred office. Hence the universal factors in religion in the cultic sphere are the sacrifice and,the priest. Worship may be multiform and diverse, but these factors remain, though disguised more or less skilfully. Originally as accompaniments of the sacrifice, later in part divorced from them, prayer and praise became so universal that the Psalms of the Hebrew temple have their analogues in all the worship of man.
o. Modifications Due to Ethnic or Local DiBerenoes: Why different religions exist can no more be answered than why races are brown, yellow, white, or black. Each people has its favorite notions, in religion as elsewhere. Hence each developed religion has something of its own upon which it places emphasis. Egypt was dominated by the idea of the effect of conduct here upon the life beyond; China taught the apotheosis of the family and emphasized the fifth commandment; India laid special stress upon the immanence of God in his world; Persia was concerned with the absolute holiness of God; Mohammedanism is absorbed with the oneness of deity; Greece laid stress on the divine in the human; Rome emphasized the supremacy of law and the fixity of ritual. That these separate specialties were the expression of national peculiarities is as far as one may go, the wherefore is inexplicable.
d. Parallel Lines of Development: The organized religions often follow parallel lines of de‑

Qoomm~asstive 3&elis4on	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	202
velopment. (1) In the primitive stage spirits are innumerable, " they swarm." No limits can be placed on the number of objects possessed by them as their home, and countless hordes besides roam homeless in earth and sea and sir. But as man's. mentality grows, he compares and generalizes and groups. To take one example: whereas each plot of ground once had its corn‑spirit whose gift the crop of that field was, comparison gave rise to the idea of an earth‑goddess, a Demeter or Ceres or Core, by whose beneficence came all the gifts earth made to man in growing crops. The corn‑spirits of a district coalesced and then became a national deity to whom finally all increase of the earth was attributed. The history of Zeus among the. Greeks also illustrates this principle. Nearly 200 names are known for this deity, only about one‑third of which are poetic or descriptive. Nearly all the rest are referred to local or elemental deities whom he absorbed or displaced, assuming their functions and their cults, the latter of which are in several cases discordant with his normal worship and alien to his nature as a sky‑god. The explanation is that as Zeus became the great national deity through the leadership of the tribes whose principal god he was, he took over the being, attributes, offices, shrines, and worship of older gods whose memory lingered solely in the names added to his as expressive of some special phase. So was it everywhere. The number of the gods was ever diminishing. Pantheons replaced the hordes of worshipful spirits, and in these the principal god obscured .the lesser who tended to vanish from cult and recognition. Thus in Assyria. Asahur became almost the only god aside from Ishtar, and in Israel, where according to the first commandment the gods of the nations were recognized as real existences, by the time of the exile Yahweh had come to be regarded as the only god of all the earth, Sometimes in this procr se gods were associated in triads or trinities, as in Egypt, Babylonia, and India, in the last case paralleling every phase of the Christian doctrine of the Trinity. Thus the tendency is toward monotheism, a result achieved only in Judaism, Christianity, Mohammedanism, and possibly in Zoroastrianism. (2) Another general tendency is that toward crystallization in ritual and creed. At the rise of a religion observances and conceptions are spontaneous, free, individualistic. But as the community grows exhortation hardens into doctrine, confession into creed, observance into ritual, acceptance of .which and conformity to which mark the true believer. Thus orthodoxy and heterodoxy take their rise and become integral parts of religious thinking and terminology. (3) There is also a general tendency toward sectarianism. Against the disposition to define correct modes of teaching, of belief, and of worship arises the individualistic and diversified mentality of mankind, protesting against the limitations placed upon conceptions of God and on ways of serving him. Groups of individuals find themselves agreeing together in disagreeing with the standards erected. The result is that sect arises wherever attempt is made lit uniformity. As an
example, what is perhaps the most rigid and un
yielding religious platform yet made, the teaching
of Mohammed, is obliged to accommodate Sunni
and Shiah with their almost untellable variety of
subdivisions. Judging from the universal tend
ency of religion to develop sect, if history fore
casts the future, oneness of belief will never be at
tained. And if the apparent demands of human
nature be taken into the reckoning, such a result
is not desirable. The Calvinistic mind must be
left to its adoration of the mathematical precision
of definite and exact foreordination, while the Ar
minion mind rejoices in the absolute responsibility
of the individual for his own salvation or destruc
tion. 	GRo. W. GILmO$E.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: L‑V.: The indispensable book here is M. Jastrow, The Study of Religion, New York, 1901 (though, profound, and sound). Consult also: J. E. Carpenter, Place of Hint. of Religion in Theological Study, London, 1891; Chabin, La Science de la Religion, Paris, 1898; L. H. Jordan, Comparative Religion, Its Genesis and Growth, New York, 1905 (very useful for bibliography, but uneven and not always sound in judgment); P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Lehrbueh den Relipimnspoachichte, i. 1‑18, Tilbingen, 1905; E. Crawley, The Tree of Life. A Study o/ Religion, London, 1905 (rationalistic but suggestive); S. von Czobel, Die Enturickelunp den ReLiyionabepriffe, 2 vole., Leipsic, 1907; O. Pfleiderer, Religion and Historic Faiths, New York, 1907; C. Sohaarsohmidt, Die Religion. Einfahrunp in ihre Entmicklunpspeschiehts, Leipsie, 1907.
VI.: On primitive religion the literature is immense. On the whole field the following four books are indispensable and supplement each other: E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, London, 1903 (the classic on Animism); D. G. Brinton Religions of Primitive Peoples, New York,1897 (by the highest American authority); J. G. Frazer, Golden Bough, 3 vole., London, 1900 (primarily concerned with Magic, it covers the whole field of primitive religious conceptions); F. B. Jevons, Introduction to Hist, of Religion, London, 1898 (valuable, but handicapped by presuppositions; cf. the keen criticism in J. M. Robertson, Pagan Christs, ib. 1903).
For Animism and primitive psychology consult: W. Mannhardt, Aftiks Walt and Peld‑%ulte, 2 vols., Berlin, 1875‑77; F. Granger, Worship of the Romans, London, 1895; Marian R. Cox, Introduction to Folklore, ib. 1897 (valuable as a " first book "); Mrs. J. H. Philpot, The Sacred Tree, ib. 1897; A. S. Geden, Studies in Comyarative Religion, ib. 1898 (clear, excellent); A. Borchart, Der Animiamus Freiburg, 1900; F. Schultze, Psyrholopis den Naturvblker, book iii., Leipsic, 1900; A. E. Crawley, Mystic Rose New York, 1902 (suggestive, though erratic); F. H. Cushing, Zuni Tales, New York, 1902 (should be read by all students of primitive notions); R. H. Nassau, Fetichism in West Africa, ib. 1904 (" Fetichism " is equivalent here to " religion "); E. Clodd, Animism London, 1905 (low‑priced, should be in every library); Anthropological Essays Presented to E. B. Tylor in Honour o/ Ala 76th Birthday, Oxford, 1907 (treats many of the more recondite matters touched on in the teat).
On Magic, besides the general works mentioned above, consult: A. C. Haddon, Magic and Fetishism London, 1908 (one of the " god little books' ); F. Lenormant, Chaldean Magic, London, 1877; L. W. King, Babylonian Magic, ib. 1898; T. W. Davies. Magic, Divination, and Demonology, ib. 1898; E. A. T. Budge, Egyptian Magic, ib. 1899; W. W. Skeet, Malay Magic, ib. 1900; A, Lang, Magic and Religion, ib 1901.
On Mythology consult: F. Mss Mtlller Contributions to the Science of Mythology, 2 vols, London, 1897 (his completed statement, of. his Natural Religion, Legit. avi., 1889, and Science o/ Language, Lect. ix., 1880); A. Lang, Custom and Myth, London, 1884; idem, Myth, Ritual and Religion, ib. 1899 (Mr. Lang is the leading exponent of the anthropological school); J. Fieke, Myths and Mythmakere. Boston, 1872; D. G. Brinton, Myths of the Nom World. Philadelphia, 1898; Jevons. ut sup., obap. Iaz.

208	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Comparative Religion
		Comte
	On Totemism consult: A. Lang, Secret o/ the Totem,
London, 1905 (with which may be compared his Custom
and Myth and his Myth, Ritual and Religion); J. McLen
nan, Studies in Ancient History, 2 series, ib. 1876‑96;
W. R. Smith, in Journal o/ Philology, ix (1880), 79 eqq.,
and in his Rel. of Sem. and Kinship (Smith and MoLen
nan are the highest authorities); J. HShler, Zur Urpe
whichte der Ehe, Totomismns . . . , Stuttgart, 1897;
Mrs. K. Langloh Parker, The Bvahlayi Tribe, ib. 19115
(with Mrs. Parker's books should be read B. Spencer and
F. J. Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, ib. 1899,
and Northern Tribes of Cenhal Australia, ib. 1904); H.
Webster, PrimitiveSeaet Societies, New York, 1908. The
subject is illustrated also by H. C. Trumbull, Blood Cove
nant, New York, 1885; idem, Threshold Covenant, ib. 1896.
	On Taboo consult: Smith, Rd. of Sem., 151 eqq., 446
sqq., 479 ®qq.; idem, Kinship, passim; A. Lang, Custom
and Myth, pp. 6486; Granger, ut sup., pp. 200‑219;
S. Hartland, Legend of Perseus, ii., chaps. ix.‑xiii., London,
1897; Crawley, Mystic Rose, pp. 10‑80.
	On Sacrifice consult: A. Lang, Custom and Myth. PP.
105‑120; idem, Modern Mythology, pp. 70‑91; H. Spen‑
cer, Principles of Sociology. part i., chap. xix.. London,
1889; G. Allen, Evolution of Idea of God, chaps. v.‑vii.,
xvi., ib. 1897; F. B. Jevons, ut sup., chaps. 3d.‑xiL; W.
R. Smith, Rai. of Sem., pp. 213‑end; idem, Kinship, pp.
308 eqq.; Frazer, ut sup., chap. iii.; S. Hartland, ut sup.,
chap. xviii.
Consult further: J. F. C. Hecker, Dancing Mania of the Middle Apes, New York, 1888; B. Sidis, Psychology of Suggestion, ib. 1898; R. N. Cust, Common Features Which appear in all Religions, London, 1895.
COMPLINE: The concluding part of the day's office in the breviary (q.v.), normally recited just before bedtime and corresponding in some ways to prime, though even more than the latter office it has a general and invariable character all through the year. It begins with a short lesson (I Pet. v. 8), followed by the confession and absolution, four psalms, the hymn, another short lesson with responsory, the Nunc dimiitis or Song of Simeon (Luke ii. 29‑32), and certain prayers. See V1.sPERs.
	COMPOSTELLA: Properly Santiago de Com
postella, a city of Galicia, northwestern Spain (33
m. s. by w. of Corunna), reputed burial‑place of
the apostle James the Greater and for several cen
turies the most frequented place of pilgrimage in
Western Europe. Although the book of Acts (xii.
2) states that James was put to death in Jerusalem
(44 A.D.), Spanish tradition declares that he went
to Spain and suffered martyrdom there. For a
long time his burial‑place was unknown, but it was
miraculously discovered early in the ninth century:
A chapel‑which in time gave way to a cathedral
‑was built on the spot, and a town grew up there,
called Ad sanctum Jacobum apostolum or Giacomo
postolo, whence Compostella (7). The story is first
found in the ninth century (Walafried Strabo,
Poema de zii. apostolis, and others), and is gener
ally rejected by Protestants. Most Roman Catho
lie scholars also do not accept the alleged visit of
James to Spain, but incline to believe the tra
dition concerning his burial‑place. Santiago is
now a town of about 25,000 inhabitants, the
seat of an archbishop and of a university. For the
Order of Compostella see JAMES, SAINT, OF CoM
rosxru.LA, ORDER OF. 	(O. Z6Cgr.RRt.)
BIHLIOa3APH7: H. Mores, EspaAa saprada, iii., app. x., pp. 414‑435, Madrid, 1754; Natalie Alexander, Hisloria ecclesiashoa, sec. i., pert., prop. i., vol. iii. let eqq., Venice, 1778; P. B. Game, Die KirdenpewhicJte Spaniens. ii. 1, pp. 285‑299, ii. 2, pp. 361‑398. Regensburg, 1864; KL, iii 774‑777.
COMPSTON, HERBERT FULLER BRIGHT: Church of England; b. at Barnsley (21 m. n. of Sheffield), Yorkshire, England, Oct. 17, 1866. He studied at Exeter College, Oxford (B.A., 1891), and was curate of Totnes (1893‑94), Holy Trinity, Bournemouth (1895‑97), and St. Saviour's, Brixton Hill (1898‑1903). In 1900 he was appointed lecturer in Latin at King's College, London, and lecturer in Hebrew three years later. He is also a member of the faculty of theology in the University of London and has been curate of St. Mark's, North Audley Street, London, W., since 1903. In theology he is a liberal Churchman.

COMPTON, HENRY: Bishop of London; b. at Compton Wynyates (25 m. n.n.w. of Oxford), Warwickshire, 1632, youngest son of the Earl of Northampton; d. at Fulham, near London, July 7, 1713. He studied at Queen's College, Oxford, 1649‑52, went abroad and did not return to England until the Restoration, when he received a commission in the army; decided to enter the Church and was admitted M.A. at Cambridge 1661; entered Christ Church, Oxford, 1666 (B.D. and D.D., 1669); was consecrated bishop of Oxford 1674, translated to London 1675. He was privy councilor, and was entrusted with the religious education of the king's nieces, Mary and Anne, each of whom afterward became queen of England. In 1686, under James II., he was suspended from his bishopric for having refused to suspend at the king's command Dr. John Sharp, dean of Norwich, who had preached against popery. He actively espoused the cause of William and Mary, crowned them king and queen in 1689, and was reinstated in his old positions and given new honors and responsibilities. The close of his life was embittered by disappointment at not receiving the primacy. He was conciliatory toward dissenters, but his efforts to unite them to the Church met with little appreciation from either churchmen or non‑conformists. He gave liberally to all in need and for building churches and hospitals, and died poor in consequence. He was a good botanist and in his grounds at Fulham had " a greater variety of curious exotic plants and trees than had at the time been collected in any garden in England." Besides episcopal letters (republished as Episcopalia with Memoir by S. W. Cornish, Oxford, 1842) and charges, he published The Life of Donna 0limpia Maldachini (1667), translated from the Italian; The Jesuits' Intrigues (1669) and A Treatise of the Holy Communion (1677), translated from the French.
COMTE, coot, ISIDORE AUGUSTE MARIE FRANCOIS XAVIER (usually simply AUGUSTE): The founder of the positive school of philosophy (see Posrrivlsm); b. at Montpellier (76 m. w.n.w. of Marseilles) Jan. 19, 1798; d. in Paris Sept. 5, 1857. He was educated mainly at the Acole Polytechnique in Paris. In 1817 he came under the influenoe of Saint‑Simori, who helped to determine the future course of his mental activity. In 1826 he began a course of lectures covering the whole range of science as conceived by him, which was terminated by an attack of brain fever, resulting in such cerebral disturbance as to necessitate his
""", ‑ °"°"°" 1 °u'°‑rum ne&rm . . . , published again,

Comes
Oonoordaaoea	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOQ	204
confinement in an asylum and to cause several attempts at suicide. In 1828 he took up the course again, and the neat year definitely began the construction of his Cours de philosophic positive (6 vols., 1830‑42). Some minor educational appointments assured him a modest income, until in 1842, when he lost the post of examiner for admission to the Pcole Polytechnique, and with it the half of his revenue. Through the efforts of John Stuart Mill, some of his English admirers made up the deficiency for a time, and from 1848 Littr6 and other French friends did the same. After the completion of the Philosophic positive, he proceeded to apply its principles to the reconstruction of society in the Systems de politZ:que positive (4 vols., 18511854). Re gave practical expression to his views by founding in 1848 the "Positive Society," and by giving bourses of free lectures, which were suppressed by the government in 1851. The Politique positive is much less coldly intellectual than his first great work, and is marked by an enthusiasm for the welfare of humanity which he exalted into a religion. The book, however, with certain small later works, the Catechisms positivists (1853), Appel aux comervateurs (1855), and Synthese s*eoLive (1856), did not meet with the approval of a section of his followers, of whom Littrd was the most important. In his later years Comte was less the founder of a philosophical system than the high pest of a new religion of humanity.
BIHLIOa‑: Among the many tranelstions of Comte's works the following may be mentioned: The PhitowyAy of Mathematics, by W. M. Gillespie, New York. 1851; The Positive Philosophy, by Harriet Martineau, 4 vols., London 1853 2.volp., 18'75, republished by Bohn, 3 vols., ib. 1898; The Caterhism of positive Religion, ib. 1858; A General View of Positivism, ib. 1885; System of positive Polity, by J: H Bridges, F. Harrison, and others, 4 vols., ib. 1875‑79; The Eight Circulars, by S. Lobb and others, ib. 1882•, Religion of Humanity, by R. Congreve, ib. 1891. Fox discussion of the philosophy of Comte see PoerrrvrsDl and the literature there. For the life and work oonsult: his Correspondanee inidite, 2 vole., Paris, 1903; J. S. Mill, Auguste Conde and Positivism, London, 1885, new ed., 1882 (answered by M. P. E. Littrd, Au. paste Comte et Stuart Mill, Paris, 1888, and J. H. Bridges, The Unity of Courts a Life and Doctrines, London, 1888); E. Csird, The Social Philosophy and Religion of Conde, Glasgow, 1885; H. Gruber, Auguste Comte . . . Leban and Loh‑, Freiburg, 1889 (translated into Fr. and 1191.); J. F. E. Robrnet, L'(Euvre et la vie d'Aupuele Conde, Paris, 1891; G. Audeffrent, Auguste Comte . . . sa vie et sa doctrine. ib. 1894• A. Schaefer, Die Moralphilwophis A. Coaster, Basel, 19oe.

CONANT, THOMAS JEFFERSON: Baptist; b. at Brandon, Vt.,, Dec. 13, 1802; d. in Brooklyn Apr‑ 30, 1891. He was graduated at Middlebury College, Vt., 1823; was professor of languages at W aterville College (Colby University), Me., 18271833; professor of languages and Biblical literature Hamilton Theological Institution (Colgate university), N. Y., 1835‑51, professor of Hebrew and Biblical exegesis Rochester Theological Seminary 1851‑57. From 1857 to 1875 he was in the service of the American Bible Union (see BIBLE SOCIETIES) and edited their revision of the New Testament (1871) and portions of the Old. He also
published The Meaning and Use of Baptizein philo
logically and `historically investigated for the Ameri
can Bible Union (New York,, 1860),' translated the
eleventh edition of Gesemus's Hebrew Grammar
(Boston, 1839), contributed a new version and phil
ological notes to the volume on the Psalms in the
Schaff‑Lange commentary (New York, 1872), and
with Lyman Abbott edited a Dictionary o f Religious
Knowledge (1875). He was a member of the Amer
ican Old Testament Revision Company.

CONATY, THOMAS JAMES: Roman Catholic bishop of Monterey and Los Angeles; b. at Kilna.leck (57 m. n.w. of Dublin), County Cavan, Ireland, Aug. 1, 1847. He studied at Montreal College (186"7), College of the Holy Cross, Worcester, Mass. (B.A., 1869), and Montreal Theological School (1872). He was assistant rector of St. John's Church, Worcester, Mass. (1873‑80), and rector of the Church of the Sacred Heart in the same city (1880‑97). On nomination of the Roman Catholic bishops of the United States he was appointed rector of the Catholic University of America, Washington, by Pope Leo XIII. in 1896. In 1897 he was designated domestic prelate to the pope with the title of Right Reverend Monsignor, and in 1901 he was appointed titular bishop of Samos. In 1903 he was consecrated bishop of Monterey and Los Angel. He was founder and editor of the monthly Catholic School and Home Magazine 1892‑96, and has written Bible Studies for Schools (New York, 1897).
CONCEPTION, THE IMMACULATE. See IncMACULATE CONCEPTION.

CONCEPTION OF OUR LADY, NUNS OF THE ORDER OF THE: A religious order founded by Beatrice de Silva, sister of James, first count of Poralego, Portugal, in 1484; confirmed by Innocent VIII. 1489; given the rule of St. Clare by Cardinal Ximenes, but by Julius II. given a separate rule in 1511.
CONCEPTUALISM. See SCHOLASTICISM.

CONCLAVE. See POPE, PAPACY, AND PAPAL SYSTEM.

CONCOMITANCE: An expression originating with Alexander of Hales and made by Thomas Aquinas a regular part of scholastic theology, sanctioned later by the Council of Trent, to designate the doctrine that as the living Christ is received in the Eucharist, and thus his body and blood can not be separated, both, together with his divinity, must inevitably be received under the species either of bread or of wine. It is in accordance with this doctrine that the Roman Catholic Church justifies the giving of communion in one kind, asserting that " the whole Christ " is thus received, though under the form of bread alone. See TnnNSuBsTANTIATION.
CONCORD, BOOK OF; FORMULA OF. See FORMULA OF CONCORD.

205	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	ooa t°rdwn0"
CONCORDANCES.
	i. The First Conaordanoea.		Manuscripts (f 1).		VI. English Concordances.
II. Hebrew Concordances.		1470‑1533 (¢ 2).	VII. French Concordances.
		1524‑1878 (4 1).		1555‑1885 (5 3).	VIII. Dutch Concordances.
		Mandelkern'e Concordance (5 2).		1751‑1892 ($ 4).		IX. Danish Concordances.
III. Greek Concordances.	V. German Concordances.		X. Swedish Concordances.
	1. The Old Testament.		1809‑50 (¢ 1).		XI. Syriso Conoordanoss.
	2. The New Testament.		Lanckisch s Concordance (f 2).	XII. Topical Indexes.
IV. Latin Concord‑nom		1707‑1893 (¢ 3).
The name concordance is applied to books listing the words of the Bible in alphabetical or other classified order. Every great book needs a table of contents. The Rats for the Bible are called concordances, perhaps because of the unison of the one word that stands out in each reference, or perhaps because the chief reason in old times, for comparing passages was the attempt to make them agree with each other. Verbal concordances are usually arranged according to the single words of the text and either add to each the simple chapter and verse where the word occurs, or give besides the words of the passage. Subject concordances or topical indexes aim rather at the matter than at the words, and often contain a brief explanation of the subject. In this article the verbal concordances are chiefly in view.
I. The First Concordances: The first concordance seems to have been in Latin and to have been made by the Burgundian Hugo of St. Cher (Hiago Carensis, d. 1263 or 1284), the first Dominican cardinal; it is fabled that he set five hundred Dominicans at work on it. He finished it about 1230 in the monastery of St. James at Paris, whence the name Concordardim S. Jacobi, also called Co»cordantieg breaaes because without the wording of the passages. About the year 1250 three Englishmen in the same monastery, John of Darlington, Richard of Stavenesby, and Hugh of Croydon, added the full wording in the Concordantio S. Jacobi, Anglicance or Maxima, so named because of the complete passages. Arlot (Arlotto) of Prato, a Tuscan, in 1285 appointed minister general of the Franciscans, improved Hugo's concordance. Conrad of Deutschland or of Halberstadt (flourished about 1290), rewrought and abbreviated Hugo's book and added, according to Sixtus Senensis, the indeclinable words (on Hugo, Arlot, and Conrad cf. Sixtus Senensis, Bibliotheca eanaa . . . a Joannne Hayo . . illustrate, pp. 249, 250, 201, 220, the last also falsely printed 201, Lyons, 1593). In connection with the Council of Basel in 1433, 1435‑40, because of the discussions with the Bohemians about niai, John vi. 54, and with the Greeks about ex and per, John Stoikowita (also called John of Ragusa) is said to have been especially distressed at the lack of a concordance of the particles and directed his Scotch chaplain, Walter Jonas, to make one. Jones began to prepare a volume with the particles arranged according to the books of the Bible, which he nearly finished in three years. Then two others took it up and completed it, and they probably introduced the alphabetical arrangement. John of Socubia or Segovia, archdeacon of Villaviciesa in the diocese of ~viWo, wrote the preface. Some have thought that the Concordantim moximce were so named not, as stated
above, because they gave the full passages instead of merely chapter and verse, but because they contained also the indeclinable words.
lI. Hebrew concotdances : Rabbi Isaac Mordecai (on the name cf. Buxtorf's preface, leaf 4s) ban Nathan made. a Hebrew‑ qoncordance 1438‑
1448: o"lmr111aMa tnaI r VIM 1'M. He ar
ranged the roots alphabetically, save that the
quadrilaterals stood at the end; derivatives stood
under the roots. It was published by Daniel
Bomberg Venice, 1524, in folio, and again in 1584
under the Dogs Arnald Ferrer, superintended
by Meir ban Jacob Franconi an. published by
Lorenzo Bragadini, printed by Maggio Parentini.
Ambrose Froben re ublished it in Basel, 1580,
under the title: 73P)1 wro '1'N' 1bD
mgt"D~Zt111~)1p (in the editio prima of 1524
this was the second title, after the sheet with
the preface, but closing with 'V"), in fifty
sheets beside the sheet in front (at least in the
Leipsic copy); the columns often agree with the
columns of 1524; at the end is Aaron Pesaro's list
		of the passages explained in the
	1. :534‑ Babylonian Talmud. Anton Reuch
	:878. din, professor of Hebrew at Stmsburg,
		published an edition at Basel, 1556,
in which Rabbi Nathan's explanation of the words
was given in Latin, but badly; Johann Breux
wrote the preface; it apes again, Basel, 1569.
Solomon Mandelkern saw in the royal library at
Munich the manuscript of a concordance that Elias
Levita Bachur wrote in 1516‑21: 111111=1 'MO.
Another manuscript revised by Elise Levity and
provided with a German translation is in the Na
tional Library at Paris (cf.. Mandelkern's preface).
Conrad Yimher of Augsburg, pastor at Donau
w6rth, published a Hebrew concordance; unfor
tunately, because he had given the wording of the
passages from the Greek text of the Septuagint he
called the book incorrectly: Concordantim Y. Ti.
Gracm, Ebrceis vocibua reapondantsa, iro)fixpwot
	. . , 2 vols. Frankfort, 1607 (4 leaves), 2,271,
2,310 cola. (1 leaf), 290 pp., quarto. The second
volume gives the Greek words with references to
the places in which they occur in the first volume
and with the passages from the Apocrypha. Le
Long mentions (p. 456) a manuscript summary
from Kircher made by Arnold Bootius and called
it Bx$liotheca Segueriana peg. 87 and a manuscript
Greek‑Danish concordance to the Apocrypha by
Prants Michael Vogel. Martin Trooet treated the
Chaldee sections by themselves: Concosdantia,
Chaldaiae et Syriaem ex Danidis at Eares capitibua
Chaldaice acriptis, Wittenberg, 1617,quarto. Marius
de Calasio, a Franciscan (d. 1620), made an
edition published in Rome, 1621‑22, by Michael
Angelo of St. Romulus: Concordantiss sacrorum
btbliorum Hebraicomm . . . , published again,

Oonoordsnosm	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	1308
Cologne, 1646; London, 1648; Rome, 1657; and
by William Romaine, London, 1747‑49, in 4 vols.
(15 leaves), 1;366, 1,234, 1,326, 852, 184 cola. (43
leaves), folio. John Buxtorf's concordance was
published by his son: Concordantice bViorum He
braicce, nova et artifieiosa methodo dispositos in Io
cis inntsmeria depravatis emendotte . . . . Accesse
runt novce concord. Chaldaicos . . . per Johannem
Buxtorf fil., Basel, 1632 (10 leaves), and sheets A
Yyyyy. The preface tells of the earlier concord
ances. Buxtorf left the particles out (of. Glauch,
De usu concordantiarum biblicarum schediaama,
Leipsic, 1668, p. 24). In Le Long, Bibliotheca sacra,
Paris, 1723, there is found under Christopher Crine
sius: "Cone. Hebr., Wittenberg, 1627, quarto." J5
eher has PIM 1150 seu analysis Novi Ti. per f'7 ta
bular. (Is that the same book?) Andreas Sennert
published at Wittenberg, 1653,12 leaves to announce
a book that he would like to publish if some one
would bear the cost: Jnp1 MPD 1i"13, give ma
nuals concordantiarum Bbrao‑Bsblicmrum d. J. Bum
torfli. Christian Raue abbreviated Buxtorf: Conc.
Hebr. et Chald. 1. Buxtorfii epitome, Berlin and
Frankfort, 1677. Christian Nolde gave the parti
cles: Concor. Particularum Ebr.‑Chald., Copenhagen,
1679; Sim. Bened. Tympe added to it Job. Micha
elia's and Christian Koerber's particles: Nolde, Conc.
panic. . . . S. Gott fr. Tympius summa curs recelr
suit . . . inseruit concordantias pronominum sepa
ratorum Ebr. et Chald. nunc primum congeatas a
Simeone Benedicto Tympw denique appendicis loco
subjunxit lexica particularum Ebrrsicarum Joh.
Michaelis (cum prafatione Aug. Pfeiferi; cf. Bind
seil, xxxv., note 1) et Christiani %oerberi, Jena,
1734. Le Long names William Robertson, Thesaurus
ling. sanct. aeu cone. lexicon Bbr.‑Lat.‑btbl., London,
1680, and Antony Laymann, Concordantice Hebroo
sacrra iuxta seriem cuiuaque constructionis syntactieee,
n.p., 1681. (Is that really a concordance?) John
Taylor made a very good Hebrew concordance
adapted to the English text, 1764, 2 vols. Isaac
ben Tashi from Soldin in Prussia summarized Bux
torf: . . . xr1) vm vD1 11y'a m,,n yl, 4!'1m
K1Y3X111p;1P tnal1, Frankfort‑on‑the‑Oder, 1768.
Julius Furst's great work: mjaM06 1y114, Leipsic,
1840, is still much used; editions by B. Baer, Stettin,
1847 and 1861. G. V. Wigram aided by S. P. Treg
elles and B. Davidson published the Englishman's
Hebrew and Chcldee Concordance, London, 1843, 3d
ed., 1866; Davidson, revised by Joseph Hugh,
London, 1876. Strack refers to concordances of
proper names by Gid. Brecher, Frankfort‑on
Main, 1876, and by L. M. Schusslowitz, 1aD
f110M111U, Wihla, 1878.
In the year 1884 Solomon Mandelkern announced a new concordance: Die neubearNitele HebrdischchaidAische Bibel‑Concordanz . . . nebst Gutachten ion Faehgedehrten, and published 15 pp. quarto; later an approving word of H. L. Fleischer's was added on a separate leaf. Finally the book ap. peared: Solomon Mandelkern Veteris Testamenti concordantice Hebraicce et Chaldaiora . . . (and a Hebrew title), 2 vols., Leipsic, 1896, xv., 1,532 pp. folio. Later Mandelkern made a small edition without the wording of the passages, Leipsic, n.d., viii. (1), 1,010 (1) pp. quarto. This work had been
long preparing and was published at Leipsic where there are , goqd compositors and good proof‑readers in every branch;. it should therefore have been careful and accurate, but it is not at all well done. Consequently it is desirable that scholars in this department should collect their contributions to the correction of the errors and send in the lists of mistakes found, so that the
s. Mandel‑ publishers can issue a supplement, kern's Con‑ which they are willing to do. The best
	cordance.	way would be to divide the book up
		between a large number of men, so
that nothing could escape detection. Some of
the contributions are already made: Carl Siegfried,
Stellenfehler in Mdndelkern's V. T. cone. Hebr., in
ZWT, 1897, 465‑467; Rudolf Kittel, Ein kurses
Wort aber die beiden Mandelkernschen Concordan
zen, in ZATW, 1898, 165‑167; B. Jakob, Georg
Beer, Gustaf Dahnan, Bernhard Stade, ZATW,
1898, 348‑351; Herman L. Strack, TLZ, 1898, no.
13, 358‑359; (Mandelkern, . . Pro domo, ZATW,
1899, 183‑186); A. Bilchler, B. Jakob, K. Ludwig,
E. Konig, A. ion Gall, ZATW, 1899, 187‑191,
350; (I. 1. Kahan, ZATW, 1899, 353‑356; Man
delkern, ZATW, 1900, 173‑176; Kahan, ZATW,
1900, 338‑344); E. Rosenwaseer, ZATW, 1902,
320; A. Zilleseen, ZATW, 1903, 94‑95; Von Gall,
ib. 95‑96; Mayer Lambert, ib. 352‑354; Von Gall
and E. Nestle, ib. 354; Rosenwasser, ZATW, 1904,
146, 326; M. Brann, in Monatsschrift far Geschiehte
and Wissenseha t des Judentums, 1898, 529‑537;
Badt, in Monatsschrift far Gfachichte and Wiesen
schaft des Judcntums, 1899, 523, 524; J. GUtsberger,
Btblische Zeitschraft, ii., 1904, 259; Sven Herner, in
ZDMG, lxi (1907), 7‑17. Doubtless other scholars
have further corrections. Professor Kautzsch in
Halls has given the following:
p. 34 nrnxi •~1 read Ho.. 2, 3, instead of 2, 2:
p. 251 read in tmt instead of m~lann.
p. 315 read arn"n but Job 6, 21, on "1.
p. 371 inn Ct 3, 4 should be put by itself as etat. oonstr.
p. 479 Why has Mmdelk. I Chr. 3. 5, at~r7 ! Ed. Mant., Baer, Ginab. have here also a6u.
p. 488 99m Prov. 30, 6 is wanting.
p. 503 at least I Ki. 18, 3 does not belong under the perfect N1o. but under the adf. verbate, and probably also I Ki. 1, 51; 18, 12; Prov. 14, 16; Job. 1, 9.
p. 729 instead of nlan ed. Mart., Beer ruin.
p. 733 read 1!1 (= Vi) instead of 1.11 and 1•1.
p. 771 nXfF) (infin. abet. Niph.?) II Bam.19, 43 is wanting.
p. 1005 "Is!) Gen. 32. 8, instead of 32, 7.
He expressed the wish that some one would make a concordance of the words arranged according to the end of the words, so that a scholar could work rapidly with fragments of the inscriptions and of manuscripts; cf. Friedrich Zimmer's Greek termination‑concordance.
III. Greek Concordances: Sixtus Senensis relates that about 1300 a Basilian monk, Euthaliue of Rhodes, made a Greek concordance of the whole Bible, following Hugo of St. Cher's example in the Latin Bible. This is said to have been seen in manuscript at Rome, but is unknown. Another Greek, George Sugdures, who studied at Rome toward the end of the seventeenth century and afterward taught at Constantinople, is said to have worked thirty years on a Greek concordance of the

$07	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Ooaoordwaoss
whole Bible, but not to have published it; cf. Le Long, 456a, and JScher.
x. The Old Testament: Tromm'ius (Abraham van der Trommen), Concordantim Grcecce versionis vulgo dicta LXX interpretum . . Leguntur hie prmterea voces Grmcee pro Hebraicis redditas ab antiquis omnibus Veteris Testamenti interpreti7bus . . . Aquila, Symmaeho, Theodotione, . . . Amsterdam and Utrecht, 1718, was until lately the only concordance for the Greek Old Testament. At the end are given a Hebrew‑Chaddee dictionary, a Greek dictionary to Origen's Heaapla from Montfaucon, prepared by Lambert Bos, and Boss comparison of the chapters and verses in the SixtinoVatican edition of the Septuagint with those in the Frankfort edition of 1597, which both Kircher and Trommen used. Trommen wrote in 1718 a defense of his book against Gagnier, who defended Kircher. A second edition of Trommen appeared at Amsterdam, 1742. Bagater published: A Handy Concordance of the Septuagint, London, 1887. Now there exists the great work of Edwin Hatch and Henry A. Redpath, A Concordance to the Septuagint . . . , Oxford (1892, 1897, 1900), with a supplement giving, the proper names (all should have been in one list).
s. The New Testament: Sixtus Birken of Augsburg made a concordance for the New Testament: Xystus Betulejus, 2vp*rvfa 0 &6Uegtc rift dtatinw Tic, Ni. Ti. concord., Basel, 1546. Henri Estienne finished his father's (d. 1559) concordance: Concordantim (Ir.‑Lat. Testa=. novi, Paris, 1594; 2d ed., Geneva, 1624. Erasmus Schmid of Wit_ tenberg made a concordance, Ni. Ti. . . . TAMEION, Wittenberg, 1638, repeated by Ernst Salomon Cyprian, Gotha and Leipsic, 1717, often reprinted, e.g., by John. William s, London, 1767; without name, 2 vols., Glasgow, 1819; by William Greenfield, London, 1830; in the most convenient form by the London publisher Bagster. Ethelbert W. Bullinger issued A Critical Lexicon and Concordance to the English and (reek New Testament, London, 1877, 5th ed., 1908. The chief work at present is Karl Hermann Bruder's, Leipsic, 1842, 4th ed., 1888, but it will be surpassed by Paul Wilhelm Schmiedel's, now preparing. George V. Wigram (see above) also prepared: .The English»ean's Greek Concordance, London, 1839 and later. Otto Schmeller, TAMEION, London, 1869. In America Hosea L. Hastings had an excellent concordance prepared by Charles F. Hudson and revised by Ezra Abbot: A Critical (reek and English Concordance, Boston, 1870, 3d ed., 1875. Especial attentionmust be called to Friedrich Zimmer's Concordantim supplementaricv omnium vocum Nom Teatamenti Growi et classibus secundum terminationes distributarum et derivatarum cum nativis verbis collocatarum composite a'F. Z., Gotha, 1882, and to W. F. Moulton and A. S. Geden, A Concordance to the Greek Testament according to the Texts of. Westcott and Hort, Tischendorf, and the English Revisers, Edinburgh, 1897; 2d ed., 1899.
IV. Latin Concordances: The Latin concordances were the earliest and are now very complete. They have an interesting history, closely bound up with the development of academic life in
Western Europe. A few manuscripts are noted here as an incitement for one who can give himself to the history of these books, also a few out of the many printed concordances of the Latin Bible. The Bibliothbque Nationale at Paris contains ten manuscripts of concordances all of which are dated from the fourteenth century. These are the
MSS. Lat. 513, 514, 515, 516, 517,
z. Mane‑ (all five from Colbert's library); 518
scripts. and 519 (from the Carmelite Monas‑
tery); 520, 601 (belonged formerly to Baluze: in quinque pros distribute); 602 (once Tellier's: concordantid ordine alphabetico digesta); 603, 606 scarcely seem to contain concordances. The city, library at Bordeaux owns a MS. of the "larger concordance," MS. 15, fourteenth century, parchment, 470 leaves, 3 cols. on a page: bibliorum concordantiee maiores ; the beginning is: Cuilibet volenti requirere concordancias in hoc lzbro, unum eat primo allmdendum, and the end is: Ge. XXX. b. sadism lya quod parere desisset, Zelfam ancillam mardo tradidit. Explieiunt magnet concordantie. MS. no. 6 in the monastery Heiligenkreus (‑Neukloster) in Vienna seems to begin and end in the same way. The university library at Leipsic has three manuscripts which seem to be of the same kind as those at Bordeaux and Vienna; they are ascribed to Conrad of Germany; these are MS. Lat. 99, perhaps of the 14th century, MS. Lat. 100, of about the 15th century, and MS. Lat. 101, of about the 15th century.
Conrad of Alemannia's Concordantice bibliorum is said to have appeared at Strasburg, 1470. At Leipsic there is one (Hain, 5629, says by J. Mentelin, Strasburg, c. 1475) dated 1474 by the rubricator, who probably knew the precise date. It appeared again at Bologna, 1479, 1486; Basel, 1480, studio Joan. Niviceuenaia. The first edition of the Concordantim Anglicanaa is supposed to be Nuremberg, 1485, as Concord. magnas ; again 1487.
Sebastian Brant published Conrad's
	a.	concordance as Conc. S. Jacobi, and
I47o‑‑=533• John of Segovia's at Frobea's in Basel,
	1496, in two parts, repeated by Fro
ben 1506; Concordantim maiores biblie tam dictionum
dedinabilium quam indeelinabilium de novo summa
diligentia cum textu vise ac secundum veram orthogra
phiam emendatissime excuse, with preface by Con
radus Leontorius Mulbrunnensis, dated May 12,
1506, Ex Artavalle ultro Birsam Basileanam; the
colophon says that the work was printed opera et
impensis Johannini Amerbachii, Petri de Langen
dor f f, et Proben de Hammelburg iam denuo in urbe
Basileorum.	The first part contains sheets arz,
A‑Z, Aa‑Ff, folio; the second part is entitled Con
cordantie partium sive dictionum indeclinabilium
totius biblie, and the preface of John of Segovia
tells something of the way in which preparations
for it were made. A further title, over the first
word, says that John of Segovia published the
book at the Council of Basel in 1430; this is prob
ably intended as a general date for the council and
not for the book, for according to John's Dreface
the book was not done before 1440 at the earliest;
repeated Basel, 1516, 1521, 1523, 1525, 1526;
Strasburg, 1526, 1530; Lyons, 1526, 1528, 1540,

Oonoordaaoss	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	208
1545; ed. Johannes Gaste from Breisach, Basel, 1552. In 1533 Joannes Steels, an Antwerp bookseller, published a handy little volume Index utriusque Testamenti, the first convenient rival of the large concordances.
In Paris, 1555, Robert Estienne's improved concordance came out: Concordantus bibliorum utriusque Testamenti, V. et Ni., novce et integrce. Quas revera maiores appellare possis, for which Estienne divided the New Testament into verses. At Basel Joh. Hervage published, 1561 and again 1568, a concordance by his father. Jean Benoit made an edition (Paris?.), 1562 George Bullock one in Antwerp, 1572, Leyden, 1586, 1603, 1615. From the Clementine Vulgate of 1592, Antwerp, 1599; (Frankfort), 1600; again 1618 (Hanover?);
Cologne, 1611; Geneva, 1611; with
3.	notes by Franz Lukas from Bruges,
=555‑I68g. Antwerp, 1606, 1612; Venice, 1612; Orldans, 1612; Lyons, 1612, 1615 (confused with Leyden, 1615?),•. Antwerp and Venice, 1618; Geneva, 1620, 1624; Geneva and Vrankfort, 1625; Rome, 1627, by Gaspard de Zamora, S. J.; Paris, 1635, 1638, 1646; Cologne, 1628 (1629?), 1661, 1663; Bamberg, 1721. Hubert Phalesius corrected in,1642 Franz Lukas's edition of 1617, printed Lyons, 1649, 1652, 1667, 1687, 1700; Paris, 1656; Cologne, 1684; Mainz, 1685; and at other times and places, for example, Vienna, 1825.
The Benedictine monks in Wessobrunn published: Concordanticv nova methodo ornatce, Augsburg, 1751, with whole verses or at least sentences. F. F. Dutripon's Vulgate editionis bZliorum saerorum concordantice, Paris, 1838, has reached at least a 7th ed., Paris, 1880, Regensburg, 1886. Tonimi revised it, Prado, 1861. H. de Raze, Ed. de Le‑
chaux, and J. B. Flandrin, all S. J.,
4.	published a Concordantium s. s. manu‑
I75r‑x892• ale, Lyons, 1852, 13th ed., Paris, 1895. De Raze's arrangement of words according to cases or tenses is also used by Peultier, Atienne, Gantois, in their Concordantium . . . thesaurus (in R. Comely, J. Knabenbauer, Fr. von Hummelauer's Cursus sacr. script. Pars. 111. Textus V.), Brussels [1897]. Add here: V. P. Robert; Aunfodina sacra scientiarum divinarum ex font&a aureis utriusque Testamenti, ordine alphabetieo digests, Turin, 1873; M. Bechi's Concord. prater alphab. ordinem in grammaticalem redada, Turin, 1887; C. Legrand, Bruges, 1889; V. Comfort, Concordantice for preachers in choosing texts, Paris and Bruges, 1892.
V. German Concordances: Several small books appeared with only a selection of passages, first of all Johannes Schroeter's %onkordantz des Newen Testaments zu teutsch, Strasburg, 1524, according to Luther's translation. Leonhard Brunner, pastor in Worms, extended this to the whole Bible, Strasburg, 1546. Michael Maling published a little Conkordanz‑Bibel. Leipsic, 1602, and finally Lucas Stockle, H. Gotlicher Schraft Schatzkammer
oder Teutsche Bi6lische Coneordantzen, Herbom in the county Nassaw Catzeneinbogen, 1606.
The first large work came from the Nuremberg printer Conrad Bawr (Latinized Agricola), with a preface of July 5th, 1609: Concordantice bibliorum,
d. i. Uhl. Concordantz and Verzeichniss der Furnembsten Wmrter . . . au/ Mart. Luther's Ao. 161,6 am ldzten revidirte Bibel gerichtet, Frankfort‑onMain, 1610, 1621, 1632, 1640. In 1612 he added an appendix. Christian Zeise, pastor in Oeltzschau near Leipsic, improved Bawr's work, Frankfort‑
on‑Main (1657), 1658, 1674; a suppler. ment in 1664. Le Long mentions
i6og‑go. concordances by Johannes Fischer, Her‑
born, 1610; Johannes Faber, Ingolstadt, 1615; Paul Orell, Frankfort, 1627; Daniel Fessel Frankfort, 1662; Johannes Janus, Scripture oder Stella eolorum, Frankfort, 1650; Martin Gumbrecht, Dresden, 1654.
Friedrich Lanckisch, a Leipsic bookseller, prepared an enormous work, but died in 1669 before he could print it. Volume i. came out in the shape the author had intended: Concordantim bZliorum Germanico‑Hebraicofireecte, Leipsic, 1677, new ed., 1688; 3d ed., 1696, 4th ed., 1705, enlarged by Christian Reineccius, 1718, second part, 1742. The
Hebrew or the Greek word was placed 2. Lanck‑ beside each German word. Volumes isch's ii. and iii. were then abbreviated and
Concord‑ published as follows: Concordantice ance. biZliorum Hebrao‑ et Grtaco‑Germaniete,
		duabus partibus absolutce, quarum prior
votes Hebrdicas et Chaldaicas V. Ti., posterior vocea
omnes Gr=as [N. Ti., Apocr. et LXX. in".]
	. cum signi icatibus Germanicis a versions
Lutheri ordine alphabet. recenset. Magni concor
dantiarum operis a F. Lcmekisch conscripti epitome,
2 parts, Leipsic and Frankfort, 1680. This is a
Hebrew‑Latin‑German and Greek‑Latin‑German
dictionary without any note of the passages.
Georg Michaelis's Kleine Concordantz of 1686 appeared in a sixth edition of the first part, I.eipsic, 1707, and in a second edition of the second part, Leipsic and Jena, 1718; with preface by F. A. Hallbauer, Jena, 1733; G. Michaelis vollstdndige Real‑ and Verbab.Concordanz . . . vermehret von M. Adam Lebrecht Miiller. Mit einer Vorrede Joh. Georg Walchs, Jena, 1767. Wohleingerichtete Anweieung zur Biblischen Concordanz vermittelst einem Biblischen Spruch Register . . . , Lemgoo (1720?), 1725; Biblischas Spruch0egister, 5th ed., Lemgo, 1736, enlarged, Basel, 1746. Avenariue issued Biblisches Spruchregister, Gotha~1713. Niederwerfer's Biblischer Kern and ,Stern oiler. Hand‑concordantz appeared Leipsie, 1814. Johannes Ka,m‑
prads made a Biblical Sprachregister, 3. published with preface by Sieg‑
I707‑x893. fried Becker, the Leipsic superin‑
tendent, Dresden and . Leipsic, 1727. Gottfried Buchner made: Verbal Hand‑Concordanz oiler exegetisch‑homiletiaehes Lexikon, Jena, 1740, 3d enlarged ed., Jena, 1756; 6th ed., enlarged by Heinrich Leonhard Heubner, Halls, 1840, 23d ed., Berlin, 1899; with supplement of 12,000 Bible passages by Lutz and Riehm, Basel, 1890; Philip Schaff prepared a reprint of the Heubner ed. by Buchner, Philadelphia, 1871, in which A. Sp§,th added 8 060 passages. Buchner first issued his Grosse Bail. Real and yerbal‑Canz,im, Jena, 1750 3d ed., 1765. Others are: Jacob Christof Beck, Vollstdndiges Biblischea Wbrterbuch, Oder

goo	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Conoordaaoes
Real‑ and VerbalrConeordanz, Basel, 1770; Gottfried Joachim Wichmann, Biblische Handconcordanz. Nebst Vorrede von Christian Wilhelm Franz Walch, Dessau and Leipsic, 1782; 2d ed., thoroughly wrought over, Leipsic, 1796; new unchanged ed., with preface by Kindervater, Leipsic, 1806; Heinrich Schott, Biblische Handconcordanz, Leipsic, 1827; Biblische Hand‑Concordanz, 1841, 2d much enlarged ed., Leipsic, 1847; Frank Julius Bernhard, pastor at Magdeborn near Leipsic, Bi7blische Concordanz oiler dreir (aches Register caber Spriiche im Allgemeinen, xlber Textstellen fur besondere Faille and fiber Sachen, Namen and Worte der von Dr. Luther ubersetzten heiligen Schrift, Leipsie, 1850, 1851; 2d thoroughly revised ed., 1857; 7th reprint, Dresden, 1888; Calwer Bxbelkonkordanz oder voMtti»diges biblisches Wortregister. Nach der revidirten Luther Uebersetzung, Calw and Stuttgart, 1893.
	VI. English Concordances (cf. M. C. Hazard, in
Walker's Concordance): The Concordtmce of the
New Testament, apparently by John Day helped
by the printer Thomas Gybaon, came out undated,
but before 1540. John Maxbeck published: A
Concordance for the whole Bible, London, 1550.
Walter Lynne translated Conrad Pellican's In
dex Lebrorum [Zurich, 1537]; A brief and a com
pendious Table, in the Manner of a Concordance,
London, 1550. Robert F. Herrey made Tvuo
Right Profitable and Fruit full Concordances, Lon
don, 1578, and his printer, Christopher Barker,
published A Concordance by J. W., London, 1579.
Clement Cotton prepared a larger work, London
(1618 sqq.?), 1625, from the Geneva New Testa
ment; 1627, from the Old Testament; 1631, from
the whole Bible. John Downame made a sum
mary of this at Cotton's wish, London, 1635, again
1689. Richard Bernard made a Thesaurus biWi
cus, London (?), 1644, and Robert Wickens, A
Compleat and Perfect Concordance, Oxford, 1647;
1655. Samuel Newman, who went to New Eng
land in 1636 or 1638, published: A Large and Com
plete Concordance, on the basis of Cotton, London,
1643; 2d ed., 1650; 3d ed., 1658 (in this the Apoc
rypha); then 1662, only with Newman's initials
S. N.; and finally as the Cambridge Concordance,
1720,. without Newman's name. Mulbing issued
one, London, 1666. John Jackson wrote a short
concordance (Cambridge), 1668; John Owen,
London, 1673; and Samuel Clark, 1696. Cruden's
Concordance came out in 1737 and has often been
republished in various forms, for example, by John
Butterworth, Philadelphia, 1867; John Brown,
London, 1816; C. S. Carey, London, 1867; John
Eadie, with preface by David King, New York,
1850; with preface by Joel Hawes, Hartford, 1867;
Cole; Hawker; David Icing, Boston, 1845; Alfred
Jones, London, about 1855; Smith, Youngman, and
Thomas Taylor, Brooklyn, 1809. Robert Young's
Analytical Concordance, Edinburgh, 1873, also
1881, added the Hebrew and Greek original words.
James Bradford Richmond Walker's Comprehen
sive Concordance with an Introduction by Marshall
Custiss Hazard, leaves unimportant matter out,
yet contains 50,000 more passages than Cruden; it
appeared Boston and Chicago, 1894; James Strong,
		1II.‑14
Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible; also brief dictionaries of the Hebrew and Greek words of the original, with reference to the English words, New York, 1894 (takes in every word).
V1I. French Concordances: Only Protestant ones are given. Concordance de la Bible, Geneva, 1566; Mare Wilks, Concordances des Saintes tcritures, Paris, 1840; W. B. Mackensie, Concor= dance for the Osterwald translation, Paris, 1867, again 1874; Dictionnaire des concordances des Saintes terltures d'aprbs la version du Dr. Segond, Lausanne, 1886.
VIII. Dutch Concordances: Peder Janz Twisck, a Mennonite, published a concordance to the Flemish Luther‑Bible, Hoorn, 1615; then Sebastian Dranck, Haarlem, 1618, and again 1648. Jan Martin (van Dantzigs? from Danzig?) began a Flemish concordance, and Abraham van der Trommen finished it before his Greek one: Nederlandsche Concordantie des Bijbels, Groningen, 1685‑92; Leeuwarden, 1754. H. Valse issued Kleyne concordantie, The Hague, 1704.
I%. Danish Concordances: E. Ewald, Copenhagen, 1748, 1749; E. Levinsen, Verbal‑Concordans eller Bibel‑Ordbog til det Nye Testamente, Copenhagen, 1856.
%. Swedish Concordances: According to Le Long, Achaz Rahamb translated a German concordance, of which the letter A was published in Stockholm about 1709. Lorenz Holenius (Halenius?), Svensk‑Hebraisk og Svensk‑Grekisk eoncordans over G. og N. Testam., Stockholm, 1734, 1742.
XI. Syriac Concordances: Carl Schaaf, Lexicon
Syriaeum concordantiale omnes Ni. Ti. Syriaci votes . complectens, Leyden, 1709.
XII. Topical Indexes: Cf. C. Mangenot, in Vigouroug's Dietionnaire de la bible, ii. 892‑905, Paris, 1899. Many of the concordances named above were at the same time more or less topical, the concordance of the words being the beat concordance of the subjects. The topical indexes go back to the work of Antony of Padua (1195‑1231), whose Concordantics morales ss. bxiblics seem to be contained in the library of the University of Leipsic, MS. Lat. 102, leaf 1‑123r, with possibly a fragment in MS. Lat. 543 (5). It was often printed, as for example, Venice, 1575; Rome, 1621, again 1623 (?); by De la. Haye, Paris, 1641; Cologne, 1647. Franz Lukas Wading (cf. Mangenot) added to Antony a sermon‑prompter by an Irish monk of the thirteenth century, and something similar was printed at Paris, 1497. A great many indexes could be added to this book of Antony'a, for example Conrad Pellican's, Zurich, 1537; Peter Patiens, in Landau, Frankfort, 1571; Jan Harlems, in the Antwerp Polyglotte, viii., Antwerp, 1572; Anton Broickwy von Koninsteyn, Cologne, 1550; Paris, 1551 and 1554; William Allot, Antwerp, 1581, 2d ed., 1585; Anton von Balinghem, Douai, 1621; Cologne, 1659 ; Trevoua, 1705 ; Lyons, 1711; Eulard, Antwerp, 1625; Philip Paul Merz after Allot, Augsburg, 1731, 1738, 1751, 1791; Venice, 1758, 1818; Paris, 1822, 1825, 1883; Johannes Jakob Ohm, Bx7blische Spruchconcordanz by Chr. Liebeyott Simon, Leipsic, 1812; Job. Michael Otto, Bablisches Spruchregister, ed. J. G. Rlfbner,

	S and
Ommu"MIting Bulls	THE NEW SCHAYF HERZOG	210
Sulabach, 1823; C. G. Haupt, BZlische Real‑ and Verbal‑Encyclopdd%e, Quedlinburg, 1823‑27; J. G. Hauff., Biblische Real‑ and Verbalkonkordanz, Stuttgart, 1828‑34; Matalcne, Paris, 1837, again 1884; A. J. James, .Paris, 1835; Lueg, BZlische Realcorteprdans, 2d ed. by Heim, Regensburg, 1855; C. Mszeron, Paris, 1889. CABPAR Rltrtt GREGoRx.
BIHMOa8APH7: C. Kircher, Ds oonoordanKa bibiica . . um, Wittenberg, 1622 (a polemic against Romanism); J. Bmctorf, preface to his Coaoordantim, Basel 1632; A. Glauoh, De ooaeordantiansm biNioarum usu, Leipsio, 1668; W. Frantz, Tmcfatus Veoloyicus de interpretations aaerarumScri7turarium, pp. 82‑70, Wittenberg. 1708; J. IA Long, Biblieum sacrum, i. 454w‑4895, Paris, 1723; H. E. Bindseil, Concadantiarum . . . specimen . . . , Halle, 1867; Vigoumuz, Diedionaaire de la bible, ii. 892‑906, Paris, 1899.
CONCORDATS AND DELIMITING BULLS.
Legal Theories of Conoordste (¢ 1).
1. Early Concordats. II. Conoordate Resulting from the Council of Constance.
IIIConcordats after the Council of Bevel.
1. Germany.
The Princes' Concordats, 1446 (¢ 1).
The Concordat of Aechaffenburg or of Vienna, 1448 (¢ 2).
2. France. IV. The Seventeenth Century.
V. The Eighteenth Century. VL The Nineteenth Century.
The term concordat was used in a much broader sense in past centuries than to‑day. Concordats are now usually understood to be treaties between the sovereign of a state and the pope of Rome, whereby the affairs of the Roman Catholic Church in the country concerned receive general regulation. Agreements between a state sovereign and the pope with respect to particular questions are not designated as concordats; for instance, the so‑called bullm circutnscriia, by which the bounds of a diocese are determined. Nor is an understanding between a state sovereign and the bishops of a country so named, or an agreement between the State and a Protestant church. In former centuries the conclusion of such agreements was despatched in very diversified forms; in modern times it has been customary to comprehend the result of the transactions effected by plenipotentiaries of both sides in a document which is duly published as state law upon ratification by the State and as canon law when accepted by the Church.
The legal nature of oonoordste in disputed; but eseentelly three theories obtain: (1) The Privilege Theory: If the State be the servant of the Church, it is obliged to fulfil the owes undertaken by it in the concordat; henoe all concessions of Church to State are privileges. Every concordat therefore consists of two elements, which legally are not coordinate; via., the acknowledgment of obligations on the part of the State which were already incumbent on the State. and the grant of an indult on the part of the Church. The former is permanent; the latter, in the nature of the case, revocable. The evolution of the mod‑
1. Legal em State has removed the foundation of s
Theories	practical realization of these elementary prin‑
of Con‑ ciples; but the privilege theory itself has not
	oordats.	been surrendered on the Roman side, and
		Pius I%. in a brief of June 19, 1872, referred
to the concordats as pacts ass indulta. (2) The Treaty
Theory: Concordats are treaties equally binding on both
aides, of the nature of international or public law. The
fulfilment of these treaties inheres m the fact that each of
the two parties promulgates a law conformably to the teat
of the treaty, and makes no alteration in the status thus
determined without the consent of the other party; it be
ing, however, understood that in the event of changed air
oumetanoea each party retains the right of withdrawal.
This construction of oonoordate was prevalent at the be
ginning of the nineteenth century, but it is not satisfactory,
since it assumes a coordination of Church and State that
can not be reconciled with the State's pretention to eccle
siastiaalsupremacy; and since there is wanting s common
1. France.
The Concordat of 1801 (¢ 1).
French Dependencies (¢ 2).
The Concordat of Fontainebleau, 1813 (¢ 3).
The Concordat of 1817 (¢ 4).
2. Germany and Austria.
Inconclusive Negotiations of the Napoleonic EM G I).
Conomdst with Bavaria, 1817
Delimiting Bull for Prussia, 1821 (¢ 3).
Delimiting Bull for Hanover, 1824 (¢ 4).
The States of the Ecclesiastical
	Province of the Upper Rhine
G 5).
Concordat with Austria, 1868 (¢ 8).
Agreements with Heeeo‑I)atmetadt,
WOrttemberg, sad Baden, 185818f9(¢ 7).
Modification sad Repeal of the
Austrian Concordat, 1867‑70
0 8).
8. Italy.
4. Other European states.
8. Central America.
8. South America.
VII. Spanish Concordats.
legal basis for Church sad State, such as must obtain foe the conclusion of legal treatise. There is consequently reason to prefer (3) The Lepal Theory: The agreement ezpreeeed in the conaorddt is sot legally obligatory, but is merely s preliminary step to the state law that is to be promulgated subsequently, for which the agreement oolLxte and arranges the material. The substance of the concordat becomes civil and canon law only when the civil and canonical enactments to that effect have been decreed on the basis of the concordat. The State, however, is not bound by such law any more than by any other law by it enacted; that is to say, it can modify the same by process of new legislation the same as any other sot of state legislation.
I. Early Concordats: The so‑called Concordat of Worms, dated Sept. 23, 1122 (test and bibliography in Mirbt, Quellett, pp. 115‑118; cf. also D. Sch#fer, Zur Beurteilung des wormer Ronkordata, in the Abhandlungen der Berliner Akodemie, 1905), and terminating the German investiture dispute (see IDTV>>;817TURB), is usually accounted the oldest concordat. The emperor Henry V. at this time renounced the investiture with ring and staff, as practised by him till then; conceded that in the churches of his realm the election and coneeora lion of bishops should be free; promised the restoration of all church possessions; and agreed to give temporal aid to the Church whenever it was demanded. Pope Calixtue II:, on his part, conceded to the emperor that the German elections should be held in his presence; and that the dignitary elect should receive his regalia from the emperor in feudal tenure, in Germany before, in other parts of the empire (Italy and Burgundy) after, his consecration.
Besides the Concordat of Worms, the following agree, menu lay claim to the name of concordats during the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries: (1) The treaty between Adrian IV. sad King Wi1Lam of Sicily at Benevento in 1188. (2) The treaty between CeLtetine lII. (1191‑98) sad King Tsnered. (3) Between Innocent III. and Queen Constance of Sicily (1198). (4) Clement IV. and Charles I. of Anjou (1286), referring entirely to Sicily. (8) Gregory XI. and Queen Eleanor of Aragon (1372). (8) The understanding between the bishops of Portugal and King Rionysius, approved by Nicholas IV. (1288‑92).
II. Concordats Resulting from the Council of Constance: The shattering of the ecclesiastical preponderance which prevailed in the prime of the Middle Ages created new conditions for the con‑

211	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	f?onoDelimitingordats sad
Hulls
elusion of concordats in the fifteenth century.
The councils of Pisa (1409) and Constance (1414‑18),
contrary to the Curia's intention, divided them
selves into " nations," each consisting of the bishops,
abbots, and prelates of the national Church, the
delegates from the princes, and the doctors in
theology and canon law, and each constituting an
independent college with defined spheres of activity
officially recognized as representative of the eccle
siastical and civil interests of its respective people.
There was thus a German, an English, a French, an
Italian, and finally also a Spanish nation (cf. B.
Hiibler, Die Konstanzer Reformation and die Kon
kordat4 von 14,18, Leipsic, 1867; see CONSTANCE,
COUNCIL OF).
	The German nation did not succeed in pushing
through at Constance its demand for the reforma
tion of the Church before the election of a new pope,
and, on Nov. 11, 1417, the council elected Cardinal
Colonna as Pope Martin V. Little was thereby
gained toward solving the council's major task;
but in view of the impossibility of bringing about
a general reform in the Church, it was still an essen
tial advance that some expedient was found in the
way of particular laws for the churches of the sev
eral countries, for removing their most serious dis
tresses. The first impulse along these lines was
furnished by the German nation by means of a
memorial presented in the opening days of the
year 1418 (cf. Hermann von der Hardt, Magnum
rwumenicum Constantiense coneilaum, i. 999‑1011,
Frankfort and Leipsic, 1700). Like steps were also
taken by the other nations. As they were unable
to agree in regard to the pope's answer, Marti4 V.
proffered separate treaties with each nation; and
in this way concordats were concluded, on the basis
of the papal proposals, with the German, English,
French, Italian, and Spanish nations.
	The German (Von der Hardt, ut cup., i. 1085 eqq.) and
the French concordat (Von der Hardt, iv. 1588 eqq.) of
nearly equivalent import, were published May 2, 1418.. The
English concordat (Von der Hardt, i. 1079 eqq.; Wilkens,
Concilia Mapnm Brittanio, iii., London, 1737, 391 eqq.) is
dated July 21, 1418. The Spanish concordat is dated May
13, 1418 (Tejada, Cdeccion urmpleta de concordatos espa
ftolas, Madrid, 1882, pp. 9 eqq.; B. Fromme, Die spanisehe
Nation and das Konatanzer Konzil, Munster, 1898). Prob
ably a separate Italian concordat was also concluded.
With reference to the contents of these oonoordate, chap. i. restricts the number of the cardinals, and defines their qualifications and the manner of their nomination; chap. ii. restricts the papal reservations; chap. iii. treats of the so‑called annates or taxes; chap. iv. explains what grievances are to be carried to Rome and what not; chap. v. circumscribes the right in com»nendam; chap. vi. declares against simony; chap. vii. declares that excommunicated persons need not be avoided before the express publication of the ban; chap. viii. circumscribes the dispensations of the Curia; chap. ix. treats of the income of the Curia; chap. x. limits the bestowal of indulgences in Germany; chap. xi. makes the qualification for Germany and Franca that all this is merely a provisional status to be binding for five years only; the English agreement was permanent.
The concordat was accepted in France notwithstanding opposition on the part of the Parliament of Paris; the history of its experience in Spain and Italy still continues obscure; and the same is true of the English concordat. The German concordat took effect at once, but being of a provisional tenor, like the French concordat, it proved of no lasting significance, and served simply as foundation for subsequent transactions, for which an occasion was furnished by the Council of Basel.
III. Concordats after the Council of Basel.‑
1. Germany: The great contest between the Council of Basel (1431‑47) and Pope Eugenius IV. divided Western Christendom into two hostile camps for many years; but when Germany and France reached an understanding with Eugenius the victory of the papacy over " councilism " was decided. In Germany the electors, assembled after the death of Emperor Sigismund for the election of King Albert V., declared themselves against pope and council Mar. 18, 1438, and proclaimed their neutrality. On Mar. 24, 1439, an imperial diet at Mainz adopted the reform decrees of Basel, though with some alterations, and excluding the resolutions which centered upon the contest with Eugenius IV. (cf. C. Koch, Sanctio pragmdtica Germanorum illustrata, Strasburg, 1789, pp. 105‑171). King Albert, too, approved this " acceptation." In the same year the Council of Basel took the final step, deposing Eugenius 1V. on July 25, 1439, and electing for his successor Felix V. Nov. 5. The development of the Church question in Germany was greatly affected by the sudden death of King Albert Oct. 27, 1439. He was succeeded on Feb. 2, 1440, by his cousin, Frederick III.; and in the course of a few years the latter sided entirely with Eugenius IV. Decisive understandings ensued in Sept., 1445, at Vienna, Frederick demanding and obtaining large concessions as to the declaration of obedience.
	Eugenius	IV. by this time felt himself strong
enough to proceed against his most considerable
opponents in Germany with aggressive measures.
Through the bull Ad comprimendam quorundam,
Jan. 29, 1446, he deposed the archbishops of Cologne
and Treves, and forthwith replaced them with new
appointments. But those whom he attacked found
succor with their peers. The electors of Mainz,
Cologne, Treves, and the Palatinate met at Frank
fort, and on Mar. 21, 1446, they concluded a treaty
		for the common vindication of their
1. The rights; which on Apr. 23 was also
p'111°°''	subscribed by Saxony and Branden‑
	Coaeor‑	burg. The electors addressed four
		demnds to the pope and proffered
		him obedience on condition of their
being granted; in the event of refusal, a rapproche
ment with the Council bf Basel was contemplated.
King Frederick III., when besought to intervene,
sent his secretary, tEneas Sylvius Piccolomini, to
Rome. But the negotiations carried on at Rome
in July were without positive result, although an
understanding was reached at last in connection
with the Imperial Diet convened at Frankfort in Sep
tember of the same year. Still, shortly before his
death, Eugenius IV. complied with the desires of the
German princes, in the so‑called Princes' Concor
data; and thus brought it about that they and with
them the German Empire accorded their submission.
There are four principal documents (Koch, ut sup., pp. 181 sqq.): (1) The brief Ad ea ex debito, to King Frederick, Feb. 5, 1447, promises to convoke a new general council in a German city within fifteen months, and to open the same within eighteen months. (2) The bull Ad tranquillitatem, Feb. 15, 1447, is concerned with the decrees of Basel so. oepted at Mainz, and also with the indemnity awarded to the Roman See. (3) In the bull Ad ea quo, Feb. 5, 1447, Eugenius promises the reinstatement of the deposed archbishops of Mainz and Treves. (4) The bull Inter asters deeidersa, Feb. 7, 1447, reoognisee all the changes effected in

Concordats and
	Delimiting Bulls	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	212
the German Church during the so‑called " neutrality " period.
Eugenius IV. believed he had made great concessions with all these grants. To guard against going too far he prepared a fifth bull, Decet Rommni pontifwcis prudentiam (Baynaldus, Annalea eccleeiastici, no. 7), Feb. 8, 1447, in which he explains that he had not intended to concede anything " that might be contrary to the doctrine of the Holy Fathers or that should tend to the prejudice of this Holy Apostolic See." After the prpmulgation of these bulls, the embassy formally accorded him obedience.
	Eugenius IV. died Feb. 23, 1447. His successor,
Nicholas V., forthwith confirmed his predecessor's
constitutions. He recognized the assemblage of
German princes convoked at Aschaffenburg on
July 13, 1447, by King Frederick III. Moreover,
the still recalcitrant electors of Cologne, Treves, and
		the Palatinate acknowledged obe
	2. The dience to Nicholas V.; so that there
	Concordat was now concluded a treaty between
of Aechafr the emperor in the name of the Ger
ienbnrg or man nation and the cardinal legates,
1448of Vienna, Feb. 14 1448 which is known as the
.
Concordat of Aschaffenburg, though it might be more correctly designated as Concordat of Vienna (Mirbt, Quellen, pp. 165‑169). Its import has reference only to the constitution Ad tranquillitatem of 1447, mentioned above, whose concessions are confirmed while the indemnity previously promised to the See of Rome is fulfilled by surrender of the Basel decrees as accepted at Mainz and provisionally ratified by Eugenius IV.; also by recurring in part almost literally to the second and third chapters of the Concordat of Conatance in 1418. Through the text of the bull Ad sacram Petri sedem, Mar. 19, 1448, Nicholas V. promulgated this Vienna treaty as law of the Church. The concordat was opposed at the start by various territorial sovereigns, but as these were promptly won over by favorable rulings, it soon gained such recognition that the Princes' Concordats were quite forgotten.
2. France: King Charles VII. of France managed to secure for his country the reformatory decrees published at Basel in 1438 with the modifications demanded by French interests, by means of the so‑called Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, July 7, 1438 (Ordonnances des roil de France de la troisi&ne race, vol. xiii., ed. Vilevault and Brdquigny, Paris, 1782, p. 267; Mirbt, Quellen, pp. 160‑161; see PRAGMATIC SANCTION). The Curia never recognized it, and repeatedly pronounced it null and void (Eugenius IV., 1439; Pius II., 1459; Sixtus IV., 1471). Charles nevertheless remained firm, and appealed in particular against the declaration of 1459 to a general council in the year following. His successor, Louis XI. (1461‑83), repealed the Pragmatic Sanction in 1461; but when he found that his political ends were not advanced to the degree desired by this means, he did not maintain his decision against the opposition of Parliament. Between this acceptance and non‑acceptance of the Pragmatic Sanction there naturally ensued a vacillating practise. At the council convened by Pope Julius II. (1512) and continued as the Fifth Lateran Council by Leo X. the Sanction was again declared null and void (Mirbt, Quellen, p. 178). Hereupon, after a per‑
sonal conference at Bologna, Dec. 11, 1515, and after prolonged negotiations extending into Aug., 1516, a concordat was concluded between King Francis I. and Pope Leo X. It was signed by Francis on Aug. 18, 1516, and was adopted by the Lateran Council on Dec. 19 of the same year. Notwithstanding opposition of the Parliament and the University of Paris, the king carried this concordat through as law of the land. It is mainly identical with the German concordats of 1447 and 1448, including the subsequent concessions to German territorial sovereigns (Nussi, pp. 20 sqq.).

For the concordat of Nicholas V. with Savoy, 1451, of. Hefele, %onziliengeachichte, vii. 848 sqq.
For the agreements of Emperor Charles V. with ropes Adrian VI. and Clement VIL, 1523 and 1529, see below, VII.
IV. The Seventeenth Century: As belonging to the seventeenth century, Nussi (pp. 39‑40) sets forth a treaty between Ferdinand II. and Urban VIII., in 1630, wherein the pope cedes to the emperor as king of Bohemia all ecclesiastical rights that were alienated there in the bygone " heretical times," and any church estates that still rested in private hands, in return for the concession of a tax on salt to be paid to the Church.
For the Spanish concordat of 1640 see below, VII.
V. The Eighteenth Century: In the eighteenth century not a few concordats were concluded, consistently with the evolution of the absolute State and the alterations thence resulting with respect to the relations of Church And State. The contracts thus brought about fell to the several countries as follows:
Sardinia: The treaties between Pope Benedict XIII. and King Victor Ama,deus, Mar. 24 and May 29, 1727 (Nussi, pp. 48 sqq.; 54 sqq.). The treaties between Pope Benedict XIV. and King Charles Emmanuel III., 1741 (Nussi, pp. 69 sqq.), 1742 (Nussi, pp. 98 sqq.), 1750 (Nussi, pp. 117 sqq.), and 1770 (Nussi, pp. 132 sqq.).
Sicily: Convention between. Pope Benedict XIV. and King Charles III., 1741 (Nussi, pp. 72 sqq.; secret articles to this convention, pp. 377 sqq.).
Milan: Concordat between Pope Benedict XIV. and Empress Maria Theresa with reference to the duchy of Milan, 1757 (Nussi, pp. 128 sqq.); between Pope Pius VI. and Emperor Joseph II. as duke of Milan and Mantua, 1784 (Nussi, pp. 138 sqq.).
Poland: Convention between Cardinal Paulutius, in the name of the Apostolic See, and King Augustus and the Commonwealth of Poland, 1736, confirmed by Pope Clement XII. (Nuad, pp. 64 sqq.).
Portugal: Concordat between Pope Pius VI. and Queen Maria of Portugal, 1778 (Nussi, pp. 136 sqq.).
For Spanish concordats of the eighteenth century see below, VII.

	VI. The Nineteenth Century.‑1. France: First
and foremost among the concordats of the nine
teenth century‑which is preeminently the time of
concordats‑stands the French concordat of 1801.
It evokes peculiar interest both on account of its
antecedent history and by reason of its influence
upon the conclusion of concordats in Germany
during the following decades. Like most of its
successors, it was called forth by the perturbations
which the French Revolution had occasioned in
relation to the Church, and was intended, as far as
possible, to surmount them. Napoleon had become
		First Consul on Dec. 25, 1799. Pius
	1. The VII. was chosen pope on Mar. 14,
Concordat 1800, was enthroned on Mar. 24, and
	of 1801. on July 3 was able to enter Rome.
		On June 19 Napoleon opened negoti
ations with the pope through Cardinal Martiniana,
bishop of Vercelli, with reference to restoring the
status of the Church in France. After an ex‑

813	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Concordats and
			Delimiting Belle
plicit answer from Pius VII. on July 10, the ne
gotiations proceeded, and from Nov., 1800, they
were conducted in Paris between the papal delegate,
Monsignor Spina, and the Abb6 Bernier. Napo
leon demanded a reduction of the number of bishop
rics from 158 to 60; resignation of all existent
French bishops; right of episcopal nominations
for the First Consul; remuneration of the clergy
out of the state‑exchequer, and express pledge of
obedience to the state government; relinquish
ment of claims to church property that had been
sold; pardon for the priests who during the Revo
lution had married; and transfer of the police
inspection of public worship to the Council of State.
Spina in turn demanded that with the repeal of all
adverse laws the Roman Catholic religion should
be declared as that of the State, and the consuls be
bound to that confession. The proceedings dragged
along, and when Napoleon had despatched to
Rome a draft elaborated by Spina and Bernier
and accepted by Talleyrand, but found it subjected
there to procrastinating explanations, he demanded,
on May 13, 1801, either an immediate, uncondi
tional acceptance or the rupture of diplomatic
relations. Cacault, who shortly before had been
sent to Rome for the resumption of diplomatic
intercourse, was, in fact, recalled. At his suggestion,
however, the papal secretary of state, Consalvi,
went straightway in person with large and full
powers to Paris, where he arrived on June 20; and
after an arduous conference on July 15, 1801, with
the imperial commissioners, Bernier and Joseph
Bonaparte, he concluded the concordat, which then
was ratified on both sides, though not without
demurrings.
	The concordat (Mirbt, Quellen, pp. 334‑336) is drawn up
in French: it contains seventeen articles, and is entitled,
Convention entre to gouvernement franiaie et as Saintatc Pie
1711. By way of preamble it declares: " The government
of the French Republic recognizes the fact that the Catho
lie, Apostolic, and Roman religion is the religion of the
great majority of French citizens. His Holiness likewise
recognizes the fact that this same religion has derived, and
still anticipates at this time, the best and greatest advan
tage from the establishment of the Catholic worship in
France; and from the particular profession thereof on the
part of the consuls of the Republic." Art. i. reads: " The
Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman religion shall be freely ex
ercised in France; its acts of worship shall be public, and
in accord with such civil regulations as the Government
shall judge necessary in behalf of public tranquillity." Art.
ii. promises a reduction of the bishoprics. Art. iii. regu
lates the dismissal of former bishops, and provision is then
made in arts. iv.‑vi. for future episcopal appointments.
The Church relinquishes legal claims to ecclesiastical prop
erty sold during the Revolution (art. xiii.), but the State
guarantees a competent maintenance for the bishops and
parochial clergy (art. xiv.), and allows foundations bene
ficial to the Church (art. xv.). The same rights and pre
rogatives are conceded to the First Consul as the former
government had enjoyed in relation to the Apostolic See
(art. xvi.). The firat articles proved the most troublesome,
because the Church was unwilling to yield the point that
Roman Catholicism was a state religion in France; and the
State Lesitated to waive the point that the Church must
comply with all and sundry state police provisions, instead
of simply with those of a general scope.
	The ratification on the pope's aide ensued, as in the case
of preceding concordats, by his embodying the entire Latin
text in the bull Eccleaia Christi, dated Aug. 13, 1801. On
Sept. 10 (.s3 Fructidor an IX.) the ratifications were inter
changed at Paris; upon which the publication for France
took place as follows. A state law was passed on Apr. 8,
1802 (Loi relative d l'orpanisation du cults du 18 Germinal
an X.), by which the concordat (not the papal bull) wee promulgated with statutory force, together with two separate appertaining " organic articles " (Mirbt, Quellen, pp. 336‑338) relating to Catholic and Protestant worship. These " organic articles " aimed to institute an introductory status, but they start from premises about the State's influence in ecclesiastical affairs that were not acknowledged by the Church. At the same time the powers of the papal representative at Paris, Cardinal Capram, were recognized, and on the following day he published the papal bull of ratification of Aug. 13; a brief of Nov. 29, 1801, which gave him authority to institute new bishoprics; the promised delimiting bull for France (Qui Christi Dominis vices); and an indult reducing the number of festivals, all of the same date. The government expressed a qualified acquiescence on Apr. 19.
The original documents relating to the concordat are found complete in J. Deacons, Code gcncral franiaia conienant lee loin at actsa du gouvernement publics depuss Is 6 mai, 1789, iusqu'au 8 iuillet, 1816, Paris, 1818 sqq., vol. x., pp. 438‑493. Material for the history of the concordat was gathered by J. E. M. Portahs in Diacoura, rapports et travaux incdita aqr is concordat de 1801, lea Articles orpaniquea etc., Paris, 1845, and has been lately augmented by Boulay de la Meurthe, Documents our la nepociation du concordat et lea autrw rapports de la France avee Ze Sain6Sibge en 1800 at 1801, 5 vole., Paris, 1891‑99. Consult also Afemoirea du Cardinal Conaalvi etc., avee une introduction et des notes par J. Crctineau‑Joly, 2 vole., Paris, 1864; Comte d'Haussonville, L'lplise romaine et Is Premier Empire, 1800‑181/,, 5 vols., Paris, 1868 eqq.; A. Theiner, Hiataire des deux concordats de to republique fra ales et de la republique efsalpine etc., 2 vole., Paris, 1869; Mejer, Zur Geachichte der romi8ch‑dsutachen Prape, part i., Rostock, 1871, pp. 152‑200; L. Seehd, Lea Oripines du concordat, 2 vole., Paris, 1894; A. Debidour, Hiatoire des rapporta ,e l',0pliae et de 1'ttat en France de 1789 d 1870, Paris, 1898; Wirtz, Daa franzosiache Konkardat von 1801, in AKR, vol. lxxav. 85 aqq., 209 aqq. For the concordat in Alsace‑Lorraine cf. AKR, vol. xxiv., p. 306; vol. x1v., p. 302.

This concordat regulated the relations between Church and State in France for more than a hundred years. Tension between France and the Papal See, due to various causes, occasioned the rupture of their diplomatic relations in 1904, and it was then proposed, after the fall of Minister Combes and under the ministry of Rouvier, to disestablish the Church. The repeal of the concordat was decreed by the legislative bodies. The law respecting the separation of State and Church came before the Chamber of Deputies on Mar. 21, 1905, and was adopted on July 3 by 341 votes to 233. The Senate began to deliberate the measure on Nov. 9, and on Dec. 6 approved the bill by 179 votes to 103. See FRANCE.

The concordat of 1801 and the new circumscription became operative within the boundaries of France as determined by the peace negotiations of Lundville and Amiens; hence they applied also to Belgium, the left bank of the Rhine, and the parts which France had acquired of Switzerland and Savoy. For the Italian Republic, Pius VII. con‑
cluded a special concordat with Napoleon as
2. French its president, on Sept. 16, 1803; it was ap‑
Dependen‑ proved by the State Council at Milan, Sept. vies. 27, and ratified by the pope on Oct. 29, by Napoleon on Nov. 2 of the same year. It is a recasting of the French concordat, whose arts. iv., vi., vii., x., xiii. it contains literally, while others are of a more favorable construction for the Church. It also contains rulings upon points that were not touched in the Concordat of 1801, but were first agitated on occasion of the strife which even then broke out on account of the " organic articles " (Bullarium Romanum, ed. Barberi, vol. xii., pp. 59 aqq.). It continued in force also for the Kingdom of Italy that was erected in the year 1805, superseding the Italian Republic.
The so‑called Concordat of Fontainebleau, or second concordat of Napoleon, dated Jan. 25, 1813, which he negotiated and concluded personally with the pope; which he

Conoordats and	THE NEW
	Delimitins Bull
SCHAFF‑HERZOG
published, contrary to the .pope's will, as imperial law on Feb. 13, and on Mar, 25 provided with the necessary executive provisions for France and the Kingdom of Italy (of. Desenne, ut sup., pp. 581, 583;
Concordat I)ebidour, ut sup., pp. 893 sqq.), was never of von. recognised by Pius VII. as a concordat, but tainebleau, was always declared to be only a prelimi‑
	1815.	nary outline, and even as such was revoked by
		him on Mar. 24, 1813. It refers mainly to
the official confirmation of the bishops. The treaty never
actually went into effect, inasmuch as the Napoleonic rule
ceased.
The concordat of 1817 between Pope Pius VII. and King Louis XVIII. of France never attained to the force of law. An attempt was made after the Restoration to repeal the concordat of 1801 and the " organic articles," and negotiate a new concordat, more acceptable to the Curia; extensive proceedings to that end took place at Rome between the French envoy, Count Blacas d'Aulps, and the cardinal secretary of state, Consalvi. The result 4. The was the treaty of June 11, 1817, which re‑
Oonoordat stored the concordat of 1§18 in place of the
	of 1817.	concordat of 1801 and the " organic arti
		cles," and promised to rehabilitate the epis
copal sees abrogated by the bull of Nov. 29, 1801, and coor
dinate them with the existing dioceses by endowing both
alike with landed estates and public revenues. Moreover,
the king declared in art. x. of his agreement with the pope
that he purposed to employ all the means at his command
" to abate as soon as possible the disorders and obstructions
which interfere with the weal of religion and the execution
of the laws of the Church." As the Protestants likewise
would lose their legal protection by repeal of the " organic "
cles," it is obvious that this step contemplated some redress
for them also. The French government being too shrewd
to mistake the . dangers of this agreement, submitted the
concordat to the legislative chambers in modified form, safe
guarding the State's position; but as it encountered vehe
ment opposition both inside and outside the chambers, it
was withdrawn by the government and never again intro
duped (Builarium Romanum, xv., pp. 385 sqq.; Debidour,
ut sup., pp. 698 sqq.; Nussi, pp. 153 sqq•).
2. Germany and Austria: The status set up by the Princes' Concordats and by the Concordat of Vienna was modified in Germany by the Reformation, the Religious Peace of Augsburg in 1555, and the Peace of Osnabrilck in 1648, but not overturned. Not until the secularisation of church property in the German Empire by the decree of the imperial deputation, Feb. 25, 1803 (Mirbt, Quellen,pp.338‑339),didthe ancient Roman CatholicChurch of Germany collapse. At the outset Pius VII. had hoped to be able to recon‑
1. moon‑ struct the Roman Catholic Church in
elusive Ne‑ Germany by means of a concordat
gfotiations with the empire, and in this he hadopool on
Napoleonic counted upon Napoleon's assistance.
	Era.	But when he saw that he was deceived
		therein, and when furthermore the
Peace of Pressburg (Dec. 26, 1805), the conclusion
of the Rhenish Confederation (July, 1806), and the
abdication of the German imperial crown by Em
peror Francis II. (Aug. 6, 1806) precluded the
prospect of an alliance with the empire as such, he
entered into negotiations through an extraordinary
nuncio, Cardinal della Genga (subsequently Pope
Leo ?III.), with various individual German states.
From July, 1806, till Sept., 1807, he negotiated
fruitlessly with Bavaria (of. H. van Sicherer, Staat
and Kirche in Bayern vam Regierungsantritt des
Kurftlrsten Max Josephs IV. biz zur Erkldrung roan
Tegermee, 1799‑18,81, Munich, 1874; pp. 112‑113),
and he proceeded with Wiirttemberg and Baden
from Sept. 8, 1807, till the close of October. Owing
to the intervention of Napoleon, however, all nego‑
tiations came to nothing; and the Roman Church in Germany still. found itself in the same status in 1813 and 1815 as in 1803. At the time of the Congress of Vienna (Sect., 1814‑June, 1815) only five incumbents of German episcopal sees were still alive; and four of these were past seventy years. The Curia proposed no new arrangement, but as far as possible the restoration of the old. It asked for restitution of the status quo ante bellum, and in Germany especially the relinquishment of ecclesiastical property and revenues that had been lost to the Church since 1801 and 1803; also the rehabilitation of the spiritual principalities, and of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation with its old legal temporal and ecclesiastical relations with the papacy. When the Curia failed to obtain its demands at the Congress it reserved all of its rights in the form of a solemn protest on the part of the papal legate, on July 14, 1815; and Pius VII. confirmed his action in an allocution of Sept. 4 of the same year. At the same time he expressed the hope of a salutary‑in the Roman view‑understanding with the German Confederation, an idea which was entertained at Rome till 1816.
Meanwhile, as early as February of the year in question, the Curia made known its disposition to institute separate negotiations, at all events with Bavaria. The Bavarian government had cherished the thought of a separate concordat ever since the Peace of Luntville and the decree of the imperial deputation in 1803. It had resumed diplomatic
intercourse with the pope in the sum2. Conoor‑ mer of 1815, for this purpose, and indat aria structed its envoy H$ffelin to further
Bavaria ' the business. Te upshot was the
conclusion of a concordat at the beginning of Oct., 1817, though it is dated June 5. King Maximilian ratified it on Oct. 24; the pope, in an allocution of Nov. 15, published the bull which confirmed the same.

The " convention " is worded in Latin, and its form is patterned after the French agreement (Bulianum Romanum, xiv., pp. 314 sqq.; Nussi, pp. 148 sqq.; Mirbt, Queilsn, p. 344). A tacit reservation of the State found expression when the concordat was published 'as state law. This was accomplished first by an ' Edict concerning the External Legal Relations of the Kingdom to Religion and Ecclesiastical Organizations " (the so‑called " Religious Edict ") of May 26, 1818. Herein the provisions of the concordat were treated not as applying to the kingdom, but merely to the Catholics of the kingdom, and that only with respect to the internal affairs of their communion. Theme " organic articles " could not have been a surprise to the Curia, but some appearance was made of regarding them in that light; and in connection with them there arose a dispute similar to the one in France, not even yet quite settled, between the Bavarian government and the papal court as to the actual signification of the concordat. Not until a declaration of the religious edict was assured by King Maximilian Joseph of Bavaria did Pius VII. publish the delimiting bull of Apr. 1, 1818, Dsi ac domini nostri Am Christi (Bullarium Romanum, xv. 17 sqq.), on Sept. 8, 1821. The history of the Bavarian Concordat is thoroughly treated on the basis of the archives in V on Sicherer'e Maw and Kirche, mentioned above; of. also N. van Lerchenfeld, Zur Gewhichte nee bayrischen Konkardata, NSrdlingen, 1882; H. Brook, GesehuAte der katholiachen Kirche, ii., Mains, 1889, pp. 12 sqq.; M. van Seydel. Bayriaches Staatsrecht, vi., Freiburg, 1893.
With the Protestant states of Germany the Curia desired to conclude concordats in order to secure in

815	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
them the rights of the Roman Church in a legal form that should bind the State as closely as possible. At the outset, too, the Protestant states were disposed to the conclusion of concordats. Prussia, like Bavaria, had entertained $' Delimit' the thought of an understanding with
ing ~ Rome since the summer of 1814‑a
Prussia, matter that seemed indispensable,
	1881.	indeed, on account of the disorganisa
		tion of the Prussian dioceses. With
reference to the kind of stipulation to be concluded,
great differences of opinion prevailed in Berlin.
The final result of negotiations conducted by Nie
buhr was the bull De salute animarum, of July 16,
1821, which, having been sanctioned according to
its essential substance and incorporated into the
legal code, was published in Prussia by a cabinet
order, August 23, albeit with reservation of all
sovereign rights.
For the bull consult the Dulfwiurn Romanurn, iv. 403 eqq.; Numi, pp. 188 sqq.; Mirbt, QueUen, pp. 347‑349; for the negotiations consult Meter, ut sup., vol. ii., part 2, pp. 3‑116, 265 eqq., 300, vol. iii.. part 1, pp. 88‑184; E. A. T. lAspeyres, (leachirAte and heutpe Vajaesunp den katholiechen Ruche Prcuswns, part i., Halls, 1840; BrIlek. ut sup., ii. 38 eqq.; C. Mirbt. Die preuseiscAs Gesandtedudt am Hole des Papetea, Leipsio, 1899. pp. 13 eqq.
Negotiations for a concordat with Hanover were opened in the summer of 1817, and continued with long intermissions until about the middle of 1820. The Hanoverian government conditioned its consent to the concordat upon the concession of four provisos: absolute right of rejecting 4. ~ut_ the clergy that might be appointed;
jug gnu oversight of church property; reser‑
	for Hen.	vation of certain prerogatives; and
over, 1824. the dependence of the legal status of
		new foundations upon government
confirmation. The Curia just as definitely refused
these concessions. In Mar., 1822, following the
example of Prussia, the Hanoverian government
announced through its envoy that, instead of a con
cordat, it likewise desired merely a delimiting bull.
A draft of agreement was therefore prepared,
which, being substantially accepted by the Hano
verian government, was approved by Pope Pius VII.
a few days before his death, in a note dated Aug. 13,
1823. 'The ratification by Hanover took place
early in 1824, and the bull Impmaa Romanorum
pontiificum was issued by Pope Leo XII. on Mar.
26, 1824, authorizing the organization of the epieco
pal sees of Hildesheim and Osnabriick (Nussi, pp.
222 sqq.). Their constitution is similar to the
Prussian, and their confirmation by King George
IV. took effect under date of May 20, 1824 (cf.
Mejer, ut sup., vol. ii., part 2, pp. 117‑164, 241
264, vol. iii., part 1, pp. 62‑87; Brack, ut sup.,
vol. ii., pp. 75 eqq.).
At the initiative of WUrttemberg, delegates of WVrttepnberg, Baden, both the Hessian states, Nassau, the Saxon duchies, Mecklenburg‑Schwerin, Oldenburg, Labeck, and Bremen, assembled at Frankfort‑on‑the‑Main, Mar. 24,1818, to deliberate concerning the conclusion of a common concordat with Rome. Afterward Frankfort, Lippe, Waldeck, and both Hohenzollerns took part in the deliberations. It is true that the interest of all
these states in the conference was not the same,
and some of them shortly withdrew. The dele
		gates finally agreed to formulate a
	6. The state law concerning the affairs of the
States of Catholic Church in their districts in
the Roole‑ terms of a declaration and submit the
	daetioai same to the pope. The declaration
pro°iu°e was in shape by July, 1818, and at the
°t the HD‑ same time there were outlined certain
per Rhine. " Fundamental Provisions for an
		Organic Church Law of the State,"
resembling in the main the French " organic
articles "‑together with instructions for an em
bassy that was to carry the declaration to Rome.
The states reprinted at Frankfort accepted these
documents as the basis of transactions with the
Curia by a formal agreement, Oct. 7, 1818. In
Feb., 1819, Baron von Tiirckheim (Protestant) and
Sclimitz‑Grollenburg (Catholic) went to Rome as
envoys of the federated states. After long waiting
for enlightenment in regard to the pope's real atti
tude, on Aug. 10, 1819, Consalvi issued the explicit
note entitled " Exposition of the Views of His
Holiness concerning the Declaration of the United
Protestant Princes and States of the German Feder
ation." In this note certain modifications of the
declaration are proposed, which would have dom
pletely changed its tenor; and finally the proposi
tion was made of merely a new delimitation of the
bishoprics. The several governments voted, in
Mar., 1821, to accept the delimitation, still expect
ing further negotiations in relation to its details,
and they were surprised when the bull (Pravida
aolleraque ; Nussi, pp. 229 eqq.) actually appeared,
dated Aug. 16, 1821, constituting the present eccIe
siastical province of the Upper Rhine. The con
ference reassembled at Frankfort in Oct., 1821,
and its acceptance of the bull was communicated
to the Roman Court at the close of November.
All parts of the declaration of 1818 which were not
touched upon in the bull had been meanwhile em
bodied in the contemplated statute, and with the
same had been made into a so‑called " Church
Pragmatic," which it was intended to publish in
all the states at the same time with the bull. This
evoked energetic opposition from the Roman See,
but the federated governments refused to yield and
added a new compact, Feb. 8, 1822, to that of Oct.
7, 1818. On June 13, 1823, the pope refused to
substantiate propositions in regard to the episcopal
appointments, he demanded the total retraction of
the " Church Pragmatic," and then issued, on June
16, 1825, an ultimatum which gave occasion to the
reopening of the Frankfort Conference (Jan., 1826).
The net result of all the negotiations was that on
Apr. 11, 1827, Leo XII. issued the bull Ad dominic~
greo custodiam, which in its first four articles
gave directions for the election of the bishops and
chapters; but then in articles v. and vi., agreeably
to the ultimatum and without regarding the re
joinder of the governments, prescribed that in every
diode there should be a seminary conformably
to the decrees of Trent, and that the bishops and
archbishops should enjoy free communication with
the pope, and all the rights of jurisdiction which
accrued to them according to the canon law as

Coneordats and
	Deumitinar Bung	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	218
previously in force and consistently with the vital discipline of the Church. Upon the statutory confirmations and publications of both bulls, which took place at last after the signature, on Oct. 8, 1827, of an amendment to their state compact of 1818 and 1822 (in Nassau, Oct. 9, 1827; in Baden, Oct. 16; in Wurttemberg, Oct. 24; in Electoral Hesse, Aug. 31; in the Grand Duchy of Hesse, Oct. 16, 1829), the bull Ad dominici, with the omission, in part, of its last two articles, and with express insistence upon sovereignty rights of the State, etc., was incorporated into the states' legislative acts. But, besides this, there was issued in all these states, Jan. 30, 1830, a similarly worded regulation with respect to the protection of state sovereignty and supervisory rights over the Roman Catholic Church; the " Church Pragmatic " was literally repeated in all essential points, insomuch that Pius VIII., esteeming this edict contrary‑ to agreement, protested against it in a brief of June 30, 1830, addressed to all the bishops of the Ecclesiastical Province of the Upper Rhine, rejected the regulation, and admonished the bishops to guard the rights of the Church.

The documents are in Winch, ut sup., ii. 309‑417; Nussi, pp. 209 aqq., 239 eqq.; for the history consult Mejer, ut sup., vol. ii., part 2, pp. 165‑240, vol. iii., part 1, pp. 7‑61, 185‑229; H. Brack, Die obercheinisde Kirckenprovina von ihnew Grandunp bis our Gegenwart, Mains, 1868; E. Friedberg, Der Stoat and die Bisrhofewahlen in Dautachland, Leipsic. 1874, part i., pp. 125 aqq•, part u., pp. 114 eqq.; C. Mirbt, Die katholiech‑deologieehe Pakullat zu Marburg, Marburg. 1905, pp. 15‑44, 75‑130.

The governments which had taken part in the Frankfort Conference and were not directly affected by the delimitation of the bull Prmida sollersque attached themselves subsequently in part to the Prussian, in part to the Upper Rhenish diocesan circuits, save that Brunswick joined the circuit of Hanover (cf. Mejer, Die Propaganda, ihre Provinxen and ihr Reek, ii., Gbttingen, 1853, pp. 500 sqq.).
In Austria the territorialism of Emperor Joseph II. was abandoned even at the time of the GermanAustrian constitution of Apr. 25, 1848, and afterward in the constitution of Mar. 5, 1849, and in an imperial patent of the same date the social freedom of the Church was set forth in the formula then in vogue deriving from the Frankfort " Fundamental Rights," to the effect that the e. Qoneor‑ Church should "independently regu‑
dat with late and administer " its affairs. As Austria, early as 1848, all sorts of memorials 1855. from Austrian bishops relating to particular ecclesiastical demands had appeared, and in the following year they were summoned by the government to a convention at Vienna to formulate their demands. The detailed and extensive petitions which were there drawn up were approved by the pope on July 9 (cf. M. Brahl, Acta ecclesiastics, Mainz, 1853). The government answered with the decrees of Apr. 18 and 23, 1850, and the patent of Dec. 31, 1851, which, however, were to have only a temporary effect, pending the result of negotiations with Rome for a concordat. The negotiations were begun in Vienna in 1853, and were completed at Rome on Aug. 18, 1855. The concordat was pub‑
lished as law in the bull Deus kumante salutia auctor, Nov. 3, 1855, and by the imperial patent of Nov. 5, 1855. See AusTxlA.
The concordat begins with the assurance of the Bavarian concordat, namely, that the Roman Catholic religion in Austria shall have " all powers and prerogatives " which belong to it " according to divine dispensation and the canonical ordinances "; the restriction which was eubloined in Bavaria by the religious edict was not appended. In other respects also, the Church in Austria was established on a much more favorable basis. In the closing articles (34, 35), all and sundry state laws of Austria which are contrary to the concordat, or to the doctrine of the Church, or to its present practise as approved by the Holy See, are repealed; in articles 5 sqq., 10 sqq., the Church is charged with education, the surveillance of literature, the regulation of marriage; and, furthermore, it is expressly guaranteed all freedom of action with repeal of placet and the right of appeal. In fact, this concordat concedes to the Church the full sovereignty demanded by the Ultramontanes, together with the subordination of State to Church, in all essential relationships.
For the text of the concordat consult Kneel, pp. 310 sqq.; AKR, i., pp. iv. eqq., xiv., 93 eqq.; xviii. 449 eqq.; Coll. Lacensis, v. 1321 sqq.; secret articles in Mirbt, Quellen, pp. 363‑365. Consult further: AKR, i. 180 eqq., 218 eqq., 365 eqq.; vi. 176 eqq. 190 eqq.; viii. 292 sqq. E. Friedberg, Die Grensen awiachen Staot and Kirche, Ttbingen, 1872, pp. 403 eqq.
	After the demands for " church freedom " had
repeatedly been expressed in the so‑called popular
demands of 1848, though the Frankfort national
assembly adhered to the practise of describing the
churches as societies subordinated to the laws of
the State, the German episcopate assembled at
Wiirzburg in October of that year for common
conference. The bishops here united in a plea to
the state governments, which was afterward voiced
in a series of memorials issued by all the separate
sees, to the end that the governments should recog
nize the independence of the church corporation.
By. °' independence " the bishops understood that
in all its affairs which the Church interpreted as
church business it should be subjected to no kind
		of restrictions or surveillance by the
	7. Agree‑ State. As no German government
ments with consented to the demands of these
	ease‑ petitions, the leaders of the movement
Darmstadt, next pursued the contest in Baden,
Wirrttam‑ where a majority of Roman Catholic
	bBg,and subjects happened to be governed by
Baden,
	1858‑59.	a Protestant line of princes. They
		gradually stirred up conditions which
led the neighboring governments of Hesse‑Darm
stadt and Wiirttemberg, and at last also that
of Baden, to seek relief from the Church itself.
By means of agreements in .the nature of con
cordats, they recognized, much as Austria had
done, the non‑competency of the State in the
domain of canonical legislation, so far as to request
of the Curia the institution of the regulations they
deemed necessary. On the other hand, they granted
" church freedom." Such promises as those of the
first article of the Bavarian and the Austrian con
cordats, could not, indeed, be adopted by Protes
tant governments, but at least they guaranteed to
protect the full development of the episcopal juris
diction according to canonical definition, without
qualification for the Protestants and without ex
press reservation of sovereignty rights over the
Church. This was, however, distinctly assumed.

217	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Conoor~dst~et=~$s
It is evident in not a few passages that they also followed the outlines of the Austrian concordat in drawing up the paper. The Hessian agreement of Aug. 23, 1854 (cf. A. Schmidt, Kirohenrechisquellen ‑des Grossherzogtums Hessen, Giessen, 1891, pp. 57 sqq.), did not satisfy the Curia, and was supplemented in 1856 by the desired amendments. The Wdrttemberg agreement was concluded directly with the Curia on Apr. 8, 1857 (Nussi, pp. 321 sqq.; cf. Friedberg, Grenzen, ut sup., pp. 440‑171; L. Goltber, Der Stoat urtd die katholische Kirche im K6nigreieh Wurttemberg, Stuttgart, 1874; AKR, ii. 688 sqq.; iii. 444 sqq., 577 sqq.; iv. 307 sqq.; v. 202; vi. 398 aqq.). It was published by the pope in the bull Cum in sublimi, June 22; by King William I., Dec. 21, 1857, subject to the maintenance of state sovereignty rights, and with reservation of legislative approval for the points wherein the State's laws were affected. The Baden agreement was concluded with the same clauses, June 28, 1859, and published by the .pope on Sept. 22 in the bull Eterni patris vicpria (Nussi, pp. 330 sqq.; cf. H. Mass, Gesehichte der katholischen Kirche im Grossherzogtum Baden, Freiburg, 1891, pp. 229 sqq.). The agreement was published by the government on Dec. 5, 1859. In Baden, and then in W(irttemberg, the legislative bodies refused their approbation. Both governments thus found themselves obliged to announce to the Curia that they were not in a position to carry out their agreements, but must suffer them to lapse; whereupon, first in Baden, under several laws dated Oct. 9, 1860, then also in Wilrttemberg, under laws of Dec. 31, 1861, Jan. 23 and 30, 1862, the relation of the Roman Catholic Church to the State was regulated in a one‑sided way. The same thing subsequently took place in Hesse‑Darmstadt.
Austria, too, had promptly learned that the concessions of the concordat could not be maintained, and consequently made efforts as early as 1860, and again in 1863, to have it modified, but in vain. Owing to the outcome of the Diet of Princes at Frankfort in 1863, and to the result of the war of 1866, Austria's plans in relation to Germany were frustrated, and the government applied
8. xodia‑ itself to the reorganization of internal nation and affairs. In the laws of Dec. 21, 1867, B,epeal of « Concerning the Common Rights of the Austri‑ Citizens " G xv.) it declared that
an Conoor‑„ dot	every legally recognized church and
	1887‑70. religious association should independ
	ently regulate and administer its
	internal affairs"; but "every association is to
	tie subordinated to the State's laws as a whole."
	Herein it diverged from the concordat, and
	there followed a marriage law, a law respecting
	schools, and a law touching interconfessional rela
	tions, all three dated May 25, 1868; there were
	several subsequent decrees of like nature (AKR,
	mix 459 sqq.). The pope forthwith protested
	against these laws through his Vienna nuncio,
	Falcinelli, and in an allocution of June 22, 1868,
	pronounced the entire array of Austrian constitu
	tional laws as issued without the requisite compe
	tency, and " abhorrent " (leges abominates ; Mirbt,
	Quellen, p. 371). After the Vatican Council the
Austrian government formally retracted the concordat, on July 30, 1870 (AKR, xxiv. 284 sqq.), declaring in the accompanying despatch that the government had found itself constrained " to return to its perfect freedom of action, in order to be equipped against the eventual institution of the ecclesiastical power, such as it was to be construed by the terms of the decrees of the Vatican Council."

8. Italy: For the concordat of Sept. 16, 1803, between Napoleon and Pius VIL, see above, VI., 1, § 3. Other concordats with Italian states in the nineteenth century were made as follows: (1) Between Pius VII. and King Victor Emmanuel I. of Sardinia in the bull Beati Petrum apoetolorum, July 17, 1817 (Bullarium Romanum, xiv. 344 sqq.; Nussi, pp. 155 sqq.). (2) Between Gregory XVI. and King Charles Albert of Sardinia, Aug. 23, 1836, and mar. 27, 1841 (Nussi, pp. 245 sqq., 266 sqq ). (3) Between Pius VII. and King Ferdinand I. of Naples for the kingdom of the two Sicilies, concluded Feb. 16, 1818, published by the bull In supremo apostoticm, Mar. 5, and by law of Mar. 21, 1818 (Bullarium Romanum, xv. 7 aqq.; Nussi, pp. 178 sqq.). (4) Between Pius VII. and King Ferdinand II. of Naples, Apr. 16, 1834 (Nussi, pp. 254 sqq.). (5) Between Pius IX, and Leopold II., grand duke of Tuscany, Apr. 25, 1851 (Nussi, pp. 278 sqq.).
4. Other European States: For concordats with Spain in the nineteenth century see below, VII.
A concordat was concluded between Pedro V., king of Portugal, and Pius IX. in 1857 respecting Indian episcopal appointments (Nussi, pp. 318 sqq., 390‑391). It was superseded under Leo XIII. by a concordat of June 23, 1886 (AKR, (viii. 3 sqq.).
Gregory XVI. made a convention with Czar Nicholas I. of Russia, Aug. 3, 1847, with reference to Catholics of the Latin rite (Nussi, pp. 273 sqq.; AKR, vi. 170 sqq.). It was not carried out, and the same is true of a later concordat, Deb. 23, 1882 (AKR, xlix. 323 sqq.; I. 352 sqq.; liii. 144).
A concordat was concluded with Montenegro, Oct. 18, 1886 (AKR, hiii. 26 sqq.).
Leo XII. made a concordat with William I., king of Belgium, June 18, 1827 (Nussi, pp. 232 sqq.)•
There was an understanding of Mar. 26, 1828, between Leo XII. and the Swiss cantons of Bern, Lucerne, Soleure, and Zug concerning the foundation of the bishopric of Basel (Nusai, pp. 242 sqq. for the history; cf. F. Fleiner, Staat and Biaehotswahl im Biatum Basel, Leipsie, 1897). The understanding reached between Gregory XVI. and the Council of the canton of Saint Gall with reference to the founding of that diocese is dated Nov. 7, 1845 (Nussi, pp. 269 sqq.; cf. C. Gareis and P. Zorn, Stoat and Kirche in der Schweiz, 2 vols., Zurich, 1877‑78).
5. Central America: The ecclesiastical affairs of the Central American republics were regulated after their emancipation from the Spanish dominion by concordats modeled after the Spanish concordat of 1851 (see below, VII.). These ooncordats are substantially the same in contents (cf. F. Sentis, Die Konkordate des r6miachen Stuhlee mit den Republiken Cenbalamerikas, in AKR, zii. 225‑234), and were concluded with Pius IX. as follows: with Costa Rica under President Mora, Oct. 7, 1852, confirmed by the pope May 15, 1853 (Nussi, pp. 297‑303); with Guatemala under General Carrera. Oct. 7, 1852, confirmed Aug. 3, 1853 (Nuasi, pp. 303‑310); with Nicaragua, Nov. 2, 1861 confirmed May 25, 1862 (Nussi, pp. 361‑367); with San Salvador, Apr. 22, 1862, confirmed June 1, 1863 (Nussi, pp. 367‑372); with Honduras, Apr. 22, 1862 (Nussi, p. 349).
8. South America: Agreements were made between Pius IX. and the president of Venezuela, July 26, 1862 (Numi, pp. 356 sqq.); between the same pope and the president of Ecuador, Sept. 26, 1862, repealed 1878 (Nussi, pp. 349 sqq.; Mirbt, Quellen, pp. 365‑366; AKR, xl. 321); between Leo XIII. and Colombia, Des. 31, 1887 (AKR, lxii., pp. 113‑114).
A concordat was concluded between Pius IX. and the president of Haiti, Mar. 28, 1860 (Nussi, pp. 346 sqq.).
VII. Spanish Concordats: The compact of Pope Adrian VI. with Emperor Charles V., Sept. 6, 1523, accorded the latter a limited right of appointment to the archiepiscopal and episcopal churches of the

Conoordats and Delinnitins
Ooneursus Divinus	[THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	218
Balls
realm; by terms of an agreement with Clement VIL, Dec. 14, 1529, he was allowed a perfectly free hand. The Concordia Paohendi, of Oct. 8, 1640, named after the nuncio of that time at Madrid, Cesare Facheneti, archbishop of Damiate, endeavored to rectify grievances which King Philip IV. (1621‑65) had set forth to the Curia in a memorial of Dec. 18, 1634, on the subject of ecclesiastical disorders; and especially concerning the nuncio's official conduct. When early in the eighteenth century, on account of the pope's attitude in the war of the Spanish Succession, things had come to a complete rupture between King Philip V. (1700‑46) and Clement XI., the difficulties of bringing about a reconciliation proved extraordinarily serious. The concordat concluded on June 17, 1717, continued unfulfilled notwithstanding ratification on both sides; nor did the bull of Innocent XIII., Apodolici ministerii, dated Mar. 13, 1723, prove a satisfactory substitute, though this bull, being acknowledged by royal decree and statutory legislation, and renewed by Benedict XIII., is classed among the Spanish concordats. The complete restoration of harmony with Rome did not ensue prior to the concordat of Sept. 26, 1737, which all in all was very favorable to the See of Rome. In sharp contrast herewith stands the concordat concluded between Pope Benedict XIV. and King Ferdinand VI. of Spain, on Jan. li, 1753 (Nussi, pp. 120 aqq.; P. A. Kirsch, Das durch Papst Benedict XIV. im Jahre 1673 mit Spanien abgesehloesene Konkordat, in AKR, lxxx. 313‑322), whereby the pope was compelled, against an indemnity of 1,300,000 scudi (about 6,500,000 francs), to grant royal patronage in toto, and be satisfied with the fact that he was allowed the bestowal of fifty‑two benefices. This concordat remained in force until the conflicts which broke out after the death of Ferdinand VIL, Sept. 29, 1833. When with a view to newly ordering the affairs of the Church a compact had been concluded on Apr. 27, 1845, French statecraft brought it about that the royal ratification was withheld. The proceedings led to no positive result before 1851. The concordat of Mar. 16, of that year, between Pius IX. and Queen Isabella II. comprises forty‑six articles (Acts Pii IX., Rome, 1858, part i., 293‑341; Nussi, pp. 281‑.297; Mirbt, Quellen, p. 361). The good understanding between the papacy and the Spanish kingdom was again disturbed not many years later, but an agreement was concluded at Rome, on Aug. 25, 1859, between Cardinal Antonelli and the Spanish envoy (AKR, vii. 391‑399; Nussi, pp. 341345), which assumes the operation of the concordat of 1851, and seeks to supplement it in the matter of the endowment of public worship and the clergy. After the Cortes had approved on Nov. 7, 1859, there followed on the part of the queen and the pope the ratification of the concordat, Nov. 7 and 24 respectively, and its publication as law of the State Apr. 4, 1860. Pope Pius X. concluded a concordat with King Alphonso XIII. concerning the religious orders, on June 19, 1904, which was legally confirmed by the Spanish Cortex June 23, 1904 (AKR, lxxxv. 319 eqq.).
The concordats with Spain are treated comprehensively by Hergentdther, 3paniene Verhaedlunyen mit derv ro‑
misdun Stukls in AKE, x. 1‑46, 185‑214; ri. 252‑2&3, 387401; ni. 48‑0, 385‑40; 3tiii. 91‑108, 393‑444; xv. 170215. There is an anonymous Coleaion de los mneardatos y demos convenios edebradw despises dd Concilio Tridsntino enhv In roger de Espafia y la Santa Beds, Madrid, 1848.
CASs Mmsr.
Bmwoaeerax: References for particular concordats and special points have been given in the article. The work cited as " Nuad " is Vinoentio Nussi, Conroentionea de rebus eaknasticis inter sandam sedan et civifem potestatem variis formic inita as collection, Romana (i.e., the BuJlahium Romanum), Mains, 1870; .. Mirbt, en " is Carl Mirbt, QueUen sur Gesdai&te des Papagume and des rPlmisdaenKafkoliciamus, TObingen,1901; the edition of the Buliarium Romanum cited is that of A. Barberi 19 vole.. Rome, 1835‑57; AKE, vol. i., In‑sbruck 1857, vol. lmvii., Mains, 1907. An additional collection of concordats is E. MOnoh, Vollstdndipe Sammlunp alter 4lteren and newen Konkordate, nebat einer GeaehWts ihrar Eatdehung and ihrsr Schiekwls, 2 parts, Leipsie, 183031. For general presentations of. T. Balvy, Kirche and Stoat in ikren Vereinbarungen cut dem Grunde des KircAenrwAts, 3tmtaredde and V61keryrochts, Regensburg, 1881; B. Huebler Zur Revision der Uhm von der rwMichen Natur der Konkordate, in Zpitachrift for Kirdumrw*4 iii (1884), iv (1884). The subject is treated by: N. P. S. Wiseman. Four Advent Lectures on Concordats, London, 1855; R. J. Phillimore, Commentaries an International Law, 4 vols., ib. 1879‑89. Also by J. L. von Moshein4 Institutes of Bed. Hist., ed. W. Stubbs, ii. 225, 331, 378, iii. 538, 545, ib. 1883. Consult also Reich, Documents, pp. 182‑183, 240, 448‑452; the Concordat of Worms is translated in Thatcher and McNeal, Documents, pp. 184188.
CONCUBINAGE (Lot. concubinattaa): A legal and durable union between two persons of opposite sex, differing from marriage in that it did not include the affectio maritalis. It resembled marriage de facto, but not de jure, as the woman was not the man's coequal companion for life. It could be entered into only with a freed woman or freeborn woman of the lowest class; whereas a honesta femina could become a concubine only by the process of express teatatio, without which the union came under the head of atuprum. Not until the ninth century was ooncubinage prohibited in the Eastern Empire, by Emperor Leo VI. (cf. P. Meyer, Der rdmische Koncubinat each den Rechtsquellen and den In8chriftm, Leipsic, 1895). The Germanic peoples also admitted, collaterally with marriage, a valid union of distinguished men with free women of inferior estate, or even with bondwomen.
Down to the fifth century the state of concubinage was not contested on the side of the Church. Since that time, however, the Church has disallowed concubinage, having qualified marriage as the sole morally justified sexual union, although not forbidding concubinage altogether. Accordingly it persisted, especially in the Roman and the Germanic empires, and even the national council of Mainz in 851 merely repeated certain moderate restrictions of the fifth century. Though coneubinage was interdicted in the case of certain of the clergy, ecclesiastical legislation down to the sixteenth century conveyed no threat of actual penalties against the practise on the part of laymen. In the Evangelical Church the moral opprobrium of concubinage has never been doubtful; so little, indeed, that it is liable to church discipline.
Coneubinage is not recognised by the civil law, being rather treated as other extramarital sexual intercourse, and in particular as touching the claims of concubines on account of illicit pregnancy, and

RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Concordats and DeUmitins
Concursus Divinus	[Hulls
the rights of a concubine's children to support and inheritance against him who maintained her.
For concubinage among the Hebrews see FAMILY Arm MARRIAGE RsL&TloNs, HEBREW.
E. SEHLINC+.
BIHwoa8APRY: G. E. Howard, Hint. of Mabimmial Ineti‑
tutiona, 3 vols., Chicago, 1904; H. HIM Dis Elu, nine dopnwdiedrwd4olopische Abhandlunp, Mains 1833; J. J. 1. Drillinger, Hippolytus and Callistus, pp. 147 eqq.. Edinburgh, 1878; H. C. Lea, Sacerdotal Celibacy, chap. :ii., New York, 1907; Hefele, ConeUienpaachidW, v. 38o et par aim.
CONCURSUS DIVINUS: The divine activity in its relation to the agency of finite creatures and potencies, or in its relation to the development of the world in so far as this is conditioned by finite " efficient causes." This relation to cosmic evolution through " final causes " is termed " gov‑
ernance." Both concuraus and " gov‑
Biblical ernance " accordingly involve the and problem of the relation of the divine
	Scholastic	activity to the free will of man. In
	Doctrines.	the Bible both concepts are represented.
		The earth brings forth verdure, and
man and animals multiply (Gen. i. 11 eqq.), while
"thins hands have made me and fashioned me
altogether round about " (Job a. 8); so that, on
the one hand, man acts from the impulses of his
own heart, and, on the other, in God alone "we
live, and move, and have our being " (Acts avii.
28). The relation of the two the" involves not
only dogmatics, but also philosophy. The chief
hypotheses on the concumm divinus were developed
by the schoolmen, and the view current in Roman
Catholic and early Protestant dogmatics was best
elaborated by Thomas Aquinas. He teaches
(Summa, i., qucestio 105): " God works in every
work," not only as the end of all and as prime mover
and preserver of the forms and powers of all things,
but also because " he directs the forms and powers
of al( things to act"; no creature can " proceed in
action unless it is moved by God " (qutedio 109).
This view was opposed by Durand of St. Pourgain
(q.v.), who contended that God need not cooperate
immediately in that which takes place through
finite or intermediate causes, but only mediately;
and a third opinion was advanced by Gabriel Biel
(q.v.) that creatures themselves do not act, that
God himself is the sole factor, though his operations
are conditioned by the existence of creatures. The
Thomistic conception is also expressed in the
Roman catechism, and has become the prevailing
view in the Roman Catholic Church.
Among the Reformers the conviction that only God's pure, free grace can save from the misery of sin was combined from the very beginning with the deepest sense of the universal dependence of
the creatures on their creator, and on
	Protestant	the most vital relation of their creator
	Doctrine.	to them. This consciousness shows
		itself in the. works of the old Lutheran
dogmaticians. J. Gerhard (Loci., VII. vii.‑viii.)
did not advance to the stage of a general definition
of the concursm, since he treated only of the rela
tion of God to the evil acts of the creatures. After
him sharply defined metaphysical utterances on
this subject are found in A. Calovius (Systems
locorum theologicorurn, iii., De providentia, ii.), A. Quenstedt (Theologia didactico‑polemics, xiii.), D. Hollaz (Examen theologicum, I. vi. 14, 16 sqq.), and others who followed Thomas in theory. Whereas Gerhard stated merely that God preserves unto his creatures the power of actual and free activity and assists them in their work, his successors argued that God influences the individual act and activity of the creature so that the act is the work both of God and of the creature, thus postulating a teaching midway between Durand and Biel. Unlike the doctrines of Thomas Aquinas, however, the divine act is regarded by these theologians as excluding an " initial motion " of the creature, and as merely cooperating with the creature. In the main, Lutheran dogmaticians agree with the theories of Roman Catholics. The specifically Protestant doctrine commences only with the question of the limitation of the human will, especially by original sin rather than by the cooperation of God. On account of this limitation an anticipatory as well as a cooperative activity on the part of God becomes necessary to raise man from his sin, and this divine agency is found in the activity of the Holy Spirit. Man being thus morally transformed, a " cooperation " of grace commences, which must be distinguished from the general cooperation of God with the natural agencies. In Reformed dogmatics the concursus is treated by some as a special part beside the " conservation " (the divine activity considered as a first cause) and governance; by others it is subsumed with the rest (cf. H. L. J. Heppe, Dogmatik der evangelischrreformirten Kirche, Gotha, 1861, p. 190). Here the concursus is regarded not merely as simultaneous, but as anticipatory (J. H. Heidegger, Medulla theologise Christiante, Zurich, 1697, loc. vii. 14), and it is also taught that God works according to the individuality of the creatures. It is likewise held both in the Protestant and the Roman Catholic doctrine that God, who in such orderly manner cooperates with the natural agencies, has nevertheless the power to stop their activity or to work without them, or, in other words, can do miracles. Thus God, by whose concursua the fire burns, can withdraw his concursm and the fire burns no more, as in the case of the three men in the fiery furnace.
The question has been treated by such moderns as A. D. G. Twesten, F. A Philippi, K. F. A. Kahnis, J. Miller, F. A. B. Nitzech, and R. A. Lipsius. The problem belongs to philosophy, rather than to dogmatics. Divine control of events and things is inconceivable without the assumption that God works in them; his activity can not be referred to an initial point, as if he directed them then, but were now inactive, and it is equally impossible to declare his activity to be merely preservative in character, for in contradistinction to a truly effective activity it would then appear as something negative or not admitting of destruction. 0n the other hand, the ethico‑religious consciousness itself concedes to the world a real existence, just as man is conscious of existing in it as a relatively independent creature, with a sphere and material for his work, and just as the word is perceived to be a true revelation of God and a practical proof of divine love. For these

Condor
Confession	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	220
reasons it must always be acknowledged that finite
events are produced by the will of a personal God,
already above nature and the world, and working
in such a way as to preserve the world and lead it
to his purposes. The term concursus is awkward,
as suggesting that one activity runs parallel with
another. 	(J. KS8TLHJf.)

CONDER, CLAUDE REIGNIER: English soldier and archeologist; b. at Cheltenham (90 in. w.n.w. of London), Gloucestershire, Dec. 29, 1842. He studied at University College, London, but did not graduate, and was in command of the survey of Western Palestine in 1872‑78 and 1881‑82. He was in the army till 1905. He has written Tent Work in Palestine (2 vols., London, 1878); Judas Maccabcms (1879); Handbook to the Bible (in collaboration with F. R. Conder, 1879); Memoirs of the Survey of Western Palestine (4 vols., in collaboration with H. H. Kitchener, 1881‑83); Heth and Moab (1883); Primer of Bible Geography (1884); Altaic Hieroglyphs and Hittite Inscriptions (1887); The Survey of Eastern Palestine (1889); Palestine (1889); Tell Amarna Tablets (1893); The Bible and the East (1896); The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (1897); The Hittites and their Language (1898); The Hebrew Tragedy (1900); The First Bible (1903); and The Rise of Man (1908).

CONDIGNITY AND CONGRUITY, or meritum de condigno and meritum de congruo : Terms used by the schoolmen after Thomas Aquinas in their attempts to reduce the doctrines of grace to one harmonious system. In a general way, meritum in the concrete signifies asupernatural work worthy of a recompense. If the work be such that the reward is due ex justitia, or rather in virtue of the divine promise, it is called de condigno, and chief among the conditions required for its existence is that the agent be in the state of grace. If, however, he be not yet justified, and perform under the influence of actual graces certain good works conducive to justification, such are reckoned as merit only in an imperfect sense, meritum de congruo. The Catholic doctrine of merit is based on those New Testament texts (e.g., II Tim. iv. 7; I Cor. ix. 24‑25; Matt. v. 12, etc.) which represent eternal life as a reward, for though it is a gift of divine grace, God has willed to give it the character of a recompense. Protestants generally deny the existence of merit, but the controversy is not so much one of principle as of definition of terms.
CONDITIONALISM, CONDITIONAL IMMORTALITY. See ANNIHILATIOmsM; and IMMORTALITY.
CONE, ORELLO: Universalist; b. at Lincklaen, N. Y., Nov. 16, 1835; d. at Canton, N. Y., June 23, 1905. He was educated at Cazenovia Seminary, Cazenovia, N. Y., and after teaching in the public schools for several years was an instructor in St. Paul's College, Palmyra, Mo. (1858‑61). He was pastor of the Universalist Church at Little Falls, N. Y., 1863‑65; professor of Biblical language and literature in St. Lawrence University, Canton, N. Y., 1865‑80; president of Buchtel College, Akron, 0., 1880‑96; resided in Boston and Berlin 1896‑98; professor in St. Lawrence Uni‑
versity, 1899 till his death. He wrote Gospel Criticism and Historical Christianity (New York, 1891); The Gospel and Its Earliest Interpretations (1893); Paul, the Man, the Missionary, and the Teacher (1898); and Rich and Poor in the New Testament (1902). He also edited the International Handbooks to the New Testament to which he himself contributed Epistles to the Hebrews, Colossians, Ephesians, Philemon, the Pastoral Epistles, James, Peter, and Jude (1901).
CONFERENCE: A word of various meanings in religious usage. In the Roman Catholic Church it signifies (1) a homiletic address, aiming at instruction, in conversational manner. The socalled " higher conferences " are defined as " instructive addresses for educated hearers on religious or religio‑social truths in freer form than a sermon," and less frequently given in a church. They were employed, especially by the clergy of Paris in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, to refute the alleged attacks of science on religion, and have been given elsewhere to meet local or passing conditions. (2) Conferences of the clergy appear in the ninth century because of the great size of the diocesan synods, which made it impossible for all the clergy to meet together. Accordingly district meetings were summoned by the archpriest, archdeacon, or dean, on the first of each month (hence called Culendce, also Collationes, Consistoria, Synodi, etc.). The aim was general consultation and mutual edification. They considered cases of conscience and the like, and sometimes investigated crimes and announced the penalties. The last of such conferences recorded is said to have been held in London in 1237. In 1565 Cardinal Carlo Borromeo instituted clerical conferences and issued directions for their organization and guidance with a view to the better instruction of the clergy. The example was followed widely, but toward the end of the eighteenth century such conferences fell into disuse. Since then they have been revived in many places.
In the Lutheran Churches of Germany there are diocesan clerical conferences, at which the superintendents preside. See also CONFERENCE, FREE ECCLESIASTICAL‑SOCIAL; and EISENACH CONFERENCE. For the Lutheran Synodical Conference in the United States see LUTHERANS. For the Conferences of the Methodist Episcopal Church see METHODISTS. The Wesleyans of England and Ireland have annual conferences attended by all the ministers. The Free‑will Baptista and other minor bodies call their annual meeting by this term.
CONFERENCE, FREE ECCLESIASTICALSOCIAL: An organization in Germany which aims to popularize Christianity by bringing it to bear upon social problems. It was organized at Cassel Apr. 27‑28, 1897, as an offshoot of the Evangelical‑Social Congress (q.v.). A second general conference was held at Barmen the following November; and since then conferences have been convened annually, usually in April or May. The membership has grown from 100 in 1897 to 3,251 in 1906. There are seven standing committees for various phases of

221	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Conder
		Confession
Christian‑social work, viz.: (1) confession, church
law, and church policy; (2) popular evangelization;
(3) social problems; (4) the press, art, and literature;
(5) apologetics; (6) education; (7) the woman
question. The conference seeks particularly to
overcome the enmity toward the Church common
among the laboring classes, and to Chlzatianize
Social Democracy. Its purpose was outlined in
resolutions adopted at the third general meeting
held in Berlin Apr. 19‑20, 1898, and its chief work
has been to organize Evangelical unions among
working people, both men and women. There are
branches of the organization in most of the German
states. Dr. Adolf Stbcker, court preacher in Ber
lin, is president. The official organs are: Kirchlich
sociale Bldtter (Berlin, 1901 sqq.), a weekly, and
Hefts der freien kircldichnsocialen Konferenz (Berlin,
1900 sqq.), in which are printed the papers read at
the various conferences.	(R. MuMM.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The gist of the proceedings is contained in
	Hefte der freien kirchlich‑aocialen Konferenz, Berlin, 1899
	sqq. Statistical material is contained in the current
	Deutach‑evangelischea Jahrbuch, Berlin; and in J. Schnei
	der, Kirchlichea Jahrburh, Giitersloh, 1907.
CONFESSION OF FAITH. See SxraBowc&
CONFESSION OF SINS.
Confession not General is the Early Church (§ 1). its Earliest Forms (§ 2). Made a Law of the Church, 1215 (§ 3). Attitude of Luther (§ 4). Confession as Retained by Lutherans and Reformed (§ 5). Opposition to Private Confession among Lutherans (§ 6). Its Place Taken by a General Confession (§ 7). Private Confession Revived in the 19th Century (§ 8). Usage of Different Churches (§ 9).
Confession of sins is an acknowledgment of sin, which may be made by a Christian either to God alone, to a fellow Christian, or to one who holds an ecclesiastical office. Confession as an act prescribed or recommended by the Church is made in accordance with the free decision of the individual (voluntary private confession), in compliance with special rules of church training and discipline (confession of catechumens and penitents), and in conformity with general regulations bind on all (a prescribed confession, either of individuals or the congregation as a whole). The present article is confined to the last‑named form; its end is to attain absolution.
The New Testament knows nothing of confession as a formal institution, Jas. v. 16 referring to the close association with the r. Confes‑ brethren, although the words of Jesus
sion not in Luke v. 20, vii. 48 may be comGeneral in pared to ecclesiastical absolution. the Early Individual confession as a part of
	Church.	ecclesiastical discipline was, of course,
		customary in ancient times, and also
served as a voluntary act of a distressed sinner.
The confession of sin and proclamation of pardon
were likewise customary in the service of the ancient
Church. But that confession existed in the earliest
time as an established ecclesiastical institution is
not proved by such isolated instances as are occar
sionally met with.
The authorities desired and recommended con‑
fession, but the laity opposed it. It was thus first enforced upon the monks and clergy, and afterward upon the laity as well. The Irish Columban, abbot of Luxeuil, endeavored to introduce the confession which existed in his country both for clergy and laity into the Frankish Church. This could not be accomplished at once, but by degrees the people were moved through the exhortations of the priests to adopt it. The general mode of procedure was as follows: the priest humbled himself in prayer before God, asked the penitent con‑
s. Its cerning his faith, his readiness to for
Earliest	give others, and his sins, and gave him
	Forms.	absolution in the form of a wish or
		prayer. Since the priest spoke with
the penitents in the vernacular, the formularies were
translated. Connected with absolution was the
obligation of Penance (q.v.). But as the penitents
could be treated neither arbitrarily nor uniformly
as to penance, the duration of the period of peni
tence was fixed according to individual sins, while
the payment of a certain sum of money instead of
doing penance was allowed at an early period.
After the laity had become accustomed to make confession at certain times, to specify gross offenses, and to be questioned by the confessor, the Lateran Council of 1215 made regular confession an absolute law of the Church: " The faithful of both sexes, after arriving at years of discretion, shall confess at least once annually to their own priests, reverently receiving the sacrament of the Eucharist at least at Easter, and faithfully acknowledging in private all their sins." The form of absolution was now changed to the judicial: " I absolve thee." The penitent was assured of the secrecy of the priest, who was to be unfrocked and im3. Made a prisoned for life in a monastery if he Law of the violated the seal of the confessional.
Church,	A sec6nd kind of confession, a gen‑
	1215.	eral confession, gained ground in
		the Middle Ages. During the serv
ice a confession was read in the vernacular and the
congregation received absolution in the precatory
form. This general confession existed in Italy,
France, and Germany (see GENERAL CONFE8810N).
As early as 1519 Luther wrote: " There is nothing in the Church which needs reform so much as confession and penance," and in addition to occasional expressions he spoke of this reform of the confessional system in special writings: Kurze Unterweisung, wie man beiehten soll, 1519; Von der Beichte, 1521; Sermon von der Beichte unal dem Sakrament, 1524; Kurze Verraahnung
4. Attitude zur Beichte, 1529 (at the end of the
	of Luther.	Larger Catechism). Luther contro
		verted the existing confessional system
because it bad become a source of pecuniary gain,
because he disapproved the torture of the con
science in mentioning individual sins, and because
the unworthy demeanor of the medieval friars who
largely controlled the confessional system was
offensive to him. He did not, however, reject
confession itself, but, on the contrary, recognized
no one as a Christian who withdrew from confession,
though he sometimes takes it in the wider sense of
confession of one's sins to God and prayer for mercy.

Confession
Confirmation
THE NEW
SCHAFF,HERZOG
Luther also advocated confession to the brethren. The main thing with him was absolution. This might be received without ecclesiastical confession, and took place also in baptism and in the communion.
The Reformers wished, moreover, to avail themselves of the custom of the laity to go to confession at regular intervals, since they were thus enabled to gain a knowledge of their lives, examine their conversation, instruct them, and influence them. The old order that the laity should go to confession before the communion was maintained. The penitent went to church, either without special reason or a day or two before the celebration of the communion; the confessor arranged an examination in the catechism, which might, however, be omitted, if he had confidence in the penitent; the latter was asked to name a sin which especially troubled him,
and was examined concerning some g. Confes‑ special sins. If there was no impedi‑
sion as Re‑ ment, he was absolved. Luther's
tained by formula of absolution was the col‑
Luther‑ lative: " I forgive thee," while the
ans and Brandenburg‑ Nuremberg ritual has
Reformed. the declarative formula: " I pronounce
to thee." But the difference is not a matter of principle, because this same ritual has the parallel formulas: " God forgiveth thee " and " I absolve thee." Luther preferred the collative form because of its clearness. The power to forgive sins, he says, belongs alone to God, but he exercises it through the outward office of the forgiveness of sins. If absolution is to be right and effective, it must proceed from the command of Christ in John xx. 21‑23 and read thus: " I absolve thee from thy sins in the name of Christ and by virtue of his command, so that it is not I, but he, who through my mouth forgives thee thy sin, and this thou must accept and firmly believe as if thou hadst heard it from the lips of Christ the Lord." Private or individual absolution was best in keeping with this concept of absolution. When, therefore, the Nuremberg congregation would not give up the public confession and general absolution, the Wittenbergers expressed their acceptance of private and individual confession in harmony with ancient custom, so long as both parties would exhort their people to private confession. In the first half of the Reformation‑period the Lutherans of Wiirttemberg had become content with a general exhortation and the offer to hear a private confession. Among the Reformed private confession was mostly dropped, but a service preparatory to the communion was retained, as well as the general confession of sin. Compare also the Book of Common Prayer with its general confession at the communion and its confession of sin in morning and evening prayer.
Among the Lutherans the carrying out of the private confession met with great difficulties. In large communions the clergy were obliged to perform it in an unsatisfactory manner, and the moral harm of these mechanical confessions was justly regarded as a ground of complaint. The collative or exhibitive formula of absolution roused opposition. Spener declared that the collative and
g92
declarative same, and
formulas were, on the whole, the that he would not hesitate to use the absolute formula, where it was
6. Oppo‑ proscribed. But the spirit of antag‑
sition to onism remained and has remained to
Private this day. The confessional fees, more‑
Confession over, debased the existing practise of
among the Lutherans. Although Luther had
Lutherans. repudiated these fees, they remained,
since many ministers could then not very well get along without them, especially as they were regarded as justified and not as extorted by compulsion. But they soon gave rise to scandal, and it was felt that both the dignity of the office and the proper cooperation of colleagues suffered by the system. In some congregations the fees were not customary. Here and there they were voluntarily changed into New Year's gifts, while some ministers declared that they would take no fees at all on account of the abuses of the custom.
Most of these abuses concerned the general confession just as much as the private confession, but popular disapproval was directed against the latter. The general confession existed as early as the sixteenth century among the Lutherans of Wfhttemberg while in the electorate of Saxony it became general after 1857. In 1697 J. K. Schade convened his communicants in a general confession and
absolved them as a whole. His cola. Its Place leagues disapproved of his procedure,
Taken by which had also provoked dissatisfac‑
a General tion among the citizens, but the elector
Confession. dispensed with private confession in
1698, appealing to many Lutheran churches in Sweden and Denmark, in Upper Germany, and to all the Lutheran churches in Holland and neighborhood, where neither a confessional nor private confession is to be found. The older national churches followed this example, except in Mecklenburg, where, according to Miefoth, private confession and absolution have never been abolished. On the other hand, the rule was observed that each communicant had to confess before the communion and thus take part in the general confession. With private confession private absolution ceased; and though here and there the penitents are individually absolved by laying on of hands, it is only a special application of the general absolution. In place of hearing the individual the confessionary sermon was introduced. The privilege of making a private confession to the confessor was not abrogated by this arrangement, but was seldom claimed.
With the cessation of the private confession 9. very useful instrument was taken from special
pastoral care, and a revival has taken 8. Private place during the nineteenth century.
Confession This is not intended as a mere resto‑
Revived in ration, however, for the same abuses
the Nine‑ which were felt in times past would
teenth again return in an increased degree.
Century. An ecclesiastical body which would
make private confession an obligatory preliminary to communion would not only injure the celebration of the communion, but such a law would be unjustifiable. Private confession can

gas	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
oaztnation
be only voluntary, and the penitent must be convinced that the seal of the confessional remains sure. This was the duty of the confessor in former times, but even this obligation had its exceptions. Aside from the theoretical question whether the Protestant churches have or can have a seal of the confessional which must be kept absolutely, theirrelationtothegovernment and to public weal must also be taken into consideration. This point, 'moreover, can scarcely be of practical importance, for things which would sometimes compel the confessor to ignore the seal of the confessional would seldom be confessed in a voluntary private confession.
	Among the Moravians, after the communion has
beeenn announced, an examination of the families is
arranged with the minister, and at the communion
		a penitential prayer with absolution is
g. Usage of used, which the communicants answer
	Different with " Amen " and a song of praise.
	Churches. The Catholic Apostolic Church com
		mences the Eucharist with confession
and absolution; the Methodists, after the invitation
to receive the communion has been made, have a
general confession which closes with a prayer for
forgiveness. The Anglican liturgy has a confession j
and a preoative absolution at the communion, and j
contemplates private confession with judicial abso‑ .I
lution in the visitation of the sick. The prepara
tion for the communion among the Reformed is
like confession among the Lutherans. The Greek
churches, the Russian as well as that under the
patriarch of Conetantinpole, demand confession as
an act of preparation for the communion. When
ever the communion of the laity takes place in the
Roman Church, during or outside of the mass an
assistant pronounces the Con fiteor and the priest
the Misereatur and Indulgentiam. W. CASPARL

BIHLioagAPHr: H. C. Lea, A Hist. of Auricular Confession, 3 vole., Philadelphia, 1898; W. Elwin, confession and Absolution in Me Bible, ib. 1883; J. Ferret, Gs. Confe"'0n, Paris, 1883; H. J. Schmitz, Did BuseWhar and die Buudisciplin den Kirchs, pp. 884, Mainz, 1883; C. P. Reiehel, History and Claims of the Confessional. London, 1884; (3. Poll, Dae Dogma von den Blinds and Brl6eunG, Regen&burg, 1888; C. H. Davis, Apostoiical and Ministerial Absolution, London, 1887; L. Deeanctie, The Confessional, ib. 1887; H. E. Schieler, Dis V‑oaWap des Duesaakrameats, Paderborn, 1894, Eng. travel., Theory and Prao• ties of the Confessional, New York, 1908; E. C. Aohelie, Lehrbu& den praktischen TheoWis, i. 389 eqq.. LeiPsic. 1898; T. W. Drury. Confession anti Absolution, London, 1904; J. Reuter, Der Beichtroatar in den Verufaitunp Saint@ Atntas, Regensburg, 1901; C. M. Roberta, The Hick of Confession until it deedoped into Auricular Confesiion. London, 1901; Pulham Palace Conference; Confession and Absolution, ib. 1902; H. H. Hanson, Moral Discipline in the Christian Church, ib. 1905; A. (1. Mortimer, Confession and Absolution, New York, 1906.

CORFIRMATION.
In the Early Church (§ 1). Medieval and Later Developments U 2). Practice of the Reformers (§ 3). Modern Lutheran Teachings (§ 4). The Anglican and Roman Catholic Churches (f 5).
Confirmation is a rite which in the Roman Catholic and Greek churches is considered a sacrament conveying strength for the Christian warfare and completing the gift of the Holy Ghost bestowed in
baptism, and by which in the Anglican and Lutheran churches baptized persons are received into full communion. At an early period in the primitive Church baptism was accompanied with unction (Tertullian, De baptismo, vii.; Cyril, "MystagDgic Lectures," iii. 2‑8), with which theologians associated communication of the Spirit. A sond
rite connected with baptism was the r. In the laying on of hands (Acts viii. 17, xix.
Early	6). Unction and laying on of hands
Church. became later separate ceremonies,
performed by the bishop; but since baptism remained associated with unction, there were two anointings, one at baptism and a sond performed by the bishop. From the latter ceremony developed confirmation. According to medieval doctrine this took the place of the laying on of hands (Decrees of the Council of Florence, 1439). The historical development of the rite culminates in the bull Exultate of Eugenius IV. (1431‑47); the material is an unguent of oil and balsam; the formula, `1 1 seal thee with the sign of the cross and confirm thee with the oil of salvation in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost " [the form employed in the Greek Church is: " the seal of the gift of the Holy Spirit " (is imparted to thee) ]; the ordinary minister is the bishop; the effect is the giving of the Holy Ghost with strength boldly to confess Christ. The atapa, i.e., the practise of giving the candidate a blow on the cheek is not mentioned in this bull, though already customary (William Durand, Rationale dit~inorum ofciortm, vi. 84).
In the Middle Ages opposition to confirmation had been aroused by Wyclif and the Bohemians, and the latter replaced it by a rite which is to be regarded as the prototype of Evangelical confirmation (W. Caspari, Kon ftrmation, Leipsic, 1890, pP168‑171). The Reformers also decisively pronounced against it. The fact that infant baptism was retained; the consequent Anabaptist objections that
in this way, contrary to the baptismal a. Medieval command of the Lord, baptism became and Later anterior to teaching; the ignorance of
Develop‑ the congregations in the main articles
meats.	of Christianity; the fear that on this
account the Eucharist might be received by the unworthy; and, above all, solicitude for the flock imposed on the Reformers the duty of promoting Christian instruction through catechizing. Admission to communion was made contingent upon an examination in the chief truths of the Christian religion. As early as 1534 Butzer (in Ad monasterienses) taught that baptized children after antecedent Christian instruction might make public profession, and that the ancient usage from
which confirmation had arisen might be renewed, namely, that the bishops should lay hands on the baptized and thereby " literally "impart to them the Holy Ghost. The section " Confirmatio " of the Wittenberg Reformation of 1545 (C$, v. 579) expressed itself in similar terms.
Meanwhile in certain districts in Hesse and Strasburg a rite had been introduced, instituted by Butter, who was acquainted with the Moravian laying on of hands (the Kirchenordnung of Camel, 1539). The same liturgical manual contains the formula

Confirmation	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	224
Oonflict of Duties
still in use: " Receive the Holy Ghost, safeguard and
shelter against all malice, strength and help toward
all good, from the gracious hand of God the Father."
		But this rite gained ground in only a few
	3. Practise districts of the Lutheran jurisdiction,
	of the Re‑ since during the transitional negotia
formers. tions this modified con firmatdo fell under
		suspicionof being an unjustified conces
sion to the Church of Rome, and was on that account
rejected by the opposers of the Interim. Hence
for a long time the rite was not instituted in some
of the Lutheran districts, though it readily gained
admission with the Calvinists. Among the Luther
ans it was customary to observe only the so‑called
private confirmation; the catechumen, in his later
boyhood, was brought by his sponsors before the
	qualified minister, by him examined, and thereupon,
if found competent, admitted to communion. The
	general adoption of public confirmation was expe
dited by the desire to enhance the effect of catechet
ical instruction by a ceremonial conclusion; by the
endeavor to counteract the inroads of the Roman
	propaganda, and by the effort to implant religion
in the child's receptive nature. Since, however,
the introduction of public confirmation coincided
in part with a time when the existing liturgies
were no longer binding, the rite was frequently
shaped according to the preference of individual
ministers.
Now that confirmation has become in the Luther
an churches a generally solemnized ecclesiastical
rite, and also a church rite which even the outer
world notices with deference to family ties and
friendship, theologians have naturally attempted
to account for its nature and meaning. It has been
		regaaded as supplementary to baptism
	4. Modern (Schleiermacher), or as an act of re
Lutheran ception into the confessional church
	Teachings. (Wegschneider, Bretschneider); as a
		testimonial of majority in the case of
those baptized as children (Nitzsch, Dorner); as
reception into the congregation of adults; as a means
of constituting a more limited congregation upon
which devolves the direction of the life of the Church,
but which also alone enjoys the privilege of com
munion (J. C. C. von Hofmann); as a consummation
of the state of a baptized catechumen and as a
	renewal of the baptismal bond on the subjective
	side; as a lay ordination and reception into the
	communing congregation (Zezachwitz); as a charis
	mal communication of the Spirit through the laying
on of hands (Vilmar). To all these explanations
	there are weighty objections. The theory of mod
ern times, that confirmation in so far as it bestows
	the right to communion should be deferred, is sub
	ject to the objection that a potential participation
	in the Eucharist is compatible with such penitent
	and faithful reception as may be presupposed in the
case of baptized and instructed children. So it is
	best to bestow the right to commune upon baptized
	and instructed children, by solemn confirmation
or laying on of hands before the assembled con
	gregation.		W. CABFARI.
	In the Anglican Church there has been a wide
	spread popular tendency to look upon the rite in
	the light of a formal admission to communion, the
rubric in the Prayer‑book reading: "And there shall none be admitted to the Holy Communion until such time as he be confirmed, or be g. The An ‑ ready and desirous to be confirmed." glican and But the latter alternative shows that
Roman no essential connection exists between
Catholic the two; and, as a matter of fact, there Churches. is no practical difference between the teaching of at least the High‑church party and that of the Roman Catholic Church on this subject. The definition in Article XXV., which includes confirmation as among " those five commonly called sacraments," but " not to be counted for sacraments of the Gospel," seems to place it with the things which " have grown of the corrupt following of the Apostles "‑as regards, that is, the medieval form. Omitting the chrism, and emphasizing the laying on of hands, the Anglican Church goes back to the New Testament record; but it is contended by Roman Catholic theologians that the contact with the bishop's hand in the act of unction, to say nothing of the blow upon the cheek (intended to symbolize the conferring of the character of a soldier of Christ, who must be ready to " endure hardness"), is quite sufficient to cover this point.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bingham, Originea, book xii.; E. Martbne,
	De antiquis eccleeim ritibua, vol. i., chap. i., Antwerp,
	1738; J. F. Bachmann, Die Confirmation der Catechumenen,
	3 voles, Berlin, 1852; F. X. Kraus, Realencyklapddie, arti
	cle " Salbung," Freiburg, 1882‑88; II. Hurter, Tluo
	lopim dogmaticm compendium, vol. iii., Innsbruck, 1893;
	%L, iv. 1508‑14; DCA, i. 424 125.

CONFITEOR: The name applied, from its first word in Latin, to the formula used for public confession in the Roman Catholic missal and breviary, and also usually employed to begin a private confession. It consists of an acknowledgment of sin primarily to God, and then also to the Virgin Mary and other saints and to the priest or congregation present, as all injured in some degree by the sins acknowledged (I Cor. xii. 26); and of a request addressed to the same persons to pray God for the sinner. The oldest sacramentaries and Ordines Romani do not contain this formula; the first trace of it appears with Egbert, archbishop of York (735), and Chrodegang, bishop of Metz (d. 743), as an introduction to sacramental confession. Thereafter it appears in various forms and uses, until the revised missal of Pius V. finally introduced uniformity.

	CONFLICT OF DUTIES: A term which usu
ully covers a larger ground than that strictly and
		logically falling under it. It actually
	Origin. means the coincidence of ethical
		demands which exclude each other
and thus excite a conflict in the person whose
actions they claim. Under the influence of classical
antiquity, especially of Cicero, the doctrine of virtue,
combined with the doctrine of duties, became the
fundamental basis of ethics, and the conflict of
duties became a favorite theme. Where ethics was
developed essentially in the form of a doctrine of
duties the question became inevitable how various
demands could exist side by side and what should

226	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	c°'a'mati°a
		OonSiot of Unties
be done if they should clash with each other. Since
Cicero gave the word ofcium the signification of
a universal ethical conception, there originated in
actual practise the possibility of a collision between
the universal idea of moral obligation and the indi
vidual concrete action. This difficulty finds its
illustration in the ethics of Kant and Schleier
macher. With Kant, the conception of duty loses
its concrete content by changing itself into the law
of free will, obedience to the consciousness of duty
which is not bound by any moral law. It is evi
dent that no conflict of duties can here be spoken
of, " since duty and obligation are conceptions
which express the objective practical necessity of
a certain action, and two rules that oppose each
other can not present themselves at the same time."
	According to Schleiermacher, " man's highest good
is the totality of all actions in conformity with
	duty. If these were in conflict, some parts of the
	highest good of man would be in conflict, which is
	impossible. Thus there can be no conflict between
duties." Kant and Schleiermacher were followed
	by ethical teachers who did not share their presup
positions‑‑Reinhard, Baumgarten‑Crusius, Daub,
	Marheineke, Rothe, Schwarz, Heppe, Luthardt, and
others.
	Conflicts of duties may be arranged under three
	heads. There may be (1) a conflict between duty
	and personal inclination. In this case, strictly
	speaking, there is no conflict of duties;
Three	but still there are cases in which sinful
	Binds of habits take on the form of an objective
	Conflict. claim of duty, as in the conception of
	honor prevalent among Germane and
	other peoples. A Christian officer of the army may
	wish to discard dueling in conformity with the law
	and his own conviction; but when he has to choose
	between participation in a duel and relinquishment
	of his calling, there originates a real conflict of
	duties. Moreover, inclination and duty are often
	hard to distinguish; since the choice of a calling
	should correspond closely to one's gifts, there may
	originate a conflict between the inclination to such
	choice and the duty toward the family. Also many
	matrimonial unions create not only conflicts, but
	real collisions. Or, (2) concrete duty may con
	flict with the general moral obligation. An officer
	of the State, in executing his official duty, may be
	compelled to commit actions the injustice of which
	he recognizes, and to omit others which according
	to his moral conviction are just. A judge may be
	compelled by the laws in force to acquit in cases
	where clear insight and moral consciousness con
	demn, and to condemn where reason and morality
	acquit. There are also cases in which the concrete
	duties of one's official calling or to his family claim
	his whole attention and activity in such a way that
	faith in the practise of love toward one's neighbor
	is considerably impaired. Again (3) a conflict of
	duties exists when concrete duty is opposed to
	concrete duty. Thus duty toward the State and
	duty toward the family may conflict; also duty
	toward the Church and duty toward the State;
	duty toward the Church and duty toward the fam
	ily. Even specific duties of one sphere may con
	flict with each other; duty toward children and
111‑1b
duty toward wife or husband, duty toward one's calling and duty of obedience to the authorities. Only one whose vision has been obscured by abstract theories can think that such conflicts are only apparent and imaginary, or due to defective moral development. On the contrary, moral character intensifies them.
	The cases, of Abraham (Gen. xxii.), Jephthah
(Judg. xi. 34‑40), David (II Sam. xxiv. 12‑14),
and others present conflicts of duties in the Old
Testament; in the New Testament there are
conflicts in Matt. viii. 22, xvii. 24 sqq. In
conflict between faithfulness to confession and
		obedience to the secular suthori‑
Biblical	ties (Matt. x. 17 sqq.; John xvi. 2)
Illustra‑	the Lord exhorted to a strength which,
	tions.	even in martyrdom, would maintain
		the freedom of religion (Acts iv. 19,
v. 29); but he foresaw that not all would find this
strength (cf. Luke xiv. 18 sqq.). Paul also felt the
conflict between his duty to attack Judaism and
the love for his people (Rom. ix. l aqq.).
According to the old casuistry, there ought to be a solution of every conflict. The most important and correct rule that has been
	Solution.	laid down is that the duty of right
		precedes the duty of love. Apart
from such rules, the solution is often expected from
the perfect development of Christian character.
This view might be correct if conflicts originated
inwardly; but their peculiarity consists in the pres
sure of external demands upon the moral con
sciousness, and thus they may be rather intensified
by the development of Christian character (Matt.
x. 34). There is, however, a deep‑rooted con
viction in the consciousness of redemption possessed
by God's children that such conflicts can not dis
turb the peace and joy of the state of grace (John
xiv. 27, xv. 11, xvii, 13) since the attainment of
the highest good is independent of our actions.
When a Christian father of a family, for instance,
finds himself forced to neglect the duty of educa
ting his children, on account of his duty to support
his family, there is after all no solution of the con
flict in the inevitable choice of the latter duty
before the former; the conflict rather becomes
continuous. In many cases self‑renunciation must
take the place of an actual solution. Conflicts of
duty may be looked upon not only from the per
sonal, but also from the social point of view. Pub
lic reforms and progress often make their way
through conflicts of duty. Where consciences
sleep there are no conflicts; but where men with
living conscience take hold of duties and earnestly
desire their fulfilment there will grow from the
conflicts of duties energetic efforts for their redress.
In all conflicts the believing Christian ought to
remember not only the words of Luke xvii. 10,
but also of I John iii. 19‑21. See CABU18THr;
Coxscmxem; DuTy; and ETHICS.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. E. Erdnasnn, Ueber Kodjavo% der p)lick‑
ten, Berlin, 1853; (i. 8ahulse, Ueber den Wideretreit d„. pjlidten, Halle, 1878; H. L. Martenean. Christian Mies,
¢ 139, 5 vols., Edinburgh, 1886‑82; F. H. R. Frank, Sye‑
tem der christlieken Sittlichkeit, i., 1 22, pp. 7 eqq., Erlangen, 1884; and in general treatises on ethics and casuistry.

Oonirateraities	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	828
CONFRATERNITIES, RELIGIOUS.
Origin and Development (§ 1). The Modern System (1 2). In the Nineteenth Century ($ 3).
By this term are now usually understood organizations of men and women in the Roman Catholic Church which are formed under ecclesiastical sanction, often with a definite rule of life, for the purpose of devotion to some special good work, doctrine, or saint, or merely of obtaining a special grace.
They seem to have derived their :. Origin initial impulse (under a form which and Devel‑ has no historical continuity with the
opment. present) from England, where, it
appears, there were as early as the beginning of the eighth century associations for mutual intercession among the members of one monastic community, or of two or more together, sometimes including outsiders. St. Boniface introduced this custom on the Continent. A variant of it appears in the undertaking of the bishops and abbots at national and provincial synods to unite their chapters and monasteries for this purpose; the first documentary evidence of this is from the Synod of Attigny in 762, though the custom is doubtless earlier. It was not long before the laity sought to have a share in the spiritual advantages of these systematic intercessions, those of the monks being especially valued. The reception of laymen into these confraternities was the return for notable gifts or services. The names of members were inscribed in what was often called the "book of life " (see LiBva VITz), which took in a manner the place of the ancient diptychs as lists of the living or dead Christians for whom the Holy Sacrifice was offered. The system spread throughout the whole Western Church, and seems to have attained its greatest strength under the influence of the Cistercian order. As the number of members of a confraternity increased into the thousands, the advantages of special prayer for the individual (whether in life or after death) decreased in proportion; and the old confraternities, though in some cases they maintained their existence, gradually lost their importance for the religious life.
The modern brotherhood system dates from the period of the rise of the cities and their industries‑‑
the trade gilds, though serving an s. The Mod‑ economic purpose, were usually under ern System. the patronage of some saint‑‑and of
the almost simultaneous development of the mendicant orders. Bonaventum is said to have founded (1267) the Confraternity of the Gonfalonieri in Paris, for the purpose of ransoming Christians held in captivity among the Mohammedans. Others attribute it to St. Dominic; but the establishment of the Confraternity of the Rosary is wrongly ascribed to the latter, and the most that can be said with certainty is that the first real development of the more modern confraternities took place under the influence of the mendicant orders. Their special aim was the union of people living in the world for some definite spiritual purpose not already of universal obligation. It is possible that the Carmelites were the first to crystallize this general tendency, by forming those who
wished to unite with them in devotion to the Virgin Mary and to receive the scapular supposed to have been revealed in a vision to St. Simon Stock (at Cambridge, 1251) into the Confraternity of the Scapular of our Lady of Mount Carmel. Tradition names the Servites as the next to follow this pattern, with their Confraternity of the Seven Borrows of Mary. Similar confraternities attached to numbers of houses of mendicants were soon striving, under the leadership of the friars, to attain greater holiness, and were attracted by the expectation of many graces in accordance with the papal indulgences. How widely they had extended by the second half of the fourteenth century is shown by Wyclif's sharp attacks on them; he scourges the hypocrisy, the self‑seeking, the commercial spirit of expecting a quid pro quo from heaven, which had already crept into them. They had their real popular development in the fifteenth century, when nearly every mendicant house had its special association, with a special altar in the church, before which the members assembled at least once a month, often once a week. In return for their prayers and alms, they were entitled to rich indulgences and to a share in the prayers and good works of the friars; in case of death masses were said for them, and the brotherhood followed them to the grave, sometimes paying the expenses of the funeral. The particular feasts of the confraternity were celebrated with much pomp, and as an additional attraction a social meal was held, which in places led to great disorders before the close of the century. The services of the saints were now for the first time specialized, as patrons in various kinds of danger or necessity; and nothing helped so much to make a new saint popular as the foundation of a brotherhood in his honor. The entrance fee‑to say nothing of other payments‑ranged from one to twenty florins in Germany for example, or at the present value of money say from four to eighty dollars; from which it may be seen both how highly the people valued these religious privileges and what vast sums must have passed through the hands of the directors. Luther sternly rebuked their abuses, and pointed men to the real confraternity of Christ's Church in their place; and in a short time they disappeared from all places which were conquered by the Reformation, except a few which were recast in a Protestant shape or served secular purposes. Even in the Roman Catholic countries their influence decayed. The Jesuits recognizing the service they could render to the Counterreformation, infused fresh life into them. The confusion of the seventeenth century was unfavorable to the growth of brotherhoods, though the great League of the Sacred Heart arose toward the end of it, and in the rationalizing eighteenth they seem to have had but a precarious existence. Still, Vienna had in the year 1779 no less than 116 confraternities, with property valued at nearly 700,000 florins. In the early part of the nineteenth century, partly through the recovered power of the Jesuits, they took a fresh start, and ultimately reached a height never before attained. They have learned some things from Protestant polemics; whereas in the Middle Ages the chief duty of the members was to pay

297	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Coufateraities
dues, and the devotional exercises were almost incidental, now little or no money contributions are required, the essence of membership consisting in pious works, exercises of devotion, and fidelity to the pope.
The associations which are strictly called confraternities (as distinguished from " pious unions ") must be established by competent
3. In the ecclesiastical authority, and attached Nineteenth to a definite church. What are called
	Century.	arch‑confraternities are sometimes es
		tablished by the pope, in cases where
the aim is very important or corresponds to a uni
versal need of the Church; these have power to
affiliate to themselves other confraternities of like
aim and name, imparting to them the privileges
already granted to the arch‑confraternity. These
are frequently limited to a definite country; as a
rule, only the Roman arch‑confraternities have the
power of unlimited aggregation, though there are
exceptions, such as that of the Immaculate Heart
of Mary in Paris. The tendency of the period has
given the greatest extension to those which are
dedicated to the Virgin Mary, especially the Marian
sodalities. The first was founded at the Collegio
Romano by the scholastic John Leon of Li6ge in
1563, and confirmed as an arch‑confraternity by
Gregory XIII. in 1584. It was originally intended
for young students, and the Jesuits found it a power
ful auxiliary to their work in educational institu
tions. In 1586 Sixtus V. extended its operation to
all the faithful of the male sex; it was not the
Jesuits' wish to include women, as their idea was
to form a body of active public workers; but from
the middle of the eighteenth century branches for
women and girls have been affiliated. According
to their own description, the Jesuits aim through
these societies at promoting Christian perfection,
according to each member's state of life, and so
ultimately reforming each class, and thus the world.
Since the conversion of heretics has always been
one of the works principally encouraged, it is easy
to see what importance these societies assumed in
the Counterreformation, especially in Austria and
Bavaria. Each " congregation " has a priest,
normally a Jesuit, as " moderator." A president,
to be approved by the moderator, is chosen by the
members. A number of other officers assist him,
thus enabling as many as possible to be specially
interested in the work. The applicant for mem
bership must pass through a period of probation,
under strict supervision, after which he is received
with impressive ceremonies. He takes a solemn
obligation of special devotion to the Virgin, makes
the Tridentine profession of faith, including an
obligation to maintain and spread it among all
those who are in any way under his charge, and
receives a blessed medal as a badge of membership
and a protection against harm; this may be taken
	from him in	case of misconduct, so that a system of
discipline and of supervision comes into existence.
The regulations prescribe the frequency of attend
ance at mass, of communion, and of meetings,
bides the making each year of the spiritual exer
cises of St. Ignatius, and a number of devotional
practises; in return for which an abundance of
plenary and partial indulgences is at the disposal of members. This system has been described at length because it has served in general as a model for the modern confraternities.
Next in antiquity and in importance come the tertiaries (q.v.) of the Franciscan order, who, although they have the form of a confraternity, in one sense are reckoned as members of the order. Nowadays the most approved and undoubtedly the most wide‑spread of these organizations is the League of the Sacred Heart or Apostleship of Prayer (see SACRED HEART of JEsus, DEvoT1oN To), which has a membership of many millions, as has also the cognate arch‑confraternity of the Immaculate Heart of Mary for the Conversion of Sinners, founded in Paris, 1856. Among the obligations of members of the latter is " the offering of all one's good works, in union with the sacred heart of Mary, for the conversion of sinners," and assisting at the special masses said for that intention. Of the numerous others that have arisen in late years may be mentioned the following: the arch‑confraternity of the Assumption, for the aid of the souls in purgatory; the Brotherhood of St. Michael, founded at Vienna, 1860, and the Leonine Society, both devoted to the defense of the pope, and the latter especially of the temporal power; the arch‑confraternity of St. Joseph, founded 1860, confirmed 1862; the arch‑confraternity of St. Peter's Chains, whose members wear a small representation of the alleged original chains of St. Peter, as preserved in Rome, in token of their loyalty to the (captive) pope; and the Confraternity of "Our Lady of Compassion," established by Leo XIII. in 1897 for the conversion of England to the Catholic faith. Besides those which are strictly to be called confraternities, there are a large number of pious unions, which differ from them principally in being more free and elastic. Among them may be mentioned the association founded in 1862 by Julie von Massow, and a similar one dating from 1868, with the title Ut omnea unum (" that they all may be one," John xvu. 21)‑both having for their purpose the promotion of the reunion of Christendom, and both connected with the arch‑confrar ternity of our Lady of Sorrows (founded 1450), in which, since the Reformation, prayer for reunion has been a regular practise. Their members use the white " reunion rosary," for whose daily recitation Leo XIII. offered large indulgences in 1888. (T. KOLDE.)
Organizations called " brotherhoods " have been formed in the Protestant churches which, while having some resemblance to the confraternities of the Roman Catholic Church, necemarily differ in form and in purpose. There may be named here the interdenominational Brotherhood of Andrew and Philip (set', ANDREW AND PHILIP, BROTHERHOOD OF), the Brotherhood of St. Andrew (see PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH), and the Brotherhood of St. Paul (see METHODIsTs).
BmwooRAPgr: F. Falk, Die Conlraternitmen des Mittelalters, in Der Katholik, alviii. 1 (1868). 548 eqq.; T. Kolde,
Die k%rchuchen BruderscWten . . . im modetnen Ka"_
oiemus, Erlangen, 1895; Bouvier, Der Ablass, die Brw
derwhaflen and das Jubildum, Regeneburg, 1859; M. V.
Battler, ~aachiehts dear marianiachen Konyrepagionen an

Ooagrains
Oongregstioa	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	gas
Bayern, Munich, 1884; L. Delplace, Histoire des con‑
grfgations de la 3. Vierpe, Line, 1884; P. LSfller, in Stimmen aug Maria Laadh, zavii (1884), 230 sqq., 343 sqq.; A. Ebner, Die kttiaterlwhen Gebetevereinipungen big sum Auegange des karolinpiaeAen zeitauera, Regensburg, 1890; F. Beringer, Die Ablasse, W Wesen and fiebrauch, pp. 998 sqq., Paderborn, 1895.

CONFUCIUS, can‑fiu'shi‑us.
Early Life (§ 1). Later Life and Posthumous Honors (§ 2). His Ideals and Teaching (§ 3). His Influence (5 4).
The name of this Chinese sage is the Latinized form of Kung fu‑tsze, i.e., the " Master Kung "; he was born in the district of Tsow, in the feudal kingdom of Lu, now the southern part of Shantung, in the year 551 B.c.; d. in Lu 478 B.c. His father was governor of the district at the time‑a man honored by his country, who died at the age of seventy‑three, when his son was three years old. His mother carefully cherished his love of learning, but information concerning his early training is scanty and legendary. His grave demeanor and precocious mind early attracted attention, and he was led to study carefully the ancient laws and records. At nineteen he married. The following year he became a keeper of granaries and overseer of public fields, and the reforms he instituted gained
him the favor of his sovereign. Inr. Early duced by the disregard for law among Life. his countrymen to examine more closely the ancient writings, and satisfied of the ability of their teachings to check existing evils, he began to gather pupils. Although only twenty‑two, his reputation attracted many young men to his house; and their numbers increased as the value of his instructions was recognized. The death of his mother when he was twenty‑four afforded him opportunity to offer a tribute to her memory and to revive an old custom of retiring from office in order to mourn three years. His example has been followed to the present day. With the exception of a visit to the court of the Duke of Lu, he devoted the next ten years to further study and instruction of his disciples, all the while rising in influence as a public teacher and learned man, qualified to rule and advise in affairs of the state. This course of life he continued till he was thirty‑four years old, when his wish to enter public service was gratified. One of the chief ministers of Lu on his death‑bed (517 B.c.) advised his son to join the school of Confucius to learn the nature of ceremonial observances, in order better to perform his official. duties. He and a near relative did so; and they gave new 9clat to the master, who was, at their representation, sent by Duke Chao to the imperial court at Loh‑yang to study the rites then in use, so as to introduce them into Lu. He went as a private man, to see and learn, and returned home the same year.
Soon after, Duke Chao was obliged to fly to the adjoining state of Tsi to save his life, and Confucius followed as a loyal subject. Not approving his position there, the sage returned home. He was now known as a great teacher. Lu was distracted by civil strife, from which he kept aloof during the next fifteen years. In the year 500
Duke Chao's brother, Ting, came into power in Lu, and the rival factions were put down. Confucius when fifty years old was appointed magistrate of the town of Chung‑tu. The influence of his virtue and the wisdom of his administration wrought a speedy revolution in the condition of the place. The next
year he was raised to be minister of 2. Later crime, in which position he introduced
Life and many reforms to simplify and enforce
Posthu‑ the administration of justice. These re‑
mous	forms excited the envy of neighboring
Honors. lords, whose efforts finally succeeded
in inducing the ruler of Lu to remove the sage from office (496 B.c.). During the next thirteen years he wandered from state to state, at one time honored, at another in danger of his life, but always surrounded by a band of faithful disciples. When sixty‑six years old he returned to Lu, and employed his remaining years in completing his literary works. His wife and only son, Kung Li, had died before him; but he was honored and mourned by many attached followers. His tomb at Kiuh‑fau in Shantung is surrounded by an extensive collection of temples, halls, and. courts, and has been well described by Rev. A. William on in his Journeys in North China, i., chap. xiii. His descendants still live in that region, and the head of the family is known as the Sacred Duke Kung. Though discouraged and neglected at the end of his career, Confucius, through his literary works, was destined to compel such homage from his fellow men as few others have had. In every city of China, down to those of the third order, there is a temple to him, and in every college and school he is venerated and adored.
The ideal of Confucius, to the attainment of which all his efforts and teachings were directed, was a condition of happy tranquillity throughout the empire. He .considered that this could be accomplished by maintaining the sacredness of the five obligations of human society; viz., those between sovereign and minister, father and son, husband and wife, elder and younger brother, and between friends, all persons faithfully performing the reciprocal duties arising from each relationship. He claimed an almost unlimited authority for the sovereign over the minister, father over the son, husband over the wife, elder brother over younger; and enjoined kind and upright dealings among friends, thus inculcating as his leading tenets subordination to superiors, and virtuous conduct. In harmony with the practical character of his system, he laid special stress upon the care and
education of the young, which he 3. His regarded as the foundation of the
Ideals and welfare of the state. His. teachings Teaching. in regard to political and social moral‑
ity are based essentially upon the same grounds. His idea of government was a paternal despotism. But on the other hand, ascribing great importance to the power of example, he insisted upon personal rectitude and good government as the pledges and arguments for a ruler's maintenance in power. The general tendency of the philosophy of Confucius is good; and, compared with that of Greece and Rome, it takes

229	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Congregation
precedence by the purity of its teachings and the attention paid to the rules governing the common intercourse of life, but is inferior to them in profundity. Throughout his teaching Confucius seldom referred to the great problems of human condition and destiny. To his practical mind the consideration of theology and metaphysics seemed uncertain; and he evaded, if he did not rebuke, his disciples when they pried into things beyond their depth. " To give one's self earnestly," said he, " to the duties due to men, and, while respecting spiritual beings, to keep aloof from them, may be called wisdom." This is his teaching in regard to the ancient creed of China. While he enjoined respect for its worship and religious observances, enforcing command by example, he crushed out every spiritual tendency by discountenancing speculation upon higher things.
For twenty‑three centuries Confucius has held sway over the minds of nearly a third of the human race. The source of this influence may be ascribed to the use of the Four Books and the Five Classics
as text‑books (see CHINA, I.,1, § 1). In
	4. His In‑ adopting them as the text‑books at the
		fluence.	national examinations, the rulers of
			China took the best moral guides their
literature afforded, and trained their rising youth
in the best principles of government they pos
sessed. Not only does every scholar learn at the
lap of Confucius, but civil offices are reached
only after going through the competitive exami
nations in those nine classics. His doctrines are
thus deeply impressed upon the Chinese mind. But,
however great his influence has been in the past,
it is destined to wane in the near future. His
system is not capable of being expanded propor
tionately with the progress of the nation, for it
lacks the high sanctions and the vital force of Chris
tianity. 		S. WELLS WILLTAMSt.
The attitude of Confucius to the Golden Rule is often discussed. The facts are these: He was asked what one word would serve as a rule of practise for all of life, and replied with the word shu, which Williams translates "reciprocity," and added: " What you do not want done to yourself do not to others" (Analects, xv. 23). Again some one asked: " What say you of the principle that injury should be recompensed with kindness? " The Master said: °' With what then will you recompense kindness ? Recompense injury with justice, and kindness with kindness " (AnalecM, xiv. 36). Thus it appears that though Confucius specifically rejected the doctrine later embodied by Christ in the teaching " love your enemies," that doctrine was discussed in China 500 years before its utterance by Christ in Palestine‑a most interesting fact. See CHINA, 1., 1.
G. W. G.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Legge, Chinese Classics, i. 58‑129, Lon‑
don, 1861 (contains all that is trustworthy); A. Loomis, Confucius and tha Chinese Classics, San Francisco, 1867; J. H. Plath, Confucius and seine Schuler: Leben and Lehren 4 parts, Munich, 1869‑74; A. H. Smith, Chinese Characteristics, New York, 1900 (exhibits the profound influence of the sage on Chinese life). Consult also the books mentioned under CBINA.
CONGREGATION: [A word variously employed in religious and ecclesiastical usage. In the Eng‑
lish Old Testament it represents several Hebrew words, especially mo`edh, `edhah, and kahal. The first (from ya`adh, "to appoint") means an appointed meeting, then the place or time of such meeting; it occurs especially in the phrase ohsl vto'edh, rendered " tabernacle of the congregation " in the A. V., but better °° tent of meet‑
VarioIls ing" in the R. V. The second (from
	Usages.	the same root) denotes the theocratic
		assembly of Israel, thought of as meet
ing by appointment with Yahweh. Eahal (from
,kahal, "to assemble") denotes any assembly, and
the gathering of Israel in particular. The com
monest Septuagint renderings of these words were
synagago and ekkUsia, and these passed into the
New Testament (see CHURCH, Tats CHRISTIAN; Cf.
Hebrew dictionaries and dictionaries of New Testa
ment Greek under the words named and the Bible
dictionaries, articles " Assembly " and " Congre
gation "). In Roman Catholic usage congregation
denotes: (1) One of the standing committees of
cardinals charged with some particular branch of
ecclesiastical administration (see CURIA). (2) An
association of men or women, usually of modern
origin, living under a quasimonastic rule, but not
strictly included among the monastic orders and
not bound by the solemn and irrevocable vows of
the latter; e.g., the Christian Brothers, English
Ladies, Redemptorists, and many others (see the
separate articles). (3) A congregation may also bean
association of houses within a certain order, united
in some special manner, as the congregations of
Cluny and St. Maur (qq.v.). (4) At the Council of
Constance (1414‑18) the name " congregation "
was given to the separate sessions of the different
nations (Bee CONSTANCE, COUNCIL OF), and since
then has designated meetings in which only a por
tion of the members take part practically com
mittees appointed to prepare and facilitate the
business of the council, like the committees of mod
ern legislative bodies. In modern Protestant usage
" congregation " means an assembly for religious
purposes, in more restricted sense a local church
or the lay members of a local church as distin
guished from the minister and authorities, some
times where a distinction is made between professed
'° members " and mere attendants, the latter as
distinguished from the former. The condensation
of the article Gemeinde, kiroNiche, in the Hauck
Herzog RE follows.]
The ecclesiastical congregation (Germ. kirchliche Gemeinde ; Lat. eccleaia, congregatio Melium) in the widest sense is the association (Gemeinschaft) of all faithful Christians; in a narrower sense, the members of a particular Church‑confessional, national, provincial, etc.‑or of a local church. In the following article the word is understood in the last‑named sense.
After the development of the conception of the mass as a sacrifice, of the priesthood as a necessary medium of salvation, and of the consequent essential difference between clergy and laity which made the latter merely the passive object of clerical activity, there remained for the layman no independent share in the life of the congregation. In accordance with the fundamental principles of the

Con
(7on~re~wtioaa2lst s =tiotioaa2lsts n	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	280
~re~w
pre‑Reformation ecclesiastical system, as developed
from the time of Gregory VIL, the pope, as vicar of
		Christ, is pastor of the world; he ap
	The Pre‑ points bishops as his representatives,
	Reforms‑ one for each geographical district (di
	tion Idea ocese); every bishop appoints priests
		as his representatives, one for every
subdistrict (parish; see CHURCH GOVERNMENT,
§ 1; CuRr or SOULS). The Christian population
of such a parochial district, ecclesiastically united
because placed under the care of a pastor and regu
larly dependent on him alone for its spiritual needs,
forms the parochial congregation. The latter is
naturally interested in having the funds of the local
church, from which the expenses of the pastor and
his helpers as well as of the religious services are
defrayed, administered faithfully and properly.
This interest was recognized in pre‑Reformation
canon law by allowing the so‑called " church
fathers " and 1° patrons " (patrini), who were
chosen from the members of the parish, to share in
the administration; but they can scarcely be called
representatives of the congregation, as they were
generally chosen by the clergy. Only in conse
quence of privileges and old customs did a few
churches here and there have any degree of inde
pendence, e.g., the right to choose their own pastor.
As a rule, the congregation was merely a " flock
united to the shepherd," and its position is expressed
in the Corpus juris canonici, when it says: " We have
decreed that laymen should not presume to transact
ecclesiastical affairs" (2, X., de iudiciis (ii. 1]); " we
forbid any layman to be allowed to dispute concern
ing the Catholic faith" (2, § 1, de ha:reticia, and VI.
[v. 2]) ; " laymen must obey, not exercise authority "
(12, X., de rebus eeclesiasticis non aliendis [iii. 13]).
	The Churches of the Reformation, both Lutheran
and Reformed, placed the congregations on a dif
ferent basis. Rejecting the mediatory position of
the priesthood and its consequences, and emphasi
zing the responsibility of the individual, they make
it the religious duty of the layman to see that word
and sacraments are rightly administered; accord
		ingly, they teach that the congrega
	The Lu‑ tions have a divine commission to
	theran turn away from false doctrine and to
	Churches. provide for a right ministry in case
		the ecclesiastical authorities do not do
so. The Lutheran Church asserts the right of mem
bers of the congregation to representation and a
voice in synods and church courts, so far as they
are qualified to serve in such capacities, and of
admonishing or lodging complaint against preachers
offensive in doctrine or conduct. It allows the
congregation at least the right of veto in the choice
of pastor and a share in the administration of the
local funds. The congregation must be consulted
by the authorities before constitutional changes
can be made, and the right to a share in church
discipline, so far as allowed by Scripture, is granted.
The Reformers themselves and the Rostock theo
logians, Johan Quistorp and Theophilus Grossgebauer
in the seventeenth century, recognized the need of
church committees and boards of elders to make
these congregational rights effective. But in the
evolution of the German national Church boards
of elders had no proper place and therefore, like the congregational rights themselves, did not flourish. The modern development, however, has everywhere asserted the principle of self‑government in individual Lutheran congregations, though in varying degree in different churches (see CHURCH GOVERNMENT, §§ 3‑8).
The Reformed Churches gave the congregations a more important development. That of Zwingli, to be sure, followed essentially the same principles as the Lutherans, and certain modifications resulted only from the fact that it grew on
	The Re‑ republican soil and the Swiss churches
	formed	already enjoyed privileges in the choice
Churches. of a pastor. Calvin, however, taught
		separation of Church and State and
independent church government as divinely insti
tuted. According to his view there must be a
board (consiatoare, session) at the head of each
church, consisting of two kinds of elders, ruling and
teaching. The care of the poor is entrusted to
deacons. These ideas came to full realization in
France, and extended thence to the Spanish Nether
lands, and to Germany when Reformed congrega
tions settled there to escape persecution. [See
CHURCH GOVERNMENT, §§ `Ir3; BAPTISTS, I., 3,
§	1; and CONGREGATIONALISTS, IV. These and
other denominations, including many of the minor
ones, have embodied in their church polity the prin
ciple of democracy more 'fully than the parties
mentioned in the text.] 	E. SEHLING.
BIBLIOanAPHT: For the Biblical conception consult: G. F. Moore, Commentary on Judges, on Judges a. 1, New York, 1895; W. M. Ramsay, in Expositor, 5th ser., HL 137 sqq.; Schiirer, Geachichte, ii. 427 sqq., Eng. transl., IT., ii. 59 sqq. For the early Christian congregation consult: F. J. A. Hort, Christian Bocleaia, London, 1897. For Lutheran and Reformed Churches: A. L. Richter, Geachirhte der euangelischen Kirrhenroerfassung, Leipsic, 1861; O. Mejer, Grundlagen des luthsriachen Kirchenregimente, Rostock, 1884; idem, Kirchenrecht, pp. 168 sqq., G6ttingen, 1869; R. Bohm, Kirchenrec*k i. 480 eqq.,Leipsic,1892.
CONGREGATIONAL METHODISTS: See METHODISTS, IV., 9.

CONGREGATIONAL UNION LECTURES: A lectureship under the auspices of the Congregational Union of Great Britain. It was established in 1831, and the first series was delivered in 1833 by Ralph Wardlaw on Christian ethics (published in London, 1833). The aim is " to illustrate the evidence . . . of the great doctrines of Revelation, to exhibit the . . . principles of philology in their application to such doctrines, to prove the accordance . . . of genuine philosophy with . . . Scripture, to trace to their sources the . . corruptions which have existed in the Christian Church, and to point out the methods of refutation and counteraction." The lectureship is not endowed, the funds coming from the sales of volumes of lectures already delivered; consequently the lectures are given at irregular intervals. The last series was delivered in 1897 by John Brown on Apostolical Succession in the Light of History and of Fact (London, 1898). A full list of lectures and their subjects is given in L. H. Jordan, Comparative Religion, pp. 584‑585, New York, 1906.

281	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	aonerreeation
		ConaTegationalists
I. History.
1. The English Congregationalists.
	Robert Browne (§ 1).
	His Views (4 2).
	Barrows and Greenwood (§ $).
	Johnson and Ainsworth (§ 4).
	The Berooby Congregation (¢ 5).
	The Pilgrim Church in Holland
		<5 6).
	The Emigration to America (§ 7).
	Congregationalists in England to
		1680 (¢ 8).
	Since 1660 (4 9).
	At the Present Time (1 10).
	Missionary Work (§ 11).
2 Congregationalists in the British
CONGREGATIONALISTS.

Colonies.
3. Congregationalists on the Continent of Europe.
4. Congregationalists in America.
The Pilgrim Church at Plymouth (¢ 1).
Massachusetts and Other Colonies (5 2).
The Half‑way Covenant ($ 3).
Growth and Development after 1700 (¢ 4).
Theological Controversy (5 5).
Attempted Change of Polity 0 6).
Growth in the West and South (¢ 7).
The Unitarian Controversy (1 8).
The Andover Controversy (§ 9).
Congregationalism is a form of ecclesiastical polity rather than of doctrinal belief. Its distinctive features are two: (1) the absolute independence of each local church; (2) the privilege and duty of cooperative fellowship among the churches. It is believed that the apostolic churches were Congregational and remained such until after the middle of the second century.
I. History.‑1. The English Congregationalists: Modern Congregationalism can be traced back to the third quarter of the sixteenth century. Some assert that a small church in London, in 1570, of which Richard Fytz was pastor, was Congregational, but this claim is doubtful. The earliest demonstrable Congregational church of that era was formed by Robert Browne (q.v.) at Norwich,
	1. Robert	apparently in 1580. The Anglican
		Church was characterized by world
		liness and even corruption, and it
retained many Roman Catholic practises. These
defects its more enlightened and devout adher
ents deplored but failed to correct. Conse
quently, many of its members‑especially those
who had fled to the Continent in the time of Mary,
and had become acquainted there with the princi
ples and leaders of the Reformation‑had learned
to favor Presbyterianism and sought to introduce
it at. home after their return. They were Puri
tans. But the proposed reform seemed to some
insufficient. It waited for the civil rulers to in
augurate and direct it. It indorsed the old the
ory of a State Church, including every citizen of
whatever character. To Browne it did not ap
pear radical enough. He sought for immediate re
form and the purity of the Church. About 1578
he was called to a parish in Cambridge. But in
his view the church, not the bishop, should have
invited him, and, although he served six months,
he refused to be regularly inducted into office.
Then he went to Norwich, and, conferring with Robert Harrison (q.v.), gathered an independent church.
He declared that all true Christians should with‑
draw from the Anglican Church, as it then was, and form new churches including only sincerely religious persons; that any company
$. His of such believers, united by a public
Views. covenant with each other and with
God, is a true and, so far as concerns
organization, a perfect church; that ecclesiastical
authority rests only in Christ's supremacy over
Home Mission Work. Other Societies ($ 10).
The American Board (§ 11). II. Educational Work.
America (1 1).
Great Britain and Colonies (§ 2). III. Theology.
Creeds and Platforms (1 1).
Late Tendencies ($ 2). IV. Polity and Practise.
The Two Underlying Principles (if 1).
Councils (p 2).
Conferences and Associations (g 3).
Worship and Practise 0 4). V. Statistics.
such local churches, whose members are to interpret the teachings of the Bible and the suggestions of divine providence under the promised guidance of the Holy Spirit; that each such church should have for officers‑‑choosing them itself, each member having equal rights with every other‑a pastor, a teacher, one or more elders, one or more deacons, and one or more deaaonesses; that all members of such a church should exercise constant mutual watchfulness and correct each other's faults; and that all such churches should claim the privilege and fulfil the duty of mutual fellowship and cooperation. This system‑called Brownism by its opponents and by many since, although its early adherents generally did not accept the title‑was substantial Congregationalism and offered immediate and adequate remedy for existing evils.
Persecution soon drove Browne's church from Norwich, at least in part. Some members either maintained it there or revived it after a few years, for its existence is mentioned as late as 1598 (G. Johnson, Discourse, etc., Amsterdam, 1603, p. 205). Yet, practically as a body, it emigrated in 1581 to Middelburg in Zealand. But after about two years it was dissolved, largely because of ill‑judged applications of its rule as to mutual criticism, and Browne, returning to England, abandoned the work of reform and reentered the State Church. Six books by him survived, five continuing, so far as they were accessible, the work which he gave up, and their conceded importance is proved by a royal proclamation against them. But the sixth defended the State Church. (See BROWNS, ROBERT.)
It was not long before another, although less self‑consistent, type of Congregationalism appeared, since, known as Barrowism. Henry Barrowe (q.v.) a lawyer of Gray's Inn, London, was arrested in
1586, and he and his friend John Greenwood (q.v.)
8. Barrows were imprisoned together during most
		and of the time until their martyrdom in
	Green‑ 1593. But even in jail they managed
		to become voluminous authors. They
		promulgated a new theory of ecclesi
astical government, for which Barrowe seems to
have been chiefly responsible. They accepted
Browne's fundamental principle of the independ
ence of each local church. But they distrusted
his teaching of the equality of all church‑members
in managing church affairs, and advocated the

Conarasstionalists	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	gas
Presbyterian theory of Thomas Cartwright (q.v.), that such control should be vested in a board of elders. Browne's plan had included elders among church officers, but only meaning that such men, representing the " most forwarde in gifte," should do substantially the work of the church (or standing) committee in modem Congregationalism, without dominating the church. Upon the Barrowist theory the elders were to rule. It offered a compromise, of. which the Congregationalism was to promote reform of belief and life, while the Presbyterianism was to prevent such errors as that which had ruined Browne's church at Middelburg. But the danger that the elders might assume excessive authority was overlooked. This•Barrowist system met with some approval.
There are proofs of the existence of a Barrowiat church in London in 1592, which had existed informally since 1589, or even 1587, of which Francis Johnson (q.v.) became pastor in 1592. John Greenwood‑probably at large on bail at his election‑was chosen its " teacher." This, too, was
persecuted sharply and part of it ea4. Johnson caped to Holland during that year. sad Ains‑ The remainder, including the pastor,
worth. remained imprisoned in London until
1597, but then the church was reunited at Amsterdam, Henry Ainsworth (q.v.) succeeding Greenwood as " teacher." Although at first harmonious, later it was rent by divisions, of which the gravest was due to the determination of the pastor and one or two elders to exalt the elders in authority above the other members. Practically it became a Presbyterian church, and of an exaggerated type. By 1618, when Johnson died, it was nearly extinct. In 1610 many members, under Ainsworth, withdrew, were given the church property by the courts, and thenceforth continued as a separate church and practised a more modest theory of the eldership, although still magnifying it, until Ainsworth's death in 1622 or 1623.
In 1602 a Congregational church was formed at Gainaborough, England. It was identified with John Smyth (q.v.), who became its pastor in 1606. He agreed with Browne rather than Barrowe, although emphasizing the fellowship of the churches less than Browne. This church also underwent persecution almost at once, and in 1606 it emigrated under Smyth's leadership to Amsterdam. But it had included members from a distance,
some of whom did not accompany
5. The it. Of these a number lived in, or Q ~_ near, the village of Scrooby, NottingMon. hamshire, and they formed there, in
1606, the church which later became that of the Mayflower and of the Plymouth Colony in America. At that date one of them, William Brewster (q.v.), was bailiff of the archbishop of York and a royal postmaster, and occupied the Scrooby palace, or Manor‑house, which belonged to the see of York. Doubtless the church was formed in the chapel of the palace, and the manner of its organization is recorded (J. Murton, Description, dc., London?, 1620, p. 169). Probably its original pastor wta Richard Clifton (q.v.), formerly rector
of Babworth (7 m. s.e.), and the famous John Robinson (q.v.) apparently was its " teacher," and certainly was its pastor afterward. Another member was William Bradford, who became the governor of the Plymouth Colony for many yeas and its first historian. His graphic narrative portrays touchingly the oppression of the church by the government and its flight to Amsterdam in 1608.
Thus there were then three professedly Congregational churches in Amsterdam. The first was Francis Johnson's, called the Ancient Church because the oldest, which became practically Presbyterian. The second was Smyth's, which, because of his personal peculiarities, repeatedly dissolved and reorganized, itself and soon disappeared. Neither afforded an example of true Congregationalism. The third was the Pilgrim e. The church, under Robinson. This lived puff' harmoniously but, after a year, in Ohnroh order to avoid involvement in the Holland.
	troubles of the others, it removed to
	Leyden. There it remained eleven
years. It was distinctly Congregational. Although
it retained the eldership, its elders were merely
leaders among equals, and had little authority, ex
cepting that of high character and ability. The
church was not precisely like a modem Congrega
tional church, but the differences were slight and
did not relate to essentials.
Ecclesiastically it was peaceful and prosperous, but its members suffered severely from the inevitable hardships of their life in a foreign land. Finally, appreciating the impossibility of attracting other English people in sufficient numbers and fearing absorption into the Dutch community, hoping for greater material prosperity elsewhere,
distrusting the influence of Dutch 7. The Em‑ example upon its young people, dreadisration to inthe renewal of the Dutch war with
Spain, and animated by an earnest missionary spirit, the Pilgrim church resolved to emigrate again, and this time to America. In the end a part, including Robinson, remained, intending to follow as soon as possible. The others, including Brewster and Bradford, sailed from Delfshaven on July 22 (Aug. 1), 1620, and after various detentions left Plymouth, England, on Sept. 6 (16) and reached Cape Cod, Mass., on Nov. 11 (21) and the site of the future Plymouth on Dec. 11 (21).
In 1616 Henry Jacob organized in Southwark, London, the earliest of the surviving English churches (see Berrrsm, I., 2, ¢ 1), and in 1621, also in Southwark, another church was formed by a Mr. Hubbard. Allusions also occur in the corporation records of Yarmouth in 1630 to a Brownist church there, consisting chiefly of persons recently returned from
Holland. But Congregationalism made
8. Oongre‑ no noteworthy progress in England
gasioa‑ for another ten years. Then history
England to repeated itself. In the days of Laud
1680.	many Puritans had exiled themselves
to the Continent because of the popish ceremonies in the State Church, the silencing and suspension of devout ministers, and the persecution of all who disputed the demands of the ecclesiastical

288	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	oonsreaatioaausts
authorities. They had fled, as they said, " to enjoy the liberty of their conscience in God's worship, and to free themselves from human inventions." Returning about 1640, a number of them, including William Bridge, Jeremiah Burroughs, Thomas Goodwin, Philip Nye, and Sidrach Simpson, became members of the Westminster Assembly (q.v.). They tried to secure a new national ecclesiastical organization, or, at any rate, fully tolerated Congregational churches. The rigid Presbyterians opposed them, but under Cromwell Congregational churches were founded widely. Other leaders among them were Joseph Caryl, Stephen Charnock, Theophilus Gale, and John Howe.
But theories of religious freedom were still vague and sometimes contradictory. Many Congregationalists then advocated a liberty including only Christians, and Congregationalism was not regarded as inconsistent with a State Church. Some of its churches were formed independently of territorial boundaries. Others were parochial, i.e., limited to a given parish and supported by tithes. This attempt to be independent Congregationalists within a State Church enabled their ministers to be maintained more easily; but it led to serious difficulties. In some cases non‑professors of religion, residing in a parish, demanded on the ground of such residence that the sacraments be administered to them. At this time Congregationalism had gained no footing in Scotland, but had made some progress in Ireland.
After the restoration of Charles II. (1660) the State Church regained supremacy and resumed its attitude of severity toward dissenters. On Aug. 24, 1662, all clergymen refusing the new Act of Uniformity (q.v.) were ejected. They numbered over two thousand. Most were Presbyterians, but many were Congregationalists. Congregationalism then was severed from the State Church finally and remained under the ban for a quarter‑century. But after the revolution of 1688 the Act of Toleration
(q.v.) allowed the revival of both Con‑
(. sinoe gregationalism and Presbyterianism.
1880.	As the latter then had no presby‑
teries, they resembled each other considerably, excepting that in the Presbyterian churches the elders had greater power. In 1691 an unsuccessful effort was made to combine them as the United Brethren. Yet the more general statements of the proposed heads of agreement supplanted the stricter provisions of the Savoy Declaration (see below, III., § 1), to which Congregationalists had conformed, and have prevailed ever since. After the death of William III. it was attempted again to deprive dissenters of their partial liberty, but since that of Queen Anne that liberty gradually has been increased and now is practically complete.
During the nineteenth century English Congregational churches increased rapidly in number and their importance became conspicuous. They still hold firmly to their independence and often are called the Independent Churches. But they recognize increasingly the value of fellowship and cooperation. In 1831 they formed the Congregational Union of England and Wales. Although organ‑
ized only for purposes of deliberation and advice and guarded carefully against assuming authority
over the churches, it is a uniting, stimiO. At the ulating force of great importance.
Present Most English Congregational churches
Time. agree to its Declaration of Faith (see be‑
low, III., § 1), although this is not binding. The Congregational Union of Scotland dates from 1812, and that of Ireland from 1829. At present a tendency is apparent to approve some method of closer cooperation among the churches which shall render the denominational activities more fruitful. A national Council has just been formed, intended to be a legislative, administrative body, but without involving any appreciable sacrifice of individual liberty. Only within the last half‑century have associations and local councils of churches found much favor. But the needs of the feebler churches and of missions have caused them to become better appreciated, although councils are not yet common.
Foreign missionary work was undertaken as early as 1760. The London Missionary Society was organized in 1795. At first several denominations united in its support, but for some time it has been
sustained mainly by Congregationil. mis‑ alists. It began work in the South
sionary Sea Islands in 1797, in India and South
Work. Africa in 1798, in China, in 1807, in the
West Indies in 1818, and in Madagascar in 1861. The Colonial Missionary Society was formed in 1836, and the two cooperate. The Congregational Church Aid and Home Missionary Society was founded in 1878, and the Irish Evangelical Society and Congregational Home Missionary Society in 1814. The work of these societies now is being transferred to the charge of the national Council.
8. (3ongxegationalists in the British Colonies: Congregational churches in the various British colonies are numerous. The earliest church in Canada was formed in 1760, in British Guiana in 1808, in South Africa (colored) in 1811 and (white) in 1820, in Tasmania and in New South Wales in 1833, in Jamaica in 1834, in South Australia in 1837, in Victoria in 1838, in New Zealand in 1842, in West Australia in 1846, and in Queensland in 1853. The Canadian churches maintain cordial relations with those of the United States, but are counted as British rather than American.
3. Congregationalists on the Continent of Europe: Details of Congregationalism on the Continent of Europe are not abundant. In France the McAll Missions are practically Congregational, and, apart from missions, a few churches exist in Germany, Hungary, Poland, Norway, Switzerland, and Portugal. In Holland the Band van Vrije Christelijke Gemeenten numbers sixteen churches, and in Sweden there are more than a thousand free churches with more than 100,000 members.
4. Congregationalists in America: The Plymouth colonists brought an organized Congregational Church, that formed in 1606 at Scrooby. Not all of them belonged to it, although nearly all who came from Leyden must have been members. As part of this church was to emigrate and part to

Congregationalists	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	$84
remain, it was agreed that each part should be considered a complete church, and that, if any members of either should rejoin the other, they should be recognized as already members. The Congregationalism of this Pilgrim church was es‑
sentially like that of the present. But
1. The it did not blend the offices of pastor
	Churchand teacher and it retained the elder
at 	ship, to which attached for some time
Plymouth. rather more of authority than to the
diaconate, which gradually absorbed the eldership. In Leyden it had been trained to a liberality which permitted communion with the Reformed churches, and in the Plymouth Colony no man was interfered with for his religion unless he antagonized the Congregational churches actively. But such was its high conception of the ministry that, as it had no ordained pastor until 1629, when it secured Rev. Ralph Smith, it had no administration of the Lord's Supper until then. Elder Brewster, however, served efficiently as its preacher and religious leader.
The Massachusetts Bay colonists, in 1628‑30, were Puritans rather than Congregationalists. Although repelled by many of its features, they did not mean to separate from the Anglican Church. Moreover, although animated strongly by a religious motive, theirs was primarily a commercial
colony. But Congregationalism, as
2. Xassa‑ illustrated at Plymouth, seemed so
ohnnetts and peculiarly adapted to their new conOther ditions that they adopted it at once,
colonies. organizing a church at Salem in Aug.
1629, the Plymouth church being represented. Other similar churches soon were formed, as well as in the neighboring New England colonies, and until 1700 there were hardly any others than Congregational churches, although a policy of entire ecclesiastical freedom was adopted in 1691. But soon the original simplicity of their Congregationalism was modified. The Massachusetts Bay and Connecticut colonies limited political suffrage to church‑members, although the former abandoned this practise in 1693 and the latter as early as 1664. Moreover, and this continued until well into the nineteenth century, Congregational churches and ministers were supported by public taxation, a plain violation of the principle of a free Church in a free State. But for some time before its abandonment taxpayers were allowed to select the church which they preferred to help maintain.
An important feature in Congregational history during that century was the Half‑way Covenant. It was the early rule to baptize infants one of whose parents was a church‑member. When such
baptized persons grew up and married $‑ The but failed to join the Church, the Hal
	9	question arose whether their children
Covenant. should be baptized, and it became
customary to allow such baptized but non‑communicant parents to " own the covenant." They publicly accepted the fundamental truths of the Gospel and promised to maintain a general fellowship with the Church, and then, although they could not receive the communion or vote in
church matters, they could have their children baptized. This compromise, although strongly opposed, became common, but led to laxity in admitting members to the churches and was practically abandoned about 1800 (cf. Walker, Creeds, 238‑339).
In Vermont the first church was established at Brattleboro in 1762, and by 1800 there were seventy‑four and they had formed a general convention. New York had been occupied by the Dutch, but
it contained a few Congregational 4. Growth churches. In New England churches and _ continued to multiply rapidly, most,
Develop‑ and in many localities all, being Conafter 1700. gregational. But the specially note‑
worthy feature of the Congregationalism of that century was its theological and religious development. In 1700 a serious spiritual decline had become general. Carelessness in requiring evidence of piety before admission to the Church, the influence of the deism then prevalent in Europe, increased absorption in the pursuit of material prosperity, and the diversion of public attention from religion due to the excitements of the Revolution had combined to diminish the vividness of personal religious belief and experience. Partly to counteract this tendency, Yale College had been founded at Saybrook, Conn., in 1701, and the synod at Saybrook, Sept. 9, 1708, instituted by the General Court of Connecticut to prepare a form of ecclesiastical discipline, had recommended as a doctrinal statement the Savoy Declaration, which Massachusetts had adopted in 1680, and had drawn up the Saybrook Platform, which remained civil law until 1784 (see below, III., § 1). But the chief cause of the spiritual change which followed was the Great Awakening, a wide‑spread religious revival, which began in 1734‑35 and continued intermittently for about seven years (see REvivAi$
OF RELIGION).
Out of the inevitable theological discussions accompanying it grew up two schools of belief. The more conservative was that of the New England Theology (q.v.), or the New Divinity. The more advanced was called the Arminian, or Liberal.
The former adhered to the traditional b. Theo‑ Calvinism, with minor modifications.
logical The latter rejected it in respect to cer Con‑ tain prominent doctrines, e.g., sin,
troveray. Cue's deity, and the atonement, and
exalted rectitude of life rather than the work of Christ as the means of salvation. A long and earnest controversy resulted which produced a considerable literature. On the conservative side the elder and the younger Edwards, President Timothy Dwight of Yale, Joseph Bellamy, Samuel Hopkins, and Stephen West were eminent, and among the Arminians Lemuei Briant, Charles Chauncy, Experience and Jonathan Mayhew, and Samuel Webster.
But this controversy caused no open rupture and political affairs soon overshadowed ecclesiastical. Congregationalism had so aided in developing the democratic spirit, alike in Church and State, that it was an influential cause of the Revolution, and its ministers and other leaders, with few excep‑

885	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	QonsrWstionalists
tions, were active in promoting the colonial success. The earliest written code of Massachusetts, The Body of Liberties, published in 1641, had been the work of a Congregational minister, Rev. Nathaniel Ward, of Ipswich, and the earliest written constitution in human history which led to a civil government‑excepting the famous Mayflower compact‑that of Connecticut, had been largely drawn up by Rev. Thomas Hooker (q.v.), of Hartford, in 1639.
Contemporaneously with the efforts for spiritual reform in the earlier years of the century occurred a modification of Congregationalism in practise. Probably the prevalent religious indifference caused within the churches some consciousness of inefficiency, and an external, rather than the more necessary internal, remedy was sought. Associations
e. At‑ of ministers had been distrusted as tempted inclining their members to assume exOhanee of cessive authority over the churches.
	Polity.	There had been a Ministers' Conven
		tion in Massachusetts, but it was
feeble. At this time it was revived, new local as
sociations were formed, and it was proposed to
" consociate " the churches into formal unions and
to establish standing councils. In Massachusetts
this policy was attempted in 1705, but, although
adopted, it became a dead letter. But in Con
necticut, where it was adopted somewhat later
than in Massachusetts, it prevailed generally, and,
although of little significance, it never has been
abandoned wholly. The Mathers were chiefly re
sponsible for it, and that it accomplished so little
was due principally to Rev. John Wise (q.v.), of
Ipswich, Mass. Its tendency was to destroy the
independence of the churches, but practically it
has had scanty results of any sort.
During the nineteenth century Congregationalism made rapid progress, in spite of hindrance outside of New England by a plan of union with the Presbyterians, agreed upon in 1801, of which the unforeseen operation cost it at least 2,000 churches. In 1827 an Illinois Band was formed by a dozen recent graduates of Yale Divinity School, who accomplished large results in that State, and similar bodies afterward did notable service 7. (3.rowth in other Western States. Stimulated in the West by the needs of the native settlements and South. in the Interior and the West, and by the enormous inflow of foreigners, Congregationalists have followed the westward movement of population indefatigably. In the Middle West the earliest church~in Ohio was formed in 1796, in Michigan in 1827, in Illinois in 1831, in Indiana in 1834, in Wisconsin in 1836, in Iowa in 1838, in Minnesota in 1851, and in Kansas in 1854. On the Pacific coast the earliest in Oregon dates back to 1844, in California to 1851, and in Washington to 1865. Throughout the whole Interior and West Congregational churches have increased from hundreds to thousands within the last fifty years. They are less numerous relatively in the Middle States; and in the Southern States, although one or two were formed in 1852‑53, and one even in 1832, there were very few before the Civil War. Since then they have multiplied con‑
siderably, although less rapidly than in the West. The first Congregational general assembly since the Cambridge Synod in 1646‑48 was the Albany Convention in 1$52, which gave a vigorous impulse to the denominational activities. Its members represented seventeen states. It abandoned the Plan of Union, indorsed the Congregational Home Missionary Societies, condemned slavery, called for $50,000 for church building in the West; and took steps resulting in the publication, in 1854, of the annual Year Book, containing the denominational statistics, and in the organization of the American Congregational Association.
	The theological differences of the eighteenth cen
tury became more marked during the early years
of the nineteenth and developed into the Unitarian
Controversy. Its special arena was eastern Mas
sachusetts. Many ministers and churches gradu
ally had come to deny certain doctrines believed
vital, and therefore insisted upon the more strongly
by others; e.g., the moral corruption of human
nature, Christ's deity, the need and nature of
the atonement, and eternal punishment. Friction
		increased steadily. Finally matters
8. The Uni‑		ed a climax in the election of
tarian con‑ Rev. Henry Ware (q.v.) as Hollis
	troversy.	professor of divinity at Harvard Col
		lege in 1805, a Unitarian success.
Thirty‑nine churches became Unitarian. Nearly
a hundred others were divided, the conservatives
usually being obliged to withdraw and form new
churches and the Unitarians retaining what had
been the common property. Among the leaders
of the latter were Drs. J. S. Buckminster and W.
E. Channing and President Kirkland and Prof.
Andrews Norton, of Harvard. Eminent defenders
of the old faith were Drs. Lyman Beecher, Nathaniel
Emmons, Jedidiah Morse, Enoch Pond, Moses
Stuart, Samuel West, Leonard Woods, and Samuel
Worcester. The Unitarians have been zealously
loyal to Independency as a polity, but the name
of Congregationalists by general consent has con
tinued to signify the Trinitarian body. A tem
porary result of this controversy was a revival,
especially in Connecticut, of the desire for conso
ciation, already described.
	During the last twenty years of the century,
another doctrinal difference caused intense feeling.
Advocates of the so‑called " New Theology,"
styling itself Christocentric, holding radical views
of the nature of inspiration and the office of Biblical
		criticism and asserting a possible fu‑
9. The An‑ ture probation for at least some of the
dover Con‑ impenitent, claimed to be true Con‑
	troversy.	gregationalota in doctrine, but the
		claim was disputed stoutly. This
difference affected the settlement of pastors for
some years, but was notable chiefly in connection
with the choice of professors at the Andover Senm
inary and of candidates for foreign missionary
service. It reached the courts, but indecisively.
It led to no formal rupture, however, and now the
teachings of the New Theology are tolerated, al
though not universally accepted by Congregation
alists.
When the first Congregational settlers came to

Congregationalists	THE NEW SCHAFF HERZOG	286
America they avowed their earnest purpose to serve as Christian missionaries. The Plymouth Pilgrims made attempts in this direction, but found few natives in their vicinity. There were more near the Bay Colony, and Rev. John Eliot (q.v.) undertook work among them in 1646 and continued it until 1690 with remarkable success. The Congregational Home Missionary Society was organized in 1826, and the American Missionary Association, to do similar work among negroes, Indians, and the Chinese in this country, in 1846. The former has lately begun work in Cuba also and the latter in Porto Rico and the Sandwich Islands. 10. Home The Congregational Sunday‑school and
xission	Publishing Society, founded in 1832,
Work. Organizes Sunday‑schools and supOther plies religious and general literature. Societies. The Congregational Church Building Society, formed in 1853, aids in erecting houses of worship and parsonages. These societies have established and equipped thousands of churches and Sunday‑schools, and the Congregational Education Society, started in. 1816, has aided thousands of young men into the ministry. The American Congregational Association, organized in 1853, has erected in Boston a fine building as the denominational headquarters, which contains the Congregational library, a large collection specially rich in denominational, colonial, and sociological literature. The world‑wide Young People's Society of Christian Endeavor, although now undenominational, was founded in 1881 by Rev. F. E. Clark, then pastor of the Williston Congregation, a church in Portland, Me., and gained its first successes among Congregationalists.
Congregational foreign mission work is in charge of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. Established in 1810, it has had successful missions among the Choctaw and Cherokee Indians in our own country and in Mexico,
11. The Spain, Austria, European and Asiatic
American Turkey, Persia, Ceylon, the Madura
	Board.	and Marathi districts of India, China,
		Japan, Central Africa, Zululand, the
Sandwich Islands, Micronesia, and the Philippines.
Some of these missions have outgrown the need of
external aid. Several have been transferred to
other denominations. One or two are but recently
established. The Board now has ninety‑six sta
tions.
II. Educational Work: Congregationalists always have zealously promoted popular education. In the United States they have founded Harvard, Yale, Amherst, Bowdoin, Dartmouth, Middlebury, Williams, Oberlin, Illinois. Beloit, Carleton, Washburn, Colorado, Berea, Fisk, Atlanta, 1. America. and other universities or colleges, more than forty in all, as well as Mt. Holyoke, Smith, and Wellesley, among women's colleges, and many high‑class preparatory schools, including the two famous Phillips Academies. But none of these institutions are sectarian. Robert College, at Constantinople, and the Doshisha University, at Kyoto, Japan, and other such educational centers are results of their missionary labors. The American Board has established seventeen in
various lands. There are eight Congregational theological seminaries in the United States: Andover, Atlanta, Bangor, Chicago, Hartford, Oberlin, Pacific (Berkeley, Cal.), and Yale.
In Great Britain and its colonies there are fifteen such institutions, usually uniting the work of the college and the theological school: Bala‑Bangor; Brecon Memorial; Carmarthen (Presbyterian with Congregational affiliations); Ches‑
t. Great hunt at Cambridge; the Edinburgh Britain and Theological Hall; Hackney, at Hamp‑
	Colonies.	stead; the Lancashire Independent, at
		Manchester; Mansfield, at Oxford;
New, at South Hampstead; the Nottingham Con
gregational Institute; Western, at Bristol; the
Yorkshire United, at Bradford; the Montreal Con
gregational College; the Victoria Congregational
College, in Australia; and Camden College, at
Sydney, N. S. W. The London Missionary Society
also has ten institutions of learning in heathen lands.
III. Theology: Congregationalists regard the Bible as the only, and sufficient, rule of faith and practise. In doctrine they agree substantially with the other Evangelical denominations. The earliest surviving Congregational creed is that of Henry Barrowe and John Greenwood in 1589 (True Description, 1‑5), but it was only an unauthoritative expression of personal conviction.
1. Creeds Afterward Congregational churches
	and	generally accepted the Westminster
Platforms. Confession (1646) and the Savoy Dec
		laration (1658). The former was
based upon the Thirty‑nine Articles of the Church
of England, but was more Calvinistic. It embodies
the teachings of the Reformed Churches on the Con
tinent as well as in Great Britain. It founded the
authority of the Scriptures upon internal evidence
and the testimony of the Holy Spirit instead of upon
the external witness of the Chiurch; emphasized
predestination and limited redemption; and the fact
of two divine covenants, of works and of grace, with
men; urged the Puritan view of the Sabbath; gave
to presbyteries and synods large legislative and ju
dicial authority; and conferred upon the civil
magistrate power to prohibit or punish heresy,
idolatry, and blasphemy. The Savoy Declaration
differed little from the former, but discarded its
Presbyterianism in polity and denied the authority
of magistrates to interfere with ecclesiastical liberty.
Modern British churches nominally adhere to the
Declaration of Faith of the Congregational Union
of England and Wales in 1833, which is briefer and
less severely Calvinistic, but which probably would
not be adopted now, partly because of changes of
doctrinal emphasis and partly because such state
ments are increasingly believed to interfere with
Christian freedom. Subsequent American utter
ances have been the Burial Hill Declaration (1865),
adopted at Plymouth by the General Council held
at Boston, which reaffirmed somewhat indefinitely
the symbols of the seventeenth century, and the
Creed of 1883, formulated by a committee provided
for by the Triennial National Council in 1880, which
set forth tersely and fairly the belief generally held
by the churches then. This creed is that commonly
professed at present. But the admirable statement

237	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Qoarr"satloaalists
of faith issued at Dayton, O., in Feb., 1906, by the joint committee on doctrine, in view of the proposed union of Congregationalists, Methodist Protestants, and United Brethren iv likely to be adopted widely. It is sincerely Evangelical and affirms " consent to the teaching of the ancient symbols of the undivided church, and to that substance of Christian doctrine which is common to the creeds and confessions which we have inherited from the past." But it is silent as to some doctrines formerly enunciated in such utterances. No Congregational church, however, is obliged to accept any creed or declaration of faith. (For text of the documents mentioned here and further information cf. Schaff, Creeds, i. 820‑840; iii. 707‑737; W. Walker, The Creeds and Platforms of Congregationalism, New York, 1893; A. E. Dunning, Congregationalist, in America, 1894; The Congregationalist, Feb. 17, 1906.)
During the last twenty‑five years two tendencies have appeared. One is to put less emphasis upon certain doctrines, e.g., the fall of man, the governmental theory of the atonement, the
Late equal and infallible inspiration of Tenden‑ the Scriptures, and eternal punish‑
eies. ment, and more upon certain others, e.g., the divine fatherhood, human brotherhood, and the immanence of the divine Spirit. The other is to shorten and simplify creeds. The old Calvinistic phraseology is being abandoned. Some churches adopt two creeds; one a formal declaration, like the Creed of 1883, expressing its doctrinal position fully, and another, the Apostles' Creed, or some even briefer, simpler statement of vital truths, for use in admitting children or other comparatively immature applicantaforchurch‑membership. Some churches even have discarded the creed and content themselves with a covenant.
IV. Polity and Practise: The two underlying principles of Congregationalism have been stated: (1) the independence of the local church, and (2) the fellowship of the churches. The
1. The Two joint committee on polity in view of
Under‑	the proposed union has expressed them
	lying	well, viz.‑. " (a) The unit of our fellow
Prinoiyles. ship is the local church, and the char
		acter of our fellowship is that of a
representative democracy. (b) Our coordinate
principles are freedom and fellowship, a freedom
which leaves each local church free in its separate
affairs, a fellowship which unites all the churches
for mutual care and cooperant action." Dur
ing the Colonial period the American churches
ordinarily accepted the Cambridge Platform (1649)
until the Saybrook Platform (1705) superseded it
in Connecticut. The framers of these accepted the
Westminster and Savoy Confessions in respect to
doctrine, but not as to church government. The
former emphasized the independence of the local
church, the fellowship of the churches, and
the representative character of the ministry, fun
damental principles of Congregationalism, but
nevertheless gave to the civil magistrate excessive
authority in matters of faith and practise alike.
The latter provided for consociationa of churches
and associations of ministers, established by and
under the authority of civil law, an abnormal system which was not abrogated formally until 1784 and which remained in more or less active use for many years longer. At present each church has entire self‑control in its own ecclesiastical affairs. It may draw up its creed and covenant, formulate its order of worship, elect and install its pastor and other officers, etc. Until within about thirty years it was customary in the United States for a society, or parish, to be formed side by side with each church to attend to all its secular concerns. Ordinarily most of its members were also church‑members, so that neither body antagonized the other. But differences occasionally arose. For example, as the pastor held a legal relation to the society only, the society sometimes could elect, or depose, the pastor in opposition to a majority of the church. It is now becoming common for the church itself to be incorporated, thus being enabled to manage all its affairs, whether religious or secular.
Most churches adopt creeds and covenants which are similar, and often identical. And in matters of common interest each church seeks the advice and cooperation of its sister churches. In the settlement or dismissal of a pastor fellowship is recognized by calling a council. Formerly no man excepting the pastor of a church was considered a minister. But within fifty years, owing largely to the need of ministers where churches had not yet been established, this conception has been broadened, and now a man ordained to serve anywhere as a pastor or evangelist is accepted as a minister.
Councils are temporary bodies, composed of pastors and delegates, chiefly of neighboring churches, assembled by a letter missive from some church to recognize its existence or to advise and assist it in regard to the settlement of a pastor, a case of discipline, or any other matter as to which
advice is desired and in which the
2. Councils. other churches also are interested. The membership of a council is limited strictly to the representatives of the invited churches and any individuals invited by name, and its action is limited, with equal strictness, to the matters specified in the letter missive. The result of a council is only morally binding, but usually is socepted as final. In cases of difficulty between two churches or between a church and one or more of its members, if both sides unite in calling the council, it is termed mutual. If a church refuse to join a justly aggrieved member in calling a council, he may summon one, which, if the church persist in its refusal, acts as an ex‑pane council. A council, unless it is to be ex parts, always must be called by some church, excepting that one may be called by a company of persons seeking recognition as a new church. In a case affecting the welfare of the whole body of churches, and in which the church particularly involved refuses to act, a council to consider the situation in that church may be summoned by any other church. This emergency, however, occurs rarely. When controversies reach the civil courts, the courts refuse to go behind the usages of Congregationalism, as determined by councils, and merely declare what they are.

congregatiohslists Conon of Tarsus
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOO
gas
Most of the affairs of the churches in fellowship are transacted by local councils. But for sufficient reason a council of broader inclusiveness may be called. The first general council in America, was that at Newtowne, now Cambridge, Mass., in 1&37, to consider the Antinomian teachings of Rev. John Wheelwright and Mrs. Anne Hutchinson (see ANTINOMIANIOM, and foot‑note to COUNCILS AND SYNODS, § 10). The neat was the Cambridge Synod in 1646‑48. The third was the Albany Convention in 1852, and, to promote the better acquaintance and cooperation of all Congregational churches in the United States, a National Council was held in Boston in 1865. In 1871 the first Triennial National Council met at Oberlin, and similar gatherings have been held regularly ever since. The name of conference would be more appropriate for this body, however. as it is not strictly a council. It discusses important current topics of denominational interest and advises the churches, but has only a moral authority. In 1891 an International Council was held in London, composed of delegates from bodies of Congregational churches in all parts of the world, and a second such council met in Boston, U. S. A., in 1899. A third is to be held in Edinburgh in 1908. British and other foreign Congregational churches hitherto have made much less use of local councils than the churches of the United States, but have been zealous in promoting the International Councils.
Fellowship also is maintained by conferences of churches, local bodies, usually including the churches of a given county, or some
3. Confer‑ Smaller, if well populated, district, ences and which meet semiannually for dis‑
Associa‑ cussion of religious and kindred topics.
	bona	In the United States the churches of
		each State also hold an annual Confer
ence, or Association, for similar purposes. There
are also Ministerial Associations, small local bodies
of ministers, and until recently they have deter
mined ministerial standing. But responsibility
for this now is being transferred to the Conferences
of churches.
All ministers and churches are equal, no one having any authority over others. But lately it has been urged that the Moderator of the Triennial National Council should exercise his representative function during his three years of office, giving something more than the merely nominal leadership which has been customary; and in some states also a tendency again is evident toward consociation of the church, as in Massachusetts and Connecticut early in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and it is proposed to institute some formal, permanent organization, and perhaps to revive the Standing Council. These proposals have been made only tentatively and their outcome is uncertain.
In the order of public worship there is variety in minor particulars, yet a general likeness exists. Baptism customarily is administered by sprinkling, but pouring or immersion is used occasionally. The form is considered immaterial. In the colonial days it was sometimes common to install certain minor church officers formally. This practise
disappeared during the eighteenth century, but lately has been revived by some churches. Apparently the early colonial churches
4. Worship held no mid‑week meetings. But in and time they established the weekly lec‑
	Practise.	ture, and gatherings somewhat like
		the modern prayer‑meeting began
to be held about 1740 but did not become usual
until after 1800. The First and the Brattle Street
churches in Boston instituted the preparatory
lecture before the Communion Sunday on Mar. 4,
1720. Sunday‑schools were not established until
after 1800. The modern institutional church,
which supplements direct spiritual efforts by pro
moting the physical, intellectual, and social welfare
of the community, has been exemplified conspicu
ously among Congregationalists.
V. Statistics: The English Year Book for 1908 gives the following figures:
Great Britain..
British Colonies and Mis
	sions ..............
Total British.
Continent of E
Total .............
Churches.
4,928
1,142
	8~	~070
	1VOt
reported.
8,070+
Ministers.
3.197
508
3,703
Not
reported.
3,703 +
Church
members.
498N953 ot reported.
498,953 +
100,000 +
The American Year Book for 1907 gives the current statistics of the denomination as follows:
Churches. 	Ministers. 	Church
		members.
United States 	5,923 	5,900	898,723
Dependencies (1908)	108 	94	7,827
Total 	8,031 	5,994	704,550
The world statistics for Congregationalism (1907) is given as 12,583 churches and 1,333,731 members.
MORTON DEXTER.
BIBLaoa8APM On Congregational origins and English Congregationalism consult: The works of Robert Browne (q.v.); J. Smyth, Principe and Inferenose concerning the Visible Church, Amsterdam. 1607; Differences of the Churches of the Separation, etc., 1608; J. Robinson, Works, ed. R. Ashton, 3 vole., London, 1851; R Baxter, Re, liquia Baxteriand, ib. 1696; Alnidpsment of Mr. Baxter's History of His Life, with Account o/ Bjected Ministers, by E. Calamy, in S. Parker's Nonconformist Memorial, 2 vole., ib. 1802; D. Weal, History of New England, 2 vole., ib. 1720; idem, History of Puritans, 4 vole., ib. 1732‑38, ed. J. Toulmin. 5 vole., ib. 1822; B. Brook, Lives of Puritans, 3 vole., ib. 1813; J. Toulmin, Historical View of State of Protestant Dissenters in England, Bath, 1814; T. Price, History of Protestant Nonconformity in England, 2 vole., London, 1836‑38; B. Hanbury, Historical Memorials Relating to the Independents, 3 vole., ib. 1839‑44; J. Fletcher, History of Revival and Progress of Independency in England, 4 vole., ib. 1847‑49; R. Vaughan, English Nonconformity, 2 vole., ib. 1862; J. Stoughton, Church and State too Years Ago, ib. 1862; J. Waddington, Congregational History. 5 vols., ib. 1869‑78; R. W. Dale, Manual of Congregational Principles, ib. 1884; idem, Hid. of English Congregationalism, ib. 1907; J. Brown, Pilgrim Fathers of New England, New York. 1897.
On American Congregationalism consult: W. Brad‑

			taonaUsto
239	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
		t?onon of Tarsus
ford, History of Plimouth Plantation, reprinted in Colleobona of the Mass. Historical Society, Boston, 1856, reproduced in facsimile, Massachusetts State edition, ib. 1898; ed. W. T. Davis, New York, 1908; idea, Dialogue, in A. Young, Chronicles of Pilgrim Fathers, ib. 1841, ed. C. Deane, ib. 1870; N. Morton, New England's Memoriali, Cambridge, 169, republished, Boston, 1855; J. Winthrop, Journal, ed. J. Savage, ib. 1853; R.. Mother. Church Government Discussed, London, 1643 J. Cotton, Doctrine of the Church, ib. 1642; idem, Way of Congregational Churches Cleared, ib. 1643; idem, Way of Churches of Christ in New England, ib. 1645; T. Hooker, Survey of the Sum of Church Discipline, ib. 1648; I. Mather, First Principles of New England, including J. Cotton's Plan for Conferences, Boston, 1675; idem, Disquisition concerning Ecclesiastical Councils, 1716, reprinted in Congregational Quarterly, 1870; Platform of Church Discipline, Cambridge, 1649 and often; C. Mather, Magnolia Christi Americana, London, 1702, republished, Hartford, 1855; idea, Ratio Diaciplisaa!, Boston, 1726; Confession of Faith,
. Heads of Agreement and Articles for the Administration of Church Discipline (Saybrook Platform), New London, 1710; G. Punehard, View of Congregationalism, Salem, 1840; idem History of Congregationalism, New York, 1865; idea, Congregationalism in America, Boston, 1880‑81; J. S. Clark, Historical SkdcA of Congregational Churches in Massachusetts, ib. 1858; H. F. Uhden, The New England Theocracy, ib. 1858; H. M. Dexter, Congregationalism, ib 1865; idem, Handbook of Congrepationaiam, ib. 1890; idem, Congregationalism as seen in the Literature of [the Last soo Years, New York, 1880; idea and M. Dexter, The England and Holland of as Pilgrims, Boston, 1905; L. Bacon, Genesis of New England Churches, New York, 1874; G. T. Ladd, Principles of Church Polity, New York, 1882; W. Walker, Croods and Platforms of Congregationalism, New York, 1893; idem, History of Congregational Churches in the United States, ib. 1994; A. E. Dunning, Congregationalists in America, ib. 1894; G. A. Hood, National Council of Congregational Churches, Boston, 1901; S. L. Blake, The Separates or Strict Congregationalists of New England, ib. 1902; G. M. Boynton, The Congregational Way, ib. 1903; L. W. Bacon, The Congregationalists, New York, 1904; A. Anderson, Congregational Faith and Practice, Boston, 1906; T. P. Prudden, Congregationalists: Who they Are, Boston, 1906.

CONGRESS, EVANGELICAL‑SOCIAL: An organization formed in Germany in 1890. The Imperial government as well as the governments of the single states turned their attention in the eighties to social questions: The empire opened, under Bismarck's leading, with insurance against illness in 1883, against accident in 1884 (both of these being further developed in 1885, 1886, and 1887), and against permanent debility and age in 1889. It was thought desirable for Christians to do something to bring the educated people and the workingman together, and to prevent the latter from supposing that religion was only a tool to keep the workmen down. At the close of 1889 or at the opening of 1890, Adolf St6cker, then court preacher, Pastor Weber, Prof. Adolf Wagner, and Dr. Kropatschek issued an invitation to an EvangeliralSocial Congress to meet at Whitsuntide in Berlin. Meanwhile Emperor Wiliam II, issued two strong social orders on Feb. 4, 1890. On May 27, 1890, a confidential conference took place, in which both Stbaker and Prof. Adolf Harnack took part, and it was agreed that all evangelical groups should be asked to share in the Congress. The first session opened at Berlin, May 29, 1890, and on Oct. 23, 1890, a committee appointed by the Congress met at Berlin and chose an executive committee. M. A. Nobbe, the director of a hail‑insurance company, was made chairman of the Congress and continued
to fill that position with great acceptance for twelve years, when the pressure of business compelled him to resign. In 1903 Prof. Adolf Harnack of Berlin became chairman and has shown unusual gifts for the place.
The session of 1895 at Erfurt was marked by the first public address by a woman in such meetings, delivered by Mrs. Gnauck; she spoke on the social condition of women, and Stbcker followed her in a second address. In 1896, owing to the fact that Staoker had become the leader of a political party, it was thought by some that it would be better if he should give up his seat as second president of the Congress, although it was desired that he should remain in the committee; finally he left the Congress altogether and became one of the founders of the Ecclesiastical‑Social Conference (q.v.).
The Congress has published the addresses at the yearly meetings in successive volumes of Verhantllungen and formerly issued " Communications " (Mitteilungen) in a little newspaper. This newspaper became at the thirteenth session (1904) a little magazine, under the title of Evangelisch‑Sozial. Organized groups in Baden, Sleswick‑Holstein, Warttemberg, and Saxony are connected with the Congress. Different religious and political circles are to‑day, as at the beginning, represented in the Congress. The executive committee consists of Harnack, Adolf Wagner, Prof. Gierke, Prof. Kaftan, Prof. Hans Delbriick, Pastor Friedrich Naumann, Prof. Von Soden, Pastor Kirmes, Mrs. Schmoner, Mrs. Broicher, Dr. Ludwig Keller, Pastor Schneemelcker, and the writer. ,~
CASPAR REND GREGORY.
BrsmoasAPRY: " Transactions " (Verhandlungen), " Re‑
ports" (Berirhte), or " Communications " are published yearly, Berlin, 1890‑6, Gottingen, 1897‑1901, Berlin, 1892 eqq. Consult: O. Kraft, Die Harmonic der awhs sreten evangdiach‑mcialen Kongresse, Halle, 1896; M. A. Noble, Der evangelisak‑soziale Kongreea and reins Gegner, Gottingen, 1897.
	CoNON: Pope 686‑687. After the death of
John V. (Aug. 2, 686) a controversy arose between
the clergy and the soldiery over the choice of his
successor, the former proposing the archpriest
Peter, the latter the priest Theodore. The clergy
finally elected Conon, a priest, born in Thrace and
educated in Sicily. He was consecrated Oct. 21,
686, but he was ill at the time and, after a pontifi
cate of eleven months during which he accom
plished nothing, died, and was buried on Sept. 22,
687. 	(A. HAUCg.)
BHrmanAPAY: Libw pontificalia, ed. T. Mommsen, in MGH,
Gest: pont Ron., i (1898), 207‑209; JaH€, Regesta, i. 243; Bower, Popes, i. 490‑491; Mann, Popes, I. ii. 68‑76.
CONON OF TARSUS: Bishop of Tarsus in Cilieia at the beginning of the seventh century. He held certain tritheistic views which he had derived from Johannes Philoponos (q.v.; see also TRITHEI$TIC CONTROvERAY). These he subsequently abandoned, and differed from his old teacher also by affirming that the substance of the human body survived death and was eternal. The sect of which he was the leader had disappeared by the end of the seventh century.
BIHwoaHAPHY: W. Cave, Scriplorum ecclssiasticorum historia literaria, i. 573, London, 1688; DCB, i. 621; KL, iii. 948.

Conrad of C+elawiasa
(7oaBalvl	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	5340
CONRAD OF GELNHHAUSEft: Theologian and scholar; b. in the Electoral Palatinate 1320; d. at Heidelberg 1390. His name first appears in 1344 as member of the faculty of the University of Paris. In a document of the following year he is mentioned as provost at St. Maurice. In 1363 he was canon in Mainz and later became provost at Worms. He was procurator of the German nation in Bologna as early as 1369, and obtained the degree of doctor of canon law there. Then he returned to Paris, devoted himself to the study of theology, and finished his theological studies probably in Prague. After 1387 he was in Heidelberg, a doctor of theology and chancellor of the university. His collection of books formed the nucleus of the university library. Among them were four theological writings of his own: Sermones; ¢uostiones ; Circa sentential; and Super librum Cantica Canticorum.
Conrad's fame rests upon the Epi8tola concordio which he wrote in Paris in May, 1380, at the command of Charles V. of France, after giving this sovereign in the preceding year the same advice in a shorter form; viz., to cooperate with other princes in calling a general council without the popes. Appealing expressly to Thomas Aquinas, but in reality leaning upon Occam and developing his ideas, he argued logically from the acknowledged superiority of the Catholic Church that the exceptional circumstances of the schism exempted from the letter of the law and justified the meeting of a council without papal convocation. He did not advance beyond this step; but his work became the basis upon which Henry of Langenstein (q.v.) and the conciliar theologians continued to build.
(B. BE88.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Epistola concordia is edited in E. Mar
tkne and U. Durand, Thesaurus naous aneodotorum, ii. 1717, pp. 1200‑26, Paris, 1717. Consult: F. J. Scheuffgen, Beitrape zur Gesehiehte des prosaen Sehiemas, pp. 7591, Freiburg, 1889; A. Kneer, Die Entstehunp der konsiliaren Theorie, ROme, 1893; IC. Wenek, in Hietorimhe ZeitscAril4 new series, xl., 1895.
CONRAD OF MARBURG: Inquisitor‑general of Germany; killed at Marburg July 30, 1233. The year of his birth is not known, and it is not certain whether he was a Dominican or a Franciscan. He '', was selected by Gregory IX. for the purpose of introducing the papal inquisition into Germany (see INQUierTIoN). He first appears probably in connection with the great auto da M which was held at Strasburg 1212. On June 17, 1227, a bull for the extirpation of heresy (Ripoll, Bullarium Ord. prod., i., Rome, 1729, p. 20) gave him full power in the matter; and his powers were still further increased by Gregory's chief bull against heresy in Germany (Hartzheim, Concelia Germanio, iii. 540). When Frederick 11. gave imperial confirmation to the severe papal measures against heretics (Mar., 1232), then " began the flame to get power over mortals " (Annale8 Colonienses mazimi, MGH, Script., xvii., 1861, p. 843). Conrad now proceeded, with the assistance of certain colleagues (e.g., the Dominican Droso), tp utilize this unlimited power, which even dispensed him from observing ordinary forms of trial; and so led countless victims to death. The fact is confirmed
especially by the report of Bishop Siegfried III. of Mainz to Gregory IX. (MGH, Script., xxiii., 1874, p. 931); and in the face of its evidence, the latterday Roman Catholic apology for Conrad (by the Jesuit Pfulf, in KL, vii. 951) is ineffectual. In 1233, after he had vainly eideavored to draw the German princes into a more eager persecution of heresy, Conrad brought one of their number, Count von Sayn, before the tribunal, but the count contrived to vindicate himself before a synod at Mainz. Conrad next assembled a veritable crusaders' army; but at this juncture his fate swiftly overtook him, and' he was slain by certain Hessian knights, while traveling to Marburg.
A second occasion of interest in Conrad's career is his relation to the pious Landgravine Elizabeth of Thuringia. He is a typical Roman Catholic spiritual guide, to whom the confiding penitent surrenders blindly (see E1.iz"ETH, SAINT). The view that Conrad's excessive zeal in the persecution of heretics is accountable for the fact that the papal Inquisition was unable to assert itself in Germany is erroneous; after his death there still occurred (1234 and 1235) cases of the burning of heretics at the stake by papal inquisitors, and even down to the fourteenth century such cases recurred again and again. The fact is, the same Inquisition was powerfully supported in the fourteenth century by the Emperor Charles IV., and exacted numberless victims in Bohemia, Silesia, and in parts of North Germany.
K. BENRATH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: (ie8ta Treverorunt, Continuatio IV., ed. (3.
Waltz, in MGH, Script., adv (1879), 390‑404; A. Hausrath, Der Ketzerrneiater Konrad won Marburg, Marburg, 1881; E. L. T. Henke, Konrad ton Marburg, ib. 1861; L. Cuno, Conrad won Marburg, ib. 1877; B. Kaltner, Konrad won Marburg and die Inquisition in Deutschland, Prague, 1822; H. C. Lea, Hiet. of the Inquisition, ii. 325341, New York, 1906; K. Benrath, in Deutech‑ewanpeliaehe Bldtter, part 5, Halle, 1901.
CONRING, HERMANN (Hermannus Conringius): German theologian; b. at Norden (75 m. n.w. of Bremen) Nov. 9, 1606; d. at Helmetil,dt (21 m. e. of Brunswick) Dec. 12, 1681. He studied at Hehnetadt and Leyden, was appointed professor of natural philosophy at Helmstadt in 1632, and was transferred to the medical faculty five years later. In 1650 he was made physician to the queen of Sweden, and eleven years later became privy councilor of the duke of Brunswick. He received a pension from Louis XIV. in 1664, and in 1669 was appointed councilor of state by the king of Denmark. Conring's wealth of learning, like his legal and diplomatic knowledge, was devoted to proving that the Protestant Church was entitled to exist as a part of the Church catholic. In this spirit he wrote his De constitutions episcoporum Germanio (Helmetadt, 1647), and in the same year prepared an annotated edition of the letters of Leo III. to Charlemagne. In his De conciliis et circa ea summa potestatis auctoritate (1650) he asserted the right of the emperor and the estates to convene, conduct, and confirm plenary councils, and also to enact ecclesiastical rulings without their aid, while in the following year his De elections Urbani IX. et lanocentii X. pontificum assailed the method of

:341	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Ckmrad of 0elahausen
		cloasalvi
	electing popes. The Roman Catholic propaganda
which had resulted in the conversion of his close
	friend Baron Johann Christian von Boyneburg
	evoked two polemic works from his pen, the De
	fensio ecclesix Protestantium adversum duo pon
d fcciorum argumenta (1654), in which he impugned
	the doctrine that a Church is invalid without apos
	tolic succession, and Fundamentorum futei pon
	tificice concussio (1654), denying that either the
pope or an ecumenical council was the infallible
	representative of God on earth in matters of faith
	and conduct. This called forth a series of refu
tations, to which Conring replied in the same year
	with vigor. He also essayed irenics, and in his
	posthumous De seriptoribm sedecim post Christum
natum saculorum commentarius (1705) discussed
the Church Fathers, and in his De Germanorum
	imperio Romano (1644) considered the changed
	legal relations existing between emperor and pope.
	He likewise touched on dogmatics, exegesis, and
criticism in works of minor importance
	(E. HEnrsEt.)
Bxsmooa&rax: The Opera, ed. J. W. Goebel, incomplete,
	in 7 vote., appeared, Brunswick, 1730. Consult: 0.
	$tobbe, H. Conring, Berlin, 1870; K. F. H. Marx, Zur
	Erinnerung der Arztdichen Wirkeamkedt H. Corainge. GSt
tingen, 1873.
	CONSALVI, ERCOLE: Italian cardinal and
	diplomat; b. at Rome June 8, 1757; d. there Jan.
	24, 1824. He received his early education at the
	school of the Piarists at Urbino, which he left to
	enter the college founded by Cardinal Henry of York
	at Frascati. The youth's talents won the favor of
	the cardinal duke. From Frascati he went to the
	ecclesiastical academy at Rome. On
Early	leaving the Abademy in 1783, he re
	Life and ceived a post in the papal household,
	Training. and aided by the influence of his kins
	man, Cardinal Negroni, moved rapidly
	through several grades of office, receiving in 1792
	the post of auditor for Rome at the Roman Rota.
	He became so prominent a figure in the churchly
	and noble circles of Rome and Frascati that he
	gained the sobriquet of " Monsignore Everywhere."
	He was military assessor at the time of the rise of
	the French Directory, and when the latter com
	pelled Pius VI. to leave Rome, Consalvi, after suf
	fering a short term of imprisonment in the castle of
	St. Angelo, made his way to Venice where he was
	chosen secretary of the conclave that met to elect
a successor to Pius VI.
	By Pius VII. he was created secretary of state
	Aug. 11, 1800, and at the same time was made car
	dinal deacon of St. Agata in Suburra. Thence
	forth he appeared as the prime mover of the papal
	diplomacy. The first task to which he applied
	himself was the negotiation of a concordat with the
	French Republic, which was successfully accom
	plished July 15,1801 (see CoxcoRDATs, VI., 1, § 1).
	Napoleon's innovations, as Consalvi admitted, en
	tirely annulled the results of his now laborious
	efforts. Napoleon knew him as his opponent and
	in 1806, when the French emperor submitted to
	the pope a plan for a defensive alliance coupled
	with the recognition of the pope as sovereign in
	Rome and of Napoleon as Holy Roman emperor, he
IIL‑16
declared that, if Consalvi refused to acquiesce in the proposition, it would be bctter for him to retire from his post. The proposal was rejected, and in June, 1806, Consalvi was superseded by Cardinal Casoni.
When in 1809 Pius VII. was deported from Rome Napoleon summoned the college of cardinals to assemble at Paris, partly from the desire to add the luster of their presence to the celebration of his marriage to Marie Louise, partly
Diplo‑ that he might hold them under his matic immediate influence in case of the Achieve‑ death of Pius VII. Consalvi arrived at menu. Paris in February, 1810. He was one of the thirteen " black" cardinals who refrained from attending the marriage ceremony of the emperor, thereby arousing the anger of Napoleon to the point where he threatened the ex‑secretary of state with death. His property was sequestrated, with that of the other twelve, he was forbidden to display the insignia of his rank, and was ordered to take up his residence at Reims, where he composed his M&moires (2 vols., Paris, 1864; 2d ed., 1866). After the conclusion of the Concordat of Fontainebleau (Jan. 25, 1813; see CoNcoRDATs, VI., 1, § 3) he took up his residence with Pius VII. Upon the fall of Napoleon he was sent to Paris as representative of the papal interests in the council of the powers, and in the same capacity he visited London and attended the Congress of Vienna. There he revealed a, depth of insight and suppleness of spirit which aroused the admiration of the pope and the Viennese diplomats. Thoroughly a modern, he fought zealously for the interests of the Church without deluding himself with medieval conceptions of the rights and powers of the papacy. Article 103 of the Peace of Vienna restored to the Church possession of the districts of Camerino, Beneventum, and Pontecorvo, and the legations of Ravenna, Bologna, and Ferrara, with the exception of a small strip of territory included within the last, on the left bank of the Po. " His was the boldest and keenest game played on the green table," said Talleyrand to Metternich.
Before leaving Vienna, Consalvi pledged himself to the powers to put an end to the' sacerdotal r6gime in Rome, a promise which he found impossible to keep. For the government of the States of the Church he issued a code of laws which aimed at their reduction to a centralized and uniformly organized principality. The papal territories were divided into seventeen delegations, each under the authority of a prelate exercising functions similar to those of the prefect of a department
Failure in France. In the administration of and Re‑ affairs he was opposed by the zealots tirement. under Cardinal Paces, who detested Consalvi as the representative of modem and worldly ideals. After 1815 he was engaged in the negotiation of a series of concordats by which the relations of the Church with every Catholie state but Austria were regulated anew. In the
revolutionary movement of 1820 he showed himself resolutely opposed to all concession, and with
the help of the Austrian troops order was maintained in the legations. Soon, however, his relay

conscience	THE NEW SCHAF'F‑HERZOG	"Q
tions with the Austrian government became strained and it was the opposition of that power which destroyed his chances of being chosen successor to Pius VIL, whose death occurred Aug. 20, 1823. Upon the election of Leo XII. Consalvi went into retirement. During the height of his power after the Congress of Vienna he had been a patron of the arts, Canova and Thorwaldsen being among those who enjoyed his protection.
	(F. N1xiaErrt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Correapondance du . . . Conaaloi sOQC . .
Metternick 1816‑BS, ed. C. van Duerm, Louvain, 1899;
N. P. 6. Wiseman, Recollections of she Last Pour Popes,
London, 1859; F. Nielsen, Gewhichte doe‑ Papstthuma inn
18. Jahrhunder4 vol. i., Gotha, 1880, Eng. tranel.. New
York, 1906; L. 86ch6, Les Oripinee du concordat, Paris,
1894; MErnoires, du Cardinal Consalroi, introduction par
J. Cretinsau‑Joly; new ed., published by J. E. BZ=
ohon, ib. 1895; E. L. Fischer, Cardinal ~onsalroZ und Charaktarbild, Mains, 1899.

CONSCIENCE.
Origin of the Term (f 1). Paul's Use of it U 2). The Fathers and Sohoohnen (1 3). 19te Reformers (¢ 4). Modern Philosophers (¢ 5). Present‑Day Problems (1 6). Intuitional and Evolutionary Views (5 7).
The English word " conscience " is derived from the Latin conscientid, which is parallel in derivation and meaning to the New Testament syneUesis (Attic Gk. Cyneidm); but in the classical authors
the word denotes originally simply i.Origin consciousness, without any ethical of the bearing. Its use in the modern sense Term. of °' conscience," or the moral sense of
the individual applied to his own conduct, occurs not infrequently in Cicero and Seneca. The latter name especially has been taken to suggest that the ethical connotation came from the Stoic anthropology and legal doctrine; but the word does not occur in this sense in any Stoic writer except Seneca, and it is more probable that it acquired its later meaning gradually in the course of the process which led the ancient world from unthinking obedience to traditional custom up to the appeal to the inner tribunal of every man's heart. This inner witness had, however, no religious connection. The daimon of Socrates expresses a confidence in higher guidance which has a religious coloring, the consciousness of his mission felt by the great man, but has nothing to do with the old syneid&is ; and the often‑quoted passage (Epiat., xli.) in which Seneca speaks of " the holy spirit that dwells within us " is merely the expression of the Stoic, and therefore not religious, pantheism.
The term is not found in the Old Testament or among the words of Jesus. It was introduced into the primitive Christian vocabulary by Paul,
outside of whose letters it occurs in the z. Paul's New Testament only in the Acts (in Use of it. Paul's mouth), in I Peter, and in Hebrews. In his work Paul comes in contact with the general human conscience (II Cor. iv. 2), and appeals to it (Nom. ii. 15; xiii. 5, 6), or corrects deviations in it proceeding from remnants of heathen ideas (I Cor. viii. 7; x. 23 sqq.). Otherwise it is the Christian conscience alone to which
appeal is made (Acts xxiii. 1; II Tim. i. 3); only the author of Hebrews (ix. 9) uses the conception, by this time accepted in Christian terminology, as a short expression for the critical standpoint of the new religion toward the condition of things under the old covenant. With Paul the pre‑Christian conscience stands for the divine natural order of society (Nom. xiii. 4, 5) or mort generally for the moral law whose commands are felt in the heart, in substantial agreement with the Jewish revealed law, and thus in a way taking its place for the Gentiles (Nom. ii. 14, 15). It makes then morally independent by a self‑judgment which penetrates to the most hidden motives (Nom. ix. 1; II Cor. i. 12), coordinate with that of the Searcher of hearts; and it is capable also of passing judgment on others (II Cor. v. 11; iv. 2). But Paul nowhere hints at a recognized theonomy through the conscience, nor yet at a distinction between the pre‑Christian and the Christian conscience. Again, the imperative conscience is nowhere mentioned in the New Testament. Paul recognizes the possibility of a conscience being weak, subject to other powers than the one God (I Cor. viii. 7, 12), and erroneous in its judgment. This leads him to the recognition of the individuality of conscience, its right of independent judgment, the denial of which would destroy moral personality (I Cor. x. 29, viii. 10). By the blood of Christ the conscience is cleansed, and the Christian obtains a " good " conscience (Nom. ix. 1; 11 Cor. i. 12; Heb. ix. 14, x. 22); this wholly good conscience is connected (I Pet. iii. 21; Heb. x. 22) with the gift of grace in baptism. This good conscience is not the certainty of reconciliation, but the mirror of the moral condition. Hence its chief characteristic is its sincerity (II Cor. i. 12), which attests its purity (I Tim. iii. 9; II Tim. i. 3). Its opposite is a branded, defiled conscience (I Tim. iv. 2; Titus i. 15). The " faith unfeigned " stands or falls with a pure conscience (I Tim. i. 5, 19; iii. 9; iv. 1, 2).
But although Paul thus gave a definite sanction to the term, there is no evidence that it passed from him into the current speech of
3. The the early Church; it is seldom met
Fathers with in the primitive literature, and and then first in exegetical writings.
Schoolmen. Chrysostom, with his practical tendency, is the first to make much use of it, describing it as an independent source of moral insight and coordinating it with the created universe as a means of the knowledge of God. While he goes thus far beyond the pagan conception, Augustine and his opponent Pelagius are inclined to rest in the mere idea of a consciousness which attests and judges moral action. From Augustine the connection of conscience with the more general consciousness was handed on, sometimes, as with Abelard,in the form of the consciousness of obligation, sometimes, as with Bernard, in that of the incorruptible judgment, and served to emphasize the inner life in contrast with the externalism of ecclesiastical theology. The scholastic theology followed Alexander of Hales rather closely throughout; the classical expression of it is found in Thomas Aquinas (Summa, I. lxxix.; II., part ii. xciv.). The pecu‑

1148	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Conscience
liarity of this earliest scientific treatment of the subject is the introduction of the idea of syntzresis, interpreted by the scholastics, in dependence upon the Aristotelian psychology, as the practical intellect, i.e., in their conception, the potentia or habitus of moral principles, while conscientia is distinguished from it as the application of three to the individual act. With this distinction came in the idea of the fallibility of the conscience; and so the door was opened to all sorts of hair‑splitting judgments, exemplified in the books on casuistry. The extreme result of this tendency is seen among the Jesuits, whom moral system knows nothing of synw&is, and regards cmiscimtia as a prej udioe to be removed by probabilism (see ETaics, II., § 9). The Latin mysticism, on the other hand, made a fruitful use of the scholastic doctrine when, following patristic hints, it defined (especially in Gerson) the syntgrfis as the power by which the soul longs and is able to come into immediate contact with God.
The attention paid by both professional theologians and the practical system of the Church to the
conscience, far as it went beyond New ;. The Re‑ Testament limits, was a reason why
formers. conscience was such an important
factor in the discussions of the Reformation. These, however, derive rather from Bernard and Abelard than from the schoolmen. To Luther and his fellows it was now the independent consciousness of duty, now the sorrowful consciousness of sin, the accuser not to be silenced except in the assurance of justification by faith. In whatever terms it is defined, it amounts to the relation of the moral life to God, with its judging, even its condemning, function principally emphasized; it is the organ for the relation of justice between God and man. In like manner Calvin calls it " the sense of the divine judgment and empire." Specially characteristic are the passages in which he deals with it, particularly in his doctrine of justification by faith and of Christian liberty. The eye of faith now looks out boldly and clearly from the secure watch‑tower of unconditional religious obligation over the broad domain of freedom of conscience.
The way in which the orthodox theologians spoke of the Christian conscience, presupposing a rela‑
tion of religious dependence upon God g. Modern and obligation to obey his law, was
Philoso‑ attacked by English deism when it
phers.	opposed the natural as the universal
to the positive historical as the unsupported particular. Since Hutcheson it had been customary in England to replace " innate ideas " by the moral sense, understood so as to combine this moral obligation with intellectual skepticism as to a universally binding ethical law, and to deny any religious relation. The ultimate consequence of this opposition between nature and history is seen in Rousseau, whose " natural conscience " was a mere instinct leading to moralit3f, with no content of guilt or obligation. Kant, on the other hand, emphasized and recognized an inner tribunal of incomparable dignity. Fichte defined conscience as " the immediate consciousness of specific duty,"
which involves the unconditional certainty of a consciousness of duty with which a practical judgment, logically deduced from recognized premises, is endowed. The exaggerated emphasis laid upon formal certainty led to the extension of the word to a judgment of taste in all practical relations, as with Herbart and with Krauss (" the innate necessity to have an ideal and to acknowledge it as a judge set over us "), and thus in the modern phrase "the artistic conscience." This is a notable declension from the former high claims; and it goes still further when Hegel, though recognizing unconditional subjective certainty from the standpoint of morality, insists that it must be measured by the idea or the objectivity of social ethics; when Schopenhauer replaces the infallible, imperative consciousness of duty by a " protocol of facts," which is a purely objective and empirical standard. Since his day there has been an increasing tendency to substitute for the self‑conscious autonomy of the subject the cultural development of society, and to regard conscience, with Spencer, as a product of education, good or bad.
This, then, raises the first of the points most discussed in modern theological treatises; whether conscience is an innate, primeval thing,
6. Present‑ and then whether it is only a subjee‑
Day Prob‑ tive phenomenon, the formal conscious‑
	lemns.	ness of duty, or has a content from
		without. This, with the other ques
tion of the relation of religion and morality, is
a matter of great interest to those who now discuss
religion from the anthropological standpoint. The
solution of the problem, however, depends as a
rule upon the general views held by each of the
many authors who have recently treated the sub
ject of conscience. A further question, this time
rather a practical than a theoretical one, deals with
freedom of conscience. This depends upon the
individuality of the conscience, and is opposed to
the claim that one may be morally bound by any
other authority than that of God. Such a claim
appears in its most obvious form when an institu
tion like the Roman Catholic Church identifies its
utterances with the divine revelation. From the
Reformers' protest against such a claim have sprung
first the demand for the free exercise of religion
within the limits of the social order, and then that
of unrestricted expression of any religious or ethical
conviction; but such unqualified freedom would
obviously imperil all ordered social life.
(M. KXH.ER. )
	The moral law originates in custom and is at first
	identical with it, as is evident in the terms " ethics "
and " ° morals." The 	outstanding,
y Intu‑ most advantageous, and necessary cus‑
itional and torns are crystallized into positive law;
Evolution‑ later, positive laws conflict with cus‑
	ary Views.	tom or with each other. This con
		flict may be resolved temporarily by
casuistry or by making one command supreme.
And the validity of the moral law may for a time
rest back on punishment. Attempts to find an
ultimate basis of the moral law in the nature of man
have given rise to two theories of conscience, the
intuitional and the evolutionary. According to the

ConsciencevangvIlas	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	244
former, conscience is a clear perception of good and evil, accompanied by a feeling of unconditioned obligation and of irreversible approval or disapproval of actions‑intuitive, original, universal, supernatural, " the voice of God in the soul of man." This theory has been subjected to the criticism that the conscience does not infallibly disclose what one ought to do, that the judgment of right and wrong varies in different places and is subject to change, that in the moral consciousness the judgment of good and evil may conflict, and, finally, that the ground of obligation is objective as well as subjective. Hence, the explanation of conscience is sought in evolution. The external occasion for its origination lies in social experience, registered in customs and changing laws. The earliest sense of duty is the consciousness of custom; later, the sense of obligation appears in the conflict between particular inclinations and obedience to the customary. Through experience new conditions give rise to advantageous forms of action which will in turn be antagonized by custom. The ideal principle of this newer action is, however, elevated into a controlling law, first for an individual, then for the community, resulting either in quiet and gradual readjustment of ethical relations, or in the sudden and radical beginning of anew era of ethical ideal and law. Thus the conscience is that aspect of consciousness which unifies the system of social, i.e., of moral relations with reference to individual and social development and completeness‑the response in the moral consciousness of a uniform objective stimulus. Accordingly, the conscience, instead of being set free from the influence of divinity as something alien to the nature and entering‑ it from without, discloses the immanence of the divine teleological (transcendent) action in the individual consciousness within the social order. See ETHics; DUTY; CONFLICT OF DUTIES; and CABUIBTRY.
C. A. BEC%wITH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: For the Biblical side consult the lexicons of H. Cremer and J. H. Thayer, and the works on N. T. theology; also J. T. Beek, Umriaa den biblischen Seelenlehre, Stuttgart, 1871, Eng. transl.. Edinburgh, 1877; P. Ewald, De vocis euneideae6a apud acriptores N. T., Leipsie, 1883. For the history of the subject consult: T. Ziegler. Geschichte den Ethik, Bonn, 188188; K. KSatlin, GewAiehts den Ethik, vol. i., Tiibingen, 1887; H. 8idgwick, Hint. of Ethics, London, 1896. For treatment of Conscience consult: E. Kant, Critique on Practical Reason, London, 1896; Joseph Butler, Three Sermons on Human Nature, with Introduction and Notes by T. B. Kilpatrick, Edinburgh, 1888; R. H.. Hoffmann, Die Lehre von dens Getoissen, Leipsic, 1886; W. Case, Die Lehre vom Gewiamn, Berlin. 1869; J. F. D. Maurice, The Conscience. London, 1872; M. Kibler, Dos Gemiasen, Halle, 1878; W. T. Davison, The Christian Conscience, London, 1888; R. Seeberg. Gmrissen and Gewiaaenbildung, Erlangen, 1896; N. 8. Rulison, Study of Conscience, Philadelphia, 1901; O. Huckel, A Modern Study of Conscience, ib. 1907; DB, i. 468‑475; modern works on ethics, particularly N. Smyth, Christian Ethics, New York, 1892, and J. Martineau, Types of Ethical Theory, London, 1898; and modern treatises on psychology. For the intuitional theory of the conscience consult: H. Calderwood, Handbook o/ Moral Philosophy, Edinburgh, 1888; J. Martineau, Types o/ Ethical Theory, 2 vole., London, 1886. For the evolutionary or anthropological view consult: W. K. Clifford, Lectures and Essays, London, 1879; S. Alexander, Moral Order and Progress, London, 1889; J. H. Muirhed, Elements al Ethics, pp. 63‑88, 215‑235, New York, 1892; F. Paulsen, System of Ethics, pp. 340‑378, New York, 1899.
CONSSCIENTIARII (Germ. Gewlsaener): The adherents of Matthias Knutsen, a theological candidate from Sleswick who, in Sept., 1674, came to Jena and there set on foot a propaganda for his deistic and atheistic principles. According to him, conscience was to be the sole authority, even at the cost of rejecting faith in God and immortality; but his conscience was one which could justify the most immoral relations, putting marriage on the same level as indiscriminate sexual intercourse. He boasted that he had a following of seven hundred townsmen and students in Jena and Altdorf. This brought about an investigation which showed that his claims were unfounded, and he thought it best to disappear. The University of Jena vindicated its reputation in a formal statement of the truth by Musmus, one of its professors; and the sect soon died out.
CONSECRATION: [The format setting apart of a person or thing as sacred or devoted to God by a special religious rite. For the consecration of the elements of the Lord's Supper see EPISLEsIs; EUCHAIUST, § 5. For the consecration of bishops see BISHOP; see also PRIEST. For the consecration of things (altars, bells, etc.) see BENEDICTION; SACRAMENTAL9. This article will be confined to the consecration of churches.]
Churches were solemnly consecrated as early as the time of Constantine, both‑those which were rebuilt after destruction in times of persecution (Eusebius, Hint. eccl., x. 2‑5) and new buildings (Eusebius, Vita Constantini, xlv.). The fundamental thought was naturally the idea that the deity had obtained a new abode of visible presence (cf. Augustine, Sermones, clxiii.), wherewith was later associated the maxim that the sacrifice of the mass may never be performed without an altar, and, cases of necessity excepted, only in consecrated churches or public chapels. Even in comparatively early times, relics were used in connection with the consecration. In the Middle Ages the ceremonies increased; the most noteworthy, according to the Inter sacramentorum Gregorii Magni (after X11. Kalendas Januarius), was that the bishop traced with ashes the Greek and Latin alphabets (earlier also the Hebrew) diagonally across the church from corner to corner, the two lines intersecting in the form of a cross. The signification, as explained by No of Chartres was " the union of both peoples [Gentiles and Jews] by the single bond of the cross." 'The present Roman ceremonial is found in the Pontifical, and consecration devolves upon the bishop (see SAcRAMENTAI$). The consecration of churches with Eastern Orthodox Christians lays great stress on relics (cf. A. Maltzew, Bill‑, Dank‑ and Weihegottesdienate, Berlin, 1897, p. xcix.). Protestant churches need neither to be cleansed of demons nor be hallowed for the administration of the sacrifice of the mass. Nevertheless, the need of some act analogous to consecration was early felt (cf. Seckendorf's description of the opening of the castle church at Torgau, in his Historda Lutheranisrni, bk. iii., § 118, and Luther's sermon, Erlangen ed., vol. xvii.). In the later liturgies forms of consecration for separate objects‑e.g., organs and bells‑occur frequently.

245	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Qonadence
		Qonsilia Evangelica
	Even as early as the fourth century the churches
on Golgotha and the site of the Resurrection were
thronged on occasion of the " encaenia," or anniver
sary of the church dedication (cf. the " Pilgrim
age " of Silvia of Aquitaine, Palestine Pilgrims' Text
Society transl., pp. 76‑77). Isidore of Seville (De
ofeiis, i. 35) explains the anniversary festival as a
revival of the Jewish encwnia. The lessons Rev.
xxi. 1‑5 and Luke xix. 1‑10 were transferred to the
Lutheran pericopes from the medieval lectionary
which was in use in Germany. Luther, however,
was not partial to the church dedication festival,
observing (An den christlichen Adel), " Church
dedications ought to be abolished altogether, seeing
they have become naught else than very taverns,
yearly fairs, and playhouses." Nevertheless, the
festival of church dedication persisted, and it may
be that the attendant excesses conspired to main
tain it. These excesses perhaps resulted from the
fact that the day of church dedication was to be
preceded by abstinence, while the day itself was to
be regarded as a feast of joyousness. For Protes
tants the anniversary festival of church dedication
can have no other significance than that of a thanks
giving feast for the blessings of a well‑regulated
ecclesiastical status.	W. CASPARL
BrBrdoeBAFH?: Bingbam, Origfinea, book viii:, chap. ix.;
	M. Gerbert, Moriumenta veteria liturpim Alemaaia; dis
	quisition vi., chap. i., San Blae 1758; E. C. Harrington,
	The Object . . . of the Rite of Consecration of Churches,
	London, 1844; H. A. Daniel, Codex liturpieus, 4 vole.,
Leipsic, 1847‑53.
	CONSILIA EVANGELICA (" Evangelical coun
sels "): The name given in the doctrine of the
Roman Catholic Church to a class of norms of moral
conduct authorized in the New Testament. The
term is used in distinction from pracepta (" com
mands " ; i.e., injunctions which may not be dis
	regarded, and thus fall within the sphere of im
	perative duty). The distinction dates back to
	Tertullian, who repeats the words of
	Origin and I Cor. vii. 25, " I have no command
	Early De‑ ment of the Lord; yet I give my judg
	velopment. ment," in De exhortatione castitatia, iv.,
	and makes it in five other places, and
	it occurs in the Vulgate rendering of the passage
	mentioned (praceptum domini non habeo, conailium
	autem do). Two of the ideas which gave Tertullian
	occasion to expound the distinction came in time to
	have great significance: namely, " what one may
	disregard is advised rather than commanded; "
	and that a merely advised renunciation of some
	thing in itself permitted (e.g., marriage) consti
	tutes merit. This is repeated by Cyprian (De habitu
	virginum, xxiii.), and the same doctrine had been
	already conveyed in the Shepherd of Hermas (mand.
	IV. iv. 2; aim. V. iii. 3). The opinion therefore
	seems well founded that it was Ambrose who first
	expressly formulated the distinction between
	hrcecepta and consilia (De viduis, xii.). After him it
	appears in Optatus, Jerome, notably in Pelagius
	(ad Demetrium, ix: x.), and also in Augustine.
	With reference to the latter's doctrine, H. Reuter
	(Augustinisehe Studien, Gotha, 1887, pp. 399‑403,
	426‑427, 476) has noted a conflict between two
	tendencies. On the one hand, the external and
literal observance of the counsels (as of poverty and virginity) is commended as a higher standard of morality, procuring a higher order of merit. On the other hand, it becomes precarious to measure by this test the ultramoral, in so far as all conduct is viewed in the light of the inner moral intention.
Between Augustine and Aquinas the doctrine of the counsels gives ever greater and greater weight to the first tendency, upholding or exalting monasticism as the state of perfection. In St. Thomas, however, the other tendency also comes forward. According to his Summa (II. i., qu.108, art. 4), the commandments are given " concerning those things which are necessary to attain the end of eternal felicity"; but. the counsels, " concerning those by means of which one can attain the end aforesaid better and more quickly." Man stands between
the things of this world and spiritual Thomistlc goods. To cleave altogether to the sad former is forbidden by the commandMedieval menta, but it is not necessary to cast Teaching. them absolutely away to reach eternal blessedness; " nevertheless one will come to it more quickly by rejecting entirely the goods of this world, and therefore the Evangelical counsels are given about this." They fall under these three general heads: poverty, chastity, and obedience; to which also the various particular specifications may all be referred. Seconds aecundce treats of the counsels under " the state of perfection." Query 184, art. 3, teaches that perfection consists essentiatiter in the command of love, but instrumentaliter depends on the counsels. They are " so to speak, instruments for attaining to perfection " ; they remove obstacles to the higher degrees of love, so long as love holds any commandments for whoever professes even the least degree of it. In the Middle Ages twelve counsels were commonly enumerated, which were found eapecially in the Sermon on the Mount; and after the aforesaid three general heads, which concerned the religious orders, there were recommended, for instance, the injunctions " love your enemies " (Matt. v. 44), " resist not evil " (Matt. v. 39‑41), etc.
Luther contested the idea of St. Thomas that the higher degrees of love are not commanded. He Condemned every infraction of the law, on the ground that it commands absolute fulfilment; inferior
" perfection " is not allowed, but is Protestant a sin, which, however, God forgives Teaching. on condition of faith with daily repentance sad moral amendment. The Lutheran confessions oppose the Roman doctrine as to the counsels, because it sets up rtter4a aupererogationis (Auga. Con., xxvii. 12; Apol., xxvii. 24‑25, 39); because it constructively permits pri‑
vate revenge (Augs. Con., xxvii. 54; Apol., xvi. 59),
and caste doubt upon the civil commonwealth
(Auga. Con., xxvii. 55; Apol., xvi. 56; of. also Augs.
Con., xxvii. 61; Apol., xxvii. 9). It can not, of
course, be disputed that among the moral norms
which concern Christendom at large there exist,
side by aide with " commandments of God "
(I Cor. vii. 19), " commandments of the Lord "
(vs. 25, 10), also the " judgments 11 of Paul. Paul's

Oonsistory	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	248
" judgments " diverge, again, from his own " commandments " (of. II Cor. viii. 10, 8; I Cor. xvi. 1, vii. 17, 19, 6). The essential feature of his " judgments " consists in the fact that they " cast no snare " (I Cor. vii. 35). That is to say, they do not enslave, they do not obligate all because their acceptance presupposes a gift (charisma) of God (vs. 7). On the basis of I Cor. vii. we may correctly distinguish between the advisory norm and the absolute force of a commandment; and indeed a similar norm occurs in Matt. xix. 11‑12. But the Pauline and Lutheran doctrine as to this " counsel " is by no means identical with the Roman doctrine of the "counsels." The true general definition is: the counsels are auxiliary norms toward the discernment of those obligating commands which govern a Christian in his particular situation.
YAl;L THIEME.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The works on moral theology, such se
(Roman Catholic), T. H. simar, §1 17‑18, Freiburg, 1893; and M. T. GSpfert, i., ¢ 5, Paderborn, 1897; (Protestant), C. E. Luthardt, Die Ethik Lmthsrs, pp. 72‑$0, Sb‑88, Leipsic, 1875; idem, Kompondium der theoloyiadun Rthik, 4 40. Leipsic, 1898; J. T. Beck, Vorlemngan aber ehridlicks Ethik, ii. 113‑143, GVtereloh, 1883; R. Rothe, TheoZogische Ethik, iii. 858, n. 3 Bremen, 1895; K. Ham, Handbuch der protestantiaclbn Polemik, Leipsic, 1900.
CONSISTORY, CONSSISTORIAL ORGANIZATION.
Origin of the German Consistory (§ 1). The First Consistory, at Wittenberg, 1539 (1 2). Other Similar Attempts (§ 3). The Later German Consistoriee (¢ 4). Powers of Coneistories ($ 5). Modern Modifications (§ 8).
In the Roman Catholic Church conaiatoriam sig; nifies the session of the College of Cardinals under the presidency of the pope, as well as the advisory board which assists the vicar general, the bishop's auxiliary for execution of'the jura jurisdictionis. This latter signification affords a point of contact for the terns as it is usually employed in the German Evangelical Church, the subject of this discussion. The German use first appears in a memorial addressed to the Elector John Frederick, on May 13, 1537, by a committee of the great diet of the electorate of Saxony, assembled at Torgau. The said
memorial had manifestly some con‑
e. Origin nection with a resolution, a few weeks of the previously, by the Schmalkald ConGerman vention, which had emphasized the Consistory. duty of the territorial powers in cases " where the bishops rule amiss, or are negligent," in the matter of appointing ecclesiastical courts, especially in relation to matrimonial affairs; but the term " consistories " was not employed at Schmalkald. The memorial was referred to the faculty of theology and law at Wittenberg for an opinion how to put it in execution. This opinion (printed in A L. Richter, Geschichte der evangelischen Kirchenverfamung in Deutschland, Leipsic, 1851, pp. 81‑82), drawn up in the main by Jonas, was reported in the course of the year 1538, and it discusses the need of,consistories and the powers to be assigned to them.
The execution of the Wittenberg opinion, esPecially in relation to independent executive authority and excommunication, received consideration, possibly from Luther and Brack, to whom final decision
was reserved, and, at all events, from the elector; and, apparently at Brack's initiative, provision was made for the merely tentative institution of a consistory for the electorate only. This was established at Wittenberg at the beginning of Feb., 1539, but with limited competency, for it was only
a matrimonial and disciplinary court; a. The First it did not consist of a single judge, but,
Consistory, according to the plan of the visitation at Witten‑ committees, of a college of territorial berg, :539. " commissaries " composed of two theologians and two lawyers, who were selected from the younger members of the academic college of teachers. Finally it lacked executive power and specific instructions. In the absence of instructions, the consistory in difficult cases was to avail itself of the counsel of Luther " and the other theologians and jurists "; and in the autumn of 1540 it was directed to confer with Brack, and then "to formulate an orderly procedure as it may be executed, established, and written out by us." The work was done by the close of 1542, and under the title of Constitution used Artikel den geistlichen Consistorii zu Wittenberg it was published by Georg Buchholtzer as early as 1563 (reprint in E. Sehling, Kirehenordnungen, i., Leipsic, 1902, pp. 200 eqq.). Yet even this work remained a mere plan; and so long as Wittenberg belonged to the Ernestine line this consistory did not have the constitution of a formal consistory (cf. Mejer, in ZKR, xiii. 28‑123, and in Zum Kirehenrechte des Reforntw tions‑Jahrhunderts, Hanover, 1891, pp. 1 aqq.).
Regarding Albertme Saxony, the purpose of Duke Henry at the introduction of the Reformation, of instituting a consistory at Leipsic, did not find realization (cf. E. Sehling, Kirchenordnungen, i. 94). Duke Maurice duly espoused the same plan, but turned aside to the project of restoring the episcopal organization. The conferences and opinions concerning the questions at issue are of great interest. At Merseburg Prince George of Anhalt took the conduct of things in hand as Evangelical bishop; and a collegiate board or consistory was given to him quite in the Roman manner. At Meissen, where the bishop persisted in the ancient doctrine, the consistory could be maintained only temporarily.
The episcopal period reached its end 3. Other in 1548. The Merseburg consietory
Similar was removed to Leipsic in 1550, and
	Attempts. the consistory of Meissen was later
		transferred to Dresden (cf. E. 8eh
ling, Kirchengesetzgebung unter Moritz won Sachsen,
Leipsic, 1899, pp. 13 aqq.; Kirchenordnungen, i. 96
sqq.). Other bodies akin to the consistories,
though the term consistory is not applied to them
(cf. O. Meier, Die Grundlagen des ltuherischen
Kirehen‑regiments, Rostock, 1864, pp. 133 sqq.), be
longing to the early Reformation period, turn out in
every instance, upon closer examination, to be a city
council or deputation of the same, reenforced by
one or more clerical experts. In the year 1554 a
theory of consistorial organization appeared in the
book of Erasmus Sarcerius: Von den Mitteln and
Wegen, die rechte and wahre Religion, welche uns
Gott in diesen letzten and ge/tihrlichen Zeiten wieder
urn geo f enbaret hat, zu bef 6rdern and zu erhaltm

84?	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Aonaistory
	Of the subsequent history of the oonsistories (cf.
Meier, Grundlagen, pp. 144‑145) only special phases
need be considered here. For Prussia the subject
is well treated by H. F. Jacobson, in Evangelisches
%irchenrecht des prvussischm Stawtes (Halls, 1884,
pp. 141 sqq.); and for Saxony by Mifer, in Bei
trage zur sdchsischen KirchengeaehieAte, ix. and x.
(Leipsic, 1894). After the Saxon pattern, com
posed . on collegiate lines of clerical and non
clerical members, and with superintendents as
subordinate officials, the oonsistories became
		diffused through all the Lutheran
	d. The churches of Germany. They took
	Later Ger‑ the place of the original district visi
	man Con‑ tation committees. They were not
	sistones. mere imitations of the Saxon prece
		dent, but spontaneous products of the
operation of the theory of state church polity,
which not only required officers for the protection
of church property and of the outward ecclesias
tical dispensation, but also theological experts for
the maintenance of pure doctrine arid rightful ad
ministration of the sacraments. Accordingly, with
but insignificant variations, the constitution of the
consistories remains always the same. Sometimes
consistories were created to restrict doctrinal dis
putations and encroachments of clergymen upon
the domain of ecclesiastical discipline; on this
ground the consistory at Weimar, for instance, was
called into existence in 1561 (cf. Sehling, Kirthen
ordnungen, i. 65). Where the consistories have a
distinctly independent status they are said to be
" formiert "; where they are adjuncts to temporal
courts or administrative authorities they are said
to be " nicht formied." In smaller territories these
latter were of frequent occurrence; and until the
middle of the last century, there was even a fores
try board that was at the same time a conaistorium.
Consistories appointed by the sovereign are called
immediate; those filled by authorities subordinated
to civil officials are called mediate. In the Refor
mation period conditions of this kind arose where
feudatory towns or great landed proprietors exer
cised certain rights of territorial supremacy, and con
sequently rights of church government as well; in
modern times the mediate consistories were done
away with by the mediatizations of 1806 and 1815.
	From the very outset consistorial powers have
not been everywhere the same. In not a few states
they entirely took the place of episcopal jurisdic
tion; in others, as in case of the Wittenberg con
sistory of 1539, their functions were more circum
scribed; so that sometimes consistories are merely
church courts‑the one of Mecklenburg at Ros
tock, for instance, was scarcely more than that;
and elsewhere they have also carried with them
by transfer the administrative affairs of church
		polity, which are ascribed to them
	g. Powers by Sarcerius. In the former case ad
	of Con‑ mimstrative affairs devolve upon the
	sistories. state chancery or privy council, and
		the practical knowledge of spiritual
affairs is furnished by affiliated court preachers or
superintendents. The church‑governing privileges
vested in the oonsistories are usually called jura
vicaria; those nerved to the personal decision of
the sovereign are called jura reeervata. The consistories are always boards of the sovereign and government; that there should also inhere in them some independent representation of the Church is a thought that first sprang up in the sixteenth century. This thought had its practical sequel in certain provisions of the Peace of Westphalia by virtue of which, even under a sovereign of different faith, consistories on a basis of confessional integrity were guaranteed. The point was overlooked, however, that in the same Westphalian peace negotiations church government was expressly characterized as an attribute of state supremacy, and that nothing more was contemplated than that the state sovereign must exercise such rights through officers of the respective confession.
According to the principle of the State's custodia prioris tabuld, which obtained in government praxis far into the eighteenth century, the subjects of the State stood without exception under the church‑governing surveillance of the territorial sovereignty. They were also subject as a body to the sovereign authorities with respect to the administration of this jurisdiction. Thus, not only Protestants who did not belong to the state church, but likewise Roman Catholics and even Jews were under the consistories. The consistory as modernly developed had up to that time
6. Modern enjoyed not only church‑governing
Modiflca‑ functions, but also‑‑because no distinction. tion was made‑functions of church sovereignty; and the pioneer exponents of the tolerance principle, who likewise had not yet learned sufficiently to distinguish between the two spheres of activity, now came to attribute to church polity, in its general scope, only_what were essentially church sovereignty problems; hence, too, as reacting against false theories of office, they could seriously debate the question whether the importation of theologians into the consistories were not superfluous. Nor was it the less in accord herewith that Reformed or Catholic officers were occasionally appointed to Lutheran consiatories. It was a more wholesome development from the time of the absolute police r6gime that after the middle of the eighteenth century the civil and criminal jurisdiction over ecclesiastical persons and affairs was withdrawn more and more from the consistories, as likewise from the Roman Catholic prelatical authorities, and transferred to the ordinary courts. Even the jurisdiction in matrimonial concerns was at last taken from them, so that apart from their administrative business, they retain simply a corrective jurisdiction over official transgressions, and on occasion a denunciatory prerogative that goes with their exercise of ecclesiastical supervision. ' (For the law as now in force cf. E. Friedberg, Verfamungs‑Recht der evangedischen Landeskirehen, Leipsie, 1888.) From the consistorial organization is to be distinguished the synodal, in virtue of which the Church governs itself by means of committees‑‑synods, preshyteries, etc. (see PRwBXTER; and PREsBYn$IANs); and the so‑called mixed form of church organization prevalent in Germany to‑day, which combines both these
theories of organization.	E. Saarwa.

Constance
Constantine
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
For the organization of the Lutheran churches in America see LuTa=errs. In the Reformed Dutch and Reformed French churches the consistory is an ecclesiastical court corresponding to the Presbyterian session in the former, and to the presbytery in the latter; in the Church of England it is a diocesan court presided over by the chancellor of the diocese.

	CONSTANCE, BISHOPRIC OF: The origin of the
see of Constance can not be positively determined.
In the Roman period no bishopric is mentioned in
northwestern Helvetia; but among the subscrip
tions to the Burgundian Synod of Epao (517) and
the Frankish synods of Orldans (541, 549) occur
the names of two bishops of Vindonissa, a name
which is still preserved in that of the village of
Windisch at the confluence of the Aar and the Reuss.
This was the headquarters of the eleventh and
twelfth legions, and it is likely that a Christian
church existed there in Roman days. The last
mention of such a bishopric is the signature of Gram
matieus as episcopus eeeleaiae Uindunnensis in 549.
Early in the seventh century a good authority, the
Vita Columbani, mentions a bishop in one of the
" neighbor " towns to Bregens, The nearest epis
copal sees are Augsburg, Chur, and Vindonissa;
but none of these could quite be called roicina urba.
It is a natural supposition, therefore, that the town
of Constance, founded at the end of the Roman
period, was at this time an episcopat see, which
probably replaced that of Vindonissa between
549 and 610. It included all the territory of the
Alenlanni not included in the older dioceses of Chur,
Augsburg, Strasburg, and Basel, and extended from
the Aar and the Rhine to the Iller, and from the
middle course of the Neckar to the St. Gothard,
including the Swabian highlands‑thus embracing
the greater part of modern Wurttemberg, southern
Baden, central and northeastern Switzerland. No
German diocese was so rich in prominent monas
teries; among the best‑known may be mentioned
St. Gall, Reichenau, Kempten, Zurich, Lindau,
Einsiedeln, St. Bladen, Peterehausen, Muri, and
Weingarten. 	(A. HAUCx.)
Originally subject to the archbishop of Besangon, Constance was placed under the jurisdiction of Mainz when the latter was raised by Boniface to the dignity of the metropolitan see of Germany. Here as elsewhere during the Middle Ages, canonical election of the bishops gave way to royal nomination, and probably all the bishops of the eleventh century owed their elevation to this source. Otto I. (1071‑86) was a strong partizan of Henry IV., and, though the two bishops who covered the period from 1127 to 1165 were canonically chosen, during the struggle with Baxbarossa Constance was usually on the side of the imperial claimant of the papacy. In 1220 the process of acquiring the temporal dignity of a prince of the empire for the bishop was completed, though the secular jurisdiction embraced only twenty‑two square miles, only a small part of the diocese, and did not include the see city. In the fourteenth century contested papal and episcopal elections brought much unrest, until the long rule of Henry III. of Brandis, abbot of Einsie‑
deln (1357,83), restored order. At the Reformation most of the Swiss part of the diocese adopted the new religion, while Duke Ulrich introduced Protestantism into Wurttemberg in 1534. The city of Constance declared for Zwinglian tenets, and was one of the four towns which presented the Tetrapolitan Confession (q.v.) at the Diet of Augsburg in 1530. In 1526 the bishop transferred his residence to Meerstadt, where his successors preferred to remain, even after the victory of the imperial arms had crushed out both the Protestantism and the freedom of the city. But though the diocese had come through many perils without hopeless lose, it fell a victim to the changes brought about by the French Revolution. The Peace of LunSville (1802) abolished the temporal sovereignty of the bishop, which was divided between Baden and Switzerland. The bishopric itself went down in the general upheaval, and the Swiss territory, after being administered for a time by a vicar‑apostolic, was assigned to the sees of Basel, Chur, and St. Gall, that now in Wiirttemberg to the new see of Rottenberg, and the Bavarian section to Augsburg. The last vestige of the old diocese disappeared m 1821, when the small remainder was incorporated with the diocese of Freiburg, the metropolitan see of the new province of the Upper Rhine.
Bxsraoassray: Sources are in Wirtemberoiacher Urlcundsm
tvcA, 8 vole., Stuttgart, 1849‑b4: Repeats Badensia, ed.
C. (1. DOmgB, Carlaruhe, 1839; MOH, Script., xiii (1881),
324 eqq., :ev (1888). 1023‑24, 1284 eqq.; Repestaepiseopo‑
rura Constaalienaium, 2vole., Innebruck,1894‑98. Consult:
)iettberg, %D, 198 eqq.; Friedrich, %D. 2 vole.; Hauck.
%D. vole. i.‑iii.: E. Egli. Ruc7tsaGUchichte der schwis,
Zurich, 1893.
	CONSTANCE, COUNCIL OF: The second of the
three " reforming councils " of the fifteenth century.
It was called by Pope John XXIII. and the Em
peror Sigismund, and sat from Nov. 5, 1414, to Apr.
22, 1418. Its three great objects were to heal the
papal schism (see Scalars), to examine the heresy of
Wyclif and Hula and the religious disturbances
thereby caused in Bohemia, and to carry through a
general reform of the Church. It was attended by
twenty‑nine cardinals, three patriarchs, thirty‑three
archbishops, about one hundred and fifty bishops,
more than one hundred abbots, a larger number of
		professors and doctors of theology and
General canon law, and more than 5,000 monks, Character. besides princes, noblemen, ambassadors, etc. Beside an ecclesiastical assembly a general European congress was in progress. The number of strangers in Constance is put by the lowest estimate at 50,000, and among them such characters as money‑lenders, strolling actors, and low women were well represented. The pope rode into the city on Oct. 28, with great magnificence, sixteen hundred horses carrying his retinue and luggage. The emperor arrived on Christmas Eve with an imposing following. The most prominent and most influential members of the council were Pierre d'Ailly and Jean Gerson, who soon became its soul.
The Council of Pisa (1409) had attempted to put an end to the schism by deposing both Gregory XII., who resided in Rome, and Benedict XIII., who resided at Avignon, and electing in their stead

249
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Alexander V. But the result was simply that there now were three popes instead of two; and the confusion continued unabated,. when, after the l death of Alexander V.. (1410), the leaders of the Pisan council elected John XXIII. All three popes were invited to Constance, but only John was present. He was crafty and unscrupulous, dissolute and avaricious; but he was courageous, shrewd, inexhaustible in shifts and intrigues,
The Ques‑ and equal to any emergency. He tion of .the hoped to control the council by means Schism. of the very great number of Italian prelates, who, mostly dependent upon him, accompanied him to Constance. But in this he failed. The order of business adopted (Feb. 7, 1415) on the proposal of the English was that of working and voting by nations; and in the plenary sessions the Italian nation, had, of course, only one vote beside the other nations‑the German, French, English, and, after the deposition of Benedict XIII., the Spanish. Each nation formed an efficient organization, in which, contrary to the wishes of the pope, his chief opponents‑the doctors, the lower clergy, the princes and their representatives‑had voice and vote. John now endeavored to urge upon the assembly. the view that the Council of Constance was nothing but a continuation of that of Pisa, which had formally condemned his two rivals, and, indirectly at least, legitimized his own election. But in this, too, he failed; and the party of Pierre d'Ailly finally succeeded in carrying a motion that the three popes should be compelled to abdicate, and a new election take place. John abdicated in the hope of being reelected; but he soon became aware of his mistake, fled in the disguise of a groom (Mar. 20, 1415), protested, was caught, and was finally brought to acquiesce in the decisions of the council. In its fifth plenary session (Apr. 6, 1415) the assembly agreed that an ecumenical council, legally convened, and fully representative of the Church, has its power directly from Christ, and that its decrees are consequently obligatory on all, even on the pope. May 29, 1415, John XXIII. was deposed; July 4 Gregory XII. voluntarily abdicated; July 26, 1417, Benedict XIII. was deposed; and Nov. 11, 1417, Cardinal Oddo Colonna, was elected pope, and assumed the name of Martin V., who closed the council Apr. 22, 1418, at its fortyfifth session.
The Bohemian affairs were treated with great thoroughness; for Hum was burned July 6, 1415, and Jerome of Prague, May 30, 1416. But a final settlement was not arrived at, still less a satisfactory one (see Huss, Joan, HUSSITZS). Still more conspicuously the council failed in its
The Hus‑ reform plans. A collegium reforma‑
site Heresy Corium was formed in Aug., 1415; but, and Ques‑ characteristically enough for the whole lion of situation, when Cardinal Zabarella Reform. read aloud to the assembly the decree of Apr. 16, 1415, he wilfully left out the passage it contained on the power of the council to undertake reforms in the Church. It was the lower clergy, the monks, the doctors, and professors, led by Pierre d'Ailly and Gerson, and supported by the emperor, who demanded reforms.
Constance
Constantine
But they were unable to agree among themselves,
and the abuses in which reforms were necessary
such as the appeals to the pope, and the papal proce
dure, the administration of vacant benefices, and
the giving in commendam, simony, dispensations,
	indulgences, etc: were the sources from which the
pope, the cardinals, and the huge swarm of eccle
	siastical officials in Rome drew their principal
	revenues. In fighting against reforms, the car
	dinals fought for their very existence, and they
	proved unconquerable. In the thirty‑ninth session
	(Oct. 9, 1417) the few articles upon which agree
	ment was reached were approved and the decree
	Frequens was issued, providing for another council
	after five years, a second seven years later, and
	thereafter one every ten years. Eighteen specific
	reforms were brought forward, which the new pope
	should arrange with the council or " the deputies
	of the nations." The emperor wished the ques
	tion of reform discussed and decided before the
	election of a new pope; but the cardinals declared
	that the worst ailing of the Church was its lack of
	a head, and when Martin V. was elected he under
	stood how to bury the whole affair quietly and
	smoothly, by grave hesitations and cautious pro
crastinations. 	(B. BESS.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: Ulrich von Richenthal, Chronik den Conatanaer Consila, ed. M. R. Buck, Stuttgart, 1882; H. van der Hardt, Magnum Conetantiense conci.lium, 7 vols., Frankfort and Berlin, 1698‑1742; Acta concilii Constancdenais, ed. H. Finke, vol. i., Munster, 1896; Mansi, Concilia, vOla. xxvi.‑Iavii. Consult: J. Lenfant, Hiatoire du conchs de Constance, 2 vols., Amsterdam, 1727, Eng. transl., London, 1730; F. Steinhausen, Analecta ad hiatoriam concilis . . Condanhm, Berlin, 1862; J. Caro, Au# der Kanzlei Kaiser sigiamunda urkundliche BeUrdge zur Geach%chte den Conatanzer Concde, Vienna, 1879; B. Bess, Zur Geachichts den Konatanzer Konzila, Marburg, 1891; B. Fromme, Die apaniaehe Nation urd das Konatattzer Konzil, 2 parts, Monster, 1894‑98; H. Blumenthal, Die Vorpeachichts den Conatanzer Conzila, Halle, 1897; L. Salembier, Le Grand Schiame d'Occident, Paris, 1900; J. H. Wylie, Council of Constance to the Death o/ John Hue, London, 1900; Hews, Coneiliengeachichte, vols. vi.‑vii.; Mlman, Latin Christianity, vii. 426‑524; Pastor, Popes, i. 194‑207; Creighton, Papacy, i. 228, 307‑346, ii, 26‑126; also the literature cited under Hose, Joax.
CONSTANTINE THE GREAT AND HIS SONS.
I. Constantine the Great.
Constantine's Father, Conatantius (§ 1). Constantine's Mother, Helena (¢ 2).
Political Disorders, 306‑311 (1 3).
Constantine's Conversion. The Edict of Milan (1 4). Constantine's Later Life and Reign (§ 5).
His Cautious and Wise Policy (§ 6).
Legal Gains of Christianity (§ 7).
Constantine Opposed to Paganism from the First (18). Political Value Of Religious Unity (§ 9).
Constantine's Personality (§ 10).
11. Constantine's Sons.
1. Constantine 11.
2. Constantin$ 11.
3. Constans.
I. Constantine the Great (Flavius Valerius COnstantinus): Roman emperor 306‑337; b. at Naissus, in Upper Mcesia (the present Naissa or Nish, 130
m. s.e. Of Belgrade, in Servia), probably 288; d. at Achyrona a suburb of Nicomedia, May 22, 337. A proper understanding of Constantine's early life requires a knowledge of the history and personality of his father, Flavius Valernus Constantius (the surname Chlorus comes into use only with later By‑

Constantine	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	260
zantine writers). He belongs to the men of the third century for whom the military career paved the way to higher political station. His origin was associated with Claudius Gothicus (Claudius II., emperor 268‑‑270). Maximianus, Augustus of the West, gave his stepdaughter Flavia Maximiana
Theodora in marriage to Constantius,
r. Constan‑ then prefect of the guard, after he had
	tine's	been obliged to separate from Con
Father, at‑tine's mother, Helena. His eleva‑
Constan‑ tion to the rank of Caesar followed in
	tius.	293, and with it the transfer of the
		Gallic, Spanish, and British prov
inces. In peaceful activity and warlike enterprises
alike, he proved himself a man of quiet fidelity to
duty and of but moderate ambition. The abdi
cation of both Casara Augustus on May 1, 305,
brought him the imperial dignity, but he died at
Eboracum (York) in July of the following year.
The question as to whether he was a Christian is
open to discussion. At any rate, he did not receive
baptism. On the other hand, he held his protect
ive arm over the Christians during the persecu
tion by Diocletian, and confined himself to a nom
inal obedience in the way of destroying houses of
worship. The determining ground for this be
havior can be sought only in his religious attitude.
Belief in the gods he had renounced, and he lived
in a monotheism whose Christian import is con
firmed by the fact that he not only accorded com
plete freedom to Christianity in his environment,
but also allowed Christian religious rites to be ob
served in his palace. One of his daughters by the
second marriage bore the Christian name of Ana
Stasia. If it is true that his coins are frequently
stamped with reference to the rites of Hercules,
the circumstance finds explanation in his adoptive
father's preference for the worship of that hero,
from whom he traced his descent and the name
Hereulius. In the circumstances the possibility is
to be reckoned with that a sudden death cut Con
etantius short of obtaining baptism. That his sec
ond wife may perhaps have influenced him relig
iously is fairly supposable, since she, at all events,
as appears from a coin which has remained here
tofore unnoticed, was a Christian.
Constantine was born from a concubinal union of his father, at that time still a young officer, with Flavia Helena, a maiden of inferior station. This form of matrimonial alliance must not be understood in the modern sense of the word concubinage. According to the custom and law of that time, concubinage was a monogamous durable union
with a legally recognized name, off‑
a. Constan‑ setting a defective capacity on the
	tine's	wife's part by authorizing a justum
Mother, matrimonium. This lower form of
Helena. matrimonial union was widely preva‑
lent in the Roman empire, especially in the army. As already mentioned, Constantius was later compelled to dissolve this union, but Helena by no means vanished into obscurity; the reverence and love of her only son, who reared statues in her honor, had coins struck with her image, and called cities by her name, drew her later into publicity, and kept her thus as Augusta
According to the division of the empire by Diocletian, Congtantius had become Augustus in the West, and Galerius in the East. Their respective Ceesare were Flavius Valerius Severus and Maximinus Daza. At his father's death the army in Britain proclaimed young Constantine Augustus. Maxentius, the son of Maximianus, endeavored to secure the dignity with the aid of the pretorian guard
and a discontented party in Rome. 3. Political His father sided with him, Severus
Disorders, perished in the ensuing conflict, and
3o6‑iii. Galerius found himself hard pressed
in the toils of this new rebellion. Maximianus presently separated from his son, betook himself with his daughter Fausta to Constantine in Gaul, and joined them in marriage. Constantine at once assumed the title Augustus (spring, 307). Nevertheless, as the result of a conference with Diocletian at Carnuntum (Nov., 307), Valerius Licinianus licinius was named Augustus. Maximianus soon rose in rebellion against Constantine and lost his life thereby (310). Galerius died in May of the year following. Disagreements at once set in between Maximinus Daza and Licinius touching the succession The former seeking alliance with Maxentius, Liciniue was driven to side with Constantine. The betrothal of Constantine's sister with Licinius reenforeed their political alliance by family bonds. Maxentius first urged on a war, which Constantine espoused by necessity. The course of the same led him to decide openly for Christianity.
It is certain that Constantine had acquired from his father no doubtful inclination toward the new faith. Still his religious position was as yet obscure. The campaign in Italy brought to an end uncertainty and indecision. According to Eusebius, he beheld a cross in the clouds one day with his army; according to Lactantius, he received ~ in , a dream the command to place the monogram of Christ on the soldiers' shields. This second report undoubtedly supplements the first; and the fact of a manifestation of the Christian God appearing
to the emperor in the light of a mar;. Constan‑ velour heavenly token is not to be
tine's Con‑ doubted. The impression produced
version. by this apparition found its continuaThe Edict tion in a dream by night. It is cer‑
of Milan. tain from the sources that the decisive
conversion of Constantine to Christianity is to be fixed at the outset of the campaign, or in the spring of 312; also that this conversion rested not upon a single experience, the apparition of the dream, but that preparatory experiences cooperated with it. Just how, religiously and psychologically, this transformation was effected, and especially whether, or to what extent, the religious motives were enhanced . by political considerations can not be decided, because nothing adequate is known about Constantine's religious condition at that time. The usual analyses have therefore only a very doubtful value, even where they do not entirely vanish into the nebulous region. But undoubtedly the political side is overestimated, and it more probably played no part at all. The emperor presently conferred with spiri‑

261	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Constantiae
tual counselors and through them became more intimately instructed in regard to Christianity; the influential Hosius of Cordova (q.v.) appears among those about him, and maintained a high position of trust with him for a good while. With wonderful victories the little army, its shields adorned with the monogram of Christ, pushed on toward Rome; in a bold assault Constantine overpowered his adversary, who together with the battle lost his life, at the Pons Milvius (Oct. 28, 312); and amid the rejoicing shouts of the populace Constantine marched into Rome, where the senate reared him an arch of triumph. Constantine had his statue erected in a public square, a crow in his hand, with an inscription in praise of the victory achieved by the aid of " this salutary token." In the labdrum (Gk. labaron, labaron, labouron ; the derivation is quite uncertain), the sumptuous banner of the cross, whose shaft was crowned by the monogram of Christ encircled with a golden chaplet, the new symbol became an object of brilliant public exhibition. After Constantine had regulated matters in Rome, he betook himself, in Jan., 313, to Milan, where he met Licinius, and gave him in marriage his sister Constantia. At the same time they agreed upon a religious and political decree whose main outlines appeared in a rescript of Licimus from Nicomedia‑the (falsely) so‑called edict of Milan‑and culminated in granting to Christians the free exercise of their religion.
Mayiminus Daze. was soon defeated by Licinius upon the Campus Serenus in Thrace (Apr. 30, 313);
and a new edict of tolerance was prog. Constan‑ claimed, with particular application tine's Later to the ecclesiastical and political sit‑
Life and nation created by Maximinus‑the Reign. decree of Nicomedia, June 13, 313.
The vanquished Maximinus committed suicide. The empire now had only two rulers; but the great increase of his power heightened to such a‑degree the insolence and the emulation of Licinius, who reckoned with Christianity only for external reasons and on the religious side had always persisted in the pagan religion and superstition, that he provoked his imperial colleague to war. After two strenuous campaigns, separated by a delusive interval of peace, Licinius was vanquished in a decisive battle at Chrysopolie, Sept. 18, 323. Thanks to the intercession of Constantia, the victor guaranteed him his life under oath and granted him Thessalonica as residence. The deposed emperor, however, sought to foment a new insurrection by secret alliances with the Danubian barbarians, consequently he was condemned to death by the senate as a public enemy and rebel, and was executed as such (325).
The great Arian controversy (see Am.uvmm) had broken out during these decisive events, and when other measures had proven ineffectual Constantine convened the first general church council, at Nicaee, and opened the same in person, May 20, 325 (see NICAA, COUNCILS OF). Yet even this led to no lasting peace. Neither was the emperor destined to see the suppression of the Danubian troubles which beset him in 313. A dark shadow upon his reign is the execution of Criapus, his eldest son.
Under the tuition of Lactantius he had grown up as a youth of much promise, and in the battles with Licinius had proved himself a valiant army leader. The catastrophe wherein be and the empress perished at the beginning of 326 is not fully explained; but there was either a proved or admitted case, of adultery between Fausta and her stepson. The erection of Byzantium to the dignity of imperial metropolis, under the name of Constantinople" City of Constantine "‑was a significant and more pleasing event of the time.
After the subjection of Licinius, Constantine was occupied in a military way only with insignificant border wars, particularly with the Goths. Toward the end of his life, however, the Persian force under Sapor II. advanced threateningly upon Roman jurisdiction. The emperor made hasty preparations and resolved to conduct the campaign in person. About Easter, 337, an indisposition overtook him, which soon developed into a dangerous illness. The warm baths of Helenopolis proved ineffectual; so in the certainty that his end was near he betook himself to Achyrona, a suburb of Nicomedia, and before an assembly of bishops he read aloud his resolution to receive baptism, which he would have preferred to receive in the waters of the Jordan. He was baptized by Eusebius of Nicomedia,, received the Eucharist, humbled the purple in white baptismal attire, composedly and cheerfully took leave of the weeping officers, and ordered his last affairs.
The name of Constantine the Great is rightly connected with the conquest of Greek and Roman paganism by Christianity, for the bearer of the name played the leading part in this decisive crisis.
Thanks to the profound political in6. His Cau‑ eight that was his by nature and to his tious and sensible course of action, he directed
Wise Pol‑ his religious policy to the end of con‑
	icy.	summating the transition from the old
		to the new era without shattering the
empire. The results of persecuting the Christians,
the ultimate effects of which he had witnessed,
must have left no manner of doubt as to the evil
character of brute force directed against religion,
and so forbade every application of the like policy
against heathenism; the more, too, because this
still comprised the vast majority of the empire.
In the army, in the government service, among the
educated, in the rural population, there were merely
evanescent minorities of Christians. The entire
fabric of antique worship in its innumerable points
of contact with life, and the powerful priesthoods,
whose ramifications extended into the uppermost
social circles, richly endowed with property and
legal rights, were still standing intact. Even such
an.impamioned Christian as Constantine must have
acknowledged a barrier against compulsory proce
dure. Though the goal of his religious policy was
to free the world from heathenism and transfer it to
Christianity by the utmost that the State could do,
nevertheless both prudence and conscientiousness
dictated the one method of procedure‑to go
slowly in attacking religious sensibilities and to be
content with small things and details, tedious to be
sure, but less dangerous, and more certain in results.

Constantine	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	2522
This is, in fact, the distinguishing trait of constantine's religious policy with respect to paganism, and the fact itself is an indication of his correct estimate of the political and religious situation. There was at no time an express judicial dispossession of the antique religion as such. It is true that for every one with eyes to see, everything pointed and pressed onward to such a conclusion; but the semblance of tolerance was maintained unbroken. The masses were the more easily to be deceived in this respect inasmuch as the government never thought, and could not think, of carrying out its decrees everywhere and indiscriminately; whole districts were not affected, or but immaterially affected thereby. Even centuries later it was found necessary to make similar concessions.
The losses of paganism were augmented on another aide by an increase of legal rights to the Church. As early as 313 the Church gained immunity for its clerics, exemption from all personal burdens, and the power of inheritance for itself and its individual members. The bishops were accorded a jurisdiction in the domain of private law, that gave foundation for decisions of legal validity.
The influence of Christianity upon Legal penal law comes to light in the proGains of hibition of branding the forehead, and Christi‑ of condemnation to bloody games in anity. the circus. In family law, the harsh
statutes against celibacy and unfruitful marriages were repealed‑probably under the influence of the ecclesiastical valuation of celibacyconcubinal marriage was driven to the background, and severe measures were devised against the customary exposure, pawning, or safe of children. If the law of slavery was generally allowed to rest in humane forms as it stood, it nevertheless received no inconsiderable modification in the direction demanded by Christianity, through the institution of manumissio in ecclesaa ; indeed even the clergy were authorized to bestow citizenship on their slaves, and this without formal process. Conetantine, again, made this further concession in a legislative way, that he brought Sunday under the safe‑ _ guarding care of the State.*
Constantine's religious policy is clear in its outlines, and in the main features of its progress, transparent. Any thought of equality between the two religions lay far from it; and this was of necessity
the case, because the assumption of a 8. Constan‑ non‑confessional State was inseparable tine Op‑ from such thought. The idea of a posed to non‑confessional State, however, is Paganism foreign to antiquity; and it was befrom the yond all possibility for two religions First. whose moral and religious content was
not only different, but even sharply exclusive the one of the other, to exist harmoniously aide by side in the commonwealth. The qualification that is usually subjoined to this view of the matter, to the effect that after the defeat of Liciniua parity of the two religions changed to a policy favor‑

*Butit was distinctly understood that it was not simply the Lord's Day, but also the day of Mithras and Apollo; hence it appealed to nearly all classes of pagans as well as
A. H. N.
ing Christianity, makes an assumption which can not be proven. For what came to pass in the religious policy after 323‑324 was only the larger fruition of thoughts and facts which began with 312‑313; the difference is but one of quantity. Finally, the supposition that Constantine sought and found a deity and a religion superior to the historical religions, and destined to fuse them into one and absorb them, and that he shaped his religious policy subserviently to this drift of coalescence, just as extravagantly overestimates the religious philosopher in Constantine as it underestimates in him the practical statesman. Nothing could have been more unintelligible to his understanding than such speculations. Wherein passages of Eusebius and elsewhere he speaks of the one religion and belief in one God, he means historic Christianity, and he directs not the Christians, but the pagans, to this doctrine. And in this light alone did his Christian and pagan contemporaries understand him.
	The dissolution of the one religion in favor of the
other made also for imperial unity. The war with
Licinius again bore witness to the great political
dangers of a discordant creed. Nobody could
		warrant that such precedents would not
g. Political repeat themselves. The overthrow of Value of paganism is therefore supplemented in
Religious	the religious policy of Constantine by
	Unity.	the rejection of all sectarian inventions
		which weakened the unity of the
Church and set up religious discord. The em
peror's attitude before and during the Council of
Nicsea and through the entire course of the Arian
dispute, no less than his sharp action against
Dona,tista, Novatiana, and other schismaties from
the catholic ecclesiastical body, has primary signifi
cance in this direction. The undivided imperial
Church was for him a valuable, even necessary
support of the imperial unity. Harsh measures
against the Jews, again‑‑especially the prohibition
of joining them as proselytes‑were dictated not
only by religious and ecclesiastical, but also by
political considerations.
That the Church might have its full value in the State in this direction, a legal relationship had to be sought which allowed the State a determining influence. For that matter, the State as antiquity knew it was accustomed to take religious affairs under its inspection and on a dependent footing. Nevertheless, Constantine did not succeed in procuring this legal relationship. The transitional character of the time and the accustomed freedom
of the Church explain the failure. On the other hand, his personal relations with the powers of the Church and their grateful disposition toward him were sufficient to guarantee that the legal status would not be lacking as time went on.
The question of Constantine's religious policy can not be separated from that of his personal Christianity; and there is no more doubt about the one than the other. The new religion was truly a
rule of life and a force with him. As emperor he felt himself pledged to God as his sovereign Lord;
and he regarded his calling as a divine commission. His manner of religion is tinged with mysticism. He

258	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Constaatiae
became willingly absorbed in Holy Scripture, and was fond of presenting his religious convictions and knowledge in oral discourse. His mo‑
r o. Con‑ rality was not inferior to the better aver
stantine's age morality common to the Church of
Person‑ that age. As he prosecuted unchastity
	ality.	in others with severe penalties, he
		exacted the loftiest requirements of
himself in this direction. His dominating traits
were strong impulse and powerful resolution. He
was distinguished by a deeply rooted sense of duty
to the empire; and he more than once withstood
the temptation to exalt his personal interests above
the common good. His education was moderate,
but he sought to attain what camp life had denied
him, associating gladly with scholars, even pagans;
and he promoted science and art. Legislation under
his rule was a very live matter; but the exchequer,
owing partly to imperial lavishness, was not always
without deficit. He was of handsome presence
and valued imperial stateliness. He had early
hardened his body in the camp, by hunting and
games; and so steeled it to the fatigues of the wars
that he waged with the mastery of a great cam
paigner and as the darling of his soldiers. In his
last years his physical and intellectual vigor ap
pears to have decreased. Nevertheless, he kept the
reins of government firmly in hand to his death.
See CONSTANTINOPLE; and DONATION OF CON
BTANTINE.
II. Constantine's Sons: Adhering tenaciously to Diocletian's imperial rcgime, Constantine divided the empire before his death among his three sons, with whom was coordinated his nephew Delmatius, in 335, to complete the fourfold arrangement. The latter, however, with other members of Constantine's house, was murdered by the soldiers, who desired to have only the sons of Constantine as heirs to the empire; only Julian and his elder halfbrother Gallus were spared. The brothers assumed the official dignity of Caesar Augustus on Sept. 9, 337.
1. Constantine a. (Flavius Claudius Constantinus): Emperor 337‑340; b. at Arles 317; killed near Aquileia Apr. 9, 340. He received for his imperial portion Spain, both Gauls, and Britain. A territorial dispute with his younger brother, Constans, brought on a war, and he lost his life in a battle with his brother's generals, at its outset. Athanasius, in exile, was on friendly terms with him.
2. Constantine II. (FlaviusJuliusConstantius): Emperor 337‑361; b. Aug. 7, 317, the son of Fausta; d. at Mopsucrene, in Cilicia (12 m. n. of Tarsus), Nov. 3, 361. During his father's last sickness he was fettered in the East by a Persian war, and arrived barely in time to attend the father's funeral on its way to Constantinople. There fell to him for his imperial portion the Eastern diocese (Egypt and Asia). He survived‑again in a Persian campaign‑the war between his brothers; likewise the slaying of his younger brother, Constans, by the usurper Magnentius (350). Constantius straightway armed for attack, named his cousin Gallus, who till then had been kept in quasicaptivity, to the rank of Cwsar (Mar. 15, 351), and overcame his adversary in a frightful battle near Mursa in Pan‑
nonia, Sept. 28. The next years, also, he spent in the West, occupied with the changeful course of the Arian dispute, which was incessantly evoking .new difficulties; also with military movements against the Germans, and with the subjugation of the usurper Claudius Silvanus in Gaul; furthermore, with prosecutions for high treason, wherein the emperor's mistrust‑the fault partly of his environmentdid not invariably find the right procedure. He was marching to the East when he received word of the elevation of Julian; but in his great anxiety for the weal of the empire he did not break off the campaign, but first pushed it to a provisional conclusion, and then turned against the insurgent. He died of a violent fever, however, on the military highway leading to Tarsus. The government of Constantius was burdened with extraordinary difficulties. The ecclesiastical schism crippled any thoroughly unifying force. The emperor's sympathies inclined toward the Arian side; and to this fact attaches the predominantly unfavorable estimate of him by church writers, who have been far less just to him than the pagans.
Constantius was his father's favorite son, and in fact a good part of the personality of Constantine the Great survives in him. By nature equable and benevolent, zealous for the interests of his subjects, intent on rewarding loyal services, he was mistrustful when his absolutism seemed threatened, and in that event was liable to become a ruthless tyrant. To protect the empire he created a valorous army, and maintained its efficiency by strict discipline. The sphere of justice was reconstructed by him, and administrative reforms were introduced. He had a good education and showed particular inclination to rhetoric. In his building activity, again, he was his father's true son, and his new buildings included many churches. On the other hand, his financial administration was poor; or at least the finances were in poor condition. The emperor's liberality, his blind confidence, and his wars utterly exhausted the exchequer. The bishops' practise of driving back and forth to synods by the imperial post almost destroyed it; and the continual negotiations and synods swallowed up state funds in no ordinary measure. In any summary estimate of the emperor, however, his attributes of excellence will always hold the preponderance over his failings. He lacked above all the great impulsive power of his farseeing father; while on another side, because grown up into Christianity from the very outset, he is a more concrete, self‑contained Christian type than the former; and he is strongly taken up with theology.
3. Constane (Flavius Julius Constans): Emperor 337‑350; b. about 323; killed at Helena, in the Pyrenees, 350. He governed Africa, both Italics, and Pannonia; and, after the death of his brother Constantine II. (340), the entire West. He evinced force, flexibility, and loyalty to duty in governing his vast, though in its details very diversified, imperial allotment; and he succeeded in bringing about a pacific situation. His preference for the Germans was remarked and censured. Infirmity of health and evil environment subsequently weakened his energy, and suffered a demoralizing

constants	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	>afl4
constant ogle
	vice of extortion to come. to the surface, which also
	debased high state offices to a mercenary footing.
	In Jan., 350, the chief commander of the Jovians
	and Herculians, the German Magnentius, made an
	uprising in Autun, msumed the purple, and caused
	the fleeing emperor to be struck down by murderers
	in the church of Helena. In the autumn of the next
	year this new dominion collapsed in the victorious
	battle near Mursa, and Conetantius thereby became
	sovereign of all the empire. Destiny had spared
	the most valiant of the three brothers for this diffi
cult task.	As he died childless, the proper dynasty
	of Constantine vanishes with Constantius from the
field of history.	VICTOR SCHULTZE.
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: Early sources are the " Life of Conetan
	tine " by Eusebius, and the Hist. sort. of the two writers
	Socrates and Bosomen, all in Eng. trand. in NPNF, 2d
	series, vole. i.‑ii. Consult: J. Burekhasdt, Die Zeit Kon
	etantins den Grossen, Leipsio, 1880; T. Keim, Der Ueber
	bite Konstantins des Grossen sum CAriatsntu^ Zurich,
	1862; A. P. Stanley, History of de Eastern Church, Leo
	ture vi., London, 1862; T. Zabn, %natantin der Grosse
	and die Kirehe, Hanover, 1876; E. L. Cutts, Constantine,
	London, 1881 (popular); V. Schultze, in Z%(3, vii (1885),
	343‑371. viii (1886), 517‑642; idem, Geschiehte des Un
	terpanges des priechiwA‑romisrlun Heidendums, vol. i.‑ii.,
	Jena, 1887; O. Seeck, Geschichte den Unterpanpes der an
	tiken Welt, vol. i., Berlin, 1897; Gibbon, Dedins and Fall,
	chaps. ziv., xvii.‑xxi.; Schaff, Christian Church, vol. iii.,
	chap. i.; DOB, i. 623‑Bb4. On the vision of Constantine
	consult: Abbd du Voisin, Dissertation critique our la vision
	do Constantin, Paris, 1774; J. H. Newman, in Two Essays
on . . . Miracles, pp. 271 286, London, 1873.
CONSTANTINE: The name of two popes.
Constantine I.: Pope 708‑715. He was	a
	Syrian by birth, consecrated Mar. 25, 708. He
	steadfastly adhered to the traditional papal policy
	toward both the Italian bishops and the Eastern
	emperor. Felix of Ravenna, having obtained con
	secration from him without furnishing the under
	takings required by the emperor, was blinded by
	order of Justinian II. and banished to Pontus;
	whence he was able, to return, after Justinian's
	death, only by assenting to the declaration required
	of him by Constantine,, who also supported the
	bishop of Pavia against Benedict of Milan because
	he wished to enforce his own claim to jurisdiction
	over Pavia. The emperor commanded him to
	appear in Constantinople, probably to extort his
	assent to the Trullan canons, which had been re
	jected by Rome. He bore himself with discretion,
	and maintained the attitude of his predecessors
	during his two years' absence (709‑711). The next
	emperor, Philippicus Bardanes, himself a Monothe
	lite, attempted to impose that heresy on his sub
	jects, but was steadily opposed by Constantine,
	who, by making his opposition dogmatic and not
	political, acquired a commanding influence among
	the contending factions. On the fall of Philippicus,
	his successor, Anastasius, hastened to send to Rome
	an orthodox profession, in which the patriarch
	John of Constantinople joined. Constantine died
Apr. 9, 715, and was buried in St. Peter's.
	(A. HAUCK.)
	BIHLIoaBAYHr: Liber pontifcalie, ed. T. Mommsen, in
	MGH, Gest. punt. Boon., i (1898), 222‑226; Jaff6, Repesta,
	i. 247; Paulus Disconus, Historia Lanpobardoram. vi. 31,
	ed. G. Waits, in MGH, Script, rer. Lanpob., vi., pp.12‑187,
	1878; F. Gregoroviue, History of the City of Rome, ii. 201
	202, 212. London, 1894; Bower, Popes, ii. 14‑20; Milman,
Latin Christianity, ii. 290‑291; Mann, Popes, 127‑140.
Constantine II.: Pope 767‑768. Though a layman, he was chosen pope by the influence of a faction immediately after the death of Paul I. and was consecrated July 5, 767. He was but the creature of his ambitious brother Toto, duke of Nepi, and ore soon as the opposition, headed by officials of the previous pope, could organize (July 28, 768), he was overthrown by an armed onset. Toto was killed, and Constantine sought sanctuary in a church, from which he was dragged by the soldiery. Sentence of deposition was pronounced upon him, with imprisonment in a monastery, where he was set upon and blinded, though he lived until the next year at least, when he tried in vain to make his peace with his successor Stephen III. (IV.). [By Roman Catholic writers he is not considered a strictly legitimate pope.] (A. HAUCK.)
BInLIOaaAP87: Libor pondifoalis, ed. L. Duchesne, i. 488
	aqq., Paris, 1886; Mansi, Concilia, xii. 717‑718; Jaff6,
	Repesta, p. 283; F. Gregorovius, Hist. of the City of Rome,
	ii. 322‑330, London, 1894; Bower, Popes, ii. 114‑115;
	Milman, Latin Christianity, ii. 432‑436; Mann, 1. ii. 362
	aqq•
CONSTANTINOPLE.
1, The Ancient City and the Patriarchate. The City (1 1). The Patriarchate (§ 2).
11. Councils and Synods.
	I. The Ancient City and the Patriarchate: The
city of Byzantium, situated at the union of the
Thracian Bosphorus and the Propontis (Sea of
Marmora) and founded, according to tradition, by
Megarian colonists in 656 B.C., attained importance
at an early date as a commercial and political cen
ter. After many vicissitudes under Persian,
Macedonian, Gallic, and Athenian control, it was
incorporated in the Roman Empire, and, despite its
destruction by Alexander Severus (192), became
the second capital of the empire in the fourth cen
tury. After Constantine the Great (q.v.) had either
conquered or pacified his foreign enemies, he deter
mined to build a city which should bear his name
and be equal to Rome. He chose Byzantium in
		326, and adorned it with churches and
r. The City. palaces, as well as with works of art
		from Italy and Greece, while he forced
colonists to settle there and gave vast estates to
families of prominence. The first church erected
by him was a magnificent structure in honor of the
Apostles, and he also founded the churches of St.
Michael and of St. Sophia, although the latter was
rebuilt by Justinian in 538. No pagan temples
were permitted in the city except during the reign
of Julian, and many conversions were made among
Jews and heathen.
The early history of Constantinople is given by Chrysostom. The population in his time was about 100,000, and the prevailing culture was a mixture of Greek and Roman, Christian and Gentile elements, but the predominant character was Oriental. The chief studies were medicine and law, although rhetoric and oratory were regarded with favor. The logic of Aristotle and the philosophy of Plato enjoyed wide vogue, but mathematics easily degenerated into astrology. The Byzantine mind was lacking in creative vigor, but possessed a marvelous retentive power. The art, literature, morals, and diction of the period have a close formal resem‑

966	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	constsatiae
		conetantinopls
blance, and are distinguished by a curious combi
nation of delicacy, bombast, and artificiality. The
very catholicity of the Byzantines, moreover, led
to such confusion that each power invaded the
realm of its neighbor and sought to usurp alien
functions, since the ecclesiastical and political world,
sharply distinguished elsewhere, were here com
bined. Sometimes the monks and clergy became
political despots, and again the emperors turned
theologians. Yet it must not be forgotten that
Constantinople protected Christian Europe against
perils from the Orient, withstood papal supremacy
and preserved a non‑Roman catholicism, and nur
tured the Greek language and learning.
In his division of the empire Constantine laid a
foundation for the simultaneous development of
the metropolitanate (see AacnBISHoP) and the
union of the dioceses into great hierarchic corpora
tions. The principle that ecclesiastical organiza
tion should follow close on political gave a sudden
promotion to the bishop of Constantinople, who was
originally subordinate to the metropolitan of
		Heraclea. In 381 the second ecu
	s. The Pa‑ menical council enacted that the bishop
	triarchate. of Constantinople, as New Rome,
		should have the highest rank next to
the bishop of Rome, so that the title of patriarch
afterward given the metropolitans of the first class
	(Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, and Rome) was
thus assured to him. The Council of Chalcedon
	(451) went still further and gave the patriarch of
Constantinople the same rank as the pope, while
his powers were extended to comprise the dioceses
of Pontus, Asia, and Thrace, the right to ordain all
metropolitans subordinate to himself, to convene
provincial synods, and to be the court of last appeal
for ecclesiastical affairs in the East. Despite these
prerogatives, certain factors combined to keep the
patriarchate within bounds. The Greek Church
was not amenable to centralization, so that in the
Monophysite controversy the bishops of Alexan
dria and Antioch were able to oppose the patriarch
of ~Constantinople without imperiling their inde
pendence, while in the Middle Ages they were sub
ordinate to him only in so far as relations with the
pope and resistance to the Latin Church were chiefly
decided at the capital. The oscillating relations
with Rome were also detrimental to the independ
ence of the patriarchs. Leo I. protested against
the equality of both ecclesiastical capitals decreed
by the Council of Chalcedon, and it was only after
his own humiliation that Anatolius succeeded in con
ciliating the pope. In a like spirit Pelagius II.
and Gregory I. refused to allow Johannes Jejunstor
	(587) to assume the title of ecumenical patriarch.
A misunderstanding concerning the meaning of this
term seems to have prevailed between Rome and
Constantinople. It is scarcely probable that the
patriarch ever desired to be a universal bishop, but
rather a bishop of the empire, of whom there might
be several. But as Flavian of Constantinople
sought the aid of Leo I., and Sergius I. of Constan
tinople invoked the assistance of Honorius in the
Monothelite controversy, there were many acts of
the patriarchs which might at least be construed
as appeals to Rome. The result of this alternate
jealousy and rxognition was a feeling of supremacy on the part of Rome which led, with such men as Photius and Ca'rularius (qq.v.), to a definite schism. In the following centuries the Greek Uniats showed themselves ready to admit Roman supremacy within certain limits, while the Orthodox maintained a sturdy resistance which they defended on scholarly grounds. The freedom of the patriarchs, moreover, was frequently restricted by the emperors. The patriarchs were the highest ecclesiastical vassals, but the fact that their election and deposition depended generally on the command of the emperor, that many were raised by imperial mandate almost immediately from laymen to the patriarchate, and that the emperors continually interfered in ecclesiastical and dogmatic affairs, deprived the office of much of the dignity and power which it would otherwise have possessed.
The succession of the patriarchs of Constantinople is known with tolerable certainty, though a very dubious tradition carries it through the first centuries, the ostensible founder being the Apostle Andrew. Except for the early centuries, four periods may be distinguished: (1) from Constantine to the Photian controversy (881) or to the entire break with the West under Ceerularius (1054); (2) to the interregnum of the Latins, which forced the patriarchs and the emperor to take refuge in Niowa, while a Latin patriarchate existed in Constantinople (1204‑61); (3) to the capture of the city by the Turks (1453); and (4) to the present time. The extent of the patriarchate was greatest in the Middle Ages, but in 1589 it suffered its first serious loss when the Russian patriarchate was created, and in the nineteenth century the development of nationalism in the Balkan peninsula produced an unnecessary number of autonomous churches, which weakened the patriarchate of Constantinople and the entire Eastern Greek Church. The first of these schisms was made by Greece; Bulgaria has been more or less independent since 1872; and Servia and Rumania have had separate churches since 1885. All these bodies, however, are more or less closely related, and the patriarch of Constantinople still possesses a certain moral authority.
	The fall of Constantinople in 1453 brought an
increase in power to the patriarch, who now exer
cised much control over the destinies of the con
quered. On the other hand, he was subject, in
great measure, to the caprice of the sultan and his
viziers. Unfortunately, the official venality of Tur
key extended even to the patriarchal throne, and
no patriarch could gain the position without simony.
The present legal status of the patriarchate is de
fined by a rescript of Feb. 18, 1856, by which the
patriarch is aided, or rather restricted, by several
bodies coordinated with him, of which the moat
important is the synod, an institution of ancient
date which became obsolete, but was revived in
1593. 	(PHILIPP MEYER.)
II. Councils and Synods: The second, fifth, sixth, and eighth, of the general or ecumenical councils met in Constantinople as follows: (i) The First Council of Constantinople was called by Theodosius I. in 381 to confirm the Nicene faith and deal with other matters of the Arian con‑

Constantinople	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	25e
Constantinopolitsa Creed
troversy (See ARIANISM;	CONBTANTINOPOLITAN
CREED).	Meletius of Antioch, Gregory Nazianzen,
and Nectarius successively presided.	Gregory
	Nazianzen was made patriarch, but soon resigned,
and Nectarius was then put in his place.	Seven
canons, four doctrinal and three disciplinary, are
	attributed to the council and accepted by the
	Greek Church, but the Roman Church accepts only
the first four.	(2) The Second Constantinople met
	in 553 under Justinian, and was an episode of the
Three Chapter Controversy (q.v.).	(3) The Third
	Constantinople, Nov. 7, 680‑Sept. 16, 681, was
	called by Constantine Pogonatus and dealt with
11lonothelitism.	It is also known as the First
Trullan Council (see MONOTHELITEB;	TRULLAN
CouNcILs).	(4) The Fourth Constantinople, Oct.
	5, 869‑Feb. 28, 870, was called by Emperor Basil the
Macedonian and Pope Adrian II. (q.v.).	It deposed
	and condemned Photius as patriarch (see PHoTIus)
	and, of the four Eastern patriarchates, ranked Con
	stantinople before Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusa
lem (canon xxi.).	Of other gatherings the most
	important are the Second Trullan in 692 (see TRuL
	LAN CouNcms), and one which met under Constan
	tine V., Copronymus, in 754 to condemn the pres
	ence of images in the churches (see IMAGES AND
IMAGE‑WORSHIP, II.).
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: On the city and its history consult: W. J.
	Brodribb and W. Besant, Constantinople and its Sieges,
	London, 1878; J. v. Tamamchef, Der Kampf um Cony
	stantinopel, Vienna, 1887; J. B. Bury, History of the Later
	Romans Umpire, 2 vols., ib. 1889; P. Loti, Les Capitales
	du monde, Paris, 1892, Eng. transl., 2 vols., London, 1892;
	E. A. Grosvenor, Constantinople, 2 vols., ib. 1895; W. H.
	Hutton, Constantinople, ib. 1900; H. O. Dwight, Con
	atanstinople and Its Problems, New York, 1901; Diehl on
	the Hippodrome at Constantinople is in transl. in D. C.
	Munro and G. C. Bellery, Mediaeval Civilizations, pp
87‑113, New York, 1904.
	On the patriarchate consult: Krumbacher, Geschichte (pp.
	911‑1067 contain a sketch of Byzantine history by H. Gel
	zer, and on pp. 1068‑1144 is an exhaustive bibliography).
	M. Le Quien, Oriena christianus, especially vol. i., Paris,
	1740; J. Hergenrdther Photius 3 vols., Regensburg,
	1867; M. J. Gedeon, Patriarchikoi Katalogoi, ib. 1890;
	N. Nilles, Kalendarium manuals utriusque ecclesim, 2 vole.,
	Innsbruck, 1896‑97; E. W. Brooks, On the Lists of the
	Patriarchs of Constantinople, 638‑715, Leipsic, 1896;
	idem, London Catalogue of the Patriarchs of Constanti
	nople, ib. 1898. On the councils and synods: Hefele,
	Conciliengeschichte, ii. 1‑33, 854‑902, iii. 260‑286, 328
344, iv. 384‑434, Eng. tranel., vole. i.‑v.
	CONSTANTINOPOLITAN CREED.
I. Texts.	"'raditional Account of
	The Three Principal Texts		Origin (§ 4).
		(§ 1)‑	Its Difficulties: External
	The Addition of "Filio‑		(§ 5),
		que " (§ 2).	Its Difficulties: Internal
	The Omission of " in," and		(§ 6),
		the Use of the Singular	Modern Theory of Origin
		(§ 3).		(§ 7).
Minor Texts or Forms III. History of its Acceptance.
	(§ 4)•	Acceptance in the West
	II. Origin.		(§ 1).
Nicene Creed Proper (§ 1.)	Acceptance in the East
Inadequacy Felt Later		(§ 2).
	(§ 2)•	Theory as to Manner of
Attempts to Remedy		Sanction (§ 3).
	(§ 3)•	Conclusion (§ 4).
The Constantinopolitan Creed is second of the so‑called ecumenical creeds of the Christian Church, and the one which has the best right to the term, being received not only by the Greek and Roman
Catholic communions, but by the various heretical bodies of the East and by the great majority of Protestant churches. It is known also as the Niceno‑Constantinopolitan Creed, or simply as the Nicene Creed; this name, however, connotes, not the confession of faith adopted at the First Council of Nicws in 325 (see NIC&A, CouxcrLs OF, I.), but a version professing to be a mere enlargement of it, traditionally supposed to have been adopted by the so‑called ecumenical Council of Constantinople in 381 (see ARIANISM).
I. Teats: There are three principal texts of the creed. (1) The Greek text as found in the acts of the second (imperfectly), fourth, and sixth ecumenical councils and the works of the later Greek Fathers. (2) The Latin text, represented by a series of translations fromthe Greek in various manu‑
scripts, of which the most important
i. The are the so‑called interpretation of
Three	Dionysius Exiguus, the acts of the
Principal Council of Toledo (589), those of the
Texts.	Council of Friuli (796), and that put
up by Leo III. in St. Paul's church at Rome. (3) The Greek text used in the West, as preserved in some manuscripts of the ninth and tenth centuries. Mention may also be made of certain ancient versions, such as the Syriac (Nitrian MS. of 562 in the British Museum), the ArabicCoptic, and two Anglo‑Saxon (MSS. of the eleventh and thirteenth centuries at Oxford and Cambridge). The Latin text, especially in its present form, as received by the entire West, is distinguished from the Greek, apart from small variations, by three principal peculiarities: the addition of the Filioque, the omission of in before unam . . . ecclesiam, and the singular form of the words used for assent, Credo, con fiteor, spero.
The addition of Filioque, first met with in the acts of the Third Council of Toledo (589), occurs in several Spanish documents of the subsequent age and in some of the Carolingian State Church (796;
See FILIOQUE CONTROVERSY). The
2. The doctrine of the double procession of
	Addition of	the Holy Ghost was formulated by
	"Filioque."	Augustine, and was prevalent in the
		West from the fifth to the seventh
centuries. Its reception into the creed took place
in Spain as a safeguard against Visigothic Arianism;
thence it spread to the Carolingian empire, and was
there accepted as the official version of the creed in
the first decade of the ninth century. In Rome,
though the Augustinian doctrine was approved,
the creed was recited without the addition till the
beginning of the ninth century, as is shown by the
tablet of Leo III. and his reply to the Frankish
envoys in 809. Soon after, however, it was intro
duced there also, as evidenced by the Ordo Romanus
belonging possibly to the second half of the ninth
century, and by the controversy with Photius.
The omission of in before ecclesiam was not accidental. It is coeval in the West with the first attestation of the creed. Some Latin versions restore the in, but they are either accurate translations by scholars, or to be referred to the fact that by the usage of that time in might be used merely to indicate that ecclesiam was the accusative.

267	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Coa~le
		OoastaatinoDOlitan Creed
This variant also goes back to the Augustinian theology, and ultimately to still older Western feeling, which objected to designating
3. The anything else than the Triune God as
Omission	the object of religious faith in the
of " in," highest sense. This view received form‑
and the al expression in Augustine's distinction Use of the between credere aliquid, alicui, and in
	Singular.	aliquem. The change from plural to
		singular in the words of acceptance,
which occurs in the oldest Spanish, Roman, Frank
ish, and Anglo‑Saxon recensions, is connected with
the usage of the traditio and redditio symboli, by
which the creed wag used as the personal expression
of the individual who recited it. The Western
Greek texts largely share the peculiarities of the
Latin, while that written with Roman letters in the
Gelasian Sacramentary, as well as in a liturgical
MS. of the Vienna library, is identical with the
Eastern text.
There axe also a number of creed‑forms calling themselves Niceno‑Constantinopolitan or Nicene and considered by Caspari as modifications of the Conatantinopolitan. These are: (1) the revised Antiochian; (2) the Nestorian; (3)
4. Minor the Philadelphian; (4) the form given
Texts or .in the pseudo‑Athanasian " Interpre‑
	Forms.	tation of the Creed"; (5) the second
		and longer creed in the Ancorotus of
Epiphanius; (6) the Cappadocian‑Armenian; (7)
the exposition of the Nicene Creed ascribed to Basil;
(8) one of the two creeds read at Chalcedon and
there described as Nicene. In spite of the resem
blance of these to the Constantinopolitan, they are
(as Hort has very well shown) rather sister than
daughter recensions, and are, as will be seen later,
of no alight importance for the solution of the ques
tion of origin.
II. Origin: The Nicene Creed proper was adopted at the Council of Nicaea in 325 as a first settlement of the Trinitarian controversy (see ABIANism). The process which led up to the victory of the Alexandrian theology and to the
r. Nicene reception of the creed is still obscure,
Creed and the original meaning of the crucial Proper. term homoomios can not be absolutely determined. But Eusebius is undoubtedly right when he says that the formula proposed by him was the basis of the new confession. The Nicene Creed differs from this formula by some omissions and slight alterations, by the insertion of the Alexandrian christological formulas, and by a thorough revision based on a comparison with the baptismal symbols of Jerusalem and Antioch. The changes made by omission are of importance as showing that the victorious Alexandrian party was bent on avoiding any ambiguity and indisposed to compromise; the omitted phrases are mostly Biblical in phraseology, but such as were on the lips of open or half‑avowed opponents of the strict orthodox belief. That the Nicene Creed was intended not as a baptismal symbol but as a christological rule of faith is shown by the brevity of the third section and by the bearing of the appended anathemas. All these characteristics gave the creed a theoretical, unliturgical, and unscriptural form IIL‑17
which was used as a justification for attacks upon it in the next period by the Arians and Eusebians, and for acceptance with reservations even by some who were in the main orthodox.
The next few decades saw acute controversy rage around it, and its opponents proposed a series of alternatives for it up to 341. This controversy deepened the attachment of its defenders to its literal expression, and made them
	2. made‑ avoid even any expansion of it in an
	quacy Felt orthodox sense. Thus at the Council
Later.	of Sardica (344) it was simply reaf
	firmed without changes, and numer
	ous passages might be collected from both or
	thodox and heterodox sources between 350 and
	450 to show the unique reverence paid to the
Nicene formula.	Difficulties arose in regard to
	its use as a baptismal symbol, of which there
	is no evidence between 325 and 361, the older
	provincial creeds remaining in use. Later, however,
	after Julian's accession and the regaining of power
	by the orthodox party, which strengthened its
	position by the great synods of 380‑370 and by the
	labors of strong bishops in Asia Minor and Syria,
	the desire of expressing the pure Nicene faith in con
	nection with the act of baptism was felt. This
	could be done in three ways: by in
	3. Attempts corporating the Nicene watchwords
to 	into the old provincial creeds, by ex‑
	Remedy.	panding the Nicene Creed into a com
		pleteness adequate for the purpose, or
by keeping it unchanged, in spite of its incomplete
ness and its polemical bearing, and still using it for
a baptismal symbol. All these three ways were,
as a matter of fact, tried in the century between the
synods of Alexandria and of Chalcedon; and the
origin of the creed under discussion may best be
sought in the history of these experiments.
The traditional account, held from the sixth century and accepted in both East and West, is that the creed was drawn up at the Council of Constantinople in 381. This synod
	4. Tradi‑	was aupposed to have supplemented
	tional Ac‑	the Nicene Creed by an expansion of
	count of	the third section, and the resulting
	origin.	Niceno‑Constantinopolitan Creed was
		assumed to have been at once received
into 'universal ecclesiastical use. The first thing
that shook the common belief was the realization
that the Ancoratus of Epiphanius (373‑374) con
tained a creed which, apart from its being supple
mented by the Nicene anathemas and from two
phrases in the text, was wholly identical with the
Constantinopolitan. This could only be explained
in harmony with the traditional view by the theory
that Epiphanius himself added it to his book after
381, as Franzelin maintains, or that it was a much
later interpolation by another hand, as Vincenzi
asserts. Hefele, accordingly, like Tillemont before
him, took the view that the council did not actually
draw up a new creed but adopted that of Epi
phanius with a few slight changes, giving it the rank
of an ecumenical creed. He demonstrates that it
was not written by Epiphanius himself, nor in
Cyprus, but rather in Syria, some years before 373.
But there is no documentary evidence of a promi‑

Oonstantiaopolitwn Creed	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	268
neat part played by Epiphanius at the Council of Constantinople, to say nothing of the acceptance of a creed proposed by him.
The fact is that the tradition of the establishment of the creed by the Council of Constantinople is no longer tenable, quite apart from the view held of the creed of Epiphanius. The council was not really ecumenical; it was summoned by Theodosius from his own division of the empire, and was not completely representative even of the East. Its canons were not included in the oldest Greek collections, and the evidence goes to show that they did not find universal acceptance in
5. Its Dif‑ the East until after 451. The creed is
ficulties:	not found among the few documents
	External.	which remain from the council, and
		when it was placed among them later,
the compiler obviously knew nothing of its origin,
as it appears without introduction or connection.
Socrates (v. 8) tells that the council confined itself
to affirming the Nicene faith after the Macedonian
bishops had left; and the accounts of Sozomen
(VII. vii. 9) and Theodoret (v. 8) are substantially
the same. Gregory Nazianzen, who was in attend
ance, in his comprehensive letter on the rule of faith
written soon after its close, mentions only the Nicene
Creed, and is silent as to its expansioit or the draw
ing up of a new creed, besides which he expressly
remarks that the Nicene Creed is inadequate as to
the Holy Ghost, which would have been quite im
possible if the council had just completed it in that
regard. In a word, between 381 and 451 there is
no undoubted trace in East or West of the exist
ence of the Creed of Constantinople; and during this
period it was nowhere used as the Creed of Constan
tinople or as the official baptismal symbol, while the
Nicene Creed came more and more into use for this
purpose, especially in the East, and increased, if
possible, in consideration. In fact, with the single
exception‑of the Council of Chalcedon (451), which
mentions the Creed of Constantinople together with
the Nicene, and ascribes it to the council of 381,
there is no valid evidence for it until the beginning
of the sixth century, after which it is frequently
mentioned. Thus the external evidence is wholly
against its having been the work of the council of
381.
The internal evidence is still more unfavorable; for it can be shown that the Conatantinopolitan Creed is no mere expansion of the Nicene, which disposes of the theory that the authorities who assert the simple confirmation of the Nicene by the council meant the creed under discussion; while if the council drew up a new creed or expanded the .old one, its version could not possibly have been worded as this creed is. As to the first, it
6. Its Dif‑ is to be noticed that this creed differs
flcultim:	from the Nicene not merely by the
	Internal.	addition to the third section, but is
		really different all the way through,
and comes from another original source, even though
it has adopted a certain number of the Nicene
watchwords. To sum up the points of difference
which a careful comparison of the two discloses,
we find ten additions besides the long one, four
omissions, and five distinct changes in order of
words or sentence‑structure; or, as Hort puts it, of 178 words in the Conatantinopolitan Creed only thirty‑three, or less than a fifth, can be positively said to be taken from the Nicene.
The creed is therefore either a new and independent one with certain Nicene insertions, or based upon some older baptismal creed, edited in a Nicene sense‑probably the latter, since there is no case known of the composition of a wholly new baptismal creed in the fourth or fifth century. This hypothesis is supported by a consideration of two additions
‑the " before all worlds " which fol‑
7. Modern lows " begotten of his Father," and
Theory of the " according to the Scriptures "
Origin. after the assertion of the resurrection.
As to the former, it is well known that the Nicene Fathers carefully avoided any limitation of time for the generation of the Son by the Father, and deliberately omitted these words from the creed of Eusebius. This attitude was made even more rigid by the history of the compromise‑formulas of Antioch and Sirmium; and it is impossible to suppose that these very words were with equal deliberation added by the bishops at Constantinople, when such an action would have been construed as a concession to the Semi‑Arians. The whole situation at the time allows no other explanation than that these words were already contained in an ancient baptismal creed, revised in a Nicene sense (not, of course at Constantinople), and 'that the revisers did not see any necessity for omitting them, but were satisfied with adding the most important Nicene watchwords. The words " according to the Scriptures," again, had become so suspicious in the course of a long controversy that no adherent of Nicwa would have thought of inserting them in a creed wbich did not already contain them, least of all in the Nicene Creed.
These conclusions are confirmed by the third section, which is traditionally supposed to have been the especial work of the Council of Conatantinople. It is certain that the Macedonians were combated at this council; that from it dates their definite exclusion from the Church; and that it showed no tendency to make the slightest compromise with them. It is equally certain that the dogmatic " tome" issued by the council (now unhappily lost) expressed the full unity of substance between the Holy Ghost and the Father and the Son. But the creed, instead of emphasizing this unity of substance, contents itself with phrases that bear, indeed, a homoousian meaning but do not clearly express it‑phrases which might have sufficed against crude Arianism, but would have been quite inadequate to combat the energetic denials of the homoousia of the Holy Spirit about 380. The fact that the creed thus contains an evidently orthodox but not sufficiently definite expression on this point brings us again to the theory of an ancient baptismal creed which was revised in a Nicene and anti‑Macedonian sense after 362 and some time before 381. Its inclusiot, in the Ancaratus of Epiphanius, which, it is sow plain, can not be regarded as due to a subsequent interpolation, may help to throw light on its actual origin.
Although the words in which Epiphanius com‑

259	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Constantinopolitan Creed
mends the creed to the church of Pamphylia are not clear and the text is possibly corrupt in at least one place, it is evident that he sets it forth as a creed substantially of apostolic and Nicene origin. Now the question as to the source from which he received it led as long ago as the days of Gerhard Voss to the comparison of its wording with that of the Jerusalem creed; and in modern times Hort has conclusively justified the Gtatement that the creed of Conatantinople is nothing but the baptismal symbol of Jerusalem increased by the addition of the most important Nicene formulas and definitions on the Holy Ghost. The whole first section and the second down to " before all worlds " is identical in both; the structure of the second section is that of Jerusalem, with the addition of the Nicene phrases and four supplementary expressions‑and of these one or two may have been in the Jerusalem creed, which is only known by reconstruction from Cyril's catechetical lectures; the third reads " and in one Holy Ghost, the Comforter, who spake by the prophets," which words afford a basis for the longer statement of the Constantinopolitan Creed.
The latter would therefore be a revision of the old Jerusalem creed made between 362 and 373, under the influence, there is scarcely a doubt, of Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem from 351 to 386. Three of the creeds mentioned above as resembling but distinct from the Nicene came into being under precisely the same circumstances. The creed of Antioch was probably a revision of the old baptismal creed of that church made, in dependence on the Nicene, by Meletius about 373; the Nestorian creed still in use was a further revision of the Antiochian creed made on the basis of the Nicene about 366, and designated as Nicene in its introduction; and that laid before the Council of Ephesus by Charisius was an ancient creed of Asia Minor, revised in a thoroughly orthodox direction in the last third of the fourth century. The whole seven creeds belong to this class, in fact, may for more than one reason be attributed to the period just named, which witnessed much activity in the formulation of baptismal creeds in the East.
III. History of its Acceptance: How it came to be designated as " of Constantinople," and to enjoy ecumenical authority, is a more difficult question. The Council of Constantinople did not acquire this authority in the East until the middle of the fifth century, in the West from seventy to a hundred years later. The patriarchate of Constantinople attained supremacy in the East in 451, after which it had every reason for exalting the
r. Accept‑ authority of the council held in that
ance in city in 381 as equal with the Nicene.
	the West.	The Monophysite churches held back
		for twenty years from acknowledging
these claims, and they were not conceded in the
West for nearly a century, not, in‑ fact, until the
dependence of the popes upon the Byzantine em
perors brought about a tacit acceptance of the
Council of Constantinople and its decrees. Pope
Vigilius (538‑555) is apparently the first to call it
ecumenical; but possibly before his pontificate the
creed in a Latin version was appended to the first
three canons of Constantinople in the collection of
Dionysius Exiguus, though he does not affirm the ecumenicity of the council. Gregory the Great, who took up the sorry inheritance of the Byzantine period, puts the four great councils, including that of Constantinople, on a level with the four Gospels. While the reverent reception of the creed in the West can not be clearly shown before the middle third of the sixth century, it increased with remarkable rapidity, once the formula was regarded as the production of a council now recognized as ecumenical, and had been raised to the rank of a baptismal creed by the Roman and Spanish churches, partly owing to the need of a strong defense against Visigothic Arianism. The addition of the word Filioque took place ht 589‑‑so soon after the reception of the Creed in the West that it is almost possible to defend it as, for the West, no innovation. After the creed had once taken its position as a baptismal symbol in the most important Western provinces, and the legislation of Justinian had stamped it as authoritative there also, there was little chance of any question being raised as to its origin or sanction, and it retained its place in the mass and other solemn functions as of equal validity with the Apostles', and under the name of the Nicene. The Council of Trent solemnly reaffirmed it, and the Reformers (though Calvin for a time was inclined to criticize it) accepted it as Nicene and approved its teaching.
Its reception in the West shows that soon after 500 it must have passed in at least a part of the
East as a Constantinopolitan revision a. Accept‑ of the Nicene creed. The process of
ance in its enforcement as such must have
the East. begun shortly before 450 and been
completed about 500. It has been maintained that its presence in the acts of the Council of Chalcedon is due to an interpolation; but there are several strong reasons against the acceptance of this view.
It is at least plausible to suppose that Cyril, whose orthodoxy was questioned by some, presented to the council his revised Jerusalem creed as a guaranty
of his soundness; that it was approved 3. Theory by the council, and included in their as to Man‑ acts, just as that of Eusebius was by
ner of the Council of Nicaea, that of Charisius Sanction. by the Council of Ephesus, and that
of Hosius by the Council of Sardica. When, at a later period, the need was felt in Constantinople of an expansion of the Nicene Creed, and it was sought for in the acts of the council, this confession was discovered, which offered a completion of the third section capable of a homoousian construction and valuable formulas in the second section. It was comparatively easy, then, when the council began to be received as ecumenical, to give out what purported to be its ecumenical creed as a completion of the Nicene, and to secure legislative and liturgical sanction for it, though not without opposition, which finally died out only in the sixth century.
The Constantinopolitan Creed is therefore, like the Apostles' and the Nicene, in one sense of the word " apocryphal." It is both older and later than the council whose name it bears‑older in its

Conatantinopolitan Creed	THE NEW
Conversion
SCHAFF‑HERZOG
original source, later in its reception. The historical exposition of its text must rest largely upon the writings of Cyril and Atha‑
		Con‑ nasius, which will sometimes alter the
	clusion. conception of its meaning. The Fathers
			who received it from the second half
of the fifth century as ecumenical did so because
they knew how to employ its testimony against
Apollinaris, Nestorius, and Eutyches. Thus also
the statements as to the Holy Ghost must be ac
cepted in the strictest homoousian sense, though
their wording does not necessarily involve this; and
the phrase " proceeding from the Father," his
torically considered, is an attempt not to answer
the question as to the origin of the Spirit, but to
condemn the Arian assertion that the Spirit was
subordinate to and a product of the Son, by refer
ring his origin directly to the Father, the primal
radix of the Godhead. 	(ADOLF HARNACx.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: For a full list of the older literature consult: E. KSllner, Symbolik aller chriatliehen Conleesionen, i. 1 eqq., 28‑52, Hamburg, 1837. Consult: W. W. Harney, Hist. and Theology o) as Three Creeds, 2 vole., London, 1854; C. A. Heurtley, Harmonia Symbolica, Oxford, 1858; idem, History of the Earlier Formularies of Faith. London, 1892; A. P. Forbes, Short Exposition of the Niome Creed, ib. 1888; C. A. Swainson, Nicene and Apostles' Creeds, ib. 1875; F. J. A. Hort, Two Dissertations, 11. on the Conatantinopolitan Creed, ib. 1878; J. R. Lumby, Hiet. of the Creeds, . ib. 1880; F. Kattenbuseh, Lebrbush den verple%rhenden Kontessionakunde, vol. i., Freiburg' 1892; G. B. Howard, The Canons of the Primitive Church; with as Creeds of Nicam and Constantinople, London, 1898; J. J. Line, The Nicene Creed; a Manual, ib. 1897; Harnack, Dogma, iii. 209‑210, iv. 95 eqq., passim, v. 302303, vii. passim; F. Kunne, Dan nicdniscA‑konstantinorolitanische Symbol, Leipsic, 1898; T H. Bindley, tEEumenicai Documents of the Faith, London, 1899; W. Schmidt, in N%Z, 1899 pp. 935 eqq ; C Callow, Hist. o/ Origin and Development of Creeds, London, 1899; A. G. Mortimer, The Creeds: Historical . . . Exposition of the . . . Nicene . . . Creed, ib. 1902; Neander, Christian Church, 1415 sqq., iii. 554 eqq.; Schaff, Creeds, i. 12‑34 (history), ii. 57‑01 (text); idem, Christian Church, iii. 887‑889. Consult also: P. Caspari, in Zeitschri/t for lutherische Theolopie, 1857, pp. 834 eqq.; Hefele, Ceneiliangeaehiehte, ii. passim, Eng. tranel., ii. 379 aqq., et passim.
CONSUBSTANTIATION: A technical term denoting the Lutheran view of the elements of the Lord's Supper, in contradistinction from the Roman Catholic, view‑transubstantiation. According to the Roman doctrine, the bread and the wine are by the consecration transformed into the flesh and blood of Christ: while, according to the Lutheran doctrine, the bread and wine remain bread and wine; though, after the consecration, the real flesh and blood of Christ coexist in and with the natural elements, just as a heated iron bar still remains an iron bar, though a new element, heat, has come to coexist in and with it=an illustration which Luther himself used in his letter to Henry VIII. Lutheran theologians repudiate the popular term " consubstantiation," in the sense of a permanent connection of the elements with the body and blood of Christ, confining this connection to the act of the communion. See TRANBUHBTAWTIATION.
CONTTARINI, can"ta‑rR'ni, GASPARO: Italian cardinal; b. at Venice Oct. 16, 1483, d. at Bologne Aug. 24, 1542. After a thorough scientific and philosophical training, he began his career in the
service of his native city. In 1521 he was the Republic's ambassador to Charles V. He accompanied Charles to Spain, later, after the sack of Rome, he assisted in reconciling the emperor and Clement VII., also the emperor and the Republic of Bologna. His accomplishments, but still more his mild resoluteness and blameless character, made him everywhere respected. One of the fruits of his diplomatic activity is his De magistraftbw et republica Venetomm. In 1535 Paul III. unexpectedly made the secular diplomat a cardinal in order to bind an able man of evangelical disposition to the Roman interests. Contarini accepted, but in his new position did not exhibit his former independence. The disposition which Ranks (Popes, i. 118) calls " the collected product of all his higher faculties " governed his action also in the new field. At first everything seemed to work well. In 1536 Paul III. appointed a commission to devise ways for a reformation. The evangelical movement had made such progress in Italy that something had to be done, and it seemed beat that the most influential be the agents. The decision was a bold one; Paul III., however, received favorably Contarini's Consilium de emendanda ecclesia, but it remained a dead letter, and his successor Paul IV., once a member on the commission, in 1539 put it on the Index, a deed which still embarrasses Catholic historians. What Contarini had to do with it is shown by his letters to the pope in which he complained of the schism in the church, of simony and flattery in the papal court, but above all of papal tyranny. But he came a century too late. Contarini in a letter to his friend Cardinal Pole [dated Nov. 11, 1538] says that his hopes had been wakened anew by the pope's attitude. He and his friends thought that all would have been done when the abuses in churchly life had been put away. This was the judgment of .a diplomat of noble and virtuous nature, reared on the best fruits of antiquity and refined through the Gospel, urged on by a desire for, peace and unfettered by dogmatic formulas. But he was soon to see the other side. In the year 1541 he was papal delegate at the diet and religious debate at Ratisbon. There everything was unfavorable; the Catholic states were bitter, the Evangelicals were distant. Contarini's instructions though apparently free were full of papal reservations. But the papal party had gladly sent him, thinking that through him a union in doctrine could be brought about, while the interest of Rome could be attended to later. Though the princes stood aloof, the theologians and the emperor were for peace, so the main articles were put forth in a formula, Evangelical in thought and Catholic in expression. The papal legate had revised the Catholic proposal and assented to the formula agreed upon. All gave their approval, even Eck, though he later regretted it. This did little good, for the Protestants could see in it only Roman cunning; at home the cardinal fared still worse. His own position is shown in a treatise on justification, composed at Ratisbon, which in essential points is Evangelical, differing only in the omission of the negative side and in being interwoven with the teaching of Aquinas. Meanwhile the papal policy

281	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	DonstantinopoUtm Creed
		Conversion
had changed, and Contarini was compelled to fol
low his leader. He advised the emperor, after the
conference had broken up, not to renew it, but to
submit everything to the pope. In a second de
cision he is even more ultramontane. It is not
difficult to reconcile this course of action with his
character, for from the beginning Luther repelled
him as did the popular movement in Germany.
He lived in the belief that a reformation should
begin at the head, and his birth, education, and
diplomatic career made him view the question
rather from the point of polity than of doctrine,
and consequently he was willing to mediate here.
But the negative side, which had produced the
schism, remained unintelligible to him, he could con
cede only the marriage of the clergy and commu
nion in both elements. Meanwhile Rome had drifted
further into reaction, and he died while legate at
Bologna, at a time when the Inquisition had driven
many of his friends and fellows in conviction into
exile. He was happily spared a decision which
perhaps would have been too hard for him, and so he
could leave behind him the character of a man who
knew the truth and willed the good. (T. BRIEGER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The two earlier lives are the Vita Contarini
	by Giovanni dells Case, in Vito adectorum aliquot Tr1 pp. 154‑186, London, 1704, and L. Beooadilli, Vita
	del Cardinale G. Contarini, latest issue, Venice, 1827.
	Consult: T. Brieger, G. Contarini and dot Repanaburper
	Concordienwerk des Jahree 1641, Goths, 1870; Die Cm7e
	epondena des . . Contarini . . . 15U, ed. L. Pastor,
	Muster, 1880; F. Dittrich, Repeaten and Brie% des Con
	tarn6, 1483‑1W, Braunsberg, 1881; idem, Gatparo Con
	farini, sine Monographic ib. 1885; Ranks, Popes, i. 111
	128, 150, iii., no. 18.
	CONVENTICLE (Lat. conventiculum): In the
primitive church any meeting for the sake of relig
ious worship; since the time of Charles II., applied
in English only to the meetings of the dissenters
from the Church of England.
	CONVENTICLE ACT: An act passed by the
Cavalier Parliament of Charles II. in 1664, re
enacted with less severity in 1670, and repealed by
the Toleration Act of 1689. By its provisions the
attendance of more than five persons outside of one
family at meetings for religious rites other than
those of the Established Church was punished by
three months' imprisonment for the first offense,
six months for the second, and for the third the
alternative of transportation to the American
plantations for seven years, under pain of death for
a return before the,expiration of that period, or a
fine of a hundred pounds. Elizabeth had passed a
similar act in 1593; but that of. 1664 was more
significant and more burdensome, as part of the
systematic repression of non‑conformity sometimes
known as the Clarendon Code, including also the
Corporation, Uniformity, and Five Mile Acts (qq.v.;
1661‑65), which broke forever the pretensions of
Puritanism to political supremacy and confined
its sphere to the middle and lower classes. These
acts were administered with cruel zeal, the justices
of the peace, restored Cavalier squires, being
bitter foes of dissent
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The text of the Second Conventicle Act
	(1670) is given in Gee and Hardy, Documents, pp. 623
	632. Consult D. Neal, History o/ the Puritans, part iv.,
	chaps. 7‑8, Am. ed., ii. 251 eqq., Now York, 1844.
CONVERSE, JAMES BOOTH: Presbyterian; b. at Philadelphia Apr. &, 1844. He was graduated at Princeton (B.A., 1865) and Union Theological Seminary, Va. (1869), and was pastor 18691871 and editor of the Christian Observer 1872‑79. He then returned to the active ministry and was an evangelist for two years, after which he held a regular charge until 1887, again becoming an evangelist in 1888 while from 1890 to 1895 he was editor of the C'"tian Patriot (Morristown, Tenn.). In theology he is a Calvinistic Presbyterian, and also holds that the teachings of the Mosaic law upon economic problems were intended and are sufficient to banish‑ poverty from the earth. He advocates the doctrine that. the authority of Christ and the Bible should be recognized by all patriots and Christians as supreme in civil affairs. He has written A Summer Vacation Abroad (Louisville, Ky., 1878); The Bible and Land (a single‑tax book; Morristown, Tenn., 1889); and Uncle Sam's Bible, or, Bible Teachings about Politics (Chicago, 1899).

CONVERSION.
Exegetical Basin of the Doctrine (§ 1). History of the Doctrine (§ 2) DcXmatic Expression of the Doctrine (¢ 3).
Conversion (Lat. conversio, Gk. epiatrophe, the noun only in Acts xv. 3) denotes both the act in which man turns again to God and the divine activity by virtue of which this .takes place. Dogmaticians differentiate the latter, as conversio transitiva, from the former, the conversio intranair tiva.
	The New	Testament terms which express the
idea of conversion are epistrephein and metanoein
or metanoia (cf. Acts iii. 19, xxvi. 20). The ool
responding term in the Old Testament is shubh
(e.g., Isa. i. 27, x. 21; Jer. iii. 12, 14, 22; 11 Chron.
vf. 24). In New Testament usage the word epi^
atrephein as a rule denotes the deed by which a per
son turns from idols, or evil, to God (Acts xiv. 15,
of. xv. 19, xxvi. 18, 20; I These. i. 9; I Sam. vii.
3); or to the Lord (Acts ix. 35; II Cor. iii. 16; of.
also I Pet. ii. 25). In the same sense the expres
sion is used absolutely (Luke xxii. 32; Acts xxviii.
27). According to Acts the conversion is effected
		through the preaching of . the Gospel;
:. Exeget‑ it consists in man's turning away from
ical Basle darkness and evil and toward God. If of the in the passages cited the word epistre‑
	DOCtriae.	phein is used in an intransitive sense,
		in Luke i. 16, James v. 19‑20, it is
used transitively with respect to man; whereas
I Pet. ii. 25 is probably to be understood in a
passive sense. If epistrephein denotes more the
change of the religious tendency, metanoein and
metanoia denote rather the change of the ethical
disposition (Acts viii. 22). It is the giving up of
the sinful disposition (Rev. ii. 21) as well as the
giving up of evil conduct (Rev. ii. 5, 16, 22, iii. 3,
19, ix. 20‑21, xv! 11; Heb. vi. 1, 6; 11 Cor. xiii.
21; II Pet. iii. 9; Matt. xi. 20‑21, xii. 41; Luke
xv. 7, 10, v. 32, xvi. 30). On the other hand, the
positive side of the new disposition is emphasized.
The call to repentance aims at a confession of sin
and a new moral life (Matt. iii. 2, 6, 8, 10: Mark

Conversion	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	262
Conwell
i. 15; 'Luke xiii. 3, 5; II Tim., ii. 25; Acts xvii.
	30; Heb. xii. 17; Rev. xvi. 9), which shows itself
in new moral works (Matt. iii. 8; Acts xxvi. 20)
	and secures for man salvation and forgiveness of
sin (II Cor. vii. 10; Luke xxiv. 47; Acts viii. 22,
	xi. 18). The term metanoean when combined with
	Pistis denotes the whole new life of the Christian,
as in Mark i. 15; cf. Heb. vi. 1; Acts xx. 21. The
	metanoia is expected of man and is enjoined upon
	him (Matt. iii. 2, iv. 17; Mark vi. ls). But it is
	just as certain that God works repentance in man
(Acts xi. 18, v. 31; Rom. ii. 4; II Tim. ii. 25).
	It is here that the real problem of the concep
	tion lies. On the one hand it is required of man
	that he should turn toward God, and on the other
	hand it is said that God produces this turn. The
	problem is stated sharply in Phil. ii. 12‑13: " Work
	out your own salvation with fear and trembling:
	for it is God that worketh in you both to will and
	to do." This was not in the first instance re
	garded as a problem by the Church; one could just
	as easily expect everything of the free will of man
as speak of his being sunk in sin and death. The
	Greek Church never overcame this lack of clear
	ness. Man begins to do good, and somehow God
	helps him to the goal: " For it is ours to choose
	and to will; but God's to complete and to bring
	to an end " (Chrysostom, In Heb. hom., xii.; cf.
	R. Seeberg, Dogmengeschichte, i., Erlangen, 1895,
	256, 238 aqq.). In the West Augustine undertook
	a solution in connection with his doc
	2. History trines of original sin and predestina
of the	tion. Man dead in sin is converted
	Doctrine. to the good, provided this is predes
	tinated. The divine virtus leads the
	human will indeclinabiliter et inauperabiliter, so that
	it becomes a new will (De corrupt. et grat., xii. 38;
	cf. Seeberg, ut sup., 274 aqq.). In the Middle Ages
	man's own work was strongly emphasized. Such
	theories under the influence of the later Nominal
	ism rose to Pelagianism (cf. Seeberg, ii. 186). Over
	against this the Reformation again emphasized
	the inability of man to choose the good, and re
	demption soles gratia. The Holy Spirit effects con
	version. He begets in man the " new spiritual
	motives," the regeneratio and renovatio. The hu
	man will is only subjectum convertendum; "it
	does nothing but only suffers, it is purely passive."
	The conversion, however, is mediated by the
	" preaching and hearing of the word," that is, it
	is not effected without a movement on the part of
	the subjedt. Inasmuch, however, as man is man,
	the change can not take place in the manner in
	which a statue is cut out of stone or in any similar
	way, but the passivity that characterizes the act
	of reception goes over, as soon as (quam primum)
	the Holy Spirit has effectually taken hold of the
	heart, into the activity of a synergy, which, how
	ever, acts only by virtue of the newly received
	powers. The servum arbitHum becomes the libera
	tum arbitrium, and by virtue of this man can take
	hold of the good and under the continuous opera
	tion of the Spirit persevere therein. The moment
	in which the Holy Spirits effectually takes hold of
	the heart is, according to the Formula of Concord,
	the moment of conversion. But when this takes
place the new life with its cooperation is also present. Even where there is a minimum of faith, prayer, longing for salvation, the conversio has taken place. Similarly, the old Lutheran dogmaticians: the will of man cooperates in conversion " because God first comes to us in the word and divine influence moving and impelling the will. But after this impulse has been divinely given, the human will is not purely passive, but, moved and helped by the Holy Spirit, does not resist, but assents and becomes a fellow worker with God" (Chemnitz, Loci, i. 199; cf. H. Schmid, Die Dogmatik der evdngelisch‑lutherischen %irche, Giltersloh, 1893, 335‑336, 340 sqq.).
According to the conception in the Scriptures and the Evangelical understanding of grace, the
dogmatic conception may be framed 3. Dogmatic as follows: God frees man from the
Expression old tendency through the personal
of the operation of the Holy Spirit. When Doctrine. the spirit makes man feel the reality
	of his effectual presence and of the
new aims thus brought home to man's conscious
ness, man is inwardly made free to let God influ
ence him and to place his life in the service of God.
But this last act can happen only when man him
self experiences God and gives himself with full
purpose to God. The divine influence of grace,
therefore, gives man the ability to lead a new life,
but this new life is not realized concretely in any
other way than in acts of the soul. The conversio
transitive is therefore the cause of the conversio in
transitive. At the same time the conversion may
be defined, on the one hand, as the following of
the new tendency for the first time; and, on the other
hand, we may use the term to designate that entire
complex of inner experiences and transactions
which denotes the basis of our Christian p estate.
R. SEEBER4.
The new study of the psychology of religion has directed attention afresh to the subject of conversion and also thrown much light on it, both as an adolescent and as an adult phenomenon. This inquiry has disclosed the following results: (1) Adolescent conversion is incidental to the flowering time of childhood and youth, during the years‑between fourteen and seventeen‑of greatest susceptibility and awakening, in which the soul begins to be conscious of those relations in which personality is realized. The preliminary symptoms are various, such as haunting introspection, harassing doubts, feeling of depression and of imperfection, conviction of sin, fear of death, and longing for the infinite. It is thus the awakening of the person to spiritual realities. (2) As an adult phenomenon regarded as a single act, in religious experience conversion is repudiation of sin and surrender of self to God in Christ; as an ethical fact, it is identification of self with one's individual and social ideal; as a psychical act, the hitherto more or less dissociated activities of the self are unified in an emotional experience. The two types of conversion are the volitional‑one strives to become a new man‑and the self‑surrender type in which effort either for or against the new life gives place to an invasion from the subliminal region in which after a longer or shorter incubation

268	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Conversion
		Qonwell
one suddenly and freely identifies himself with God.
Such sudden experiences are due in part to a pro
nounced sensibility with tendency to automatisms
and suggestibility of the passive type. The change
is often accompanied with a greater or less degree of
emotional and physical disturbance.	(3) Conver
sion as a gradual experience is more commonly true
of those in whom the rational or volitional powers
predominate: the judgment is progressively con
vinced, and the will is as the judgment. These
various types of conversion are primarily not of re
ligious, but of psychological significance. The essen
tial reality is the beginning of an identification with
God and with the ideal unity of personal beings.
The action of the spirit of God is presupposed. The
literature of the subject is growing, and the fol
lowing works may be consulted: E. D. Starbuck,
Psychology of Religion, New York, 1899; G. A. Coe,
The Spiritual Life, ib. 1900; idem, Education in
Religion and Morals, ib. 1904; W. James, Varir
sties of Religious Experience, pp. 189‑258, ib. 1902;
J. B. Pratt, Psychology of Religious Belief, pp. 191
261, ib. 1907; Leuba, in American Journal of
Psychology, vii (1896), 309 sqq.; G. S. Hall, Ado
lescence, New York, 1904.	C. A. B.
	CONVOCATION: In the Church of England, a
deliberative assembly of the bishops and clergy of
each province under their respective metropolitans
for the discussion of ecclesiastical affairs. In the
plan devised by Edward I. for a national assembly
(1283), the clerical estate was to be represented by
its proctors as were the counties by their knights
and the towns by their burgesses. But the clergy
preferred to be an estate apart, taxing itself sep
arately. It was brought completely under royal
control by Henry VIII. in 1535, Cromwell, a lay
man, presiding for the king as vicar‑general. The
privilege of taxing itself was definitely taken from
the clerical order in 1664 and settled in the House
of Commons, in which clergymen were not allowed
to sit, though they were in a sense represented by
the bishops in the House of Lords. Convocation
continued to exist until the attacks of the High
church and Tory parsons on the liberal bishops
came to a head in the Bangorian controversy (see
HOADLY, BENJAMIN), when the Convocation of
Canterbury was prorogued in 1717, and the license
of the crown necessary to enable it to proceed to
business was no longer granted. It met from time
to time as a matter of form, but its life was prac
tically dormant until in the middle of the nine
teenth century a movement was set on foot by
Bishop Wilberforce and Bishop Phillpotts of Exe
ter for its revival. Its recovery of deliberative pow
ers took place in 1861, since which time it has met
regularly, concurrently with the sessions of Par
liament, to discuss and advise on ecclesiastical
affairs, though shorn of its ancient powers. It con
sists of two houses, the upper containing the bishops
of the province, the lower the deans, archdeacons,
and representatives of the cathedral and parochial
clergy; the archbishop prides in the upper house,
an elected prolocutor in the lower. In recent years
a house of laymen has also been created, which,
though not technically a part of Convocation, ex‑
ercises by its debates a concurrent influence. The term convocation is applied in some dioceses of the American Episcopal Church to the annual legislative assembly, and more frequently to gatherings of clergy and laity, usually for missionary purposes. BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. H. Blunt, Dictionary of Doctrinal and
Historical Theology, pp. 152‑158, London, 1870 (a summary of the history); J. Overall, The Convocation Book o/ 1808, commonly called Bishop Overall's Convocation Book, in the Library of Anglo‑Catholic Theology, Oxford, 1844; W. Kennet, A Compleat Hist. of Convoeatiom,1388‑1688, London, 1730; T. H. Fellows, Convocation: its Origin. Progress and Authority, ib. 1852; T. Lathbury, Hilt. of do Convocation of the Church of England, ib. 1853.
CONVULSIONISTS. See JANSEN, CORNELIUS, JANSENISM.
CONWAY, MONCCURE DANIEL: Liberal; b. at Middleton Farm, Stafford Co., Va., Mar. 17, 1832; d. in Paris Nov. 15, 1907. .Educated at Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa. (B.A., 1849), and Harvard Divinity School (B.D., 1854), after having studied law (1849‑50). He was first a minister of the Methodist Church in Maryland (1850‑53), then of the Unitarian Church in Washington, D. C. (1854‑57), the First Congregational (Unitarian) Church, Cincinnati, O. (1857‑62), and the South Place Chapel, London (1863‑85 and 1892‑97).
Conway was active in the movement for the emancipation of the slaves, a fact which compelled him to retire from Washington, and subsequently led him to go to England to explain the attitude of the North in the Civil War. He edited the Dial at Cincinnati and later the Boston Commonwealth; while in London he was on the staff of the Daily News and the Pall Mall Gazette. He edited many works of English literature, of which the most noteworthy are The Sacred Anthology (New York, 1876) and The Writings of Thomas Paine (4 vols., 1894‑95), and produced many books, of which these having religious interest may be mentioned: Tracts for To‑Day (Cincinnati, O., 1857); The Earthtoard Pilgrimage (New York, 1870); Idols and Ideals (1877); Demonology and Devil Lore (2 vols., 1879); The Wandering Jew (1881); Thomas Carlyle (1881); Emerson, at Home and Abroad (Boston, 1883); Farewell Discourses (1884); Life of Thomas Paine (2 vols., 1892); Solomon and Solomonic Literature (Chicago, 1890); Autobiography (2 vols., New York, 1904); and My Journey to the Wise Men of the East (Boston, 1906).
CONWELL, RUSSELL HERMAN: Baptist; b. at Worthington, Mass., Feb. 15, 1842. He entered the law school at Yale in 1860, but interrupted his studies on the outbreak of the Civil War and served in the Union Army as captain of infantry, being promoted lieutenant‑colonel in 1865. He then resumed his studies at Albany University (B.A., 1866), practised law in Minneapolis 1865‑67, and was.immigration agent of Minnesota to Germany 1867‑68. He was foreign correspondent of the New York Tribune and the Boston Traveler in 1868‑70, and after his return to the United States practised law in Boston until 1879. He was ordained to the Baptist ministry in 1879 and for ten years (1881‑91) was pastor of Grace Baptist Church, Philadelphia, and since 1891 of the Baptist Temple there. In 1888 he founded Temple College, of

Oonybe&re Cooper
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
which he has since been president, and two years later established the Samaritan Hospital. He has written biographies of President Hayes (1876), Bayard Taylor (1879), President Garfield (1881), Joshua Gianavello (1884), James G. Blaine (1886), Charles H. Spurgeon (1892), and other volumes.
	CONYBEARE, ,FREDERICK CORNWALLIS:
Church of England layman; b. at Kew in the year
1856. He was educated at University College, Ox
ford (M.A., 1883), where he became fellow and
prelector in 1881. He is particularly noted for his
attainments in Armenian, and is a member of the
Venetian Armenian Academy. In 1903 he was
elected a fellow of the British Academy. His wri
tings embrace: A Collation with the Ancient Arme
nian Versions of the Greek Texts of Aristotle's. Cate
gories, etc. (London, 1892); The Apology and Ads
of Apollonius and Other Monuments of Early Chris
tianity (1894; 2d ed., The Armenian Apology and
Ads o f Apollonius, 1896); Philo about the Contem
plative Life, or, the Fourth Book of the Treatise Con
cerning Virtues (Oxford, 1895); The Key o f Truth,
a Manual of the Paulician Church o f Armenia, the
Armenian Text edited and translated (1898); The
Story of Ahikar, from the Syriac, Arabic, Armenian,
Ethiopic, Greek and Slavonic Versions (1898); The
Dialogues of Atlyanasius and Zachmus and o f Timothy
and Aquila (1898); The Dreyfus Case (London,
1898); Roman Catholicism as a Factor in European
Politics (1901); Rituals Armenorum (Oxford., 1905);
and Old Armenian TezU o f Revelation (1906).
	CONYBEARE, JOHN: Bishop of Bristol; b. at
Pinhoe, near Exeter, Jan. 31, 1692; d. at Bath
July 13, 1755. He' studied at Exeter College, Ox
ford (fellow, 1711; B.A.,1713; proctor, 1725; B.D.,
1728; D.D., 1729); became rector of Exeter 1730,
dean of Christ Church 1733, and bishop of Bristol
1750. He was a popular preacher, reformed many
abuses as rector of Exeter, and was an energetic
dean. His most important publication was A
Defence o f Revealed Religion against the Exceptions
of a late Writer (London, 1732), which was pro
nounced one of the four abut books (the other
three by James Foster, John Leland, and Simon
Browne) written in reply to Tindal's Christianity
as Old as the Creation (1730). Two volumes of his
Sermons were published at London, 1757.
BmwoaBAPHr: J. LAand, View of as Deistical Writers, 3 voles, London, 1754‑66; DNB, rii. 8O‑81.
CONYBEARE, WILLIAM JOHN: Church of England; b. Aug. 1, 1815, eldest son of William Daniel Conybeare; d. at Weybridge (on the Thames, 20 m. s.w. of London), Surrey, July 22, 1857. He was student and fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge (B.A., 1837; M.A., 1840); was first principal of Liverpool Collegiate Institute 1842‑48; vicar of Axminster, Devonshire (succeeding his father), 1848‑54. He is best known for his work upon the Life and Epistles of St. Paul in collaboration with J. S. Howson (2 vols., London, 1852; 2d ed., revised, 1856; many other editions); of the twenty‑eight chapters of this work Mr. Conybeare contributed nine, including the speeches and letters of Paul, all of which he translated and annotated. A volume of his Sermons Preached in the Chapel
Royal, Whitehall, appeared in 1844, and his contributions to the Edinburgh Review were reprinted with additions under the title Essays, Ecclesiastical and Social in 1855. He also published a novel, Perversion, or the Causes and Consequences of Infidelity (3 vols., 1856).
COOK, CHARLES: The father of Methodism in France and Switzerland; b. in London May 31, 1787; d. at Lausanne Feb. 21, 1858. He entered the Wesleyan ministry in 1817 and the next year went to France, where he was indefatigable in labor, and it was largely through his agency that there was a revival of religion among French Protestants under the Restoration. Merle d'Aubignd said of him: " The work which John Wesley did in the British kingdom, Charles Cook did upon the Continent, except that it was not so extensive." He organized numerous small societies,,which either joined the Reformed Church or continued independent. A controversy with Clssar Malan upon the doctrine of predestination led to the publication of his most important work, L'Amour de Daeu pour tour lea hommes.
BIBmoaaAPH7: Vie do Charles Cook by his son, J. P. Cook,
Paris, 1868
COOK, EMILE FRANCIS: French Methodist; b. at Niort (34 m. e.n.e. of La Rochelle) 1830, son of Charles Cook (q.v.); d. at Hybres (12 m. e. of Toulon) Jan. 29, 1874. He was educated in Lausanne and the Wesleyan institutions in England; ordained in 1854; and in 1866 came to Paris to be pastor of the Wesleyan Congregation there. He came to America as delegate to the General Conference of the Evangelical Alliance held in New York Oct. 2‑12, 1873, and escaped shipwreck in the ill‑fated Ville du Havre (Nov. 22, 1873), only to die shortly after on land.
BIHLIOaaAPnT: L. S. Houghton, Faithful to the End; . . .
Emilb Cook's Life, Philadelphia, 1881.
COOK, FREDERIC CHARLES: Church of England; b. at Milbrook Dec. 1, 1804 ; d. at Exeter June 22, 1889. He studied at St. John's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1831; M.A., 1844), and at Bonn; was ordained 1839; was inspector of schools; prebendary of St. Paul's 1856‑65; preacher at Lincoln's Inn 1860‑80; prebendary in Lincoln cathedral 1861‑84. He became chaplain in ordinary to the Queen 1857; canon residentiary of Exeter 1864; chaplain to the bishop of London 1869; precentor of Exeter 1872. He was a learned Biblical scholar and a remarkable linguist, acquainted, it is said, with fifty‑two languages. His most important work was done for The Speaker's Commentary (10 vols., London, 1871‑82), which was planned in 1864 to refute the theories advanced by Bishop Colenso and modern critics; Canon Cook was chosen editor in chief and, in addition to his work as editor, wrote personally the introductions to Exodus, the Psalms, and the Acts, the entire commentary on Job, Habakkuk, Mark, Luke, and I Peter, and part of that on Exodus, the Psalms, and Matthew. He criticized severely the work of the New Testament revisers in The Revised Version of the First Three Gospels Considered in its Bearings upon the Record of our Lord's Words and of Incidents in his

266	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Conybeare
		QooDer
Life (1882) and in Deliver Us from Evil (1883).
His last works were The Origins of Religion and
Language (1884) and Letters Addressed to the Rev.
H. Mace and the Rev. J. Earle (1885), in which he
argued for the unity of language and a primitive
divine revelation to man.
	COOK, (FLAVIUS) JOSEPH(US): Congrega
tionalist; b. at Ticonderoga, N. Y., Jan. 26, 1838;
d. there June 25, 1901. He entered Yale in 1858
but left owing to ill health in junior year; was
graduated at Harvard 1865, and at Andover The
ological Seminary 1868; was resident licentiate at
Andover 1868‑70; acting pastor of the First (Con
gregational) Church, Lynn, Mass., 1870‑71; studied
and traveled in Europe 1871‑73. He was never
ordained. His reputation, which was world‑wide,
was that of lecturer upon the relation of religion
and science. His knowledge of theology was con
siderable, but his claim to speak for science would
be disputed. From 1874 to 1895 he spoke each
Monday morning during a portion of the year, for
years in succession, in Tremont Temple in Boston
upon his general topic, with a " prelude on current
events." He also lectured elsewhere, and, indeed,
during 1880 to 1883 went round the world on a
lecturing tour. His conservatism was most pro
nounced and his dogmatism also. He was im
mensely popular, and really was astonishingly well
informed. As a public speaker he was always vehe
ment, but not always easily intelligible. His Mon
day lectures were first printed in the newspapers
asstenographically reported, then revised and com
prised in three volumes: Biology (Boston, 1877), in
opposition to the " materialistic, but not the theistic
theory of evolution "; Transcendentalism (1877)
and Orthodoxy (1878), a discussion of the views of
Theodore Parker; Conscience (1879); Heredity (1879);
Marriage (1879); Labor (1880); Socialism (1880).
To these were afterward added Occident (1884);
Orient (1886); Current Religious Perils (1888). He
established a religious monthly, Our Day, in 1888.
	COOKE, GEORGE ALBERT: Church of Eng
land; b. in London Nov. 26, 1865, was scholar of
Wadham College, Oxford (B.A., 1888); curate of
Headington, 1889‑90; scholar and Hebrew lec
turer of St. John's College, Oxford, 1889‑92; chap
lain of Magdalen College, Oxford, 1890‑92; fellow
of the same 1892‑99; curate of St. Mary the Virgin,
Oxford, 1894‑96; examiner in school of Oriental
languages, Oxford, 1895‑99 and in 1904; rector
of Beaconsfield 1896‑99; rector of Dalkeith 1899
1908, when he succeeded Canon Cheyne as Oriel
professor of the interpretation of Holy Scripture in
Oxford. His most important book is A Text‑book
of North Semitic Inscriptions, London, 1903.
	COOKE, HENRY: The champion of Orthodoxy
against Arianism in the Irish Church; b. on a farm
near Maghera (28 m. e.s.e. of Londonderry), County
Derry, May 11, 1788; d. in Belfast Dec. 13, 1868.
He studied at Glasgow College but did not gradu
ate; was ordained assistant minister of Duneane,
near Randalstown, County Antrim, 1808; settled
at Donegore in the same county 1811. Here he
undertook to supplement his early training by
systematic study, attended two sessions at Glasgow 1815‑17, and heard lectures at Trinity College, Dublin, 1817‑18, acquiring a knowledge of medicine as well as of theology. In 1818 he was called to Killeleagh, County Down, and in 1829 to the May Street Church, Belfast. After 1847 he was professor of sacred rhetoric in the General Assembly's theological college at Belfast, continuing his pastoral duties at the same time. He forced the Arians in the Synod of Ulster to secede in 1829, when the Remonstrant Synod of Ulster was formed under the lead of Henry Montgomery (q.v.), and continued his opposition till Arianism was banished from the colleges, synods, and congregations of the Irish Presbyterian Church. He was also active in politics and was the founder and leader of the Protestant party in Ulster after his removal to Belfast. He was a master of all the arts of public speaking, had uncommon skill in argument, and was an unrelenting opponent. He was moderator of the General Assembly in 1841 and 1862. His statue was erected in Belfast in 1875. He wrote many pamphlets and magazine articles, but nothing of permanent value.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. L. Porter, Life and Times of Henry Cooke, Belfast, 1875 (by his eon‑in‑law, an able eulogy rather than a biography); DNB, xii. 87‑90 (where a full list of sources is given).
COOKMAN, ALFRED: Methodist ; b at Columbia, Pa., Jan. 4, 1828; d. in Newark, N. J., Nov. 13, 1871. He was licensed as an exhorter in Baltimore 1845; served as pastor in West Chester, Harrisburg, Pittsburg, and Philadelphia., Pa.; in New York, in Wilmington, Del., and in Newark. He warmly supported the Union cause during the Civil War and served the Christian Commission in the field. He was a leader in the movement in 1867 which led to the formation of the " National Camp‑meeting Association " and was prominent at the various meetings which it held.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. B. Ridgeway, Life of Rev. Alfred Cookman, with some Account of his Father, Rev. G. C. Cookman, New York, 1873.
COOPER, JAMES: Scotch Presbyterian; b. at Elgin (71 m. n.w. of Aberdeen), Elginahire, Scotland, Feb. 13, 1846. He studied at the University of Aberdeen (M.A., 1867), and was minister of St. Stephen's, Broughty Ferry, Fifeshfre (1873‑81), and the East Parish of St. Nicholas, Aberdeen (18811898). Since 1898 he has been professor of church history in the University of Glasgow. He is president of the Aberdeen Ecclesiological Society and edited its transactions 1886‑1903, and also edited the transactions of the Scottish Ecclesiological Society, of which he was president in 1903. He edited Cartularaum Ecclesim Sandi Nicolai Aberdonenais (2 vols., Aberdeen, 1888‑92); and made an English translation of the Syriac Testament of Our Lord (London, 1902; in collaboration with A. J. Maclean).
COOPER, THOMAS: English Baptist; b. at Leicester, Eng., Mar. 20, 1805; d. at Lincoln July 15, 1892. He went to school till he was fifteen and then was apprenticed to a shoemaker. He was eager to learn, studied Greek, Latin, and Hebrew in his leisure time, and applied himself so

Cooper
Coptic		THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
	Church		286
steadily, with insufficient food, that his health
failed in 1827. He then tried school‑teaching at
Gainsborough and Lincoln, and became also a
Methodist local preacher in 1829. Differences with
the Methodist superintendents, for which he does
not seem to have been altogether at fault, brought
him out of sympathy with religious work. He be
came a reporter for country newspapers and tried
unsuccessfully to obtain work in London. In 1840
he joined the Chartist movement and for four years
was a leader of their extreme party; served two
years in Stafford jail on a charge of conspiracy and
sedition. After his release he abandoned the Chart
ists and appeared as a lecturer on historical and
political subjects before radical and freethinking
audiences. In 1856 his views changed and he be
came an itinerant preacher, and lecturer on the
evidences of natural and revealed religion. In the
course of eight and one‑half years he preached
1,169 times, lectured 2,204 times, visited every
county of England, and many of the counties of
Scotland and Wales. In 1866 his health broke
down and certain of his friends presented him with
an annuity of £100; he went back to his work,
however, the next year. He joined the General
Baptists in 1859. Besides political writings, nov
els and poems (collected ed., London, 1877), he
published The Bridge o f History over the Gulf o f
Time; a popular view of the historical evidence for
the truth of Christianity (London, 1871; 4th ed.,
1889); Plain Pulpit Talk (1872; 2d ed., 1873); his
Life, written by himself (1872; popular ed., 1880);
God, the Soul, arid a Future State (1873); The Ver
ity of Christ's Resurrection (1875; new ed., 1884);
The Verity and Value o f the Miracles o f Christ (1876);
Evolution ; the stone book and the Mosaic record of
creation (1878); The Atonement (1880); Thoughts
at Fourscore and Earlier (1885).

COOPERATOR: A priest appointed for an indefinite time to assist the regular incumbent, dependent upon the latter and strictly subordinate to him; the term is applied especially to an assistant in a mother church which has affiliations.
COPE. See VESTMENW AND INSIGNIA, ECCLEt1IASTICAL.
COPLESTON, REGINALD STEPHEN: Anglican bishop of Calcutta and metropolitan of India; b. at Barnes (6 m. w. of London), Surrey, Dec. 26, 1845. He studied at Merton College, Oxford (B.A., 1869; M.A., 1871), was ordered deacon in 1872, and ordained priest in 1875. He became a fellow and tutor of St. John's College, Oxford, in 1869, was consecrated bishop of Colombo in 1875, and translated to the diocese of Calcutta in 1902. He has written ,Fschylus (London, 1870) and Buddhism, Primitive and Present, in Magadha and in Ceylon (1892).

COPPIN (COPPING), JOHN: English Separatist. He lived at Bury St. Edmunds, became an enthusiastic adherent of Robert Browne (q.v.), preached Browne's doctrines, and disseminated his books. For refusing to conform to the ecclesiastical laws and usages he was imprisoned, 1576, and kept in confinement for seven years, but was treated
leniently. Persisting in his course, using violent language, and behaving offensively, in 1583, with a fellow prisoner named Elias Thacker, he was brought to trial charged with disobeying the laws and " dispersing Browne's books and Harrison's books." Both were convicted and hanged, Thacker on June 4, Coppin on June 5, 1583.
BIHwoaEAPHY: H. M. Dexter, Conprepationaiiam of the Last
Three Hundred Years, pp. 08‑210, New York, 1880.
COPTIC CHURCH.
1. History. To the Death of Justinian, 565 (5 1). The Arab Dominion, 639‑1517 (1 2). Turkish and Modern Rule (1 3). Statistics (1 4).
II. Constitution, Ecclesiastical Law, etc. III. Liturgy, Church Buildings, etc. Liturgies (6 1) Doctrine and Practise (1 2). Churches (¢ 3).
IV. Monasticism.
V. Ecclesiastical Literature.
The Coptic Church is the Monophysite or Jacobite Church of Egypt. The word "' Coptic " is the European form of the Arabic %ibt, the Greek [At]gyptos.
I. History: The traditional apostle of Egypt is. St. Mark (as early as Eusebiua, Hist. eccl., ii. 16), though evidences of still earlier Christianity may be seen in Acts ii. 10, viii. 26 sqq., xi. 20, xiii. 1, xviii. 24. From apostolic times to the middle of the second century little is heard beyond the names of Alexandrian teachers (see ALEXANDRIA, SCHOOL OF) and bishops. Among subsequent bishops the first to stand forth distinctly is Demetrius (d. 231), the friend and later the opponent of Origen (q.v.); of his successors, Dionysiua (d. 264) and Peter (qq.v.; d. 311) are conspicuous. It is only by the heavy tribute of martyrs in the persecutions during the lives of these two, to which‑under Diocletian‑Peter fell a victim, that we realize something of the strength of the new religion in southern Egypt. The peace of Constantine was speedily upset by the Arian disturbance, which appears, however, to have affected mainly the Greek‑speaking population of the north. In the southern districts, the real home of Egyptian Christianity, the
Athanasians found steady support. On I. To the the basis of the Nicene victory, Atha‑
Death of nasius had raised his church to a dom‑
Justinian, inant place, a position maintained for
	565.	almost a century. His successors,
		notably Theophilus (d. 412), were
ambitious of further magnifying their advantage,
and, notwithstanding the rebuff at the Council of
381 (see ARIANIsM), Cyril (d. 444) was eventually
able, thanks to the opportunity afforded him by
Nestorius (q.v.), to figure at Ephesus (431) as the
champion of orthodoxy. The Coptic Church was
interested in this struggle by the presence at Ephe
sua of Shenoute, the famous abbot of the White
Monastery (Achmim), Cyril's uncompromising sup
porter. With Cyril's tactless and violent succes
sor, Dioscurus, the turning‑point of the Church's
history is reached. Successful at the " Robber
Synod " (449), he was defeated and exiled at Chal
cedon (451); yet his Monophysite creed (see MONO
PHYSITEB), condemned by official orthodoxy, now

26'7	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Cooper
		Coptic church
became the national faith of Egypt, the history of
whose Church is henceforth reduced to a record of
the struggles between the royal (" Melkite ") and
Monophysite sects, each headed by its own patri
archs. The latter party always comprised the vast
majority of the Egyptian population, while the royal
sect consisted solely of the official class; but suc
cess or failure was not independent of the momen
tary attitude of the court, whose influence was
exerted, now in pacification (Zeno, Anastasius),
now in coercion (Justinian). The reign of Justin
ian (d. 565) saw the final extinction of Egyptian
paganism (cf. Victor Schultze, Geschichte des Un
tergangs des griechisch‑romischen Heidenthums, ii.,
Jena, 1892, pp. 226 sqq.), which, despite the ener
gies of Theophilus and Cyril, still lingered in out
lying districts.
	In the succeeding generation the Byzantine
world was occupied with the Monothelite contro
versy (see MONOTHELITEB), and in Egypt a union
with the Monophysites was enforced for the mo
ment by the imperial patriarch, Cyrus (cf. A. J.
Butler, Arab Conquest o f Egypt, London, 1902, p.
508). The impotence of the empire had already
made possible the Persian invasion (616‑627); that
of the Arabs in 639 finally crushed and impover
ished the national Church. If the Copts looked
to their new masters for relief from imperial tyr
anny, they were speedily undeceived. The premises
of the first invaders were soon forgotten, and op
pressive taxation began to cause those defections
to the religion of the conquerors which character
ized the subsequent history of native Christianity.
The story of the Coptic Church is henceforth a mere
list of oppressions due to official expediency or
		official greed with occasionally a con
s. The Arab sequent revolt, bloodily suppressed
	Dominion, (cf. C. H. Becker, Beitrdge zur Ge
	639‑r5I7• schichte Aegyptens, Strasburg, 1902).
		Throughout, the meager history of
Severus is the sole authority; the Moslem his
torians, except Makrizi, pay no heed to Christian
affairs. The internal war of sects continued
unaffected	by larger misfortunes. Dynastic
changes, as from Ommiads to Abbassids (750),
brought no improvement, though the new
house usually found it politic to begin with premises
of indulgence or relief. Extortion resulted in uni
versal simony; all ecclesiastical offices were bought
and large sums paid to the civil authorities for pre
ferment. The rise of the Fatimites (969) saw in
deed many Copts in civil employment; and ere long
(996) the terrible persecution of Al‑Hakim sur
passed all that the Christians had hitherto suffered.
A century later a succession of Armenian viziers
(from 1074) lightened the burdens of their core
ligionists. But indulgence provoked a renewal of
Moslem animosity. Under such conditions the
Church could not maintain a high code of morals
or conduct. The relatively mild government of
the Aiyubite Sultans (from 1169) seemed but to
give freedom to the misconduct of the clergy, con
spicuous among whom was the infamous patriarch
Cyril III. (Ibn Laklak,). With Cyril's death (1243)
we lose even the guidance of Severus's patriarchal
history, and knowledge of the subsequent medieval
period is of the most threadbare nature. In 1440 one of the Coptic patriarchs is found making advances to Rome at the Council of Florence, and in the succeeding centuries various attempts were made by the popes to obtain possession of the Church.
Neither the Turkish conquest (1517) nor the French (1798) had much effect upon the condition of native Christians; but Moham‑
3. Turkish med Ali (1805) gave freedom to all and Modern creeds alike and this led to the com‑
	Rule.	mencement of foreign missionary en
		terprise among the Copts and allowed
a movement, initiated by Cyril IV. (1854), for their
improvement in matters of church government and
education. A mixed clerical and lay council was
established in the hope of controlling patriarchal
action, but its place was subsequently taken by a
smaller committee, while the education of the clergy
was provided for by the establishment of semi
naries.
Statistics show a steady increase. in the Coptic population since the succession of the present khedival house. Their total in 1820 was about 100,000, in 1855 about 217,000, in 1870 250,000, while the census of 1897 gave 592,374 or about 4. Statistics. one‑sixteenth of the total population. The Copts are at present most numerous in the lower (northern) Said (Siut, Achmim, Girgeh), where they form, in many villages, the majority. At the time of the Arab conquest the Copts (then practically the whole population) numbered some six millions (Abu Salih, 22a); in a hundred years this number had been reduced by a million (,Al Kindi, in Abu Salih, 26b), and throughout the Middle Ages they no doubt constantly diminished in numbers.
II. Constitution, Ecclesiastical Law, etc.: The bishop of the capital was doubtless not long, in extending his authority over the immediately surrounding districts (Mareotis), and gradually over the rest of the Nile valley, including Nubia and (indirectly) Ethiopia to the south and. Libya to the west. Originally nominated, it would seem, by presbyters (cf. Cabrol, Dictionnaire, 1204), the papas or patriarch was, in all later times, chosen by the clergy, with the concurrence of the people of Alexandria or Cairo, and eventually wit'U that of the Moslem government. Since the eleventh century he has resided in Cairo, the remaining bishops occupying the capitals of the ancient nomes with which their sees were generally conterminous. The existence in early tithes of intermediate metropolitans is uncertain; at present there exist five or six. Diocesan bishops are met with under Demetrius (d. 231), and Athanasius could already count about a hundred sees. The completest list (though in recent MSS. only) gives eighty‑five (cf. E. Am6lineau, La GEographie de llgypte k l'~Poque copte, Paris, 1893, pp. 571 sqq.). Poverty and persecution, however, by degrees reduced their number, by the amalgamation of poor neighbors, until in the seventeenth century Wansleben could count but seventeen. Patriarch and bishops have been invariably chosen from the monasteries. The remaining clerical orders are: archpriest (hegou‑

Coptic Church Coquerel
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
memos, Kummus), priest, deacon, reader, and, in early times (cf. JTS, i. 254) the minor orders also.
The canon law whereby the Church is governed is based upon pseudoapostolic documents and conciliar and patriarchal (external as well as native) decisions, digested by medieval scholars into nomocanons or preserved independently, always in Arabic translations. Considerable judicial power still remains in the hands of the patriarch and bishops.
III. Liturgy, Church Buildings, etc.: Among the earliest sources for a knowledge of Egyptian liturgical usage are the so‑called Hippolytan Canons. Those bearing the names of Basil (cf. W. Riedel, Die Kirchenrechtsquellen des Patriarchats Alexandrien, Leipsic, 1900, pp. 272 sqq.; PSBA, xxvi. 57) and Athanasius (ed. Riedel‑Crum, 1904) also contain early evidence. For information from third century patristic writers cf. F. Probst, Liturgie des vierten Jahrhunderts, Munster, 1893, p. 106; Brightman, 504. After the schism of 451 the Egyptian Church was obliged to revise its lit‑
urgy in conformity with the dogmatic r. Lit‑ position it had adopted; hence in urgies. time arose a number of Greek, then
Greco‑Coptic, finally Copto‑Arabic (today even simply Arabic) service‑books, of which the Anaphoras of Basil, Gregory, and Cyril are the most conspicuous survivors. Since about the thirteenth century these and all other liturgical books have been read in the northern dialect of Coptic; but sufficient remains are extant to show that an independent series existed in the more ancient southern idiom. Besides the missal (or euchologium), there are separate books for the sacramental and paschal services, lectionaries (kata meros), synaxaria (lives of saints to be read in church), with several psalm and hymn‑books in constant use. The church festivals are preceded by long fasts, amounting in all to seven months of the year.
Only a few of the characteristic features of Coptic religious life can here be mentioned. The clergy communicate frequently, the laity seldom, but in both kinds; previous confession is not now demanded. Transubstantiation, the efficacy of relics, of prayers for the dead, and of the intercession of saints are accepted doctrines. Baptism is by triple immersion, boys being frequently circumcised beforehand; and confirmation follows immediately The services are generally of inordinate
length, beginning often at six in the s. Doctrine morning. Magic has always played a and part in the belief of the Copts, as with
Practise. their pagan ancestors, and among the
less educated is still freely resorted to. Much has been written as to the relations of popular Christianity in Egypt to the foregoing heathendom (cf. Amdlineau,inRHR, xiv., xv.; Forbes Robinson, in commentary to his Coptic Apocryphal Gospels, Cambridge, 1896), and it is undeniable that superficial features of the surrounding idolatry were adopted and reinterpreted by the converts to the new religion; but as yet no study of these relations has been made sufficient to warrant generalization.
Of the earliest churches in Lower Egypt (as at Alexandria, churches of St. Mark, of Theonas, of
Dionysius, of Athanasius) no undisputed traces survive. Many were destroyed in early times, or in later ages converted into mosques. In the south
the sites are still visible (at Philte, 3. Churches. Thebes, Heracleopolis, ete., and in the
Outer Oasis) of churches, set often directly within the ancient temple precincts. Pagan rock tombs also have often been utilized as chapels (Thebes, El‑Amarna, Der Abu Hennis). Among the older of the churches still in use are the group in Old Cairo (Babylon). These lie to‑day embedded in masses of later building and have been repeatedly restored. Their form is usually the basilican, with three parallel apsides and several cupolas. The number of churches officially recorded in Egypt in 1896 was only about 400.
IV. Monasticism: A primary incentive toward the eremitic life may have been persecution; the desire for contemplative seclusion at any rate early led many in Egypt to retire into solitude, whether singly or in communities. Among the earliest of these was Anthony (c. 270) and, farther south, Pachomius (c. 315; see MONASTICISM; PACHOMIUS). Coptic monasticism since the Council of Chalcedon (451), however, has received little attention; the materials for its study are, in great part, still unpublished, while the usual authorities (Moschus, Leontius of Neapolis, Sophronius, the Acta sanctorum) are Catholic and ignore Monophysites. A mild form of cenobitism appears to have superseded the anchorite type. The Pachomian rule was revived and reformed by Shenoute (d. 451), the founder of the great White Monastery, near Aehmim (cf. Pears, in Archrnological Journal, June, 1904). We hear nothing of other rules, that of Anthony being a relatively late production. Yet it is by this last that Coptic monks to‑day claim to live. Vows are now no longer professed, though they observe certain general precepts as to obedience, fasting, etc. For the medieval requirements cf. J. M. Wansleben; Histoire de l'eglise d'Alexandrie, Paris, 1677, 39 sqq. The schema (askim), once the sign of superior strictness of life, is now worn by all. Inmates of the monasteries are exempt from taxation and military service‑a privilege which has been fruitful of abuses. The monasteries were early liable to episcopal interference, and in the seventh century appear as under the control of two bishops. In later times the patriarch would take over the direction and so the revenues of certain houses to his own use. Monastic officials still bear the same titles as in earlier times. Those of the White Monastery in the twelfth century were: archimandrite or hegumenus (elsewhere proestos), deuterarios, ceconomus (steward), archdeacon, didaskalos. The property of the monastery grew by pious bequests, the number of its inmates by the " oblation " of children (at any rate in the eighth century). The abbot might sometimes dispose of the monastery by will or it might be sold, like any secular property. Of the countless monasteries and nunneries which once covered Egypt (cf. Abu Salih and Makrizi) but few have remained in use. Among these, seven are conspicuous; four of the once numerous group in the Nitrian oasis, with ten to twenty monks each; those

269	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Coptfo Church
		Coquere1
	of Anthony and Paul in the eastern desert; that of
	Moharrak in Middle Egypt, with some eighty monks
and still considerable property.
	V. Ecclesiastical Literature: A description of
	Coptic ecclesiastical literature is equivalent to an
	account of the literature of Christian Egypt gen
	erally; for of all the nations of the Christian East
the Copts were the poorest in secular works.	The
	first fruits of conversion were presumably the Bible
	versions, made independently in at least four dia
	lects, at any rate by the fourth century (see BIBLE
	VERSIONS, A, VIL, and cf. Leipoldt, in Church
	Quarterly Review, lxii. 292 sqq. Of almost equal an
	tiquity would be the translations, on the one hand,
	of various Gnostic works which have reached us
	(Pistis Sophia, Books o f Jeu, etc.) and, on the other,
	of the "apostolic fathers" (Herman, Ignatius) and
	the apocryphal gospels and acts (ed. Guidi, F. Rob
	inson, Revillout, Lacau), of which many fragments,
	showing varying degrees of divergence from the
	primitive forms, are extant. The Christl~au phi
	losophy of the third century (Origen, Clement) is
	of course not represented; such works could find
	little favor with a priesthood revering Theophilus
	and Cyril. But from the Nicene age till the final
	schism of 451, the principal Greek writers are rep
	resented in translation. The vast bulk of the sur
	viving works‑and these all fragmentary‑consists
	of homilies and acta, destined all to be read in the
	church service, and from the latter of which the
	synaxaria were subsequently abbreviated. The
	sole writer whose works we have in their original
	Coptic form is Shenoute (see above), the chance
	survival of his monastic library having pre
	served intact many of his writings, as well as almost
	all known besides of the literature of the more an
	cient, southern (Saidic) dialect. The northern
	(Bohairic) is of far less importance, though its geo
	graphical position, around the civil and ecclesias
	tical metropolis, insured its survival after its more
	interesting southern rival had been extinguished.
	Coptic was, it seems, written till about the four
	teenth century; but before that its place had been
	usurped by Arabic, in which language several Chris
	tian writers have left original works (see Riedel,
	ut sup.) or, what is of greater value now, translar
tions of Coptic texts, otherwise lost to us.
	W. E. CRUM.
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lists of literature are to be found in Bea
	aarione, Rome, 1900‑‑01 (by Benigni), in Littkrature chrd
	tienne de l1gypte, Paris, 1899 (by P. Renaudin), in the
	Archaeological Reports of the Egypt‑Exploration Fund since
	1893 (by W. E. Crum), and in F. Cabrol, Dictionnaire
	d'archdologie chretienne, pt. iv. 1177‑82. Accounts of
	Egyptian literature may be read in: E. M. Quatrembre,
	Recherches critiques et histordques sur la longue et la litt6ra
	ture de l'Agypte, Paris 1808; G. Zoega, Catalogue codicum
	Copticorum Musei Borgiani Rome, 1810; E. Amdli
	neau, Contea et romana de l1gypte ehrdtienne, 2 vols.,
Paris, 1888.
	Sources for history are derived from: John of Nikiou,
	ed. H. Zotenberg, in Notices et extraits des MSS. de la
	BiblioWque Nationale, xxiv., part 1, pp. 125‑605, Paris,
	1883; Eutychius, Annalea, Lat. transl. in MPG, cxi.;
	Abu Salih, The Churches and Monasteries of Egypt, ed.
	and transl. B. T. A. Evetts, in Anecdote Oxoniensia, Ox
	ford, 1895; Makrizi, " History of the Copts," Germ. transl.
	by F. Wiistenfeld, GSttingen, 1845, Eng. transl. by S. C.
	Malan, London, 1872; Abu Dakn, " History of the ~aceb
	ites," ed. T. Marshall, Oxford, 1675, S. Haverkamp, Ley‑
den, 1740, Eng. transl. by E. Sadleir, London, 1692; Synaxarium, in Corpus acriptorum Chriatianorum orientalium, xviii. 1, Leipeic, 1906 (with Germ. transl.); Sinuthii . . . vita et opera, ed. J. Leipoldt and W. Crum, Paris, 1906.
For more modern accounts consult: J. M. Wansieben, Hiatoire de l'dglise d'Alexandrie, Paris, 1677; E. Renaudot, in A. Arnauld, La Perpituit6 de la foi do t'dgliae catholique, vol. iv., 6 vols., Paris, 1704‑13; idem, Hiatoria patriarcharum Alexandrinorum Jambitarum, ib. 1713; M. Le Quien, Oriena christianus, ii. 329 eqq., ib. 1740; M. Lidttke, Aegyptens neue Zeit, Leipsie, 1873; Kummus Feltaus, " Modern Catechism," Eng. transl. by N. Odeh, London, 18 2; E. Amdlineau, Monuments pour servir h Phiatoire de Z'Egypta chrdtienne, Paris, 1886‑89; Ellen L. Butcher, Story of the Church of Egypt, 2 vols., ib. 1897 (good for the modern period); A Coptic Layman, in Contemporary Review, lxxi (1897), 734 sqq. (the beat account of recent times); M. Fowler, Christian Egypt, London, 1901 (gives statistics); S. L. Poole, History of Egypt
Z'n the Middle Ages, ib. 1901; K. Beth, Die orientalische
'n the	der Mittelmeerldnder, Berlin, 1902.
On the constitution of the Church consult: W. Riedel, Kirchenrechtaquellen des Patriarchate Alexandrian Leipsic, 1900; K. Labeek, Reichseinteilunp and kirchliche Hierarehie des Orients, Munster, 1901.
On the liturgies and church orders consult: E. Renaudot, Liturgiarum orientalium collectio, vol. i., Paris, 1716, Eng. tranel., Dublin, 1822, partly in J. A. Giles, Codex apocryphorum N. T., London, 1852; A. J. Butler, Ancient Coptic Churches of Egypt, 2 vole., Oxford, 1884; Rites of the Coptic Church. Order of Baptism and . . . of Matrimony, transl. from the Coptic by B T. A. Evetts, ib. 1888; F. E. Brightman, Liturgies Eastern and Western, ib. 1896; A. Gayet, L'Art Copte, Paris, 1892.
On monasticism consult: E. Amdlineau, Coptic Texts, in Annalm du Muade Guimet, xvii., xxv., 1890, 1894; E. C. Butler, Lauaiac History, in TS, vi (1898); M. Jullien, L'Pgypte, souvenirs bibliquea et chrdtiem, Lille, 1899; W. E. Crum, Coptic 0atraca, London, 1902.

COQUEREL, coc"rel', ATHANASE JOSUE: French Protestant, son of Athanase Laurent Charles Coquerel (q.v.); b. at Amsterdam June 16, 1820; d. at Fismes (18 m. e.n.e. of Reims) July 24, 1875. He studied theology at Geneva and Strasburg; was ordained by his father at Nimes in 1843; called to Paris in 1848. His views were even less acceptable to the orthodox party than his father's, and, after suffering much annoyance, in 1864 he was forced to relinquish his pulpit; he opened a free liberal church and became the leader of the liberal Protestants of France. He was one of the founders of the Soci&6 de 1'histoire du protestantisme franpais in 1852, and he edited Le Lien from 1849 to 1870. His publications include Des beauxarts en Italic au point de vue religieux (Paris, 1857; Eng. transl., London, 1859); Jean Calas et sa famille (1858; 2d ed., 1869); Prdcis de 1'histoire de l'olise rdform6e de Paris (1862); Lettres indditea de Voltaire sur la tolMranee (1863); Le Catholicisme et Is protestantisme consid6rds dans leur origins et leer dkveloppement (1864); Des premi&es transformations historiques du Christianisme (1866; Eng. transl., Boston, 1867); La conscience et la foi (1867; Eng. transL, with memoir by A. Rhville, London, 1878); Libres etudes, religion, critique, histoire, beaux‑arts et voyages (1868); Histoire du Credo (1869).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Stroehlin, Athanaf Coquerel file. Eftude biographique, 2 vols., Paris, 1886.
COQUEREL, ATHANASE LAURENT CHARLES:
French Protestant; b. in Paris Aug. 27, 1795; d. there Jan. 10, 1868. He came of an old Jansenist family, and was brought up by his aunt Helen

coquerel
Oornelius
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
Maria Williams (q.v.); studied theology under the Protestant faculty of Montauban 1811‑16; in 1818 became pastor of the French Reformed Church at Amsterdam; was called to Paris in 1830 as assistant to Pastor Marron, and succeeded to the tatter's place upon his death in 1832. He was eloquent and popular and wielded a wide influence both as preacher and as citizen. He was elected a member of the National Assembly in 1848, and of the Legislative Assembly in 1849, but after the coup d'dat of Dec. 2, 1851, he confined himself to his pastoral duties. He was liberal in theology, rejected the doctrines of eternal punishment, and of the Atonement and the Trinity in their orthodox form, and strongly opposed the Calvinistic theory of predestination. He founded and edited three periodicals to express his views, Le Protestant (1831‑33), Le Libre Examen (with M. Artaud, 1834‑36), and Le Lien (1841‑14); in the last‑named he labored to unite the branches of French Protestantism. Besides many sermons (8 vols., 18191852), his works include: Biographic sacree (4 vols., Amsterdam, 1825‑26); Histoire sainte et analyse de la Bible (Paris, 1838); REponse au livre du docteur Strauss, " La vie de J&us " (1841; Eng. transl., 1844); L'orthodoxie moderne (1842); Le Christiaexpbimental (1847); Christologie (2 vols., 1858); Observations prutiquw sur la, predication (1860); Projet de discipline pour les 4glises r6/orm&s de France (1861).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lichtenberger, ESR, iii. 413‑415; Nouveau Laroum illuaW, iii. 265, Paris, n.d.

COQUEREL, CHARLES AUGUSTIN: French Protestant; b. at Paris Apr. 17, 1797; d. there Feb. 1, 1851. Like his brother, Athanase Laurent Charles Coquerel (q.v.), he was brought up by his aunt Helen Maria Williams (q.v.) and studied theology at Montauban. His tastes, however, were more literary and scientific and, after returning to Paris, he occupied himself as a layman in critical and exegetical studies on the history of the canon and of the Gospels, at the same time studying medicine, chemistry, mathematics, and astronomy. His chief literary work was the first Histoire des )fglises du D6sert (Paris, 1841).

CORBINIAft, car"bi"nyd': An early Frankish missionary, one of the predecessors of Boniface, who aimed at completing the conversion of Germany, and the establishment of church authority and discipline among both clergy and laity; said to have died at Freising Sept. 8, probably 730. The only authority for his life is the biography of Aribo, bishop of Freising, written about 768. According to this, Corbinian, whose name was originally Waldekiso, was born at Chartrettes near Melun, and early adopted the life of a recluse. His renown for piety attracted the attention of Pepin of Heristal (d. 714), and brought so many disciples about him that he attempted to flee from their veneration, and went to Rome, where Gregory II. (715‑731) consecrated him as bishop and sent him back. In spite of a second request to be allowed to retire into the obscurity of a monastery, he was obliged once more to retrace his steps. This time, passing through Bavaria, he was prevailed upon
270
by the duke to remain in Freising, where he was the head of a college of priests and did much to break down heathen superstitions and enforce Christian discipline. There are numerous historical difficulties in Aribo's account; but there seems to be a more or less sound historical basis for Corbinian's Frankish birth and episcopal character conferred very likely at the request of Pepin, who favored the sending of Frankish clergy to Bavaria, to spread the Frankish influence there, and his activity in Freising and southern Tyrol under Dukes Grimwald and Hugbert. (A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Vita by Aribo, ed. s. Riezler, is in Ab
	handlungen der bayeriachen Akademie, histor*ehe Klaaee,
	:viii. 21fl‑274 Munich, 1888; and a recension of it with
	comment by the monk Hrotroc is in ASH, Sept., iii. 261
	296. Consult: Rettberg, KD, 1214; Hauck, KD, i. 345.
CORDELIERS, cer'de‑lirz or cer"de"lyb': A name given in France to the Franciscan monks, from the girdle of knotted cord which they wear (see FRANCIS, SAINT, OF Assisi). It was also the name of a famous political club of the Revolution, which met in an old Franciscan convent.

CORDOVA: A city of Andalusia (on the GuadaIquivir, 275 m. s.s.w. of Madrid), the capital of the province of Baetica in Roman times, the most important Moorish town in Spain from the eighth to the eleventh centuries, and one of the great centers of learning, art, and industry of the Middle Ages. In ecclesiastical history it is noteworthy as the episcopal seat in the fourth century of one of the foremost opponents of Arianism, the bishop Hosius (q.v.), as the gathering‑place of several provincial synods, and for its university.
Synods of Cordova: The first met in 839 to suppress the " Casians," followers of a certain Casianus (Cassianus), who were then making trouble at Epagro, in the diocese of Egabra, by laxity concerning marriage, opposition to the veneration of relics, excessive rigor in fasting, and the demand that the bread of the Lord's Supper should be received not in the mouth but in the hand of the communicant. More important are synods held under Emir Abdalrahman II. (d. 852) and his successor, Mohammed. The first of these was called in 852 by Abdalrahman to try to check the fanaticism of certain Christians who sought martyrdom by reviling the prophet of the Mohammedans and in other ways giving them unnecessary offense (see ALVAR OF CORDOVA; EULOGIUS OF CORDOVA). The bishops who attended, including Hostegisis of Malaga and Reccafred of Seville (or according to others of Merida), condemned the seeking of martyrdom and sanctioned a law of the State forbidding it. The acts of the synod were suppressed by the orthodox, and their content is known only from the writings of Eulogius. It is noteworthy that the majority justified their attitude toward the Mohammedans by the fact that the latter worshiped the true God and acknowledged the principles of morality and revelation. There were two later synods, in 862 and 863, both dominated by Hostegisis. At the first an abbot, Samson, a leader of the fanatics just mentioned, was condemned as a heretic for accusing Hostegisis of teaching anthropomorphic views of God, and at the second

271	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Coqnerel
		Cornelius
a bishop, Valentinus of Cordova,who supported Sam
son was deposed and a number of decrees were is
sued in accordance with the views and practise of
the laxer party (cf. Baudissin, 177 sqq.). For the
synods of 1494 and 1540 cf. Hefele, Concilienge
schichte, viii. 364, 796.
	The University of Cordova was founded c. 980
by the Calif Hakim II. It is true that both the
ology and jurisprudence had been cultivated in
Cordova before this time by famous teachers; but
it was due to Hakim's energy and support that
chairs were established for other branches of learn
ing, the library was augmented, and a complete
university began to flourish. That the library
grew to 600,000 books may be an exaggeration, but
it was certainly the best in Arab Spain. At the
time of its greatest prosperity (c. 1100) Cordova
had the best astronomical observatory in all Europe
and was renowned as the center of the study of as
tronomy, mathematics, medicine, and philosophy.
A little later it became the principal seat of the
Arabian study of Aristotle, and thus it became the
mediator between the ancient philosophy and medi
eval speculation. Its most famous teacher was
Averroes (b. in Cordova 1126); and his most fa
mous pupil was Maimonides (q.v.). The capture
of Cordova by the Christians (1236) made an end
of the university, and a Jewish school which had
flourished for several centuries did not long sur
vive the fall of the city.	(O. ZSoxLERt.)
BIBmOctBAPHY: On the bishopric consult %L, iii. 1092
	1094. On the synods: J. 8. de Aguirre Colledio maxima
	conciliorum . . . Hiepanio, iii. 149, Rome, 1893 (also
	ed. G. Catalani, 6 vols., Rome, 1753‑55); W. Baudissin,
	Eulopiue and Alvar, pp. 70 eqq., 127‑128. 177 sqq., Leip
	sic, 1872; W. Game, Rirdenpeac4ichte Spaniene, II.
	ii. 311 eqq., Regensburg, 1874; Hefele, Concilierpeschick
	te, iv. 99, 179, 260. On the university: H. Raahdall,
	Universities of Europe in the Middle Apes, 2 vols., Lon
	don, 1895; V. de la Fuente, Historic de las Univeraidadd
		in Eepatia, vole. iii.‑iv., Madrid, 1888‑‑89. On the
	philosophy: E. Renan, Averrote et Caverroieme, Paris,
	1861; L. Dugat Histoire des philoaophes at des th€olopiena
	Muaulmane 6828‑1888, ib. 1878; A. F. Mehren, LFtudes
	sur la phiiosophie d'Averrhoea, ib. 1888; %L, i. 1745‑50;
	and the works on hiet. of philosophy.
	CORDUS, cer'dvs, EURICIUS, yu‑rf'shivs: Hu
manist of the sixteenth century; b. at Simtshausen
near Wetter (7 m. n.w. of Marburg), Hesse, 1486;
d. at Bremen 1535. He was the son of a peasant,
went to school in Marburg, and entered the Univer
sity of Erfurt in 1505. Here, after teaching a
while in Cassel, he became magister in 1516 and
rector of St. Mary's school. In 1521 he studied
medicine in Ferrara. When he returned to Er
furt the humanists were scattered as a result of
civic turmoil. He, therefore, in 1523 gladly ac
cepted a call to be a physician in Brunswick, and
still more eagerly he went in 1527, on the invitation
of Landgrave Philip, to the newly founded Uni
versity of Marburg. But as a result of controver
sies with colleagues his continuance there became
unpleasant, so in 1534 he accepted a position as
teacher in the gymnasium at Bremen. He laid the
foundations of his fame as a poet chiefly by his
witty epigrams, of which more than 1,200 were
collected in thirteen books; Lessing's dependence
on Cordus has been demonstrated. His Bucoli
corum eclogm appeared at Leipsic in 1518. As a
medical writer he labored to free the art of healing from superstition, and he undertook in the book Botanologicon (Cologne, 1534) to point out, by means of the empirical observation of nature, new paths for the investigation of the plant world. In distinction from most humanists, Cordus was not satisfied with directing his ridicule merely against the evils of church life and the faults of the clergy, but he sided energetically and permanently with the Reformation. He defended it in a poem of more than 1,500 hexameters addressed to the Emperor Charles V. and the German princes.
CARL MIRBT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Krauss, Eurieius Cordue, Hanau, 1883;
idem, Heliue Nobanue Heeeus, sein Leben and seine Works, 2 vols., Gotha, 1879; G. Bauch, Die Univereitdt Erfurt in Zeitalter des Frahhumaninnue, Breelsu, 1904.
CORINTH. See GREECE, I.

CORINTHIANS, FIRST AND SECOND EPISTLES TO THE. See PAUL THE ArosTLE.
CORNELIUS: Pope 251‑252. After the mar tyrdom of Fabian (Jan. 20, 250) the see was vacant for over a year, during which time the rigorist presbyter Novatian (q.v.) presided over the Church. In Apr., 251, Cornelius was chosen bishop. Of his early life little is known. Cyprian tells that he had gone through all the lower orders and that he did not seek the episcopal office, but was compelled to accept it, and characterizes him as a quiet, modest, 'and humble man, an excellent administrator, and a steadfast upholder of the faith. A strong man was needed at this period (that of the Decian persecution), especially as the rigorist teaching of Novatian threatened to bring about a schism in the Church. He blamed Cornelius for his conduct in the time of the persecution, and asserted that he had been a ltbellaticus, i.e., had saved himself by an equivocal written declaration made before the pagan official (see LmBED). Novatian even had himself consecrated to the Roman See by three foreign bishops. Both he and Cornelius made efforts to have their election acknowledged by the metropolitans of Carthage, Antioch, Alexandria, Jerusalem, and Ephesus. Cyprian of Carthage delayed his decision, and sent two bishops, Caldonius and Fortunatue, to Rome to inquire into the matter. But before they returned, having in the mean time seen the legates of Cornelius, the bishops Pompeius and Stephanus, he declared against Novatian. From that time on the relations between Cyprian and Cornelius were cordial, and Cyprian earnestly and successfully endeavored to detach Novatian's followers from him and induce them to acknowledge Cornelius. On Sept. 14 or 15, 252, Cornelius suffered martyrdom with twenty‑one Christians of both sexes at Centumcellae (now CivitA6 Vecchia). Several letters of Cornelius are extant concerning his controversy with Novatian, somewhat vehement in tone and biased in judgment. [They have been frequently appealed to by controversialists on both sides of the question of the Roman primacy, and are of interest also in regard to the question of baptism by heretics.] The death of Cornelius is placed by some authorities in June or July, 253.
K. LEIMBACHt.

Corausua s LnDsde	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
Corpus Doctrines		272
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The chief sources are the correspondence between Cyprian and Cornelius, in MPL, iii. 709‑874, tranal. in ANF v. 319‑347, cf. Mirbt, Quellen, pp. 21‑28. Also consult: Ldber pond fcalis, ed. Ducheene, i. 150, Paris, 1886, ed. Mommsen, in UGH, Oeat, pont. Rom., i. 28‑31; J. Langen, Oeschiches der r6mischsn Kirche vol. i., Bonn, 1881; Bower, Popes, i. 25‑29; Milman, Latin Christianity, i. 83‑$5.
CORNELIUS A LAPIDE (Cornelis van den Steen)
A Roman Catholic Biblical commentator; b. at Borchoet, a village in the diocese of Lidge, Dec. 12, 1567; d. at Rome Mar. 12, 1637. He studied philosophy at the Jesuit colleges in Maastricht and Cologne, and theology at Douai and Louvain, entering the Society of Jesus in 1597. He lectured on the Bible and on Hebrew at Louvain from 1596 to 1616, when he was appointed professor in the Roman College of the order, where he remained until his death. He was one of the most fertile exegetes of the Jesilit order, and his commentaries have retained their influence. He was an ardent advocate of Roman Catholic propaganda at a time when his society zealously devoted itself to exegesis in order to refute those heretics who appealed to the Bible. He derived much from his enemies, the influence of the Clavis acripturm sacrm of Matthias Flacius being especially marked,.but his chief source for historical and chronological data was Baronius. He possessed a remarkably clear sense for all that was interesting and attractive, and made profuse allusions to legends and antiquities with many apt citations. Although solving every difficulty with an affirmation of the verity of Roman Catholic dogma, he was skilled in the discovery of formulas in support of his arguments. His concept of the " literal meaning " is shown by his sixth canon in which he adopts the medieval rule of quadruple exegesis. Thus, in the account of the temptation of Joseph, Joseph allegorically represents Christ and Potiphar's wife the synagogue; symbolically Joseph represents the king and Potiphar's wife rebellion; typologically Joseph represents constancy and Potiphar's wife lust. In support of the " true meaning " he cited an abundance of legendary material, so that in his characterization of Paul, for example, he entered into a discussion of the worship of the saints. Similar digressions fill a large portion of his commentary, and much space is occupied by his classical citations, as when he prefixes to his commentary on Ecclesiastes a compendium of ancient philosophy.
His textual criticism is worthless, since he cites the Oriental versions only at second hand and regards the Vulgate as infallible. His commentaries, of which the most valued were those on the Pentateuch, the Gospels, and the Pauline epistles, appeared in Antwerp in the following order: the Pauline epistles, 16I4; the Pentateuch, 1616; Jeremiah, Lamentations, Baruch, Ezekiel, Daniel, 1621; the minor prophets, 1625; Acts, the Catholic Epistles, Revelation, 1627.; Ecclesiasticus, 1634; Proverbs, 1635; Ecclesiastes, Canticles, Wisdom. 1638; the four Gospels, 1639; Joshua, Judges, Ruth Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, 1642; Ezra, Nehemiah, Tobit, Judith, Esther, and Maccabees, 1645. All have been frequently reprinted (16 vols., Antwerp, 1681; 24 vols., Paris, 1859‑63; 10 vols.,1874, etc.).
(G. HEINRICL)
BrBLIOGRAPRr: A translation by T. W. Moseman of the Commentaries on the O. T. is issued, 6 vole., London, 1892‑93, and one of those on the N. T. is promised. Consult: Sommervogel BiblioWque de la compagnie de J6aua, Bibliographie is,., Brussels, 1893; R. Simon, Histoire critique des principaux commentateurs, pp. 655‑665, Rotterdam. 1693; G. H. Goes in Vie du v&Erable J. Berchmane, pp. 507‑512, Paris, 1853.
CORNIILL, CARL HEINRICH: German Lutheran; b. at Heidelberg Apr. 26, 1854. He studied at Leipsic (Ph.D., 1875), Bonn, and Marburg (lic. theol., 1878), becoming lecturer at Marburg in 1877 and privat‑docent in 1878, and also being first lecturer in the Seminarium Philippinum at Marburg 1877‑86. In 1886 he was made associate professor, but in the same year he accepted a call to K6nigsberg, where he was made full professor in 1888. Since 1898 he has been professor of Old Testament exegesis at Breslau. In theology he describes himself as " scientific in matters of science and faithful in matters of faith." He has written: Jeremia and seine Zeit (Heidelberg, 1880); Das Bush des Propheten Ezechiel (Leipsic, 1886); Einleitung in das Alts, Testament (Freiburg 1891; Eng. transl., 2 vobs., New York, 1907); Der iaraelitische Prophetismua (Strasburg, 1894; Eng. transl., Chicago, 1898); Geschichte des Volkes Israel (Chicago, 1898; Eng. transl., Chicago, 1898); and Das Buch Jeremia (Leipsic, 1905). He also edited the Hebrew text of Jeremiah for the Polychrome Bible (New York, 1895).
CORPORAL: A square linen cloth, about as wide as the altar, used in the Roman Catholic Church to place under the sacrament either before consecration in the mass or at any time of exposition. It was originally large enough to spread over the oblations, including not only the sacramental bread and wine but any other offerings brought by the faithful. In course of time, for the sake of convenience, it was divided, the smaller part now used to cover the chalice and stiffened with cardboard being called the pall. The older custom was long maintained in the Gallican Church and the Carthusian order. The Greek Church also uses a corporal, and two palls, one for the paten and one for the chalice. The corporal is supposed to symbolize the linen cloth in which the body of Jesus was wrapped before being placed in the sepulcher (Mark xv. 46). When not in use it is, folded and placed with the pall in a receptacle called the buree.

CORPORATION ACT: An act passed in 1661 by the Cavalier Parliament of Charles II., the first of the series of repressive measures sometimes known as the Clarendon Code, by which the membership of the municipal bodies,who ruled the towns and usually controlled the elections of their parliamentary representatives, was confined to members of the Church of England. They were expressly required to renounce the covenant, to take the oath of nonresistance, and to receive the Lord's Supper according to the Anglican form, thus degrading a sacred rite into a political test. This provision, though suspended by temporary statutes after 1689, was not finally abolished until 1769, when a promise not to injure or weaken the Church of England was substituted.

273	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bmw06aAP8l: The teat is given in Gee and Hardy. Documents, pp. 594‑800. Titles of many pamphlets teed forth by the act are given in the British Museum Cakaopw. 'gland, part 1, 88‑88. ,
CORPORATIONS. See RIcLIGIous CoapoxATIONB.
	CORPUS CATHOLICORUM: The organisation
of delegates from the Roman Catholic states of the
Holy Roman Empire, tacitly made in opposition to
that of the Corpus Evangelicorum (q.v.). Though
its formation as a definite body with a corresponding
purpose is expressly asserted in the report of the
Evangelical delegates in 1720, the name " Corpus
Catholicorum " is never used in the Reformation
period and hardly ever in the seventeenth century.
This is explained by the fact that papal recognition
could never be secured for it, since the recognition
of a special corporation with rights and privileges
would have easily led to a limitation of the papal
autocracy in Germany. None the less, the body
existed in fact, needing formal sanction the less
because the emperor, as the protector of their
Church, and the imperial councilors would naturally
forward their interest. As, too, they denied the
right of the Protestants to form a similar corpora
tion, they were precluded from making open claim
to such recognition. The Peace of Westphalia
(1648) took cognizance of the existence of the two
bodies, without mentioning the names of either.
Apart from formal organization, a union of the
Roman Catholic states took place earlier than of the
Protestant, as their joint action at the Nuremberg
Diet and the formation of the league at Regensburg
(1524) shows. Jointly, again, they met the Prot
estants at the Diet of Speyer (1529), and concluded
a peace with them at Nuremberg in 1532; and their
organization appears plainly in the Holy League of
1538. The deliberations of the Corpus Catholi
corum, after its action became systematized and
permanent, were usually held in a monastery of
the town in which the diet was sitting, sometimes
in the quarters of the delegate from Mainz, which
naturally, from its pence in the empire, took
the headship of the body. The dissolution of the
empire itself, and of the Corpus Evangelicorum
with it, in 1806, put an end tacitly to the Corpus
Catholicorum as well. 	(E. FBIEDBEBG.)
CORPUS CHRISTI, csr'pvs crWti (" the Body of Christ "): A festival of the Roman Catholic Church in. honor of the Eucharist, celebrated on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday. As early as Augustine's time it was usual to celebrate the institution of the Holy Communion on the fifth day of the last week in Lent. In 1246 Bishop Robert of Li6ge, prompted by the visions of a nun (Juliana, of MontCorneillo), inaugurated a new festival in honor of the sacrament, in a pastoral letter intended for his own diocese. The forms of ‑its observance were quite simple: divine service, lections, antiphonal chants were the essential elements of the ceremony. Shortly afterward Pantaleon, archdeacon of Li6ge, became Pope Urban IV. and gave the festival its ecumenical character (see BoLaENA, MIRACLE OF). His bull of 1264 appoints the fifth day after the octave of Pentecost as the festival's calendar place,
111.‑18
and indicates for its proper object that it shall bring Christ near in his real presence. The sumptuous exposition, together with the indulgence accorded by the pope to the participants in the festival, was designed, no doubt, to extend the same; and not lees instrumental in this regard was the friendly attitude of the great schoolman Thomas Aquinas. But in this second phase also, the festival continued within modest boundaries.
	The real turning‑point in the development of this
festival came in the time of John XXIL (1316‑34),
who instituted the accompanying procession; there
now took place the public exposition of the host in
the monstrance. After the Council of Constance
(1414‑18) the popes took occasion by the amplifi
cation of indulgences ‑to stimulate the zeal of the
faithful still further. The splendid exhibition be
came more sumptuous, even kings `and princes
began to take part in the processions, and in this
way there soon came about a striking mixture of
ecclesiastical parade and worldly splendor. After
the fifteenth century Corpus Christi plays also
came into vogue, being popular presentations of
sacred history. 	HEBMANN HERING.
Bmwoossray: J. C. W. Augueti, DsakwardigUiten, iii. 304 eqq., Leipsie, 1820; A. J. Binterim, Denkrcdrdipkeifea, v. 1, pp. 275 eqq., Mains, 1829; A. Butler, The Moveable Peas<e. Pasts . . . o/ the Ca"ie Church, Dublin, 1839; Bendel, in TQS, w (1852), 244 eqq. On the playa: W. Creisenaoh, Gesehichte des neueren Dramas, i. 182 eqq., Halls, 1893. From the Protestant standpoint: P. Teohaekert, EvanpeliwAs Podemik, pp. 81‑82, 257, Gotha, 1885; C. H. H. Wright and C. Neil, d Protestant Didio"oD, pp. 145‑148, London, 1904.

CVRPQS DOCTRINA, dec'tri‑of or ‑n6.
Origin of the Term (I 1). Corpus Misnieum and Its Rivals (f 2). Lutheran Tentative Corpora (1 3). Formula and I4ber Concordisa (§ 4).
The name "Corpus Doctrinae" was applied in the sixteenth century to collections of doctrinal statements composed as authorized expressions of a certain type of faith, or the belief of an individual church. The Augsburg Confession early became a standard of belief for the local Lutheran churches, and the Apology, as a commentary on it, ranked with it; appeal was likewise made to the Apostles', Nicene, and Athanasian creeds, known as symbols.
Melanchthon, however, designated the
:. Origin whole body of writings .in which the of the pure faith of the Gospel is expressed Term. corpus dwtrinw, and (especially after
1550) insisted strongly on the necessity of having such a recognized norm. The internal controversies of Protestantism became so threatening that a common basis for agreement was sought in 1558 in the compendium known as the Frankfort Recess (q.v.), and again, on the failure of this to find universal acceptance, at the meeting at Naumburg in Jan., 1561 (see NAmcBuB,o CoNvzrIT1oN), but equally without success.
The so‑called Corpus doclrinte Philippicum or Misnicum met with great success among the bodies which inclined to the Philippist party. ‑ It was put out by V6gelin, the learned Leipsic publisher, as a private venture, first in German and then in Latin, in 1561. Besides the three creeds, it consisted of all

Oorrom	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	874
the principal doctrinal writings of Melanchthon, including the Augsburg Confession, the Apology,
the Saxon Confession, the Loci theolos. Corpus gici, Ezamen ordinandorum, etc. It
Kisnicum was officially recognized in Pomerania and Its (1581) and electoral Saxony (1566); Rivals. other churches (Hesse, Nuremberg,
Silesia, Anhalt, Sleswick‑Holstein, and Denmark) practically though informally approved it. Representing exclusively, however, the influence of Melanchthon, it was opposed by others. In Wtlrttemberg Duke Christopher had put forth in 1559 the Wilrttemberg Confession (drawn up originally by Brena in 1551) as the official standard of faith; to this was added, later in the year, a special declaration on the Lord's Supper. In North Germany, the Lilbeck Formula consensus de doctrina eoangelii (1560) set forth, besides the Augsburg Confession and the Apology, the Schmalksld Articles. The Lower‑Saxon gathering of Lilneburg in 1581 named besides these the Catechism " and other writings of Luther " as the true Scriptural explanation of the Augsburg Confession. At Hamburg in 1560 a collection of five declarations issued since 1549 by the clergy of that place was recognised as the norms docendi.
The first specifically Lutheran collection, however, to bear the title of Corpus doctrine was that of Brunswick (15&3), which contained the constitution drawn up by Bugenhagen in 1528, the Augsburg Confession, the Apology, the Schmalkald Articles, and the LUneburg Articles. The Corpus Pomeranicum dates from 1584; before that date Melanchthon's Corpus had been accepted, but its one‑sided tendency was now corrected by the addition of the Schmalkald Articles, Luther's Great and Small Catechisms, and some minor treatises of his. In Prussia the final publication of a specif‑
ically Lutheran standard was brought 3. Lutheran about by the controversies originated
Tentative by Osiander in 1549. With a view of
Corpora. suppressing his teaching, Duke Albert
in 1587 recalled several theologians who had been exiled on account of their opposition to it, especially MSrlin, who brought Chemnits with him from Brunswick; and as a result of their labors a Corpus Prutenicum was promulgated at KBnigsberg. The example of Brunswick was followed in 1588 by the town of Gottingeu, which published its ecclesiastical constitution of 1531, the Small Catechism, and the Schmalkald Articles, with the Augsburg Confession and the Apology in the Frankfort edition of 1585 bound up with them to save expense. This Corpus, with the addition of the three creeds, was again recognised as the norms docendi in 1585; in 1800 the Formula Concordia was acknowledged for the first time, the Great Catechism added, and the Schmalkald Articles and the 1531 constitution omitted. The promulgation of a Corpus doctrine for Brunswick‑Wolfenbuttel was prepared for by the constitution drawn up by Chemnita and Andrew and published by Duke Julius in 1569, which designated as the Corpus doctrine, not the Misnicum, but the Bible, the three ancient creeds, and the Augsburg Confession, as explained in the Apology, the Schmalkald
Articles, the Catechism, and Luther's other writings. This ducal Corpus was confirmed the next year by a clerical assembly. In ducal Saxony, immediately after John William's accession, the Corpus Thuringicum appeared in 1570, with a preface by the duke. It contained the three creeds, the two catechisms, the Augsburg Confession and Apology, the Schmalkald Articles, the Thuringian Confession of 1549, and the Confutation of 1558. The Elector of Brandenburg, John George, followed in 1572 with the Corpus Brandenburgicum, 'prefaced by himself, and containing the Augsburg Confession, the Small Catechism, and the compilation of Luther's expository writings made in 1570 by Musculus for Joachim II. The next year saw the establishment of a Corpus for a part of Silesia. Duke George of Brieg declared as the valid doctrine the prophetic and apostolic writings and approved creeds, whose fundamental teaching was to be found in the Augeburg Confession and Apology, in the Corpus Misni4um, the Mecklenburg Agenda, the writings of Luther and others that agreed with them. The close of this process, which prepared the way for the Formula Concordia, may be seen in 1575 and 1576 in the duchies of Brunswick‑Lilneburg and Brunswick‑WolfenbUttei. In the former, Duke William published in 1575 two expository treatises by Rhegius and Chemnita, following this up in the next year with the formal Corpus Wiihelminum ; and about the same time appeared the Corpus Julium of the other duchy, which contained, besides the usual formulas, the treatises of Rhegius and Chemnits.
All these local Corpora doctrine lost their importance when the whole Lutheran Church succeeded in finding a common ground in the Formula Concordia and the LZer Concordia. In a considerable minority, however, of the 4. Formula states which had accepted the Augs‑
and Liber burg Confession, the Formula was not Concordia. accepted. Some of these, such as Nassau, Bremen, Anhalt, and Lower Heee, were finally driven into Calvinism; others maintained their position as Lutherans without the Formula‑Lutherans, that is, who were not prepared to go as far as the absolute exclusion of the Philippist party. These latter either adhered to their original Corpus or gradually worked out new ones. Holstein accepted the documents contained in the Liber eoncordice with the exception of the Formula itself. Brunswick‑WolfenbUttel adhered to the Corpus Julium; Pomerania supplemented its Corpus in 1593 by the addition of the sections on the Lord's Supper, the Commusicatio idiomatum, and predestination; Hesse‑Darmstadt produced a Corpus Homiacum in 1617‑26 by adding the Wittenberg agreement of 1536 to the Brunswick‑WolfenbUttel selection of 1569. Nuremberg took a middle course, in conjunction with, Brandenburg‑Ansbach, by combining writings of uther and of Meianchthon; and much the same attitude was adopted in 1578 by the county of Hohenlohe. Among the Reformed bodies, the Geneva Corpus et syntagma confessionum W of 1612 was received in some places in the same way as the Lutheran Corpora doctrine. See FORMULA oir CoNcoan.
(G. KAWEBAU.)

275	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	00n°°trlaee
BnBwoaHAPH7: J. A. Sohmidt, De corporibue docbino PAilippieo, etc., Helmstadt,1708; C. A. Salig, Biatorie der Aupebwvw Confession, i. 702 sqq., Halls, 1730: E. Kbllner, fmbolik der luawieehen Kirche, pp. 95 aqq.. Hamburg, 1837; H. Heppe, Die konfewionelle Ruftoiekelunp der alb prokdangwhen Koche Deukehlande, pp. 179 eqq., Marburg, 1854; F. Loofe, LoWadm der Dwmenichte, pp. 907 eqq., Ha1K 1908; H. E. Jaoobs, The Book of Concord, 2 vols., Philadelphia, 1893.
CORPUS EVAPGELICORUM, 6"van‑jel"ir‑edram (also called Corpus Sociorum Auguatance Confessionia): A body composed of delegates from the Evangelical states of the Holy Roman Empire and organized into what was practically an independent political assembly. Its origin is not to be sought in such temporary alliances among the German Protestants as the Leagues of Torgau and Schmalkald, nor in the repeated but always unsuccessful attempts of individual princes to unite the states with which they were in religious sympathy either by the formation of a permanent confederation or by a regular " correspondence." It grew out of the need felt by the Protestant states in the diet to treat and to protect their several interests as joint interests. The same need was felt on the other side, and so the two parties in the diet crystallized more and more into distinct corporations‑the Corpus Evangelicorum and the Corpus Catholicorum (q.v.) ‑and came to treat with each other as such. The formal organization of the Corpus Evangelicorum as a permanent institution took place at the Diet of Regensburg, July 22, 1653, when the representatives of all the Protestant states (then thirtynine) met for deliberation as to their action in the house of the delegate from electoral Saxony, and agreed to act permanently as a body under the leadership of that state. Though regarded with disfavor by the imperial court, it maintained its existence, took cognisance of everything which affected Evangelical interests, and corresponded quite independently with the emperor, with the several states, and with foreign sovereigns. When the Elector Frederick Augustus of Saxony became a Roman Catholic in 1677, followed later by his heir apparent, the question was hotly debated whether Saxony could still be allowed to retain the presidency. Brandenburg, Brunswick, and the Ernestine line of Saxony were anxious to take the place; but the elector gave all assurances, and the fear that his influential house might go over to the Corpus Catholicorum determined the delegates to leave the presidency where it had always been, express stipulations being made that the elector should not interfere with his representative, who was to receive directions from the privy council at Dresden. The regular meetings of the Corpus were held at Regensburg every fortnight. After 1770 there were two standing committees, one for the investigation of religious complaints as to which its action was requested, and one charged with the administration of the six funds belonging to it. The Corpus Evangelworum existed on this basis until 1806, when it perished with the empire; but suggestions as to the usefulness of its reorganisation have been since made more than once. (E. FtunnBaxo. )
CORPUS JURIS CANONICI. See CANON Lsw, 11., 7.
CORRECTION, HOUSES OF: Among the penalties employed by the Church, especially against delinquent clerics, was in very early times the confinement of the offender, for his own amendment, or, if he proved incorrigible, for the removal of a scandal from the eyes of the community. Special places for such imprisonment (decanika) are mentioned in a decree of Arcadius and Honoring in 389; other terms used for them are decaneata, diaconica, secretaria. Numerous synods of the sixth and seventh centuries prescribed imprisonment for delinquent and especially for deposed clerics. Monasteries and (after their erection became general) seminaries were frequently used for this purpose. The present Roman Catholic Church has institutions of this nature in some places.
(O. Mzmt.)

CORRIGAN, MICHAEL AUGUSTINE: Third Roman Catholic archbishop of New York; b. at Newark, N. J., Aug. 13, 1839; d. in New York May 5, 1902. He studied at St. Mary's Cofiege, Wilmington, Del., and at Mount St. Mary's College, Emmittsburg, Md. (B.A., 1859); was the first student from the United States to seek admission to the American College at Rome (opened 1859), and continued his studies there for four years, receiving the degree of D.D. on examination in 1864; was ordained at Rome subdeacon Mar., deacon Aug., priest Sept., 1863. He became professor of dogmatic theology and Sacred Scripture .at Seton Hall Seminary, South Orange, N J., 1864, vicepresident of Seton Hall College 1865, president 1868 (resigned 1876). In Oct., 1868, he was appointed vicar‑general of the diocese of Newark, bishop of Newark 1873, coadjutor to Cardinal McCloskey, archbishop of New York, with the title archbishop of Petra, 1880, and succeeded to the archbishopric 1885. He was a faithful and efficient administrator, possessed of much capacity for system and details, while his uniform courtesy and the nobility of his aims won the respect of the community. From his coming to New York in 1880 to the end of 1895, when his labor was lightened by the appointment of an auxiliary, he confirmed 194,678 persons.
BIHLIOaa1P$7: Midrael A. Corripan, Meraoriol Volume, New York, 1902.
CORRODI, HEINRICH: Rationalistic writer; b. at Zurich July 31, 1752; d. there Sept. 14, 1793. His father, a clergyman and Pietist, lived in Zurich as private tutor, and the son was brought up in Pietistic narrowness. He studied at Halls, where the influence of Semler had a decisive effect on his mind, and he followed this liberal theologian entirely. In 1781 he published anonymously an important work, Krihw)le Gesdiichis des Chilusmus (2 parts, Leipsie; 2d ed., 4 vols., 1794), which has preserved his memory, being written upon the fundamental assumption of the "Enlightenment" (q.v.) that the history of dogmas is a history of human errors, and applyingthis assumption rigorously to each doctrine. The author discovers the essence of Christianity in the field of ethics and considers the Epistle of James as its purest expression; the writings of the apostles, he thinks, are full of Judais.

Oosmas Indiooplenstes
Oorvey	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	276
tic prejudices. In the same "enlightened" spirit
he wrote other works to prepare the way for a
rational religion. Returning to Zurich, his great
learning and undoubted talent for investigation
secured him an appointment there as teacher of
natural law and ethics. He lived with the simplicity
of Diogenes, and managed to save something every
month from his meager income "for the worthy
poor." 	PAUL TBCHAcHERT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Sahlichtegroll, Nakrolop au/ doe Jahr 1783, i. 283‑298, Gotha, 1794; ADB, iv. 502‑504.
CORVEY: Celebrated Benedictine abbey near the town of Hbxter, at the junction of the Scheldt and the Weser (45 m. s.s.w. of Hanover). It was founded by a colony from the abbey of Corbie near Amiens, at the impulse of Abbot Adalhard and his brother Walq, (see ADALHARD AND WALA). Several monks were sent about 815 with the young Saxon Theodrad to found a monastery at Hethis in the Sollinger‑Wald; but the soil proved unfruitful, and the colonists were barely able to extract a living from it. Adalhard asked Louis the Pious for permission to transfer the Monks to some more fertile spot, and the permanent home of the abbey was chosen. By the autumn of 822 the buildings were completed and the church was consecrated by Bishop Badurad of Paderborn under the invocation of St. Stephen, the abbey receiving the name of " New Corbie " (Nova Corbeja). Many rich gifts and privileges were bestowed upon it by the emperor and nobles, and it soon grew to considerable strength. .Adalhard died Jan. 2, 826, and was succeeded by Warin, who ruled the community for thirty years. In the thousand years following his death sixty more abbots succeeded one another. The abbey reached its highest point of prosperity under the Saxon emperors, in whose time the convent school, founded soon after the abbey and conducted for a while by Ansgar (q.v.), attained a wide‑spread fame. Literary activity distinguished the monks, among whom the best‑known author is Widukind (q.v.). The collection of a library was soon begun; among its treasures was the only known manuscript (11th cent.) of the first six books of the "Annals" of Tacitus. [This is called the First Medicean MS. of Tacitus because brought to Rome to Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici (afterward Leo X.) in 1509. It is now in the Vatican Library.] Corvey had been a royal abbey from its foundation; in 1065 Adalbert of Bremen obtained a grant of it from Henry IV., but the monks, supported by Otto of Nordheim, succeeded in vindicating their independence. The administration of Wibald of Stablo (q.v.) was its last brilliant period. After his time it began to decline; discipline fell off, and internal dissensions arose. It managed, however, to sustain itself through the Reformation, only to suffer its hardest blows in the Thirty Years' War, when its library and archives were destroyed, its buildings damaged, and its property and revenues much diminished. In 1792 Pius VI. changed the abbey into a bishopric, with a jurisdiction of five square miles and 9,000 souls. Through the settlement of 1803, the territory passed to the house of Nassau‑Orange, and later to the kingdom of West‑
phalia, finally coming under the	jurisdiction of
Prussia. The bishopric on its spiritual side was
suppressed in 1821. 	(A. IIAUcs.)
BmLIOGRAPHY: The Annalea Corbejeneea are in MOH, Script., iii. 1‑18. Consult: P. Wigand, Geechichte der
. Abtey Corvey, HSxter, 1819; idem, Traditionae Cor beienaea, Leipsic, 1843; W. Wattenbach, DGQ, 5th ed., ii. 472; Neander, Christian Church, iii. 273‑276, et passim; Hauck, KD, vol. ii., passim.

CORVINUS (BABE, "raven," not RAEBENER), ANTTONIUS: Protestant Reformer; b. at Warburg (20 m. n.w. of Cassel) Feb. 27, 1501; d. at Hanover Apr. 5, 1553. He was educated in the Cistercian monasteries of Riddagshausen in Brunswick, and Loccum in Hanover, at the University of Leipsic, and probably also at Wittenberg. He early embraced the Reformation; in 1526 he is found at Marburg; in 1528 he went to Goslar to establish the Reformation there, and worked successfully till 1531, when persecution drove him to Witzenhausen in Hesse. There and elsewhere in the country and neighboring lands he played a prominent part and enjoyed the friendship of the landgrave. With the latter's permission he preached in Hanover and Gtittingen, in Minden and Pattensen. In 1546 the duke of G6ttingen‑Kalenberg became a Romanist, and when Corvinus vigorously opposed the Augsburg Interim of 1548 he was thrown into prison at Kalenberg (Nov. 2, 1549) and not released till Oct. 21, 1552. He possessed considerable learning, some poetical ability, but greater organizing talents, and by devotion, patience, and self‑sacrifice he won a place among the Reformers of the second rank.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. Uhlhorn, Antoniue Corvinua, Hanover, 1901; P. Tschackert, Antoniua Corvinus Leben and Schriften, ib. 1900; his Briefwerkael, ed. P. Techaekert, 1900; and his Bericht vom Kolloquium zu Regensburg 1541, ed. P. Tachackert, in Archiv tar Reformationapeachichte, 1903; G., Geisenhof, Bibliotheca Corviniana, Brunswick, 1900; J. KSetlin, Martin Luther, ii. 299, 311‑312, Berlin, 1903.
	CORWIN, EDWARD TANJORE: Reformed
(Dutch); b. in New York City July 12, 1834. He
was graduated at the College of the City of New
York, then the Free Academy (B.A., 1853), and
the New Brunswick Theological Seminary (1856),
where he was a graduate student 1856‑57 and in
structor in Hebrew and Old Testament exegesis
1883‑84. He held pastorates at Paramus, N. J.
(1857‑63), and Hillsborough (Millstone), N. J.
(1863‑88). He was then rector of Herzog Hall,
New Brunswick, N. J., 1888‑95, and gave instruc
tion at various times in the Theological Seminary.
After a pastorate at Greenport, N. Y., 189:‑97,
he was in Holland in 1897‑98 as the agent of the
General Synod to collect documents relating to
the Amsterdam Correspondence, which passed be
tween the classis of Amsterdam and the colonial
Dutch Reformed churches of New Netherlands
and the Province of New York. These papers
were brought out under his editorship by the
State of New York (Ecclesiastical Records of the
State o f New York, 6 vols., Albany, 1901‑06). He
was president of the General Synod of his de
nomination in 1891, and is the official historiog
rapher of the Reformed Church in America In
theology he is a conservative. Among his nu‑

277	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Corvey
		Commas Indicopleustes
merous writings special mention may be made of
	his Manual of the Reformed Protestant Dutch Church
	in North America (New York, 1859, 4th ed., 1902);
	History of the Reformed Church in America (1895);
	and A Digest of the Constitutional and Synodical
	Legislation of the Reformed Church in America
	(1906). He likewise wrote a number of histories
	of counties and local churches, and edited Cen
	tennial Discourses, in collaboration with T. W.
	Chambers and J. Anderson (New York, 1876), and
	Centennial of the Theological Seminary at New
	Brunswick, N. J., with D. D. Demarest and P. D.
	Van Cleef (1885).
		COSIN, JOHN: Bishop of Durham; b. in Nor
	wich Nov. 30, 1594; d. in London Jan. 15, 1672.
	He studied at Cambridge (Caius College); became
	secretary to Bishop Overall of Lichfield, and
	chaplain of Bishop Neile of Durham; became preb
	endary of Durham 1624, archdeacon of the East
	Riding of Yorkshire 1625, master of Peterhouse,
	Cambridge, 1635, vice‑chancellor of the university
	1639, dean of Peterborough 1640. He was a friend
	of Laud and a strict ritualist; also a man of strong
	character who made his views effective; conse
	quently he came early into collision with the Puri
	tans. In 1641 he was sequestered from all his
	benefices by vote of the House of Commons; in
	1644 he was rejected from his mastership, having
	been concerned in sending the college plate to the
	royal mint. He went to Paris, where he acted as
	chaplain to the ladies of (queen Henrietta Maria's
	household belonging to the Church of England.
	On the Restoration he was reinstated in his bene
	fices and made bishop of Durham (1660). His
	strong convictions and earnest life, his energy and
	administrative ability, with a thorough knowledge
	of the world, pleasing manners, and a commanding
	presence, have caused him to be characterized as
	" one of the greatest prelates of his own or of any
	age." He was severe toward Romanists and
	Puritans, and used his full power to rid his diocese
	of them; nevertheless his Puritan antagonists
	charged him with "popery," and some of his prin
	ciples and practises were little short of Puritanical.
	He was a leading member of the Savoy Conference
	in 1661, and probably had more influence than
	any one else in the revision of the prayer‑book
	made the same year. His best‑known work is his
	Collection of Private Devotions in the Practice of the
	Ancient Church Called the Hours of Prayer (Lon
	don, 1627; new ed., 1867), which was prepared by
	royal command for the use of the queen's maids of
	honor, and gave much offense to the Puritans. In
	France he wrote Historia transubstantiationis papa
	lis (published 1675; Eng. tranal., 1676; ed., with
	memoir, by J. S. Brewer, 1840 and f850); Regni
	Anglice religio catholica, prises, casts, defcecata, a
	vindication of the Church of England (first pub
	lished by Thomas Smith in his Vitte quorumdam
	eruditissimorum et illustrium virorum, London,
	1707; several later editions; translations into Ital
	ian, 1853, 1866, into Spanish and modern Greek,
	1856, French and German, 1857, Russian, 1866,
	English, by F. Meyrick, 1870); and A Scholastical
	History of the Canon of Holy Scripture: or the cer‑
tain and indubitate books thereof as they are received in the Church of England (1657). His Notes on the Book of Common Prayer (published in Nicholl's Comment on the Book of Common Prayer, 1710) is of interest for the history of the prayer‑book. His complete works were published in the Library of Anglo‑Catholic Theology (5 vols., Oxford, 1843‑55), and his correspondence was published by the Burtees Society of Durham (2 vols., 1869‑72).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Consult besides the memoir in his Historia tranaubstantiationis, ut sup.. DNB, xii. 264‑271; Wright and Neil, Protestant Dictionary, pp. 146‑148, London, 1904.
COSMAS AND DAMIAN, SAINTS: According to legend, two brothers from Arabia, Christians, who practised medicine at Egee, on the Bay of Issue, Cilicia, at the time of the Diocletian persecution. They took no fees, and by means of prayer and the sign of the cross accomplished wonderful cures. They refused to renounce their faith at the bidding of the governor, Lysias, endured manifold tortures, and finally were executed by the sword. Their brothers, Anthimus, Leontius, and Euprepius, suffered at the same time with like fortitude. Cosmas and Damian are the patrons of physicians and apothecaries, and are represented with the emblems of their profession. Their day is Sept. 27. (0. Z6CS1.Eat.)
BIBLIOaaAPay: ASH, Sept., vii. 400‑448; Analecta Bollandiana, i (1882), 586‑596; J. E. Wesely, Ikonepraphis ()otter and der Heiligsn, p. 135, Leipsie, 1874.
COSMAS INDICOPLEUSTES ("Cosmos the Indian navigator "): An Alexandrian merchant who, in the first half of the sixth century, visited Abyssinia, Arabia, and India; afterward he became a monk and wrote several books, of which the only one preserved is called " A Christian Topography of the World " (written in Greek, in twelve books; published, with Latin version, in MPG, lxxxviii. 10‑475; Eng. transl., with notes and introduction by J. W. McCrindle, vol. xeviii. of the Hakluyt Society's Publications, London, 1897). The purpose of the writer is to set forth certain views about geography and cosmography supposed to be taught in the Bible; incidentally he has much vilification for those who drew their natural science from another source, particularly such as impiously asserted the earth to be round. To his way of thinking an exact model of the universe was fur nished by the Mosaic tabernacle; there are two worlds, an upper and a lower, divided by the firmament; the table of showbread represented the earth, which consequently is a rectangular plane twice as long from east to west as broad from north to south; the candlestick typified the sun; there is another earth beyond the ocean, which was the seat of paradise and the abode of man till the deluge, when the ark floated over the intervening waters; the heavens form four walls joined to the outer edges of the earth and are vaulted overhead. Notwithstanding his fantastic science, Cosmas was a good observer, shrewd of judgment, and is considered truthful; " the nonsense of the monk was mingled with the practical knowledge of the traveler" (Gibbon, Decline and Fall, v. 148‑149). His reports of Abyssinia, India, and China are interesting, and the fifth book has value for Biblical

Oosta, Isask d°
Clcnnoil. and.8yaod.	THE NEW sCHAFF‑HERZOG	2'r8
introduction because of statements concerning the authorship, purpose, and contents of different books. BIHLaOOSA‑: R.. Beasley, The Dawn of Modern Geography, i. 273‑303 at parim, London, 1897.
COSTA, IZAAK DA. See DA COSTA.
COSTA RICA. See CENTRAL AIzs~cA.
COTELERIUS, JOHANNES BAPTISTA (JEANBAPTISTE COIELIER): French classical scholar; b. at Nimes (30 m. n.e. of Montpellier) Dec., 1627; d. at Paris Aug. 19,1686. In 1641 he went to Paris, where he studied philosophy and theology, and became a doctor of the Sorbonne in 1648. In 1667 he was commissioned by the minister Colbert to investigate and catalogue the Greek manuscripts of the Royal Library, and in 1676 he was appointed professor of Greek at the College de France. He attained high fame as a church historian by his edition of the apostolic Fathers, entitled Sandorum Patru‑ qui temporeWus apoatolicia floruerltnt, Barnabte, Clementis, Hermce, Ignatii, Polycarpi, opera edits. et non edita (2 vole., Paris, 1672). The most of the copies of this edition were destroyed by a fire in the College Montaigu, but a second and third edition was prepared by J. Leclerc (2 vols., Antwerp, 1698; Amsterdam, 1724). He also edited other documents of ecclesiastical antiquity in Hamilim quattuor in Psalmos et interprdatio Prophetm Danidis (Paris, 1661), which he ascribed to Chrysostom, and in Ealesi a Grieco monuments (3 vols., 167788), of which a fourth volume appeared posthumously as Analeda Grow (1692).
(C. PITENDEB.)
BIBLIOGEAP8y: A letter by 8. Baluse, which follows the preface to vol. ii. of Leclerc's oil. of the Patrol, ut sup.; Nicdron, MEnwiree, iv. 243 eqQ.

COTTA. See VESTMENTS AND INSIGNIA, EccLa8IAt3TICAL.
COTTA, URSULA. See LUTHER, MARTIN.
COTTERILL, THOMAS: Hymnologist; b. at Cannock (15 m. n.n.w. of Birmingham), Staffordshire, Dec. 4, 1779; d. at Sheffield Dec. 29, 1823. He was a student and fellow of St. John's, Cambridge (B.A., 1801; M.A., 1805); became curate of Tutbury and of Lane End, Staffordshire, in 1803 and 1808, respectively; perpetual curate of St. Paul's, Sheffield, 1817. He was one of the editors of A Selection of Psalms and Hymns, published at Uttoxeter, Staffordshire, 1805, and with the help of James Montgomery (q.v.) compiled a Seledion of Psalms and Hymns (Sheffield, 1810; 8th and most important ed., 1819). The use of hymns in the English service was not yet established, and an attempt by Cotterill to force his book upon his congregation led to a lawsuit; the dispute was compromised by preparing a new edition (9th), London, 1820, in which the number of hymns was greatly reduced and those printed were approved by Edward Harcourt, archbishop of York. This book had great influence upon the hymnody of the Church of England and is remarkable for the freedom with which the verses of others printed in it are altered from their original form or rewritten. Cotterill also published a book of Family Prayers (2d ed., London, 1816).
Bromoassrav: 8. W. Dufeld, English Hymne, pp. bE‑b4, New York, 1886; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 283‑264.
COTTON, JOHN: Puritan, early minister of Boston; b. at Derby, England, Dec. 4, 1584 (baptized at St. Allmauud's, Derby, Dec. 15, 1584); d. in Boston Dec. 23, 1652. He studied at Derby Grammar School, and Trinity and Emmanuel colleges, Cambridge (B.A., 1604 or earlier; M.A., 1606; B.D., 1613); became fellow of Emmanuel (not later than 1607), dean, and catechist, and distinguished himself as tutor, orator, and scholar. In 1612 he became vicar of St. Botolph's, Boston, Lincolnshire, and gained there a great reputation for learning and piety, as well as for Puritan inclinations, which steadily became stronger. In July, 1633, to escape from a summons to appear before the High Commission Court in London and answer to a charge of not kneeling at the Sacrament and discarding some other ritual observances, he fled to America, landing in September. In October he was ordained " teacher " of the First Church in Boston and colleague of John Wilson, and soon became the most influential person in the community * His reputation continued great in Puritan circles in England, and in 1642 he was strongly inclined to comply with pressing entreaties to return. He engaged in controversy with Roger Williams and defended the latter's expulsion from Massachusetts. In the antinomian dispute he was at first inclined to side with his enthusiastic admirer Mrs. Hutchinson (whose son, Edward, had accompanied him on his flight to America), but ended as her opponent (see ANTINOMLINIBM AND ANTixoMLAN CoNfovERBIms, II., 2).
John Cotton's writings were numerous and deal with a wide variety of subjects. The " bibliography " of Dr. H: M. Dexter's Congregationalism of the Last Three Hundred Years (New York, 1880) has 36 entries ascribed to him. For other lists consult Allen's American Biographical Dictionary (Boston, 1857), sub titulo; J. 8. Clark, in the Congregational Quarterly, iii. 133‑148 (Apr., 1861); and the article John Cotton, by Alexander Gordon, in DNB, supplement, vol: ii. All were published in London, and many in two or more editions. Some of the more noteworthy are: Abstract o/ the Laws o/ New England, a summary of Jewish laws supposed to be of perpetual obligation (1641; reprinted in the Collections of the Massachusetts Historical 8ociety, ser. i., vol. v [1816], 171‑192; of. W. C. Ford, John Cotton's Moses, his Jndicialla and Abstract a/ the Laws of New England, in the Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historioal Society, Oct., 1902); The Pouring Out at the Seven Vials, or an exposition o/ the IBfh chapter of the Revelation, with art application of it to our lima (1842; the fifth vial is made to mean episcopal government); The Keys of the Kingdom of Heaven and Power thereof according to the Word at God (1644; reprinted Boston, 1852 considered one of the most authoritative expositions of Congregationalism); Milk far Babes, Drawn out of the Breasts of both Testaments, chie/ly for the spiritual nourishment of Boston,babea in either England, but may be of like use for any children, a catechism (1646; and many subsequent editions, one at Cambridge, 1858; included in the Now England Primer; Cotton Mother main it " peculiarly the catechism of New England," and says it will " be valued and studied and improved until New England cease to be New England "); The Bloody Tenet Washed and Made White in the Blood o/ as Lamb (1647;

•"He was the ecclesiastical leader of the Massachusetts colony, a part of about all that was done in Church and State till his death " (Walker, Creeds and Platforms of Congregationalism, 184, note 3). " He very quickly came to wield a power in that theocratic settlement akin to that now exercised by a political boss" (Paul Leicester Ford, The New England Primer, 8P).

279	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Costs, Issak da
		Councils and Synods
a reply to Roger William, who had charged him with hold
ing a " bloody tenet of persecution ")• A Brief Exposition
with Practical Observations upon the Whole Book of Bf.Cl6
siastes (1854); The Saints' Support and Comfort in the Time
o/ Distress and Danger, with divers other treatises (1858; a
new edition of God's Mercy Mixed with.his Justice, 1841).
Two of his writings against Roger William were published
by the Narragansett Club (A Letter o/ John Cotton and
Roper Williams's Reply, ed. R. A. Guild, Providence, 1888;
Master John Cotton's Answer to Master Roper William&, ed.
J. L. Diman, 1887).
BxmsooserHr: Consult, bides the works mentioned
	above. Cotton Mather (his grandson), Magnolia, i. 252
	288, Hartford ed., 1855; John Norton, Abel Being Dead
	yet Speaketh, or the life and death o/ that deservedly famous
	man o/ God, Mr. John Cotton, London, 1858, ed. with
	notes by Enoch Pond, Boston, 1834; A. W. M'Clure, Life
	of John Cotton, Boston, 1848 and 1870; P. Thompson,
	The History and Antiquities of Boston [Lincolnshire], pp.
	412‑424 et passim, Boston, 1858; M. C. Tyler, History of
	American Literature, i. 21o‑218, New York, 1878; W.
	Walker, Ten New England Leaders, pp. 49‑96, New York,
	1901 (where references to the sources are fully given).
	COULIA, efll"fns, FRANK: Swiss Protestant;
b. at Geneva Nov. 17, 1828. He was educated at
the college and academy of his native city (B.A.,
1844); resided in Germany 1844‑47; studied in the
theological faculty of Geneva until his ordination
in 1851. After extensive travels he became in
1853 pastor at Genthod, a village on the shores of
Lake Geneva, and there remained till 1895, when
he retired from active life. He was a delegate to
the conference of the Evangelical Alliance held at
New York in 1873, and on his return was asked to
conduct the courses in homiletics in the faculty of
free theology at Geneva. He continued these lec
tures until 1886. He has written: Les tEuvres chr&
tiennes (Geneva, 1865); Le File de Z'homme (1888;
Eng. tranal., by J. Sturge, London, 1869, The Son
of Man); and La Vocation du chrMen (1870).
	COULLIE, PIERRE HECTOR: Cardinal; b. at
Paris Mar. 14, 1829. He was educated at the
seminary of St. Nicholas‑des‑Champs and at St.
Sulpice, and was ordained to the priesthood in
1854. He was vicar at Ste. Marguerite, St. Eu
etache, and Notre Dame des victoires, and in 1876
was consecrated bishop coadjutor of Orldans with
the title of bishop Of Sidonia. In 1878 he suc
ceeded to the bishopric, and in 1893 was enthroned
archbishop of Lyons and Vienne. In 1897 he was
created cardinal priest of Santa Francesca Ro
mama.
		COUNCILS AND SYNODS.
	Origin (i 1).
	Provincial Synods (1 2).
	Ecumenical Councils (1 3).
	Teutonic Synods of the Early Middle Ages (1 4).
	Papal Councils of the Middle Agee (; 5)
	The Reforming Councils of the Fifteenth Century (¢ 6)
	Councils and SYnode: Modern RomanChtholic System (1 7).
	The Synods of Protestantism. Reformed Churches (; 8).
	Adoption in the German Lutheran Churches (I 9),
	The Synodal System in America (1 10).
	In the ecclesiastical sense, " councils " or " syn
ods " are assemblies of representatives of the
Church for the discussion and decision of questions
of faith, points of discipline, and morals. The
gathering of the apostles mentioned in Acts xv.
(see APOSTOLIC COUNCIL AT JERUBALIOM) may be
passed over as having no connection with the later
development. The earliest synods deserving of
mention are those held in Asia Minor in reference to the Montanist question (see MomAxlsM), and those which in both East and West
r. Origin. ‑attempted to settle the quartodeciman controversy (see EAsTE&, II.,. § 1), The former took place probably between 180 and 175; our information in regard to them is derived from an almost contemporary narrator whose account is utilized by Eusebius (Hint. eccl., V. xvi. 10). He does not use the name " synod," and in fact his words do not necessarily imply such assemblies; but the usual interpretation of the passage is probably correct, involving gatherings of a number of local churches for the purpose of discussing the new prophecy. The term " the faithful," which he uses, of course includes bishops, but presumably is not limited to them. The method of representation is uncertain; it is possible that in some cases only the bishop appeared to speak for his church; it is also possible that a certain number of clerics accompanied him, and that prominent laymen were not absent; in some cases they may even have been more numerous than the clergy, or have constituted the only representatives of their community. The terms in which Eusebius (V. xxiii. 2) speaks of the synods held in connection with the paschal controversy give on the surface a different picture; but such knowledge as we have of his sources shows that he unconsciously approximated his account of synods at the end of the second century to those of his own day. The synods held about 195 were not gatherings of bishops exclusively; although the episcopate occupied the most prominent position, the time was still remembered when these assemblies were gatherings of all the faithful. The fact that the monarchical episcopate was fully developed by the period first alluded to (160‑175), and that this constitution of synods is not altogether harmonious with it, leads to the conclusion that such gatherings had been usual, at least as early as the middle of the second century. Sohm finds their origin in the expansion of gatherings, such as are mentioned earlier, of a local church for the election of a bishop; others trace them to the analogy of the secular " provincial council," or make them a natural outgrowth of the need to discuss difficult questions.
A full understanding of their origin can not be obtained without remembering the constant intercourse by means of accredited representatives which the primitive Christian communities main. tained. If a local church was distracted by die. cord, the neighboring churches felt bound to assist in the restoration of order (Clementine, I. IxiiL 3); when peace was restored after a storm of persecution, even distant churches sent envoys to express their joy (Ignatius, Ad Philadeiphenm, x.; ad Smyrneos, x[.; ad Polycarpum, vii.); if a bishop was to be chosen in a small church, the delegates of the larger communities round about desisted in the deliberations. Such envoys, who might be bishops or lower clergy, were chosen in a general gathering of the local church (Ignatius, Ad Poll, carpum, vii.; ad Smyrneos, xi.). It is then on the surface scarcely a step further to the assembly of

Councils and Synods	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	280
representatives of a number of churches for the purpose of reaching a common decision on a disputed question. But a little reflection will show that it is not the same thing. Both the discussion of a local question with the assistance of representatives from outside, and the meeting to discuss a question which affected a number of communities alike, sprang from the primitive Christian feeling of unity and from the consequent mutual intercourse; but they had different aims and significance.
The synods of the second century were loosely organized; they came together when a question, happened to need decision, and represented no determinate group of churches; they had no ez‑offscio members, and no authority which could inter‑
fere with local independence. By s. Provin‑ degrees, however, the logical consecial Synods. quences of the monarchical episcopate
and the theory of apostolic succession followed. In the third century the bishops primarily constituted the synods. It is true that in this period presbyters still universally took part with the bishops, as is evidenced in Alexandria in the first synod held by Demetrius against Origen (Photius, MPG, ciii. 397); in Antioch (Eusebius, Hist. eccl., VII. xxx. 2, xxviii. 1); in Cappadocia (Cyprian, Epist., lxxv. 4); in Rome (Eusebius, Hist. eccl., VI. xliii. 2, on the basis of the letter of Cornelius to Fabius of Antioch); and in Africa (Cyprian, Epist., xix. 2). But none the less the center of gravity had shifted. Though Cyprian mentions the presence of presbyters and deacons, it is evident from more than one passage that in his mind it was the bishops who decided the questions. The records of the synod of Sept., 256, note the presence of many bishops from three provinces, with presbyters and deacons and the greater part of the laity; but in the decision the votes of the bishops alone are given. Thus, too, the African synodal epistles are subscribed by the bishops only (cf. Epist., lvii., Ixiv., lxvii., Ixx.). The presence of the lower clergy and the laity contributed to the publicity of the proceedings, not to the decision, which was now in the hands of the episcopate. The development which was complete by the middle of the second century in Africa was somewhat slower elsewhere. At Rome in 250 the consensus of the clergy and laity was still considered essential to a synodal decision (C~rian, Epist., xxx. 5), and a similar state of things is found in Cappadocia (Gyprian, Epist., lxxv. 4). But the same tendency was everywhere in evidence. _ It is not, therefore, surprising that in the First Council of Nicaea and in that of Antioch (341) it should be taken for granted that only the bishops were the active members (cf. canon v. of Nica'a, xiv., xv. of Antioch). In harmony with this development was the general conception of synodal authority. The bishops, as successors of the apostles, were officially en ued with the Holy Spirit; they made their decisio~s " under the inspiration of the Holy Ghost " (C,yprian, Epist., lvii. 5) or " in the presence of the FIoly Ghost and his angels " (synodal letter of the First Council of Arles, Manai, Concilia, ii. 469); the decision of a synod is equivalent to a divine sentence (letter of
Constantine on the dissolution of the Council of Arles, Mansi, Concilia, .ii. 478).
The next step was to make synods ordinary institutions of the Church. Extraordinary ones continued to be held, but they were additional to the regular ones, which are assumed in the first mention of Eastern synods by a Western writer, probably between 210 and 220 (Tertullian, De jejunio, xiii.). Annual meetings soon became the rule, as can be evidenced in Cappadocia as early as the middle of the third century (Cyprian, Epist., lxxv. 4). This regular recurrence led to the restriction of the district represented, and, probably on the analogy of secular assemblies, the bishops of each province met in its capital. The institution became legally established by the First Council of Mews, (canon v.), which provided for two meetings in the year, one before Lent, the other in the autumn. At Antioch in 341 (canon xx.) the dates were defined as four weeks before Pentecost and Oct. 15, and the arrangement continued long in force (Council of Constantinople, 381, canon ii.; of Chalcedon, 451, canon xix.). Finally the Trullan Council of 692 (canon viii.) and the Second Nicene of 787 (canon vi.) contented themselves with requiring a single annual session. The provincial synod became the most important organ for the episcopal government of the Church. The metropolitan called it and presided over it. Its competence was practically unlimited, extending over all questions of faith and morals, public worship, and the discipline and organization of the Church. The development of provincial synods accompanied that of metropolitan jurisdiction. After the organization of the patriarchal system in the East, the idea came up of having special synods for these larger divisions, and attempts were made to carry it out; but they did not lead to regular annual meetings or to the permanency of the institution.
Ecumenical councils had come into being before the complete organization of the provincial synods. In the course of the Donatist controversy Constantine committed the decision of it first to an episcopal commission meeting in Rome, then to a larger body of bishops assembled at 3. Ecumen‑ Arles (see DONATIsm). These assemical blies have been commonly considered
	Councils.	as synods, and such they were in the
		sense of being deliberative assemblies
of bishops; but it is obvious that they differed from
all previous synods. Their initiative came not
from the bishops but from the emperor, who de
termined both the membership and the place and
subject of the discussion, and gave his authority to
the decisions, which were to be authoritative in
secular law. They were thus not, like the provin
cial synods, organs of free episcopal government,
but assemblies for the purpose of counseling the
emperor as to his decisive action in ecclesiastical
questions. These, however, and not the provincial
synods, were the prototypes of the ecumenical
councils. Constantine. acted in precisely the same
manner at the convocation of the Council of Ni
cma. It was his intention that the Arian question
should be settled by the council, and so he took a
personal part in the proceedings; the adoption of

1381	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Councils and Synods
the Nicene formula was the result of his urgency, and he recognized it as binding in law, imposing penalties on those who refused to subscribe it; he himself promulgated the decision as to the Easter celebration, and imposed its observance on the bishops. Thus, though the Nicene council was theoretically a meeting of the catholic episcopate, and the authority attributed to all synods might be supposed to belong to it in a preeminent degree, it was really not an organ of the self‑government of the Church, but an aid to its government by the secular ruler. The following ecumenical councils were modeled on this and bore the same character. The decision to convoke them originated at the court, and was always carried out by the secular authority. They met under the presidency, or at least in the presence, of imperial commissaries. Their decisions were submitted to the emperor before publication, as occurred in the case of the dogmatic decree of Chalcedon (Mansi, Con‑cilia, vii. 117, 136). He might alt er confirm their decrees, as at Chalcedon (Mansi, . 476) and Conetantinople (Mansi, xi. 697, 724), or refuse his assent, as at Ephesus (Mansi, iv. 1377). Their dependence upon the court increased, until Conetantius could say with brutal frankness at the Synod of Milan, "What I will, let that be considered a canon " (Athanasius, °' History of the Arians," xxxiii.). The detailed history of the several ecumenical councils will be found in other articles (see the name of the place of meeting). Roman Catholic historians number eight in this early period: Niceea L, 325; Constantinople I., 381; Ephesus, 431; Chalcedon, 451; Constantinople II., 553; Constantinople Ill., 680; Nicaea 11., 787; Constantinople IV., 869. But this enumeration is not historically justifiable. Apart from the facts that the Constantinopolitan council of 381 represented only the Eastern Empire ‑[and that of 869 is rejected by the Eastern Church], those of Sardica 342, Ephesus 449, and Constantinople 754 have just as much right to the title of ecumenical, nor was confirmation lacking to the decrees of the two latter. Their omission can only be based upon the fact that later development took a direction opposite to their conclusions. The importance of the ecumenical councils lies in their legislative activity, especially in regard to doctrine, which usually furnished the reason for their convocation. They dealt also with many questions of ecclesiastical organization and private morality; but their action as a supreme judicial tribunal is comparatively unimportant. Their excommunications were always the consequences of their dogmatic decrees, which were considered infallible from the conception of the episcopate as endowed with the charisma veritalis.*
The synodal system underwent a new development in the Teutonic nationalities which arose on
* The list of ecumenical councils as accepted by the Roman Catholic Church is se follows: 1. Moses I., 325; 2. Conetantinople I., 381; 3. Ephesus, 431; 4. Chalcedon, 451; 5. Conetantinople II., 553; 6. Constantinople III. (First Trullan), 880‑881; 7. Nicam II., 787; 8. Constantinople IV., 869; 9. Later" I., 1123; 10. Lateran 11., 1139; 11. Lateran III., 1179; 12. Lateran IV., 1215; 13. Lyons I., 1245; 14. Lyons
1I., 1274; 15. Vienne, 1311‑12; 18. Constance, 1414‑18;
the reline of the Roman Empire. The old division of ecclesiastical provinces had much less importance now than of old; the larger unit of church life above the diocese was not the metropolitan jurisdiction but the national Church,
4. Teutonic and the former disappeared entirely Synods of for a time in the Frankish kingdom. the Early Moreover, at the beginning of the Middle Middle Ages the diocese was no longer Ages. a town community governed. by the bishop with a united presbytery about him, but an extended territory divided into a large number of coordinate pariah. The relation of the king, again, to the Church was important. Though not carrying such unlimited power as the emperors had possessed, it was sufficiently analogous to theirs for the provincial synod to lose much of its earlier importance, and to become a merely occasional gathering. This was especially the case in the Freakish kingdom, where in the Merovingian period only a few such synods are heard of, and the acts of only one are extant. Boniface asserted in 742 that no synod had been held for more than eighty years; but neither his efforts nor those of Charlemagne availed to alter the situation materially. The case was the same in England; the ancient provisions were not forgotten, but simply not followed.
Provincial synods were most frequent in Spain, as long as the Visigoths were Asian (Tarragona 516, Gerunds 517, Lerida 524, Valencia 524, Toledo 527, Barcelona 540). The place of the provincial synods was taken by national councils. The first of these in the Frankish kingdom was called by Clovis at Orleans in bll, and they never ceased to be held during the Merovingian period, either for the whole kingdom or one of its divisions. They were distinguished from provincial synods by being not regularly recurring assemblies, but meetings summoned or at least sanctioned by the king for a special purpose. Their decisions did not necessarily require royal confirmation, but the kings felt themselves at liberty to alter or abrogate them, especially when they overstepped the bounds of spiritual administration. After the middle of the seventh century they met in the presence of the king or his representative. The Burgundian kingdom also had its national synods (Epson 517; Lyons 517). It is significant that in Spain they begin with the conversion of Recared (Toledo 589, 597, 633, 636, 638, etc.), and seem at once to have taken the place of the provincial synods. A peculiarity here was that the magnates of the kingdom and the royal officials were considered members. Only in England did the national council fail to acquire importance. This system lasted, unchanged in essentials, through the whole first half of the Middle Ages. The extension of the empire under Charle‑
17. Basel‑FerrararFlorenoe, 1431‑42; 18. Lateran V., 15121517; 19. Trent, 1545‑83; 20. Vatican, 1869‑70. The first seven of these are accepted by the Greeks, the others rejected; they also accept the Second Trolls Council or Quinieextum, 892 (rejected by the West), considering it a continuation of the First Troll" or Third Constantinople. The eighth general council of the Greeks was held in Conet"tinople in 879 "3 rejected by the Latino (see Paomcus).

Oonnoils and Oyaods	THE NEW BCHAFF‑HERZOG	$a9
magne made these assemblies practically councils of the entire West (Regensburg 792, Frankfort 794). While adhering in essentials to the catholic doctrine and institutions, they allowed themselves a fairly wide latitude in their legislation. The new diocesan system developed synods also for each separate diocese, somewhat on the lines of the primitive presbyterium, presided over by the bishop and including the parish priests, abbots, and deans of the diocese. The earliest of these were the two at Auxerre, between 573 and 803 and 895, and that of Autun, between 883 and 880. The attempt was made to establish the custom of meeting annually, but, apparently without much success.
The popes did not overlook the weight which synodal decisions carried; and thus, although Italy was never a scene of much eoncdiar activity, more assemblies of this kind were held in Rome under papal presidency than in any other city of Christendom. The position of the popes
5. Papal brought about the participation in
Councils them of distant churches. Julius I.
of the summoned one for the year 341, to
Middle	which he bade the Eastern antago‑
	Ages.	mats of Athanasms. They refused to
		appear; but more than fifty bishops
attended, including some from Thrace, Ceele‑eyna,
Phenicia, and Palestine. Gallic bishops.sat with
those of Italy in the synod called by Damasus in
389, and similar gatherings continued to be held.
They were called by the popes not as patriarchs
of the West, but as supra of Bt. Peter; and
the papal sanction gave them high authority. The
importance of the synods held by the Carolingian
emperors north of the Alps somewhat diminished
the preeminent authority of these Roman councils;
but a change came with the pontificate of Leo IX.
(1048‑54), who was the first pope to raise the papal
dignity once more after its prolonged humiliation.
He made much use of synods, and, not content
with holding them in Rome and other parts of
Italy, presided in person at the imperial synods
held in Germany and France. From the middle of
the eleventh century the papal synods constantly
increased in importance and consideration (Lateran
synod of 1059 under Nicholas II.; 1083 under Alex
ander IL; 1074, 1075, 1078, 1078, 1079, 1080, 1983
under Gregory VII.; 1095 at Piacenza and Clermont
under Urban II.; 1119 at Reims under Calixtus
II.). The last of these popes summoned the Lat
eran council of 1123 under the name of a general
council; but the placing of it on a level with the
old ecumenical ones came later and gradually; that
of Constance reckoned in this category only three
modern councils‑Lateran 1215, Lyons 1274, and
Vienne 1311. Roman Catholic theologians now
add to these three more Lateran synods (1123,
1139, 1179) and the first of Lyons, 1245. These
had, it is true. an authority in the medieval Church
answering to that of the old ecumenical councils
under the Roman Empire; but they were confined
to the papal obedience, called and presided over
by the pope, and dependent on his sanction for
the validity of their decrees, so that they were
merely organs for his government of the Western
Church.
The beliefs as to the pope's position current in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries were shaken by the Great Schism, which forced
6. The Re‑ men to seek an authority powerful
forming	enough to restore unity even in spite
Councils	of conflicting claimants of the papacy.
of the Fif‑ This they thought they had found in teenth the general council, on lines foreshad‑
	Century.	owed even in the fourteenth century
		by Marsilius of Padua and William of
Oocam. At the very outset of the Schism, after
the election of Clement VIL, the appeal to a uni
versal council was heard (see CLsxxsrr VIL; UR
BAN VI.). Presently it was taken up by such in
fluential theologians as Pierre d'Ailly and Gerson,
and became prevalent. The attempt to end the
Schism by the Council of Pisa (q.v.) was indeed a
failure, but this did not affect the belief in the
efficacy of this method. The Council of Constance
(q.v.) boldly attempted to alter the constitution
of the Western Church by the introduction of gen
eral councils as a regular factor in its government,
to recur at intervals of five, seven, and ultimately
ten years. But the execution of this plan, though
approved by the Council of Basel (q.v.), was ren
dered impossible by the natural opposition of the
Curia. When Eugenius IV. transferred the Coun
cil of Basel to Ferrara (see FEBBARA‑FLORENCE,
COUNCIL or), he took his stand on the principles
accepted before Constance, and logically declared
null and void, with the assent of his council, the
decrees of Basel as to the superiority of the coun
cil over the pope. In the Lateran Council of 1512
1517 Leo X. struck a mortal blow at the idea in
the bull Pastor aaemua.
After this the Curia had an unconcealed distrust of general councils, and it was only the pressure of political powers which led to the reorganisation of Catholicism after the storms of the
7. Councils Reformation by that of Trent (see and Synods: Tu=x, COUNCIL OF). It was only when
Modern	the last trace of opposition to unlimited
Roman	papal power disappeared in the nine‑
Catholic	teenth century that this distrust was
	System.	finally lulled, so that Pius IX. could
		give the world the long unseen spec.
tacle of a general council in 1870 (see VATICAN
COUNCIL). The principles now accepted are that
these assemblies may only be called by the pope
and prided over by him or his, delegates; that
their membership is confined to the cardinals,
bishops, vicars apostolic, generals of religious or
ders, and such dignitaries, to the exclusion of the
laity; that the subjects discussed must be laid be
fore them by the pope, and their decisions con
firmed by him. They are thus nothing more than
assemblies of advisers about the pope, with no in
dependent power of their own. Nor have pro
vincial synods any ‑longer a necessary place in the
polity of the Roman Catholic Church. The Coun
cil of Trent ordained, indeed, that they should be
held every three years‑‑a period which it was pro.
posed at the Vatican Council to extend to five‑
but the rule is not observed in practise. Much the
same may be said of the diocesan synods, which
the Council of Trent required to be held annually.

gag	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	Councils and Synods
The Reformation broke with all the medieval ideas on the subject. Luther very early repudiated the belief in the infallibility of councils, and, where Roman Catholic theology had tended to put
their decisions on a par with the Writ‑
8. The ten Word, was inclined rather to con8ynods of sider the two opposed, withdrawing the Protestant‑ whole domain of faith, morals, and
ism. Re‑ worship from their legislative jurisdioformed tion and leaving them only the duty Churches. of guarding against departures from Scriptural faith and practise. Thus he considered them practically as judicial tribunals, in which character they were to be composed not only of bishops but also of godly secular persons. From these principles, as from the emphasis laid on the assertion that the Church needed to care only for preaching and the administration of the sacraments, there was no reason to expect that any use would be made of a Reformed synodal system in the organization of the Lutheran territorial churches; and in their later development, with a few sporadic exceptions, no such system was considered. In England the synodal system of the Middle Ages was carried over into the Established Church. But the convocations, after the Reformation as before, were exclusively clerical assemblies; and in accordance with the doctrine of royal supremacy they were not permitted to meet without the sovereign's license, nor were their decisions valid without his assent.
The home of the new synodal system was the Reformed Church, in which questions of organization were regarded as of more importance than among the Lutherans. The presbyterial organization established by Calvin at Geneva became the model for all the Reformed churches. That of France was the first to develop the synodal system for a national Church. At the first national synod (1559) it was resolved that no local church should have any precedence over any other; that general synods should meet from time to time as occasion arose, composed of the ministers and one or more elders or deacons from each church, under a president elected at the meeting; that in each province twice a year the ministers and at least one elder or deacon from each congregation should meet in synod. In 1565 the composition of the national synods was changed to either one or two elected ministers and elders from each provincial synod. These synods, of mixed clerical and lay character, were charged with the government of the Church. On the same lines proceeded the organization of the Reformed churches of Scotland, the Netherlands, and northwestern Germany. The polity was in each case built up on a national basis; the idea of completing it. by an international organization seems to have been unknown, and the Synod of Dort was a mere isolated exception.
The imperfection of the older Lutheran system became more and more obvious after the seventeenth century, but the first attempts at improvement dealt with the local churches. It was not until political changes gave occasion for reorganization in many of the German states that the idea of introducing the synodal element was taken up.
In 1807 Schleiermacher made a proposal for a new constitution of the Protestant Church in Prussia, which included the adoption of the g. Adoption synodal system, and this principle has in the Ger‑ since been dominant. Since the rela‑
man Lu‑ tion of the Church to the temporal
theran sovereigns made it impossible simply
	Churches.	to adopt the Reformed plan, an at
		tempt was made to combine the syn
odal and the consistorial systems. In 1817 presby
teries were formed in Prussia, and the first synods
were constituted of ministers alone. Not much
came of these attempts there, although they were
followed by Bavaria in 1818 and Baden in 1821.
Before half a century had passed, however, all but
a few of the Lutheran churches of Germany adopted
synodal constitutions, WIrttemberg 1854, Hanover
1864, Saxony 1868, Prussia 1873‑78, etc. These
German synods are not, like the old Reformed ones,
charged with the government of the Church, but
are rather the representatives of the Church with
the government. They consist of both ministers
and laymen, and are chosen for the district synods
by the congregations, for the provincial and na
tional synods by the bodies below. Owing to va
rious causes‑their restricted competence, their
infrequent meetings (every four, five, or six years),
their unwieldy numbers, and cumbrous parlia
mentary forms‑they have not produced the re
sults that were hoped from them, and can scarcely
do so unless the gift of greater freedom of action
makes them really organs of a self‑governing
Church.
The Protestant emigrants from England to America were at first mostly independents, and it was not till after the middle of the seventeenth century that the number of Presbyterians gradually increased.* The first union of ‑several congregations into a presbytery occurred in 1705 or 1706, and the first synod met in Philadelphia in 1717 (see PRESHYTERUNS, Section on America). The system took firm root in America, and was adopted
* [The first eqttlers in Virginia (11107) and most of those that followed for a century or more were members of the Established English Church. Although Puritanical tendencies early appealed, episaopalian institutions long prevailed. The founders of the Plymouth colony (1820) were eamiSeparatiets, and soon reached a position that resembled " Independency." The founders of Salem (1822 onward) were Puritans, strongly committed from the first to non‑conformist principles, and early won to essentially Congregational principles through the influence of the men of Plymouth. The Massachusetts Company (1828) were Puritans, who in leaving England professed the warmest attachment to the Church of England and so were not avowed non‑conformist,. They early developed a strong theocratic and presbyterial system. In August, 1837 a synod was held at Cambridge, consisting of about twenty‑five ministers, " others sent by the churches," and the Massachusetts magistrates, for the suppression of the antinomian heresy. In 1848 " the elders and messengers of the churches assembled at Cambridge " agreed upon " A Platform of Church Discipline," which was afterward adopted by the churches and the General Court, in which it is declared that " Synods orderly assembled, and rightly proceeding according to the pattern, Act. 15, we acknowledge as the ordinance of Christ . . . necessary to the well‑being of churches. . . Magistrates have power to call a synod.
. It belongeth unto synods and councils to debate and determine controversies of faith and cases of oonscienm" etc. For the councils of the Congregational Church are
CON06EOATIONALIBTa, IV., J; 2‑3.	A. H. N.l

Councils and Synods	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	1484
with variations not only by the Lutherans there, but also by the Episcopal Church. The Reformed
synods in America were in the main ro. The framed on the French model, except Synodal that the elders were chosen by the
System in congregations and were considered as America. representatives of the congregations.
	As to the Lutherans, it is to be ob
served that they came not only from Germany, but
also from the Netherlands, where the presbyterial
system had been in force from the beginning, and
from Sweden, which had something of a similar
organization. But even among the Germans the
fact that their principal organizer, H. M. Milhlen
berg (q.v.), belonged to the school of Spener and
organized his congregation with elders gave an
impulse toward the adoption of the synodal sys
tem. The first Lutheran synod was held in Phila
delphia in 1748, consisting of six pastors and a
larger number of lay delegates (see LUTHERANS).
After 1760 annual synods were held. The Epis
copal Church, as the daughter of the Church of
England, began with the same constitution; but
the separation following upon the War of Inde
pendence forced it to adopt a new organization,
whose principles were established in the General
Conventions of Philadelphia, 1784, and Richmond,
1785, both composed of clergy and laity sitting to
gether. The former laid down the principle " that
to make canons or laws there be no other author
ity than that of a representative body of the clergy
and laity conjointly," which has since been fol
lowed (see PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH). See
CHURCH COUNCIL. 	(A. HAuax.)
BXBLIOGRAPRT: For the collections of the Acta of Councils by Labb6, Harduin, Mansi, and Hefele see vol. i. of this work, Preface, p. xix. The earliest collection was by J. Merlin, Conilia peneralia, Paris, 1523, 1530, 1536, followed by that of P. Crabbe, Concilia omnia tam peneralia quam particularia, 2 vole., Cologne, 1538. Partial collections and translations are: H. T. Bruns, Canones apoatolorum et conciliorum, Berlin, 1839; W. Lambert, Church Ca‑; as Arat four Councils, London, 1871; J. Chrystal, Authoritative Christianity; the Decisions of the six sole ecumenical Councils, vole. f.‑iii., Jersey City, 18911904; J. Fulton Index canonum; Greek text, Eng. tranal., and complete Digest of the . . Canon Lath of the undivided primitive Church, New York, 1892. A translation of the canons and decrees of the seven ecumenical councils is m NPNF, 2d eer., vol. xiv. The Aots of the Catholic synods since 1682 are in the Adz, st decreta aanetorum conciliorum recentiorum 7 vole., Freiburg, 1870 sqq
Collections for individual lands are: J. F. SohannaE and J. Hartzheim, Concilia Germania<, 11 vcls., Cologne, 17491790• MGH Concilia, vole. i.‑ii. 1, 1893‑1906; J. Sirmond, Coneiiia antique Gallic, 3 vole., Paris, 1629; Conciliorum Gallic: collectio, Paris, 1789; D. Wilkins, Concilia Magnce Britannia; et Hibernio;, 4 vols., London, 1737; E. Gibson Synodue Anpliaana ib: 1854; J. W. Joyce, England', Sacred Synods, ib. 1855; Haddan and Stubbs, Councils; J. Robertson, Concslia Scotto, Edinburgh, 1866; Synodtcon Belpuum, ed. J. F. van de Velde and P. F. %. de Ram, 4 vole., Mechlin, 1828‑59; H. Reuterdahl, Btatuta eynodalia veteria eccleaies Sveoeothiea, Lund, 1841; J. S. de Aguirre and J. Catalano, Couectio maxima conciliorum omniuin Hiepania, Rome, 1753; C. Peterfy, Concilia eccieeim Romano Catholics in repno Hunparia, 2 vole., Posen 1741‑42; J. Aymon, Toue lee aynodes nationaux des'6plisea r‑Iformbae de France, 2 vole., The Hague, 1710; E. Hugues, Les Synodea du d6aert 3 vols., Pans, 1885.
Discussions on the subject are: F. Salmon. Traith de l'Mude des concilea et de lours collections, Paris, 1724 and often; A. J. Binterim, GesAichte der deutsehan . . . Con‑
alien, 7 vols., Mainz, 1835‑48; W. A. Hammond, The Defcnidions of Faith and Canons of Discipline of the Six (Ecumenical Councils Oxford, 1843; L. Richter, Goschwlds der evangeliachen %irchemverfassunp in Deufchland, Leipsic, 1851; G. Lechler, Geschiehte der Presbyterisal‑ and Synodalvsrfassung wit der Reformation, Leyden, 1854; J. F. von Schulte, Die Stellunp der ConciZien, Pdpste and Bischcfe room historischen and canonisehen Btandpunkte, Prague, 1871; E Michaud Discussion sur les sept conciles ocumin, Bern, 1878; E. B. Pusey, The Councils of the Church from . 61 to . . . 381, Oxford, 1878; E. Hatch, The Growth of Church Institutiona, London, 1887; idem, The Organization of the Early Christian Churches, ib. 1895; H. Finke, Konzilienstudien zur Geschichte des 13. Jahrhunderts, Munster, 1891; W. Bright, Notes on the Canons of the First Four General Councils, London, 1892; E. H. Landon, Manual of the Councils of the Holy Catholic Church, 2 vols., ib. 1893; W. P. Du Bose, The Ecumenical Councils, New York, 1890; P. Gurin, Les Conches pt~n&aux et particrdiers, 3 vole., Paris, 1897; P. de Felice Les Protestants d'aubefois, 5 vols., Paris, 1897‑1902; K. von Schwartz, Die Entatehunp der Synoden, Leipsic, 1898; H. von Hoffmann, Das Kirchenverfassungereeht der nieder14ndisehen Re%rmiarten, ib 1902; G. B. Howard, Stories of the First Four Councils, London, 1906. The subject is treated in all the principal treatises on church history; the literature on the individual councils and synods will be found under the articles dealing with them. A valuab)e guide may be found in Ceillier, Auteurs sacris, index volume under " Conches " giving directions to a rich literature. Consult also DCA, i. 473‑186; KL, iii. 779‑810.
COUNTERREFORMATION: The general name for the complex of causes and results which from the middle of the sixteenth century checked the progress of the Protestant Reformation dnd won back to the Roman Catholic Church much of the territory and the prestige which had been apparently lost to it; in a narrower sense, the reform and revival in the Roman Church which was one of these causes. See REFORMATION; ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH; ITALY, THE REFORMATION IN; SPAIN, THE REFORMATION IN; also the articles upon the events, leaders, and agencies of the Counterreformation which are mentioned in these articles, as well as the articles devoted to the Counterreformation in certain lands and localities, viz.: ALBERT V. OF BAvARIA (for Bavaria); BALTHAZAR OF DERNBACH (Fulda); CYsAT, RENWARD (Switzerland); DANIEL, ELECTOR OF MAINZ (the Eichsfeld); FERDINAND II. (Austria); GEBHARD II., ELECTOR OF COLOGNE (the Lower Rhine); INNER AUSTRIA; JACOB CHRISTOPHER, BISHOP of BASEL (Switzerland); JACOB OF ELTz (Archbishopric of Treves); JULIUS ECHTER (Wiirzburg).
COURAYER, curd"y6', PIERRE FRANCOIS LE:
Roman Catholic; b. at Rouen Nov. 17, °1681; d. in London Oct. 17, 1776. He became canon of St. Genevibve in Paris 1697, presbyter and professor of theology 1706, librarian of the abbey 1711. He was interested in the reunion of the Anglican with the Roman Catholic Church, and defended the validity of Anglican orders in a series of books which were fiercely attacked by Gervaise, Hardouin, Le Quien, and others, and were formally condemned by the French bishops. Encouraged and helped by Bishop Francis Atterbury, he went to England in 1728, where he spent the rest of his life. He was excommunicated in 1728; nevertheless he always professed to be a true Roman Catholic, although he rejected certain of the alleged

285	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Q~ue and Synods
superstitions of the Church. His works were Dis
sertation sur la validiM des ordinations des Anglois
d sur la succession des dvtques de l'Eglise anglicane
(Brussels, 1723; Eng. transl., by D. Williams, Lon
don, 1725 and 1728; revised and corrected, with
an account of the author and his works, notes,
etc., Oxford, 1844); Defense de la dissertation sur
la validitd des‑ordinations des Anglois (2 vols., Brus
sels, 1726; Eng. transl., 1728); Relation historique
et apolog&ique des sentiments et de la conduits du
P. Le Courayer (2 vols., Amsterdam, 1729); Sup
pMment aux deux ourora&s fats pour la d6fense de
la vadidite des ordinations anglicanes (Amsterdam,
1732); Examen des d6fauts th6ologiquzs o4 l'on in
dique les moyens de les ref‑per (1744); Ddclarco
lions de mss derniers sentiments sur lea di fjerens
dogmes de la religion (London, 1787; Eng. tranal.,
1787).
COURCELLES, car"sel' (Curcellwus), ETTENNE DE: Arminian; b. at Geneva May 2, 1586; d. in Amsterdam May 22, 1659. He studied theology under Calvin and Beza, and in Heidelberg, and was appointed pastor at Bois‑le‑Roi, near Fontainebleau, in 1614. In 1621 he became pastor at Amiens; but, having refused to subscribe the decrees of the Synod of Dort, he was deposed. He afterward gave a qualified assent, and was appointed pastor at Vitry, but gave up this position in 1634, went to Amsterdam, and became (1637) Episcopius' successor as professor of theology in the Remonetrants' College. He studied particularly the Greek text of the New Testament, and published an edition of it with many variant readings (Amsterdam, 1658). He published also a Vindicia Arminii (1645); Defensio Blondelli (1657); Dissertationea (1659); all of which, with others of his writings, . appeared in a collected edition of his works at Amsterdam, 1675.
	COURT, car, ANTOINE: 1. Reorganizer of the
Reformed Church in France; b. at Villeneuve de
Berg (50 m, n. of Nimes) Mar. 17, 1696; d. at
Lausanne June 12, 1760. He determined at an
early age to become a Protestant minister, and
wandered throughout Vivamis with an itinerant
preacher, delivering sermons and becoming still
more firmly convinced of his calling. In 1714‑15,
defying the rigid laws promulgated against Prot
estantisn; by Louis XIV., he undertook his first
tour, which comprised Cdvennes, Languedoc, and
Dauphind. On Mar. 8, 1716, an edict of the king
declared Protestantism non‑existent in France, but
		on Aug. 21 of the same year Court
	Labors in convened the " first synod " in an
	Organizing abandoned quarry at Monoblet (De
	Church of partment of Gard). There certain
	Desert. plans of organization were drawn up,
		elders were chosen, the Bible was de
clared to be the only rule of faith and doctrine,
women were forbidden to preach, and an earnest
warning was made against " revelations." The
resolutions were disseminated in writing, and the
work of propaganda was actively carried on, while
Court, who held a second synod in the following
year, was unceasing in his sermons and efforts to
obtain religious books forbidden by the author‑
ities. On Nov. 21, 1718, he was ordained minister by the laying on of hands by Pierre Carricre (commonly known under the name of Corteis), and now made provision for the training of young preachers, although the administration of the sacrament and the laying on of hands were restricted to the ordained ministers. The organization thus effected was termed " the Church of the Desert " (with reference to Rev. xii. 6), and was characterized by vigorous opposition to Roman Catholicism.
The hostility manifested by Louis XIV. to the Reformed worship was continued by the regency after his death, and its observance was sternly punished. In 1719 it was rumored that the Spanish minister Alberoni intended to call the Protestants of Languedoc and Poitou to arms, and the regency, in its fear of a second Camisard revolt, entered into correspondence with Court
Successful as well as with Bdaddict Pictet and
Leadership. Benjamin Basnage, urging them to admonish their coreligionists of their obedience. Basnage responded, but denied that the Protestants had the right to hold services publicly. He was answered by Court in his Rgponse des pasteurs du d6sert d Z'instruclion pastorale de Basnage, but the latter's. hope of securing greater leniency for the Protestants was disappointed. In 1720 he visited Geneva, where he sought to win the leaders of Swiss Protestantism to his side, and at the same time entered into correspondence with William Wake, archbishop of Canterbury. Returning in Aug., 1722, he found his church in a flourishing condition, but a decree of May 14, 1724, renewed all the restrictions placed upon Protestantism. The Reformed, however, persisted in their course, and on May 16, 1726, a general synod was held in a small valley of Vivarais. The organization prevailing in Languedoc was adopted, synods were required at regular intervals, and definite parishes were assigned the clergy. A document of the latter half of 1728 gives the number of Reformed in Languedoc and Dauphind at 200,000 (which is probably too high). Languedoc, together with Rouergue and Vivarais, contained 120 parishes, three synods, sixteen conferences; four ministers, and eighteen candidates, and this organization was maintained in the face of. the utmost difficulty and danger. Until 1729 Court shared this life of toil, acting not only as pastor but as leader of the entire movement, in addition to maintaining an enormous correspondence, instructing candidates for the ministry, convening synods, preparing memorials for the king, and collecting documents for a history of his church. In September of that year he resolved to leave France, and accordingly went to Lausanne, where for three years French students had been trained for the ministry in their native country. Under his supervision, although he occupied no fixed position in it, the seminary steadily increased in numbers and efficiency. Meanwhile a schism arose which divided the church of Languedoc into two camps, and on June 2, 1744, Court left Geneva and hastened to France. There he quickly restored harmony and was chosen general deputy in place of Duplan by the national

aoovsnant	THE NEW BCHAFF‑HERZOG	888
synod of June 18, 1744. On Oct. 2 he returned to Lausanne. In that year the Reformed Church contained thirty‑three pastors; Normandy had seventeen parishes, Poitou thirty, and Dauphin sixty; and in Nimes there were 20,000 believers. 1:n 1788 the number of clergy was forty‑eight, in addition to eighteen candidates and fifteen students; and in 1783 there were sixty‑two ministers, thirty‑five candidates, and fifteen students. Despite executions, imprisonments, fines, dragonades, and the reenforoement of all the old restrictions, it became evident that such measures could not overthrow the church, and a period of tacit toleration prevailed from 1754 to 1780. The final years of Court's life were passed in quiet retirement, far from this scene of struggle. Though he was a prolific writer, the library of Geneva containing 118 volumes of his manuscripts, his only published work of value was his Histoire des trovr blee des Ctroennes, ou do la guerre des Camisards (Villefranche, 1760).
	3d. Antoine Court do Gebelin, the only son of the
preying, was born at Nimes Jan. 20, 1725, and
died at Paris May 10, 1784. After completing his
education at Lausanne and Geneva, he was or
dained in the former city (1754), but never held
a regular charge. He acted as secretary and as
sistant to his father, and on the death of the latter
became his informal successor. His life was de
voted partly to the duties of his office and partly
to scientific studies. The Calm affair in 1762,
which created great excitement among the Prot
estants of France (see RABAUT, PAUL), inspired
Court to publish his Lea Toulouaaines, ou lettres
historiques et apologECiques en faveur do la religion
reform6e (Edinburgh, 1763), but Voltaire, who had
been a leader in the agitation, disapproved of the
work, and Court in anger left Lausanne. After a
tour of southern France, he settled in Paris, where
he soon gained great popularity and in 1765 was
appointed general deputy by the Protestants.
About 1780 he was made royal censor, and availed
himself of his double position to ameliorate the
miseries of the Protestants. His fame m a scholar
was established in 1773 by the first volume of his
Le Monde primitif analyed et compard aver le monde
moderne (9 vols., Paris, 1773‑84), a learned but
capricious attempt to discover the original Ian
guage and alphabet, and to give an allegorical in
terpretation of mythology, m well m of Greek and
French etymologies, and the like. He also wrote
Letlre sur le magn6tiame animal (1784) and the pos
thumous Denoirs du prince et du citoyen (1789), and
collaborated on the A f fairea d'Angleterre et do
1'Amkiqve, a magazine edited by Benjamin Frank
lin and others (Antwerp, 1776 eqq.).
(TBwonoB, ScaoTrt.)

Bnald06aAPHl: E. Hnguee, Anton Court. Hiatdre do la
	redstaotion do protatasgsms en Prance au xuiiie. sikle,
	2 vole., Paris, 1872 (the chief work); idem, MEmoiree
	d'Amoine Court, Toulouse, 1885 (autobiography); A.
	Coquerel, Histoire des 4plisee du dtsert, 2 vole.. Paris, 1841
	(still of value); P. Rabaut, Los leti'es d A. Court, ed. A.
	Pioherol‑Dardier and C. Dardier, ib. 1885; ib. Les kttres h
	dicers, ed. C. Dardier, ib. 1891; T. Schott, Die Kirde der
	Waste, Halle, 1893; H. M. Baird, The Huguenots and the
	Revocation of the Edict of Names, vol. ii., New York, 1896
	(from the newest sources); B. Combs, Anton Court st sex
sermons, Lausanne 1898. The Bulletin do la sooiiti do 1'hiatoire du proteatankeme trangaia contains many notices of Court and his times.
Concerning Corteie consult J. G. Bamn M6nwires do Pierre Camibx dig Corteia, Strasburg, 1871. On Roger, D. Benoit, Un martyr du dEeert, Jacques Roger, Toulouse, 1895. On Court de Gebelin consult C. Dardier, Court do Gebelin, Nfmes, 1898 (an acute study).

COUSIN, c6"zah'. VICTOR: Philosopher; b. in Paris Nov. 28, 1792; d. at Cannes Jan. 14, 1887. He studied at the Acole Normale in Paris, and began to lecture on philosophy there and at the Sor bonne 1818. In 1821 he was removed for political reasons, and during the next seven years gave himself to study, and produced the first volume of his Fragmens philosophiqttes (1826), his editions of Proclus (6 vole., 1824‑27; 2d ed., 1864) and Descartes (11 vole., 1824‑26), and began his translation of Plato (13 vola., 1822‑40). In 1828 he was reinstated and for three years lectured to large audiences. After the Revolution of 1830 he became councilor of state, peer of France, director of the Acole Normale, member of the Academy, member of the council of public instruction, and minister of public instruction in the cabinet of Thiers in 1840. He was the real head of the university, and for nearly twenty years dominated the teaching of philosophy in France; he also reorganized the French primary school system. The downfall of Louis Philippe in 1848 made an end of his political career, and the remainder of his life was spent in quiet, devoted to study and the collection of a remarkable library, which he left at his death to the professors of the university.
Cousin's direct influence on Christian theology was not great, but indirectly his activity was of consequence. He changed the character of French philosophy, and led its students from the materialism of the eighteenth century to the idealism of the Scotch school. Furthermore, he made an end of the dogmatic method of the French and Scotch philosophy and introduced the dialectic method of German philosophy. He was an ecketic and did not produce a complete system, but his eclecticism was not a mere mosaic. The vigorous understanding and vivid representation of the various philosophical systems which he gives are everywhere permeated by a spirit of idealism, which, in the latter part of his life, drew him and his pupils nearer and nearer to Christianity.
His literary activity was great. His writings on philosophy appeared in many editions with extensive changes; the following works and editions are named m important for the study of his system: Fragmena philmophiques (4 vols., 1847‑48); L'histoirs g6nerale do la philmophie (1861); Du war, du beau et du bier (1867); Cours do 1'histoire do la philosophic moderne (8 vole., 1866). He edited the works of Abelard (Ouvrages inddite d'Abt
lard, 1836; Petri Abelardi opera, 2 vole., 18491859). In the latter period of his life he published several studies of the lives of women of the seventeenth century and their time (Jacqueline Pascal, 1844; Mme. de Longueville, 1853; Mme. de Hautefort, 1856; La SocitlM franpaise au xvii. sibcle, 2 vole., 1858; and others), which have much historical and literary value. Certain writings 9on‑

287	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	ovenaat
cerning education, as a report upon the schools of Germany (1833) and Holland (1837), are also worthy of mention. These reports and some of his essays have been translated into English; also The Philosophy of the Beautiful by J. C. Daniel (London, 1848); and Course of the Ht:dor y of Modern Philosophy (2 vols.) and Lectures on the True, the Beautiful, arid the Good by 0. W. Wight (Edinburgh, 1852 and 1854).
BnBLI0aaAP87: Sir William 13amilton (" the aeoteet critic of Cousin's philosophy "). Discussions on AoMlosophy, UWalum, Education, and University Refona, London, 1852 (the first article is a review of Cousin); P. Janet, Victor Cousin et son esuwe, Paris, 1886; J. Simon, Vidor Cousin, lb. 1887, Eng. trend., London, 1887; J. B. St. Hilaire, Victor Cousin, 8 vole., Paris, 1896.
COUSSIRAT, ctis"sY'rd', DANIEL: Canadian Presbyterian; b. at NSrac (66 m. e.e. of Bordeaux), France, Mar. 5, 1841; d. at Montreal Jan. 8, 1907. He was graduated at Toulouse in 1859, and at the theological seminary at Montauban 1864; was stated supply to the Reformed Church at Bellocq (Basses‑Pyrbni•ces) 1864; pastor of the French Evangelical Church at Philadelphia, Pa., 1864‑66; professor of divinity in Montreal, Canada, 1867‑75; pastor of a Reformed church at Orthez (Basses.. Pyr6ntes) 1875‑.80. After 1880 he was French pro. fessor of divinity in the Presbyterian College in Montreal, and professor of Semitic languages and literatures in McGill University after 1882. In 1885 he founded the Socidt6 musicale et littkraire de Montrbal, and was an officier de 1'instruction publique. Theologically his position was evangelical, and he felt no fear of either higher or lower criticism. He was one of the revisers of the French translation of the Old Testament under the auspices of the SocW Biblique de France (Paris, 1881).

COVENANT.
Origiasl Meaning of the Terms (1 1). Historic Development of the Meaning (1 2). Covenant Ceremonies and Symbols (4 3). . Religion as a Covenant (1 4). Provisions and Sanctions (1 5). Prophetic Development of the Conception (¢ e). Later Phases of the Conception (1 7). Covenant in the New Testament (§ 8).
The term " covenant " (Hebr. b&M, cf. Assyrian Babylonian birit, " bond, fetter," probably introduced into Canaan during the long Babylonian occupation of the " Westland "; Gk. diamakE, " will, testament ") is one of the most significant in the whole range of Biblical literature as well as in business, social, political, and religious re:.Original lations. From the primary signifiMeaning of cations given above all the historical the Terms. applications of the word are readily drawn. Not all, indeed not most of these, are implied in the English " covenant," which generally applies to a contract between two parties acting freely, while both the Hebrew and the Greek words may be used of anything binding upon the two parties to any transaction, whether the terms are accepted voluntarily or imposed by one of the parties or by another. The use of the Greek diatheke in the sense of " covenant " in the Septuagint and New Testament is due to the usage of b~rM, as indicated above, including the disposals of the
divine covenants (of. the word " will " as suggesting the essential character of a testament from the standpoint of the testator). In classical Greek the word is very rarely employed in the sense of a contract or agreement.
The historical development of the Hebrew word which determined the usage of the Greek must be
the chief guide in determining what s. Historic the Bible means by " covenant." Develop‑ Originally the bXrfth was an agreement meat of the between two clans or tribes represented
Meaning. by their leaders, and also between in‑
dividuals for themselves. Such were the terms of peace between Imee and Abimelech, (Gen. xavi. 28 eqq.) or between Laban and Jacob (Gen. xxxi. 44) which also bound their respective families and dependents. Such also was the transaction, really a primitive tribal affair, between Shechem and the sons of Jacob (Gen. axxiv.), where, however, the word for covenant is not directly used. The main object of such early agreements was the promotion of peace and safety, since the natural condition of primitive man was that of warfare. Hence the significance of the phrase " covenant of peace" (Num. xxv. 12; Isa. liv. 10) for which the word " peace " alone may be used (Jar. xvi. 5), accordingly those who were not at war with one another were supposed to be under a covenant of peace; hence breaking a covenant is equivalent to making war (I Kings xv. 19; A. V., " league "). So one could be in covenant with the beasts and with the stones of the field (Job v. 23, A.V., "league" that is, with the superhuman powers resident therein (cf. Hoe. u. 18). Covenants were made for mutual support or protection (e.g., II Sam. iii., 12‑13), or for the fulfilment of common obligations to a third party (II Kings xi. 17); even submission to a superior enemy might be called making a covenant (I Sam. xi. 1), in which case also both parties were of course obligated (I Kings xx. 34). And, generally speaking, duties, obligations, or services required of his subjects or servants by a sovereign, suzerain, or feudal ford might be the subject of a covenant because they were imposed by the superior under certain conditions. This is the key to the prevailing use of the word " covenant " in the Bible, which was naturally religious, as setting forth the relations between God and his people.
There were many kinds of covenant among ancient peoples, as well as various modes of ratifying them. And, just as all covenants have the one essential condition or object of a mutual understanding and obligation, so, as seems probable, all ceremonies confirming the agreements are based
upon one fundamental notion, that of 3. Covenant a community of feeling or sentiment Ceremonies between the parties. This naturally and implied among primitive men the con‑
Symbola. caption of a community of life‑the
participants were for the time being members of the same community of clan or "life." Most prominent therefore among such ceremonies was the well‑known ceremony of the blood‑covenant (see COMPARATIVIC RELIGION, VI., 1, b, ¢ 6). As a substitute for the mixing of the blood came the natural and universal usage of animal sacrifice,

COVenant	THE NEW SCHAFF ‑HERZOG	288
Covenanters
which was always a most solemn method of ratifying
a covenant; note how its sacredness is implied in
Ps. 1. 5. An elaborate symbolism in the develop
ment of this rite is shown in the custom of cutting
the animal in pieces, between which, when laid out,
the parties solemnly passed (Gen. xv.; of. Jer. xxxiv
18, 19). This ceremony is supposed by many to
explain the word b&fth as being something " cut,"
but its obvious secondary character makes the
hypothesis improbable. In another main direction
the primary notion of sharing a common feeling or
life is symbolized by the partaking of common food
‑the most convenient and frequent of all forms of
covenant‑making, from the " covenant of salt " to
a solemn sacramental meal (see CoMPARATIvH RE
LIGION, VI., 1, d, J 1). Both of these comprehen
sive types are also present in the covenant made
between God and man, since in every sacrifice the
blood or life of the victim was presented to God, as
also at every meal a portion of the animal or vege
table partaken of was also dedicated to him. Both
forms are exemplified in their deepest significance
in the sacrament of the Lord's Supper.
	" Religion " means literally the bond that unites
man to God, and this is precisely the Biblical Con
ception of religion which is constantly represented
as the observance of a covenant with Yahweh.
			The dedication of the nation to the
4. Religion service of God at Sinai is figured thus:
		as a	" that thou ehouldet enter into the
	Covenant. covenant of Yahweh thy God, and
			into his oath which Yahweh thy God
maketh with thee this day " (Dent. xxix.12; cf. Jer.
ii. 2, 6, xxxi. 31). To be estranged from God and
his service is to " forsake " or " forget " or " break "
or " profane " or " transgress " the covenant (Gen.
xvii. 14; Deut. iv. 23, 31, xxix. 25, xxxi. 20; Mal.
ii.	10; Hos. viii. 1). Similar is the conception of
God's own fidelity to the covenant which he has
imposed (Judges ii. 1; Deut. xxxi. 16; Ps. lxxxix.
34; cf. Jer. xxxiii. 20‑21). Fulfilling the duties of
practical life as well as the obligation of worship
is called " keeping the covenant " (Pa. ciii. 18; Isa.
lvi. 4).
	The provisions and sanctions of the covenant are
contained or summarized in the " laws " which
were at various times promulgated in Israel.
This was necessarily so for two reasons. On the
one hand, a covenant is not merely a theoretical
			conception, but is concretely an actual
	5. Pro‑	engagement made upon explicit cOn
visions and ditions; and these conditions as dio
sanctions. tated by Yahweh were the oblations
			or rules of his service, which answer
to the abstract term " covenant " as the concrete
commandments or statutes answer to the abstract
torah or " Law." On the other hand, conversely,
" the covenant was the only form in which a law
could be fashioned and sanctioned in Israel "
(Smend). Hence the earliest legislation (Ex. xxi.
xxiii.) is called " the book of the covenant " (Ex.
xxiv. 7) and the ten commandments of Ex. ‑iv
are called "the words of the covenant, the ten
words " (Ex. xxxiv. 28). It is not certain that this
codification and its comments were completed be
fore the reign of Manasseh; but the idea bad long
been familiar, and in the Jehovistic and Elohistic writings of the ninth and eighth centuries B.C. a covenant between God and the fathers (Gen. xv. 18; of. xxiv. 7, from J) is so taken for granted that its extension to Moses and Israel in the law of Sinai is the natural sequel.
It is through the Deuteronomistio writers that this Conception of the covenant by law and precept has obtained widest currency. Although the word itself occurs only once (xvii. 2) in the legislation proper of Deuteronomy (chaps. xii.‑xxvi.), it is found more often in the book as a whole than in any other of the Old Testament writings. Next in frequency of use are the prophecy of 6. Prophetic Jeremiah, whom one might venture to
	Develop‑	call a mediator of the Old Covenant,
meat of the and in the Psalms, where its hold on
Conception. the thought and life of the later Israel
		receives practical illustration. In
Deuteronomy not only are the " ten words " called
" covenant," but they are said to have been written
on two tablets of stone and placed in an ark (v. 2,
ix. 9 sqq., x. 1 sqq.; cf. Ex. xxxii. 15‑16, xxxiv. 1,
probably influenced by D). Thus the covenant
was incorporated into the religious life of Israel as
Centered in the Temple. It is in Jeremiah and his
pupil Ezekiel that the prophetic conception of
biirfth attains its oonsumnnation. It is still a matter
of dispute whether Jeremiah was the author of the
great prophecy ch. xxxi. 31‑34. But all YVlll admit
that it is written in his spirit and that " the new
heart " is a mere adaptation of his preaching (cf.
xiii. 23, xvii. 9‑10) about the essential moral bent
of the human soul. In his most profound words
exists in any case the germ of the " new covenant."
Ezekiel, who is less set on the fundamental impor
tance of righteousness or morality, develops on the
other hand the idea of the covenant as a union be
tween Yahweh and his people on the metaphorical
basis of the marriage relation. Thus he completes
and reenforces Hosea's germinal conception of the
marriage‑bond as a symbol of the love and fidelity
which Israel owed to Yahweh as contrasted with
the Baals, which the earlier prophet had not asso
ciated with the national covenant between Yahweh
and Israel.
By the second Isaiah the covenant was projected from the sphere of preaching into the realm of prediction (e.g., Isa. xlii. 6, xlix, 8, Iv. 4). In the course of the prophetic history the primary conception of the covenant as a body of precepts had gradually given way to its interpretation as a living bond of union between Yahweh and
Later his people and a guaranty of his faithPhases of fulness to his guardian trust. Hence
the Con‑ the restoration of the kingdom founded
	ception.	by David comes to be an animating
		principle of religious patriotism in the
closing years of the exile and the inspiration of the
builders of Jerusalem during the many weary years
that followed the return under Cyrus, the Messiah of
Yahweh (cf. Hagg. ii. 5). Next to the practical
reflections of the Psalms the latest writings on the
covenant are those of the priestly narratives, which
describe in detail the earliest covenants: that with
Noah (Gen. ix. 9‑17; of. Isa. liv. 9) replaced by

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
that with Abraham (Gen. xvii.) as preceding and preparing for the rise and progress of Israel as the people of Yahweh. In still later times this covenant with the fathers was most frequently in the minds of Biblical writers as the foundation‑stone of the whole structure of Israel's religious history, attested as it was by the mark and sign of circumcision. So, for example, in the Psalms (e.g., cv. 6 eqq.; I Chr. xvi. 16 eqq.; Neh. ix. 8).
The New Testament writers in their few allusions to the ancient covenants refer in the same way to that made with Abraham. So Paul in Gal. iii. makes this fundamental and practically exclusive,
the Law of Sinai, and still more the 8. Covenant mediatorial work of Christ, being its In the New realization and fulfilment. In the Testament. realm of his practical theology the
most fruitful idea was that which saw in the propagation of the Gospel the ratification of the promise that in Abraham all the nations of the earth should be blessed. The Epistle to the Hebrews, a priestly work, while it uses the promise to Abraham incidentally as an illustration of God's covenant‑faithfulness (vi. 13 eqq.), places in the foreground the shadowy figure of Melchizedek as a type of him who by his sacrifice " became the surety of a better covenant " (vii. 1‑22). The author uses the word also in the later classical sense of " testament " (see § 1), combining the two meanings in the statement that Christ is " the mediator of a new covenant " according to the conditions of whose `testament," made operative only by the death of the " testator," an " external inheritance " is made sure to the beneficiaries along with " redemption for the transgressions that were under the old covenant " (ix. 15, 16; compare Acts iii. 25, vii. 8; Eph.ii.12). J. F. MCCURDY.
BIisLIOGRAPH7: Excellent discussions are to be found in DB, i. 509‑515; ED, i. 928‑937^; DCa, i. 373‑3so. Consult further: H. Guthe, De faderia notione jsrsmiana, Leipsie, 1877; Valeton, in ZATW, ai (1892), 1‑22, 224‑250, 3tiii (1893), 245‑279; R. Kraetasehmar, Die Bunoleevorstellunp in A. T., Marburg, 1896; W. M. Ramsay, in Expositor, Nov., 1898, pp. 321336• Smith, Rd. of &m., pp. 269 eqq., 312 eqq., 479 aqq.; idem, Kinship, pp. 46 sqq.; and such works on the theology of the Old and the New Testament an H. Schulte, O. T. Theology, ii. 1 eqq., Edinburgh, 1892; and W. Beywhlag, N. T. Theology, 2 vole., Edinburgh, 1896. For the modern idea oonsult: C. Burrage, The Church Covenant idea, its Origin and Desalopment, Philadelphia, 1907.
COVENAANTERS.
Ferry Agreements to 1572 (¢ 1).
The Sings Confession and Other Agreements to 1596 (f 2). The National Covenant of 1638 (¢ 3).
The Solemn League and Covenant, 1843 (f 4). Divisions Among the Covenantera (5 5).
Persecution Under Charles II. and James II. (¢ 6). The Later " Covenantera " (1 7).
The name " Covenanters " was given to Scotch Presbyterians, or a portion of them, in the sixteenth century, because of the solemn agreements
by which they bound themselves; since r. Early then it has been applied to a' small Agreements party in Scotland who have held to to 1572. similar views. In the confusion of the
Reformation time in Scotland, when the central authority, with little power of its own, was liable to fall under the control of temporary IIL‑19
Covenant
Covenantsrs
groups of the turbulent gentry or to be swayed by ecclesiastical dignitaries, anxious for their secular interests, the legal position of innovators and agitators was never clear. The Protestant parties therefore sought sanction and security in the various steps they took by entering into formal " covenants," which had a double character, religious and political. There is a suggestion of a " band " at a meeting of Forfarshire gentlemen in 1556; the first, however, of which there are definite details‑an ancient copy is in the National Museum of Antiquities in Edinburgh‑"the com~ mon band " (Knox) was drawn up in 1557 on the renewal of the Reformers' invitation to John Knox (q.v.) to return to Scotland. Three others in 1559 marked as many crises in the struggle with the queen regent, and a fourth signed in 1560 by the leading nobility was the prelude to the expulsion of the French and the triumph of the Reformation ratified in the Parliament of that year. In alarm at Mary's policy, Knox and the Ayrshire gentry signed a covenant in 1562. St. Bartholomew's massacre suggested the idea of another in 1572, but possibly this was not carried out.
More important than these early bands directed to special emergencies was the lengthy covenant of 1580 called the King's Confession, the
Second Confession of Faith, or the
	a. The Negative Confession. It was drawn
King's Con‑ up by John Craig (q.v.) and subscribed
fession and by all classes from the boy king James
	Other VI. downward. The original is now
Agreements in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh.
to rgg6. It is a strongly Protestant manifesto
in which the declaration of allegiance to the crown is carefully interwoven with the declaration of the duty of the crown to maintain the constitution of the Reformed Kirk and the Protestant settlement embodied in previous acts of Parliament. It was signed again in 1587. Once more the party of the Ruthven raid in 1582 had made a " band." The Spanish Armada inspired a national " band " in 1588. Another was signed in 1589. In 1590 the King's Confession and the band of 1588 were printed and circulated, multitudes subscribing throughout Scotland. The year 1592 saw another " band " in Aberdeen against suspected treason. In 1596 a more directly relig.. ious movement was initiated by the assembly and spread downward through presbyteries to parishes. There were, if not formal signatures, at least meetings for humiliation and confession at which vows of steadfastness were renewed.
Court diplomacy directed to the reintroduction of episcopacy was now busy; but James' success did not much affect the local groundwork of Presbyterian Practise, and Charles I. and I‑mud found,
when they were free to turn attention
3. The to Scotland, that conformity with Ent.
National lish episcopacy was far from being a
Covenant reality. The new service‑book was
of x638. sent down to Edinburgh; Dean Han_
ney tried to read it in St. Giles' Cathedral and, according to tradition, Jenny Geddes (q‑v.) threw her stool at him on July 23, 1637. The covenanting instinct of a previous generation.

Covenanters	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	890
Cowan
came into play, and 1638 saw the enthusiastic and
almost universal subscription io the National Cove
nant inaugurated in the Greyfriars' churchyard.
This covenant consisted of the King's Confession
of 1580 followed by a lengthy legal remonstrance
and statement by Johnston, of Warriston, and a
popular religious conclusion by Henderson, of Leu
ehars (see HENDEasow, ALEXANDER). As before,
loyalty to king and religion were carefully inter
wound, " the true worship of God and the king's
authority being so straitly joined as that they . . .
did stand and fall together." The organized Pres
byterians are ‑at this time referred to in royal cor
respondence es "Covenanters." During two years
Charles's attempts to use unwilling English forces
against the Scots were thwarted by the skill of
Alexander Leslie, a great ex‑general of Gustavus
Adolphus. Leslie avoided any vigorous invasion
which would rouse English sentiment, and the
peace (1641) saw the Scotch army established quietly
in Northumberland and Durham and subsidized by
the Long Parliament.
	In 1643, in their darkest hour, the Long Parlia
ment sought a definite alliance With the Scots.
The latter suggested a religious covenant instead
		of the civil league favored by English
	4. The	Independents, and the Solemn League
	Solemn	and Covenant was drawn up in Edin
	League and burgh by Henderson, there approved,
	Covenant, and sent up to be adopted at West
	:643.	minster by the Assembly, Lords, and
		Commons, the majority of the Eng
lish Parliament being disposed to make trial of
Presbyterianism as the only visible alternative
to episcopacy. This league, which was signed
throughout the length and breadth of Britain,
pledged subscribers to the maintenance of the Re,
formed Church of Scotland and the Reformation in
England and Ireland, to the extirpation of popery
and prelacy, to a common endeavor after uniform
ity of discipline and doctrine according to the Word
of God and the example of the best Reformed
church, and to loyalty to Parliament and crown.
It was renewed in Scotland in 1648 and signed
with the National Covenant by Charles II. in 1650
and 1651.
	But rigid Presbyterianism made itself impracti
cable in England, and the execution of Charles I.
completed the ‑alienation of the Scots. A party in
Scotland signed an " engagement " with Charles
with a view to his liberation, and Hamilton led an
army to defeat by Cromwell at Preston in 1647.
		The " non‑Engagers " headed by Ar
	5. Divisions gyll, who had protested against this
	Among treachery to the English Parliament,
	the Cove‑ now came into power, and while turn
	nanters.	ing against Cromwell by proclaiming
		Charles II., whom they kept never
theless in strict tutelage, they passed the Act of
Classes excluding. ~' mal)gnante," or " engagers,"
from all offices and from the army. Cromwell's
victorious march from Dunbar made it seem ex
pedient to a short=sighted majority to pass " reso
lutions " rescinding this Act, for every soldier was
wanted. The stricter party protested. A re
monstrance was signed in the West. The increased
army availed nothing against Cromwell, who forced upon Scotland a period of profound peace and prosperity, reproaching Presbyterians with their divisions and hostility to himself and favoring the more Evangelical and zealous party of the Protesters. In these days true religion made great advances, but the strife of " Resolutioners and Protesters " continued to divide the Covenanters into bitterly opposed factions. This schism and the fact that the Resolutioners had admitted many half‑hearted into place and power account for the strange facility with which Charles 17. at the Restoration in 1660 was able to impose his agents on the Scotch kirk and nation.
The Resolutioners were betrayed at the outset by their chosen agent, James Sharp (q.v.), who got himself made archbishop of St. Andrews. The Court of High Commission was set up and, without effective protest, episcopacy and the machinery for enforcing it. The Solemn League and 6. Persecu‑ Covenant was burned in London and tion Under Linlithgow. A packed Scotch ParliaCharles II. ment rescinded all the Acts of the and preceding twenty years. One new
	James II.	Act commanded abjuration of the
		Covenant. Another voided all min
isterial appointments since 1649, ordering such
ministers now to request presentation from the
patron and the bishop. Four hundred, chiefly in
the West and South, heroically chose ejectment.
The country awoke at the spectacle. Few waited
on the ministrations of the new curates. Rolls of
parishioners were therefore made up and soldiers
sent to enforce attendance by fines. The people
flocked with increasing numbers and enthusiasm
to eonventicles in barns or on the moors. Three
successive "indulgences " to " outed " ministers
being accepted by a few in spite of the compromise
involved fulfilled in slight degree their aim of sow
ing dissension. At the same time measures against
the faithful became ever harsher, and Argyll and
Guthrie had been executed in 1661. Men like
Graham, of Claverhouse, and Lauderdale earned
immortal infamy. A long roll‑call of martyrs
follows during these twenty‑eight years of the
" killing time "‑Hugh Mackail, Cargill, John
Brown, of Priesthill, the two dauntless women who
were slowly drowned in the rising tide at Wigtown
(see WuaoN, MA&oARET), the preacher Renwick,
nameless ones without number. Hundreds were
sold into slavery in Barbados, among them many
women. Others died of exposure or rotted in
dungeons. Many were horribly tortured. Alto
gether many thousands perished. The offenses
were refusals to abjure the Covenant or attend the
parish kirk, and the frequenting of conventicles and
" intercommuning " with those who did. It was
punishable to let a child remain unbaptized by the
parish curate. Fighting took place at Rullion
Green, Drumclog, and Bothwell Bridge. Richard
Cameron (q.v.), who proclaimed a definite rebellion
at Sanquahar in 1680, was defeated and slain at
Ayrsmoss. On the other hand, Sharp had been
killed in 1679 by nine Covenanters. Every sol
dier of the government was allowed to kill, and
their cruelty was directed on women and children as

$91	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Covenanters
Cowan
on men. A children's covenant has survived signed in the village of Pentland by fifteen girls, the first on the list being then ten years old. The accession of James II. brought no relief. Another Argyll perished in an abortive rising in 1885. At last on James's flight in 1688 the persecution ceased.
William of Orange believed in toleration and left the Scotch Estates to settle their own religious affairs. Prelacy was at once thrown off, and the Parliament of 1690 renewed the Act of 1592 establishing Presbyterianism. As only about ninety of the ministers " outed " in 1661 now survived, the complaisant curates were allowed to q. The Later stay on. The aggressive Presbyterian
"Covenant‑ ideal of 1638 and 1643 was abandoned. ere." Some of the obnoxious legislation since then was left unrescinded. Therefore, a stricter section calling themselves Cameronians, or the Reformed Presbyterian Church of Scotland, holding the nation still bound by the great National Covenants of the preceding generation, refused to approve the settlement and protested against the constitution of both Church and State. There was of course no more persecution, and they and their descendants maintained their testimony and their aloofness from all exercise of civil rights undisturbed. Almost all joined the Free Church in 1876, but several congregations still remain. See CAMERON, RICHARD, CAME&ONIANB; also the section of PRESBYTERIANS treating of the Scotch Church.
(R. W. STEWABT.) THOMAS M. LINDSAY.
BIBwoasAPH7: For the earlier " bands " thq sources are: John Knox, Hiat. of the Reformation in Scotland, ed. D. Laing, vole i.‑ii. of Works, Edinburgh, 1848‑47; D. Calderwood, Hiet. of the Kirk of Scotland, 8 vole., republished, ib. 1842‑49; A Cloud of Witnesses for the Royal Prerogatives of Jesus Christ, or the last Speeches and Testimonies of those who suffered for the Truth in Scotland since . . . 1880, ib. 1730; J. Howie, Scots Worthies, ad. W. H. Carslaw, ib. 1885. Modern books are R. Simpson, Traditions of the Covenpntem Edinburgh, 1889; D. H. Fleming, Story of the Scottish Covenants. ib. 1904 (based upon earlier sources, readable, condensed). Scott's grossly unfair Tales of My Landlord was answered by T. McCrie in Christian Instructor, 1817 (reprinted with his Sermons), and a reply by Scott is in the Quarterly Review, xvi. 439480. Other works are: J. Dodds, Fifty Year's' Struggles of the Scottish Covenanters, London, 1871; .J. K, Hewleon, Hist. of the Church in Scotland from as Refarwrat;m to the Revolution, 2 vole., Glasgow. 19o.
COVERDALE, MILES: Bible translator; b. probably in the district known as Cover‑dale, in that part of the North Riding of Yorkshire called Richmondehire, 1488; d. in London and buried in St. Bartholomew's Church Feb. 19, 1568. He studied at Cambridge (bachelor of canon law 1531), became priest at Norwich in 1514, and entered the convent of Austin friars at Cambridge, where Robert Barnes (q.v.) was prior in 1523 and probably influenced him in favor of Protestantism. When Barnes was tried for heresy in 1526 Coverdale assisted in his defense, and shortly afterward left the convent and gave himself entirely to preaching. From 1528 to 1535 he appears to have spent most of his time on the Continent, where his Bible (the first complete Bible in English) was published in 1535‑at what place and by whom is disputed. In 1538 he was in Paris, superintending the printing
of the "Great Bible," and the same year were published, both in London and Paris, editions of a Latin and an English New Testament, the latter being by Coverdale. He also edited " Crammer's Bible " (1540). (For further information concerning Coverdale's Bible translations see BDSLE VERsxoNa, B, IVJ 4.) He returned to England in 1539, but on the execution of Thomas Cromwell (who had been his friend and protector since 1527) in 1540 was compelled, again to go into exile, lived for a time at Tiibingen, and, between 1543 and 1547, was Lutheran pastor and schoolmaster at Bergaabern in the Palatinate, and very poor. In Mar., 1548, he went back to England, was well received at court and made king's chaplain' and almoner to the queen dowager, Catherine Parr. In 1551 he became bishop of Exeter, but was deprived in 1553 after the succession of Mary. He went to Denmark (where his brother‑in‑law was chaplain to the king), then to Wesel, and finally back to Bergzabern. In 1559 he was again in England, but was not reinstated in his bishopric, perhaps because of Puritanical scruples about vestments. From 1564 to 1566 he was rector of St. Magnus'a, near London Bridge. " He was pious, conscientious, laborious, generous, and a thoroughly honest and good man. He knew German and Latin well, some Greek and Hebrew, and a little French. He did little original literary work. As a translator he was faithful and harmonious. He was fairly read in theology, and became more inclined to Puritan ideas .as his life wore on. All accounts agree in his remarkable popularity as a preacher. He was a leading figure during the progress of the Reformed opinions, and hall a considerable share in the introduction of German spiritual culture to English readers in the second quarter of the sixteenth century."
BIHLma3APRT: Coverdale's works and letters were published by the Parker Society, ed. G. Pearson, 2 vols., Writings and Translations, Cambridge, 1844; Remains, 1846. A Get of his works, with information concerning his life and the sources, is given in DNB, xii. 384‑372. Consult: Memorials of Myles Cooerdale. London, 1838; C. Anderson, Annals of the English Bible, pp. 314‑318, 443‑44p, ib. 1882; F. Fry. The Blble by Coverdale, MDC%%%V., ib 1887; J. 1. Mombert, Handbook of as Enp. Versions of the Bible, chap. v., New York, 1882; H. W. Hoare, Bvoludion of As Bag. Bible, chap. vi., London, 1902.
COWAN, HENRY: Church of Scotland; b. at Ayr (40 m. a.s.w. of Glasgow), Ayrshire, Scotland, Sept. 17, 1844. He studied at Edinburgh (M.A., 1864), Bonn, Halle, and Tijbingen, holding from Edinburgh a Greek traveling fellowship (1865) and the Pitt theological scholarship (1866‑68). In addition to being theological examiner at Edinburgh 1&71‑73, he held pastorates at West Parish, Aberdeen (1869‑74), Rubislaw, Aberdeen (18751882), and New Greyfriars', Edinburgh (1882‑89), and since 1889 has been professor of church history in the University of Aberdeen, as well as' dean of the faculty of divinity since 1894. He has been vice‑convener of the Church of Scotland Endow. meat Scheme since 1886, and joint‑convener of the Scottish Universities' Mission Committee since 1900, and was also Baird Lecturer in 1895 and chairman of the Church of Scotland Aberdeen
Normal Training College Board 1896‑1906. In

cowl
Craig
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
292
theological doctrine he is abroad Evangelical, and in Biblical criticism he is a moderate. In addition to briefer contributions, he has written: Landmarks of Church History (Edinburgh, 1894); Influence of the Scottish Church in Christendom (Baud lectures for 1895)'; and Life of John Knox (New York, 1905).
COWL: Primarily the hood with which the early monks, following a style of dress common among all classes in the Roman Empire, covered their heads. It increased in length after its wearing had been positively prescribed for Western monks by Benedict, until Benedict of Aniane ruled that it should be uniform in size and not reach below the knees. Thus the name came to apply not only to the hood but to the whole characteristic outer gar ment of a monk. The hood proper in more modern times was attached with the Franciscans and Capuchins to the habit, with the Brothels of Charity to the scapular, with canons to the cappa or mozetta ; the Augustinians and Servites retained it as a separate garment. At the present time the shape varies in different orders, and the color is that of the habit. It does not as a rule form part of the dress of orders founded since the Middle Ages.
COWLES, HENRY: Commentator; b. in Norfolk, Conn., Apr. 24, 1803; d. at Janesville, Wis., Sept. 6, 1881. He was graduated at Yale 1826, studied in the Yale Divinity School 1820‑28, and was from 1828 to 1835 a missionary on the Western Reserve in Ohio. From 1835 to 1848, he was professor, first of Greek and Latin, and then of ecclesiastical history and sacred literature in Oberlin College; from 1848 to 18&3 he was editor of the Oberlin Evangelist. He published a commentary on the entire Bible (16 vols., New York, 1867‑81), a Hebrew History (1873), and other works.
COWpER, WILLIAM: Poet and hymn‑writer; b. at Great Berkhampstead (28 m. n.w. of London), Hertfordshire, Nov. 15, 1731; d. at East Dereham (15 m. w.n.w. of Norwich), Norfolk, Apr. 25, 1800. He studied law and was called to the bar in 1754, but took more interest in literature than in his profeasion. He was naturally inclined to morbid brooding, and suffered from an unhappy love‑affair; in 1763 nervous dread of an exaMination for which he was preparing preliminary to entering upon a government position so wrought upon his mind that it was necessary to confine him in an asylum. After about eighteen months he was able to go free, but was subject to attacks of insanity ever afterward, and never fully recovered from the last in 1787. For thirty years he lived a retired life at Olney, Buckinghamshire, and at the neighboring village of Weston‑ He was tenderly cared for by his relatives and had kind friends who encouraged him to write to divert his mind; he became excessively pious and devout, was ever a prey to religious doubts and hallucinations, and often in deep depression. At Olney he was intimate with John Newton (q.v.), and helped him in his parish work as a sort of lay curate. Some of Cowper's poems are models of tender verse, and his letters have none superior in all literature. His hymns include the familiar and admirable
"God moves in a mysterious way," "There is a fountain filled with blood," and "0 for a closer walk with God." He joined Newton in writing the Olney Hymns (1779; am NawToN, JoaN), and contributed sixty‑eight to Newton's 280.
BIBLIOaaAP87: The best edition of his Works with him life
is by Robert Southey, 15 vole., London, 1838‑37; reprinted in Bohn's Standard Library, 8 vole., ib. 1853‑55; other lives are by J. Bruce in " Aldine Edition " of his poems, 3 vols., Philadelphia, 1885; by W. Benham, in " Globe Edition " of his poems, New York, 1870; by Goldwin Smith, London, 1880; and by T. Wright, ib. 1892. Wright has also edited his Unpublished and Uneoileded Poems, ib. 1900; and his Correspondence, 4 vole., ib. 1904'; selections from his letters are by W. Benham, ib. 1884, and by W. T. Webb, ib. 1895.
CO%, SAMUEL: English Baptist; b. in London Apr. 19, 1826; d. at Hastings Mar. 27, 1893. He was graduated at the Stepney Baptist Theological College, London, 1851, and was ordained pastor of St. Paul's Square Baptist Church, Southsea; became pastor at Ryde, Isle of Wight, 1855; resigned because of throat trouble 1859; was pastor of the General Baptist Church, Mansfield Road, Nottingham, 18&3‑88. He was president of the British General Baptist Association in 1873. He is beat known in connection with the Expositor, which he founded in 1875 and edited till 1884; some of the volumes are almost entirely his work. According to his own statement, he wrote thirty independent books and edited twenty more, including The Quest of the Chief Good : Expository Lectures on the Book Ecclesiastes, with a New Translation (London, 1868; rewritten for the Expositor's Bible, 1890); The Primate Letters of St. Paul and St. John (1867); Salvator Mundi; or, is Christ the Saviour of all Men f a defense of restorationism, the best known of his books (1877); Expository Essays and Discourses (1877); Commentary on the Book of Job (1880); The Larger Hope, a sequel to Salvator Mundi (1883); Miracles, an Argument and a Challenge (1884); Expositions (4 vols., 1885‑88); and The Hebrew Twine, a Vindication of God's Ways with Jacob and Esau (1894) with a Memoir by his wife.
COX, SAMUEL HANSON: Presbyterian; b. of Quaker parentage at Rahway, N. J., Aug. 25, 1793; d. in Bronxville, N. Y., Oct. 2, 1880. He was ordained in 1817, and was pastor at Mendham, N. J., till 1820, when he settled in New York as pastor, first of the Spring Street Church (1820‑25) and then of the Laight Street Church (1825‑35). He was professor of sacred rhetoric and pastoral theology in Auburn Theological Seminary 1836‑37, pastor of the First Presbyterian Church in Brooklyn 1837‑54, was president of Ingham University 18563, and thenceforth lived in retirement in and near New York. He was one of the founders of the University of the City of New York and of Union Theological Seminary. He was a leader of the New School party in the disruption of 1837 and was moderator of the‑ General Assembly in 1846. Many stories are told of his fondness for big words and peculiar expressions in public prayer. But he possessed much eloquence and learning.
CO%E, ARTHUR CLEVELAND: Second bishop of western New York; b. at Mendham, N. J., May 10, 1818; d. at Clifton Springs, N. Y., July 20, 1896.

093	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
He was a son of Samuel Hanson Cox (q.v.) and himself added the "e" to his name. He was graduated at the University of the City of New York 1838, and at the General Theological Seminary, New York, 1841; became rector of St. Ann's, Morrisania, N. Y., 1841; of St. John's, Hartford, Conn., 1842; of Grace, Baltimore, 1854; of Calvary, New York, 1863; bishop of western New York 1865. In 1868 his diocese was divided and the new diocese of Central New York formed. He was provisional bishop of Haiti 1872‑74. The Old Catholic movement, Pbre Hyacinths, and all that concerned Gallicanism and Anglo‑Catholicism had his active sympathy. He helped to form the AngloContinental Society (1853) and gave it its name. In 1873 he collaborated with Bishop Wilberforce in issuing a serial in defense of Anglo‑Catholicism against Romanism. In his pamphlet, An Apology for the English Bible (New York, 1857), he gave voice to the opposition against the attempt of the American Bible Society to introduce slight changes in the text and punctuation of the Scriptures, and the plan was abandoned (see BIBLE Sociams, III., 1, 1 5). He also opposed the Revised Version of 18811885, but advocated a revision of the prayer‑book.. His writings include several volumes of poems, of which Christian Ballads (Hartford, 1840; enlarged ed., New York, 1901) is best known. Several hymns in general use (" In the silent midnight watches "; "O where are kings and empires now?" and others) are from his pen. Works upon theological topics were Absolution and Confession (New Haven, 1850); Sermons on Doctrine aced Duty (Philadelphia, 1855); Thoughts on the Services (Baltimore, 1859; rev. ed., Philadelphia, 1900); The Criterion, defining his position concerning the Oxford movement (New York and Oxford, 1866); A Letter to Pius 1%., relating to the call for the Vatican Council (New York, 1869); Moral Reforms (Buffalo, 1869); LeeCures on Prophecy (1871); APollos, or the Way of Clod (Buffalo, 1871); L'Episcopat de 1'occident, a defense of the Church of England (Paris, 1874); Covenant Prayers (1875); The Penitential (New York, 1882); Institutes of Christian History, Baldwin lectures before the University of Michigan, 1887 (Chicago, 1887); Holy Writ and Modern Thought, Bedell lectures at Kenyon College, 1891 (New York, 1892). He edited the American reprint of the Ante‑Nicene Fathers (9 vols., New York, 1885‑87).
Brnraoon‑ey: W. 8. Perry. The Episcopate in Amerim,
pp. 159‑161, New York, 1895.

COYLE, ROBERT FRANCIS: Presbyterian; b. at Roseneath, Ont., July 28, 1850. He studied at Wabash College (B.A., 1877) and Auburn Theological Seminary (B.D., 1879), and held pastorates at Fort Dodge, Ia. (1879‑85), Fullerton Avenue Church, Chicago (1885‑91), and the First Presbyterian Church, Oakland, Cal. (1891‑1900). Since 1900 he has been pastor of the Central Presbyterian Church, Denver, Col. He was moderator of the General Assembly at I'm Angeles, Cal., in 1903, and has written Foundation Stones (Chicago, 1887); Workingmen and the Church (New York, 1896); and The Church and the Tunes (1905).
CRAFTS, WILBUR FIS1i: Presbyterian; b. at Fryeburg, Me., Jan. 12, 1850. He studied at Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn. (B.A., 1869), and Boston University School of Theology (B.D., 1871), and held various Methodist pastorates from 1867 to 1879. In the latter year he entered the Congregational Church, and in 1883 he became a Presbyterian. His chief pastorates were those in Stoneham, Haverville, and New Bedford, Mass., Dover, N. H., Chicago, Brooklyn, and New York. He has been active in Sunday‑school work since 1871, and has written on the Sunday‑school lessons for the‑ Sunday School Tunes, International Lesson Monthly, Pocket Lesson Notes, and the Christian Herald. In 1889 he founded the American Sabbath Union, and for six years lectured throughout the United States chiefly on Sabbath observance. In 1$95 he founded the Reform Bureau, now called the International Reform Bureau, particularly for the promotion of social purity, the defense of the Sabbath, the suppression of the liquor traffic, and the protection of children and the less civilized races. As the superintendent of this bureau he has been active both as a lecturer and in the preparation of laws to further its aims. He was chief editor of the Christian Statesman 1901‑03, and of the Twentieth Century Quarterly since 1896. He also edited departments in Our Day (1888‑91), Ram's Horn (1896‑98), and the Advance, and has written, among others, the following books, several in collaboration with his wife: Through the Eye to the Heart (New York, 1875); Talkq to Boys and Girls About Jesus (1881); The Sabbath for Man (1884); Social Progress (Washington, 1896); Protection of Native Races Against Intoxicants and Opium (Chicago, 1900); and The March of Christ Doom the Centuries (1902).
CRAIG, crAg, JAMES ALEXANDER: Layman; b. at Fitzroy Harbour, Ont., Mar. 5, 1855. He studied at McGill University, Montreal (B.A., 1880), Yale Divinity School (B.D., 1883), and the University of Leipsic (Ph.D., 1886). He was instructor and adjunct professor of Biblical languages in Lane Theological Seminary, Cincinnati, 1886‑90, professor of Old Testament literature and exegesis in Oberlin Theological Seminary 1891‑93; and since 1893 has been professor of Semitic languages and literatures and Hellenistic Greek in the University of Michigan. He has edited The Semitic Series of Handbooks, and written The Monolith Inscription of Salmanesar ll. (Leipeie, 1888); Hebrew Word Manual (Cincinnati, 1890); Assyrian and Baby. lonian Religious Texts (2 vole., Leipsie, 1895‑97); and Astronomical‑Astrological Texts (1899).

CRAIG, JOHN: The name of two Scotchmen. 1. Scotch Reformer; b. about 1512; d. in Edinburgh Dec. 12, 1600. He studied at St. Andrews, and became a Dominican monk; went to England in 1536, thence to Rome, and served his order on missions in Italy and to the island of Chios, and as teacher at Bologna. He was converted to Protestantism by reading the " Institutes " of Calvin, it is said, and was in prison at Rome, condemned to the stake, when the pope, Paul IV., died (1559) and the mob opened the

Craig	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	294
prisons and he escaped. He went to Vienna,
thence to England in 1560, and back to his native
land; was appointed colleague to Knox in Edin
burgh in 1563, and, after the death of Knox (1572),
succeeded to the leadership of the Scottish Church.
At first he refused to proclaim the banns between
Mary and Bothwell, but yielded later, protesting
that " he abhorred and detested the marriage."
After 1579 he was king's chaplain and was bold
enough to rebuke the king to his face, but too con
ciliatory to suit the extreme party led by Melville.
He compiled part of the " Second Book of Disci
pline," wrote the " King's Confession " (see CovE
NANTERs, § 2) in 1580, and published A Short Sum
of the Whole Catechism (Edinburgh, 1581; reprinted
in facsimile with introduction by T. G. Law, 1883),
and a shorter catechism, A Form o f Examination
Before the Communion (1590). Both catechisms
are reprinted in H. Bonar's Catechisms of the Scot
tish Reformation (London, 1866).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Knox, Works, ed. D. Laing, ii. 456, Edinburgh, 1895; T. McCrie, Life of John Knox, ii. 53‑57, ib. 1841; DNB, xii. 945‑447.
2. Scotch mathematician; d. in London Oct. 11, 1731. He lived in Cambridge and London, and had decided mathematical talent; from 1708 he was prebendary of Salisbury. He is mentioned here for his curious Theologise Christianse principia mathematics (London, 1699; reprinted, with a learned preface, Leipsic, 1755), in which he endeavors " to calculate the duration of moral evidence, and the authority of historical facts." By applying the theory of probabilities he attempts to show that the proofs of the Christian religion steadily become weaker as the force of the testimony decays, and in the year 3144 Christianity will entirely disappear, " unless the second coming of Christ prevent its extinction." He also calculated " the ratio of happiness promised in another world to that obtainable in this, and proved it to be infinite."
BIBLIOGRAPHY: DNB, xii. 448 (gives the sources).
CRAXANTHORPE, RICHARD: Puritan; b. at or near Strickland (25 m. s.s.e. of Carlisle), Westmoreland, 1567; d. at Black Notley (35 m. n.e. of London), Essex, 1624 (buried Nov. 25). He became fellow of Queen's College, Oxford, 1598, went to Germany as chaplain to Lord Evers, ambassador extraordinary; became chaplain to the bishop of London and to the king; rector of Black Notley, and of Paglesham, Essex. His most noteworthy work was a Defenaio ecclesim Anglicanse (London, 1625; republished in the Library of Anglo‑Catholic Theology, Oxford, 1847), a reply to the Consilium reditus of Marco Antonio de Dominis (q.v.). Crakanthorpe's Latin and learning are commended, but his tone is described as " savage."

CRAMER, JOHANN ANDREAS: German theologian and hymnologist; b. at J6hstadt (7 m. s.e. of Annaberg, Saxony) Jan. 27, 1723; d. at Kiel June 12, 1788. He studied at Leipsic, and from 1748 to 1750 was pastor at Crollwita near Merseburg, where he began the publication of a translation of sermons and minor writings of Chrysostom
(10 vols., Leipsic, 1748‑51). In 1750 he was ap‑
pointed chief court preacher and councilor of the consistory at Quedlinburg, and four years later, at the recommendation of Klopstock, became German court preacher at Copenhagen. There his sermons and his personality gained him a position of importance, and he influenced the spiritual life of Denmark by the Nordischer Aufseher, which he edited (3 vole., Copenhagen, 1758‑70), and which, contained, in addition to reviews of important literary works, studies on ethics and esthetics. From this time date two collections of sermons and an elucidation of the Epistle to the Hebrews (2 vols., Leipsic, 1757). In 1765 he was made professor of theology at the University of Copenhagen, but was dismissed and expelled from Denmark on account of his bold opposition to Struensee. After acting for three years as superintendent at Liibeck, where he prepared a rationalistic catechism, he accepted a call to Kiel in 1774 as professor of theology and vice‑chancellor of the university. There 'he remained fourteen years, developing a versatile activity, especially in the interests of the young theologians, and also providing for the salaries of the instructors by the establishment of a Schulmeisterseminar. In the Church of SleswickHolstein Cramer exercised great influence through the hymnal edited by him (Altona, 1780), which remained in use until 1887. Throughout his life he composed religious poems, of which 444 have been enumerated, in addition to sixty‑four revisions of older hymns, and thirteen religious songs. Especially noteworthy was his Poetische Uebersetzung der Paalmen mit Abhandlungen abet dieselben (4 vole., Leipsic, 1755‑64). Some of his hymns are reminiscent of the swing of Klopstock, while others recall the measured movement of Gellert, but in too many cases quality was sacrificed to quantity. CARL BERTHEAU.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: K. H. Ardene, Lexikon deutacher Dichter, i. 328‑347, v. 828 eqq., Leipsio, 1808‑10; E. E. Koch, Geschichte des Kirvhenliede, vi. 334‑344, Stuttgart, 1869; 8. W. Duffield, English Hymns, p. 589, New York, 1888; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 287‑268; ADA iv. 550.
CRAMER, SAMUEL: Dutch Mennonite; b. at Middelburg, Holland, July 3, 1842. He was educated at the Athenaeum of Amsterdam and the universities of Heidelberg and Zurich, and after being a Mennonite pastor at Zijldijk (1866‑70), Emden, Hanover (1870‑72), Enschede (1872‑85), and Zwolle (1885‑90), was appointed to his present position of professor of practical theology at the Mennonite theological seminary of Amsterdam. He is a member of the editorial board of Teyler's Theologisch Tiydschri/t, an associate editor (with F. Pijper of Leyden) of the Bibliotheca Refolmatsrria Neerlendica, and editor of the Doopsgezinde Bijdragen.
CRANEE, LOUIS BURTON: Presbyterian; b. at Mt. Sterling, Ill., Apr. 23, 1869. He studied at Princeton University (B.A., 1891), Princeton Theological Seminary, and Berlin, Erlangen, and Giessen. He was pastor of the First Presbyterian Church, Princeton, N. J. (1896‑99), and Calvary Presbyterian Church, Buffalo, N. Y. (1899‑1902). In 1902‑05 he was professor of New Testament literature and interpretation in Chicago Theological

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Crams
Oraamer
Seminary, and since 1906 has been pastor of BrainerdUnion Church, Easton, Pa. He has written The Teaching of Jesus Cmecerning the Holy Spirit j (New York, 1905).
CRANMER, THOMAS: The first Protestant archbishop of Canterbury; b. at Aslaeton (9 m, e. of Nottingham), Nottinghamshire, July 2, 1489; d. at Oxford Mar. 21, 1556. He spent eight years at Jesus College, Cambridge, where he took his B.A. in 1510 or 1511 and his M.A. in 1515, and was elected to a fellowship. About the time of the publication of Erasmus's New Testament (1516) and Luther's theses (1517), he began a systematic study of the Scriptures; he was ordained before 1520, and in that year was university preacher and examiner in theology. About 1525 he had begun " in private to pray for the abolition of the papal power in England," but did not commit himself
openly.	n the summer of 1529, talking over the question
of	the divorce with the king's chief agents, Fox
Connection and Gardiner, Creamer suggested e taking the matter out of the hands of Royal Di‑ the lawyers and referring it to the
‑ theologians of the univers'tiea. Henry vorce. grasat the suggestion, summoned Creamer, and commissioned the preparation of a treatise on the question, making use of Creamer's influence also in other ways, and attaching him to the embassy which left England early in 1530 to see the pope and the emperor. He brought back little definite result, but the king rewarded his services by the gift of the archdeaconry of Taunton, and early in 1532 made him ambassador to the emperor. During his sojourn in Germany he was brought much into contact with the Lutheran leader Osiander, and married his niece Margaret. In the autumn of the same year Henry determined to appoint him to the archbishopric of Canterbury, vacant by Warham's death; and he was consecrated on Mar. 30, 1533, after having drawn up a formal protest to the effect that he would consider the oath of obedience to the pope a form and not a reality, and that he did not intend to bind himself to do anything contrary to the kingand commonwealth of England, or to restrain his liberty in things pertaining to the reformation of the Christianreligionand the government of the Church of England. In April he asked the king's leave to proceed with the trial of Catherine's case, opened his court in May, and on the 23d pronounced sentence, declaring that the marriage of Henry and Catherine had been void from the beginning. Five days later he declared the king's marriage with Anne Boleyn valid, and on June 1 crowned her as queen.
The breach with Rome on the side of jurisdiction widened steadily; that in doctrine was somewhat behind it. In 1534 Cranmer issued a pastoral enjoining silence in regard to masses for the dead, prayers to the saints, pilgrimages, and celibacypoints on which it was hoped that an authoritative decision might be reached within a year. In 1536, though speaking with the greatest personal regard for Anne Boleyn, he was obliged officially to pro‑
nounce Henry's marriage with her also void, and on the day she was beheaded issued alicenae for him
to marry Lady Jane Seymour. The
Beginnings revision of doctrine proceeded by deof the Ref‑ green, and was assisted by the publi‑
ormation. ration of the English version of the
Scriptures, which had been a favorite project of Creamer's for some time. He remained at his post under the reactionary system enforced by the Six Articles, but during the last years of Henry's reign was subject to continual assaults from the Roman party. Sheltered by Henry's unfailing protection, he went quietly on maturing his plans for religious reform. He worked at the preparation of English services, of which the Litany that appeared in 1545 was the first to come into use. The First Prayer‑book of Edward VI. was, in the form in which it came before Parliament, to all intents and purposes the work of Cranmer, though afterward modified into the shape of a compromise between the two parties. The new ordinal, published in Mar., 155o, was also principally his work. During the reign of Edward VI. he was constantly busy with projects for completing the new order of things, including the revision of the canon law known as Reformatio legum eeclesiasticarum, and the Forty‑two Articles, afterward reduced to thirty‑nine.
The Second Prayerbook of Edward vi. represented Creamer's furthest advance toward continental Protestantism; but he adhered firmly to it after Mary's accession, knowing that he did so at the peril of his life. A manifesto which he wrote to define his position got into circulation before he intended it, and led to his arrest in Sept., 1553, and to his trial for treason two months later, on account of his yielding to the plan to proclaim Lady Jane Grey queen. He was condemned to
death, but his ecclesiastical character
Fall Under made it impossible to carry out the
Mary and sentence, as the law then stood. For
Death. months he lay a prisoner in the Tower,
i	until the passing of the statute De
j	heeretico comb2areyedo in Jan., 1555, warned him to
j	prepare for his end. He was taken to Oxford, and
j	there submitted to a searching examination before
	a court possessing papal jurisdiction. On Nov. 25
~	he was pronounced contumacious by the pope for
I	not appearing in Rome and solemnly excommuni
	cated. Pole was appointed to the vacant arch
	bishopric, and a commission was issued for Cran
	mer's degradation and delivery to the secular arm.
He appealed in vain to a general council, and in t~e following February Bonner and Thirlby went to ~ Oxford to execute the sentence. Creamer now signed the documents which have been known as his successive recantations; but the first three, at least, are not really recantations, but submissions to authority, such as his political principles always impelled him to make. His fifth, or real, recantation was signed rather under the influence of seductive hopes held out to him than under that of fear. It surrendered every point for which he had fought, anathematized the whole heresy of Luther and Zwingli, and recognized the pope as Christ's vicar and supreme head of the Church on earth. A

Cranston creation
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
sixth and still more humiliating confession was signed on Mar. 18. When he saw that all availed nothing, and that his death was resolved on, he braced himself to a final effort, publicly recanted his recantations and heroically met his fate, dying by fire in Broad Street, Oxford, on the same spot where Ridley and Latimer had already suffered. He was a man of simple and amiable character, a learned theologian, as well as a great patron of learning in others. Though naturally of a shrinking, sensitive temperament and a somewhat slow and hesitating mind, when once he saw his duty he showed no lack of courage; and if at the last " he tried to concede that impossible change of belief which his inquisitors required, he redeemed his fall by a heroism in the hour of death to which history can find few parallels."
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Cranmer's Remains were collected by H. Jenkyn®, 4 vols., Oxford, 1833; his Works were edited by J. E. Cox. for the Parker Society, 2 vole., London, 18441846; and his Letters in Letters of the Martyrs of the English Church, ib. 1883. Sources are: J. 8trype, Memorials of Crammer, 2 vole., Oxford, 1840 (contains appendix of documents); idem, Ecclesiastical Memorials, 3 vole., London, 1842; Narratives of the Days of the Reformation . with Toro Contemporary Biographies of Archbishop Cranmer, ed. J. (3. Nichols for Camden Society, ib. 1859. There am Limes by H. J. Todd, London, 1831; O. W. Le Bas, ib. 1833; W. F. Hook, in Lives of Archbishops of Canterbury, vole. v.‑vii., 12 vols., ib. 1860‑77; C. H. Collette, ib. 1887; A. J. Mason, ib. 1898; A. F. Pollard, New York, 1904. Consult also: A. D. Innes, Cranmer and the Reformation in England, Edinburgh, 1900; DNB, xiii. 19‑31.

CRAIPSTON, EARL: Methodist Episcopal bishop; b. at Athens, O., June 27, 1840. He studied at Ohio University, Athens, O. (B.A.,1861), and served throughout the Civil War in the Ohio infantry and west Virginia cavalry, being promoted captain. He entered the Ohio Conference of the Methodist Episcopal ministry in 1867, and after holding various pastorates for fourteen years was elected publishing agent of his denomination in 1884. In 1896 he was elected bishop, and spent the years 1898‑1900 in an official tour of inspection which covered China, Japan, and Korea. Since 1903 he has had special charge of the Methodist Episcopal missions in Mexico. He was one of the founders of Denver University, and has been treasurer and a member of the examining board of the Freedmen's Aid and Southern Education Society, as well as treasurer of the trustees of the Methodist Episcopal Church (at large) and a trustee of Ohio University.

CRAPSEY, ALGERNON SIDNEY: Protestant Episcopalian; b. at Fairmount, O., June 28, 1847. He was graduated at St. Stephen's College, Annandale, N. Y. (1869), and at the General Theological Seminary (1872). He was on the staff of Trinity Church, New York City, 1872‑79; rector of St. Andrew's, Rochester, N. Y., 1879‑1906, when he was convicted of violating his ordination vows in denying certain statements of the Apostles' Creed, particularly the Virgin Birth. In theology he holds " to the theistic conception of the universe; one God who is all in all; Jesus the son of Joseph, the manifestation of God in the ethical sphere," while to him " the catholic creeds are the interpre‑
tation of God to the Greco‑Roman world," and " to love God and man is salvation." He has written: Five Sorrowful Mysteries (New York, 1883); Five Joyful Mysteries (1885); A Voice in the Wilderness (1897); Life and Labors of Sarah Wisner Thorns (1900); and Religion and Politics (1905).
CRATO OF CRAFFTHEIM. See Xa"rm,
JOHANN.
CRAVEN, ELIJAH RICHARDSON: Presbyterian; b. at Washington, D. C., Mar. 28, 1824; d. at Philadelphia, Pa., Jan. 5, 1908. He studied at the College of New Jersey (B.A.,1842) and Princeton Theological Seminary (1848), meanwhile studying law (1842‑44) and being tutor in mathematics at the College of New Jersey (18471849). He was pastor of the Reformed (Dutch) Church at Somerville, N. J., 1850‑54, and of the Third Presbyterian Church, Newark, N. J., 18541887; secretary of the Presbyterian Board of Publication and Sabbath School Work 1887‑1904, when he retired as secretary emeritus. He was chairman of the committee for the revision of the Book of Discipline of the Presbyterian Church 1879‑82, and moderator of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church, North, in 1885. In theology he was an Old School Presbyterian. He .edited the American edition of J. P. Lange's Commentary on the Book of Revelation (New York, 1874).
CRAWFORD, CLARENCE KERR: Presbyterian (Southern Church); b. at Perryville, Ky., Mar. 16, 1864. He studied at Centre College, Danville, Ky. (B.A., 1884), and Danville Theological Seminary (1889). He was tutor in Hebrew (1887‑96) and professor of Old Testament exegesis (1897‑1901) in the latter institution, and since its consolidation with the Louisville Theological Seminary in 1901 to form the Presbyterian Theological Seminary of Kentucky at Louisville he has been professor of Old, Testament exegesis and hermeneutics in the new institution. In theological position he is a liberal conservative.

CREAGH,crAg,JOHNTTHOMAS: Roman Catholic; b. at Wakefield, Mass., Mar. 7, 1870. He studied at Boston College (B.A., 1891), St. John's Seminary, Brighton, Mass., and the Seminario Romano, Rome (S.T.D„ 1896; J.C.D., 1897), and in 1896 was appointed professor of canon law in the Catholic University of America, Washington. He has been lecturer on Religion at Trinity College, Washington, D. C., since 1902, and has written Remarriage After Divorce (New York, 1905).
	CREATION, BABYLONIAN ACCOUNTS; Until
1875 knowledge of the Babylonian conception of
creation had come only through Berosus (a Baby
lonian priest of Marduk, c. 300 B.c.), whose narra
tive was transmitted by Alexander Polyhistor,
from whose book probably it was taken by Eusebius
into his Chronicon (book i.). This account tells of
		a primeval darkness in which beings
	Account combining parts of the form of man,
of Beroaus. beast, and bird inhabited a watery
		waste along with reptiles, fishes, and
monsters, all under the rule of Thamte (Tiamat; see
below). Marduk came, cut Thamte in two, of one

297	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Cranston
		Creation
half creating the heaven and of the other the earth,
and destroyed or shut up the monsters whom she
had ruled. This, however, left an uninhabited
earth which was peopled by the device of cutting
off Marduk's head (at his direction), when the blood
which fell was mixed with earth by the gods, men
and animals being formed from the mixture. Mar
duk created also the heavenly bodies.
	In 1875 George Smith discovered a tablet from
the library of Asehurbanipal which ran in part
parallel with the account of Berosus. This he
translated, in great part correctly, but made mis
takes which misled many. From time to time
		other fragments were found and trans
	Cuneiform lated, in some of which rightly and in
	Accounts. others mistakenly parts of the creation
		narrative were seen. Thus the so
called " Cuthman account " is now shown not to
refer to creation but to the story of a king of Cutha.
It soon became evident from the diversities that
there were several accounts current in early times
and that creation was attributed in different cen
ters to different deities.
	The creation account of Babylonia which finally
became current, to which Mr. Smith's tablet be
longed, has finally by L. W. King of the British
Museum been shown to have been written on a
series of seven tablets as a narrative poem in 994
lines, of which more than half are now fully re
covered, and so much of the rest that three‑quar
ters of the whole text are now in hand. The tablets
carried from 138 to 148 lines each, and in some cases
there are at least four copies of parts of the inscrip
tion, Mr. King's reconstruction involving the use of
forty‑nine separate tablets. These are of different
	periods, none older than the Assyrian period and
some as late as the Persian, a few being the exer
cise studies of Babylonian students.
	The epic was known to Babylonians from the
opening words as the " When above " series. This
account is in part at least a theogony as well as a
cosmogony, this part having its closest parallel in
the Japanese theogony. The primal existencxs are
said to have been Apau, "the deep," Mummu, "con
		fusion" (7), and Tiamat (Hebr.
	Content of Tehom), " Chaos" watery existences
	the Latter. which in darkness mingled their floods.
		No gods ,then existed. In the course
of time appeared the primal gods Lahmu and Lah
amu; then Anshar and Kishar, while Anu's name
is read in a much mutilated section. After a long
gap in the text it appears that in consequence of the
existence of the gods an orderliness was coming into
	being because of which Apsu and Mummu precipi
tated a conflict with the gods in which Ea by his
wisdom defeated the opponents of order. A second
conflict was forted by Tiamat, a monster so forbid
ding that the gods could not stand before her until
Marduk stood forth as their champion on condition
that he be recognized as supreme among them. After
a banquet of the gods at which the terms were ac
	cepted Marduk overcame the monster and with
nets captured and imprisoned or slew her and her
hosts. With the fourth tablet the narrative of
creative work begins. Marduk cleft in two the
body of Tiamat, and out of one half made the firma‑
ment restraining the upper waters, created heaven, and appointed to thgir stations Anu, Bel, and Ea. He marked out the years, months, and days, appointing for this office the heavenly bodies. Probably the fifth tablet told of the creation of trees and plants, since in the closing ode of praise Marduk is hailed as lord and giver of vegetation. The sixth tablet tells of the creation of man, caused by the plaint of the gods that there was no one to minister to them. To this end Marduk's blood was used as in the account of Berosus.
A variant is found in a tablet according to which originally there was no heaven, earth, vegetation, house, or city, only a watery waste. Marduk laid a reed on the water, poured on it dust which he created, made a habitation for the gods, and then with the help of the goddess Amaru created man and beast, then the rivers of Babylonia, and dammed out the sea and erected houses and cities. Still other texts, one in Sumerian and a parallel in Semitic, give a variant account of the creation of sun and moon.
The analysis of the principal myth pieced out by Mr. King reveals a complex narrative evidently built up after Marduk became chief deity and in his honor, the composite showing traces of diverse origin of the components in centers where other deities than Marduk were honored. The double contest, the conception of the victory by Ea in the first battle, suggestions of participation by En‑lil,
and the synonymity of the names of Composite the three primeval existenoes beOrigin. speak separate myths of diverse origin, which were combined into the narrative which became dominant. This conclusion is corroborated by references in isolated texts to the creative work of Ea, En‑lil, Ishtar, and other deities. While none of the extant texts are earlier than the time of Asshurbanipal, the essential facts are referred to as early as the third pre.Christian millennium. The most likely time for the construction of the epic is the age of Hammurabi.
The points of contact with the Hebrew narrative have been overrated through the infiuenee of George Smith. The Babylonian text is still too fragmentary to afford a satisfactory basis of comparison. The similarities are (1) the original watery chaos, (2) the creation of the firmament (a common ethnic notion), (3) the creation of the heavenly bodies as rulers of time, (4) the crowning of creative operations by the production of man (in one case by the blood of deity, in the other .by his breath), and (b) the coincidence of Tiamat and Tehom (Gen. i. 2) and of inimu and ewm, "bone" (Gen. ii. 23), in the two narratives.
Gico. W. Glmollle.
BrnLIOa$APH7: The most important book is L. W. King,
Seven Table& of Creation, 2 vole.. London, 1902. Con
sult: George Smith, Chaldaxan . . . Genesi, New York,
1878 (the epochmaking work); P. Jenmn, Kosmolopie
der Babylonia, Strasburg, 1890; idem, Myfhen and Epen,
Berlin, 1900; H. Gunkel $edopfunp and Chao,, Wtting.
en, 1895 (traces relstionshiP of Hebrew and abylonian
literature); F. Delitseeh, Die babylonische W~Uh6p/
unpslehre, LeiPeio. 1898. C. J. Ball, Light from the East,
London, 1899; H. Rsdan in Monist, aii. 804 sqq., aiv.
81‑.87; Assyrian and Babylonian Literahae, ed. B,. F Hue. PP. 282‑303. New York, 1901.

Creation and Preservation	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	298
CREATION AND	PRESERVATION OF THE
	WORLD.
I. The Biblical and Theological Doctrine.
II. The Cosmogonies of Ancient and Modern Paganism.
1. The Mythological Cosmogonies of Paganism Proper.
2. Cosmogonic Notions in' Ancient, especially Greek, Philosophy.
3. The Gnostic‑Manichean Cosmogonies.
4. Speculative Cosmogonies of the Modern PantheisticMaterialietic Natural Philosophy.
III. The Creation Theories of the Older Judaism and the Judaising Christianity of Many Fathers and Modern Theologians.
1. In Judaism Proper.
2. In the Patristic Period.
3. In Modern Times.
IV. The Normal Via Media between Jewish and Pagan The. ories.
V. Preservation of the World.
I. The Biblical and Theological Doctrine: The idea of the origin of the universe through the creative power of God is inseparable from the fundamental conception of monotheism. If there is but one living, personal God, nothing in the world can have come into being but through his will. Nowhere is this idea more clearly expressed than in the Old and New Testaments. According to the Mosaic account, God created " the heaven and the. earth," that is, the whole natural universe, " in the beginning " of all temporal being. In six working‑days he called into existence all inorganic and organic beings by the simple word of power, " Let there be " this or that (lien. i. 1‑ii. 3). God is not less the absolute creator of the world to the authors of Ps. xxxiii. and civ. and Job xxxviii. With the same definiteness the deutero‑canonical or apocryphal literature of pre‑Christian Judaism emphasizes the monotheistic nature of the idea of creation (Eccles. xvi. 26‑xvii. 9; II Macc. vii. 28; Wisd. xi. 17 eqq.). In the New Testament the content of the Mosaic cosmogony is presupposed in numerous sayings of Christ and his apostles, as in those which mention the foundation of the world (John i. 24; Matt. xxv. 24; Luke xi. 50; Eph. i. 4; I Pet. i. 20; Heb. iv. 3), the creation of man and woman (Matt. xix. 4‑6; Acts xvii. 24‑26; I Tim. ii. 13), and the Sabbath, on which God rested (Heb. iv. 4; cf. John v. 17). God is repeatedly, spoken of as the Lord of heaven and earth, who made both (Matt. xi. 25; Luke x. 21; Acts xvii. 24; cf. Rev. iv. 11); as the primal source, of whom are all things (I Cor. viii. 6; Rom. xi. 36; cf. Eph. iv. 6); as the everlasting Father, who through the Son made the world (John i. 3; Col. i. 15‑18; Heb. i. 2); as the invisible God, who reveals his eternal power and Godhead by the works of his hands (Rom. i. 20; Acts xiv. 17). The creation of the world out of nothing is mentioned at least once in the New Testament (Heb. xi. 3).
On the basis of this Biblical teaching the dogmatic theology of the Church developed. The most important Fathers, the scholastics, and the old Protestant theologians are in essential agremeat in the doctrine of a miraculous creation of the world out of nothing. The distinction is made between a first or immediate and a second or mediate creation. The former is the creation of " the heavens and the earth," i.e., of the substance of the universe both within and without this world,
as well as of purely spiritual or immaterial essences. The second is the gradual development and organization of the matter immediately created out of nothing. As the operative cause of creation the entire Trinity is named, the Father creating the world by the Son in the Holy Ghost (Ps. xxxiii. 6; lien. i. 2; John i. 3; Heb. i. 2; Col. i. 16; cf. also Rom. xi. 36; Eph. iv. 6). As the final end of creation dogmatic theology places the glorification of God or the complete revelation of his power, wisdom, and goodness‑as the intermediate end the beatification of men through their union with God (cf. Gen. i. 31; Ps. viii. 5, xix. 2, exv. 16; Is. xiv. 18; Acts xvii. 26; I Cor. xv. 46).
The variations from this doctrine which have made their appearance in the history of human speculation have related either to the creative subject or to the manner of creation, modifying either the conception of a conscious personal Creator or that of a determinate process of creation rising by a definite progression to man. On the first point, they are inclined toward changing creation into a mere cosmogony or slow development of the world; on the second, toward neglecting the element of cosmogony or well‑ordered plan in creation. The former is the common error of all pagan doctrines of the origin of the universe, as well as of such pagan‑pantheistic speculation as has taken place within the Church. The doctrine of later Judaism and the Judaizing supernaturalism of many of the Fathers and late Christian thinkers suffers, on the other hand, from too exclusive monotheistic emphasizing of the absolute action of God in creation.
II. The Cosmogonies of Ancient and Modern Paganism: To pagan thought, creation in its essence is a slow self‑originating process, into which the theogonic element enters, if at all, only in the final stages. Its result is the universe considered as mere thesis, or nature, not as ktiais, or the creature. This is true equally of the polytheistic, dualistic, and pantheistic systems of non‑Christian paganism, of modern pantheistic tendencies with Christian form, and of their logical consequence, atheistic materialism.
1. The Mythological Cosmogonies of Paganism Proper: These are all characterized by some notion of emanation; they consider the world and the substances within it as effluxes of the Godhead, and thus suggest a certain coherence of matter and the created world of spirits with God. This is true also of the dualistic religions, according to which the world originates from the joint action of the emanations from the good god of light with those from the god of darkness‑either in the way of a hostile conflict of the two principles, as in the Persian legend, or in that of the parallel development of both, as in the mythologies of the Slavic, and to some extent of the Germanic, peoples. Into both the dualistic and the pantheistic systems much that is originally polytheistic has penetrated, just as scarcely any developed pagan cosmogony is without suggestion of the monotheistic conception. A complete classification of the pagan cosmogonies will not be attempted here; it will be sufficient to glance at the moat characteristic ones, beginning

299
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
with those most closely related to the Old Testament account.
According to the Persian myth in the Bundahishn, Ormuzd, with the Amshaapands, created the world in six periods by his word (see ZOROASTER, ZOROASTRIAN ism). The usual order is the heavens and the light, the water, the earth, the true, the animals, and men as descendants of the archetypal man Gayomart. The division of the process into definite periods of one thousand years is apparently later, but in both earlier and later sources an absolute creation out of nothing is affirmed. Still more definitely the traditional story of the Etruscans seems to point to an original connection with the Old Testament. The world is here said to have been created by God in six periods of one thousand years‑first, heaven and earth, then the firmament, the sea and other waters, the sun, moon, and stars, the animals, and lastly men. As the earliest authority for this belief is Suidas (s.v. Tvppr1vfa), it is hardly possible to avoid the conclusion of Jewish or Christian influences in the account. Much fuller of obscure mythological elements are the cosmogonies of several peoples of Western Asia. In the Old Babylonian, according to Berosus (about 300 R.c.), the primitive chaos was dominated by the eeagoddess Markaya or Homoroka, i.e., the ocean; then the supreme god Bel‑Zeus split her in two and out of one half made the heavens, out of the other half the earth; then Bel had his own head cut off, and men were formed out of the blood which flowed from him, mixed with earth (see CRRe.TIox, BABYLONIAN ACCOUNTS). Some Confused similarities to the Old Testament account, with a large admixture of theogonic myths, are found in the Phenician legends, as given by the somewhat doubtful authority Sanchuniathon. Ac. cording to this, the spirit which, as a dark wind, brooded over the primeval chaos was in some way united with the matter of this chaos; and out of this union, which is called Desire, .originated first a fertile watery slime in which lay concealed the seed of all things; then the heaven, in the shape of an egg, out of which came the sun, moon, and stars, the air and the sea, the clouds and the wind, thunder and lightning; and finally, awakened by the thunder, intellectual beings Of both sexes. In the Cosmogonies of the Greeks and the Egyptians, par, tially related to these, the gods originate together with the forming world. According to the oldest Greek legend in Hesiod, out of chaos pmceeded first Gaia, Tartar, Eros (the earth, the depths, and love); next the pair Erebos and Nyx (darkness and night), who produced Aither and Hemera (the light of heaven and the day). Gain then brought forth at intervals other cosmic powers and the Titans from whom Zeus, the other gods Of Olympus, and men were descended. A somewhat Similar cosmogony, though rather more influenced by Eastern myths, is found in Aristophanes.
According to the Egyptian cosmogony, as given by DfodOruB Siculus, the elements originally mixed in chaos were separated by a selfroriginating moqement Of air; the heavier ones sank and gradually separated into land and sea, under the continuous impulse of this movement. Out of the earth,
Creation and Preservation
while it still retained a half‑fluid character, the heat of the sun generated animals. The older Egyptian mythology is more monotheistic. Amun,
or Chnum, or Thoth appears as the supreme creative god, who produces the heavens, earth and its vegetation, animals, men, and gods. Here also there are several remarkable reminders of Genesis.
In the oldest religious literature of India, as in the Rag‑Veda, there are also traces of monotheism. The much later book of Manu is more fantastic. According to it the universe was once a confused chaotic darkness; God, the great originator of all things, appeared and drove away the darkness by
his light, creating first water, and in it the seed of light. Out of this seed developed a golden egg, in which Brahma sat a whole year in calm meditation, finally breaking it and making heaven and earth out of its halves. A similar process is described in the Malaabharata and generally in the later sour of Indian mythology, some of which go more into detail, as in deducing various elements from the different parts of Brahma's body. The notion of the primeval egg is found in other mythologicS, such as the old Chine, the Japanese, the Finnish (in the ancient epos Kakwata the formation of heaven and earth from the two halves of the egg is described just as by Manu), and even that of the South Sea Islands. Again, the story of the origin of different parts Of the world from ,the severed limbs 6f a gigantic primitive man or anthropomorphic god is found also in the old Germanic and Scandinavian cosmogony.
As common traits of all these mythological cosmogonies may be mentioned the development of the process of formation from less perfect to more perfect, or from original chaos to the final creation Of man; the predominance of water in the original condition of the earth; the evolution of a luminous Or spiritual principle which resets on this primeval water; and finally the emphasis laid upon the godlike origin of man, or his mediate relation to the Deity, as a ground of superiority over the animals generated from the earth by elementary forces.
8. CosmoQOaio Notions in Ancient, esyeoially Greek, Philosophy: The philosophy of .both Ionians and Dorians is essentially a natural philosophy, and thus largely cosmological. The Ionian philosophers searched for the material principle of things, which they defined variously.
Thales found it in water or abstract moisture; Anaximander in the apeiron, i.e., infinite and indefinite primeval substance; Anadmenes in the
air; Heraclitus in ethereal fire; Anaxapras in the seeds of things, once inextricably intermingled in chaos, then disentangled and formed into a wSHordered cosmos by the divine spirit, the absolutely, simple, indivisible, impassible no,8 ; Leucippus and Demooritus in the atoms, those indivisible, infinitely small bodies which are distinguished from each other not by their qualities, but only geo.
metrically by form, position, and arrangement, and whose sum constitutes abstract fulness ‑in Contrast with the other primeval principle of emptiness or nothingness. The Doric philosophers in Magna Grsecia and Sicily directed their attention i

Creation and Preservation	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	300
discovering an ideal or formal principle of things. The Pythagoreans found it in numbers, geometrical forms, and relations; the Eleatics (Xenophanes, Parmenides, Zeno, Melissus) in the conceptual unity of being. A clever attempt to combine the Ionic and Eleatic standpoints was made by Empedoeles, who defined four material and two ideal elements or roots of things‑the former being earth, water, air, and fire, the latter the motive powers of love and hate, to one of which the union, to the other the separation of things in the process of world‑formation is attributed. See MATERIALISM.
In the main period of Greek philosophy the opposition between idealistic and realistic (or materialistic) cosmology recurs in the relation of the Platonic to the Aristotelian theory, then in that of the Stoic to the Epicurean. Plato, who considered ideas, and especially the highest, that of the Good, as the only eternal things, asserts the temporal nature of the world, or at most makes it to have been created by God, the absolute Good, out of matter without quality and actually unreal. First the Aninra mundi, or soul of the world, was formed by harmonic union of indivisible and divisible substance, then the body of the world. The relation of the world‑soul to the material universe corresponds, in the human microcosm, to that between the immortal soul with its seat in the head and the body with A# two inferior souls. Aristotle, on the other hand, eclared the world to be finite in space or extension, but infinite in time. According to him, the first thing to be set in motion by the " immovable mover " was the heaven of the fixed stars, as the highest of the spheres which surround the earth. The cosmology of the Stoics, in consequence of their generally idealistic attitude, approached more closely to the Platonic and the Eleatic than to Aristotle. They considered the world as eternal, but only in so far as it is the result or the image of the eternal power of the Godhead which works in it. This Godhead, who is in the world as an all‑pervading breath, as a formative fire, as a rational soul, and includes in itself the individual rational type‑forms or logoi spermatikoi, separates itself through a creative process into four elements, as well as into bodies formed by various combinations of them. After the expiration of a certain period things return, by a consuming conflagration, once more into the Godhead, which then creates the world anew, only to destroy it once more when the time comes. Epicurus and his school, going back for their physics to the realistic natural philosophers, especially Democritus, affirm the eternity of space, and in it of atoms distinguished by size, shape, and weight. These atoms, tending downward on account of their weight, generate by collision certain movements which end in the rotary motion that forms worlds, countless in number. Animals and men are mere products of the earth; the formation of the latter (whose souls are substances with the nature of air and fire, consisting of refined atoms, diffused throughout the whole body) includes a gradual evolution toward perfection.
Coming to the philosophical movements which follow the close of independent intellectual life in
Greece (the last century s.c.), the Skeptics declared all certain knowledge on these subjects impossible, while the Eclectics, such as Cicero, attempted to combine various elements of the Platonic, Stoic, and Epicurean cosmology. These problems were taken up with still greater interest by the theosophic‑syncretistic schools of the last century before and the first after Christ‑‑‑especially the Jewish‑Alexandrian school, the Neo‑Pythagoreans, and the Neoplatonists. According to Philo, the principal representative of the first‑named, in contrast with God as the absolute active principle, stands matter without form or quality as the principle of absolute passivity; the former produces first the world of ideas (the Logos or kosmos noetos), and then impresses the type of this ideal world on the eternal matter. The Logos, or divine ideal world, which according to this doctrine was the mediate cause of the world's existence, became in the Neo‑Pythagorean, partially Gnostic system of Numenius of Apamea (c. 170) the demiurge, a second God beside the supreme and purely spiritual God, or Nous. This second God, who gains by contemplation of the transcendental archetypes the knowledge which enables him to exercise creative power on matter, constructs out of it the world as a sort of third God, or the offspring of the two higher ones. Finally, in Ileoplatonism (q.v.), especially with Plotinus and Porphyry, the connecting principle in the formation of the universe is again the world of ideas, which is not, however, as with Plato, identified with the Godhead, but appears as an emanation or radiation from the highest Good. It generates souls in its image, together with the bodies dependent upon and governed by them, as well as the other beings perceptible by the sense or material. Matter in itself is a formless, negative substance which gains form and life first by the entrance of the higher powers, the logaE, which proceed from the Nous and its ideas.
0. The Gaostio.Maniohean Cosmogonies: The ideal and abstract treatment of the question which has been seen in the speculation of these philosophers, together with much more fantastic and arbitrary solutions of the problem which come from the mythical cosmogonies of the still older period, was to a certain extent combined with Christian ideas in the Gnostic theories. All of them appeared as paganizing perversions of the Christian revelation. They have a more or less hostile attitude toward the Old Testament, although they usually attempt to find a place for its monotheistic teaching concerning the creation and government of the world in their practically pagan systems. For this purpose they make use of the peculiar figure of the demiurge. The demiurge of the Gnostics is not, however, a higher divine principle, like the Platonic Logos, but rather a representative of the life of the world as distinguished from God. He is generally considered from the standpoint of the natural world which is to be overcome and elevated into a higher form of existence in the spiritual kingdom of Christ. The creation accomplished by him is only an imperfect preliminary to redemption; and this he is able to bring about

neither by himself nor by the psychic Messiah sent by him. For it the spiritual Christ is required, the higher eon who is revealed at his baptism in Jordan as stronger than the demiurgic Messiah, coming to execute his mission by a docetic life and death. Gnostic speculation took two distinct forms‑the Western, or Greek‑Egyptian, based largely upon Platonic thought, and the Eastern, or Persian‑Syrian, following more the dualistic thought of the Parsees. In the former the transition from the divine being and life to the development of the world appears as an emanation or the production of a series of hypostatic effluxes from the world of light (the Pleroma), growing weaker and less divine the farther they go, down to the demiurge, the lowest, to whom the formation of formless or empty matter is attributed. The latter class considered the world essentially as a product of conflict between the eons of the kingdom of light and Satan and his demons, in which matter, created and dominated by Satan and thus a positive efflux of the evil principle, forms the battle‑ground, and is partially wrested from him by the good eons. See GNOSTICIM.
The history of Manicheanism, a theory of the world whose foundation is more pagan than Christian, has been shown by recent investigation to have a special importance for the development of Christian thought on its heretical side. The roots of this remarkable syncretistic religion reach down into the primitive age of Christianity, and are connected with the Jewish‑Christian and Gnostic sects of the Elkesaites and Mandaeans; and the offshoots of the developed Persian Manicheanism of the third century appear throughout the latter history of medieval sects, both Eastern and Western‑Priscillians, Paulicians, Euchites, Bogomiles, and Albigenses. Some of their ideas, especially those relating to the creation of the world and of man, have even had their influence on the systems of some modern Christian theosophists, such as Weigel and Jakob Blihme. Both ancient and medieval Manicheanism dispensed with the figure of the demiurge, and made the whole earthly or material creation, including mankind, both body and soul, a product of Satan and his demons as imitators of the creative activity of the Light‑god. See MANICHEANS; and MAND&ANS.
4. Bneonlative Cosmogonies of theXodern Pan. theistio‑Xaterialistio Natural Philosophy: These are not without points of contact with the cosmological theories of the old Greek philosophers, and even with those of the Gnostic and of the old pagan mythologies. The principal difference is that modern pantheistic paganism more completely excludes the free creative and formative operation of a personal will. The most thoroughgoing in this direction is materialism proper or logical sensualism, as found in the systems of English freethinkers and deists since Hobbes, the French Encyclopedists of the eighteenth century, and the scientific atom. istic theories of modern Germany, best known through Haeckel. This, excluding a personal Creator and all spirit‑life, together with freedom, immortality, and all ethical principles, recognizes only abstract matter, divided into an infinite num‑
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	Creation and Preservation
her of hypothetical atoms, infinitely small, as the operative cause and explanation of all present and past phenomena of life. This view is most logically carried out in Czolbe's New Darstellung des Sensualiamua (Leipsic, 1855), according to which the world is without beginning as without end; matter exists from eternity, in its smallest atoms as well as in its organic forms; it is absolutely without beginning, coeval with the world‑soul, which may be considered as the principle which holds it together and vivifies it. See ENCYCLOPEDISTS; and MATEaIALISns.
In contrast with this sensualistic theory of the eternity of the world, Pantheism (q.v.) considers the universe, both in matter and form, as temporal, but regards it as the efflux or inevitable evolution of an eternal power of idea which underlies it. Where this absolute idea is considered as a primeval union of spirit and nature, or of thinking and extended substance, separating in creation, it leads to the realistic form of the pantheist theory, as represented by Spinoza and Schelling; where it is conceived as being entirely without substance, as absolute spirit, the idealistic form results, which is represented by Fichte and Hegel. For both schools the acceptance of a real creative act is impossible, since they deny any transcendence of God over nature, and consider it rather as a special form of divine existence, as a phase of development or method of Manifestation of the divine principle dwelling in it and thus fully realizing itself. To all of these philosophers the world is practically an emanation of the primal divine spirit, a successive self‑potentiation of the absolute idea, according to which this original nothing develops itself through the stages of ether, cosmic matter, coarse planetary matter, and organic substance up to the existence, both material and spiritual, of animal and human organisms. For the formation of space and of the earth as a body the nebular hypothesis of Kant and Laplace is taken as a basis; for the origin of the geological structure of the earth, the quietistic theory of Lyell and his school; and for the analogous development of the organic species of the vegetable and animal kingdoms, the theory of evolution as held by Darwin and Spencer.
III. The Creation Theories of the Older Judaism and the Judaizing Christianity of Many Fathers and Modern Theologians: In contrast with the systems already discussed, which emphasize the cosmogonic element at the expense of the monotheistic, these latter dwell exclusively on God's action in creation, to the neglect of what may be accomplished by the powers and laws set in motion by him.
1. In Judaism Proper: Here not only is the creation of heaven and earth out of nothing strongly emphasized, but special stress is laid on the
tive nothingness or weakness of the creature in comparison with God (Wild. xi. 23; Pa. xxiii. 8; Isa. xlviii. 13; Judith xvi. 18; Pa. xevii. 5; Mic. i. 4; Rev. vi. 13). In harmony with the unconditional supernaturalism, nay, acoemism of such a view, it is not surprising to find the six creative days of Genesis taken in the strict literal sense, or even minimized into mere points of time in a defi‑

Creation and Preservation
nits prearranged sequence. The last is the case especially with Philo, who, in spite of his Platonic acceptance of the eternity of matter, regards its formation into an orderly cosmos as a work which God could, if necessary, have accomplished in a moment, and which he divided into six days merely for the sake of orderly procedure.
!d. In the Patristic Period: Here the absolute nothingness out of which God created the world is sharply emphasized, as by Tertullian in opposition to the dualism of the Gnostic Hermogenes, and by later representatives of the ecclesiastical creationism, such as Ambrose, Jerome, and the scholastics from Peter Lombard. Here again occurs the assertion that God needed no more than an instant for the creation of the world. The Alexandrian school especially followed Philo's view on this point; Clement even denies that the world was created in time, since time came into existence with created Ciinga. Origen, asserting the same thing, places over against it an eternally creative activity of God, which, indeed, he confines to the production of the spiritual world. Athanasius, Basil, and Gregory of Nyasa assert the same practically instantaneous and extratemporal creation; and so also Ambrose and Augustine in the West. The underlying thought of a creation not gradual but at once concluded, and the accompanyidg proposition that the world was made "not in time,/but with time," descended from Augustine and the schoolmen, and so to the common orthodox te‑thing.
8. In leeodern Times: Even here a certain Judaising or abstract monotheistic treatment of the subject is to be noticed‑not only among Roman Catholic theologians, but also within the boundaries of Protestantism, where the literal interpretation of the six days as six periods of twenty‑four hours, generally given in orthodox dogmatics from Luther on, retained the extreme supernaturalist character, left no space for organically independent elements, and brought on an inevitable conflict with the ascertained facts of geology and astronomy. These sciences have demonstrated the origin of the heavenly bodies before the earth; the slow and gradual origin of the mountains and the strata of the earth's surface; and a long succession of many organisms, now for the most part vanished and evidenced only by fossil remains, as preliminary to those existing at present. On the other hand, it has been realized that the account in Genesis, so far from requiring aliteral interpretation of the six days, lends itself readily to the explanation of indefinite periods of time‑a view which is supported not only by the eosmogonie passages in Pa. civ. and Job xxxviii., but by the analogy of the old Persian and Babylonian legends of the creation, which are more or less parallel with the Scriptural narrative. Of the various hypotheses put forth by modem apologetics in order to reconcile the account in Genesis with geology and astronomy two deserve mention: one which admits the necessity of the long periods required for the formation of the earth, and conceives them as preceding the six days' work ; and one which denies the great duration of the primeval epochs, and considers the geological for
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
,motions, with the petrifactions contained in them, to have originated after the creative process described in Gen. i. The latter of these is supported by reference to the flood described in Gen. vi.‑ix., with its accompanying cataclysms to which ancient legends testify. Its root‑ideas are found as early AS Tertullian and Hippolytus, and numerous modern writers have adopted the same mode of explaining the presence of petrified shells and skeletons of animals in geological formations. But while this theory has its value as a protest against the extravagant assumptions of geologists, with their formative periods of thousands or even millions of years, it is still untenable on purely scientific grounds. The other, sometimes known as the restitution theory, which places the formative period, of a length sufficient to satisfy geologists, before the six days' work, and regards this as a restoration or setting in order of the confused chaotic results of frequent cataclysms, is objectionable rather on exegetical grounds. This hypothesis, which commonly includes some traces of the partially Gnostic or Manichean idea of the interference of Satan and his demons in the process of creation, seems to have found its first expression in the Arminian theologian Episcopiua; its serious scientific defense was first undertaken by J. G. Rosenmiiller in his Antiquisairrca tenures historic (Ulm, 1778), while at the same time and later a number of theosophic writers used the idea of restitution in connection with the speculations of Btihme. Whatever its advantages in meeting the contentions of modern science, it is open to the obvious objection that the narrative in Genesis is clearly that of a primitive creation, not of a recreation, and in more than one of its details is irreconcilable with this theory.
IV. The Normal Via Media between Jewish and pagan Theories: In place of the restitution theory, now usually abandoned, there has been in modern times an attempt to harmonize the conclusions of science and religion by a direct parallel between the days of creation, taken as periods of indeterminate length, and the main epochs of geological development. This was made first by some of the antideistic apologists of the latter eighteenth century, and taken up by Cuvier, the founder of modern paleontology. He was followed by a large number of both theologians and scientists, among others Hugh Miller, J. D. Dana, F. de Rougemont, G. B. Pianciani, Delitsech, Giittler, Secchi, and Peanel. This parallel, which is carried out in minute detail by some of its advocates, removes at least a part of the difficulties offered at the first glance by the Scriptural account. Thus the objection that light was created before the sun, which came into being after the earth, is met by the assumption that the narrative in Gen. i. 14‑19 is a purely optical or phenomenological one. Certain difficulties, to be sure, still remain unsolved, such as the relation of the six days or periods in the light of their different duration, and their separation from each other, which is given variously by different harmonists. The total number of the geological epochs is considerably more than six (according to some geologists as many as twenty or thirty), so that a direct

808	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	Creation and Preservation
combination of them with the six days is only possible by a great reduction. In the way of a too specific harmonization stands also the fact that the Mosaic account postulates a gradual progression from vegetable to animal life, and within the latter from one class to another, while according to the geological history plants and animals must have been simultaneously present from the first. In any case, a too strict harmonizing is forbidden by the character of the Biblical narrative, which is not literally historical, but prophetically ideal; it is considered as a sort of inverse prophecy even by some of the Fathers, such as Chrysostom and Severianus. The more this view of the Mosaic narrative is accepted; the more it is realized that its author was intending not to teach the elements of geology, but to reveal the fundamental conceptions of theology; the more it is seen that his standpoint was that of religion, not of natural history, the clearer will it become that it is necessary to give up the idea of carrying out the reconciliation in every detail and to be content with establishing an ideal harmony in the main outlines. It is of no slight value to be able to include in this harmony the fundamental truths of the revealed account: (1) the priority of the inorganic elements of the earth's constitution to the creation of organisms; (2) the separate origin, in accordance with a definite plan, of the various species, orders, and classes of plants and animals; and (3) the constant rising of these representatives of the organic creation to man as the crown and dominant end of the entire process.
This view, if properly realized, leads to a deeper speculative solution of the problem which does justice also to the theological side of the whole subject, its relations to the eternal being and life of the Godhead. If the real Christian or concrete theistic idea of creation is to receive its proper development, it is d the utmost importance to conceive the act of creation as a product of the free Trinitarian self‑determination of the personal God. This involves a full and exhaustive utilization of the Scriptural doctrine of the creation of all things through the Son as the absolute archetype of a universe which attains its perfection in the free intellectual life of man made in the image of God (John i. 1‑3; Heb. i. 2; I Cor. viii. 6; Col. i. 16); and not less a careful speculative development of the idea of creation in the Spirit of God, or, in the Scriptural phrase, "by the breath of his mouth"by the formative and vivifying principle from which proceed the organic disposition, differentiation, and development of the world created after the image and by the word of the Son (Ps. xxxiii. 6, civ. 30; Job xxxiii. 4; cf. Gen. i. 2). Through the conception of creation through the Son it is possible to set forth the true nature of the transcendence of God in his creative activity, while t4! idea of a creation in the Spirit of God,brings the immanence of this activity vividly before the mind The former doctrine serves to utilize what is true in deism for the Christian view, while the latter serves to utilize what is true in pantheism, especially the transmutation or' development theory of the modern scientific pantheism. The former takes the
abstract monotheistic view of Judaism, as the latter takes the polytheistic, atheistic, or pantheistic view of pagan thought, purifies them both from their one‑sided or superstitious or fantastic elements and develops them into a truly Christian or concrete monotheistic belief.
V. Preservation of the World: In the form just outlined, the idea of creation by God is inseparably connected with the idea of the preservation of the world by him. God's " rest " on the seventh day is not mentioned as a contrast with his activity on the preceding six, as a transition to idle inactivity, but merely, in accordance with the radical sense of the Hebrew word, denotes the completion of the work. The New Testament leaves no doubt of this interpretation of God's rest (John v. 17; Heb. iv. 1‑10, ii. 3). The doctrine of the Church gives the same view of the relation of God's activity as creator and as preserver. The scholastics designated the conservation of the world as a continuance of creation. Nor is this conservation merely negative. What is required is, in the words of Baier, " a divine action which imports a continuous influence upon created things, such as is convenient and necessary for each according to its nature, to the end that they may be able to continue in their essence and power." This influence is of fundamental importance; together with God's transcendence, his immanence must be asserted. The creation, the preservation, and the governance of the world are an inseparable group of divine activities.
	The doctrine in regard to the preservation of the
world attains special importance on account of its
points of contact with the modern scientific doc
trine of evolution. These are sufficiently numerous,
since the created world nowhere presents itself to
us in any other shape than as a development from
lower stages and forms of life to higher and higher
ones. God preserves the universe which he has
created, not as a lifeless machine eternally standing
still, but in a condition of progressive motion; the
preservation of the world is practically equivalent
to the development of the world. In this doctrine
of the preservation of the universe is the point of
connection for whatever elements of truth are con
tained in the theories of Kant and Laplace on the
formation of the world and in Darwin's theory of
the origin of species; and, though they may be
received with caution in the province of the history,
of creation, freer play may and must be allowed to
them in that of the preservation of the world. See
EVOLUTIom 	(O. ZSCHLEBt.)

BinwopBAYHl: The most convenient book for a study of
comPatstive cosmology is P D C. de is Sausseye, Lehr
burh der Religionepeachichk, 2 vols., Tabingen. 1906.
Consult: H. Faye, Bur 1'origins du monde. Thbpries oos
mo9oniquee des aneisns et des modarnes, Paris, 1886; E. B.
Tyler. Primitive CuWm. London, 1903; F. Lukas, Qrund:
bepriffe su den Kosmoponien der alien Vaker, Leipsio, 1893
	For special ooamogoniee: A V W Jackson, 1ranisehe
Religion, Strasburg, 1900; J. Darmesteter, ormwd d
Ahriman, Paris, 1877; P. Jensen, Koanwlopie der Baby
lonier, Strasburg, 1890; G. Maep&o, Dawn of Ciroiliaa
tion, London, 1896; B. Pietsehmann, Qeaehidte der
Phijnicier, Berlin, 1889; G. St. Clair, Creation Records in
Egypt, London. 1898; H. W. Wallis, Cosmology of the
Ripseda, London, 1887; E. H. Meyer, Die Bddiaehe Kos.
moponie, Freiburg, 1891; J. Curtin, Creation Myths of

Creation and Preservation
arete in the Apostolic Age	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	804
Primitive America, Boston, 1898; D. G. Brinton, Myths of the New World, Philadelphia, 1898.
On the Genesis narrative and its relations to the Babylonian account the later commentaries should be consulted. One of the best single works in H. E. Ryle Early Narratives of Genesis, London, 1892. Consult: W. Baudissin, Studien our semifiechen Religionepeschiehte, Leipsie, 1878‑78; J. H. Oswald, Die Srhapfunpslehre, Paderborn, 1885; H. Gunkel, Schap)unp and Chaos, Gfittingen, 1895 (a remarkable book); L. T. Townsend, Evolution or Creation, Revim of the Seientifc and Scriptural Theories of Creation, New York, 1898; H. Radau, Creation Story of Gen. i., Chicago, 1902 (highly commended); Schrader, %AT.
For the classical philosophy of creation consult the works on history of philosophy by J. E. Erdman, 3 vole., London, 1893; W. Windelband, New York, 1901; P. Janet and G. 86silles, History of the Problems of Philosophy, 2 vols., ib. 1903. For the Gnostic and Manichean cosmologies see works cited under GNowrimatc and MANrCHEANe.
On late Jewish thought consult: A. Schmidl, Sdudien fiber y0diaehe . . . Religionsphilosophie, Vienna, 1889; J. Guttmann, Die Scholashk des dreisehnten Jahrhunderts. Breslau, 1902.
The following treat the subject from the scientific or philosophic standpoint: J. W. Dawson, Origin of the World, London, 1888; C. Wolf, Los Hypod4ses cosmoponiques, Paris, 1888; D. Nys, Le ProbUme coemolopique, Louvain, 1888; C. Braun, Ueber %emoponie room Standpunkt chriatlicher WiesenwAaft, Monster, 1889; E. MaoLennan, Cosmical Evolution, ib. 1890; E. H. P. A. Haeckel, History of Creation, ib. 1892; idem, Creation Or Development, ib. 1899; Riddle of the Universe, New York, 1900 (all of Haeckel's works are evolutionistic); T. Mitchell, Cosmogony, ib. 1894; R. S. Foster, Creation, God in Time and Space, ib. 1895; J. Guibert, In the Beginning, London, 1900; J. M. E. McTaggart, Studies in Hegelian Cosmology, New York, 1901; F. Paulson, Problem of Cosmology, ib. 1902.
From the theological standpoint: O. ZSekler, Oeschiehte der Besiehunpen machen Theolopie and Naturtoiasenschaft, 2 vole., GVtereloh, 1877‑79; W. H. Dellinger, The Creator and . . . Method of Creation, London, 1881; E. de Pressened, Les Oripines, Paris, 1883, Eng. tranel., London, 1887; A. B. Bruce, Providential Order of the World ib. 1897; A. Wagenmann, Doe System der Welt, Vol. i., Cannstatt, 1905; R. Schmid, NatururossenwAaftliches Glaubensbekenntnis wines Theolopen, Stuttgart, 1908.
On the preservation of the world: J. McCook Method of Divine Government, London, 1870; R. A Lipsiue, Die p6ttliche Weltrepiaruny, Frankort, 1878; W. W. Smyth, The Government of God, London, 1882; A. A. Hodge, Relation of God to the World, in Presbyterian and Reformed Review, 1887, pp. 1‑15; W. Schmidt, Die ptittliche Vorsehunp and das Selbstleben der Welt. Berlin, 1887: F. Bettez, Symbolik der ScAtlpfunp and era Natur, Bielefeld, 1898.
CREATIONISM. See SOUL AND SPIRIT.

CREDENCE ,TABLE: A small table or shelf at one aide of the altar in Roman Catholic and Anglican churches, on which the bread and wine, and sometimes the sacred vessels, are placed at the beginning of the service.
CREDNER, KARL AUGUST: New Testament scholar; b. atWalterehausen (7m. w.s.w. of Gotha), Saxe‑Coburg‑Gotha, Jan. 10, 1797; d. at Giessen July 16, 1857. He studied at Jens (1817) and at Breslau (1817‑21). Being rejected by the Halls missionary society for service in the East Indies owing to his reluctance to bind himself to a definite creed, he went to GSttingen and studied and taught privately there from 1821 till 1825. From 1825 to 1827 he was tutor at Hanover. In 1828 he became privatdocent, in 1830 extraordinary professor at Jens, and in 1832 ordinary professor of New Testament exegesis and church history in Giessen, where his chief literary work was done. He had rational‑
istic tendencies, which became more marked as he grew older. Nevertheless, his labors as a Biblical critic, especially his investigations of the origin of the New Testament books and of the history of its canon, bad value which is generally acknowledged, not only because of their richness of information, but also for the clearness and objectivity of presentation. His principal works were: Beitrtige zur Einleitunp in die biblischen Schriften (2 vole., Halle, 1832‑38); Einleitung in dae lneue Testament (1836), generally considered his chief work, although never finished; Zur Geschichte des Kanona (1847); Goachichte des neuteatamentlichen Kanona (ed. after his death G. Volkmar, Berlin, 1860).
(O. Z6CSLERt.)
BrsmomwPH:: W. Baldensperger, Karl August %redner,
snn Leben and seine Theolopie, Leipeie, 1897 (address on
the centenary of Credner's birth); ADB, iv. 575 eqq.
CREEDS AND CONFESSIONS. See SYMBOLICS.
CREIGHTON, cAltvn, XANDELL: Bishop of London;. b. at Carlisle July 5, 1843; d. in London Jan. 14, 1901. He studied at Merton College, Oxford (B.A., 1867; M.A., 1870), and was fellow and tutor of his college, 1866‑75, during which time he devoted himself to historical work and lectured chiefly on ecclesiastical, Italian, and Byzantine history. He was ordained deacon in 1870, priest in 1873. In 1875 he became vicar of Embleton, Northumberland, and in 1884 he went to Cambridge as Dixie professor of ecclesiastical history and fellow of Emmanuel. He was appointed bishop of Peterborough in 1891, and was transferred to London in 1897. He was select preacher at Oxford 1875‑77, 1883, 1886‑88, at Cambridge 1887; examining chaplain to the bishop of Newcastle, 18821883, to the bishop of Worcester, 1886.‑90; was nominated canon of Worcester 1885, of Windsor 1890; honorary fellow of Merton, Oxford, 1889, of Emmanuel, Cambridge, 1891. At the time of his death he was member of the Privy Council, dean of Her Majesty's Chapels Royal, provincial dean of Canterbury, and a member of many official boards and learned societies in England and abroad. His transference to the episcopate deprived the study of church history of one of its beat exponents, while it involved him in cares and anxieties which shortened his days. It is much to be regretted that his history of the papacy, which was intended to cover the entire period of the Reformation, only goes down to the sack of Rome in 1527.
Bishop Creighton was one of the greatest of mod. ern English churchmen, an extraordinarily brilliant man, who distinguished himself in every sphere which he filled‑as student at Oxford, as vicar of a country parish, as teacher at Cambridge, and as bishop. He was a man of affairs, a statesman, as well as a scholar. He was a good preacher and much in demand as speaker on social and official occasions. He represented Emmanuel Col. lege at the 250th anniversary of Harvard in 1886, and the English Church at the coronation of the Czar Nicholas 11. at Moscow in 1896. As bishop of London he was confronted by serious difficulties owing to ritualistic controversies, and, although a High‑churchman himself, he followed a conciliatory course, aiming to establish true liberalism. His

305
chief books were: A Primer of Roman History
(London, 1875); The Age of Elizabeth, The Tudors
and the Reformation, and Simon de Montfort (1876);
The Shilling History of England (1879); A History
of the Papacy during the Period of the Reformation,
his chief work, but left incomplete (5 vols., 1882
1894; 2d ed., A History of the Papacy from the Great
Schism to the Sack o f Rome, 6 vols., 1897); Cardinal
Wolsey (1888); Carlisle (1889); Persecution and
Tolerance, Hulseau lectures at Cambridge, 1893‑94
(London, 1895); The Early Renaissance in Eng
land, Rede lecture at Cambridge, 1895 (Cambridge,
1895); The English National Character, Romanes
lecture at Oxford, 1896 (London, 1896); Queen
Elizabeth (1896; 2d ed., 1899); The Heritage of the
Spirit and Other Sermons (1896);‑ Church and State
(1897); The Story of Some English Shires, papers on
certain counties which he had visited on pedestrian
and other tours (1897); Lessons from the Cross,
Addresses Delivered in St. Paul's Cathedral during
Holy Week 1898 (1898). He was one of the foun
ders of The English Historical Review and its editor
1886‑91. The following volumes appeared post
humously, edited by his wife: Church and Nation:
Charges and Addresses (1901); Thoughts on Educa
tion: Speeches and Sermons (1902); Historical Es
says and Reviews (1902); Historical Lectures and
Addresses (1903); University and Other Sermons
(1903); The Mind of St. Peter and Other Sermons
(1904); Claims of the Common Life (1905); Coun
selfor the Young (1905).
Braraoaasrav: MandeU Creighton, his Life and Letters, by his Wife, London, 1904; DNB, supplement vol., ii. 82‑88.
CRELL, JOHANN. See SocnNus, FAUsTU8, SocnvcANS, I., 1 2.

	CREMER, AUGUST HERMANN: German theo
logian; b. at Unna (30 m. a. of Miinater) Oct. 18,
1834; d. at Greifswald Oct. 4, 1903. He studied
at Halle and Tubingen, and in 1859 was appointed
pastor .at Oatonnen, near Soeat, Westphalia. Eleven
years later he became professor of systematic
theology at Greifewadd, and pastor of St. Mary's.
Cremer was a prolific writer, his principal works
being as follows: Die eschatologuche Rede Jesu
Christi, Matthai 24. 26 (Stuttgart, 1860); Ueber
den biblischen Begriff der Erbauung (Leipaic,
1863); Ueber die Wunder im Zusammenhang der
glittlichen O f fenbarung (1865); Biblisch‑theologi
aches W6rterbuch der neutestamentlichen Grdcftat
(Goths, 1866‑67; 9th ed., 1902; Eng. tranaL by
W. Urwick, Edinburgh, 1872); Vernunft, Geurissen
and O ffenbarung ‑ (Goths, 1869; Eng. tranal. by
D. Heagle, Boston, 1871); Die Auferstehung der
Todten (Barmen, 1870); Der Gott des Alien Bundes
(1872); Ueber die Befahigung zum geistlichen Amte
(1878); Die Bibel im Pfarrhaus and in der Ge
meinde (1878); Ueber den Zustand reach dem Tode,
nebst einigen Andeutungen fiber das Kindersterben
and fiber den Spiritismus (Gutersloh, 1883; Eng.
tranel. by S. T. Lowrie, ; Beyond the Grave, New
York, 1885); Zum %ampf um das Apostolikum
(7th ed., Berlin, 1893); Glaube, Schrift and heilige
Geschfchte (Gilteraloh, 1896); Die christliche Lehrr
von den Eigenachaften Gotten (Goths, 1899); Die
		IIL‑20
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Creation and Preservation Crete in the Apoetolio Age
paulinische Rechtfertigungslehre im Zusammenhang ihrer geschichtlichen Voraussetzungen (21i ed., O*iitereloh, 1900); Tattle, Wiedergeburt und Kindertaufe (1900); Weissagung and Wunder (1900); Bedeutung des Artikela von der Gottheit Christi fur die Ethik (1901); Das Wesen des Christenthums (1901; Eng. tranel. by B. Pick, Reply to Harnack, on the Essence of Christianity, New York, 1903); and Grunduahrheiten der christlichen Religion nach D. Seeberg (1903).
BrewoaserHV: August Hermann Cremer, Gedenkblagar, G11Eersloh, 1904.
CRESPIN, cr5"paa', JEAN: French Protestant; b. at Arras c. 1520; d. at Geneva 1572. He studied law at Louvain. In 1540 he was in Paris, where he worked with his friend F. Baudouin under the celebrated advocate C. du Moulin, and became himself advocate at the Parliament of Paris. He became interested in the doctrine of the Reformed Church and, upon his return to his native town, his relations with the Protestants caused him to be treated as a heretic. In 1545 he went to Strasburg, where he married. In 1548 he was able to realize his dearest wish and live near his friend Calvin; with his family he settled in Geneva, where he established a printing‑press. In 1555 he received citizenship. Like other printers and publishers of his time he also wrote books, viz.: Le Livre des Martyrs (Geneva, 1554); Recueil de plusieurs personnas qui ont conatamment endure la mort pour le nom de N. S. J. C. depuis Jean Hus jusqu'a cette annee presents 1664 (1555); Indict et concordance des chorea contenues h la Bible (1554); Le Marchand converti, tragedie nouvelle (1558); Histoire des vrays temoins de la verW de llvangile depuis Jean Hus jusqu'h present (1570). G. BONET‑MAuRy.
BrBwoa8AP87: E. and It. Haag, La France proteetante, ell. H. L. Bordier, vol. iv., Paris, 1884; Bibliographic lea martwologes Protestants NEerlandaie, The Hague, 1890; Lichtenberger, ESR, iii. 471‑474.
CRETE IN THE APOSTOLIC AGE: Crete, once the flourishing " isle of the hundred cities," was entirely devastated in the last century before Christ by continual civil wars, and for the countries of the Mediterranean it became a continuous menace on account of the pirates who swarmed there. In the Cretan war (68‑67 B.c.) the proconsul Quintus Metellus subdued the island. He also began its organization as a province, which organization was completed 66 B.c. by Pompey. In the year 27 s.c. after the death of Antony its administration was united by Octavian with that of Cyrene, and the name of the province varied between CretaCyrene or Crete and Cyrene (Dio Cars., LIM xii. 4; Strabo, xvii. 3, 840). It belonged to the senate and was governed by a propretor with the title proconsul. Among the cities which in the time of the Romans were connected with the government seated in Crete were the famous Gortyna, Kydonia, and Knossos; the latter was a Roman colony. When Paul on his voyage as a prisoner (Acts xxvii. 7) had come to Crete his ship passed over against Salmone. Sailing along the southern coast one comes to Fair Havens, near the city of Matala. The city of Lasea can not be located. The haven of Phoenix which the sailors wished to reach (Acts

Cretoni
Cromwell
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
Soo
xxvii. 12) is called by Ptolemy (III. xvii. 3) " Har
bor of Phaenice ".; he calls the island Klatulos (III.
xv ii.11). The population of Crete.contained a strong
Semitic element. From I Mace. xv. 23 it is clear
that Jews lived there (in Gortyna; cf. also Josephus,
Ant., XVIL xii. 1; Wars, II. ciii.; Philo, Legat. ad
Cajuns, § 36, ii. 587, ed. Mangey). The "Cretans"
mentioned Acts ii. 11 were Cretan Jews or prose
lytes. The bad reputation of the population of
Crete is referred to in Titus i. 12, where is given
(R. V.) the translation of the well‑known hexameter,
" Cretans are always liars, evil beasts, idle gluttons,"
said by Chrysostom to have been derived from
Epimenides, the priestly seer and miracle‑worker,
one of the seven wise men. The Greek had a verb
formed frpm the noun which meant "to lie and
deceive "; " to Crete a Cretan " meant " to outwit
a knave." 	(JOHANNES WEISS.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the commentaries on Acts, there may be consulted Sabatier, in Iichtenberger, ESSR, iii. 474‑475; DB, i. 195‑520; BB, i. 955‑950.
CRETOHI, SERAFINO: Cardinal; b. at Soriano (7 m. e. of Viterbo), Italy, Sept. 4, 1833; d. at Rome Feb. 3, 1909. He was educated at Rome, became archivist of the Propaganda, secretary of the committee for Oriental affairs at the Vatican Council, and councilor at the Holy Office. In 1877 he was sent by Pius IX. to the general chapter of the Armenian Mekhitariats at Venice, but was recalled by Leo XIII. and appointed assistant secretary of state, 1879. In 1880 he returned to the Propaganda as secretary for Oriental affairs, and in 1889 became an assessor of the Holy Office. In 1893 he was consecrated titular archbishop of Damascus, and went as papal nuncio to Madrid, where he remained three years. In 1896 he was created cardinal priest of Santa Maria sopm Minerva, and in 1900 became prefect of the Congregation of Indulgences. After 1903 he was prefect of the Congregation of Rites. He was a member of the Congregations of Bishops and Regulars, the Councils, Supervision of Provincial Councils, the Propaganda, the Propaganda for the Oriental Rite, and Ceremonials, as well as of the Laurentian Congregation. CRISP, TOBIAS: Antinomian; b. in London 1600; d. there Feb. 27, 1643. He took his first degree at Cambridge, then removed to Balliol College, Oxford (M.A., 1626; D.D., before 1642); in 1627 became rector of Brinkworth, Wiltshire; removed to London in 1642 because of persecution from royalist soldiers. At first he was a rigid Arminian, but later went to the opposite extreme, and after going to London was fiercely attacked as an Antinomian by the ministers there. Anthony Wood says (Athena', iii. 50, ed. P. Bliss, London, 1817): "He was baited by fifty‑two opponents in a grand dispute concerning the freeness of the grace of God, in Jesus Christ, to poor sinners. By which encounter, which was eagerly managed on his part, he contracted a disease that brought him to his grave." His life is described as innocent and upright, " zealous and fervent of all good." He made himself popular at Brinkworth by the lavish hospitality which his private fortune enabled him to extend. His sermons were published after his death with the title Christ Alone Exalted (4 vols.,
1643‑83); they were collected by his son (London, 1690), and were republished by Dr. John Gill, with notes and brief memoir (2 vole., 1791).
CRISPIN AHD CRISPINIAN, SAINTS: Two brothers of good Roman family, who, it is said, went to Gaul in the beginning of the reign of Diocletian to labor for the conversion of the pagans. They settled at Soissona, where they preached with much success by day and labored at night at their trade of shoemaking (whence they have become the patron saints of shoemakers), selling the shoes to the poor; according to a tradition they stole the leather that they might sell at a low price. They were put to death with cruel tortures by the governor in 287. Their day is Oct. 25.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: ASB, Oct., xi. 495‑540; F. 05rree, in JPT, xiii (1887), part 2.
CRITICI SACRI: A thesaurus of Bible antiquities and exegesis, undertaken as an appendage to Walton's Polyglot at the instigation and expense of Cornelius Bee, a London bookseller, and prepared under the direction of John Pearson, archdeacon of Surrey (afterward bishop of Chester); Anthony Scattergood, canon of Lincoln; Francis Gouldman, rector of South Ockendon, Essex; and Richard Pearson, fellow of King's College (brother of John). The full title is Critici sacri
live doetissimorum virorum in SS. Biblia annotationes et tractatus (9 vols., London, 1660). The work combines the labors of many of the best English and Continental scholars of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.* It was reprinted twice at Frankfort, and a new edition, augmented and provided with index, appeared at Amsterdam in nine volumes, 1698. The Thesaurus theologicophilologieus site sylloge dissertationum elegantiorum ad selectiara et illustriora Veteris et Novi Testamenti loca, a theologis Protestantibus in Germania separatim diversis temporcbus conscriptarum (2 vols., folio, 1701‑02) and the Thesaurus novus theologieo‑philologicus (2 vols., 1732), both works edited by Theodor Hase and Conrad Iken, constitute a supplement. The Synopsis criticorum of Matthew Poole (q.v.) is an abridgment of the original work with additional matter. For contents of the Critici sacri consult James Darling, Cyclopfrdia Bibliographica (London, 1854), 815‑826.

CROALL LECTURES: A lectureship on a foundation created by a bequest of £5,000 by Mr. John Croall. The aim is to defend and maintain the doctrines of the Christian religion and " to increase the religious literature of Scotland." The lectures are delivered in alternate years in Edinburgh, the lecturer is by preference from one or other of the Presbyterian churches of Scotland,

* In a note from " Comelius Bee to the reader " it i® said: " If any one should be disposed to blame us either for the great size of the work or because of its price, let him know that we have aimed both to benefit him and to save him money. For here about ninety books, in their entirety, are brought together into nine, and fifty pounds more or less (you would find it hard to buy them all for less at the present time, if you could get them at all) are reduced to fifteen. So there is no good reason why any one should find fault with us; on the contrary, every one should feel much satisfaction."

807	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Oretoni
Qromwell
though he may be a " clergyman of any Reformed Church other than Presbyterian," and may not be reappointed. The first lecturer, in 1875‑76, was John Tulloch, and his subject was The Christian Doctrine o/ Sin (Edinburgh, 1877). A full list of lecturers and their subjects is given in L. H. Jordan, Comparative Religion, p. 568, New York, 1905.
CROCIUS, JOHANNES: Reformed theologian; b. at Lawphe (36 m. sx.e. of Arnaberg), in the county of Wittgenstein, Germany, July 28,1590; d. at Marburg July 1, 1659. After studying at Herborn and Marburg, he became, in 1612, court preacher to the Landgrave Maurice in Camel and obtained the degree of doctor of theology 1613. With the permission of his prince he entered for two years the service of the elector John Sigismund of Brandenburg, who in 1617 appointed him professor oftheology at the University of Marburg. In 1624 hewas obliged toreturntoCassel, in consequence of the closing of the university. During this period he played a great part in the Hessian Church, which had gone over to the Reformed confession, and inthe time of the Thirty Years' War he wrote in support of the political demands of the Reformed party in Germany. His chief work was a polemic against Roman Catholic attacks: AntiBecanus i.e. controversiarum communium, quay M. Becanus . . . in manuali movit examen ex S. S. et antiquitate institutum (Cassel, 1643). In 1631 he took part in the religious conference at Leipsic between Lutheran and Reformed theologians. At the reopening of the Reformed university in Mar burg in 1653 he returned thither, and became its first rector. He had a great share in the church order published by Landgrave Louis VI. in 1657.
CARL. Mlxsm
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. C. Claus, Johannes Crooius, Marburg,
	1857; F. W. 8trieder, HessWAe Gelehrknpasehtdde, ii.
=397 qq., Gattingen, 1782; H. Heppe, Ge8chich& dor theo‑
PakuULU su Marburg, Marburg, 1873.
CROMWELL, OLIVER: Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England; b. at Huntingdon (17 m, n.w. of Cambridge), Huntingdonshire, Apr. 25, 1599; d. in London Sept. 3, 1658. He entered Cambridge University in 1616, but left it a year later to care for his mother and sisters on his father's death. In 1628 he was elected to Parliament from Huntingdon, from which town he removed to Ely in 1636. In 1640 he was again sent to the House of Commons, this time from Cambridge, and in the Long Parliament he soon took his stand in opposition to the royal prerogative. In 1642 he moved the appointment of a committee to put the kingdom in a posture of defense, and, when Essex received the commission to raise a parliamentary army, raised a troop of arquebusiers, sixty Godfearing men who fought first at Edgehill.
Early in his career, when the modern idea of religious liberty was in its infancy, he took a decided stand in its favor, with the
Defense of younger Vane but against the great
Religious	majority of those who fought on his
	Liberty.	side. In defense of his Independent
		principles, he had to contend not only
against the attempt of the Scotch to force their
rigid Presbyterianism upon England, but with the
English Presbyterians who had a majority in the House of Commons, and hampered and weakened the army because it was not in sympathy with their narrow views. Their action forced Cromwell into open opposition to Parliament, in favor of the liberty proclaimed in Milton's Areopagitica (1644) and Jeremy Taylor's LZerty of Prophesying (1647).
In July, 1647, Cromwell and his son‑in‑law Ireton submitted to the king the treaty known as the " Heads of the Proposals," which if carried into effect would have been the settlement of 1689 with a larger flavor of democracy and Puritanism, and left all forms of worship, including the Prayerbook, to the free choice of the worshipers. In all his efforts Cromwell's aim had been to strengthen toleration by intertwining it with the old constitutional pillasa of king and parliament; but he found out by degrees that nothing was to be hoped for from the king, and ultimately sat as a member of the High Court of Justice which tried and executed him, contributing more than any other member to the result.
In the following August he was made lordlieutenant and commander in chief in Ireland, and
put down opposition with a strong Rise to hand. Appointed captain‑general of
Power. all the forces of the Commonwealth
(June 26, 1650), he marched into Scotland, and won the successive victories of Dunbar, Edinburgh, and Perth. The battle of Worcester (Sept. 3, 1651) ended the war, and Cromwell returned to London. In April, 1653, he dissolved the " Rump " Parliament and formed a council of state. After the " Little " or " Barebones " Parliament had sat from July to December, he was installed at Westminster (Dec. 16) as Lord Protector under the conditions of the " Instrument of Government " drawn up by the military power.
One of the early important measures of the Protectomte was the establishment of a new scheme of church government. The minister presented to a living was to have a certificate of fitness from three persons of known godliness and integrity, one of them being a settled minister. After this had been passed by commissioners known as Triers, he became an incumbent, liable to expulsion by a local body of Ejectors for immorality, blasphemy, or atheism; but while he remained he might uphold any puritan
system he chose, and organize his conPolicy of gregation on the Presbyterian, Inde‑
Protect‑ pendent, or Baptist system, if they orate. would follow him. Any who ob‑
jected to the system adopted in their parish might form separate congregations at their own discretion. Later on, toward the close of 1655, the Jews, who had been exiled from England since the reign of Edward I., were allowed to return. But ultimately the position held by the Prayer book as a symbol of attachment to royalty drove Cromwell to proscribe its use as thoroughly as that of the mass; yet the persecution along this line was sharp only for a time, and on the other hand he stood forth before all Europe as the champion of religious liberty by his espousal of the cause of the Vaudois Protestants against the duke of Savoy, and his foreign policy looked toward the establish‑

Cromwell
Cross and Its Use
ment of an alliance which should uphold PrOteBtantism everywhere.
Though he was limited by the defects which make imperfect the character of the best of men, it has been generally admitted, now that old Prejudices have passed away (especially since the publication of Carlyle's great work), that
Modern Cromwell was a man of sincere devoEstimate. tion to duty and to his ideal of what a Christian man should be. No sour fanatic, he was strict in banishing not merely vice, but the folly which leads to vice. Long reviled as a regicide, a hypocrite, and a tyrant, he is now recognized as a patriotic, wise, and just ruler.
Br8LI0aaAFnT: A discriminating criticism of literature Prior to 1887 may be found at the end of the article in the DNB, aiii. 155‑186. The only early life of value is H. Fletcher, The Perfect Politician . . . The Life of 0. Crmnwell, London, 1660. Consult: O. Cromwell, Memoirs of the Protector . . . and of his Sons Richard and Henry, 2 vole., London, 1823 (by a descendant and in apologetic tone); T. Carlyle, Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Spree, 3 vole., London, 1846, reprinted often, e.g., 1905 (a vindication of Cromwell, turned the current of oPinion concerning the subject); D. Masson, Life of Milton, 6 vole., Cambridge, 1857‑80 (indispensable); J. Forster, Lives of Eminent Statesmen of the Commonwealth, vol. i., London, 1853 (adverse); F. P. G. Guisot, Life of Oliver Cromwell, 9th ed., ib. 1899; J. A. Piston, Oliver Cromwell, the Man and his mission, ib. 1889 (defensive); S. R. Gardiner, Hist. of the Commonwealth and Protectorate, 16.4880, London, 1894; idem, Oliver Cromwell, ib. 1903; S. H. Church, Oliver Cromwell, Life, Extracts from Letters and Speeches, New York and London, 4th ed., 1899; J. Morley, Oliver Cromwell, ib. 1904. From the view of church history: W. Clark, Anglican Reformation, pp. 398 428‑429, 436‑440, New York, 1897; J. H. Overton, The Church in England, ii. 114‑119, London, 1897; W. H. Hutton, The English Church . . Ie26‑171.¢, ib. 1903. An interesting volume is Menasseh Ben Israel's Mission to Oliver Cromwell. A Reprint, ed. L. Wolf, ib. 1901.
CROOKER, JOSEPH HENRY: Unitarian; b. at Foxcroft, Me., Dec. 8, 1850. He was educated at Norway, Me. (1864‑67), and Ypsilanti Union Seminary (1870), and after a Baptist ministry of five years became a convert to Unitarianism in 1877. He held charges at Madison, Wis. (1881‑91), Helena, Mont. (1891‑97), and Ann Arbor, Mich. (18981905). Since 1905 he has been minister of Roslindale Unitarian Church, Boston. He has written Jesus Brought Back (Boston, 1889); Problems in American Society (1889); Different New Testament Views of Jesus (1890); The New Bible and its New Uses (1893); The Unitarian Church (1901); Religious Freedom in American Education (1903); and The Supremacy of Jesus (1904).
CROOKS, GEORGE RICHARD: Methodist; b. in Philadelphia Feb. 3, 1822; d. in Madison, N. J., Feb. 20, 1897. He was graduated at Dickinson College,. Carlisle; Pa., 1840; became teacher in the grammar‑school of the college 1842, its Principal 1843, adjunct professor of Latin and Greek in the college 1846; was pastor in Philadelphia, Wilmington, New York, and Brooklyn 1848‑80; professor of historical theology in Drew Theological Seminary, Madison, N. J., 1880 till his death. In the General Conference of 1856 he led the movement which sanctioned theological seminaries in the Methodist Church, and he aimed steadily at higher ideals of culture for the ministry. From
1860 to 1875 he edited The Methodist. With John
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
F. Hurst he prepared an adaptation of Hagenbach's Encyclapcedica and Methodology (New York, 1884); independently he published an edition of Butler's Analogy, containing a life and completion of Emory's analysis (1852); The Life and Letters of Rev. Dr. John McClintock (1876); the Sermons (1885) and Life (1890) of Bishop Matthew Simpson; The Story of the Christian Church (1897).
CROSBY, FANNY (FRANCES JANE VAN AI, STYftE) ; Hymn‑writer; b. at South East, N. Y., Mar. 24, 1820. She became totally blind in infancy, and was educated at the New York Institute for the Blind, where she taught English grammar and rhetoric, as well as Greek, Roman, and American history, 1847‑58, when she married Alexander Van Alstyne, a blind man. She has written more than three thousand hymns, among the best ]mown being " Safe in the arms of Jesus; " " Jesus, keep me near the Cross; " " Pass me not, O gentle Savior; " " Rescue the perishing; " and " Sweet hour of prayer." She has also written The Blind Girl and other Poems (New York, 1844); Monterey and other Poems (1849); A Wreath of Columbia's Flowers (1859); Bells at Evening and other Poems, with biographical Sketch by Robert Lowry, 1898 (5th ed., 1903); and Memories of Eighty Years (1907).
CROSBY, HOWARD: Presbyterian; b. in New York Feb. 27, 1826; d. there Mar. 29, 1891. He was graduated at the University of the City of New York 1844; was professor of Greek there 1851‑59, at Rutgers College 18593; was also pastor of the First Presbyterian Church of New Brunswick 18611863; pastor of the Fourth Avenue Presbyterian Church, New York, 1863 till his death. From 1870 to 1881 he was chancellor of the New York University; member of the American Bible Revision Committee; moderator of the General Assembly at Baltimore 1873. He advocated Christian union, favored a restriction of wealth, and was outspoken in behalf of temperance in the proper meaning of the word (not total abstinence). He assisted in organizing the Young Men's Christian Association of New York and was its president 1852‑55; he was also the chief founder of the Society for the Prevention of Crime in 1877 and its president till his death. Besides occasional pamphlets, articles, etc., he published Lands of the Moslem, travels (New York, 1851); an edition of the (Edipus Tyrannus of Sophoeles (18b2); The New Testament with Brief Explanatory Notes or Seholia (1863); Social Hints for Young Christians, three sermons (1866); Bible Manual (1870); Jesus, his Life and Work (1871); The Healthy Christian, an appeal to the Church (1871); Thoughts on the Decalogue (Philadelphia, 1873); Expository Notes on the Book of Joshua (New York, 1875); Nehemiah in the American Large series (1877); The Christian Preacher, Yale lectures on preaching for 1879‑80 (1880); The True Humanity of Christ (1880); The New Testament in Both Authorized and Revised Versions Carefully Annotated (Boston, 1885); The Bible View of the Jewish Church (New York, 1888); The Good and Evil of Calvinism (1890); The Seven Churches of Asia, or worldliness in the Church (1890); Will and Providence (1830). A volume of Sermons

309	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Cromwell
		Cross and Its Use
appeared in New York, 1991, and At the Lord's
Table, 1894.
DrsLI0a8APHY: Howard Crosby, Memorial Payers and Rem
	iniscences, New York, 11192.
CROSS AND ITS USE AS A SYMBOL.
The Sign of the Cross (§ 1).
Its Form (1 2).
As an Amulet. Ecclesiastical Symbolism 0 3).
The Crow in Art. Different Forms (¢ 4).
Similar Pre‑Christian Symbols (1 b).
	The significance and importance of the cross in
Christianity are obviously due to its association
with the death of Jesus. Its use as an instrument
of torture and capital punishment, and the cross of
Jesus are treated under the heading CRuorlrixioN.
Other topics are most conveniently discussed in
connection with the symbolism of the cross, to
which this article will be in the main devoted. Its
historical associations and its connection with the
salvation of men made the cross the emblem of
Christianity even from the beginning. The sym
bolic act known as the sign of the cross appears
very early, signifying, of course, Christ's death on
		the cross; but inevitably importance
:. The Sign came to be attached to the mere act
	of the	and it was believed to be helpful in
	Cross.	securing the blessing and efficacy of
		this holy event and of the exalted
Christ. As early as about the middle of the second
century a superstitious conception and application
had so far developed that the popular faith of the
Church, not without support from theology, sought
by performing the act a powerful device against
the will of demons, by whom people imagined
themselves beset and threatened. The expedient
was also applied in case of sickness and other perils,
before battle and elsewhere. The sign was usu
ally made on the forehead, but also on other parts of
the body, which were supposed to need its protect
ive operation. The sign is also used contempo
raneously in public worship, as conferring a blessing
or consecration and protection against the ungodly
world. Its supposed efficacy comes to light espe
cially in exorcism. Possibly the pagan reproach
of cross‑worship had some connection with this
comprehensive practise.
	The medieval development occasioned in some
respects a very considerable increase in the use of
the sign of the cross in public worship. The Westr
ern Church exhibits the double form of the so‑called
Latin and the so‑called German sign of the cross.
		The former is made by touching the
a. Its Form. forehead and breast and then the left
		and the right shoulder with the open
right hand; using the formula: In nomine patris et
filii et spiritus sands amen; or: Adjutorium
nostrum in nomine domini, or: In nomine do
mini nostri Jesu Christi. The German cross con
sists in touching the forehead, lips, and breast with
the thumb and fingers of the right hand brought
together, while the left hand rests on the breast.
The accompanying words are: " In the name of
God the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. Amen."
The Greeks place thumb, index finger, and middle
finger of the right hand together, the two remaining
fingers closed in the palm of the hand, and so touch the forehead, breast, right and left shoulders. The three extended fingers denote for them confession of the Trinity; the two closed ones express faith in the divine and human nature in Christ. Their formula runs: " Holy God, Holy Strong One, Holy Immortal, have mercy on us." The Lutheran Churches have retained the sign of the cross in particular acts of devotion (baptism, communion, and some others), and likewise the Anglican Church; whereas Reformed Protestantism rejected it strictly.
To the private and devotional appreciation of .the value of the cross as a symbol correspond the extent and affluence of its representations, even in the early Christian era. The superstitious phase of the matter is exemplified in the use of the cross on amulet inscriptions; and even the amulet itself takes the form of a cross. The mark‑
3. As ing of walls, doors, and household an Amu‑ objects with a cross may in many cases let. Eccle‑ be attributed to the same motive.
siastical However, the cross occurs for the most
Sym‑ part as a symbol and notation of Chrisbolism. tianity. Accordingly the use of it increases with the victorious progress of the new religion through the heathen world from the time of Constantine the Great. Ornaments are marked with it, especially rings, vestments, and other dress fabrics, various utensils like lamps, combs, caskets, and boxes, as well as sarcophagi and epitaphs. Nor does the ecclesiastical use of it fall short of the private use. The cross became the outward and visible token of church edifices. Then the State had it circulated on its coins throughout its entire dominion and beyond; and it crowned the imperial globe, scepter, and diadem.
In the Middle Ages, it is true, the cross recedes in the sphere of private usage, but it gains all the more ground in the public life of the Church. It is the symbol of ecclesiastical seizin and right of possession; it is used to excess in one form or another in connection with ecclesiastical functions (altar dedication, proclamation of indulgences, processions, etc.); becomes more lavishly appropriated to devotional objects, and is the most characteristic Christian burial token. It participates in the ordeal (q.v.); admonishes, in detached situations, to religious thoughts and acts (wayside crosses, etc.), and is affixed by clerics and secular persons to their signatures. It is adopted as ground‑plan of churches (both the Latin and the Greek cross). Monastic and knightly orders and civil gilds, spiritual and temporal lords, municipalities and countries adopt it as emblem. It is borne on banners and arms. Asceticism and mysticism, and religious poetry direct their thoughts to it. It is at once the simplest and most universal Christian symbol. And as far as the evidence goes, there was no distinction in this respect between Eastern and Western Christianity.
In the West a powerful reaction was occasioned by the Reformation, so far, at least, as the superstitious and generally unworthy use of the cross as a symbol was in question. But although Reformed Protestantism took radical measures in the matter, the Lutheran movement, consistently with its

Cross and Its Use	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	310
Orosthwaite
proper nature, confined itself to doing away with
unevangelical practises.
		It is doubtless true that even before Constantine's
time the cross was used in plastic art and painting,
and especially in the minor arts, though only in
frequently. But the earliest certain representa
tions of it extant are later than Constantine. This
is explained, for one thing, by the greater wealth of
monumental material preserved from the later time;
but it is also due to a growing predilection which
originated in Constantine's time or later; the rep
				resentations become more and more
4. The Cross frequent as time goes on. The oldest
		in Art.	forms, probably aimultaneoub in origin,
	Different are the " Greek cross " ( + ) and the
		Forms.	" Latin cross" (crux immina, t). The
				cross we‑ anticipated, even though not
intentionally, intheGreek letter "chi" of the mono
gram of Christ (see JESUS CHRIST, MONOGRAM OF).
It is sometimes combined with the letters " alpha "
and " omega," or it is enclosed in a circle, or offset
with doves or long‑stemmed flowers. It is, further
more, adorned with precious stones, and associated
with the monogram in the triumphal labarum (see
CONSTANTINE THE GREAT, I., § 4). As emblem of
victory it soars in the starry dome, upheld by
hovering angels; and in the fifth century it enters
into the nimbus of Christ, imparting to the same
its characteristic form down to this day. Less
frequent is the " tau " form of the cross ( ‑[" , " St.
Anthony's " or " Egyptian cross," crux commissa),
which originated in the symbolic reflections of
church writers, and is not demonstrably extant
before the fourth century. To the Middle Ages
belong " St. Andrew's cross " ( X , crux dwwsata),
which legend reputed to be St. Andrew's implement
of martyrdom (see CRUCIFIxION); the papal cross
with three crossbars ( *. ) and the patriarchal
cross with two ( $ ); and numerous others con
structed upon the fundamental traditional Out
lines, and belonging distinctively to heraldry‑the
Maltese cross, the cross fieury, the cross pattk, and
others.
		Similar or equivalent pre‑Christian symbols of
this description have neither an intrinsic nor ex
traneous connection with the Christian cross, al
				though such relationship has been slid
	5. Similar is persistently asserted. The Egyp
	Pre‑Chris‑ tian "handle cross " ( IF, ankh),
			flan	which has been transferred in isolated
	Symbols. instances to Coptic art, has been merely
				reconstructed and transformed into
the cross of Christ. The swastika (x, crux
gamminata, gammadion, or fylfot), a very ancient
prophylactic symbol occurring among all. peoples,
perhaps owes its not infrequent adoption by Chris
tians to its resemblance to the cross; at least this
resemblance may have made the adoption easier;
but the fylfot also stands independently beside
the cross.	VICTOR SCHULTZE.
Braraoaeara:: W. W. Seymour, The Cross in Tradition.
	Hid., and Art, New York, 1898; J. 8tockbsuer. Runsl
	pesrhiehte du Rreuses. Schaffhausen, 1870; E. Dobbert,
	Zur Entekhunpsgeechichts du Rrtuaea, Berlin. 1880; G. 6.
	Tysek, The Cores in Ritual, Architecture and Art. London,
	1898; J. Hoppenot, Ls Crucifix dons 1'hisfoire et dare
	fart. Paris. 1899; W. O. Stephens, The Cross in the Lift
and Literature o/ the Anplo‑9axona. New York, 1904;
P. bt. C. Kermode, Manx Crosses . . . 6th to 13th Century,
London, 1907; E. Bereeford‑Cooks, The Sign of the Cross
in the Western Liturgies, London, 1907; Schaff, Christian
Church, vol. ii., chap. iv.; KL, vii. lOb4‑88.
On pre‑Christian sad non‑Christian forma and usage consult: G. de Mortillet, Ls Sig" de is croix avant b cAristianiama. Paris, 1888; E. von Bunsen, Doe Symbol des Rreuses bei alien Nationen, and die Entettbunp des Rrtusallmbois der ehresUichen RireM, Berlin, 1878; W. W. Blake. The Crow Ancient and Modern, New York, 1888; Anesult, La aoix avant J4sus Christ, Paris. 1894; J. D. Parson, The Non‑Christian Cross, London, 1896; T. Wilson, The Swastika, ib. 1898.

CROSS, EXALTATION OF THE: One of the older church festivals, although, as it appears, it had no independent status to begin with, but was an addition to the festival of the Invention of the Cross (q.v.), celebrated on the following day (Sept. 14). The first mention and account of it is by the Aquitanian pilgrim Silvia, about 385. It was naturalized in Constantinople as early as the begin‑. ning of the fifth century, and in the first half of the same it is on record with respect to Syria and Egypt. Probably during the fifth century the festival spread through the entire Church of the East. The way was paved for it on every side, directly and indirectly, by the migration of alleged fragments of the cross. The recovery of the Holy Cross, which in 614 was carried off by the Persian king Choslroes IL, but in 628 was brought back to Jerusalem in solemn procession by the emperor Heraclius in person, doubtless gave the festival a new impulse. It is first mentioned in the West under Pope Sergius (887‑701). VICTOR SCHULTZE.

BIBLTOGaAPBT: The Pilgrimage of S. Silvia of Aquitania, in Palestine Pilgrims' Teat Society series, Vol. i., London, 1898; A. J. Binterim, DenkwUrdipkeittn, V. i. 455 eqq., Mains, 1829: DCA, i. b02‑b03; ASB and ASM for Sept. 14.

CROSS, MENTION (OR FINDING) OF THE: The name of an ancient festival of the Church. In the history of the discovery of "holy sites" the finding of the cross of Jesus has its place, even prior to the middle of the fourth century. While Eusebius of Ca'earea and the Pilgrim of Bordeaux (333) have nothing to say in the matter, Cyril of Jerusalem, not long afterward (347 or 348), presupposes the existence of this cross and the wide distribution of splinters detached from it (" Catechetical Lectures," iv. 10, x. 19; " Letter to Constantine," iii.; MPG, xxxiii. 468, 685, 1168; NPNF, 2 ser., vii. 21, 63). Still in the same century, the legendary account, no doubt incited by the visit of the empress Helena (the mother of Constantine the Great) to the holy scenes, associates her directly with the event., The empress, it relates, conjointly with the bishop Macarius, instituted researches as to buried crosses on Golgotha; and thanks to the aid of a Jew, or even of a divine revelation, the three crosses were discovered. The true one was recognized by means of the attached titulus (Matt. xxvii. 37, and parallels) or by virtue of a miracle of healing. The reports vary in detail, but are essentially the same in substance. It is nevertheless demonstrable that this narrative has its origin in the transference to the empress Helena of a similar episode in the legend of Abgar (Dootrtrta Addai ;

311	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Cross and Its Vse
Croethwaite
of. T. Zahn, Forschungen zur Geschichte des neutestamentliehen Kanons, i., Erlangen, 1891, pp. 370 sqq.; Socrates, Hist. eccl., i. 17, Eng. transl. in NPNF, 2 ser., ii. 21; Sozomen, Hist. eccl., ii. 1, in NPNF, 2 ser., ii. 258‑259. These relate the discoveries at length).
	Both Greeks and Latins	commemorated the
occurrence in a special festival, the former com
bining it with the annual celebration of the dedi
cation of Constantine's Basilica on Sept. 13, the
latter appointing a particular date for it on May 3.
The first traces of a Latin observance appear in
Gaul at the beginning of the Middle Ages. The
fusion of the Gallic and Roman ritual carried the
festival to Rome about 800, whence it became
gradually diffused through the Western Church.
		VICTOR SCHULTZE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. H. Newman, Two essays on . . . Mira‑
cles, pp. 287‑328, London, 1873 (defends the legend); W. C. Prime, History of the Invention, Preservation and Disappearance of the Wood knournas the True Cross, New York, 1877; The Legendary History of as Cross, a Series of sixty‑four Woodcuts from a Dutch Book . 1483 .
with Preface by S. Baring‑Gould, ib. 1887; Inventionis crude . . . hymnus antiquus, ed. A. Holder, Leipsic, 1889; E. Nestle, De aancta cruce, Berlin, 1889; J. H. Bernard, The Churches of Constantine at Jerusalem, Being Translations from Bueebius and the early Pilgrims, London, 1896; DCA, i. 503‑506.
CROSS, ORDERS OF THE (Crucifori, Crucigeri): A term applied to the knights of the Teutonic Order (q.v.) and also to four medieval orders in other countries.
1. The Italian Knights of the Cross traced their origin to Cyriacus, the martyrbishop of Jerusalem, who died c. 362, or, according to another tradition of the order, to Cletus (Anacletus), one of the early bishops of Rome. Historically, however, they are not known to have existed before the middle of the twelfth century, when, c. 1160, Alexander III. granted to their mother house, a large hospital at Bologna, certain privileges which were increased by Urban III. and Innocent III. Gerhard de Rocha, the prior of the mother house under Alexander and Urban, seems to have raised the order to a position of importance in Italy by establishing daughter houses throughout the country, even if he was not actually the founder. In the time of its greatest prosperity, during the rule of Clement IV., the order possessed more than 200 houses in the five provinces of Bologna, Venice, Rome, Milan, and Naples. In the fourteenth century, however, the Knights began to degenerate through schisms and lax discipline. A general chapter held at Bologna in 1462 proved unable to check the decline by the reforms which it proposed, and the order was finally dissolved under Alexander VIII. in 1656.
2. In 1211 a canon of Li4ge named Theodore of Celles founded at Huy, a town in his diocese, an order which was destined to spread through Holland, France, the west and south of Germany, and, for a time, even to Ireland. The chief object of the new order was the conversion of heretics, and its Augustinian rule, modified according to Dominican principles, is said to have received the sanction of Innocent III. in 1216. These Knights of the Cross have preserved their existence until the present day, despite the losses which they suffered
both at the Reformation and during the French Revolution. At present they have five houses, two in Holland, two in Belgium, and one in Germany. The indult granted them by Leo X. in 1516, by which they are permitted to bless rosaries with an indulgence of 500 days for each Pater Noster or Ave Maria, has been confirmed repeatedly by succeeding popes, most recently by Leo XIII. in 1884.
3. The Knights of the Cross with the Red Star (Ordo militaris crucigerorum cum rubra stella) believe that they originated as an order of knights spiritual during the Crusades, although historically they seem to have been established c. 1235 as a hospital brotherhood in a Franciscan monastery founded at Prague by the Bohemian princess Agnes. In 1252 they received their rule with their emblem of a cross within a hexagonal red star. Within the year they had assumed control of a hospital newly erected at Breslau, and Bohemia and Silesia remained the centers of their activity. The order soon became wealthy, but at the same time degenerated and many of its houses later passed to other orders, the one at Prague being controlled successively by the Jesuits (1555) and the Capuchins (1599).
4. A distinctively Polish Order of Knights of the Cross with the Red Heart was established in the monastery of St. Mark at Cracow in the second half of the thirteenth century. It was distinguished from the preceding order, which was clothed in black, by a white habit, and was primarily a penitential organization (known ofcially as Ordo de pcenitentia sanctorum martyrum). It attained its greatest prosperity about the beginning of the sixteenth century, after which it rapidly declined.
(O. Z6CSLERt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: 1. B. Leoni, Origins s fondations deU'or‑
dine di Crociferi, Venice, 1598; Helyot, Ordres monas
tiques, ii. 222 sqq.; KL, vii. 1101‑04; Currier, Religious
Orders, p. 188. 2. C. R. Hermans, Annals& canonieorum
regularium . . . ordinis B. emcia, Boio‑le‑due, 1858; He‑

lyot, ut sup.. ii. 222‑234; Heimbucher, Orden and Kon, prepationsn, i. 408‑498; Currier, ut sup., pp.188‑189; KL,
vii. 1105‑11. 3. F. Jachsse, Die ritterliche Orden der
Kreuzherren mit dem roten Stem. Vienna, 1882; Helyot,
ut sup., ii. 236 aqq.; Heimbueher, Orden and Konprepa.
tionen, i. 408‑409; KL, vii. 1111‑17. 4. Helyot, ut
sup., ii. 241; Heimbucher, ut sup., i. 409; KL, ii. 1449‑
1450.
CROSS, SIGN OF THE. See CRoss AND ITs UsE A8 A SYMBOL.
CROSTHWAITE, ROBERT JARRATT: Bishop of Beverley; b. at Wellington (7 m. s.w. of Taunton), Somersetshire, England, Oct. 13, 1837. He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge (B.A., 1860), where he was fellow 1862‑87. He was successively curate of North Cave, Yorkshire (1862‑66), and of Bishopthorpe, York (1866‑68), private secretary and domestic chaplain to the archbishop of York (1866‑69), and vicar of Waghen‑Wrawne, Yorkshire (1869‑74), Braytou, Yorkshire (1874‑83), and St. Lawrence cum St. Nicholas, Yorkshire (18831885). He was also chaplain to the archbishop of York 1879‑84, prebendary of Grindal in York Cathedral, and archdeacon of York since 1884, and rector of Bolton Percy, Yorkshire, since 1885. He was rural dean of Selby, Yorkshire, in 1883‑85 and
of Ainsty, Yorkshire, 1893‑95.In 1889 he was

Crowther	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	312
Crucifixion
consecrated bishop of Beverley, suffragan to the archbishop of York. He has written The Gospels of the Nets Testament, their Genuineness anal Authenticity (London, 1887).

CROWTHER, SAMUEL ADJAI: Church of England missionary bishop of the Niger; b. at Oshogun Yoruba, Central Africa, 1808; d. at Lagos, West Africa, end of Oct., 1891. When twelve and a half years old he was captured by Mohammedan slave traders, sold to the Portuguese, and shipped from Lagos. The ship was captured by a British man‑of‑war and he was landed at Bathurst, Sierra Leone, and given his freedom. There in the Church of England mission he was educated and converted, and baptized on Dec. 11, 1825, taking the name of Samuel Crowther. He showed marked ability and learned with avidity. In 1826 he studied in the parochial school at Islington, London. In 1827 he returned to Africa and, after graduating from the Fourah Bay college at Sierra Leone, was put in charge of the school at Regents Town in 1830, in 1832 of that at Wellington, and in 1832 was professor in his alma mater. In 1841 he was sent by the Church Missionary Society to explore the Niger country. In 1842 he was ordained in England. In 1843 he resumed work at Sierra Leone. In 1844 he began the Yoruba mission. On June 29th, 1864, he was consecrated first bishop of the Niger in Canterbury Cathedral.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Page, Samuel Crowther, Bishop of the
Niger, New York, 1889; DNB, supplement vol., ii. 93.
CROZIER: A tall staff, terminating in a cross, which is borne before Roman Catholic patriarchs and archbishops as a symbol of jurisdiction. That of the ordinary archbishop, which he uses only within his own province, has a single cross‑piece; that of a patriarch two, and of the pope three. A cross similar to an archbishop's is also borne before cardinals in particular solemnities. The name crozier is sometimes, though less correctly, applied to the pastoral staff or~ ~crook of bishops, for which see VESTMENTS AND IN91GNIA, ECCLEBIABTICAL.

CROZIER, JOHN BAPTIST: Bishop of Down, Connor, and Dromore; b. at Ballyhaise (65 m. s. of Londonderry), County Cavan, Ireland, Apr. 8, 1853. He studied at Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1872; M.A., 1875), and was curate of St. Stephen's, Belfast (1876‑77), St. Anne's, Belfast (1877‑80), vicar of Holywood, County Down (1880‑97). He was chaplain to the bishop of Down 1885‑86, chaplain to the archbishop of Armagh 1886‑93, and chaplain to the lord lieutenant of Ireland 1891‑97. He was also prebendary of Dunsford in Down Cathedral 1889‑90, treasurer of Down Cathedral 1890‑97, and prebendary of Wicklow and canon of St. Patrick's National Cathedral 1896‑97 He was honorary secretary of the General Synod of the Church of Ireland in 1896‑97, and select preacher to Dublin University in 1898 and 1906, and to Cambridge University in 1903. In 1897 he was consecrated to the see of Ossory, Ferns, and Leighlin, and in 1907 was translated to Down.
CRUCIFIX: A cross bearing the image of the crucified Christ. Early Christian art did not at‑
tempt to portray the crucifixion, and crucifixes do not seem to be older than the ninth century. They show the same general characteristics as artistic representations of the crucifixion in general (see CRUCIFIXION, § 4). In the West crucifixes have been much used in the churches as objects of public devotion and also as objects of private devotion in houses, and are worn on the person by ecclesiastics and others.
CRUCIFIXION.
Form of the Cross (§ 1). Method of Fastening to the Cross (§ 2). The Cross and Crucifixion of Jesus (§ 3). The Crucifixion in Art (§ 4).
Crucifixion (" fixing to the cross "), as a method of inflicting the death penalty, originated in the East and was practised by Medea, Persians, and Semitic peoples (except the Jews); later by the Greeks and especially by the Romans. The scanty
and not always clear information exI. Form of tant with reference to the form of the
	the Cross.	cross used reveals two main types:
		the so‑called crux acuta, a perpendic
ular stake or pale, sharpened at the top; and the
form consisting of an upright post and a superim
posed, or transverse, cross‑beam ( T , ‑f‑ ). The
so‑called St. Andrew's cross, reputed to have sig
nalized the martyrdom of the Apostle Andrew, and
traditionally conceived as consisting of two arms
of equal length intersecting obliquely ( )( ), is a
product of medieval legend. While the simple
stake was employed for the impalement as well as
for the suspension of those under sentence, the
composite cross was used for the latter purpose only.
The length of the main portion was ordinarily but
little above human stature; the cross‑piece (pati
bulum) was either bolted fast to the upright post,
which stood driven into the ground; or, as oftener
happened, the cross‑piece was carried to the place of
execution by the sentenced culprits.
There was no uniform process of fastening the delinquent on the cross. A certain latitude appears to have been allowed the executioners both in re
gard to the means employed and also 2. Method with reference to the manner and of Fasten‑ method of suspension‑a fact exing to the plicable by the circumstance that the Cross. Roman law recognized crucifixion only as punishment for slaves and people of inferior standing. Either cords alone or cords and nails were employed; and in the latter case, now only the hands, again both hands and feet were nailed fast. The " seat " (sedile), serving to support the body, a block or pin on which the condemned was placed astride, apparently was not used in all cases; and the same is true with respect to a wooden step for the feet (represented in the " travesty crucifixion " of the imperial palace at Rome; see ASINARII)‑‑which, by the way, is not to be confused with the hypopodium or suppedaneum of medieval portrayals of the crucifixion, the existence of which in antiquity is not sufficiently confirmed by the testimony of Gregory of Tours. The transgressor's offense, where not made known orally by a preceding crier, was usually written on a tablet (titulus), which the delinquent carried him‑

313	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Crowther
		Crucifixion
self or another carried before him. Naturally this
titulus was attached to the cross after the act of
execution (cf. Matt. xxvii. 37, and parallels).
	No definite data are found in the New Testament
concerning the nature of the cross on which Jesus
died. It is only the Church writers after Justin
Martyr who indicate the composite four‑armed
cross as Christ's vehicle of torture. Justin, Ire
		naeus, Tertullian, and others mention
3. The Cross the presence of a sedile. The palatine
and Cruci‑ travesty cross belonging to the begin
	fixion of ning of the third century is of the
	Jesus.	four‑armed pattern, but without the
		sedile and with the wooden step.
There is no valid reason for supposing that the
representation of the form of the cross of Jesus
given by ecclesiastical antiquity is an imaginary
construction of later times. If there were witnesses
of the death of Jesus, and if the words from the
cross furnished the central theme of apostolic and
postapostolic preaching, then a genuine tradition
as to the form of the Lord's cross may well have
been maintained till the time of Justin. Indeed, in
the Gospel narrative itself some indications are
found which confirm this conclusion. The "cross"
borne by Jesus himself (John xix. 17) or by Simon
of Cyrene (Matt. xxvii. 32, and parallels) can hardly
have been the upright, embedded post, with or
without the patibulum, since the strength of one
man alone might scarcely have sufficed for so great
a burden.	If "cross," however (Gk. stauros), in
the passages cited be interpreted as meaning the
patibulum‑which is quite possible‑the narrative
is in accord with custom, as already noted. Fur
thermore, at Jerusalem as elsewhere, posts were
no doubt in readiness at the place of execution
driven into the ground to serve their purpose.
From the circumstance, finally, that the execu
tionary order caused the titulus to be fastened at
the upper end of the cross it may be deduced that
the cross‑piece did not rest on top, but intersected
the post; or, in other words, the cross was a four
armed one. A basis for estimating the height of
the cross of Jesus is afforded by John xix. 29 (cf.
Matt. xxvii. 48, and parallels). The length of the
" [reed of] hyssop" there mentioned was probably
about one yard; the height of the entire cross,
therefore, was from two and a half to three yards.
	Crucifixion was accounted in all antiquity the
most cruel and at the same time the most infamous
death penalty, and was applied almost exclusively
to slaves and persons of inferior estate (servile
supplicium), or to aliens lacking Roman citizen
ship; and this for both common and political trans
gressions. A scourging commonly preceded, con
joined with all kinds of mockery at the expense of
the culprit. The disrobing which anticipated the
closing act accorded with a general custom, as
did also the distribution of raiment among the
executioners. The corpse was ordinarily left on
the cross. Nevertheless, there was no statutory
obstacle to the surrender of the body. Value was
attached to publicity of execution; and for this
reason highways or elevated squares were selected
for the place. The crucifixion of Jesus accords
fully with our general knowledge of such executions,
save that certain peculiar features were added owing to Jewish views and customs: for instance, the stupefying potion (cf. Prov. xxxi. 6) and the removal of the body no later than Friday evening (Deut. xxi. 22‑23). The matter of nailing the feet is debatable, and a positive decision on this point is not attainable. Constantine the Great abolished the penalty of crucifixion.
The first picture of the crucifixion, so far as known, is the " travesty crucifixion " referred to above (§ 2), and is by a pagan hand. The religious sentiment of Christianity regarded the Savior not so much in the act of his humiliation as in his powerful exaltation; and, accordant with this feeling,
Christian art for a long time made no 4. The Cru‑ representations of the Passion. When
cifixion in the first irresolute steps were taken Art. in the way of such art, the controlling
design appears to have been to soften the agony as far as possible (cf. Victor Schultze, Archdologie der altchristlichen Kunst, Munich, 1895, pp. 332 sqq.). The first example of a crucifixion of Christian origin is found in a relief of the timber door of Santa Sabina at Rome, dating at the earliest from about the middle of the fifth century. The background represents the walls of Jerusalem. The heroic form of the Savior is accompanied by the two malefactors, the latter being of a somewhat youthful design. Of perhaps the same age is a North Italian ivory tablet of the British Museum, grouping John and Mary with the Savior, and expressing chiefly an emotion of deep silent sorrow. In both cases Christ is represented as alive and free from suffering. How strongly, indeed, the earlier sentiment still acted even a century later is attested by the small metal flasks at Monza in North Italy, which came from Jerusalem to the West in the time of Gregory the Great. They manifestly endeavor to deviate from the real crucifixion, and stop short with suggestions; as where, in one instance, Jesus extends his arms in the manner of a crucified victim, though the cross itself is wanting; or, again, where only his head hovers above the cross.
During the transition from the early Christian to the Romanesque period, the reactive influences of the more primitive age still appear; Christ is represented as living, draped only with the loin cloth, his feet placed side by side. In another aspect, the increasing number of accompanying figures indicates an elaboration of the treatment; while also the long tunic occurs, though this exceptionally. In contrast with the West, Byzantine art favors both in this period and subsequently the representation of the dying Savior, as he succumbs in death's agony. In every instance his hands and feet are pierced, the feet resting on a step‑fashioned cross‑piece. The Romanesque epoch, during which the crucifixion was most extensively treated as a theme of painting or sculpture, adorns the head of Christ with a wreath or diadem; but there now also occur more and more frequent examples of the treatment of the Lord as dead or dying; in fact, there is a tendency toward sharpest realism. On the other hand, there still persists as a characteristic trait the composure of the feet side by side; and

Crucifixion	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	814
Crusades
	this custom is observed as far down as the middle
	of the thirteenth century.
		A material transformation was brought about by
	the Gothic style, partly under the sway of religious
	individuality, partly through the realistic reaction
	of devotional plays. The kingly crown gives place
	to the crown of thorns; the effect of pain becomes
	visible in the bodily attitude, often moat acutely
so; the head is bowed, the body bent. A single
	nail now pierces or transfixes both feet, which are
	superimposed (for what is alleged to be better
	knowledge cf. F. Piper, Einleitung in die monlN
	mentale Theologie, Gotha, 1867, pp. 619 sqq.). The
	convulsive and tragical elements of the events are
	also reflected in the general setting. To this prov
	ince belongs the German art of the sixteenth cen
	tury, especially as illustrated in Diirer and Holbein.
	It aspires to historical truth, and is not repelled by
	what is ghastly. On the other hand, the Italian
	Renaissance mitigates the harsh tones by appli
	cation of its ideal of beauty. The same tendency
	is followed in the main by the art evolution of the
	seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; while the
	so‑called " Nazarenes " introduced an insipid sen
	timental tone into portrayals of the Passion, which
	has its exponents even to‑day. The modern relig
	ious inclination seeks to enforce historic truth, and
	does not shrink from the sternest realism.
		At the outset the other personages presented by
	the Gospel narrative appear only to a limited ex
	tent (John and Mary, and one or two soldiers);
	but, as the Middle Ages draw to a close, richly ani
	mated scenes are created from the accessory de
	tails; most notably so on the carved altars, The
	religious dramas were of conspicuous influence in
	this direction. However, during the Romanesque
	period as well, certain legendary or allegorical fig
	ures begin to group themselves about the cross.
	Personifications of the Church and the Synagogue
	occur: the former as Victriz, the latter as Van
	quished (cf. Paul Weber, Geistliches Schauspiel and
	kirchliche Kunst in ihrem Verhddtnis erldutert an
	einer Ikonographie der Kirche and Synagoge, Stutt
	gart, 1894, with illustrations). Adam and Eve,
	the primogenitors of sin, which the Savior expiated
	for them as well as others, kneel beside the cross;
	though usually Adam alone is seen, resting in his
	grave beneath the cross, or in the act of rising and
	uplifting his hand toward the Crucified. With
	reference to the grave on Golgotha, the skull and
	cross bones appear at the foot of the cross. Further
	more, in connection with Gen. iii. 15, a serpent is
	twined about the base of the cross. The chalice on
	which rests the Savior's foot, or which is fastened
	under the step, represents the Holy Grail. The
	chalice also is sometimes held in the hand of the
	Church,, Ecclesia. At a quite early period, sun and
	moon are drawn into the scene, either in their
	natural semblance or personified; likewise, lament
	ing angels, God the Father, and the Holy Ghost on
	high. The popularity and wide circulation of the
	legend of Veronica (q.v.), again, accounts for the
	fact that the devout lady finds a place with especial
	frequency on the way to the place of execution,
	though sometimes as well in the vicinity of the
	Crucified.
The cross generally adheres to its traditional form. The medieval legends as to the wood of the cross became influential in approximating the cross in greater or less degree to the tree form. These observations attest the tremendous attractive power which the cross and the crucifixion exercised upon the religious temperament and upon ecclesiastical usage; and therewith, both directly and indirectly, upon art. See CROSS AND ITS USE AS A SYMBOL.
VICTOR SCHULTZE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: 0. ZSckler, Daa Kreuz Christi, Giltereloh,
1875, Eng. tranal., London, 1877 (" sane and discriminating "); H. Fulda, Das Kreus and die Krewigung, Breelau, 1878 (of great value); C. A. Zestermann, Die bildliche Daratellung des Kreuzes and die Kreuzwung Christi, 2 parts, Leipsic, 1887‑68; T. Reil, Die frahchristlichen Dard0ungen der Kremigunp Christi, ib. 1904; DB, i. 528629; EB, i. 957‑961. For list of books on the Cross in Art see under CROSS AND rra USE AS A SYMBOL.
CRUCIGER (CREUZIGER, CREUTZIIIGER), BASPAR: The name of two German theologians.
1. Kasper Cruciger the Elder: Luther's secretary and collaborator; b. at Leipsic Jan. 1, 1504; d. at Wittenberg Nov. 16, 1548. In 1513 he matriculated at Leipaic, where he heard the disputation between Eck and Luther. In 1521 he matriculated in theology at Wittenberg, and studied also mathematics and botany. In 1525 he became rector of St. John's School and pastor at Magdeburg, but in 1528 he returned to Wittenberg as professor of theology and minister at the Schlosskirche, where he remained with a few intermissions until his death. He assisted Luther in his translation of the Bible, gave instruction when Melanchthon and others were called away, and participated in theological debates and conferences. His most important public service was connected with the establishment of the Reformation in Leipsic (1539), which he carried through with the help of Myconius. The city council tried to keep him there, but Luther declared him indispensable to Wittenberg. The Schmalkald war and the Interim embittered his last years. He wrote exegetical and dogmatic works, most of which were published after his death. He had a knowledge of shorthand and thus preserved many of Luther's sermons. With Georg Rbrer he edited the first volumes of the Wittenberg edition of Luther's Works (1539 sqq.).
2. Kasper Cruciger the Younger: Melanchthon's successor at Wittenberg, son of the elder Kasper Cruciger; b. at Wittenberg Mar. 19, 1525; d. at Cassel Apr. 16, 1597. In the discussions after 1570 he was one of the leaders of the Philippists, and was engulfed in their catastrophe in 1574. He was imprisoned and was banished from Saxony in 1576. After a short residence with the count of Nassau at Dillenberg he went to Hesse, and died as pastor and president of the conaiatory at Cassel.
(FERDINAND CORES.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY; For 1. CR, id. 833‑841; 0. G. Schmidt.
Caspar Crueigers Leben, Leipsie, 1862; T. Pressel, Carpar Cracsper, Elberfeld, 1862; J. K8stlin, Martin Luther, 2 vole., Berlin, 1903. For 8. G. J. Planck, Geschichte der Entatehung . . . protestantisehen Lehrbegriljs, V. ii. 626 eqq., Leipsic, 1799; H. Heppe, Geschichte des deutachen Proteatantiamus, ii. 312 sqq., Marburg, 1853.
CRUDER, ALEXANDER: The author of "Cruden's Concordance "; b. at Aberdeen May 31, 1701;

3111	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Crucifixion
		Crusades
	d. in London Nov. 1, 1770. He studied at Maris
	chal College, Aberdeen, and took the degree of M.A.
	(year not known). Indications of an unsound
mind, from which he suffered more or less all his
life, soon became evident and he was in confine
ment for a short time. In 1722 he went to London
and found employment as tutor in Hertfordshire
and the Isle of Man till 1732, when he opened a
	bookseller's shop in London, also acting as corrector
	of the press. He began the Concordance in 1736
and issued it the following year in quarto. It was
not a success pecuniarily; he lost his business,
	suffered another attack of insanity, and was again
	put in an asylum. After a few weeks he escaped
	and in Mar., 1739, issued a curious pamphlet relating
to his confinement, with the title The London
	Citizen exceedingly Injured, or a British Inqui
sition Displayed. He instituted proceedings for
	damages, pleaded his own cause (unsuccessfully),
	and published a report of the trial dedicated to
	King George II. He was again in confinement
	for a short time in 1753. In 1754 he became proof
	reader for the Public Advertiser (daily newspaper);
	at the same time he was busy as general corrector
	of the press and labored diligently in revising the
	Concordance. The hard and regular work seems
	to have been beneficial to his health, and it was not
	necessary to send him again to the asylum. He
	supervised the printing of an edition of Matthew
	Henry's Commentary, and published a Compen
	dium of the Holy Bible, . . Designed for Making
	the Reading more Easy (1750); he compiled a
	Scripture Dictionary, which was published in two
	volumes at Aberdeen shortly after his death; it is
	said also that he wrote prefaces for many books,
	and he prepared the verbal index for Bishop New
	ton's edition of Milton (1749). He issued second
	and third editions of the Concordance in 1761 and
	1769, and received considerable profit from them.
	The explanations of Scripture terms (omitted in
	some editions) were published separately by the
	Religious Tract Society (1840); they are strongly
	Calvinistic. Many stories are told of Cruden's
	eccentricities. He thought himself divinely ap
	pointed as the public censor, especially in regard
	to swearing and Sabbath keeping, and took the
	title " Alexander the Corrector." He went about
	London with a sponge, erasing obscene words on
	walls and other things which did not meet with
	his approval. He appeared as candidate for par
	liament in 1754, applied for knighthood, sought to
	marry the daughter of the Lord Mayor of London,
	and paid unwelcome and embarrassing addresses to
	other young ladies. To promote his schemes he
	issued several extraordinary pamphlets. But not
	withstanding all this he was kind‑hearted, benevo
	lent, fearless in the discharge of duty, a useful
	citizen, and a humble, devout Christian; and he
	was honored and respected where he was fully
	known. He was a member of an independent
	church in London. He gives much information
	about himself in his pamphlets, particularly the
	three which he called The Adventures of Alexander
	the Corrector (1754‑55).
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: His life by Alexander Chalmers, written for
		the Biopraphia Britannwa (1789), was reprinted in the
5th edition of the concordance; a memoir by Samuel Blackburn was prepared for the fast octavo edition (1823); another by William Youngman is found in some editions. Consult DNB, xii. '249‑251.

CRUSADES.
The First Crusade, 1098‑99 (¢ 1).
The Second and Third Crusades, 1147‑49, 1189‑92 (¢ 2). The Fourth Crusade, 1202‑04 ($ 3).
The Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh Crusades, 1228‑70 (1 4). Power of Papacy Increased, also Intolerance (4 5).
Devotion Stimulated, Absolution Extended (§ 8).
The Renaissance and Reformation (§ 7).
The Crusades were expeditions of Christian Europe in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries for the recovery of the Holy Land. They are a part of the thousand years' conflict between Christianity and Islam; yet they constitute in themselves a complete phase of historical development. They came at a time when the wave of Mohammedan conquest had been at a standstill for more than four hundred years, and the old fanatic zeal of Islam had given way to the pursuit of worldly interests and, the fostering of that high culture whieh still constitutes its title to historic fame. In Christian Europe, on the contrary, religious feeling had been gaining in strength. There was a movement of revulsion from earthly interests, even of actual hatred for them, and a passionate longing for the felicities of another world and for a more intimate union with God. In this spirit of piety which strove to attain material vision of the Deity must be sought the true causes of the Crusades. An age which laid so much stress on sacred relics would as a matter of course be extraordinarily susceptible to the influence of the greatest of all relics, the Holy Land. The many pilgrims of the eleventh century may scarcely be regarded as precursors of the Crusades; yet the motives that animated them throw light upon the ‑,haracter of the later and greater movement. Had not thousands of individuals experienced the yearling for the heavenly Jerusalem, statecraft would not have found it possible at a later date to enlist great hosts for the recovery of the earthly capital.
As early as 1074, when Asia Minor passed into the hands of the Seljuk Turks, Gregory VII. had projected a war against the infidels, having also for its object reunion with the Greek Church. The plan was thrust into the background by the conflict with the emperor Henry IV. Urban Il. (1088‑99), who next took up the idea, was animated not so much by the political considerations of Gregory as by actual religious impulse. From the Church should come the impelling force; on the secular powers rested the actual execution of the plan. Before this, Norman knights had engaged in conflict with the infidel, and the conception of a crusade against the Saracen was therefore no absolute novelty to the nations of the West. The Byzantine emperor Alexius 1. was quite aware of this when he turned
to Urban for aid against the Turks i. The First in 1094, and met with a ready re‑
Crusade, sponse from the general religious en‑
io96‑gg. thusiasm, from the ambitions of the
Church, and from the lust for adventure and conquest. When the Greek ambassadors arrived Urban was preparing for the Council of Clermont;

Cruwdee	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	318
and there before great throngs the pope first preached the crusade, Nov. 26, 1095, in words which have not come down, but which stirred the mighty multitudes to frenzied enthusiasm. The number of those who assumed the crusader's cross increased daily, and the movement, soon passing beyond papal restraint, seized upon the lower classes. The peasant exchanged his plow for arms and was joined by the dissatisfied, the oppressed, and the outcast; members of the lower clergy, runaway monks, women, children gave to this advanceguard of the crusading army the character of a mob, recognizing no leadership but that of God. This undercurrent of opposition to the pope gave rise to the legend, which is still current, that not Urban, but Peter the Hermit (Peter of Amiens) was the true representative of the crusading idea. Peter was one of the leaders of the fanatical bands, whose contribution to the enterprise was a story of an alleged personal appearance of Jesus, giving him commission to acquaint Christendom with the sad condition of the Holy Land. After the wildest excesses, in which the Jews appear as the principal sufferers at their hands, these tumultuous hosts found a pitiful end in Hungary and beyond the Bosporus.
The real crusading armies set out in 1096. They comprised the men of Lorraine under the brothers Godfrey, Eustace, and Baldwin of Bouillon; northern French under Robert of Normandy; Provencals under Raymond of Toulouse; and Normans of Italy under Bohemund and Tancred. The Christian cause suffered from dimensions among the leaders, not all of whom resembled Godfrey of Bouillon in his freedom from worldly motives, and it had to contend against the machinations of Alexius I., who was roused to a sense of danger to his realm by the presence of the Western armies. Nicwa was taken, the Sultan of Iconium was defeated at Dorylmum, and on June 3, 1098, Antioch was captured and on June 28 was successfully defended against the Sultan of Mosul; on July 15, 1099, Jerusalem was taken, and Godfrey of Bouillon was made Protector of the Holy Sepulcher. He died in July, 1100, and under his successors, Baldwin I. (d. 1118), Baldwin II. (d. 1131), and Fulk (d. 1143), the boundaries of the ‑kingdom were extended through successful warfare. The kingdom drew strength from the influx of new crusading forces, from the presence of the Italian merchants who established themselves in the Syrian ports, and from the religious and military orders of the Templars and the Knights of St. John. But prosperity led to a weakening of the military spirit, and internal strife crippled the resources of the kingdom. On Christmas day, 1144, the capture of the strong frontier fortress of Edessa by the Emir of Mosul inflicted a serious blow on the Christian power.
The news of the fall of Edessa led to a second crusade (1147‑49), headed by Louis VII. of France and Conrad III. of Germany. In spite of the lofty motives which animated the French king, the second crusade shows a waning of the spirit of enthusiasm which had brought about the first. The political danger involved in the triumph of the Mohammedan arms was a determining factor in the
departure of the crusading armies, and Bernard of Clairvaux, the great preacher of this crusade,
found it expedient to dwell upon the
a. The taking of the cross as a potent means Second and in gaining absolution for sin and atThird Cru‑ taining grace. Lack of harmony besades, 1147‑tween the royal leaders and the treach4g, 1189‑9a. erous policy of the Byzantines led
to irremediable disaster. The German army was almost totally destroyed in Asia Minor during the winter of 1147‑48, and the other crusading host succumbed to defeat and the climate in the summer of 1148. Baldwin III. by his unwise seizure of Ascalon in 1153 brought Egypt into the sphere of conflict and thus prepared the way for the fall of Jerusalem. Egypt after 1169 was ruled by the powerful Seljuks, whose great champion Saladin made it the object of his life to drive the Christian power from Palestine. The war was carried on in a half‑hearted manner by the Christian princes. On July 4, 1187, Saladin won the battle of Hattin, and on Oct. 2 the Holy City surrendered. The Christian power was restricted to Antioch, Tripoli, Tyre, and Margat. In the third crusade (1189‑92), to which the fall of Jerusalem gave occasion, Richard I. of England, Philip Augustus of France, and Emperor Frederick I., Barbarossa, participated. The German emperor was drowned at Salef in June, 1190; Acre was taken by Richard and Philip, but the two kings quarreled and Philip retired; and Richard left Palestine in 1192, after securing by treaty with Sadadin the right for pilgrims to visit the Holy Sepulcher in small bands and unarmed.
The vital crusading spirit was now dead, and the succeeding crusades are to be explained rather as arising from the efforts of the papacy in its struggle against the secular power, to divert the military energies of the European nations toward Syria.
A systematic agitation was carried on,
3. The and in 1201 a large army was collected
Fourth which it was planned to transport on
Crusade, Venetian vessels to Egypt. The Ve‑
12os‑o4. netians under their astute doge,
Enrico Dandolo, succeeded in turnin the crusading movement to their own purposes. The crusaders threw themselves against the Byzantines, Constantinople was taken and sacked (1204), and the empire was apportioned between Venice and the Christian leaders. The Latin empire at Constantinople was established. An outburst of the old enthusiasm led to the Children's Crusade of 1212, which Innocent III. interpreted as a reproof from heaven to their unworthy elders. By processions, prayers, and preaching, the Church attempted to set another crusade on foot, and the Fourth Lateran Council (1215) formulated a plan for the recovery of the Holy Land. A crusading force from Hungary, Austria, and Bavaria achieved a remarkable feat in the capture of Damietta in Egypt in 1219, but under the urgent insistence of the papal legate, Pelagius, theyy proceeded to a foolhardy attack on Cairo, and an inundation of the Nile compelled them to choose between surrender and destruction.
In 1228 Emperor Frederick II. set sail from

817	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Crusades
Brindisi for Syria, though laden with the papal excommunication. Through diplomacy he achieved unexpected success, Jerusalem, Naz4. The Fifth, areth, and Bethlehem being delivered
Sixth, and to the Christians for a period of ten Seventh years. The papal interests represented
	Crusades,	by the Templars brought on a con
	izz8‑7o.	flict with Egypt in 1243, and in the
		following year a Korasmian force sum
moned by the latter stormed Jerusalem. Europe's
last efforts appear in the two unsuccessful crusades
of Louis IX. of France, against Cyprus, Egypt, and
Syria in 1248‑54 and against Tunis in 1270. With
the fall of Antioch (1268), Tripoli (1289), and Acre
(1291) the last traces of the Christian occupation
of Syria disappeared.
First among the results of the Crusades is to be counted the great increase they brought about in the power of the Church and of the
g. Power papacy. The achievements of the of Papacy religious wars fell far behind expecIncreased, tations; but the idea became firmly also Intol‑ fixed that the pope at the head of erance. armed Christendom had effected the conquest of the Holy Sepulcher. It was he who gave the call to arms, who supplied the necessary means from the treasures of the Church, who showered on the warriors of the cross privileges and benedictions, and who led them on through his legates; and, though the actual work of battle fell to the secular princes, the latter were held firmly in the control of the hierarchy by their irrevocable crusader's vow. Through the instrumentality of his legates, who now became an important part in the ecclesiastical administration, the pope drew to himself increased authority within the Church. A more material source of strength was the riches which inured to the Church as a result of the sacrifices of individuals in providing themselves with the means for making the crusade. Princes and knights sold or mortgaged their estates, and the Church was the readiest and unchallenged purchaser in the open market. The popes drew a special profit from this state of affairs, for, whereas during the twelfth century the bishops were accustomed to contribute out of their funds toward the cost of the military expeditions, after the Lateran Council of 1215 these bounties were claimed by Rome as the supreme leader of the holy war and became the basis of a regular tax that was enforced throughout Europe long after the fall of the last Christian citadel in the East. Further, the crusades acted as a powerful incentive to the growth of the spirit of religious intolerance. From warfare against the non‑believer, whether Mohammedan, Jew, or pagan, it was not a far step to war against the heretic. Here, too, Innocent III. appears as an epoch‑maker when he ventured to turn the secular arm against the internal enemies of the Church and to preach a crusade of extermination against the Albigenses of southern France. The inquisition with all its horrors could never have taken such deep root but for the awakening of religious passions which marked the Crusades. As an offset it can hardly be maintained that European knowledge profited by the wars with the Mohammedans.
The .introduction of the study of Aristotle in the West is to be ascribed rather to the friendly relations which prevailed between Christians and Saracens in Spain and Sicily: Nor is it absolutely certain that Western art was materially enriched by contact with Byzantium and Syria; the numerous objets d'art brought back as booty from the East did no more than influence the development of a decorative art by supplying models for imitation.
On the other hand, it would be impossible to overestimate the stimulating effect of the Crusades on the spirit of devotion in Christian Europe. In the papal emissaries entrusted with 6. Devotion the preaching of the crusade the first Stimulated, popular preachers of ,the Middle Ages Absolution are met with. The clerics left their
	Extended.	churches and addressed the multi
		tudes in the field and public squares;
to them in large measure may be traced the fer
vent, imaginative eloquence of the later mendicant
monks. The questionable practise of searching out
localities supposedly connected with sacred tra
dition and the establishment therein of ceremonies
endowed with peculiar efficacies now arises. The
period is one of tradition‑making, which up to the
present day has plunged the geography of Palestine
into confusion. The pilgrim who after the fall of
Acre was shut off from the greatest shrine of Chris
tian worship turned to the sacred places of the
West or of his own land, and the creation of such
centers and objects of devotion became an impor
tant function of the Church. The worship of
relics extended enormously and the trade in holy
remains was carried on in all conceivable forms
and not without the grossest absurdities or decep
tions. The body of legend increased and the
Virgin became an especially favorite subject of
presentation in narrative and art. It would also
seem that the great importance of the rosary, which
before this period appears prominently only in
isolated instances, is to be regarded as dating from
the thirteenth century, when it developed under
the influence of the similar feature of Mohammedan
worship known as tasbih4.
Of portentous importance was the effect wrought by the Crusades on the system of absolution. Originally immunity from the penalties of transgression was granted only to those who assumed the cross out of purely religious motives; but as early as Celestine III. (d. 1198) the mere contribution of money toward an expedition against the infidel was rewarded with at least partial remission, while Innocent III. granted complete remission to one who sent a substitute to the field. And inasmuch as one might be absolved from his crusader's vow on the payment of a sum of money, and absolution eventually was offered for such minor acts of piety as the mere listening to an exhortation to take the cross, it is evident that wide opportunities, indeed, were offered for escape from the penalties of sin.
The Crusades were not without effect on the Renaissance and the Reformation. Friendly intercourse with the Mohammedan world brought Europe into contact with accomplishments and virtues which were felt to be lacking at home. Men became aware of a moral system independent of

Crusades
Cudworth
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
SIB
Christianity that was nevertheless worthy of re
spect. Theological disputations between Christian
		and Mohammedan revealed the fact
7. The Re‑ that the Catholic dogma was not invul
	naissance nerable. From the attention to the
and Refor‑ hitherto unsuspected merits of an
	mation.	opponent it was not a far step to
		a critical examination of one's own
condition. In Germany suspicion of the motives
of the Church in urging the wars against the
Mohammedans and a reluctance to contribute
toward the realization of the plans formulated
by an ambitious papacy and carried on by self
seeking warriors became manifest. Thus the Church,
which had made itself the leader of the Crusades,
came to suffer the consequences of their ill success.
Faith in papal absolutism waned; and a new
religious spirit appeared, first in the sectaries
(Cathari and Albigenses), and later in the Refor
mation. This spirit was fostered by the inspiration
of that higher culture of which Frederick il. is the
preeminent type, by the development of the sci
ences, and by the growth of commerce with the
East, which enriched Europe and turned the atten
tion of men from purely religious to material and
cultural interests in the movement known as the
Renaissance. 	(FRIEDRICH WIEGAND‑)
BIHLtoaBAPHy: The best collection of sources are Reeueil ass historians des eroisades, 13 vole., Paris. 1841‑85 (under the care of the Academy); J. Michaud, Bibliothkue des Croisadee. 4 vole.. Paris, 1829. Single sources are: Jean do ioinville, Hisloire do St. Louis IX., ed. A. Delboulle. Paris, 1882, Eng. travel., in Bohn's Libmrit, London, 1848; Geoffroy do Villehardouin, Histoire do 1'empire do Constantinople, ad. It. Bouchet, 2 vole., Paris. 1891, Eng. trawl., in Bohn" Library, London, 1848; A‑bent, Historia do expeditions Friderici . . . . ed. J. Dobrowsky, Prague, 1827; Odo of Deuil. De profedions Ludosiei VIZ. in orientem, ed. G. H. Ports, in MGH, Script.. zavi (1882), 59‑73; Historia of Wimsm of Tyre, travel. by Mary N. Colom for the Early English Text Society. London,1893; original documents in Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of European History, vol. i. Philadelphia, 1902; H. von Syiel, Hist. and Literature of the Crusades, ed. Lady D. Gordon. London, 1881 (a compilation, not a translation of any one work, gives account of literature).
On the general history of the Crusades the best single work is :till J. Michaud, Histoire acs Croisadea, 4 vole., Paris, 1868, ' ng. raps ., with preface and supplement, by H. W. Mabie, 3 vols., Boston, 1881. Other general works sae: F. Wilken, Geachidts der KrousaUOe, 7 vole., Leipsi0. 1807‑32; R. Rbhrieht, Beilraps sur Geuhiehts der Kreuasape, 2 vole., Berlin, 1874‑78; B. Kugler, GowAichte der Kreuse'‑se, Berlin, 1891; J. I. Mombert, Short History of the Crusades, New York, 1894 (popular): T. A. Archer rod C. L. Kingsford, The Crusades. ib. 1895; J. M. Ludlow, Ape of the Crusades, ib. 1897 (contains bibliography): L. von Ranks. Welloeschichte. vo1. viii., LeiPsie. 1898; E. Heyek, Die Kreuufiye and das Wigs Land, ib. ,1900; Essays on the Crusades, by D. C. Munro, C. Died, and H. Pruts, Burlington, 1903; L. Brehier, L1plise et 1'orient au moyen dpe. Les eroisadee, Paris, 1907; W. B. Stevenson, The Crusaders in the East. A brie/ Hist. Of the wars of Islam with the Latine, It.‑13. Centuries, Cambridge, 1907: Schaff, Christian Church, v. 1, pp. 211‑295.
For the Kingdom of Jerusalem consult: R. Rahriaht GexAidde des K6nipreiehs Jerusalem. 1100‑1,291, Innsbruck, 1898; C. R. Conder, The Latin Kingdom of Jarutatesn, 1098‑1.291, London, 1897.
On individual Crusades consult: H. von E3ybe1, Go‑' adhichte des ereten Kreusmps, Leipsie, 1881; T. Wolff, Die Bauernkreusstlgs, Tiibingen, 1891: B. Kugler, Studien our Gswkichte acs suxiten Kreuszuges, Stuttgart. 1888; E. Pears, The Fall of Constantinople, London 1885: R. R5hrieht. Studies, sw GeacAichte des fsnften KreuastWes, Inns‑
bruck, 1891; H. Klettke, Robert of Marseilles, or the Crusade o/ the Children. Philadelphia, 1883: G. Z. Gray. Children's Crusade, Boston. 1898; M. Bchwob. Children's Crusade, ib. 1906.

	CRUSIUS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST: German the
ologian; b. at Leuna, near Merseburg (10 m. s. of
Halls), Jan. 10, 1715; d. at Leipsic Oct. 18, 1775.
He entered the University of Leipsic in 1734, be
came professor of philosophy there, and in 1750
professor of theology. He was an independent
follower of J. A. Bengel and an opponent of the
Wolfian philosophy, founding all knowledge on
positive revelation and seeking to prove that it
harmonizes with reason. At the same time he
intermingled mystic peculiarities, and thus con
structed a strange typico‑prophetical system of
doctrine. While his colleague Ernesti explained
the Scriptures in a purely grammatical way, Cru
sius followed the Church doctrine, which he inter
preted in a mystical sense. Of his many writings
the most important are Hylumnrtemata ad theologiam
propheticam (3 parts, Leipeie, 1784) and Kurzer
Begri ff der Moraltheologie (2 parts, 1772‑73).
Here he opposes the divine will, known from reve
lation as moral principle, to the Wolfian principle
of perfection. His " Prophetic Theology " was
brought into notice in the nineteenth century by
Hengstenberg and Delitzach, who called attention
to the fact that Crusius conceived of the essence
and cam of prophecy in connection with the scheme
of salvation, which no theologian before him had
done with like emphasis. Crusius left the reputa
tion of a learned, keen, original thinker and of a
pure, pious, and mild character. Even in the great
controversy which divided the University of Leipsic
into " Ernestians " and " Crusians " he maintained
his pious and mild manner, though there was no
question that Ernesti's views were gaining the
upper hand. 	PAUL TBCHAC%ERT.
Brsrxoaasrar: H. Daring. Die Gdehrten Theotopsn Deudarhlande, i. 291‑298, Neustadt, 1831; ADS, iv. 830‑831; J. E. Erdmann, Geechichte der Philosophic vol. m., 4 290. Berlin, 1870, Eng. travel., London, 1893. '

CRUTTWELL, CHARLES THOMAS: Church of England; b. at London July 30, 1847. He studied at the Merchant Taylors' School, London, and St. John's College, Oxford (B.A., 1871), and was elected fellow of Merton College, Oxford, in 1870, where he was also tutor in 1875‑77. He was curate of St. Giles'e, Oxford, 187b‑77, head master of St. Andrew's College, Bradfield, 1878‑80, sad of Malvern College 1880‑85. He was rector of Sutton, Surrey (1885), Denton, Norfolk (1885‑91), and Kibworth‑Beauchamp, Leicestershire (1891‑1901), as well as rural dean of Gartree, diocese of Peter borough (1892‑1902). Since 1901 he has been rector of Eweline, Oxfordshire, and was honorary canon of Peterborough cathedral in 1897‑1903, of which he has been residentiary canon since 1903, being also appointed proctor in convocation for the clergy of the diocese of Peterborough in 1900‑05 and examining chaplain to the bishop of Peterborough in 1900. He has written A HisLory of Roman Literature (London, 1877); SPecimerts of Roman Literature (1879; in collaboration with P. Banton); Literary History of ,Early

819	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	kdeauw Cudworth
Christianity (2 vols., 1893); and Six Lectures on the Oxford Movement (1899).
CRYPT: An architectural term most frequently used to denote a subterranean story or division of a church. The word was early applied to the subterranean cemeteries of the Christians, the so‑called catacombs, or, more properly, single passages and galleries of them in which martyrs or saints were buried. As it became customary to erect churches above the catacombs, just over the grave of a martyr, and with an opening under the altar which allowed the worshipers to look down into the grave, into the crypt, it was natural that afterward the name " crypt " should be transferred to similar excavations under the choir of the basilicas and churches of the Romanesque style, which sometimes were so extensive as to form whole subterranean churches, and often were used as places of interment for bishops. With the Romanesque style the crypts disappeared.
BIHLI_RAPRY: H. D. M. Spence, White Robe o/ Church", pp. 77‑90, New York, 1900.
CRYPTO‑CALVnY1STS: The term applied to those Germans who secretly held or were accused of holding the Calvinistic doctrine of the Eucharist. See Imisprisms.
	CUDWORTH, RALPH: The most celebrated
of the school of seventeenth century philosophers
known as the " Cambridge Platonists " (q.v.); b.
at Aller, in Somersetahire (12 m. s.w. of Wells),
1617; d. at Cambridge June 26, 1688. He entered
Emmanuel College, Cambridge, in 1632, and, after
taking his M.A. degree in 1639, became fellow and
tutor of the college. In 1642 he entered the lists
against the Catholic party with his first published
work, A Discourse concerning the True Nature of
			the Lord's Super, which he considers
		Life.	to be that of a " feast upon a sacri
			fice," analogous to the feasts which
followed the legal sacrifices among the Jews; not
itself sacri f cium, but, in Tertullian's language, par
ficipatio sacrificii. Soon after he published The
Union o f Christ and the Church; in a Shadow, in
which he attempted to vindicate what he thought
Protestants had too much lost sight of, the higher
meaning of marriage. Young as he was, he had
already mastered all the main sources of philosophy,
medieval as well as classical, and quotes freely from
the Neoplatonists and Cabalists, as well as from
such modern Platonists as Vives and Pico della
Mirandola (q.v.). In 1644 he was appointed master of
Clare Hall by the Parliamentary visitors, and a year
later was made regius professor of Hebrew, a posi
tion which his knowledge of Jewish literature and
antiquities made congenial to him. It seems that
he thought of leaving Cambridge in 1651, but the
election to the mastership of Christ's College in
1654 settled him there anew. In. spite of his close
relations with the Commonwealth government, he
was undisturbed at the Restoration, and was even
presented in 1662 to the rectory of Ashwell in Here
fordshire by Sheldon, archbishop of Canterbury,
and made a prebendary of Gloucester in 1678.
Academic and philosophic labors occupied the
remainder of his life. Alarmed by the tendencies
of the irreligious and deistic writers of the time,
especially Hobbes, he essayed to meet them by a
counter‑philosophy which should go to the depth
of human thought and belief. The most impor
tant part of what in his conception was intended
to constitute one great whole was The True In
tellectual System o f the Universe, finished in 1671
but not published until 1678. Its full importance
was not recognized until after its author's death;
Le Clerc published extracts from it in 1703, and
attracted to it the attention of Continental thinkers;
in 1706 an abridged edition was published in London
by Wise; and in 1733 Mosheim brought out a Latin
version with valuable notes of his own, reproduced
in the London edition of 1845. In this great trea
tise Cudworth combated the atheistic hypothesis.
He planned to set forth, against
Philo‑ various forms of fatalism which apsophical peared to him inconsistent with the System. true order of the universe, three great
principles which should sum up religious and moral truth. These were (1) the reality of a supreme divine intelligence and a spiritual world, against the atomistic materialism of Democritus and Epicurus; (2) the eternal reality of moral ideas against the medieval Nominalists and their successors; and (3) the reality of moral freedom and responsibility in man against all pantheistic naturalism and stoicism. Of these the Intellectual System deals formally with the first only. To the later parts belong the Treatise on Eternal and Immutable Morality, posthumously published by Bishop Chandler in 1731, and the Treatise on Free Will, ed. Allen, 1838, as well as some two thousand folio pages of manuscript still lying in the British Museum. Though inferior in originality and clearness to Descartes and Hobbes, the writers with whose views his are most strongly contrasted, he went to the root of his side of the questions under discussion. As a philosopher he was not a pure Platonist; in metaphysics, indeed, he followed Plato and the Neoplatonists, but in natural philosophy the Atomists, and in that of religion Lord Herbert of Cherbury. His theological standpoint was determined partly by his philosophy, partly by the circumstances of his time. He asserted the necessity of revealed religion, but saw in philosophy a divine illumination. Averse from partizan strife, he held a middle course between the rigid High‑churchmanahip of the school of Laud and Independent fanaticism, combining the recognition, with the former, of the rightfulness of an ecclesiastical constitution and an order of worship, and with the latter of the necessity of inner light and an unswerving devotion to ethical ideals.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The principal authority is the preface to the ed. of Cudworth's Works, Jena, 1733, for which the materials were furnished probably by Thomas Baker. The best treatment of Cudworth's system is in J. Mar‑
tinesu, Types of Ethical Theory, ii. 396‑424, London, 1885. Consult: J. Tulloch, Rational Theology . . . in England in 17th Cent., ii. 193‑293, Edinburgh, 1872; C. E. Lowrey, The Philosophy of Ralph Cudworth, New
York, 1884; W. R. Scott, Introduction to Cudworth's Treatise . . . London, 1891 (contains a life and an apology); DNB, xii. 271‑272; also the works cited under CAMBRIDGE PLATONIBTB.

Culdeea
Cunningham
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
CULDEES. See CELTIC CHURCH IN BRITAIN Arm IRELAND, III., 2, J 4.

CULM, BISHOPRIC OF: A bishopric in West Prussia, originally the southernmost in the territory of the Teutonic Order. It was constituted in 1243 by the legate of Innocent IV., Bishop William of Modena, and included the lands between the rivers Weichsel, Ossa, and Drewenz. The bishop's seat was originally Culmsee (85 m. s. of Danzig) and ds now Pelplin (50 m. farther north). The first bishop was the Dominican Heidenreich (124:r 1263), who encouraged colonization and, strongly supported by the Teutonic Order, built many churches. The bishop was the temporal as well as the spiritual ruler, but excercised his judicial and legislative rights through an appointed sheriff, who was also the military leader in case of need. As in the three other Prussian bishoprics founded during the supremacy of the Teutonic Order, the bishops recognized a certain not strictly feudal suzerainty in its heads, whose decisions were either taken in consultation with them or accepted by them on promulgation. Annual visitations (known as synodi laicales) were held by the bishop or his deputies; diocesan synods are known to have been held in 1438 and 1481; and provincial synods met in 1427 at Elbing and 1428 at Riga, under the metropolitan jurisdiction of which latter see Culm was placed by Alexander IV. in 1255. By the Peace of Thorn in 1466 Culm, with a part of Prussia, came under Polish rule, and the bishopric, henceforth a secular one, was to be subjected to the archbishop of Gnesen‑though the last provision was not confirmed by the pope, and it was only after the see of Riga had perished in the Reformation that Bishop Peter Kostka (1577) sought union with Gnesen. The Reformation had been presaged in the fifteenth century by considerable Hussite and Wyclifite activity; and in the sixteenth, in spite of secular repressive measures, the Protestants rapidly increased in numbers, and won religious liberty in Thorn from King Sigismund in 1558. Most of the diocese came under Prussian rule at the first par tition of Poland in 1772 (Thorn not until the second in 1793), and the estates of the bishop, chapter, and monasteries were confiscated by the State, which undertook to pay over half the net annual revenues. The Protestant faith, which had been kept down under the Polish government, now spread once more under the Prussian crown, which has had possession of the district except when (1807‑15) it formed a part of the duchy of Warsaw.
BrRLIoasAPRY: UrkundenbwA des Didume Cutm, ed. 0. P. Woelky, Danzig, 1884‑87p F. 8ohuls, Oewhidie der Sadt and des Kreisaa %ulm, Danzig, 1876‑77.

CULVERWEL, NATEL43ARL: An English phil‑
osophical writer, belonging to the school known as the " Cambridge Platonists " (q.v.); b. about 1618; d. not later than 1651. He became a pensioner of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, in 1633, B.A., 1636, and M.A., 1640, and was elected to a fellowship in 1642. His chief work, the D28course o/ the Light o/ Nature, was published with several smaller treatises in 1652 (new ed., Edinburgh, 1857). It seemsto have been suggested by the De roeritate of his contempo‑
rary Lord Herbert of Cherbury (see DEISM, L, § 1), with whose views on epistemology he coincides to a remarkable degree, though controverting his attack upon Christianity from the side of reason. For grandeur and harmony of conception, as well as for rare insight and the spiritual rapture which is almost the only trace of the Calvinism in which he was apparently brought up, the book is one of the most striking productions of the Cambridge school. Its main theme is the use of reason and the special nobilitv of its function in the search after truth; a second part was projected, to deal with the conciliation of faith and reason, against the Socinians and other opponents of the Gospel of Christ.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. T. Campagnae, The Cambridge Platonista, Selections from the Writings of . . . N. Culvenoel, Oxford, 1901; J. Tulloch, Rational Theology . . in England in 17th Cent., ii. 410 126, Edinburgh, 1872; DNB, xii. 288‑289.
CUMBERLAND PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH. See PRESBYTERIANS.
CUMMIAN (CUMEAN, CUMINE, CUIMIIKE): The name of several Irish monks, of whom the beat known is Cuimine Ailbbe (" Cummian the Fair "), seventh abbot of Iona, 657‑669. He wrote a life of St. Columba, which forms the basis of the third book of Adamnan's life of Columba as well as of some chapters in the preceding books. Colgan and others think that he was also the author of a letter on the Easter controversy addressed in 634 to Seghine, fifth abbot of Iona, while Lanigan and others think it impossible that an ardent advocate of the Roman Easter, like the author of this letter, can have been made abbot of Iona in the seventh century, and ascribe the letter to another of the same name. By whomever written, it is an able document; it shows familiarity with the Scriptures and the writings of the Fathers, quotes the decrees of councils, and displays mathematical powers of no mean order. The writer feels the insignificance of his land among the great nations of the world, and, referring to the stubbornness of his countrymen, ironically exclaims: " Rome is wrong; Jerusalem is wrong; Antioch is wrong; all the world is wrong; only the Irish and Britons know what is right." He had himself followed the old custom till about 630, and changed only after careful and thorough study lasting a whole year.
Certain writings known as the Excarpaus, the Pcenitentiiale Renteme, and the Capitula judiciorum, published by Wassersohleben and Schmitz in their works on the ancient penitential discipline, are traditionally ascribed to " Cummian," but nothing in known as to the identity of the author. The most probable date for the composition of the works is the first half of the eighth century. The Excarpsua circulated throughout the Frankish kingdom and in Italy, and was used in later penitential books as well as collections of canons before Gmtian.
B=LtooaAPuT: The life of Columba is in ASM, i. 842‑549, and in De Smedt and De Backer, Ada earn Hibernier, pp. 845‑870, Edinburgh, 1888; the letter in Useher, Yspietolmrww Hibariiaarum syllops, Dublin, 1632. Works, iv. 482‑444, whence it is oopied in MPL, lxxxvii. 989‑978; for the other works named oonsult: F. W. H. Wswsenohleben, Bumordmrnpm, 72, 480 eqQ., Halle, 1851; H. J. Schmitz, BussbUCksr and Dussdissiptin, 802

821	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Culdeas
		Cunninirham
	sqq., Mains, 1883. For life of Cummian consult: J.
	Colgan, Acta sancforum Hibernia, Leuvain, 1846, 408‑411;
	Lanigan, Eccl. Hist., ii. 395‑402.
	CUMMINS, GEORGE DAVID: Bishop and one
of the organizers of the Reformed Episcopal Church;
b. near Smyrna, Kent County, Del., Dec. 11, 1822;
d. at Lutherville, near Baltimore, June 26, 1876.
He was graduated at Dickinson College, Carlisle,
Pa., 1841; served as a Methodist preacher for
two years, but changed to the Protestant Episcopal
Church and was ordained deacon in 1845. He be
came assistant minister at Christ Church, Baltimore,
1846; rector of Christ Church, Norfolk, Va., 1847;
of St. James's, Richmond, 1853; of Trinity, Wash
ington, 1855; .of St. Peter's, Baltimore, 1858; of
Trinity, Chicago, 1863. In 1866 he was consecrated
assistant bishop of Kentucky. He was a leader of
the "Evangelical" or " Low‑church " party of his
communion, and favored a revision of the prayer
book. In 1873 he attended the meeting of the
Evangelical Alliance in New York and officiated at
a joint communion service held there. For this
act he was sharply criticized, and, as a result, a
month later formally withdrew from the Episcopal
Church, declaring that he could no longer counte
nance by his presence the ritualistic practises of
certain churches of his diocese, that he had lost all
hope of rectification of abuses by the Church, and
that he must take his place where he could give
open expression of Christian brotherhood without
alienating those of his own household of faith.
Conferences with others whose position or views
were similar to his own followed, and the result was
the organization in Dec., 1873, of the Reformed
Episcopal Church (q.v.), of which he became senior
bishop.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mrs. G. D. Cummins, Memoir o/ Q. D.
	Cummins, New York. 1878.
	CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS.	See INscxlr
TioNS, II.
	CUNIBERT, ca'nf"b$r": Bishop of Cologne; d.
about 660. He was educated in the cathedral
school of Treves and became archdeacon in that
city. He received the bishopric of Cologne before
626, probably by royal appointment. In 626 or
627 he took part in the Synod of Clichy and in
the Synod of Reims under Sonnatius (627‑630).
After the retirement of Arnulf of Metz (629 or 630)
he became very influential in politics at the court of
the Merovingian kings Clothaire IT., Dagobert I.,
and especially Sigebert III. (632‑656), who was not
yet of age. He was active in spiritual and secular
affairs, for instance, in the division of the public
treasury (638), in founding monasteries like those
of Cougnon, Stablo, and Malmedy (642‑650), in
different donations and acquisitions of the Church
of Cologne, also in the missionary activities among
the Frisians. After the death of King Sigebert III.
Cunibert seems to have retired to his bishopric, but
in 660 he probably reassumed his political position
under King Childeric 11. He must have died soon
afterward. Later he was honored as saint.
			(A. Hwucs.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Rettberg, KD, i. 296, 535, ii. 802; Fried
	rich, KD, ii. 295; Hauck, KD, i. 377‑378.
		I1I.‑21
CUNITZ, AUGUST EDUARD: Alsatian Protestant; b. at Strasburg Aug. 29, 1812; d. there June 16, 1886. After completing his theological education in his native city, he visited Gottingen, Berlin, and Paris, and in 1837 entered the Protestant Seminary as privet‑docent. In 1864 he became professor of New Testament exegesis, and eight years later was transferred to the newly established University of Strasburg. His work was devoted for the most part to church history, and especially to the period of the Reformation. He collaborated with G. Baum and E. Reuss in editing the complete works of Calvin (59 vola., Brunswick, 18631900), and wrote the historical commentary for the first ten volumes, which contain the Reformer's correspondence He also completed the edition of the Histoire ecel&iastique des 6glises r6form6es au royaume de France, begun by Baum and attributed to Reza (3 vole., Paris, 1883‑89). From 1847 to 1855 he and Reuss edited the Stramburger Beitrdge zu den theologischen Wissensehaften. He also wrote De Nicolai decreto de eledione pond scum Romanorum (Strasburg, 1837); Conaid6rationa historiques sur le d&eloppement du droit eccl6siastique protestant e» France (1840); Historische Daratellung der Kirchenzucht unter den Protestante» (1843); Ueber die Angabefugnisae der Konaiatorien in den protestantischen Kirchen Frankrelcha (1847); and Ein kathariaches Rituals (Jena, 1852).
(A. Elucasoxt.)
CUNNINGHAM, JOHN: Church of Scotland; b. at Paisley, Renfrewshire, May 9, 1819; d. at St. Andrews Sept. 1, 1893. He studied at Glasgow (1836‑40), and Edinburgh (1840‑45), was ordained in 1845 to the ministry of Crieff, Perthshire, and in 1886 was appointed principal of St. Mary's College, St. Andrews. He was one of the first Scotch Presbyterians to introduce instrumental music into his church, and also manifested his liberal views in other ways. In 1886 he was chosen moderator of the general assembly of the Church of Scotland. He wrote The Church History of Scotr land from the Commencement of the Christian Era to the Present Century (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1859); The Quakers from their Origin till the Present Tine (London, 1868); A New Theory of Knowing and Being Known, with Some Speculations on the BorderLand of Psychology and Physiology (Edinburgh, 1874); Episcopacy, Presbytery, and Puritanism i.» Scotland, 1672 to 1660 A.D. (St. Giles' lectures; 1881); and The Growth of the Church in its Organization arid Institutions (Croall lectures; London, 1886).
CUNRINGHAM, WILLIAM: 1. Scotch theologian; b. at Hamilton (10 m. s.e. of Glasgow), Lanarkshire, Oct. 2,1805; d. in Edinburgh Dec. 14, 1861. He studied at Edinburgh; was licensed in 1828; settled as minister in Greenock in 1830; was translated to Trinity College Church, Edinburgh, in 1834; appointed professor in the New College in 1843, and principal in 1847. He threw himself with great energy into the strife in the Church of Scotland, which began to become earnest about the time of his settlement in Edinburgh.. Both his ecclesiastical learning and his debating power found

gizaham	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	8139,
a splendid field, as the strife advanced, in conflict with such learned men as Lord Medwyn and Sir William Hamilton. When appointed professor he was requested by the General Assembly to go to America and learn the methods of study pursued there, and this led to many warm friendships. In theology Dr. Cunningham was a thorough Calvinist. His works (chiefly posthumous) were: Historical Theology (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1862); The Reformers and the Theology of the Reformation (1862); Discussions on Church Principles (1863); Sermons from 1828 to 1860 (1872); Lectures on Subjects Connected with Natural Theology (London, 1878).
BIBwOVnAPHY: R. Rainy and J. Mackenzie, Life of W. Cunningham, Edinburgh, 1871; DNB, rii. 321‑323.
2. Church of England; b. at Edinburgh Dec. 29, 1849. He studied at Edinburgh (M.A., 1870), and Gonville and Caius and Trinity Colleges, Cambridge (B.A., 1873), was ordered deacon in 1873, and ordained priest in 1874. He was curate of Horningsea, Cambridgeshire, 1873‑74, a licensed preacher in the diocese of Chester 1875‑79, and curate of St. Mary the Great, Cambridge, 1879‑93, as well as chaplain of Trinity College 1880‑91. He was elected a fellow and lecturer of Trinity College in 1887, and vicar of St. Mary the Great, Cambridge, and has also been rural dean of Cambridge since 1894 and honorary canon of Ely and honorary fellow of Gonville and Caius Colleges, Cambridge, since 1896. He was likewise proctor of the diocese of Ely from 1891 to 1906, and Lady Margaret preacher to the University of Cambridge in 1905, while academically he has been Hulsean lecturer in 1885, professor of economic science in King's College, London, 1891‑97, and lecturer in economic history in Harvard University in 1899. In theology he was at first a Presbyterian, but became dissatisfied with that system both for ecclesiastical and theological reasons, and is now a decided High‑churchman. He has written The Epistle of St. Barnabas (London, 1877); St. Austin and his Place in the History of English Thought (1886); and The Gospel of Work (1902).
	CUNNINGHAM LECTURES: A lectureship on
s ,foundation created by a bequest of £2,000 by
Dr. W. Binny Webster to perpetuate the memory
of the Rev William Cunningham (q.v.). They
are delivered annually in Edinburgh, the appoint
ment to the lectureship is made for not less than
two nor more than three years, the incumbent is by
preference a professor or minister of the Free Church
of Scotland, and each series must consist of not less
than six lectures The first series was delivered in
1864 by Robert A. Candlish on the subject The
Fatherhood of God (London, 1866). The subjects
thus far discussed have all been concerned with
Christian history and doctrine or with the Bible.
A full, list of the lecturers and their subjects maybe
found in L. H. Jordan, Comparative Religion, pp.
566‑567, New York, 1905.

CURATE: A name applied primarily to a parish priest, as having the care (cure) of souls. In the strict canonical use of the term, it designates the holder of a beneicium curatum (see BENEFICE),
who is thus directly charged with the cure of souls.
Priests who are merely confessors are not properly
designated as curati, since their function is limited
to the administration of the sacrament of penance.
On the other hand, the chaplains of institutions
may be so called when they are bound to assist the
parish priest in the discharge of his pastoral duties.
In modern English usage (though the strict ancient
meaning occurs in the rubrics of the prayer‑book)
the name curate is commonly applied to unbene
ficed clergy who assist the rector or vicar of a parish;
" perpetual curate," however, was until recently
the legal title of a priest who had sole charge of
a district not organized as a regular parish (see
CHAPLAIN). 	(E.. Falnnssaa.)
CURCI~ CARLO MARIA: Italian Jesuit; b. at Naples Sept. 4, 1809; d. at Careggi (3 m. n. of Florence) June 9, 1891. He was educated at Naples and Rome among the Jesuits, and entered the order Sept. 14, 1826. In its defense he wrote his Fatti ed argomenti (Naples, 1845), directed against the attacks of the Prolegomeni of Vincenzo Gioberti, and in 1850 he founded at Naples and edited for three years the Civiltd Cattolica, a religious and political review, which soon became the organ of the Jesuits and the Vatican. In 1870 he defended the temporal power of the pope, but in the preface to his Lesions essegetiche a morali copra i quattro Evangeli (5 vols., Florence, 1874‑76) he urged the pope to become reconciled with the kingdom of Italy. Emphasizing the same idea in a letter addressed to Pius IX. and in his book IL moderno dissidio tra la chiesa a l'Italia (1877), he was expelled from his order and was not readmitted until a few days before his death. In 1879 he, submitted a general declaration of obedience to te Church, but in 1881 he again advocated his former views in his La nuova Italia ed i veeci zelanti (1881). This work, as well as the still bolder ll Vaticano regio, tarlo superstite delta chiesa eattolica (1883), was put upon the Index, and the author was suspended from all ecclesiastical functions; but after the publication of his Lo Scandalo del vaticano regio (1884) he was forced to recant. His chief works, in addition to those already mentioned, are as follows: La questiane romance nell'assemblea franeese (Paris, 1849); La demagogia italiana ad it papa‑re (Naples, 1849); La natura a la grazia (2 vols., Rome, 1865); ll Libro di Tobia esposto in lezioni (1877); l t Nuovo Testamento volgariszato ed esposto in note essegetiehe e morali (3 vols., Naples, 1879‑80); It Salterio volgarizzato dall'Ebreo ed esposto in note essegetiche e morali (Turin, 1883); and Di un socialismo cristiano nella questions operaia a net concerto selvaygio degli moderni stab civili (Rome, 1885).
BIH7dOf38APaY: The first portion of his Memorie, extending to 1849, was published at Florence in 1891; F. H. Reueo6. Der index der oerbotenen Becher, pp. ii., 858, 882, 1137, 1186, Bonn, 1885.
CURETON, WILLIAM: Semitic scholar; b. at Westbury (11 m. w. of Shrewsbury), Shropshire, 1808; d. in London June 17, 1864. He studied at Christ Church, Oxford (B.A., 1831; M.A., 1833; B.D. and D.D., 1858; D.D., hon., Halle); was curate of Oddington, Oxfordshire, chaplain of Christ Church, chaplain in ordinary to the queen
	.‑.‑.1‑. .	.„	‑. _ 	o‑4	~,a.		LLu'oAr

8138 	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
(1847), canon of Westminster and rector of St.
Margaret's (1849): He was sublibrarian at the
Bodleian Library from 1834 to 1837, when he be
came assistant keeper of manuscript4 at the British
Mudeum. Up to this time he had devoted himself
particularly to Arabic, but the receipt of many new
Syriac manuscripts from the monastery of St. Mary
,Deipara, not far from Cairo, turned his attention to
Syriac. In the collection he discovered certain
copies of the letters of Ignatius, and published
The Ancient Syriac Version of the Epistles of St.
Ignatius, to St. Polycarp, the Ephesians, and the
Romans, with extracts frpm the epistles collected
from various writers (text, transl., and notes,
London, 1845), maintaining that here was the
original and genuine text; this view being attacked
(see IGNAnus oh ANxlocu), he published Vindi
cim Ignatiana (1846); and, in 1849, the Corpus
Ignatianum, a complete collection of the Ignatian
Epistles in Syriac, Greek, and Latin. Another dis
covery, and that by which his name is best known,
was that Qf the " Curetonian Gospels," a fragmen
tary Syriac version, unlike the Peshito, and, in
Cureton's opinion, representing the original of
Matthew more closely, published (text and transl.)
in The Remains o f a very Ancient Recension o f the
Four Gospels in Syriac hitherto unknown in Europe
(1858). Other Syriac works were: The Festal Ld
ters of Athanasius (1848; Eng. transl., by Henry
Burgess, in Pusey's Library of the Fathers, 1854);
The Third Part of the Ecclesiastical History of John,
Bishop of Ephesus (1853; transl. by Payne Smith,
1860); Spicilegium Syriacum, containing Remains
of Bardesan, Meliton, Ambrose, and Mara bar Sera
pion (text, transl., and notes, 1855); Eumbius's
History o f the Martyrs in Palestine (text and trend.,
1861). He also published Fragments of the Iliad
from a Syriac Palimpsest (1851). Ancient Syriac
Documents relative to the Earliest Establishment of
Christianity in Edessa and the Neighboring Coun
tries appeared posthumously, edited by W. Wright
(1864). In Arabic he published the text of Shah
rastani's " Mohammedan Sects " (2 vols., London,
1842‑46); the commentary on Lamentations of
Tanchum ben Joseph of Jerusalem (1843); the
Pillar of the Creed of the Sunnites by al‑Nasafi
(1843); and the catalogue of Arabic manuscripts in
the British Museum (1846).

CUREUS, on‑Was, JOACHIM: German theologian of the Reformation period, whose original name was Scheer; b. at Freystadt (45 m. n.w. of Liegnitz), Silesia, Oct. 23, 1532; d. at Glogau (35 m. w.n.w. of Liegnitz) Jan. 21, 1573. From 1550 to 1554 he was at the University of Wittenberg, where he came at once under Melanchthon's influence. Returning to his native town to teach in the school, he worked there for a while in the spirit of Melanchthon to make his pupils love the Scriptures as well as their lessons. Meantime he began to study medicine, and spent two years (1557‑59) at Padua and at Bologna, where he became a doctor of medicine. The rest of his life was spent as town physician at Glogau. He made his name known as a medical writ^r in 1567 by his treatise De sensu et sensibilibus, and as a historian in 1571 by his Gentis
Silesia annales. V6gelin published his Formulte precum a lectionibus dominicalt7bus in the year of his death; it is interesting especially for the view of the Lord's Supper expressed in his Eucharistic prayer. Of greater consequence was the Exegesis perapicua et ferme integra de Sacra Canna, which he had written against Heshusen in 1562 and circulated anonymously in manuscript. The year after his death, however, VSgelin published it, pretending that it came from Geneva, and circulated the edition cautiously in Wittenberg, and especially at Heidelberg and in France. Its distinction between Luther's real teaching and the expressions which had fallen from him in the heat of controversy, its appeal to the martyrdoms of the Calvinists as testimonies to the " celestial verity " for which they had died, and its opposition to ubiquity, manducatio oralis, and reception by the unbelieving, stirred up much feeling and brought down heavy penalties and ultimate exile upon V6gelin.
(G. KAWERAU.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The early Vita was by J. Ferinarius, Lieg‑
nits, 1801, reproduced in C. F. Heusinger, Commentatio do J. Cureo, Marburg, 1853, end M. Adami, Vita Germanorum medieortrm, pp. 197‑218, Heidelberg, 1820. Consult H. Heppe, Geschi" des deutschsn Protastantismw, i. 159 sqq., 438 sqq., Marburg, 1852.
CURIA.
The Cardinals (§ 1). Officials of State 0 2). Judiciary and Administration U 3). Congregations (¢ 4). Diplomatic Agents and Solicitors (§ 5).
Curia is a comprehensive term used in the phrase Curia Romana, " the Court of Rome," for the entire system of officials of various kinds and degrees who compose the administration of the pope. He may be regarded in various lights‑as bishop of Rome; as metropolitan of a province comprising eight dioceses; as primate of the Roman West; or, according to Roman Catholic teaching, as the successor of Peter, prince of the apostles, and centerpoint of all Christendom. Until recently he was also the temporal ruler of the States of the Church (see PAPAL STATES), and the Curia included a number of secular officials whose duties related to this aspect of their chief's position.
Originally, just as an ordinary metropolitan has no subordinate officials as such, but makes use of those attached to his own see, the pope's assistants in not only his metropolitan,but also his primatial action, were the presbyters who gathered about him as bishop of Rome. The bishop of Rome had no special church, or, in the modern phrase, no cathedral; in the oldest period known the city was divided into districts, each with its own principal church. In charge of each of these tituli was a priest who represented the bishop, and who, as placed over such an important church, bore very early the name incardinatus, cardi:. The Car‑ nalis. The meetings of this presby‑
	dinals.	terium were known either as synods or
		as ronsistories, and in them all im
portant affairs relating to the administration not
only of the local church, but of the primacy, were
considered. According to the Pontifical of Dama
sus (d. 384) the city had been divided by Pope

O~ons
Mareellus (308) into twenty‑five " titles "; and from the first the deacons who had charge of the seven charitable districts, said to have been laid out by Clement L, were associated with them as cardinals. Under Pope Stephen III. (IV.) (d. 771) the suburban bishops were added to the number, which, however, varied much at different periods. In the twelfth century it seldom rose above thirty; in the thirteenth it went as low as seven; the Council of Basel (1431‑49) fixed it at twenty‑four; in 1518 there were only thirteen cardinals; under Pius IV. (d. 1559) once as many as seventy‑six. Sixtus V. (1585‑90) finally settled the number at seventy, corresponding to the elders of Israel chosen by Moses. These were to include the six " suburbicarian bishops " (of Ostia, Porto, Frascati, Sabina, Palestrina, and Albano), fifty cardinal priests, and fourteen cardinal deacons. All the seventy places are, however, rarely filled at any one time.
According to the present law, a cardinal is " created " by the pope, his eligibility depending on the same conditions as in the case of a bishop, with a special provision against the nomination of a person of illegitimate birth, even though subsequently legitimated. He must have been for a year at least in minor orders, and have no children or grandchildren, even by a previous lawful marriage, nor must he have any near relation (in the first or second degree of the canonical computation) among the existing cardinals. All nations are supposed to be considered in making the selections, but in modern times Italians have always been in a large majority. Until comparatively recent years certain European sovereigns had a prescriptive right to suggest the creation of one cardinal each to represent their interests at the capital of Christendom; these were known as crown cardinals. The creation takes place originally in a secret consistory, and is then proclaimed in a public one. Sometimes a cardinal may be created and his name not published for some time, but reserved in petto, as the phrase is.
The cardinals take rank immediately after the pope, of whom they 'are the electors. Though in theory any one otherwise eligible, even a layman, may be chosen, Urban VI. (1378) was the last pope who was not a cardinal. They have as insignia the broad red hat with pendent tassels, conferred by Innocent IV. in 1245, the red robe (by Paul IV., 1484), and the title of " Eminence " (Urban VIII., 1630). They have the privilege of a quasiepiscopal jurisdiction within their own " titles," may wear pontifical vestments there, and, if they are at least priests, may confer the tonsure and minor orders on their subordinates and members of their household. The senior cardinal bishop is dean of the sacred college. During a vacancy of the papacy they attend to necessary administrative details, and proceed as soon as possible to the election of a new pope (see POPE). The cardinal camerlingo (answering to the archdeacon in the historical development of Western dioceses) early received charge of the general internal administration under the pope. He was assisted by the vice‑camerlingo or govematore for criminal jurisdiction, the auditor camers3 for civil jurisdiction, and the tesoriere for
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
the custody of property. The cardinal vicar (analogous to the archpresbyterin the early chapters) attended to the local episcopal functions of an ordinary diocesan bishop. For the special administration of the " power of the keys," the pope has, like other bishops, a member of what may be called his chapter, the cardinal penitentiary.
	Down to	1815 the States of the Church were
regarded as, what indeed they were originally,
simply estates held by the pope as a landowner,
and as such he administered the patrimonium Petri,
in so far as the nobility did not interfere or the
people of Rome preserve their ancient independence.
When the outlying province known as legations
		were acquired, they preserved in large
a. Officials measure their former constitutions,
	of State.	the pope merely sending a legate to
		assume the chief government and
transmit the revenues to Rome. As long as this
" patrimonial " system prevailed the cardinal
camerlingo had great influence and was practically
minister of the interior and head of the department
of finance (the camera aposWica). Toward the end
of the fifteenth century, when the popes became
more and more normal secular sovereigns of this
territory, a minister who should represent the
monarchical principle developed by degrees‑‑called
at first the cardinal‑nephew, or, when this desig
nation was inappropriate, cardinal‑patron, now car
dinal secretary of state. He gradually absorbed
a good many of the functions of the cardinal camer
lingo, took command of the legate governors and
of the papal troops, and also fulfilled the functions
of a minister of foreign affairs, not only in purely
secular,but in ecclesiastical matters. When, after
1815, modern ideas began to be applied to the
organization of the States of the Church, the busi
ness of this office increased so much that in 1833
it was divided, the former secretary of state con
fining himself mainly to foreign affairs, and another
secretary of state for internal affairs being created,
though subordinate to the original official.
At the beginning of the sixteenth century legal questions were dealt with by the Rota, the highest court of the States of the Church; questions of government by the college of cardinals g. Judiciary assembled in coneistory; questions of and conscience by the cardinal peniten‑
Adminis‑	tiary and the office known as Pwni‑
	tration.	tentiaria under him; while the pope
		had an office called Signatura, with
certain advisory assessors (referendaarii) for matters
requiring his personal signature. The last was
divided, according to the two classes of papal action
‑spiritual administration and justice‑into the
Signatura gratue and jvatitie°, which became later
two distinct bodies. For the keeping of an accurate
record and checking financial abuses, the chancery
(Cancellaria mpostolica) was organized out of the
earlier body of notaries; and the Dataria grew up
for the purpose of countersigning and registering the
vast mass of grants of benefices, etc. These, with
the aecretariate of briefs, which originally served
mainly for the pope's private correspondence, con
stituted the system at the time of the Council of
Trent. Those of them which now exist as active

825	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Curia
		Cnse
institutions of the Curia are the College of Cardinals,
the PeunUentiaria, the Dataria, the secretariats of
briefs, and the chancery.
	Their position has, however, been altered to a
considerable extent by the erection of a number of
permanent committees of cardinals for definite
			branches of business. All these "con
	4. Congre‑ gregations," besides the cardinals
	gations.	strictly composing them (of whom the
			head is called the prefect), have a
number of expert subordinates who have a voice,
though not a vote, in their meetings, and really do
the detailed work. These are usually called con
sultors, sometimes qualificators, relators, etc. The
Congregation of the Inquisition, of which the pope
himself is prefect, is the oldest congregation, founded
in 1542 in consequence of the Reformation, for the
repression of all sorts of heresy. It was reenforced
by the Congregation of the Index under Paul V., to
supervise the publication of books (see CENsOB
SHIP AND PROHIBITION op Boors). On the proc
lamation of the decrees of the Council of Trent,
1564, Pius IV. established the Congregation of the
Council for the enforcement of these decisions; and
Sixtus V. in 1587 gave it the express right to decide
questions (not of a dogmatic nature) which might
arise in regard to their interpretation. At the
same time he erected three more, the Congregation
of Bishops and Regulars, for the oversight of bishops
and monastic orders in general and in their mutual
relations; the Congregation of Rites, for the super
vision of public worship in all its details, canonizar
tion, etc.; and the Congregation of the Consistory,
for the preparation of business to come before the
whole body of cardinals. In 1622 was added the
Congregation de Propaganda Fide, for the central
izing of missionary work among both the heathen
and non‑Catholics, and for the government of the
Church in non‑Catholic countries. In 1626 orig
inated the Congregation of Ecclesiastical Immuni
ties, for the protection of the rights of the Church
in relation to the State; after 1815 a large part of
its business was transferred to the Congregation on
Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs. In 1669 was
erected the Congregation of Indulgences and Relics;
and others have since been founded, sometimes for
a temporary purpose. In most current business
these various bodies are competent to decide inde
pendently, in accordance with their faculties and
their traditional practise; only the most important
affairs come before the pope personally.
	The requirement that every petitioner shall ap
pear either in person or by proxy before the body
with which he has business has led to the gradual
evolution of a vast system of petty diplomacy, in
			which personal influence and ex
	5. Diplo‑ perience count for much. For many
		matic	centuries each diocese had its agents
	Agents and accredited to the Curia, the same one
	SOUC1tOrS. frequently representing several bishops.
			They attended not only to the matters
brought up by the bishop himself, but also to all
that came through him, such as requests for dis
pensations. The minor details were left in the
hands of a subordinate official called apedLionere.
The diminutionin the volume of business after 1808,
and the establishment of embassies of a modern type in Rome, through which many bishops found themselves for the time obliged to treat with the Holy See, led by degrees to the effacement of the distinction between the agent and the apedizionere ; and the official who discharges both functions, now that the bishops treat once more directly with the pope, is commonly known as a solicitor of pontifical briefs. See CoNsisToaY; PAPAL SaT~Axm; and
POPE, PAPACY. 	(J. F. YON ScriBLTE.)
BmwOGHAPHY: The best mingle volume is P. Hinsobius,
Hirchenrecht der %atholiken . . . in Deutwlland, vol. ii.,
Berlin, 1871‑78, to be supplemented by reference to F. H. Vering, Lshrbuch des katuiaehen . . . %irehemeAts, Freiburg, 1876. Consult also: J. H. Bangen, Die rGmische Curie, Monster, 1864; F. Grimaldi, Les Congregations romaines, Sienna, 1890; L. Lector, Le Conclave, Paris, 1894; idem, L'Blection papal‑, its. 1898; A. Pieper, Zur Bntstehunpapsuhiehte der etendipen Nuntiaturen, Freiburg, 1894; P. A. Baart, The Roman Court, New York, 1895 (useful); A. R. Pennington, Papal Conclaves, London, 1897; W. Humphrey, Urbe et orbis: the Pope as Bishop and as Pontiff, its. 1899 ("the purpose . . . is to set forth the Papacy in action "); P. M. Baumgarten, Der Papet, die Repierunp and die yerualtunp der heiligen RircAe in Rom, Munich [19041; D. 6laden, The ,Secrete of the Vatican, London, 1907; N. Hailing, Procedure at the Roman Curia, its. 1907; and the annual semiofficial publication, Gerarchia catlolica.

CURIORE, eti‑1't"o‑nv, CELIO SECONDO: Italian Reformer; b. at C[ri5 (13 m. n.w. of Turin) May 1, 1503; d. at Basel Nov. 24, 1569. Early left an orphan, relatives had him carefully educated, especially in the classics. A monk of the Augustinian monastery at Turin provided him with Luther's writings, and these and Melanchthon's Loci theologici led him into freer paths. With two like‑minded friends he undertook to cross the Alps to meet Erasmus and the Germans, but the bishop of Aorta. obstructed their way and sent Curione to the monastery of San Benigno. At a festival at which relics were usually shown he put a Bible into the shrine with the superscription: "This is the ark of salvation." When it was discovered he saved himself by flight. In 1530 he was teacher in Milan, then at Casale, where he became intimately associated with Fulvio Pellegrini, called Morato, the father of Olimpia Morata (q.v.), famous in the history of the Italian Reformation. He went to Pavia, where he spent some years at the university teaching grammar and rhetoric. Being obliged to leave in 1538 by the Inquisition, he went to Venice, where he felt " in a safe haven of rest." At the instance of Morato he was called to Ferrara, and afterward removed to Lucca in 1541. The following year became decisive for Curious and many, other friends of the Reformation in the Italian peninsula. On the same day (June 10, 1542) on which he dated the preface to a work, De liberia pie christsanaqueaduonndia, he wrote to Morato that he was no longer safe. In July the bull Licet ab initio was published, which inaugurated a general persecution, and in August men like Bernardino Ochino and Peter Martyr Vermigli (qq.v.) had already taken to flight. Curione escaped when the bailiffs stood before his door, left his family, and crossed the Alps. After serving a long time as private tutor, he was appointed professor at Basel in 1547. In the mean time he composed his best‑

Cush
Cuthbert	TAE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	328
In the reform of the monasteries, Busch, Van Hejlo,
and others were fellow workers of his. It is char
acteristic of the time and significant of the final out
come of these reforming efforts that the Wilanack
pilgrimage soon after obtained papal sanction.
Although his real life‑work had, therefore, no lasting
success, and there is no justification for setting him
up as a true Catholic "reformer" against the
" rgvolution " of the next century, no one will deny
to his character the respect which belongs to his
strenuous and unflagging labors for what he be
lieved to be the right. 	R. SCHMID.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: There are two principal editions of the Opera of Cusanus, one by Faber Stapulensis, 3 vols., Paris, 1514, the other by Petri, 3 vols., Basel, 1565. On his life consult: F. A. Scharpff, Der Cardinal . . . Nicolaus von Cusa, vol. i., Mainz, 1843; J. M. Diix, Der deutsche Cardinal Nicolaus von Cusa, 2 vole., Regensburg, 18471848. For his philosophy consult: F. A. Scbarpff, Nicolaus von Cusa als Reformafor in Kirche, Reich and Philosophic, Tilbingen, 1871; R. Falckenberg, Grundztlge der Philosophic deg Nicolaus Cusanus, Breslau, 1880; M. Gloesner, Nikolaus von Casa and M. Nizolius als Vorldufer der neueren Philosophic, M6neter, 1891; 0. KSstner, Der Begriff der Enturicklung bei Nikolaus von Kass, Bern, 1896. On other phases of his activity consult: T. Stumpf, Die polihachen Ideen des Nikolaus von Cues, Cologne, 1865; J. Uebinger, Die Gottealehre des Nikolaus Cueanus, Paderborn, 1888; Pastor, Popes, i., passim.
CUSH, cosh, CUSHITES: A tribal and place name appearing frequently in the Old Testament, in the versions generally rendered " Ethiopia," and until recently supposed always to refer to a region south of Egypt. Since the decipherment of the cuneiform inscriptions, and a more thorough examination of the historical inscriptions of Assyria, Babylonia, and Arabia, it has been discovered that the form may represent two other regions and peoples: (1) the inhabitants of a region east of central Babylonia, who were known as Kasshites or Kosshites (Gk. Kossaioi) and ruled Babylonia between the seventeenth and twelfth centuries B.c. (see BABYLONIA, VI., 5); (2) a land and people in northern Arabia. The discovery of the existence of the land of Muzri in Arabia and the supplementary discovery that the Hebrew text confused the country with Egypt (Heb. Mizraim) have cleared up many difficulties of exegesis.
An examination of the passages where the words Cush, Cushite, and Cushites occur reveals four classes: (1) those which indicate a region in Africa; (2) those best explained by an Arabian locus;
(3) those which point to an EastCush Elamitic situation; and (4) those in Africa. which are in themselves indecisive or
may be satisfied with either of two interpretations. In the first class are II Kings xix. 9 (cf. Isa. xxxvii. 9); II Chron. xii. 3; Esther i. 1, viii. 9; Pa. lxviii. 32; Isa. xviii. 1; Jer. xiii. 23, xlvi. 9; Ezek. xxix. 10, xxx. 4‑5; Nah. iii. 9; Dan. xi. 43. These are so obvious as to require no discussion.
In the second group Num. xii. 1, mentioning the Cushite wife of Moses, is to be compared with Ex. ii. 16, 21, where the wife of Moses is called a Midianite, a term frequently used in the Old Testament to denote Arab nomads. While the presence of an Ethiopian woman in the camp is not absolutely precluded, the probabilities are greater that by
" Cushite woman " a native of Cush in Arabia is meant, since the name is that of a district not far from the locus of the story. In II Sam. xviii. 2132 the R. V. differs from the A. V. for the better, rendering Kushi " the Cushite " while the latter renders it as a proper name, though it has the gen‑
tilic ending and seven times out of Cush in eight has the article. After David's
Arabia conquest of the nomadic tribes of
the border the historic probabilities greatly favor the presence in his army of an Arab rather than of an Ethiopian. 11 Chron. xxi. 16 is quite unambiguous when once the eyes are opened to the existence of the Arabian Cush. The phrase " the Arabians who are beside the Cushitea " (Ethiopians) is to be construed rather of those living in the same region than of peoples separated by the Red Sea and a stretch of desert, particularly since Ethiopia must have been beyond David's sphere of vision. II Chron. xiv..9‑15 has until recently been a passage difficult to explain. The catalogue in verse 15 of the spoil of the conquered " Ethiopians " (" tents of cattle, sheep, and camels ") suits the situation of a nomadic people such as the Cushites of Arabia were, but is incongruous in the case of a people fighting under Egyptian leadership. Moreover, no place for Zerah is found among the Pharaohs, since neither Osorkon 1. nor II. fits the case. A victory by Asa over Egypt is historically improbable, but conquest of a nomadic foe is within the bounds of probability, especially as the beginnings of a new migration from Arabia took place in the period in which Asa lived. The Cushite in this passage is almost certainly Arabian. Isa. xliii. 3 must also be taken as Cush in Arabia. The three regions mentioned are Mi;raim (read Mizri), Kush, and Seba (cf. xlv. 14, where read " the labor of Mizri, and merchandise of Cush and the Sabeans "). " Ebed‑melech the Ethiopian " occurs in Jer. xxxviii. 7‑12. The name is Semitic, and is intelligible if borne by an Arabian Cushite, not easily explained if borne by an African Ethiopian. Amos ix. 7 is to be taken in the same way. The reference in the passage is to the control by Yahweh of the migrations of the nations, and mention of the Arabian Cushites was particularly appropriate in view of the restlessness of the Arabs at the time in question. Habakkuk iii. 7 is beyond dispute; " Cushan " is a word formed from Cush like Ithran from Jether and Kenan from Kain, and is in parallelism with Midian, which can mean only Arabian tribes.
The third class of passages is more difficult. In Gen. ii. 13 the entire environment is Babylonian, and Cush is placed in connection with Eden (cf. the Sumerian name for Babylonia, Edin, " the plain," see BABYLONIA, 1.) and the river Gihon, now generally identified with the Kerkhah. Thislocates the Cush of the passage where the home of the Kasshites was situated, relieves the passage of exegetical difficulties insuperable under the supposition that Ethiopia in Africa is meant, and requires no disturbance of the consonantal text. In Gen. x. 6‑8 (cf. I Chron. i. 8‑10) Cush is brother of Egypt (Mizraim), Put (either southeast of Egypt, or, as claimed by Glaser, in Arabia), and Canaan,

8537	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
seven grounds: (1) because called by the pope and not by the emperor; (2) because the pope, rejected by the Lutherans as their enemy, could not be their judge; (3) because it should be held in Germany; (4) because the pope is himself a party to the case; (5) because the laity is excluded; (6) because the object is to crush the Evangelicals, not to find truth; (7) because its norm is papal laws, not the Bible. Curtius's entire library was destroyed by fire and some of his writings may have perished at that time.
(FERDINAND CosRs.)
BanaoassrHy: G. J. Planck, Entatahunp . . . uuaeres protestantieden Lehrbeprdffs, vi. 57 eqq., 285 eqq., Leipsio, 1800; H. Heppe, Geschishte des deubehan Protestantismus, i. 123 eqq.. Marburg, 1852.

CUSA, NICHOLAS OF (NIKOLAUS CRYFTZ or KREBS; Nicolnm Cusanus): Born at Cues on the Moselle (25 m. n.e. of Treves) 1401; d, at Todi (24 m. s. of Perugia) Aug. 11, 1464. He was the son of a sailor and attended the school of the Brethren of the Common Life at Deventer. Then he studied law at Padua, as well as Greek, Hebrew, philosophy, mathematics, and astronomy. Having been ordained, he was sent in 1432 as representative of the archbishop‑elect Uhic of Treves to
	Life.	the Council of Basel. As the pope had
		not confirmed the election of Uhic,
and Nicholas had to represent the claims of his
superior, he naturally joined the antipapal party;
but when a disruption of the council took place, he
sided in 1437 with the minority which upheld the
papal claims. His new associates soon entrusted
him with important diplomatic missions, including
one to Constantinople, whence he accompanied the
Greek emperor to take part in the negotiations for
reunion at Florence. After a short rest in his
native land, where he finished the important work
De docta ignordntia, he entered the service of the
pope as legate and devoted his energy esp9cially
to opposing the position of the council. His work
was recognized in 1449 by his nomination as car
dinal. In 1450 he was made archbishop of Brixen,
and sent to Germany with extraordinary authority
asvisitorof the whole German Church. Hetmveled
through Germany, held synods everywhere, recon
structed and " reformed " with great energy. He
was leas successful in his own diocese. Archduke
Sigmund of the Tyrol was ill disposed toward him
from the beginning, and was still further alienated
when he claimed for his bishopric feudal supremacy
over the Tyrol. When Nicholas attempted to reform
the monasteries Sigmund protected the disobedient
nuns and monks. At Easter, 1460; the duke im
prisoned him. Upon his release,he went to Rome,
and returned no more to Germany. For the rest of
his life he was constantly occupied in literary or
political matters. His property and library he
left to the hospital founded by him at Cues, where
various relics of him, including manuscripts, are
still to be seen.
Nicholas of Cusa may be regarded either as a scholar or as a churchman. Strongly influenced by the humanist movement, he stood opposed to scholastic theology, not to Christian dogma, which with its rich philosophical content serves him as
both the basis and the outcome of his original speculations,,resting upon Neoplatonic ideas and deriving a little from Augustine and Dionysius the Areopagite. God is the endless unity, the absolute superlative, at once the greatest and the least; the world, on the other hand, is the realm of the comparative, the greater and the lesser. The world
Phi‑	is the em under the form of contra‑
	losophy.	dictions; God is the identity of all con
		tradictions, possibility and actuality
at the same time. As absolute activity, will, and
knowledge he is the triune God. He is absolutely
transcendent; we know of him only that he is un
knowable (hence the titles of some of Nicholas's
works, De docta ignorantia, Idiots, etc.). Thus
philosophy ends in mysticism: On the way of
faith through knowledge to vision we become
" sons of God." What is new in his philosophy is
mainly the mood in which it is written, one of
optimism rejoicing in the world, thirst for and joy in
knowledge, which turns as much to the works of the
ancients as to nature. Though it is not carried out
to its logical conclusions, his system contains rich
germs of future development. Giordano Bruno
called him " divino " and appealed to him as his
forerunner. Modern scholars have pointed out his
affinity with Leibnitz, Kant, Fichte, and Hegel, and
assigned a place to him as a leading representative
of Renaissance philosophy, at the point where the
modern development begins. He was also a mathe
matician and astronomer of some importance. At
Basel he proposed the correction of the Julian cal
endar. His conception of the universe is not the
Ptolemaic‑ the planets, even the earth, move
each in its own sphere without a common local
center.
In regard to the constitution of the Church, in the work dedicated to the Council of Basel, De concorddntia catholica, he still advocates a moderate conciliarism. He made little use of dangerous historical discoveries, like the spuriousness of the Donation of Constantine; he is far removed from the " destructive radicalism " of Marsilius of Padua. Since he regarded papacy as a necessary and divine institution, and was an enthusiastic believer in the unity and infallibility of the Church, in his struggle against the pope his hands, like those of similar thinkers at the time, were tied. Thus, e.g., he says that the pope can neither dissolve nor prorogue the council, but that the council must conduct itself toward him " without passion, and with the greatest meekness." The unity of his character lies in the practical domain. From beginning to end he was a reformer, as the word was then understood. His moral ideal, the imitation of Christ,
Church‑	was the catchword of the time. That
	manship.	he was nevertheless a good medieval
		Catholic may be seen from the fact
that he could not conceive of the reform of the
Church without restoring the full power of the
hierarchy. But he tried also to reform the papal
court by a strict supervision of morals. What he
did in Germany toward awakening religious feeling,
promoting the moral education of the people,
raising the standard of learning and fidelity to duty
among the clergy, has already been referred to.

Currier cuss
known work; Pasquillus ecstaticus (Basel, c. 1544; enlarged ed., Geneva, 1544), a severe satire on the utterances of papacy in form of a dialogue between Pasquino and marferio. He followed eagerly the reformatory movement in his native country, translated the Considerae‑Tones of Juan de Vald6s (Basel, 1550), and composed a work on doctrines, Christianx religionia institutio (1549). In secret he corresponded with the representatives of a radical Protestantism among the Italians, and in 1550 he took part in the so‑called " council " of the Anabaptists in Venice, though he nowhere stated or defended the views expressed there. In his work De amplitudine regni Dei (1554) he deviated from rigid Calvinism in the doctrine of predestination, but in 1559 he asserted his undeviating orthodoxy in a public confession of faith.
K BENRATB.
BIHwOGBAPH7: The main source is the Oratio vancpwiby J. N. Btupanue, Basel, 1570; his Epistolarurn sekoswum libri duo, together with the Opera of Olimpia MOmta, were published, Basel, 1570. The beat modern treStment is by C. Schmidt, in ZHT, 1860, pp. 571‑634. Consult also d. Bonnet, La Famine do Curio‑, Basel, 1878.
CURRIER, CHARLES WARREN: Roman Catholic; b. at St. Thomas, Danish West Indies, Mar. 22, 1857. He studied at the Redemptorist College, Roermond, Holland (1871‑74), and the Redemptorist College, Wittem, Holland (1874‑80). He was a foreign missionary in Surinam, Dutch Guiana, 1880‑81, and a missionary in the United States 1881‑92 and 1897‑1900, holding various parishes in the interval. From 1900 to 1905 he was rector of St. Mary's, Washington, D. C., and in 1905‑06 was connected with the Bureau of Catholic Indian Missions, Washington. He has written Carmel in America (Baltimore, 1890); History of Religious Orders (New York, 1894); Dimitrios and Irene, or The Conquest of Constantinople (1894); Church and Saints (NewYork,1897); The Rose of Alhama(1898); Mission Memories (Baltimore, 1898); The Divinity of Christ (1898); and The Mass (1899).
CURTrS, EDWARD LEWIS: Presbyterian; b. at Ann Arbor, Mich., Oct. 13, 1853. He studied at Yale College (B.A., 1874) and Union Theological Seminary (1879), and spent two years in Germany, chiefly at Berlin; was instructor of Old Testament literature in McCormick Theological Seminary, Chicago, 1881‑84, professor of the same, 1884‑91, when he went to Yale Divinity School in the same capacity.

CURTIS, WILLIAM ALE%ANDER: Church of Scotland; b. at Thurso (6b m. n. of Elgin), Caithneashire, Scotland, Mar. 17, 1876. He studied in Edinburgh (M.A.,1897; B.D.,1901), and in Heidelberg, Leipsic, and Oxford in 1901‑03. Since the latter year he has been professor of systematic theology at the University of Aberdeen. In 1903 he became a member of the Church of Scotland and General Assembly's committee on the education of ministers and on probationers, and in 1906 was made a member of the same body's committee on the Formula of Subscription to the Confession of Faith. In theology he is an Evangelical Protestant of liberal sympathies, and has written Religion, Yesterday, To‑day, To‑morrow (Edinburgh, 1903).
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
CURTI:SS, SAMUEL IVES: Congregationalist; b. at Union, Conn., Feb. 5, 1844; d. in London, Eng., Sept. 22, 1904. He was graduated at Amherst College 1867, and at Union Theological Seminary, New York, 1870. The years 1872‑?8 he spent in Germany, studying at Bonn and Leipeic and serving as pastor of the American Chapel in Leipaic, 1874‑78. In 1878 he became professor of Biblical literature in Chicago (Congregational) Theological Seminary, and in 1879 became professor of Old Testament literature and interpretation. He translated several works from the German and wrote The Levitical Priests (Edinburgh, 1877); Ingersoll and Moses (Chicago, 1879); Franz Delit2ach : a Memorial Tribute (Edinburgh, 1891); and Primitive Semitic Religion To=day (New York, 1902).
CURTIUS (gORTE, gORTHEIM, gORTMAlYN), VALENTIN: Reformer in Rostock and Liibeck; b. at Lebus (5 m. n. of Frankfort‑on‑the‑Oder) Jan. 6, 1493; d. at Liibeck Nov. 27, 1567. He studied first at Liibeck, matriculated in theology at Rostock, 1512, and soon entered the Minorite monastery of St. Catherine, where he became reader. Won for the Reformation through Joachim Sltlter, he became minister at the Church of the Holy Spirit in 1528, and in 1531 at St. Mary's. In opposition to ~Sliiter, he favored the retention of some Latin hymns. On account of his opposition td the people's party led by Dr. Johann Oldendorp, he was obliged to leave Rostock in 1534. Where he went first is uncertain, but for many years, first as deacon, after 1545 (?) as chief pastor, he was stationed at St. Peter's in Liibeck, then the center of orthodox Lutherdom in North Germany. He was city superintendent there from 1554 until his death.
Curtiue took a prominent place in the confess sional contentions after Luther's death. While still officiating as pastor he interpellated Melanchthon concerning the Iriber Augustcanus (Melanchthon's answer of July 21,1548, in CR, vii. 75 aqq. ); he participated in the conference of the Liibeck ministry against Lorenz MSrsken; in 1551 he charged Melanchthon with novelty in doctrine (answer, CR, vii. 756 sqq.); in 1553 he signed the Sententia of the ministry against Georg Major in favor of Flacius; in 1554 as the first act of his superintendency he expelled the Belgic‑French Calvinists under John a Lasko, whom Mary Tudor had driven from London.
Gurtius led the ministry in the Osiandrian and CryptoCalvinistic controversies, and often was its representative in conventions and disputations, as at Koaswig and Wittenberg (1557), Miilln (1558), Brunswick (Feb., 1561), and Liineburg (July, 1561). He was the author of the short but important Formula consensus de doctrines evangelic et adntinistratione sacramentorum (the so‑called Liibeck Formula of Feb., 1560, considered authoritative till 1685; in C. H. Stareke, Lzibeckische Kirchen‑Historie, pp. 196‑197, Hamburg, 1724), and the comprehensive Proteatatio contra aynodunt Tridentinam (in Starcke, pp. 208‑243), occasioned by the pope's invitation of Labeck to the council, Apr. 22, 1561; it attempts to prove the council unlawful on

329	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Cush
		Cuthbert
and father of Seba (South Arabia), Havilah (North
east Arabia), Sabta (as yet unlocated, though
claimed for Arabia by Glaser, Skizze, ii. 252, Ber
lin, 1890), Ramah (Regina on the Persian Gulf, cf.
			Ptolemy, Geographike, vi. 7, 14; the
	The East‑ Septuagint reads Regchma, Regma,
	Elamitic and in Ezek. xxvii. 22 Rama or Rag
		Cush.	ma), Sabteca (still unlocated), and
			Nimrod (Babylonia and Assyria).
Apart therefore from Egypt (Migraim, which may
be an error for Mizri), the entire aspect of Cush
in the passage is eastward of the Red Sea, and
Ethiopia in Africa is out of the question. Conse
quently either the Arabian or the Elamitic Cush
is indicated, while the weight of authority is in
clining toward the latter. Zeph. ii. 12, iii. 10 re
ceive new light and relief by seeing in Cush the
Elamitic region. The passages deal with the op
pressors of the Hebrews during the Assyrian age,
when Egypt had not been active in Palestine.
Moreover, in ii. 13 Assyria and Nineveh are men
tioned as in the north.
	On the fourth class of passages dogmatism is
unbecoming. While Winckler sees the Arabian
Cush in Pa. lxxxvii. 4 and Isa. xx. 2‑5, in the latter
passage reading MLri for Mizraim, the case is not
altogether clear. In Isa. xi. 11 for " Pathros " the
Septuagint reads " Babylonia." In that case Cush
stands altogether in an eastern environment be
tween Elam and Babylonia, the location of the
Kasshites. In the Masoretic text Cush is placed
between Pathros (perhaps the region immediately
east of Egypt) and Elam, which would suggest
the Arabian Cush. But, on the other hand, Mizraim
may be an error for Mizri. The arrangement of
the names in the passages is not such as to afford
a basis for conclusive reasoning, except that Ethi
opia in Africa can hardly be meant. On Ezek.
xxxviii. 5 no pronouncement can be delivered, for
the text is undoubtedly corrupt.
	Cush is also the name of an individual mentioned
in the superscription of Pa. vii., and Cush occurs
as	the name of two individuals: an ancestor of
Jehudi, Jer. xxxvi. 14, and the father of Zephaniah,
Zeph. i. 1. 	GEO. W. GILMORE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Glaser, Skizze and Geschiehte and Geo
	graphie Arabiens, ii. 326 sqq.; H. Winekler, Altlestamenh
	liche Untersuchungen, pp. 146 sqq., Berlin, 1892; idem,
	Altorientalische Forachungen, vols. ii., iv., vii., ib. 1894
	1398; A. H. Sayae, " Higher Criticism " and the Monu
	ments, London, 1894; Schrader, RAT, pp. 69, 71, 91, 94,
	137, especially 144‑148, 172, Berlin, 1902.
	CUST, ROBERT NEEDHAM: Church of Eng
land layman; b. at Cockayne Hatley (42 m. n. of
London), Bedfordshire, England, Feb. 24, 1821.
He studied at Eton, Trinity College, Cambridge,
the East India Company's College at Haileybury,
and the College of Fort William, Calcutta, gradu
ating from the last‑named institution in 1844. He
was present at the battles of Mukdi, Firuzshah, and
Sobraon in 1845‑46, and at the close of the Sikh
campaign was placed in charge of a new province
in the Punjab. There he filled in succession every
office in the judicial and revenue departments, and
was rapidly promoted until 1867, when he resigned
and returned to England, after having been a mem
ber of the Viceroy's Legislative Council and Home
Secretary to the Government of India in 1864‑65. Since his resumption of residence in England he has devoted himself to scientific research, philanthropy, and magisterial and municipal duties, declining reappointments in India. He is member and officer in many scientific, philanthropic, and religious societies and a prolific writer; of his many books special mention may be made of the following: Draft Bill of Codes Regulating Rights in Land and Land‑Revenue Procedure in Northern India (London, 1870); Modern Languages of the East Indies (1878); Pictures of Indian Life (1881); Modern Languages of Africa (2 vole., 1883); Poems of Many Years and Many Places (2 vola., 1887‑97); Three Lists of Bible Translations Actually Accomplished (1890); Africa Rediviva (1891); Essay on the Prevailing Method of the Evangelization of the Non‑Christian World (1894); Common Features Which Appear in All Forms of Religious Belief (189b); The GospelMessage (1896); Memoirs of Past Years of a Septuagenarian (Hertford, 1899); ecumenical List of Translations of the Holy Scriptures to 1900 (London, 1900); and Linguistic and Oriental Essays (7 vole., 1880‑1904).
	CUTHBERT, SAINT: Bishop of Lindisfarne; d.
on Farne Island (2 m. from Bamborough, Northum
berland) Mar. 20, 687. He was of Scotch origin,
probably from the neighborhood of Dunbar. While
still a boy, employed as a shepherd, he thought
that he saw one night the soul' of Aidan carried
to heaven by angels, and thereupon went to the
monastery of Old Melrose and became a monk
(651). His fame for piety, diligence, and obedi
ence was soon great. When Alchfrid, king of
Deira, founded a new monastery at Ripon Cuth
bert became its prtepositus hospitum or entertainer
of guests. Alchfrid, however, adopted Roman
usages, and in 661 the Scottish monks returned to
Melrose, where Cuthbert was made prior. He
spent much time among the people, ministering
to their spiritual needs. After the Synod of Whit
by (q.v.) he seems to have accepted the Roman
customs, for his old abbot, Eata, then at Lindie
farne, called him to introduce them there. It was
an ungracious task, but Cuthbert disarmed oppo
sition by his loving nature and patience. In 676
he adopted the solitary life and retired to a cave.
After a time he settled on one of the Farne Islands,
south of Lindisfarne, and gave himself more and
more to austerities. At first he would receive
visitors and wash their feet, but later he confined
himself to his cell and opened the window only to
give his blessing. After nine years he was pre
vailed upon to return to Lindisfarne as bishop and
was consecrated at York by Archbishop Theodore
and six bishops, Mar. 26, 685, but after Christmas,
686, he returned to his cell. Cuthbert's fame after
his death steadily grew and be became the most
popular saint of North England. Numerous mir
acles were attributed to him and to his remains.
He was buried at Lindisfarne. In 875 the Danes
tool: the monastery and the monks fled, carrying
with them Cuthbert's body, in obedience to his
dying injunction. After seven years' wandering it
found a resting ‑place at Chester‑le‑Street until 995,

Cyp1~
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
when another Danish invasion led to its removal to Ripon. Then the saint intimated, as was believed, that he wished to remain in Durham. A new stone church was built, the predecessor of the present grand cathedral, and there the body has remained since 999, not, however, without being several ties disturbed in succeeding centures.
BIHLIoa8AP8Y: The writings which have been attributed to Cuthbert do not now exist and there is little reason to believe that they ever did. Two lives by Beds are in MPL, xciv. 575‑598, 729‑770, and in Stevenson's Beda< opera historica minora, pp. 1‑137, 259‑317, London, 1841. Several lives and other tracts maybe found in the publications of the Surtees Society of Durham, i., viii., li, lxxxvii., 1835‑‑91. Consult also Bede, Hint. etch., iv. 2632. Consult: R. Hegge, The Legend of St. Cuthbert, London, 1683, reprinted, Sunderland, 1815, Durham, 1828; J. Rains, St. Cuthbert, with an Account of the State in which his Remains were found upon the opening of his tomb is Durham Cathedral in 1887, Durham, 1828; C. Eyre, The History of St. Cuthbert, London, 1849; F. L. Cataheside, Life of St. Cuthber4 London, 1879; A. C. Fryer, Cuthberht of Lindisfarne, Edinburgh, 1880; E. Consitt, Life of St. Cuthbert, London, 1887; J. B. Lightfoot, Leaders of ,the Northern Church, London, 1890; W. Bright, Chapters of Early English Church History, pp. 214‑216, 239240, 300‑306, 372‑388, Oxford, 1897; DCB, i. 724‑729; DNB, xii. 359‑362.

CUYLER, THEODORE LEDYARD: Presbyterian; b. at Aurora, N. Y., Jan. 10, 1822; d. in Brooklyn, N. Y., Feb. 26, 1909. He studied at Mendham, N. J., Princeton College (B.A., 1841), and Princeton Theological Seminary (1846), and was stated supply at Burlington, N. J. (1846‑49), pastor of the Thiid Presbyterian Church, Trenton, N. J. (1849‑53), Market Street, Reformed (Dutch) Church, New York City (1853‑0), and the Lafayette Avenue Presbyterian Church, Brooklyn (18601890). In 1890 he resigned to become a minister at large. He was particularly active in temperance and philanthropic work. In theological position he was a moderate Calvinist. He made a large number of contributions to religious periodicals, many of which have been gathered up into volumes. Of his separate publications may be mentioned Pointed Papers for the Christian Life (New York, 1878); From the Nile to Norway (1881); Newly Enlisted, or, Talks to Young Converts (1889); How to be a Pastor (1891); Recollections of a Long Life (1902); Our Christ»1asTides (1904).

CYNEWULF (gYNEWULF, CYNWULF): Besides Csedmon the only Anglo‑Saxon poet whose name is known. He flourished in the second half of the eighth century and.was probably a Mercian (cf. Anglia, xvii., pp. 106 sqq., Halls, 1894). His knowledge of Latin indicates that he may have studied in a monastery school, but of his life nothing is known except what he tells himself in his poem Elene (v. 1236 sqq.). He long roamed about as wandering minstrel and took part in battles and voyages over the sea. Then, when he was well along in years, something changed his life, he renounced the world, and in the quiet of a monastery or hermitage he produced four poems, entitled Fatm apostolorum, Crest, Juliana, and Blene, into which he interwove his name in runic letters, thus attesting his authorship. They are all religious narratives, based on legend with the exception of the
Crist, which is in three parts, treating of the three
fold coming of Christ (birth; resurrection and
period on earth to the ascension; the last judg
ment). Traces of +he veneration of saints and of
Mary appear. Cynewulf's art is predominantly
subjective, his poetry is often lyrical, sometimes
dramatic, but never epic. His lively descriptions of
battles and voyages remind of his early life, and he
is fond of alliteration and rime. Many other poems
have been attributed to Cynewulf, of which a Death
o f Guthlac has the best clai to genuineness. A
collection of ninety‑six Riddles belongs to his time,
but there is no evidence that all or any of them
are his. 	(R. W$LSm)

BIHLIOa6APn'Iy: The text of Cynewulf's poems is in C. W. M. Grein'e Bibliotheh der angelsddsiachen Poesie, ed. R. Walker, 3 vole., Cassel and Leipsio, 1883‑98. The Crist, ed. with transl. I. Gollanes, London, 1892; also ed. A. 8. Cook, tranel. by C. H. Whitman, Boston, 1900. The Elene, ed. C. W. Kent with notes and glossary, Boston, 1889; Eng. tranel. by R. F. Weymouth, Boston, 1888, J. M. Garnett, Boston, 1889, Jane Menzies, Edinburgh, 1895 (a metrical transl.), and J. H. Holt, New York, 1904, Yale Studies in English, no. xxi. Consult: C. ten Brink, Qesehichte der enplischen Litteratur, i. 64‑6b, Berlin, 1877, Eng. tranel., pp. 186‑189, New York, 1883; R. Walker, Gruudriaa our Geschichte der angeledchsiachea Litteratur, pp. 147‑217, Leipsic, 1885; H. Morley, English Writers, ii. 192‑248, London, 1888; G. Herzfeld, Die Rlltwl des Exeterbuehee and ihr Verfaftser, Berlin, 1890; M. Trautmann, %ynewuif, der Bischof and Dirhtar. Bonn. 1898.
CYPRIAN.
Flees During the Decian Persecution (¢ 1). Controversy Over the Lapsed (§ 2). Controversy Concerning Heretic Baptism (1 3). Persecution Under Valerian (§ 4). Cyprian's Writings (§ 5).
Cyprian (Thascius Ca'cilius Cyprianus), bishop of Carthage and an iportant early Christian writer, was born probably at the beginning of the third century in North Africa, perhaps at Car thage, where he was educated from his early childhood; d. a martyr at Carthage Sept. 14, 258. His original name was Thascius; he took the name Cmcilius in addition in memory of the presbyter of that name to whom he owed his conversion. He belonged to a provincial pagan family and became a teacher of rhetoric. He was baptized probably in 245 or 248. He soon gave a part of his fortune to the poor, imposed upon himself austere penances, and devoted himself to the study of the Bible and the earlier Christian writers, especially Tertullian. In the early days of his,conversion he wrote an Epistola ad Donatum de gratis Dei, a treatise on the vanity of idols (if this work is genuine), and controversial works against the Jews. Not long after his baptism he was ordained deacon, and soon afterward presbyter; and in 248 he was chosen bishop of Carthage.
After much hesitation he yielded to the stormy demand of the people, but a part of the presbyters soon formed an opposition party, hampered him in all his efforts, and even spread evil reports about him. At first Cyprian treated them with wise consideration, and asked their advice; but he soon had to use sharper measures. He was strict with priests and consecrated virgins who had broken the moral law. During the Decian persecution (Jan.,

881	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Cuyler
Cybrian
250, to Apr., 251; see DECIAN) he saved himself by flight, though his official income was sequestrated.
		His secret departure was indeed in
	i. Flees	terpreted by his enemies as cowardice
During the	and infidelity, and they hastened to ac
Decian Per‑	cuse him at Rome. The Roman clergy
	ecution.	(the see was vacant at that time)
		wrote to Cyprian in terms of disap
proval. Cyprian rejoined that he fled in accord
ance with visions and the divine command. From
his place of refuge he ruled his flock with earnest
ness and zeal, using a faithful deacon as his inter
mediary.
The persecution was especially severe at Car thage; many Christians fell away, but afterward asked to be received again into the Church. Their request was early granted, no regard being paid
to the demand of Cyprian and his i. Contro‑ faithful clergy, who insisted upon versy Over earnest repentance; the arrogance of the the confessors became more and more Lapsed. unbearable. Their intervention allowed hundreds of the Lapsed (q.v.) to return to the Church. Cyprian censured all laxity toward the lapsed, refused absolution to them except in case of mortal sickness, and desired to postpone the question of their readmission to the Church to more quiet times. A schism broke out in Car thage. One Felicissimus, who had been ordained deacon by the presbyter Novatus during the absence of Cyprian, opposed all steps taken by Cyprian's representatives. Cyprian deposed and excommunicated him and his supporter Augendius. Feliciasimus was upheld by Novatus and four other presbyters, and a determined opposition was thus organized. When, after an absence of fourteen months, Cyprian returned to his diocese he called a council of North African bishops at Carthage, to consider the treatment of the lapsed and the schism of Felicissimus (251). The council in the main aided with. Cyprian, and condemned Felicissimus. The libellatici, i.e., Christians who had made or signed written statements that they had obeyed the behest of the emperor, were to be restored at once upon sincere repentance; but such as had taken part in heathen sacrifices could be received back into the Church only when on the point of death. Afterward this regulation was essentially mitigated, and even these were restored if they repented immediately after a sudden fall and eagerly sought absolution; though clerics who had fallen were to be deposed and could not be restored to their functions. The followers of Felicissimus elected For tunatus as bishop in opposition to Cyprian; and the followers of the Roman presbyter Novatian, who refused absolution to all the lapsed and had elected Novatian as bishop of Rome in opposition to Cornelius, secured the election of a rival bishop of their own at Carthage, Maximus by name. Novatus now left Felicissimus and followed the Novatian party. But these extremes strengthened the influence of the wise, moderate, yet firm Cyprian, and the following of his opponents grew less and less. He rose still higher in the favor of the peoplc when they witnessed his self‑denying devotion during the time of a great plague and famine. He
comforted his brethren by writing his De naortalitate, and in his De elesmosynis exhorted them to active benevolence, while he gave the best pattern in his own life. He defended Christianity and the Christians in the treatise Ad Demetrianum against the reproach of the heathens that Christians were the cause of the public calamities.
But Cyprian had yet to fight another battle, in which his opponent was the Roman bishop Stephen. The matter in dispute was Heretic Baptism (q.v.). Stephen declared baptism by heretics valid if administered according to the institution either in the name of Christ or of the holy Trinity. Cyprian, on the other hand, believing that outside the Church there was no true baptism, regarded that of heretics as null and void, and bap‑
3. Contro‑ tized as for the first time those who
veay Con‑ joined the Church. When heretics
	cerning	had been baptized in the Church, but
	Heretic	had temporarily fallen away and
	Baptism.	wished to return in penitence, he did
		not rebaptize them. Cyprian's def
inition of the Church was too narrow; this led him
to wrong inferences and made him in this respect
the connecting‑link between his teacher, the rig
orist Tertullian, and the Donatists who appeared
later in North Africa. The majority of the North
African bishops sided with Cyprian; and in the
East he had a powerful ally in Firmilian of Casarea.
But the position of Stephen came to find general
acceptance. While, however, Cyprian defended
his position with wisdom and dignity, Stephen
showed a blind, blunt zeal; and there appears in
his letters the claim of superiority of the Roman
See over all bishoprics of the Church. To this claim
Cyprian answered that the authority of the Ro
man bishop was coordinate with, not superior to,
his own. Stephen broke off communion with Cyp
rian and Carthage, though perhaps without go
ing as far as a formal excommunication of Cyprian.
Modern Roman Catholic writers make a special
effort to show that the controversy concerned only
a question of discipline, not of doctrine.
At the end of 256 a new persecution of the Christians under Valerian broke out, and both Stephen and his successor, Xystus (Sixtus) II., suffered martyrdom at Rome. In Africa Cyprian courageously prepared his people for the expected edict of persecution by his De exhortations martyrii, and himself set an example when he was brought before the Roman proconsul Aspasius Paternus (Aug. 30, 257). He refused to sacrifice to the pagan deities and firmly professed Christ. The consul banished him to the desolate Churubis, whence he comforted to the best of his ability his flock and
;. Persecu‑ his banished clergy. In a vision he
tion Under saw his approaching fate. When a
	Valerian.	year had passed he was recalled and
		kept practically a prisoner on his own
estate, in expectation of severer measures after a
new and more stringent imperial edict arrived which
demanded the execution of all Christian clerics.
On Sept. 13, 258, he was imprisoned at the behest
of the new proconsul, Galerius Maximus. The day
following he was examined for the last time and
sentenced to die by the sword. His only answer

CyprLsn
Cyril of Alexandria	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	882
was "Thanks be to God!" The execution was carried out at once in an open place near the city. A vast multitude followed Cyprian on his last journey. He removed his garments without assistance, knelt down, and prayed. Two of his clergy blindfolded him. He ordered twenty‑five gold pieces to be given to the executioner, who with a trembling hand administered the death‑blow. The body was interred by Christian hands near the place of execution, and over it, as well as on the actual scene of his death, churches were afterward erected, which, however, were destroyed by the Vandals. Charlemagne is said to have had the bones transferred to France; and Lyons, Arles, Venice, Compibgne, and Roenay in Flanders boast the possession of the martyr's relics.
Besides a number of epistles, which are partly collected with the answers of those to whom they were written, Cyprian wrote a number of treatises, some of which have also the character of pastoral letters. His most important work is his De unitate ecdesix. In this, which makes the one episcopate, not of Rome, but of the Church at large, the foundation‑stone of the Church, occur the following statements: " He can no longer have God for his Father who has not the Church for his mother; . . . he who gathereth elsewhere than in the Church scatters the Church of Christ " (vi. ); " nor is there any other home to believers but the one Church "
(ix.). The most famous saying of 5. Cyprian's Cyprian, usually though inadequately Writings. translated " Outside the Church there is no salvation," is found in Epist. lxxii. Ad Jubajanum de hordicia baptizandis, " Quin salus extra ecclesiam non eat." His work De ortY tione dominica is an adaptation of Tertullian's De orations; he also worked over Tertullian's De paw tientia in his work De bono gatientim. The following works are of doubtful authenticity: De speaaculis ; De bono pudicitiee ; De idolorum vanitate (which may perhaps belong to Novatian); De laude martyrii ; Adversua aleatores ; De monaua Sina et Sion. The treatise entitled De duplici martyrio ad Fortunatum was not only published for the first and only time by Erasmus, but was probably also composed by him and fathered upon Cyprian.
Posterity has had less difficulty in reaching a universally accepted view of Cyprian's personality than his contemporaries. He combined loftiness of thought with an ever‑present consciousness of the dignity of his office; his earnest life, his selfdenial and fidelity, moderation and greatness of soul have been increasingly acknowledged and admired. He was the type of &,prince of the Church. The glory of his courageous and edifying martyrdom can not be extinguished by the earlier charges of cowardice. As a writer, however, he was in general by no means original or especially deep.
K. LsmsecHt.
BrewooRAPHl: The Opera of Cyprian have been frequently published. Early editions are, e.g. by Andrew, Rome, 1471; by Erasmus, Basel, 1520; by Fell, Oxford, 1882; MPL, vol. iv. The beet ed. is by W. Hartel, in CBEL, 3 vole. They have been translated into Eng. by w. Marshall, London, 1717, and a trawl. of the genuine and disputed works is in ANF, v. 284‑578. A bibliography is in ANF, Index vol., pp. 59‑83.
The basis for a life is in the Vifa CmUii Cypriani, attributed to the deacon Pontius, printed in ABB, Sept', iv. 32b‑332, in MPL, iii., and in Hertel's ad. of the Opera, ut sup„ iii., xo. eqq. Auxiliary sourow are the letters of Cyprian. For more modern treatment consult: F. W. Rettberg, T7aaaciw Caciiiue Cyprianus, Gottingen, 1831; C. E. Freppel. 3. Cyprien et !'Eylix d'Atriqus, Paris, 1873 (Roman Catholic, ultramontanietio); B. Fechtrup, Der heilioe Cyprian, Minter. 1878; O. Riteehl, Cyprian won Ratihapo, Gottingen, 1886; E. W. Benson. Cyprian, his Life, Times, Work, London, 1897 (the work of a lifetime); G. A. Poole, Life and Times of Cyprian, latest ed., 1898; J. A. Faulkner, Cyprien the Churchman, Cincinnati, 1908; Neander, Christian Church, vole. i.‑ii., passim; Schaff. Christian Church, ii. 842‑849; Krilaer. History, pp. 280304; Hotnack, Lifteratur, i. 888‑723, II. i., passim; DCB, i. 739‑755.
On literary and philosophical questions connected with Cyprian'e works consult: J. Pearson, Annales Cypriani, Oxford, 1882, reprinted in Fell's ad. of the Opera Cypriani, ut sup. (a work of great merit and permanent worth); T: Zahn, Cyprian . . . and die deuteche Paustsape, Erlangen, 1882; Le Provost, ffude phiiosophique et litthaire ew S. Cyprien, Paris, 1888; K. Goetz, Oesehidte der cyprianiwhm Litleratur, Basel, 1891 (valuable); idem, Die Busslehre Cyprians, Konigsberg, 1895; W. Sanday and C. H. Turner, in Studia biblica st ecalssiaseica, iii. 217325, Oxford, 1891; A. Harnack treats of the Letters in Theolepiache Abhandlunyen Carl won Weiwdeker peroidmet, pp. 1‑38, Freiburg, 1892; H. von Soden, Die Cyprianische Bris/sammlunp, in TO, xxv. 3 (1903).
CYPRIAN, ERNST SALOMON: One of the few learned defenders of orthodox Lutheranism in the middle of the eighteenth century; b. at Ostheim (5 m. s,w. of Asehaffenburg), Franconia, Sept. 22, 1673; d. in Goths 1745. He studied at Leipsio and at Jena; in 1698 followed his friend Andreas Schmidt to Helmstedt; became professor extraordinary of philosophy 1699; in 1700 went as director to the Gymnasium academicum at Coburg; Frederick II. of Gotha called him in 1713 into the upper consistory, and Frederick III. appointed him its vice‑president in 1735. While at Helmstedt he wrote against Arnold's Kirchen‑ and Ketzerhistorie, and in 1719 against Romanists who began encroachments after the peace of Ryswick and Rastatt. But his chief exertion was in opposition to the movement toward union between Reformed and Lutherans by Frederick William I. of Prussia. He wrote three pamphlets, Abgedrungener Unterricht, etc. (1722), Authentische Rechtfertigung, etc. (1722), and Das Urtheil engdiacher Theologen von der Synods zu Dortrecht and ihrer Lehre (1723), which by their rich historical illustrations give considerable information about the whole question.
(GEORG MBllsR.)
BIHLi0anAYHT: J. M. 8ahrookh. Lebensbeschroibunpsn berahmter Gekhrtm II. iii. 377, Leipeic, 1787; G. Frank, Oeschichte der proustangwtbn TAsolopie, ii. 287, ib. 1885; ADB, iv. 887‑M.
CYPRUS. See ASIA MINOR, X
CYRAN, SAINT. See Du VEEGI1aR = HAURANNI9, Js".
CYRENIUS. See QulalNlus.
CYRIACUS, air‑ci'a‑cue (= Lat. Dominieue, " belonging to the Lord "): The name of several saints, a patriarch of Constantinople, and a number of bishops.
1. Saints: No less than eleven saints of the name are mentioned in the Acta sandorum. They include (1) a deacon of Rome, who is said to have

Sao	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
been condemned to the galleys under Diocletian, to have escaped to Sapor, king of Persia, and to have been beheaded under Maximiam His day is Aug. 8. (2) An alleged pope, who is said in the Ursula legend (twelfth century) to have resigned the papal chair to follow that saint and her company of virgins (see URBULA, SAINT), and suffered martyrdom with her at Cologne. A pope of the name is otherwise unknown, and the story is very possibly a development of that of the Roman deacon just mentioned.
2. Cyrfacus: Patriarch of Constantinople 595606, succeeded John IV. and, like him, assumed the tile of " Ecumenical Patriarch "; a synod at Conetantinople confirmed the title. But it was highly displeasing to Gregory I. of Rome, and he protested violently, writing letters to Cyriaaus, to the other patriarchs of the East, and to the emperor Maurice, and denouncing the title as scandalous, criminal, perverse, worthless, even anti‑Christian and diabolic (Jaffb, Regesta, 1470, 1474, 1476, 1477, 1683, 1905 [vol. i., Leipsic, 1885, pp. 176 sqq.]), When Phocas, a rude and coarse soldier, dethroned Maurice in 602, Cyriacus crowned him; but a disagreement soon arose and Gregory did his best to enlist Phocas on his side. Whether Phocas really issued an edict declaring Rome caput omium eccleariamm, as is asserted, is uncertain. At any rate, Cyriacus died (Oct. 7, 606) before it was issued.
S. Cyriacus: Metropolitan of Carthage, lived in the latter half of the eleventh century and was one of the last Christian bishops of northern Africa. He refused to perform uncanomcal consecration, and for this reason some of his flock accused him before the Saracenic emir, who tortured him in a cruel manner. He addressed himself to Gregory VII. and received letters, of consolation and exhortation from tile pope. Later, in 1076, Gregory commended him to Servandus, a newly consecrated bishop of Hippo Regius. (0. ZOCSLNRf.)
BIRLIOGRAPHT: 1. (1) ASS, Aug., if. 327‑340; AnaWfa Bodlandiana, ii. 247‑258. (2) ABB, Oot., ia. 101 eqq.; F. W. Rsttberg %D, i. 112 eqq., 838; J. J. 1. von Dollinger, Die Papafabdn des Miffelaltera, pp. 45 eqq., Munich, 1863; DCB, i. 758‑758.
2. ASS, Oct., :rii. 344‑351; Nioephorae Wlietue, Hiat.
saL, zviii. 40‑42; Theophanee, Chronopraphia, i. 446 eqq.. in CBHB, uvi., Bonn, 1839; letters of Gregory the Great, bk. vii. 4‑7.31, ix. 68, siii. 4o; Bsronius, Annales, ad an. 596 eqq.; M. le Wen, Oriena Christianue, i. 67, Psris, 1740; R. Baucmann, Die Politik der Paysk, i. 129 eqq., Elberfeld, 1868.
3. Gregory VIL, Rspisbum i. 22•‑23, iii. 19; P. Ja86,
Repea<a, ad an. 1073, Sept. 15 (no& 4793‑94); sad 1076, June (no. 4994).

CYRIL OF ALEXANDRIA: Archbishop of Alexandria; d. there June 27, 444. His early life is known only from notices in Socrates and a few elsewhere. He was a nephew of the archbishop Theophilus, whom he accompanied in 403 to Constantinople to attend the synod Ad Quermm (seeCaaysosTonc, § 4). When the uncle died, Oct. 15, 412,
Life and Cyril succeeded him in his see. The Character. government was not pleased with this choice. It feared, not without reason, that the new bishop would show too much independence; and, indeed, on every occasion Cyril
proved that he was master in Alexandria. He closed the churches of the Novatians, expelled the Jews from the city in spite of the opposition of the prefect Orestes, and when soon afterward Nitrian monks insulted the prefect in the open street, he praised their leader as a martyr. He did not order the murder of Hypatia (q.v.), but his lector and .the parabolani, who were guilty of it, were well aware that the female philosopher was an eyesore to the archbishop. His restless, violent conduct, which excited the masses, seems to have hurt him at the court. Theodosius II. as well as Pulcheria listened to him rather than to the prefect. For the rest of the archbishop's life, which is closely connected with the dogmatic controversies of the times, see NasTosms. From the very beginning Cyril opposed Nestorius. It was the climax in his life when the emperor confirmed the deposition of his opponent which he had ,decreed at the Synod in Ephesus in 431, whereas he retained his office, though the Syrian bishops had declared him also deposed. His administration shows the Alexandrian bishops at the height, of their power and influence, from which they were thrown by the pretentious but short‑sighted and incapable Dioscurus (see EvrrcnrA"m; MoNopHysrrzs). Among the Greeks Cyril is commemorated on June 9, among the Latins on Jan. 28. Leo XIII. promoted him in 1883 to the rank of doctor eccleaite.
In general Cyril's literary activity was in the dogmatic and exegetical field. In his homilies and epistles dogmatic subjects are often touched upon. As an apologist Cyril became famous by his refutation of the attack of the emperor Julian upon Christianity, in thirty books, of which only the first ten are extant entire, eleven to twenty in fragments. The dogmatico‑polemical literary activity of the archbishop was very comprehensive.
At the head stand the writings on the
Literary doctrine of the Trinity composed be‑
Activities. fore the Chrigtological controversy.
The controversy itself caused a large number of treatises against Nestorianism. The results of the exegetical labor of the patriarch are contained in the seventeen books " On Worship in Spirit and in Truth," in the thirteen books of "Elegant Expositions " on the Pentateuch, as well as in numerous commentaries on the Old and New Testaments. The typico‑allegorical interpretation, characteristic of the Alexandrian school in opposition to the Antiochian school, is very prominent in Cyril's exegesis. The most important work in that direction is the comprehensive commentary on the Gospel of John.
	As regards his teaching, Cyril not unjustly bears
the title of " ° Seal of the Fathers," as the one who
finally fixed the true doctrine of the Trinity. Great
as is his glory in that direction, the question has
often been raised whether his Ohristology does not
contain traces of a relationship with Apollinarian
ism, which he himself opposed from conviction ('see
APOLLINARIB OH' LAODICEA). At any rate, his Chris
tologY approaches very near the limit which separates
orthodoxy from Monophysitism. It rests on the
suppositions of the older Alexandrians (Athana
sius) and the Cappadocians by which they knew

Cyril of	'HE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	884
themselves in agreement with Apollinaris against every theory that denied the substantial unity of
the incarnate Redeemer with the seeSignificance and person of the Trinity. Looking for at the personality of the Redeemer, Doctrine. the energetic assertion of the unity
	of the person resulted from it in
deed, but also a reckless neglect of the individual
man in him. The God‑Logos remained, with the
human nature which he has assumed, the same
one inseparable subject which he was before. The
" physical union " is " not confounded," though
both natures are to be distinguished " in theory
alone." The attacks to which this view was ex
posed on both sides Cyril could only meet by giv
ing to the idea of " nature " a meaning which dis
regards everything individual. In this way alone
does the assertion become explicable that before
the incarnation two natures existed, the divine and
the human, but after the incarnation only one, the
definite divine‑human nature, or, as Cyril ex
pressed it in the words of the creed regarded by
him as Athanasian, but in reality composed by the
hated Apollinaris, " one nature of God the Logos
made flesh." The nature is here only thought of
as "common." Christ is no man like Paul and
Peter; he is the author of a new humanity. Never
theless, Cyril makes all dependent on the Redeemer's
assuming the perfect human nature. But Cyril's
assertions do not help over the contradiction that
this Redeemer in spite of his "rational soul" had
no free will, but was " inflexible in mind." They
are, indeed, not intended for that, because by his use
of the idea of nature Cyril did not need to take
exception to the " perfect man," like Apollinaris.
He could speak the easier in favor of a mutual com
munication of the properties of the divine and hu
man nature in the Redeemer (communicatio idio
maturrc), and thus avoid the danger of a fusion at
least for his belief. The " in two natures" of the
Chalcedonian formula of 451 found no support in
Cyril's Christology. But his Christology overcame
that formula, for the Byzantine theologians who
had to interpret it did so by explaining the doc
trine of the two natures according to Cyril's teach
ing of one nature (see LEorrTlus of ByzAs`NT1uM;
MONOPHYsITE8). 	G. KRtYGER.
BIBLxooaAP87: The Opera of Cyril. ed. J. Aubert, appeared in 7 vole., Paris, 1838, new ed., 1737, reproduced in MPG, lzviii.‑lzxvu. An edition of the fragments of the commentary on Luke from the Syriac by R. P. Smith wee issued oxford, 1859, Eng. trend., 2 vole., 1859, and of the same from another MS., by W. Wright, London, 1874; P. E. Pussy edited the commentary on the twelve minor prophets, 2 vols., Oxford, 1868, a selection of the theological works. 2 vole., ib. 1875‑77, trend. of the commentary on St. John, ib‑ 1838, and a teat and trend. of the Three Epistles, ib. 1872. The commentary on John in Eng. tranal. was published anonymously, 2 vole., London, 1874‑8b. On the life of Cyril consult: ABB. Jan., ii. 843‑854; AbbB Rambouillet, Ls Pape Paage 1., 6. CyriUe . . . et 1'infallibilitJ, Paris, 1870; A. Largent in Revue deg questions historiquss, mi (1872). 5‑70; J. Kopallik, Cyrilius eon Alexandrian. Maine, 1881; A. Rohrmann, Die Chrislologie des heiligen CvrsU‑ Alaxandrien. Heidelberg, 1902; E.Weigl, Die Heilslehre des heiligen Cyrill von Alerandrien, Maine, 19o5; Schaff, Christian Church, iii. 942‑949. Bibliographies are found in S. F. W. Hoffmann, Bt'bliopraphisrhea Lexikon, i. 484‑494, Leipsic, 1838; U. Chevalier. Rgpertoire des sources hietoriquae, PP. 533‑534, 2588, Paris, 1877‑88.
CYRIL OF JERUSALEM: A distinguished theologian of the early Church; d. 386. Little is known of his life before he became biah.p; the assignment of the year 315 for his birth rests on mere conjecture. He seems to have been ordained deacon by Bishop Macarius of Jerusalem about 335, and priest some ten years later by Maximus. Naturally in‑
clined to peace and conciliation, he Life and took at first a rather moderate posi‑
	Character.	tion, distinctly averse from Arianism,
		but (like not a few of his undoubted
ly orthodox contemporaries) by no means eager
to accept the uncompromising term homooussios.
Separating from his metropolitan, Acaciue of
Caesarea (q.v.), a partizan of Arias, Cyril took the
side of the Eusebians, the " right wing " of the
post‑Nicene conciliation party, and thus got into
difficulties with his superior, which were increased
by Acacius's jealousy of the importance assigned
to Cyril's see by the Council of Nicxa. A council
held under Acacius's influence in 358 deposed Cyril
and forced him to retire to Tarsus. On the other
hand, the conciliatory Council of Seleucia in the
following year, at which Cyril was present, deposed
Acacias. In 360 the process was reversed through
the metropolitan's court influence, and Cyril suf
fered another year's exile from Jerusalem, until
Julian's accession allowed him to return. The
Arian emperor Valens banished him once more in
367, after which he remained undisturbed until his
death, his jurisdiction being expressly confirmed
by the Second Council of Nicsea (381), at which he
was present.
Though his theology was at first somewhat indefinite in phraseology, he undoubtedly gave a thorough adhesion to the Nicene orthodoxy. Even if he does avoid the debatable term honaoousios, he expresses its sense in many passages, which exclude equally Patripasaianism, Sabellianiam, and the Arian formula " There was a time when the Son was not." In other points he takes the ordinary ground of the Eastern Fathers, as in the emphasis he lays on the freedom of the will, the autexousion,
and his imperfect realization of the Theological factor so much more strongly brought Position. out in the West‑‑sin. To him sin is
the consequence of freedom, not a natural condition. The body is not the cause, but the instrument of sin. The remedy for it is repentance, on which he insists. Like many of the Eastern Fathers, he has an essentially moralistic conception of Christianity. His doctrine of the Resurrection is not quite so realistic as that of other Fathers; but his conception of the Church is decidedly empirical‑the existing catholic Church form is the true one, intended by Christ, the completion of the Church of the Old Testament. His doctrine on the Eucharist is noteworthy. If he sometimes seems to approach the symbolical view, at other times he comes very close to a strong realistic doctrine. The bread and wine are not mere elements, but the body and blood of Christ.
His famous twenty‑three catechetical lectures (Gk. Kdtech'eseis), which he delivered while still a presbyter in 347 or 348, contain instructions on the principal topics of Christian faith and practise,

885	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Cyril of Alexandria
Cyril Lnoar
in rather a popular than a scientific manner, full of a warm pastoral love and care for the catechumens to whom they were delivered. Each lecture is based upon a text of Scripture, and there is an abundance of Scriptural quotation throughout. After a general introduction, eighteen
	Catechet‑ lectures follow for the competentes, and
	ical Lec‑ the remaining five are addressed to
		tures.	the newly baptized, in preparation
			for the reception of the communion.
Parallel with the exposition of the creed as it was
then received in the church of Jerusalem are vigor
ous polemics against pagan, Jewish, and heretical
errors. They are of great importance for the light
which they throw on the method of instruction
usual in that age, a8 well as upon the liturgical
practises of the period, of which they give the full
est account extant. 	(T. F6RsTERt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHT: The Opera of Cyril were edited by A. A. Touttde, Paris, 1720, in MPG, aaiii., and by G. C. Reischl and J. Rupp, 2 vole., Munich, 1848‑60. A translation of selected works is in NPNF, 2d series, vii. 1183, with valuable introduction. The " Catechetical Leotures " were translated for the Library of the Fathers, Oxford, 1838. Five Lectures on fhe Mysteries, in Greek and Eng. and Lat. and Eg., ed. H. de Romeetin, appeared, Oxford, 1887.. Sources for a life are in Socrates, Hiet. eed., ii. 28, 40; Sozomen, His& ecel., iv. 25 (both in NPNF, 2d series, vol. ii.). Consult: A$B, March, ii. 626‑833; G. Delaeroiz, S. Cyrille de JErueaiem, sa via et east euvm. Paris, 1865; J. Mader, Der heilipe Cyrillue . . in seinern Leben and seines Sekriften, Eindedeln, 1891; Schaff, Christian Church, iii. 923‑925.

CYRIL LUCAR.
Early Life (s 1). Patriarch of Alexandria and Constantinople (1 2). Efforts for Protestantism (§ 3).
Cyril Lucar (Gk. Kyrillm Loukari8), patriarch of Constantinople 1620‑38, was born at Candia, Crete, Nov. 13, 1572; d. at Constantinople June 26, 1638. After studying in his native island, he went to Venice and Padua, where he doubtless heard Cremonini and Piccolomini, and came under the influence of Maximos Margunios, whom he had met while living in Crete as a monk, and who was an enthusiastic advocate of the union of the Greek and Roman Churches. Through Margunios, Cyril became acquainted with such Western scholars as David H6schel and Friedrich Sylburg, yet he never came wholly under the away of Occi‑
:. Early dental views. His training was philLife. osophical and logical, rather than theological. He completed his studies m 1594, and in May, 1595, was syncellus at the court of Meletios Peps, patriarch of Alexandria. From 1595 to 1602 he resided abroad, and in 1596 was rector of the Russian academy at V'llna. During this period he took part in the numerous conferences for union in Poland and Lithuania as the representative of the patriarch of Alexandria, but the statement that he visited Geneva and Wittenberg, and for a sum of money embraced Protestantism, is apocryphal, as is his alleged acceptance of Roman Catholicism,
Meletios Pegas died at latest a few months before May, 1602, and with Cyril's appointment as his successor the first period of the letter's life closes. As yet there was no trace of Protestant
influence. The second part of Cyril's career is marked by a gradual break with Roman Catholicism and an approximation to Prot‑
2. Patri‑ estantism, together with an ever‑in‑
arch of creasing desire to reform his own Alexandria Church. He was energetic in his adand Con‑ ministration and did not shrink from stantinople. a conflict with the ecumenical patriarchs. During his frequent tours he preached many sermons, but unfortunately few of them are accessible, although a large number are extant in the manuscripts of the library of the priory of the Holy Sepulcher at Constantinople. According to his own statement, he became a convert to Protestant doctrines after three years of study, but the exact date is uncertain. In 1611 he was characterized by an English traveler as"a friend of the Reformed Church," and two years later, shortly after declining the ecumenical patriarchate because he was unwilling to pay the price demanded for it, he was obliged publicly to defend himself against the charge of Lutheranism (June 4, 1613). It is not improbable, therefore, that this was the period of his conversion, especially as he was then receiving Protestant books, and made special mention of one by Arminius, with whose teachings he expressed much sympathy, especially with regard to the doctrine of the Holy Ghost, baptism, and the Eucharist; he avoided the tenets on free will, justification by faith, and predestination. On the other hand, his correspondence with the Dutch statesman David Le Leu de Wilhem shows his lack of knowledge of the principles of the Reformation, an ignorance doubtless due in great measure to the fact that hitherto he had been practically restricted to the writings of the Arminians. His hopes of reform within the Greek Church had now been abandoned. To this same period belong several brief polemics against, the Roman Catholics, one of which is interesting as showing that Cyril sought to appeal solely to the Bible in defense of his position. AB patriarch of Alexandria, moreover, he published a " Pragmatic Compend against the Jews " (Constantinople, 1627). On Nov, 4, 1620; he became patriarch of Constantinople, and in this position was still more courted by the Protestant powers, especially the Dutch, while Jesuit dislike of him increased. Ill 1623 he was banished for the first time, though not until after his official status had obliged him to canonize Gerasius the Younger in 1622. It should also be noted that he set up in Constantinople the press imported from England by Nikodenaos Metaxas about 1527, but it was destroyed by the Turks.
The third period of Cyril's life began with the arrival of the Calvinistic Antoine Leger of Piedmont, who was sent by the clergy of Geneva in 1628. At that time the patriarch seems to have felt the need of strengthening his po‑
3. Efforts sitipn with the Protestants. As early for Protes‑ as 1616 he had entered into corre‑
	tantism.	spondence with George Abbot, arch
		bishop of Canterbury, and later sent
him the famous Codex Atexandrinus, possibly as a
means of gaining English sympathy. Instead of
contenting himself with giving instruction to Cyril

Cyril Lncar
Cyril and Xethodins
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
and his clergy and waiting for the Reformed tenets to be introduced among the people by their own priests, Leger undertook an immediate Calvinistic propaganda. Within a year after his arrival he urged that the Bible be translated into the vernacular, and it accordingly appeared at Geneva in 1638, the Romaic version being prepared by Maaimos Kalliupolites with the assistance of Cyril. Leger likewise advocated the establishment of schools (which soon decayed) and proposed the preparation of a catechism, although it is unknown whether this was done. In 1629 Cyril published at Constantinople his famous " Confession of the Christian Faith " (Eng. transl., London, 1629), which is essentially Calvinistic, but approximates as closely as possible the language and creed of the Greek Church. The reception accorded the confession in Constantinople is unknown, although in 1636 Meletios Pantogallos, archbishop of Ephesus, wrote in its defense. On the other hand, it evidently roused much opposition and, despite the fact that the majority did not understand it, its author and his adherenta were branded as heretics. A synod also examined the work, but failed to condemn the patriarch, whereupon his opponents summoned Georgios Koressios to Constantinople to dispute with Leger, and the Swiss theologian left the city in 1636. Cyril had long been surrounded by opposition and had been repeatedly banished and as often recalled. On the eve of an expedition of the Sultan Murad against the Persians he was accused of attempting to rouse the Coasacka, and the Sultan accordingly had him strangled and thrown into the sea. His friends found the body and buried it far from Constantinople, where it remained many years before it could be brought back to the capital.
That the Protestant movement did not end with the death of Cyril is shown by the synods held at Constantinople (1638), Jassy (1642), Jerusalem (1672), and again at Constantinople (1691). It is also evident that the Reformed tendency found a large number of sympathisers, although Cyril's successors were not in harmony with his views. Meletioa Pantogallos, the archbishop of Ephesus mentioned above, on the other hand, was driven from Constantinople and forced to take refuge in Holland. The patriarch Neophytes Ill. of Constantinople, in like manner, was an adherent of Cyril, as were Sophronios, metropolitan of Athens, and the patriarchs Parthenios the Younger and Theophanes of Jerusalem. Among the monks and minor clergy Cyril's followers were numerous, including Maximos Kalliupolites, the translator of the Bible; Nathanael Konopios, who went to Oxford after the death of Cyril and prepared a Greek version of Calvin's " Institutes "; Acbatioa of Cephallenia; Nikodemos Metaxas; Eugenics AitOlos; and, above all, the Calvinist Johannes Karyophylles, as well as a number of minor characters. (PHILIPP METER.)

BIHwoasAPH7: The sources are (1) the correspondence col‑
lected in E. Legrsnd, Bibliographic HdUnique, 4 vols., Paris, 1894‑98 (of the first importance); (2) T. Smith, An Account of the (freak Church . . under CUrillus Lukaria, London, 1880; idem, Miscellanea, ib. 1890; idem, Coliadanea do CyriUo Lucario, ib. 1707 (contains A. Leger's Fyagmvita, C. Luoarii); (3) J. Aymon, 3fonumens
authenbiquts de la religion des (irate, The Hague, 1708.
Consult: A. Pichler, Der Patriarch Luraria and seine Zest,
Munich, 1882; A. Mettetal. Etudes hiatoriquea our . .
Cyrille Lucar, Paris, 1889; KL, ii. 718, iii. 455, 1021, iv. 1380, v. 1261, vi. 1359‑80.
CYRIL AND METHODIUS.
Early Life of Cyril (§ 1). Mission to the Slavs (§ 2). Appeal to Rome (§ 3). Methodiue as Bishop (§ 4). Methodius and the Germane (§ b).
	Of the two " Apostles to the Slavs," Cyril (orig
inally named Constantine) died in 869; Methodius,
in 885. They were the eons of a subordinate mili
tary officer named Drungarius, born at Thessa
lonica, of Greek descent, but acquainted with Sla
vonic. The Vita Cyrilli has a marked preference
for the number seven; according to it, Cyril or
Constantine was the youngest of seven brothers,
		at seven years of age gave himself to
	I. Early the pursuit of heavenly wisdom, at
	Life of fourteen was left an orphan. An in
	Cpril. fluential official, possibly the eunuch
		Theoctistea, brought him to Conatan
tinople. Photiua is said to have been among
his teachers; Anastasiua mentions their later
friendship, as well as a conflict between them on a
point of doctrine. After the completion o£ his
education Cyril took orders, and seems to have
held the important position of chaxlopkylaz, or
secretary to the patriarch and keeper of the ar
chives, with some judicial functions also. After six
months' quiet retirement in a monastery he began
to teach philosophy and theology. In this period
may fall his controversy with the deposed icono
clast patriarch John. The Vita also speaks of a
journey into Mohammedan territory, and discus
sions with the inhabitants; and precisely at this
time the difference between Christianity and Mo
hsmmedaniam had become more sharply marked.
The Vita connects his anti‑Jewish polemics with
his mission to the Chaaare, a Finnish‑Turkish tribe
on the Sea of Azof under a Jewish king who al
lowed Jews, Mohammedans, and Christians to live
peaceably side by side. It is uncertain how far we
may trust the account of this journey, undertaken
at the emperor's bidding; but Diimmler has pointed
out that the description of perils incurred from the
Hungarians corresponds closely to what is known
from other sources of their activity in those regions
at this exact time. According to the Vila, Cyril
found at Cheraon an opportunity to learn the He
brew and Samaritan languages, and, according to
the Italian Legends, also that of the Chazars. Anae
tasius says that he described his discovery of the
bones of Saint Clement in a Storiola, a Sermo do
clantatorius, and a Hymnus, the first two of which
Anastasius translated into Latin. Since Cyril, out of
modesty, omitted to mention his own name, it may
be inferred that the account extant in Slavonic, but
no doubt originally Greek, comes from one of these
works, probably from the Sernw declanzdtorius.
The statement that Methodius accompanied him
on the mission to the Chazare is probably a later
growth. Methodius, a man of great practical en
ergy, had already acquired a position of political
importance, presumably the governorship of the

33'7	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Cyril Lucar
		Cyril and Xethodins
Slavonian part of the empire; later, he became abbot of the famous monastery of Polychron.
But both brothers were now to enter upon the work which gives them their historical importance. An independent Slavonic principality had been established by Rostislav, duke of Moravia; and to maintain this independence it was necessary to assert also the ecclesiastical independence of his state, which had been, at least externally, Christianized from the German side. Hauck accepts the statement of Theotmar that Rostislav expelled the Teutonic clergy at the beginning of his contest with the Franks. He then turned
a. Mission to Constantinople to find teachers for
to the his people. It is obvious that the
Slavs. opportunity to extend Byzantine influence among the Slavs would be there; and the task was entrusted to Cyril and Methodius. Their first work seems to have been the training of assistants. The assertion that Cyril now undertook his translation of part of the Bible contradicts the statement of the Legenda that it had already been made before his undertaking of the Moravian mission; and the oldest Slavonic documents have a southern character. Cyril is designated by both friends and opponents of contemporary date as the inventor of the Slavonic script. This would not exclude the possibility of his having made use of earlier letters, but implies only that before him the Slavs had no distinct script of their own for use in writing books. The so‑called Glagolitic script can be. traced back at least to the middle of the tenth century, possibly even into the ninth; it presupposes a man of some education as its originator, and is evidently derived principally from the Greek, but also partly from the Latin cursive. The Cyrillian script is undoubtedly later in origin, and apparently was first used in Bulgaria. It is impossible to determine with certainty what portions of the Bible the brothers translated. Apparently the New Testament and the Psalms were the first, followed by other lessons from the Old Testament. The Translatio speaks only of a version of the Gospels by Gyril, and the Vita Methodii only of the evangelium Slavenicum ; but this does not prove that 'Cyril did not translate other liturgical selections (see BIBLE VExsioxs B, XVI., § 1). The question has been much discussed which liturgy, that of Rome or that of Constantinople, they took as a source. Since, however, the opposition objected only to the liturgical use of the Slavonic language, not to any alleged departure from the Roman type of liturgy, it is probable that the Western source was used. This view is confirmed by the " Prague Fragments " and by certain Old Glagolitic liturgical fragments brought from Jerusalem to Kief and there discovered by Saresnewsky‑probably the oldest document for the Slavonic tongue; these adhere closely to the Latin type, as is shown by the words " mass," °` preface," and the name of one Felieitas. In any case, the circumstances were such that the brothers could hone for no permanent success without obtaining the authorization of Rome.
Accordingly, they went to Rome after three and IIL‑22
a half years of labor, passing through Pannonia, where they were well received by the chieftain Kozel. The account of a discussion in Venice on the use of Slavonic in the liturgy is doubtful. But there is no question of their welcome in Rome, due partly to their bringing with them the relics of Saint Clement; the rivalry with Constantinople, too, as to the jurisdiction over the territory of the Slavs would incline Rome to value
3. Appeal the brothers and their influence. The
	to Rome.	learning of Cyril was also prized; An
		astasius calls him not long after " the
teacher of the Apostolic See." The ordination of
the brothers' Slav disciples was performed by For
mosus and Gauderic, two prominent bishops, and
the newly made priests officiated in their own tongue
at the altars of some of the principal churches.
Feeling his end approaching, Cyril put on the
monastic habit and died fifty days later (Feb. 14,
869). There is practically no basis for the asser
tion of the TransWio (ix.) that he was made a
bishop; and the name of Cyril seems to have been
given to him only after his death.
Methodius now continued the work among the Slavs alone; not at first in Moravia, but in Pannonia, owing to the political circumstances of the former country, where Rostislav had been taken captive by his nephew Svatopluk, then delivered over to Carloman, and condemned ,in a diet of the empire at the end of 870. Friendly relations, on the other hand, had been established with Kozel on the journey to Rome. This activity in Pannonia, however, made a conflict inevitable with the German episcopate, and especially with the bishop of Salzburg, to whose jurisdiction Pannonia had belonged for seventy‑five years. In 865 Bishop Adalwin is found exercising all episcopal rights there, and the administration under him was in the hands of the archpriest Riehbald.
4. Metho‑ The latter was obliged to retire to thus as Salzburg, but his superior was natuBishop. rally disinclined to abandon his claims. Methodius sought support from Rome; the Vita asserts that Kozel sent him thither with an honorable escort to receive episcopal consecration. The letter given as Adrian's in chap. viii., with its approval of the Slavonic mass, is a pure invention. It is noteworthy that the pope named Methodius not bishop of Pannonia, but archbishop of Sirmium, thus superseding the claims of Salzburg by an older title. The statement of the Vita that Methodius was made bishop in 870 and not raised to the dignity of an archbishop until 873 is contradicted by the brief of John VIII., written in June, 879, according to which Adrian consecrated him archbishop; John includes in his jurisdiction not only Moravia and Pannonia, but Servia as well. The archiepiscopal claims of Methodius were considered such an injury to the rights of Salzburg that he was forced to answer for them
g. Metho‑ at a synod held at Regensburg in dius and the the presence of King Louis. The as‑
	Germsns.	sembly, after a heated discussion, de
		clared the deposition of the intruder,
and ordered him to be sent to Germany, where he
was kept a prisoner for two years and a half. In

Qy~tand Xsthodins
TEE NEW SCHAFF HERZOG
spite of the strong representations of the Converaio Bagoariorum et Carantanorum, written in 871 to influence the pope, though not avowing this purpose, Rome declared emphatically for Methodius, and sent a bishop, Paul of Anna, to reinstate him and punish his enemies, after which both parties were commanded to appear in Rome with the legate. The papal will prevailed, and Methodius secured his freedom and his archiepiscopal authority over both Moravia and Pannonia, though the use of Slavonic for the mass was still denied to him. His authority was restricted in Pannonia when after Kozel's death the principality was administered by German nobles; but 8vatopluk now ruled with practical independence in Moravia, and expelled the German clergy. This apparently secured an undisturbed field of operation for 2thodius; and the Vita (x.) depicts the next few years (873‑879) as a period of fruitful progress. Methodius seems to have disregarded, wholly or in part, the prohibition of the Slavonic liturgy; and when Frankish clerics again found their way into the country, and the archbishop's strictness had displeased the licentious Svatopluk, this was made a cause of complaint against him at Rome, coupled with charges regarding the Filioque. Methodius vindicated his orthodoxy at Rome, the more easily as the creed was still recited there without the Filioque clause, and promised to obey in regard to the liturgy. The other party was conciliated by giving him a Swabian, Wiching, as his coadjutor. When relations were strained between the two, John VIII. steadfastly supported Methodlus; but after his death (Dec., 882) the archbishop's position became insecure, and his need of support induced Goetz to accept the statement of the Vita (xiii.) that he went to visit the Eastern emperor. It was not, however, until after his death, which is placed, though not certainly, on Apr. 8, 885, an open conflict eventuated. Gorasd, whom he had designated as his successor, was not recognised by Stephen VI., and was soon expelled, with the other followers of Methodius. (N. Boxwmsm)

Bmlaooserar: Some first4sad sources are collected in ASS, Mar* ii. 12‑26, and Oct., xi.168‑171. For others consult: J. Friedrich, in Sitsunpsberidde der kaissrtidhbaAks. put°s°pusch‑phil°logimh° and hietorisde Classe, part 3. pp. 393‑"2. Munich, 1892; E. Dammler, in Ardaic ffir Kunde 6dsrr"isrhsr Gesckuktsqueuen, sill (1854), 145‑199; idem and F. Miklasieok in Deaksckrsftm der k6niglid&4~idwn Akaderaie der Wisseasrjwften. Pkilwophisd,‑kist°riod° Clam, Ax. 214248, Vienna, 1870; MGS. Script, xi (1854). 1‑14. Consult: J. Dobrowsky, in Abhaudluapeu der bAssiscbsn GeseUschaft der Wisseasehaften, viii. 2, Prague. 1823; W. Wattenbech, BeW6ps sur GasChickts der ehridlHirche in Mdhnu and BdAmen, Vienna, 1849;. J. A. tin‑
sel, Gesrhirhte der Slatce»apo" Cflritt and Me", Leitmerits, 1857; A. Warfel, Das Lebes and Wirkes: der Wigen Apostd CyriU and Method. Prague. 1883; I.. L6gw, Cyrille et Ma%ode. Paris, 1888; J. Martin^ in Reous den lussis hietoriquee, xxvM (1880), 389‑397 xxxol (1889), 110‑188, xli (1887), 220‑232; D. Rattinger, in Stimmm aus Maria‑Leach. xxii. 38"52, 157‑189, 400419, Freiburg, 1882; A. d'Avril, S. Cyrala et S. M&hode. Paris, 1885; N. Bonwetech, CyriB and Method, Erlangen. 1885; B. Brethols, Geschiehte M6hreas, I. i. 04 eqq.. Braun, 1893; L. K. Goetz, Geschidae der Slaroeaapoetd CWiU and Method, Goths, 1897; Paetrnek, Dbjini aloranak. apost. Cyr. a Meth.. Prag. 1902; J. Franks, in Archio far slaviscke Phitoloyie, xn'iii. 229 eqq.
CYRUS THE GREAT (also called Cyrus the Elder, to distinguish him from Cyrus the Younger, eon of Darius IL, killed at Cunasa, 401 B.C.): Founder of the Persian Empire; b. about 800 B.C.; d. in July, 529 B.C. He belonged to the elder line of the Achaemenidee, which became extinct with the death of his son, Cambyses. . Herodotus and Ctesiaa relate that he was of humble origin; but from inscriptions still preserved it is evident that he was of royal descent. In his cylinder inscription he designates his predecessors up to Teiepee as kings of Anshan, which by some has been interpreted as 8usiana, by others as the ancestral seat of the Achssmenidse. He ascended the throne in 559, but not as an independent ruler, being forced to recognize Median overlordehip. However, in 550 he conquered the last of the Median kings, Aetyagee, captured Ecbatana, in 546 assumed the title " king of Persia," and gained for the Persians dominion over the Iranian peoples. An alliance was formed against Cyrus by Craesue of Lydia, Nabonidus of Babylon, and Amasis II. of Egypt; but before the allies could unite Cyrus had occupied 8ardis, overthrown the Lydian kingdom, and taken Crowns prisoner (548 B.C.). In 538 there followed the occupation of Babylon by Cyrus‑ According to the Babylonian inscription this was in all probability a bloodless victory (see BABYLONIA, VI., 7, 13). From the list of countries subject to Persian rule given on the first tablet of the great Darius inscription of Behistan, written before any new conquests could have been made except that of Egypt, the dominion of Cyrus must have covered all Hither Asia and reached as far eastward as the borders of India. According to Herodotus and Ctesiae, Cyrue met his death in the year 529, while warring against tribes northeast of the headwaters of the Tigris. He was buried in the town of Pasargadee. Both 8trsbo and A‑inn give descriptions of his tomb, based upon reports of men who saw it at the time of Alexander's invasion. The tomb northeast of Persepolis, which has been claimed as that of Cyrus, is evidently not his, sa its location dose not fit the reports.
	Cyrus was distinguished no less as statesman
than as a soldier. His statesmanship came out
particularly in his treatments of newly conquered
peoples. By pursuing a policy of generosity, in
stead of repression, and by favoring the local re
ligion, he was able to make his new subjects his
enthusiastic supporters. A good example of this
policy is found in his treatment of the Jews in
Babylon. 	(B. LnJnxi9x.)
Cyrus figures in the old Testament as the patron and deliverer of the Jews. He is mentioned twentythree times by name and alluded to several times more, viz.: II Chron. aswi. 22 (twice), 3; Ezra i. 1 (twice), 2, 7, 8, iii. 7, iv. 3, 13, 14, 17, vi. 3; Iea.. sliv. 28, slv. 1; Dan. i. 21, vi. 28, a. 1. From these statements it appears that Cyrus, king of Persia, was the monarch under whom the captivity of the Jews ended, for in the first year of his reign he was prompted of Yahweh to make s decree that the temple in Jerusalem should be rebuilt and that such Jews as cared to might return to their land for this purpose. Moreover, he showed his interest in the

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
ayril and Xethodius cy".I1t
project by sending back with them the sacred vessels which had been taken from the temple and a considerable sum of money to buy building materials with. After the work had been stopped by enemies of the Jews it was recommended under the exhortations of the prophets, and when the authorities asked the Jews what right they had to build a temple they referred to the decree of Cyrus. Darius, who was then reigning, caused a search for this alleged decree to be made, and it was found in the Babylonian archives (Ezra vi. 2), whereupon Darius reaffirmed the decree and the work proceeded to its triumphant close. Daniel was in the favor of Cyrus, and it was in that year of Cyrus that he had the vision recorded in his tenth chapter.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Herodotue, Hitt, i. 95, 108‑130, 177‑214; Cteeise, Persica, vii.‑xi.; tranal. of the Cyrus and Nabonidue Inscriptions, Records of the Pad, new series, v. 144 eqq., London, 1882. Consult: F. Justi, Gesahichte des alien Persiens, Berlin, 1879; T. G. Pinches, in TSBA, vii., 1880; V. Floigl, Cyrus and Herodot, Leipsio, 1881; J. V. Prasek, Medien and das Haus des Kyaxares, Berlin, 1890; E. Schrader and F. Peiser, in Keilineehrifiche Bibliogaek, iii. 2, pp. 120 eqq., iv. 258 eqq., Berlin, 18921898; T. K. Cheyne, Jewish Religious Life After the Exile, New York, 1898; G. F. Unger, in Abhandlunpen der kaiserlichen bayeriachen Akademie, 1. Classe, vol. xvi., part 3; DB, i. 541‑542; EB, f. 978‑982.
CYSAT,	RENWWARD, AND THE COUNTERREF
	ORMATION IN SWITZERLAND.
Situation After the Battle of Kappel (§ 1). Carlo Borromeo and the Jesuits (§ 2). Various Agencies (§ 3).
The battle of Kappel in 1531 (see ZwiNGLa, HuLDnEICH) had obstructed the advance of the Reformation in the Swiss Confederacy and brought about a reactionary subscription to the Roman faith. The majority of the thirteen cantons as then organized belonged to the Roman Church (Lucerne, Schwytz, Uri, Unterwalden, Zug, Soleure, Fribourg); two were on a footing of religious equality (Glarus, Appenzell); while only four (Basel, Bern, Schaffhausen, Zurich) were strictly Protestant. The last four, however, were
:. Situation superior in actual power and in intelAfter the lectual forces to the remaining cantons Battle of all together. The Roman cantons had
	gappel.	the advantage of a closely compact sit
		uation, and the original cantons were
bordered on the south by the entirely or still pre
dominantly Roman districts of Valais, Ticino, and
Grisons; the other Roman jurisdictions, also (Fri
bourg, Soleure, diocese of Basel, Saint Gall), sepa
rated the Protestant cantons. Prior to the Coun
cil of Trent the status of the Roman Church in
these her subject jurisdictions was by no means
more hopeful than elsewhere; the spirituality and
with it the entire existence of the Church was
everywhere in a state of melancholy decline; only
the support of the governing powers and the con
servative disposition of the people at large consti
tuted the mainstay of Catholicism in these demo
cratic little communities.
The Counterreformation found two centers in Switzerland: in the diocese of Basel (see JACOB CHRwTOPH, BISHOP OF BASEL) and in the orig‑
inal cantons, where the chief center was Lucerne. Here Ludwig Pfyffer, the mayor‑the "Swiss King"‑(d. 1594) and Renward Cysat, the modest town clerk (b. 1545; d. Mar. 16, 1614), were the life of the movement, the former of greater public renown, though the latter in his many‑sided activity as statesman, man of letters, ecclesiastical zealot, and friend of the Jesuits is the more distinctively typical figure. Originally an apothecary, but broadening himself with extensive culture, especially in languages, Cysat became " underclerk " of Lucerne in 1570; and from 1575 till his death he was town clerk. His office, which conjointly with that of the mayor was the most important with regard to the public affairs of the town and State, gave him a right to exert a partial influence over the ecclesiastical and political concerns of Lucerne. His office was not subject to annual mutation, and through his hands all documents of any consequence had to pass. As " Roman notary "from 1570 various channels of communication were opened up for him with spiritual dignitaries and even with the Curia; and as early as that very year, 1570, he came thus into closer touch with Carlo Borromeo (q.v.), cardinal and archbishop of Milan.
Borromeo's journey to Switzerland in 1570 is the external starting‑point of the Counterreformation for that country. It was Borromeo's indefatigable activity which secured in the same year the enactment of the Council's resolutions, and incited to measures for ameliorating the evil
3. Carlo condition of the clergy; later (1579)
Borromeo he founded in Milan a Swiss College
and the (Collegium Helveticum) for the edu‑
	Jesuits‑	cation of worthy Swiss clerics. He
		now gave his stimulating counsel at
Lucerne, and continued afterward in communica
tion with the leading men of the Roman districts.
Through the efforts of Pfyffer and Cysat a Jesuits'
College was instituted at Lucerne in 1574, and the
Jesuits' activity soon bore fruits; by means of the
school they influenced youth; and, by their strict
example, the clergy and the life of the community.
Voluntary liberality increased, new churches were
built; processions, festival plays, ecclesiastical
feasts soon again played an extensive part in pub
lic life. The municipal authorities everywhere
supported the Jesuits' purposes; and negligent
priests were disciplined by temporal magistrates.
In 1579 Bishop Bonomi of Vercelli came to Lu
cerne as papal nuncio, and the seven Roman can
tons and the dioceses of Constance and Basel were
placed under his jurisdiction. By visitations, by
founding a Capuchin convent at Altdorf, which
became a point of departure for many further
foundations, and a Jesuits' College at Fribourg he
promoted the Counterreformation; in fact, by these
measures and especially by his advocacy of a
league contracted in 1579 between the bishop of
Basel and the Roman cantons he became so odious
to the Protestant cantons that in I5$() he was
rudely insulted in the jurisdiction of Bern. This
incident, which came near causing civil war, and
Bonomi's doubtless warranted and yet not quite
unobjectionable encroachment upon affairs in the

Cysat
Dagon
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
diocese of Coire led to his recall in Sept., 1581. Not until 1586 did Bishop Santonio of Tricarico arrive as new nuncio at Lucerne; since that time this Swiss appointment of the nuncio's office has been permanent.
The work of ecclesiastical renovation by this time was well organized: the supervision and exercise of discipline rested in the nuncio's hands; the education of the clergy was carefully regulated, and the schools were organized anew. In these matters the Jesuits' activity
3. Various proved eminently effectual. Both Je‑
	Agencies.	suits and Capuchins were fruitfully
		diligent in the cure of souls. The in
creasing number of their colleges and convents
affords the best demonstration of their ever‑en
larging labor; in 1581 there arose a Jesuits' Col
lege in Fribourg; at Puntrut in 1588; in Valais,
1607; while the Capuchins established themselves
at Stans in 1582, at Lucerne in 1583, in Schwytz in
1585, in Fribourg in 1586; in Soleure, Sitten, and
Appenzell, 1588; and in Zug, 1597. Cysat was
widely active in connection with the founding of
Jesuits' colleges. The temporal authorities of the
Roman cantons supported all these cooperative
340
agencies, and directed their external policy to the
same object. Opposition to the Protestant can
tons led to a closer cohesion of the Catholic asso
ciates in faith; in 1579 a union was ratified be
tween the seven Roman cantons and the bishop
of Basel; and in Oct., 1586, the " Golden League"
of the Catholic Confederates for the defense of
their faith came into being; an alliance was sought
with France, but above all with Spain and Savoy.
The league with Spain took effect in May, 1587,
thus incorporating the Roman cantons in the great
Catholic alliance between the League in France,
Philip II., Savoy, and the Curia. More than once
the danger of civil war was imminent in Switzer
land. But no blood was shed from that time, and
the events of Reformation and Counterreformation
went on side by side from the end of the sixteenth
century. 	WALTER GOETZ.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. P. von Segesser, Rechtspeschichte der $tadt and Republik Luzern, vols. iii.‑iv., Lucerne, 18571858; idem, Ludwig Pf&ffer and seine Zeit, 3 vols., Bern, 1880‑82; B. Hidber, Renward Cysat, in Archiv fiir schweiierische Geschichte, vols. aiii., xx•, Zurich, 1863, 1876; KL, iii. 1307‑08.
CZERSKI, JOHANN. See GERMAN CATHoLIcIsM.
D : The symbol employed to designate the Deuteronomic school of writers whose work, according to the critical school, is found not only in Deuteronomy, but in the historical books from Judges to II Kings, except Ruth. See HEBREW LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE, II., § 4.

DABNEY, ROBERT LEWIS: American Presbyterian (Southern); b. in Louisa County, Va., Mar. 5, 1820; d. at Austin, Tex., Jan. 3, 1898. He studied at Hampden‑Sidney College, Va., and the University of Virginia. (M.A., 1842), and was graduated at Union Theological Seminary, HampdenSidney, Va., in 1846. He was then a missionary in Louisa County, Va., 1846‑47, and pastor at Tinkling Spring, Va., 1847‑53, being also head master of a classical school for a portion of this time. From 1853 to 1859 he was professor of ecclesiastical history and polity and from 1859 to 1869 adjunct professor of systematic theology in Union Theological Seminary, Va. He then became full professor of the latter subject and held this position until 1883, when he was appointed professor of mental and moral philosophy in the University of Texas. In 1894 failing health compelled him to retire from active life, although he still lectured occasionally. He was copastor of the Hampden‑Sidney College Church 1858‑74, also serving Hampden‑Sidney College in a professorial capacity on occasions of vacancies in its faculty. During the vacation of 1861 he was chaplain of the Virginia troops in the Confederate army, and in the following year was chief of staff to " Stonewall " Jackson in the brilliant Valley Campaign. While at the University of Texas be practically founded and maintained the Austin School of Theology, and in 1870 was moderator of the General Assembly of the Presby‑
terian Church, South. In theology he was a con
servative. He wrote Memoir o f Rev. Dr. Francis
S. Sampson (Richmond, 1855), whose commentary
on Hebrews he likewise edited (New York, 1857);
Life of General Thomas J. Jackson (1866); Defense
of Virginia and the South (1867); Treatise on Sacred
Rhetoric (Richmond, 1870); Theology, Dogmatic
and Polemic (1871); Sensualistic Philosophy of the
Nineteenth Century Examined (New York, 1875);
Practical Philosophy (Mexico, Mo., 1896); and the
posthumous Penal Character o f the Atonement o f
Christ Discussed in the Light of Recent Popular
Heresies (Richmond, 1898). A number of his
shorter essays have been edited by C. R. Vaughan
under the title Discussions (vole. i.‑iii., Richmond,
1890‑92; vol. iv., Mexico, Mo., 1897).
BIHLIO(iBAPHY: T. C. Johnson, Life and Letters of Robert
Lewis Dabney, Richmond, 1903.

DACH, SIMON: German religious poet; b. at Memel (72 m. n.e. of Konigaberg) July 29, 1605; d. at K&nigsberg Apr. 15, 1659. He studied at Memel, KSnigaberg, Wittenberg, and Magdeburg,
attaining proficiency in the use of the classic languages, the cultivation of which in poetic form constituted his moat grateful occupation through life. Returning to Konigsberg, he matriculated at the university, where he devoted himself to theology and philosophy, and in 1633 was attached to the Cathedral school, of which he became associate rector in 1636. In 1639 he became professor of poetry in the university.
Dach was the most gifted member of a group of Prussian theologians, scientists, and poets commonly known as the Konigsberg School, and comprising, among others, Robert Robertin, Michael and Andreas Adersbach, Christof Caldenbach,

341	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	cysat
		Dagon
Johann Baptist Faber, Christof Wilkow, Erasmus
Landenberg, Michael Behm, and Georg Mylius.
Throughout the poetical works of this group, relig
ious or secular, runs the constant theme of the
mutable and transitory nature of life, expressed in
verse which shows more or less skill, yet reveals,
especially in its numerous pastorals and songs of
friendship, little sincerity or poetic fire. Dach alone
rises above the level of his age to a height where
he stands comparable with Gerhardt. His secular
poems were written to order under the stress of
pressing poverty, and show all the faults of this
class of composition. A striking exception, how
ever, is the song Anke van Tharau written in Platt
deutach. It has become a popular folk‑song. In
his religious poems, however, Dach finds his true
sphere. Sincerity of emotion, a simple fulness of
faith and confidence in the justice of providence
in the midst of a world of turmoil and uncertainty
characterize them; in expression, melody, and
deftness of rhythm and rime they are not un
worthy of comparison with the productions of a
higher age. That a surprisingly small number of
his sacred songs have been retained in the Evan
gelical hymnals is due partly to the fact that, as
poems written for special occasions, they reveal the
quiet spirit of meditation rather than the sonorous
swing of the hymn. His collected poems were pub
lished by Oesterley at Stuttgart in 1877.
		(H. JACOBY.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Stiehler, Simon Dach, KSnigsberg, 1896;
	C. v. Winterfeld, Der evangelische Kirchengeaang, vol. ii.,
	Leipsic, 1845; G. G. Gervinus, Geechichte der deutachen
	Dichtung, vol. iii., Leipsic, 1872; K. Goedeke and J.
	Tittmann, Deutsche Dichter lea &iebenzehnten Jahrhun
	derts, ib. 1876; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 276‑277.
	D'ACHERY, JEAN LUC. See ACHERY, JEA1J
LuC D'.
	DA COSTA, IZAAg: Dutch poet and Christian
apologist; b. at Amsterdam Jan. 14, 1798; d. there
Apr. 28, 1860. His parents were wealthy Jews of
Portuguese descent who had departed in faith,
though not in practise, from the hereditary belief,
and were opposed to the political and social ide
als of French revolutionism. At an early age Da
Costa acquired a love for Greek literature which
remained with him throughout life, and later the
influence of the scholar and poet Willem Bilder
dijk, to whom the elder Da Costa entrusted the
education of his son, molded his entire career. In
1816 Da Costa entered the University of Leyden,
and took his doctorate in law in 1818, and in phi
lology in 1821. Bilderdijk had accepted a pro
fessorship at Leyden, and there his unobtrusive but
persistent inculcation of the principles of the Chris
tian faith won Da Costa from the teachings of
Voltaire's deism to a fervent belief in the Gospel.
In Oct., 1822, he was baptized, and he then
devoted himself with characteristic zeal to the
service of hiss new faith, bringing to the task an
earnestness of conviction, a disregard of public
opinion, and a gift for literary expression that were
destined to exert a formative influence on the sub
sequent religious history of the Netherlands. The
genius of the time was one of inoffensive neutrality
between religion and secular culture, but men were
inclined to interpret religion in the spirit of that secular culture. In 1823 Da Costa published at Leyden his Bezwaren mgen den geest der eeuw, in which he combated the complacent belief of his contemporaries that the nineteenth century was destined to surpass all that had gone before. As a period of decline in faith, morals, toleration, and humanitarianism, he chose rather to call it the age of slavery, unbelief, superstition, and darkness; De Sadduceen, published in the following year, was in the main an exposition of the same theme, comparing the theology of his own time and the Arminianism of the seventeenth century with the Sadduceeism of the days of Christ. Da Costa thus became the apologist of the old simple faith and orthodoxy, and this not alone in his prose works but in his poems, which are warm with the spirit of the old singers of the Bible. The bold position he assumed subjected him to virulent attacks by the press, and he was regarded with suspicion by the police. With the revolution of 1830, however, an event which he had predicted with almost prophetic foresight, adherents began to flock to him. From that time to the end of his life his zeal remained unabated in the furtherance of the cause of the new orthodoxy; and though the forces he had set in motion soon calve to be directed by other hands, he may be called the prophet of the new movement, while others developed his principles.
Aside from his activity as an author, Da Costa conducted classes in the study of the Bible, lectured frequently throughout the country, and was identified with every movement favorable to the cause of religious revival. His poetical works were published by J. P. Hasebroek at Haarlem in 1861; his theological writings were issued two years later by H. J. Koenen. Of these the principal are: V oorlezingen over de eenheid en overeenstemming der EvangeWn (2 vols., Leyden, 1840; Eng. transl., The Four Witnesses, London, 1851); Paulus (2 parts, 1846); Israel en de Volken (1849; Eng. trans]., Israel and the Gentiles. Contributions to the History of the Jews from the Earliest Times to the Present Day, London, 1850); and Beschauwingen van lei Handelingen der Apostelen (3 parts, 1856‑58).
(J. A. GERTH VAN WIJgt.)
BIBLIoaRAPHY: W. G. C. Bijvanek De jeugd van la. da Costa,
2 vols., Leyden, 1894‑96; H. J. Koenen, Levenebericht van Mr. 1e. da Costa, ib. 1860; G. J. Vos, Gesehiedenie der vaderlandeche kerk, ii. 184‑272, Dordrecht, 1882; A. Pierson, Oudere Tijdgenooten, pp. 1‑35, Amsterdam, 1888; J. B.eitsma, Geschiedenis van de hervorming en de hervormde kerk der Nederlanden, Groningen, 1893.
DAGON: A deity of the Philistines, perhaps the principal god of that people. He had temples at Gaza (Judges xvi. 21 sqq.) and Ashdod (I Sam. v. 1‑2; 1 Mace. x. 82‑85, xi. 4). The location of the temple mentioned in I Chron. x. 10 is not given. Indications are found in place‑names, pointing to the worship of a deity with this name over a wider territory than that occupied by the Philistines. Thus a Beth‑dagon is mentioned Josh. xv. 41, which is possibly the modern Beit‑Dejan (6 m. s.e. of Joppa); there is a place of the same name 7 m. e. of Nablus and another near Jericho. The inscription of Eshmunazar of Sidon speaks of Dor and Joppa

Dag~oa
Daft%
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
as seats of the worship of Dagon. A seventh .century Phenician seal is known on which is an inscription read Baal‑Dagon; and this is corroborated by the testimony of Philo Byblios to the effect that Dagon was worshiped elsewhere than in Phenicia and that he was worshiped by other Semites to the East. This is confirmed by the fact that a king of Isin (see BABYLONIA, VI., 3, j 4) is named IshmeDagan, while that of the Amarna Tablets is by a Dagan‑takala‑the name of the deity entering as an element in both names.
The meaning of the word and the form of Dagon's image are cognate questions still under discussion. Some see in the word a diminutive of affection formed from the Semitic dog, " fish " (cf. ahimahon, " little sun "), and affirm that the form was that of a fish with the head and hands of a man. To this theory the statement in I Sam. v. 4, " only Dagon (i.e., the fishy stump) was left to him," is made tributary, and the explanation is given that after the human head and hands were broken off, only the fish‑like form was left. With this agree the reports from the Greek age of the worship on the Philistine coast of a deity half fish and half man. Philo Byblios derives the name from a Semitic root dagan, " grain," and makes of the god a deity of agriculture (Zeus arotrios). With this fits in well the ear of grain on the Phenician seal mentioned above, though the argument is not strongly cogent. Both of these derivations seem to have warrant in early Semitic, if not in Sumerian worship, as in the case of Ea (see BABYLONIA, VIL, 2, j 3), a deity derived from the water, and of the Oannes or Odar kon of Berosus, who was pictured as part man, part fish. A Babylonian god Dagon was known, and the Arabic dagn, " fruitful rain," suggests a connection with agriculture. Sayce, Delitzach, and Schrader agree in finding a pre‑Semitic origin for the deity. In Greco‑Roman times a goddess Deroeto (Atargatis) was known, also connected with agriculture, who may have been the consort of Dagon but is not to be confounded with him.
Nothing is known of the form of the cult except that the worshipers avoided stepping on the threshold of the temple‑a custom which has its parallels elsewhere. Possibly, though not certainly, allusion is made to this in Zeph. i. 9.
GEO. W. GILMORE.
131BLIOGRAPHY: A. H. Sayce, Higher Criticism and the Mon‑
urnents, pp. 325‑327, London, 1894; F. Delitasch, Wo lap das Parodies I Leipsic. 1881; G. F. Moors, Commentary On Judges, pp. 358‑369; Schrader, KAT, p• 358; P. Jensen, XOenlalOgie do'. Babylonfer, pp. 449‑458, Strasburg, 1890. Earlier material is found in: J. Belden, De die Syria, ii., chap. iii., London, 1817; F. C. Movers, Die Ph6niaier, i. 143‑144, 590, Bonn, 1841; P. Scholz, Qbtsendienst and Zaubenuesen, pp. 238‑244. Regensburg, 1877. Consult also: DB, i. 544; EB, i. 983‑985; Menant, in RHR, Xi (1885), 295‑301.
DAILLE, d6"ly6' (DALLAUS), JEAN* French
Protestant; b. at Chatellerault (160 m. s.w. Of Paris), department of Vienne, Jan. 6, 1594, d. at Charenton (an eastern suburb of Paris, where the Protestants met for worship after 1606; see ABLoN) Apr. 15, 1670.. He studied philosophy at Poitiers and at Saumur. In 1612 the governor of the lastnamed city, the celebrated Du Plessis‑Mornay, made him tutor of his grandsons. With his pupils
842
he traveled in Italy (1619), and at Venice made the acquaintance of Fra Paolo Sarpi. In 1623, after his pupils had passed their examination, he became chaplain at Mornay's chzttesu La For6t. His benefactor having died soon after, Dailli; returned to Saumur, where he prepared Mornay's memoir for the press and was appointed preacher. In 1626 he was called as minister of the Paris congregation at Charenton. He belonged to the liberal party, took an active part in the Calvinist synods, and was a moderator of the last Synod of Loudun. His most important works were TraitE de l'emPloy des Sairsta‑Phres pour le jugenlent des di, f6rents qui scat aujourd'hui en la religion (Geneva, 1632; Eng. transl., A Treatise concerning the Right Use of the Feathers in the Decision of the Controversies that are at this Day in Religion, London, 1651 and 1675; reissued 1841); Apologie des 6gfiaes rEfor»ISSes oit eat montree la nkceasitk de leer aE:paration d'avec l'~glise Romaine, conEre ceux qui lea accusent de faire schisms en la Chrestient6 (Charenton, 1633; Eng. transl.,
An Apologie for the Reformed Churches, 1653); La
Foy fondle our les Saintes ‑kcritures, corttre lea nouveaux M4thodiates (1634); De la. cr&nce des pyres our 1e fait des images (Geneva, 1641).
G. BONEII‑MAURY.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: J. Daily, L'AW9d de la via de J. Daidm, Geneva, 1871 (by his soa); E. and A. Ran, La Frarke protutante, ed. H. L. Bordier, Vol. v., Paris, 1888; Lichtenberger, EBR, iii. 6b7‑b82.
DALAftD, WILLIAM CLIFTON: Seventh‑day Baptist; b. at New York City Oct. 25, 1860. He
was graduated at the Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute in 1879 and Union Theological Seminary in 1886. While in the Seminary he changed from the Baptists to the Seventh‑day Baptists. He held pastorates at Leonsrdsville, N. Y. (1886‑91), Westerly, R. I. (1891‑96), London (1896‑1900), and again at Leona,rdsville (1900‑02). Since 1902 he has been president of Milton College, Milton, Wis., where he is also professor of philosophy and English. He was recording secretary of the Seventhday Baptist Missionary Society in 1891‑96. In theology he is a Trinitarian in the sense of the Apostles' Creed, and philosophically is a moderate Calvinist, although an Arminian practically. As regards authority, his views are " Bibliocentric," and he accepts the conclusions of a moderate and reverent criticism. He has published an annotated translation of the Song of Songs (Leonardsville, N. Y., 1887).

DALE, JAMES WILKINSON: American Presbyterian; b. at Cantwell's Bridge (Odessa), New Castle County, Del., Oct. 16, 1812; d. at Media, Pa., Apr. 19, 1881. He was graduated at the University of Pennsylvania, 1831; studied theology at Andover, 1832‑33, at Princeton, 1833‑34, and was graduated at Andover, 1835; be also studied medicine (M.D., University o£ Pennsylvania, 1838) with

a view to more efficient service as a missionary in India, but financial difficulties of the American

Board prevented his departure; he was agent of the American Bible Society for Pennsylvania, 1838‑
1845; pastor at Ridley and Middletown, Pa., 18451866, at Media, 1866‑71, at Wayne, 1871‑76. He issued many sermons and labored zealously in be‑

343	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Da~t n
half of total abstinence. His reputation was made, however, by his elaborate works on baptism, viz.; Classic Baptism (Philadelphia, 1867); Judaic Baptism (1869); Johannic Baptism (1871); Chriatie and Patristic Baptism (1874). A condensed statement of his views, which were in favor of pedobaptism and .sprinkling, may be found in The Cup and the Cross (1872).
BIHwoaRAPRT: J. Robert% Memorial of Jam" Wilkinaon Dale, Philadelphia, 1886.
DALE, ROBERT WILLIAM: Congregationalist; b. at London Dec. 1, 1829; d. at Birmingham Mar. 13, 1895. He studied at Spring Hill College, Birmingham (M.A., University of London, 1853), and was associate pastor of Carr's Lane Congregational Church, Birmingham, 1853‑59, after which he was sole pastor until his death. In 1869 he was chairman of the Congregational Union of England and Wales and fn 1877 was Lyman Beecher lecturer at Yale. In 1885 he was appointed by the crown a member of a committee for investigating the working of the English system of elementary education. He was likewise a governor of King Edward VL's School, Birmingham, and in theology was liberal and an advocate of conditional immortality. His publications embrace L#'e and Letters of the Rev. John Angell James (London, 1861); The Jewish Temple and the Christian Church (1865); Christ and the Controversies of Christendom (1869); The Holy Spirit in Relation to the Work of the Ministry, the Worship, and the Work of the Church (1869); The Ten Commandments (1871); Protestantism, its Ultimate Principle (1874); The Atonement (1875), a book which bas had a remarkable reception; Nine Lectures on Preaching (Lyman Beecher. lectures; 1877); Impressions of America (New York, 1878); The Evangelical Revival, and Other Sermons (London, 1$80); Epistle to the Ephesians, its Doctrine and Ethics (1882); The Laws of Christ for Common Life (1884); Manual of Congregational Principles (1884); Impressions of Australia (1889); The Old Evangelicalism and the New (1889); The Living Christ and the Four Gospels (1890); Fellowship with Christ and Other Discourses (1891); Christian Doctrine (1894); Christ and the Future Life (1895); The Epistle of James and Other Discourses (1895); and Essays and Addresses (1899). He likewise edited The English Hymn‑Book (Birmingham, 1875).

BDImOGRAPH7: A. W. W. Dale (his eon), Life at E. W. Dale of Birmingham, London, 1898.
DALMAN, GUSTAF HERMAN: German Lutheran; b. at Niesky (11 m. n.n.w. of GBrlitz), Silesia, June 9, 1855. He studied at the Moravian school in his native town and the Moravian theological seminary at Gnadenfeld, where he was professor of Old Testament exegesis and practical theology 1881‑87. In 1887 he left the Moravians for the Lutherans, studied at Leipsic (Ph.D., 1887), and until 1902 was professor and later director of the Institutum Delitzschianum at Leipsic. He was privat‑docent 1891‑96 and since 1896 has been associate professor of Old Testament exegesis in Leipsic. Since 1902 he has been on furlough in Palestine as president of the German Evangelical
Archeological Institute, and was also appointed honorary Swedish consul for Palestine and Damascus in 1903. In theology he " belongs to no party of any description, and tries to unite Evangelical Christian faith with scientific progress." Of his numerous publications may be mentioned: Studien zur biblischen Theologie (2 parts, Berlin, 1889‑97); Jesaja 63, das Prophetenvort vow Si2hnleiden den Heilsmittlers (Leipsie, 1890); Kurzgefasates Handbuch der Mission unter Israel (Berlin. 1893); Grammatik den jiidischrpaUstinisehen Aramdisch (Leipsie, 1894); Eben Ezer, Gedenkbuch der Familie Julius Marx (1897); Aramdisch‑neuhebrdischm Wdrterbuch zu Targum, Talmud and Midranch (2 parts, Frankfort, 1897‑1901); Christentum and Judentum (Leipsic, 1898; Eng. transl., Christianity and Judaism, by G. H. Box, Oxford, 1901); Die Worte Jesu wit besonderer Berucksichtigung den nachkanonischen judischen Schrifttums and der aramdischen Sprache, i. (Leipsie, 1898; Eng. transl., The Words of Jesus Considered in Light of PostBiblical Jewish Writings and the Aramaic Language, by D. M. Kay, Edinburgh, 1902); and Paldstinischer Diwan (Leipsic, 1901). He edited the monthly Berith Am from 1893 to 1902 and the annual report of the Deutsches Evangelisches Institut fur Altertumawissenschq/'t den heiligen Landes since 1905.

DALMATIC. See VESTMENTS AND INSIGNIA, ECCLESIASTICAL.
DALTON, HERMANN: German Reformed; b. at Offenbach (4 m. s.e. of Frankfort) Aug. 20, 1833. He studied at Marburg, Berlin, and Heidelberg 1853‑‑56, and was pastor of the German Reformed church in St. Petersburg 1858‑59. In the latter year he retired from active life, and has since resided in Berlin. In 1868 he was created a consistorial councilor, and in 1876 founded the Evangelical city mission in St. Petersburg. His writings include: Nathanael, apologetische Vortrdge iiber einzige Punkte den Christentums (St. Petersburg, 1861); Geschichte der reformierten Kirche in .Russland (Goths, 1865); Immanuel, der Heidelberger Katechismus als Bekenntnis‑ and Erbauungsbuch (Wiesbaden, 1870); Reiaebilder aus dent Orient (St. Petersburg, 1871); Jphannes Gossner, sin Lebenabild aus der Kirche den neunzehnten Jahrhunderts (1874); Johannes ion Muralt, eine Pddagogen‑ and Pastorengestalt der Schweiz and Russlands aus der ersten Hddfte den neunzehnten Jahrhunderts (Wiesbaden, 1876); Johannes a Lasco, Beitrag zur Refor»uttionsgeschiehte Polens, Deutschlanda and Englands (Goths, 1881; Eng. trans]. by M. J. Evans, London, 1886); Reisebilder aus Griechenland and Kleinasien (Bremen, 1884); Ferienreise eines evangelischen Predigers (1886); Beidrdge zur Geschichte der evangelischen Kirche in Ruseland (4 vols., Gotha and Berlin, 1887‑1905); Die evangeliSche Kirche in Russland (Leipsie, 1890); O, fenes Sendschretben an den Oberprokureur den ruesischen Synods, Herrn Wirklichen Geheimrat Konstantin Pobedoywsief (1890; Eng. transl., On Religious Liberty in Russia. Open letter, 1890), Auf Missionapfaden in Japan (Bremen, 1895); Indische Reisebriefe (Giitersloh, 1899); Aus dew Leben einer evangeliachen Gemeinde (1901); Daniel Ernst Jab‑

Damaecenne Damianue
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
lonW (Berlin, 1903); and Lebenserinnerungen (2 vols., 1906‑07).
DAMASCENUS (DAMASKINOS) THE STUDITE:
The moat important popular writer of the Greek Church in the sixteenth century. He came from Thessalonica, was a disciple of Theophanes Elear bulkos in Constantinople, and a member of the Studite monastery (see ACcFMETI); he became bishop of Lite and Rhendine, and in 1573 was metropolitan of Naupactus and Arta. His chief work was the " Treasury " (1st ed. probably 1570; 2d ed., 1589; many later eds., down to the present), containing thirty‑six sermons or homilies, with seven ethical treatises by Joannikios Kartanos (q.v.). The addresses are written in the popular speech of the time and based upon Bible texts or saints' lives. The aim is practical rather thanAheological, and Damascenus does not disdain now and then to please his hearers by a joke. So far as his theology appears, he is strongly orthodox. He avoids polemics, except sometimes against the Jews. (PHILIPP MEYER.)
DAMASCUS: Perhaps the oldest city in Syria. Its name appears in the principal early tongues of the region (Heb. Dammesk, Darmesek, and Duromesek ; Egyptian T imasku, Sdramas~u ; Assyr. Dimaahki and Dinwshka; Arab. Dimashk, Dimisk ef^Sham, or eLSham). It lies east of Mt. Hermon in 33° 32' n. lat., 36' 18' e. long., 133 m. n.n.e. of Jerusalem and about 60 m. e. of the Mediterranean, at an altitude of 2,260 feet, at the western end of the exceedingly fertile plain of the Ghuta (a hollow sheltered by hills and watered by the Barada and the Awaj), along the principal branch of the Barada (" Abana," II Kings v. 12; Gk. Chrysorrhoas). It is about a mile in length from east to west and half a mile from north to south, with a suburb of continuous buildings on the south nearly a mile in extent, thus presenting in contour the shape of a mallet with its handle. Its site is nearly level, it is walled, only the foundations of most of the wall being ancient, and it gives entrance by seven gates. Its location on a plain unusually rich in its products of fruits in many varieties, of grains and other products useful in the arts and manufactures, and its situation on great trade routes have combined not only to prolong its life, but to cause its speedy recovery from the many disasters which have befallen it in the course of history. It has been famed at different times for its wines, its wool products (Ezek. xxvii. 18), its silk (Amos iii. 12, R. V. margin; cf. the " damask " of commerce), and its " Damascus blades." Besides a part of the wall for which an early date is claimed, there is no ancient structure.
It is likely that the Ommiad Mosque is situated o the.site of the old Church of St. John, which too its name from the fact that it was supposed to b
the repository of the head of John the Baptist
The conjecture has been offered that this was o the site of an early temple.
The history of the city has been very varied. I is first mentioned in connection with Abraham
Gen. xiv. 5, xv. 2. In the fifteenth century B.C. it figures as one of the conquests of Thothmes III,
and at the same time its name is found in the Ama
844
na Tablets, while in the thirteenth it is claimed as a part of the territory of Rameses. III. According to II Sam. viii. 3 sqq. (cf. I Chron. xviii. 5 aqq.) it was included in the realm of David, but moat have been lost to the Hebrews soon after, according to I Kings xi. 23‑25. It appears later to have become the head of the Syrian confederacy which opposed for so long the westward march of the Assyrian empire (see ASSYRIA, VI., 3, J§ 7 sqq.), and the power which was centered there was almost continuously antagonistic to the Hebrew kingdoms. A Rezon son of Eliadah, appears to have made himself king in the time of Solomon. A king named Ben‑hadad helped Asa against Baasha (I Kings xv. 16‑21), and the same king or one of the same name defeated Omri and ` established a trading station in Samaria (I Kings xi. 34), while a don had to yield under defeat the same privilege to Ahab in Damascus. In a later campaign against the same power Ahab met his death (I Kings xxii.). In the years 854, 850, and 847 the forces of Damascus under a Ben‑hadad were defeated by Shahnaneaer IL, yet the city seems to have recovered and, under a king whose name was also Ben‑hadad, besieged Samaria (II Kings vi.vii.). The throne was soon after seized by Hazael (II Kings viii. 15), who defeated Jehoram (II Kings viii. 28‑29), and was defeated by Shalinaneser II. in 843 and 840. Yet the same speedy recovery so often shown by the city enabled its king to regain territory from Israel east of the Jordan and even to threaten Judah (II Kings xii. 17‑18) and to continue hostile operations against Jehoahaz and Jehoash (II Kings xiii. 3, 25). In 803 a king of Damascus whose name is given in the inscriptions as Mari was assailed by Ramman‑nirari III., and Israel seized the opportunity to recover territory east of the Jordan (II Kings xiv. 28). In 773 the battering of the Assyrians was renewed, in 740 the ruler Rezin paid tribute to Tiglath‑Pileaer III. (cf. II Kings xv. 19 aqq., xvi. 7 sqq.), who took the city in 733, killed Rezin, deported the inhabitants, and introduced Assyrian colonists. In 732 Ahab visited the city to pay homage to the Assyrian overlord. In ?13 Damascus was again found in an anti‑Assyrian league and was again crushed in the defeat at Karkar. Under the Persians the city was made a seat of provincial government. When the region came under the away of Alexander he issued coins from the city; but after his empire was divided Damascus was compelled to yield the chief place in importance to Antioch, though it was often a secondary capital. In 85 B.C. it fell into the hands of Aretas the Nabatxan. It was occupied in 65 by the Romans, and seems to have been ruled by an ethnarch for another Aretas in the time of Paul
n (II Cor. xi. 32). According to the testimony of k coins, between 34 and 62 A.D. the city was not under e Roman control. Christianity seems to have made
an early entrance into the city, moat likely through
n	Jewish converts (Acts ix. 1 aqq.), and in Christian
history the place is famous as the place where or
t	near which Paul was converted. A bishopric was erected there, the incumbent of which took rank
after the patriarch of Antioch. In 635 A.D. it became the residence of Mu'awiya, the first Ommiad
r‑	calif. During the crusades it was frequently the

$45	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Damasoenns
		Damianne
object of attack, was captured by the Mongols in
1260, plundered by the Tatars in 1300, and taken
by the Turks under Selim in 1516, since which date
it has been the capital of a Turkish province, ex
cept for the period 1832‑41, when it was under
Egyptian control. The present population is not
accurately known, estimates varying from 160,000
to 180,000, of whom about 100,000 are Moham
medans, about 5,000 Jews, 22,000 Orthodox Greeks,
and the rest are distributed among the Christian
sects. See ARAM, ARAMEANs, §J 9‑10.
		GEO. W. GILMORE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. L. Porter, Pive Years in Damascus, Lon
	don, 1855; w. K. Kelly, Syria and the Holy Land, chaps.
	xv.‑xvi., ib. 1844; P. Schaff, Through Bible Lands, pp. 361
	sqq., New York, 1878; Mrs. Macintosh, Damascus and its
	People, London, 1882; M.F. von Oppenheim, Vom Mittel
	meer zum persischen Golf, i. 49‑86, Berlin, 1899; Scharer,
	Geschichte, iii. 117 sqq. et passim; Eng. tranal., passim.
DAMASUS: The name of two popes.
	Damasus I.: Pope 366‑384. He was born in 305,
probably in Rome, the son of a priest of the Church
of St. Laurence. After the death of Liberius, he was
elected bishop by a part of the Church,while another
faction chose the deacon Ursinus. Damasus could
secure recognition only after a conflict marked by
bloodshed, which lasted two years on account of
the uncertain attitude of Valentinian I.; and even
after the suppression of the disturbances the party
of Ursinus maintained their opposition, to the point
of schism. During these troubles clerics had been
summoned before secular judges, and torture had
even been used. On complaint being made, Valen
tiaian issued a rescript, the substance of which is
known from Ambrose (Egiat., xxi. 2); it is summed
up in the phrase " that priests should judge priests."
Rade thinks that the emperor meant to declare a
fundamental division between secular and eccle
siastical jurisdiction; but this, is too much to infer
from the words. It was only an express recog
nition of the disciplinary power of bishops and
councils, as it had been previously recognized in
practise, and limited to questions of faith, morals,
and contests over ecclesiastical offices. The appeal
of the Roman council of 378 or 379 to Gmtian was,
in view of the occasion, an attempt to secure
not extension, but recognition of the disciplinary
power of the Roman See, which was practically
nullified as long as imperial officials declined to en
force the sentence of ecclesiastical tribunals. This
the council asked that they should be instructed to
do, and Gratian agreed. There appears nothing in
all this to support the contention of Rade and
Langen that the Western bishops at least were sub
ject to the tribunal of the pope; and the imperial
decrees mentioned above can scarcely be cited as
triumphs of the policy of Damasus. In fact, he
does not seem to have known how to use either these
or the famous edict of Theodosius (Feb. 27, 380),
or the third canon of the Council of Constantinople
in 381, as means to the elevation of Rome's eccle
siastical position‑which, indeed, was actually
damaged by his conduct in the Amtioch contro
versy (see MELETIUS OF ANTIOCH), and did not
again make progress until the pontificate of Siri
cius. In dogmatic conflicts Damasus remained
steadfast in the traditional Roman policy. He op
posed the Arians, and took strong measures against
the Luciferians. It was during his pontificate that
the understanding was reached between the Old
and Young Nicene parties in the East; but he
rather hindered the rapprochement than helped it,
taking the side of the strict old orthodox party in
the schism of Antioch. Basil of Ca'sarea tried in
vain to get him to acknowledge Meletius. A
Roman synod of 382 renounced communion with
Flavian. The measures taken by Damasus against
Arianism in Italy were not very successful. Ap
parently as early as 369 he had condemned Auxen
tius of Milan at a council of Italian bishops, but the
sentence was not executed by the secular authori
ties; Auxentius remained bishop until his death,
and only in the election of Ambrose to succeed him
did orthodoxy come into power. He was more
successful in his repeated pronouncements against
Apollinarianism, which was condemned in Roman
councils of (probably) 377 and 381. Damasus was
not lacking in learning, and did a good work by
setting on foot a revision of the Latin Bible. He
wrote a (lost) treatise on virginity and a number
of metrical inscriptions for the catacombs, on which
he bestowed intelligent care. He died Dec. 11,
384. 	(A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Opera of Damasus are in MPL, riii., and his Epigrammata, ed. M. Ihm, were published, Leipsic, 1895. Consult: Libor pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, i. 212, Paris, 1886, and ad. Mommsen in MGH, Gast poet. Rom., i. 82‑84; Jaff6, Repesta, i. 37; M. Rade, Damasua, Biachoi von Ron, Freiburg, 1882; Hefele, Concilienpeschichte, vole. i.‑ii.; Bower, Popes, i. 83‑107; Milman, Lain Christianity, i. 108‑110. Consult also B. Halscher, Ds Damasi hymnis, Munster, 1858.
	Damasus II: (Poppo): Pope 1047‑48. After the
premature death of Clement II., Poppo, bishop of
Brixen, was nominated to succeed him by Henry
IIY at Christmas, 1047. He was conducted to
Rome in the following summer, consecrated July
17, and died Aug. 9. 	(A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jaff6; RB(I68ta, i. 528; J. Langen, GBschichlE der r6mischen %irche . . . bis Gregor Vll., Bonn, 1892; Hauck, %D, iii. 593; Bower, Popes, ii. 343; Milman, Latin Christianity, iii. 239.

D~, SAINT. See CosMAs A" DAMIAN, SAI TAN
DA*AHI, PIETRO. See PETER DAMLIN, SAINT.
DAMIANUS: Jacobite patriarch of Alexandria; bin Syria July, 578; d. June 12, 605. He succeeded Peter IV. as patriarch of Alexandria in 578 under., circumstances which were probably of a turbulent character. Controversies between the Jacobites and Paulites (the latter the adherents of Bishop Paul the Black of Antioch, d. probably 585) ensued and passed over into Egypt. On a journey in Syria and to Constantinople Damianus endeavored to frustrate peace negotiations which had already commenced. The Jacobite patriarch Peter of Antioch was consecrated by him in Alexandria (580 or 581), and later a controversy arose between the two which is known as a phase of the tritheiatic controversy (see TRITHEIBM); Danlianus defended a position similar to that of Sabellianism (q.v.). On two Coptic ostraca a writing of Damianus is

Dancers	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	346
Daniel
mentioned with the title KSrugmata (cf. Crum,
Coptic 0straca, London, 1902, no. 18, p. 7).
	G. IKR#GER.
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: The sources are: John of Ephesus, Hist.
	ecd., iii. 4, 33, 38, 41‑45, 60, Syriac and Eng. tranel. by
	W. Cureton, London, 1853; Timotheus, Ds receptions ha<rs
	ticorum, in MPG, lazavi., Sophronius, EPistola ad Serpium,
	in MPG, lxavii.; and Severus, in J. B. Asseman, Bibiio
	Wca orientalis, ii. 70 sqq., Rome, 1721. Consult: J. P.
	N. Land, Joannes, Bischof von Ephesus, pp. 136‑139, Ley
	den, 1856; C. W. F. Walch, Historie der %teersisn, viii
	687, Leipsio, 1778; A. von Gutsahmid, Hleins SdUiften,
ii. 498‑499, ib. 1890.
DAMIEN, FATHER.	See VENSTER, JOSEPH DE.
DANCERS (DANSATORES,	CHORIZANTTES):
	A set of wild enthusiasts in the fourteenth .and
	fifteenth centuries, whose peculiarities offered one
	of those strange mixtures of physical, spiritual,
	and moral elements to be found in the popular
life of the Middle Ages.	They made their appear
ance at Aachen in the Summer of 1374, coming
	from southern Germany, and then spread east
	ward to Cologne, southward to Metz, and westward
into Hainault.	Their membership was numbered
	by thousands, of both sexes, and almost exclu
	sively from the lower classes. They danced madly
	through the streets and in and out of the churches
	for hours at a time, until they were completely
	exhausted. They paid no attention to the amazed
	spectators, their minds being taken up with the
	contemplation of the most fantastic visions. Some
	times they imagined that they were wading in a
stream of blood, to get out of which they leaped
	wildly in the sir; others saw heaven opened and
	Christ upon his throne. The morbid mental con
	dition which undoubtedly underlay these actions
took the form of the popular notions of the day.
	It is probable that in many cases it was only simu
	lated, and that lazy rascals joined and imitated
	the Dancers to get a share in the gifts which were
	freely bestowed upon them; and these excited
	mobs offered a natural breeding‑ground for im
	morality of all kinds. The clergy and the people
	at large, however, sought no natural psychological
	explanation of the phenomena, but regarded the
	dancers as demoniacs; the priests attempted to
	help them by exorcism, while the populace was
	inclined to attribute their misfortune to unworthy
	priests, whose baptism had not sufficient validity to
	expel the demons. The dancers in their delirium
	invoked St. John Baptist, which may be connected
	with the fact that the outbreak occurred while the
	old popular celebration of his festival at midsummer,
	with its many excesses, was still observed. A Simi
	lar epidemic occurred at Strasburg in 1418. Here
	it was customary to invoke St. Vitus for the cure of
	the malady, on account of the old tradition which
	has led to the application of the name " St. Vitus's
	dance " to the disease technically known as chorea.
	(A. HAucs.)
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. F. C. Hecker, Die growen Voikekrank
	heiten des Mitteialtars, ed. A. Hirsch, pp. 143‑193, Berlin,
	1865, Eng. tranal. of earlier edition, pp. 81‑138, London,
	1846 (where the authorities are given and reference made
	to similar phenomena elsewhere); Encyyciopadia Bri
	tannica, xotiii. 60, s.v. " Tarantiem "; P. Fr6ddricq, Corpus
	documentorum inquisitionis Neerlandica, i. 231 sqq.,
	Ghent, 1889; idem, De wcten des paesslaars to der dansers
in de Nedarlanden, Brussels, 1897.
DANCING: Dancing as a religious observance occupied an important place in the ceremonies of all ancient religions. It is connected with sacred processions (as in the Babylonian and Egyptian festivals) and with community rites at the altar, the sacred tree, or the sacred atone (cf., e.g., the account of such dances which comes from Cyprus, M. H. Ohnefalsch‑Richter, Kypros, die BiTiel and Homer, Berlin, 1893, Eng. tranal., London, 1893, plates lxxxiii. 6, exxvii. 4, etc.). In the Mohammedan festival at Mecca the march around the Kaaba still ' remains the culminating point of the celebration. The Old Testament reports that at the great Baal sacrifice on Mt. Carmel the priests went " limping " around the altar (I Kings xviii. 26, R. V. margin), and mention is made also of dancing around the golden calf (Ex. xxxii. 19). Sacred processions fell into disuse in the worship of Yahweh after the ark was transferred to Solomon's Temple; but the bringing of the ark into the Temple (I Kings viii. 1 aqq.) and its conveyance to Zion (II Sam. vi. 5) were accomplished in the manner usual in sacred processions. David and all Israel danced before the ark. Processions and dances without the ark formed an important part of festal celebrations (cf. the description of such a procession in Ps. lxviii. 25), at triumphal festivals (Ex. xv. 20; Judges xi. 34), and at the annual festival at Shiloh (Judges xxi. 21). Indeed, the whole celebration takes its name from them, the Hebrew hhagg signifies the festival procession or dance. This remained true till the latest period of Jewish history. For the Psalmist the dance around the altar was part of the proper praise of God (Ps. cxlix. 3, cl. 4). On the evening of the feast of atonement the celebration was closed by dances of the maidens of Jerusalem in the vineyards (Taanit iv. 8). A peculiarity of the feast of tabernacles was the processions of those carrying branches of citron and'°•palm around the altar of burnt offering, and even more especially the torchdances of the most prominent men on the night between the first and second days of the festival. .
Naturally, dancing also formed a part of the secular festivals (Jer. xxxi. 4, 13; Matt. xi. 17; Luke vii. 32, xv. 25), and at the banquets of the nobles dancing women could not have been lacking (cf. the Egyptian customs), although they are mentioned nowhere in the Old Testament (but note the dance of the daughter of Herodias, Matt. xiv. 6). I. BENZINQER.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: John Spencer, in B. Ugolinus, Thesaurus
antiquitatum sacrarum, gaii. 1133, 34 vole., Venice, 1744
1769; R. Vow, Der Tans and seine GeschiAte, Berlin, 1868;
F. Delitsseh, Iris, pp. 189‑206, London, 1889; W. Smith,
Dictionary/ of (creek and Roman Antiquities, ii. 592‑594,
ib. 1891; H. B. Tristram, Eastern Customs, pp. 207‑210,
ib.1894; Mrs. L. Grove, Dancing, ib.1895; M. Emmanuel,
La Danse grecque antique, d'aprh lei monuments hgurks,
Paris, 1876; DB, i. 549‑551; EB, i. 998‑1001; JE, iv. 424‑426.
DANEAU, dd"n5' (DANNAZUS), LAMBERT:
French Protestant; b. at Besugency‑sur‑Loire (15 m. s.w. of Orl4ans) 1530; d. at Castres (80 m. w. of Montpellier) Nov. 11, 1595. He was of Roman Catholic family, began the study of law at Orldans, went to Paris in 1547, :and returned to

347
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Orldans in 1552, where he studied four years with
Anne du Bourg and obtained the degree of doctor
in utroque jure 1559. For a long time he was
	inclined toward Protestantism, and the death of his
master, Du Bourg, decided him to go to Geneva in
	1560, where he made the acquaintance of Calvin
	and adhered to the Reformed Church. In 1561
	he became pastor at Gien, where he remained till
	St. Bartholomew's day. From 1574 he was pro
	fessor at Geneva and in 1581 was granted citizen
	ship. The same year he was called to the Univer
	sity of Leyden and became minister of the Walloon
	Church there. But when he tried to organize it on
	the Genevan model he met with much difficulty
	and had to leave Leyden the following year. For
	a year he was professor and preacher in Ghent,
	then at Orthez, and at Lescar (1591). In 1593 he
	was called to Castres. Daneau was one of the most
	celebrated theologians of the sixteenth century;
	he belonged to the extreme Calvinist party, and
	wrote many works on philosophy, jurisprudence,
	and theology, including Methodus Sacrca Scrip
	turn in publicis tum concionibus utiliter,_.atque in
	telligenter troctandce (Geneva, 1570); Lea Sorciers, dia
	logue trhs utile et n6cessaire pour ee temps (1574);
	BrQve remontranee cur les jeux de sort (1574);
	Traitd des dances auquel est amplement resolue la
	question, d aavoir s'il est permis aux Chraiena de
	danser (1579); Traitg de Festat honneste des Chres
	tiens en leur accoustrement (1580); Orationis Do
	minicw explicatio (1582); Apologia seu vera et
	orthodoxa orthodoxorum Patrum aententia, defenses
	ac interpretatio de adoratione carnis domini nostri
	Jesu Christi (1583). 	G. BCNET‑MAUnY.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. de Who% Lambert Daneau, Paris, 1882; Niefon, hf6noires, Iavii. 21‑36; It. and E. Haag. La
Prance protestante, ed. H. L. Bordier, vol. v., Paris, 1886.
DANIEL, APOCRYPHAL ADDITIONS TO. See APOCRYPHA, OLD TESTAMENT, A, IV., 3.

DANIEL, BOOK OF.
I. Divisions and Contents.	The Author's Key (1 2).
II. Interpretation. 	IV. The Date.
Fourth Kingdom Greece	Antiochus the Terminus
Fourth Kingdom Rome	Narrative ve§ Unhietor‑
(1 2).	ieal (4 2).
Return to Earlier View V. The Value.
(1 3). 	The Author's Faith (41).
Decision Affected by 	Use of Sources (§ 2).
	Views on Unity (1 4). VI. Critical Objections An
III. The Unity. 	swered.
The Two Languages and 	Major Objections (§ 1).
Use of First Person 	Minor Objections (1 2).
(§ I).
I. Divisions and Contents: The book named after the prophet Daniel divides into narrative (i.‑vi.) and prophecy (vii.‑xii.). The first division contains six stories: (j.) the fortune of the four Hebrew youths at the court in Babylon, (ii.) Nebuchadrezzar's dream, (iii.) the episode of the golden image, (iv.) the second dream of the king, (v.) Belehazzar's feast,. (vi.) the episode of Daniel in the lions' den. The second division contains four visions: (vii.) that of the four beasts, (viii.) of the ram and the goat, (ix.) the interpretation of Jeremiah's (Jer. xxv. 12, cf. xxix. 10) seventy weeks as seventy year‑weeks, (x.‑xii.) Daniel's final vision, dealing with, the last things. Besides this the
Dancers Daniel
Septuagint and Theodotion have as additions chap. iii. the Prayer of Azariah and the Song of the Three Children, The Story of Susanna, and the Story of Bel and the Dragon (see APOCRYPHA, A, IV., 3). Inasmuch as the Story of Susanna was certainly written in Greek, and the other additions probably so, they have no bearing upon the canonical book and show merely to what extent the person of Daniel was used by the Jews of the Greek world.
II. Interpretation: One of the oldest witness to the Book of Daniel is I Mace. i. 54, where the heathen altar erected by Antiochus Epiphanes is called the " abomination of desolation " (cf. Dan. ix. 27, xi. 31, xii. 11), thus connecting these verses with the time of this king. Similarly, the Sibylline Oracles (iii. 394 sqq.) allude to Dan. vii. 7, which is referred to Antiochus Epiphanes and his successors. Again, the queer rendering of Dan. ix. 24 sqq. in the Septuagint points to the supposition that the events there mentioned had been fulfilled under that king. Ephraem Syrus (Opera, Rome,
1732‑46, ii. 206, 214, 232), probably 1. Fourth following Jewish tradition, construed
Kingdom the fourth kingdom (Dan. ii., vii.) as
Greece.	the Greek Empire, the little horn (Dan.
vii.) as Antiochus Epiphanes; the resurrection (Dan. xii.) is referred figuratively to the revival of the religious spirit, but Dan. ix. 25‑26 to Christ, in agreement with Christian interpretation. Julius Hilariauus, at the end of the fourth century, in his De mundi duratione, computed from this verse that the end of the seventy weeks coincided with the reign of Antiochus. But this oldest interpretation was displaced by another.
In the New Testament the description of the last grievous days before the Messianic deliverances are referred to the future in the eschatological sense (cf. II Thess. ii. 4 with Dan. xi. 36; Rev. xi. 2, 3, xii. 6, 14, xiii. 5). Christ himself, in picturing the parousia of the Son of Man (Matt. xxiv. 20), made use of Dan. vii. 13. From Matt. xxiv. 15, 16 and Luke xxi. 5, 6, it appears that Rome has taken the place of Greece. It was no doubt understood by Josephus in this way. With but few exceptions, the patristic exegetes followed this later interpretation. Though differing much in particulars (thus for Dan. ix. 25‑26 Jerome enumerates nine different computations, while Fraidl in the fifteenth century registers no less than 107), the fundamental
conception is the same. So Hip2. Fourth polytus refers the first world‑power
Kingdom (Dan. ii., vii.) to Babylonia, the second
Rome.	to Persia, the third to Greece, the
fourth to Rome. The ten horns (Dan. Vii‑) belong to the future, the little horn is Antichrist. The anointed one in Dan. ix. 25 sqq. is the high priest Joshua, after whom comes Christ, 434 years having intervened. The last year‑week is eschatological; between the sixty‑second and the final week Hippolytus inserts Christianity; Dan. xi. he interprets historically, but the two kings in verses 25 sqq. are Alexander Balas and Ptolemy Philometer; at Dan. xi. 36 his exegesis makes a bold leap, referring what follows to the eschatological future and the coming Antichrist. This method of interpretation found a strong opponent in Por‑

Daniel	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	348
phyry (see	NEoPLATONIBM). In book xii. of his
extensive work against Christianity Porphyry dis
cussed the Book of Daniel, and placed its author
in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes. To prove his
position, Porphyry gave abundant extracts from
Greek authors; these were used liberally by the
Fathers (so	Jerome on Dan. xi.), but otherwise his
work had no influence. The patristic view dom
inated the Middle Ages. Only a few Jewish exe
getes had a	different conception; thus Saadia and
Ibn Ezra saw		the Mohammedan empire in the fourth
world‑power. But all, Christians and Jews, Catho
lic and Protestant, agreed that the book was writ
ten during the Exile. That Uriel Acosta, in the
seventeenth	century, agreed with Porphyry in
calling it a forgery made little impression. Semler
made the statement anew; but only through the
investigations of Corrodi (1783), Bertholdt (1806
1808), and especially of Gesenius and Bleek did
	criticism come to its own. In a short
S. B.eturn time the recognition that the historical to Earlier vision of the book does not go beyond view. Antiochus and that its author lived during his reign became universally accepted among liberal‑minded scholars. Among orthodox theologians this revival of Porphyry's view met with strong opposition, especially in the apologies of Hengstenberg and HS,vernick. For a while Franz Delitzsch took a middle position, but finally recognized the book as a product of the times of the Seleucidw.
Thus far mention has been made only of those who held to the unity of the book; but it is necessary to notice the endeavors made to separate it into parts. Some orthodox theologians used this method to save at least part of the 4. Decision book as exilic. The oldest exponent
Affected	of this theory of a composite Daniel is
	byviews	Spinoza, who saw in Dan. viii.‑xii. a
	on UnitY.	genuine work and suggested from
		linguistic data that Dan. i.‑vii. were
taken from chronological works of the Chaldeans.
B. Newton pointed out that Dan. vii.‑xii. were
written in the first person, consequently they alone
had claims to genuineness. This view found a
champion later in August Kohler. Essentially
different is Orelli's treatment; he contends that
originally the four kingdoms were Babylonia,
Medo‑Persia, Macedonia, and Rome, and that a
Jew living in the troublous times of Antiochus
thought he had discovered under Antiochus Epi
phanes the fulfilment of the old prophecies of Daniel,
and extended the book to make the reference evi
dent to his contemporaries. Z6ckler found one
interpolation of Maccabean date (Dan. xi. 5‑45);
J. P. Lange found two (Dan. x. 1‑11, 44, xii. 5‑13);
Meinhold held the part written in Aramaic to be ex
ilic,that written in Hebrew Maccabean; Lagarde held
that chap. vii. was written in Roman times (69 A.D.).
III. The Unity: The totally different results at which the opponents of the book's unity arrive create but little faith in their method. That the book is partly Hebrew, partly Aramaic, would prove something only if the parts differed also in contents. But thus is by no means the case. Dan. ii. 4, where the Aramaic begins, is part of a coherent
narrative; vii. belongs with viii. and not with ii.vi. The question why two languages are used can not be conclusively answered; 1. ‑The Two altogether unsatisfactory is the exLanguages planation that the author used the and Use of Aramaic because he thought it the
First	language employed by the speakers,
	Person.	for then he forgot himself until he
		came to viii. 11 The simplest expla
nation is that a lacuna in the original Hebrew was
filled in at a later time from an Aramaic translation.
The use of the first person in vii.‑xii. has little
weight as ground for partition for the reason that
it is hedged in by the use of the third person.
Therefore internal grounds alone can help in de
ciding whether exilic documents are incorporated
or whether a (late) author designedly used as a
part of his art the pretext of possession of genuine
prophecies. Similarly the affirmation of a " tend
ency " is not to be used as ground for partition,
for this appears in both parts alike. Thus the
main question remains, whether or not the book
everywhere in its description of the future has the
same horizon.
The investigation must begin with viii. and xi. In viii. the book itself gives a clear interpretation. The ram with the two horns refers to the kings of Media and Persia, the goat is Greece (viii. 20, 21). The great horn of the goat is the first Greek king (Alexander the Great). After his death the kingdom is divided, and the Ptolemies and
2. The Seleucidae enter. Chapter xi. gives
Author's	a detailed outline of the political
	$eY•	relations between the kings of the
		north and of the south, that is, between
the Seleucidx and the Ptolemies; xi. 21 sqq. refers to
Antiochus, xi. 25 sqq. describes his first campaign
against Egypt (179 B.C.), xi. 29 sqq. relates his second
campaign (168 B.C.); and the "ships of Chittim"
refers to the arrival of Popilius Laenas to aid Egypt.
In anger on account of the failure of his Egyptian
campaign, Antiochus revenged himself against the
Jews by eliminating their daily worship and setting
up a heathen altar in the temple (cf. Dan. xi. 39 sqq.
with I Macc. i. 47 sqq., 57, 62). That from Dan. xi.
36 to the end of the chapter another king is meant
is impossible. The final destruction of the king
and the expression " at that time " denote the end
of the history and the beginning of Messianic times.
If we examine now chap. ii. it appears undeniable that
the fourth kingdom, first of iron, later of iron and
clay, with its many futile attempts at union through
matrimony, can refer only to Greece. It is ob
jected that history knows only one world‑power
between the Babylonian and the Macedonian; how
ever, the question is not one of history, but of the
author's view, and he has two kingdoms, the Median
and the Persian (vi. 1, ix. 1, x. 1). Since the bound
aries of the two nations join, they appear in chap.
viii. as a relative unit in the ram with the two horns.
As thus chaps. ii., viii., and xi. have the same
horizon, the supposition is that this is true also of
chap. vii. Here the ten horns of the fourth animal
create some difficulty. Lagarde has seen here ten
Caesars, but as he had to count in Antoninus and
to connect Vespasian with the little horn (to whom

349	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Daniel
it is impossible that vii. 24, 25 refer), his theory must be rejected; but the question remains whether the ten horns may not be brought into connection with ten Grecian rulers. This is so easy that the only difficulty is to decide among the many possible combinations at which Nestle, Von Gutachmid, Gunkel, and others arrive. There remain for examination only the celebrated conclusions to chap. ix. Here the evil prince is by general agreement no other than Antiochus, who is similarly described in vii. 25, viii. 23 eqq., xi 31. That he is to reign half a week (31 years) agrees with vii. 25, xii. 7, and his reign precedes that of the Messiah (chap. xi.); thus his horizon is limited to the Greek period. The anointed one is not Cyrus (Isa. xlv.), but a ruling high priest; the sixty‑two weeks embrace postexilic times under the guidance of a line of legitimate high priests, the end of which period is marked by the removal of this line, probably in the person of Onias III.; the last year‑week is that during which Antiochus Epiphanes did away with the daily service. Comparison of these 7 x 62 years with the time between 536 B.C. and 170 gives sixty‑eight years too many, but one has only to read Josephus to appreciate the labors and difficulties of a Jewish historian of his time and the futility of seeking a perfectly satisfactory reckoning.
IV. The Date: The result of an unbiased investigation of the book is therefore that the described period nowhere goes beyond that of Antiochus; thus the question as to the time of its composition is settled. Nearly all the Old Testament prophets join the time of the end closely to their own times. A similar expectation is expressed in Daniel, but only from the moment when the power of Antiochus had reached its zenith. According to Bib‑
lical analogy, the book was written
1. An‑ at a time when the description of the tiochus future takes on the character of other the prophetical books; while the minute,
ad Queme unprophetical description of the period
between the Exile and Antiochus must be taken as a description of past events. Such passages as viii. 13, 19, xii. 6 sqq., 11 imply that the question which concerns the author is how long the terrorism of Antiochus is to last. In complete accord with this are the directions (viii. 26, xii. 4) to the exilic Daniel to seal the book, by which the author indicates that up to his time the book was unknown.
This result is justified by a number of weighty considerations. That the book in the Hebrew canon is not among the " prophets," but among the " writings " is intelligible only if it were written at a time when the canon of the Prophets was already formed. Absolutely impossible is the hypothesis of the book's origin in exilic times when the total unhistoricity of the description of exilic
times is compared with the correctness
2. Narra. of the later history (cf. Dan. i. 1 with
tive Un‑ Jer. xxxvi. 9, 29). Every detail of historical. the earlier period is unhistorical;
Belshazzar was not the son of Nebuchadrezzar (Dan. v. 22), was not king (v. 1); Babylon was not conquered, but surrendered voluntarily to Cyrus (not to Darius, as the book has it). Ara‑
maisms and Grecisms in the Aramaic sections are marks of a later age. That it was used by I Mace. matters little, as the latter was composed in 106 B.C.; still less weight has Josephus' story that Alexander the Great had read the book, for this is denied by the book itself (Dan. viii. 26, xii. 4).
V. The Value: A result which demands recognition is that it could have been composed only in the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes. Only by this knowledge is it possible to see the greatness of the book. The time must be still further limited. One totally misunderstands the character of the book if he thinks of it as written after the cleansing of the temple in 165 B.C. Everything which the book contains of comfort and promise is pure hope, for the whole book was composed at a time of extremest need. It is evident that the author did not know the eastern campaign of Antiochus; the third campaign against Egypt is a pure prophetic picture (Dan. xi. 40 eqq.); from the author's calling the Maccabean insurrection " a little help " Kuenen rightly concludes that Judah's victory over Lysias in 165 B.C. was unknown; and viii. 14 is, like ix. 24, a Messianic expectation. From this point of view the vacillation in the length of the reign of terror (31 years, vii. 25, ix. 27, xii. 7; 1,150 days, viii. 14; 1,290 days, x1 11; 1,335 days, xii. 12)' is most easily understood; they are pure surmises or computations which can not be verified because the key is lacking. The greatness of the book
1. The consists in the fact that its author
Author's drew all promises out of his own faith.
	Faith.	And in this hope he was not deceived,
		for the following year, through the
cleansing of the temple and the death of the tyrant,
brought a relative fulfilment of his promises, just
as in earlier days the return from exile was a rela
tive fulfilment of the promises of Deutero‑Isaiah.
This relative salvation the author has seen along
side of an absolute Messianic one, and in this vision
of the future lies the particular and lasting value
of the book. Odd and uncouth though his reading
of history is, his vision of the age to come is deep
and full of meaning. He did not try to support
himself and his contemporaries by detailed and
glaring sensual pictures, but he gave comfort
through the rebirth of pure prophetic thought.
After the fourth world‑kingdom had run its full
demonic course the longed‑for judgment was to
come (vii. 10), and with it the end of the history of
revelation and that of man (ix. 24); thereupon was
to come the divine kingdom from Heaven (vii. 27),
without limit in time or space (ii. 44), in the glory
of which even the pious dead should participate,
while the worldly recreants would receive their due
(xii. 2).
It is more difficult to take a position respecting the narratives of the first part. One soon sees, however, that they can serve only as the materialization of the same faith as has created the vision of the future. This by no means e,‑
Of	eludes eludes use of sources; on the other
	sources.	hand, even if one could point out
		everywhere a direct reference to Anti
ochus, this by no means makes it pure fiction.
There is much that points to the use of older ma‑

Daniel	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	350
terial. The name Daniel occurs elsewhere (Ezra
viii. 2); in Ezekiel it is placed between Noah and
Job (Ezek. xiv. 14, xxviii. 3). Comparing Euse
bius's Praparatio euangelica, ix. 41 with Dan. iv.
one may conclude that the author of Daniel used
here a Babylonian legend. The same may be true
for chap. v., since he did not get the names of Bel
ahazzar and Darius from the Bible; the latter per
sonality he undoubtedly found in Darius Hystaspis,
but why he saw in this Persian king a Mede is un
known. 	(F. BURL.)
VI. Critical Objections Answered: None of the historic statements of Daniel can be invalidated. Alleged errors are as follows: (1) No secular historian names Belshazzar, therefore Belshazzar never existed. But in 1854 Belshazzar was found in the monuments. (2) Daniel calls Nebuchadrezzar king before Nabopolassar died. But so does Jer. xxvii. 6; Nebuchadrezzar was admitted to cosovereignty. (3) Daniel terms a gild of wise men
" Chaldeans," a use unknown till four 1. XaJor centuries after the exile. But HerodObjections. otus (i. 181, 185) in the same century
with Daniel uses the same term. (4) Belshazzar was not king, nor was he the son or grandson of Nebuchadrezzar. But somebody was left in command at Babylon when Nabonidus led out the army to Sippar. Who but his oldest and favorite son? Exercising royal authority, Belahazzar was king as much as was Nebuchadrezzar in similar circumstances. The queen mother (Dan. v. 11) said Nebuchadrezzar was Belshazzar's father (or grandfather). Probabilities sustain her truthfulness, thus: Eril‑Merodach, Nebuchadrezzar's son, succeeded his father, and was succeeded by Neriglissar because he had married a daughter of the great king, the legitimate successor being Neriglissar's son. The son of Neriglissar dying, how came Nabonidus to occupy the throne in turbulent Babylon, unchallenged for seventeen years? If he had married another daughter of Nebuchadrezzar, then his son Belshazzar was grandson of Nebuchadrezzar, and legitimate heir, and the prophecy of Jer. xxvii. 6‑7, " Nebuchadrezzar, his son, and son's son," was fulfilled. (5) Dan. i. 1, " third year," is inconsistent with Jer. xxxvi. 9, xlvi. 2, " fourth or fifth year." This, if true, would eliminate the conjectured Maccabean fabricator, for a fabricator with Jeremiah before him (Dan. ix: 2) would not contradict Jeremiah in the first sentence of his romance. But there is no inconsistency. (6) The annalistic tablet of Cyrus intimates that Babylon was taken easily. This agrees with Daniel (v. 30, 31), but there must have been some struggle, for the tablet says " the king's son died," and Daniel says " that night Belshazzar was slain." The tablet says further that the city yielded to GobryasCyrus not appearing for several weeks‑and that Gobryas was made governor and appointed other governors; all of which corresponds to Darius the Mede who " received " the kingdom and appointed satraps, etc. (Dan. v. 30, vi. 1). Cyrus had other conquests to make, and left a subordinate king in Babylon, wisely appointing a Mede. Abydenus and tEschylus say that the first ruler of the city was a 11Zede, and the scholiast of Aristophanes men‑
tions a Darius who reigned before Darius Hystaspis. (7) There are three Greek words in Dan. iii. 5. They are the names of musical instruments, and these carry their native names with them. (8) Part of the Book of Daniel is in Aramaic, ii. 4vii. But so is Ezra iv. 8‑vi. 18. Ezra too was brought up in Babylon. His Aramaic is " all but identical " (Driver) with Daniel's. Aramaic was the vernacular. Each writer drops into it upon slight suggestion, Ezra upon quoting an Aramaic letter; Daniel upon quoting the frightened Chaldeans. The .tablets from Nippur in course of decipherment by Professor Clay are in point; the business contracts are written in Babylonian cuneiform, the labels or dockets on the back are in Aramaic, for quick reference by the clerks in the office.
As to the other " historic inaccuracies," as Daniel's being too young for Ezekiel to have knownhe was forty, possibly fifty years old when Ezekiel wrote of him; as to his not knowing how to spell
the name Nebuchadrezzar‑he spells
2. Xinor it as Kings, Chronicles, and Ezra do Objections. and as Jeremiah does half the time.
On the other hand, there was a Daniel, eminent, wise, and godly enough to be linked with Noah and Job (Ezek. xiv. 14, 20). There is ‑no Daniel but the man whose book is under consideration and whom Jesus called a prophet (Matt. xxiv. 15). The incident narrated by Josephus (Ant., XI. viii. 5), that Alexander saw Daniel's mention of himself, is confirmed by the fact that, while Alexander destroyed every city in Syria friendly to Persia, he spared and greatly favored Jerusalem. He consulted the shrines at Gordium and Amon. Why not Jerusalem? The only shadow of a shade upon the historicity of Daniel is the omission of his name in Ecclesiasticus (200 s.c.). But other names are omitted and Daniel, the person, certainly existed prior to or contemporaneously with Ezekiel. The Book Ecclesiasticus is itself a witness to the antiquity of the Book of Daniel; though it presented the dominant type of Jewish thought at the time the canon was forming, it was not admitted to the canon because it was not ancient enough. Daniel was admitted. Daniel is not listed in the division called the " Prophets " (see CANON, I., 1, § 4). The reason probably was to satisfy the scruples of those rabbis who objected to prophecy delivered outside the Holy Land. Ezekiel was admitted, says Rabbi Jarchi, because his first prophecy (Ezek. xvii.) was delivered in Jerusalem. The Aramaic version interpolates " in the land of Israel " in pursuance of this scruple (Ezek. i. 3). There is no mention of Nebuchadrezzar's madness (Dan. iv.) in secular history. Nebuchadrezzar recovered, which accounts for the prudent silence of court historiographers; but Nebuchadrezzar himself in his Standard Inscription, after the usual royal boasts, records: "Four years . . the seat of my kingdom in the city . . which . . . did not rejoice my heart. In all my dominions I did not build a high place of power; treasures I did not lay up. In Babylon buildings for myself and my kingdom I did not lay out. In the worship of Merodach, my lord, I did not sing praises. I did not furnish his altars, nor clear canals." To those