AMBROSE THE CAMALDOLITE (Ambrogio Traversari, Lat. Traversarius): Prominent humanist; b. at Portico (36 m. n.e. of Florence) 1386; d. Oct. 20, 1439. He became general of the Order of the Camaldolites in 1431. Pope Eugenius IV. sent him to the Council of Basel, but his exertions in behalf of his master were unsuccessful, as were also his efforts at Ferrara and Florence, 1438-39, toward a union with the Greeks. As an enthusiastic humanist Traversari offers "the first example of a monk in whom the polite scholar is in conflict with the Holy spirit" (G. Voigt, Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen Altertums, i., Berlin, 1893, p. 321). At the table of Cosimo de' Medici where the most learned met, he took an active part
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His exegetical works are mostly founded upon Basil and are marred by the allegorical method; their chief and best characteristic is their practical tendency. The same thing may be said of his sermons, which exhibit the full worth of the true Roman gentleman. Among his moral and ascetic works are De ofJ'cciis miniatrorum (modeled upon Cicero), De virgintLus, De viduia, De trirginiteete, etc. The growing tendency toward asceticism shows itself in the high value he attached to celibacy, the martyr's death, and voluntary poverty; and the notion of a higher and purer Christian life to be attained by such means betrays the influence of the Stoic moral theory which he found in his model. Ambrose introduced a comprehensive reform in Church music (see AasaxoslnN CseNT); and a liturgy long used in the diocese of Milan is associated with his name by tradition. Of the hymns ascribed to him not more than four or five are genuine, and the Te Deum is not in this number (see Ta DEUM). His extant works also include ninety-one letters.
Ambrose was buried in the Ambrosian basilica at Milan near the martyrs Gervasius and Protasius. In the ninth century Archbishop Angilbert II. placed the remains of the three in a porphyry sarcophagus, which was discovered in 1884, and opened in 1871 (of. Biraghi, 1 tre aeloolchri Sdnt ombrosiani, Milan, 1884; A. Riboldi, Deserizione dells reliquie dei SS. Ambrogio, t3ervaaio, a Pro taaio, 1874; F. Venosta, Sara' Ambrogio, la ava basilica, ld sepoltura a to scoprimento del auo corpo, 1874). (T. Fb11eTER1'.) Brsnioassrar: The works of Ambrose have been published by the Benedictines of 8t. Maur, 2 vole., Paris, 1888-90; often reprinted, se in MPL; aiv: zvu., by Balerini. 8 vole., Milan, 1875-86; and in CSEL, Vienna, 1898 eqq. Some of his principal works are translated in NPNF, vol. a., New York. 1896. The oldest life in by Paulinus (in the Bene dictine edition of the works). Later lives are: In French, by Louie Baunard, Paris, 1871, sad the Duo de Brogue. 1899, Eng, travel., London, 1899; in German, by T. FSreter, Halls, 1884; in English, by Alfred Barry. London, 1898. Consult also J. Pruner, Die T>eoiogie des Ambrosias, Eiahetatt, 1882; P. Ewald, Der Ein/tuea der ataixA-cicerosarchen Moral aut die Efhik bee Ambrosias. Leipeia, 1881; M. Ihm, 3ludia Arnbroeiana, 1889 ; G. M. Drevea; Aurelius Ambroriw, der Vater du RircGanpasaapaa. Freiburg, 1893; J. B. Kellner, Der Wive Atn6roeiw a7a ErkdArer des Allen Taefamsnta. Rstisbon,1893; R. Thamin, 8R Ambr. at la morals eAr6henns au quatridme sickle, Paris, 1895.AMBROSE, ISAAC: Puritan; b. in Lancashire, England, 1804; d. at Preston 1884. He studied at Brasenoee College, Oxford, and after 1831 became one of the king's four preachers in Lancashire with residence at Garstang. Favoring Presbyterianism, he suffered imprisonment and other hardships during the civil war, and was ejected from Garstang for non-conformity in 1882. He is described as a learned man, of quiet and retiring disposition and sincere piety. His bestknown work is Looking unto Jesus (London, 1858). A collected edition of his works appeared in 1874 and has been often reprinted (Dundee, 1759; London, 1829, etc.).
AMBROSIAlf CHANT: A lively, rhythmical, melodious congregational song, which grew out of a union of the ancient Greek musical system
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in four keys with the traditional Church psalmody. Whether it was introduced by Ambrose, bishop of Milan (374-397), or whether he merely regulated and improved it, is not certain. The singing had been confined to the choir (Gk. psaltai, Lat. cantores), who recited the psalms and prayers in monotonous fashion with no fixed rules. The new Ambrosian tunes were lively and joyous, all took part in the singing, and the people found pleasure and enjoyment in it. Augustine in his Confessions (IX. vii. 15; X. xxxiii. 50) speaks in glowing terms of the effect of this new method of singing, which was executed " with a clear voice and modulation most suitable." Antiphonal or responsive singing between men and women, congregational choirs, or congregation and choir, borrowed from the Greek Church, came particularly into use (see ANmPHON). As text Ambrose used the Greek and Latin hymns already existing, both rimed and unrimed. He also composed hymns himself, generally without rimes, but well adapted to the melodies; as Deus creator omnium; Jam surgit hors tertia; Eterne rerum conditor; Vent redemptor gentium; perhaps also 0 lux beats Trin% tar; Splendor paternce gloram.
The Ambrosian music spread rapidly and was soon dominant throughout the West. But in course of time an artificial and profane manner crept in, which, toward the close of the sixth cen tury, called forth the Gregorian reaction; and thus the singing in the churches was again confined to the choirs or the clergy. The popular, fresh, congregational singing of the Reformation period may be regarded as a partial revival of the ancient Ambrosian chant. M. HEROLD.BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. A. Daniel, Thesaurus hymnoIopitue, Halle, 1841; C. Fortlage, Gesgnpe christlicher Vomit, Berlin, 1844; F. J. Mons, Lateinische Hymnen des Mitklalters, 3 vols., Freiburg, 1853-54; J. Kayser, Berotrage swr Geschichk and Erkldrung der dltesten Kirchenhymnen, Paderborn, 1881; F. Gevaart, Les origanes du chant liturgique dans 1'&glise latine, Paris, 1890; M. Dreves, Aurelius Ambrosius der "Vater des Kirchengesangs," Freiburg, 1893; H. A. Koetlin, OeschiMte der Musik, Berlin, 1899.
AMBROSIANS: Name of several religious societies, organized in the city or diocese of Milan after the fourteenth century, which chose St. Ambrose as their patron. The only one to attain more than local importance was the Order of the Brethren of St. Ambrose of the Grove (Fratree S. Ambrosii ad Nemus), founded before 1530 by three pious Milanese, Alexander Crivelli, Alberto Besuzi, and Antonio Petrasancta, and called after their meeting-place, a grove outside the Porta Cumena in Milan, to which Ambrose used at times to resort (Of. his De bOnO mortis, iii. 11). Gregory XI. confirmed the society in 1375 on the rule of St. Augustine; Eugenius IV. in 1445 united it with three other Ambrose-brotherhoods, which had Originated independently at Genoa, Eugubio, and Recanati near Ancona, into a Cangregatio S. Ambrosii ad Nemus Mediolanensw. Sixtus V. brought about in 1589 the reunion of the Milanese and a non-Milanese division of the order, which was temporarily separated under the name of Congregatio fratrum S. Ambrosia ad Nemus et S. Barnabte. To these combined Ambrose and Barnabas orders, Paul V. granted many privileges
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 152in 1606. But Innocent X., considering the smallness and insignificance of the order, decided upon its dissolution about 1650. The bull with respect to it is given in the Bullarium magnum, iii. 194.
The following societies were confined to Milan and its neighborhood: (1) The Nuns of St. Ambrose of the Grove, founded in 1475 by two ladies of Milan not far from Pallanza on Lago Maggiore. (2) The Schola S. Ambrosii or Oblationarii, a society of old men and women who undertook to assist at the Ambrosian mass in the churches of Milan, especially in bringing oblations (oblationea). (3) The Society of the Oblates of St. Ambrose, founded by Archbishop Carlo Borromeo and confirmed by Gregory XIII. in 1578. They were bound to strict obedience to superiors, especially the archbishop of Milan. During the seventeenth century the society was in a flourishing state and numbered about 200 members, but having decreased to only 16 in 1844 it was abolished. O. ZSCSLExt.
BIBLIOORAPH7: Helyot, Ordres monaetiquea, iv. 52-83, Paris, 1715; Heimbueher, Orden and Kongregationen, i. 488-489,
510, 1338-338.AM13ROSIASTER: The name commonly used for the unknown author of the Commentaria in xiii. epistolas beati Pauli, which, from about 850 until the time of Erasmus, were commonly ascribed to Ambrose of Milan. This opinion, which is not yet quite extinct, has no support in ancient tradition, and there are many reasons against itsuch as the style, the Scripture version used, the opinion about the authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews, and the attitude toward Greek literature. But the idea that it is a compilation made about 800 is equally baseless. The Codex Cassinensis, though lacking Romans, shows that the commentary had its recognized form earlier than 570. The Scripture text is consistent, belonging to a time before Jerome and to the recension known as the Itala. The anthropology is naive pre-Augustinian; the eschatology is still millenarian; the polemics against heresy point to the period about 380; the falioque is lacking. Numerous small details of historical allusion point to the same date.
Little success has attended the attempt to identify the author. Because Augustine in 420 quoted a passage as from sanctus Hilarius, some critics have been inclined to see in the Ambrosiaster's work a part of the lost commentary of Hilary of Poitiers on the Epistles. For a long time it was thought that Augastine referred to the Roman deacon Hilary, the partizan of Lucifer of Calaris. The presbyter Faustinus, the opponent of Damasus and author of a treatise on the Trinity, has also been suggested. But neither the style, the Scripture version used, nor the christology is his. The author was probably a presbyter of the Roman Church; possibly Augustine and he were both quoting Hilary. The attempt to identify him, On the ground of notable similarities, with the author of the pseudo-Auguatinian Qucsstiones ex utroque testamento has not met with general approval.
Though the work of Ambrosiaster does not, from an antiquarian standpoint, belong to the most interesting relics of Christian antiquity, its exegesis
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AMERICAN BAPTIST MISSIONARY UNION. See BAPTIBTs, II., 3, . § 7.
AMERICAN BAPTIST PUBLICATION SOCIETY. See BAPTIBTs, II., 3, § 7.
AMERICAN BIBLE SOCIETY. See BIBLE SOCIETIES, III., 1.
AMERICAN BIBLE UNION. See BIBLE SOCIETIES, III., 2.
AMERICAN BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS. See CONGREGATIONALISTS, I., 4, § 11; MISSIONS.
AMERICAN AND FOREIGN BIBLE SOCIETY. See BIBLE SOCIETIES, III., 2.
AMERICAN AND FOREIGN CHRISTIAN UNION: A society organized May 10, 1849, by the union (as indicated by the name) of the American Protestant Society (founded 1843), the Poreign Evangelical Society (instituted 1839 as
the expansion of the French Association of 1835), and the Christian Alliance of 1842. The purpose
was to prosecute more efficiently the work of the three societies named; viz., to convert Roman Catholics to Protestantism; or, to quote its con-
stitution, " by missions, colportage, the press, and other appropriate agencies, to diffuse the principles of religious liberty, and a pure and evangelical
Christianity, both at home and abroad, where a corrupted Christianity exists."
For a number of years the society prospered, and spread its influence over Europe, North and South America, and adjacent islands. From 1849
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it was compelled gradually to contract its operations. It withdrew from France in 1866, from Italy and Europe, and other foreign stations generally, in 1873; and ultimately it limited its efforts to the support of the American Church in Paris. Its monthly periodical, The Christian World (35 vols., New York, 1850-84), gave an account of its work; the number for April, 1880, contains a historical sketch of the first thirty yea"; that for June, 1884, has the thirty-fifth annual report; consult also the last number (Nov., 1884).
AMERICAN LECTURES Oft THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS: A lectureship made possible by the union of a number of universities and theological seminaries in the United States, each of which provides a sum proportionate to the requirements of the year. The lectures are under the care of a committee consisting of representatives of the institutions which unite in furnishing the funds and hearing the lectures. The courses thus far delivered and published are:
1895: T. W. Rhys Divide, Buddhism: Its History and Literature, NewYork, 1895. 1896: D. G. Brinton, Religions of Primitive Peoples, ib. 1897. 1898: T. K. Cheyne, Jewish Religious. Life after the Exile, ib. 1898. 1899: K. Budde, The Religion of Israel to the Exile, ib. 1899. 1903: G. Steindorff, The Religion of the Early Egyptians, ib. 1905. 1908: G. W.. Knox, The Development of &livion in Japan, ib. 1908. AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION. See CONGREGATIONALISTS, I., 4, § 10.AMERICAN REFORM TRACT AND BOOK SOCIETY. See TRACT SOCIETIES.
AMERICAN SEAMEN'S FRIEND SOCIETY. See SEAMEN, MISSIONS FOR.
AMERICAN SUNDAY-SCHOOL UNION. See SuNDAY-SCHOOLS.
AMERICAN TRACT SOCIETY. See TRACT SOCIETIES.
AXES, WILLIAM (Lit. Amesiw): Puritan; b. at Ipswich, Suffolk, England, 1576; d. at Rotterdam Nov. 14, 1633. He studied at Christ's College, Cambridge, and became fellow. From the first he was a rigid and zealous Puritan and so without hope of preferment in the Church of England. In 1611 he went to Leyden, thence to The Hague, where he became chaplain to, Sir Horace Vere, commander of the English troops in the Netherlands, but lost this post through intrigues of the High-church party at home. He was paid four florins a day by the States General to attend the Synod of Dort (1618-19) and assist the president; because professor of theology at Franeker in 1622, and rector in 1626; shortly before his death he became pastor of the English church in Rotterdam. He contemplated settling in New England, and his family went thither, taking with them his library. His influence on the Continent was considerable, and his reputation is greater there than in his native land. As a decided Calvinist he was active in the Arminian and other controversies of his time, both with voice and pen. His most noteworthy books were the Medulla theolo*a
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 154(Amsterdam, 1623; Eng. transl., The Marrow of Sacred Divinity, London, 1642) and the De conscientia et ejus jure vel caat7bua (1632; Eng. transl., Conscience, 1639), an ethical treatise which was really a continuation of the old scholastic casuistry. A collected edition of his Latin works, with life by M. Nethenus, was published in five volumes at Amsterdam in 1658. (E. F. KARL M$LLER.)
AMICE, am'is: A vestment worn by Roman Catholic priests when celebrating mass. See VESTMENTS AND INSIGNIA, ECCLESIASTICAL.
AMIOT(wronglyspelledAmyot),d"mf"S', JOSEPH MARIA: Jesuit missionary; b, at Toulon Feb. 18, 1718; d. at Peking Oct. 8, 1793. He joined the Jesuits in 1737 and entered China as a missionary in 1751. The reigning emperor, Kien-Lung, was hostile to the Christians, but the missionaries were allowed to proceed to Peking and to work there, if not -in the provinces. Father Amiot devoted himself assiduously for the rest of his life to the study of Chinese history, language, and literature and was one of the first to give Europe accurate information concerning Eastern Asia. The results of his work were published for the most part in the Mfoires concernant lea Chinois (15 vols., Paris, 177fr-91), in the proceedings of learned societies, and in the Lettres edi fiantea et curiemm (34 vols., 1717-76). They include a life of Confucius (Mg moires, vol. xii.) and a Dictionnarore t artare-rtaan tchouwfrawais (ed . Langl6s, 3 vols., 1789-90).
AMISH. See MENNONITES.AMLING, WOLFGANG: German Reformed theologian; b. at Milnnerstadt (35 m. n.n.e. of Wiirzburg), Franconia, in 1542; d. at Zerbst May 18, 1606. He studied at Tilbingen, Wittenberg, and Jena; was appointed rector of the school of Zerbst in 1566, minister at Koswig in 1573, and, shortly after, minister and superintendent at St. Nicolai in Zerbat. He was vehemently opposed to the Formula Concordia, and led the population of Anhalt from Lutheranism to Calvinism. He wrote the Confessio Anhaldina (1578).
AXXIANUS MARCELLINUS, am"m"'nus mdr"sel-li'nus: Author of a Roman history (Rerun geatarum libri xrxi.) extending from Nerva to the death of Valens (96-378). He was a native of Antioch, and is l;sid to have died about 400. He devoted himself to philosophical studies, entered the army under Constantius, accompanied Julian in the war against the Persians, and took part under Julian's successors in the wars both of the Orient and the Occident. He afterward retired to Rome and resumed his studies. The first thirteen books of his history are lost; the remaining eighteen, beginning with the year 353, give much valuable information concerning the general State of the Church and many important particulars--the character of Julian, his proceedings, views held by the educated concerning Christianity, etc.
The question whether Ammlanus was a Christian has often been raised. At present the generally accepted view is that he was not. His work contains many caustic remarks on the doctrines of Christianity. He speaks of the martyrs, of synods,
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and of other details of the Christian system, in a way which points to a non-Christian author. It is, however, equally certain that he was not an adherent of the common paganism. He recognized a supreme numen, which curbs human arrogance and avenges human crime, and, in general, his views are those of the best Greek writers, approaching a monotheistic standpoint. It seems probable that he believed that primitive pure Christianity and the philosophy of enlightened pagans were the same. From this point of view Ammianus could consistently speak with favor of many things he found among the Christians. He censures Constantine's interference in the Arian controversy and calls it a " confusion of the absohlte and plain Christian religion with old-womanish superstition," meaning by " superstition,." as the connection shows, the controversy concerning the Trinity and the divinity of Christ. He censured the emperor Julian for forbidding to the Christians instruction in liberal studies, while he did not blame the restoration of pagan sacrifices at the beginning of Jovian's reign. He was not opposed to the paganism of Julian, but to the violation of religious toleration. (E. voN WOLFFLIN.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The editio prinoepe (books xiv: xxvi. only), ed. Angelus Sabinus, was published in Rome, 1874; a bet ter edition (books xvi.-xxx.) is S. Gelenius, Basil, 1533; the latest is by V. Gardthausen, Leipsic, 1874. Consult Teuffel-Schwabe, Geechichte der r6miachan LiWratur, p. 1092, Leipsic, 1890.AMMON, CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH VON: German theologian; b. at Baireuth Jan. 16, 1766; d. in Dresden May 21, 1850. He distinguished himself as a student at Erlangen, and became professor there in 1789. In 1794 he went to Gtittingen as professor, university preacher, and director of the theological seminary; returned to Erlangen in 1804; in 1813 went to Dresden as court preacher; became member of the Saxon ministry of worship and public instruction in 1831, and vicepresident of the consistory in 1835. He was a versatile and many-sided man, an accomplished scholar in diverse fields, an influential official in Church and State, a prolific writer, and much admired as preacher and orator. The most noteworthy of his theological writings were: Entwurf saner reinen bZliechen Theologie (3 vols., Erlangen, 1792; 2d ed., 1801-02); Handbuch der christlichen Sittenlehre (1795; 2d ed., 3 vols., Leipsie, 1838); Summa theologim christians; (1803; 4th ed., ib. 1850); Die Fortbilduny des Christentums zur Weltreligion (ib. 1833; 2d ed., 4 vols., 1836-40). At first Ammon was a decided rationalist, but his tone changed in successive editions of his works, and in 1817 he surprised his friends by defending the theses of Claus Harms (q.v.) in Bitters Arxnei fur die Glaubensschwdche der Zeit , (Hanover) . Later he returned to his earlier views, and his vacillation subjected him to, much harsh criticism. His last writings were Die Geschichte des Leben Jesu (3 vols., Leipsic,184i-47) and Die wahre and falache Orthodoxie (1849). From 1813 to 1822 he was editor of the Kritisches Journal der xieuesten theologischen Litteratur. (F. W. DIBELIus.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ch. F. v. Ammon, nark Leben, Ansidten and Wirken, leipsie, 1850.
AMMONITES: A people of Palestine, allied, according to Gen. xix. 38, to Abraham through Lot, and therefore, like the brother people Moab, akin to the other Abrahamic nations, Israel, Ishmael, and Edom. The name is here explained as ben `ammi, " son of my kinsman." Their territory lay east of the Jordan and north of Moab, from whom they were separated by the Arnon (Num. xxi. 13). An Amoritic king, Sihon, and, later; the Israelites are said to have excluded them from the western and richer part of this district and to have confined them to the steppe lands farther to the east (Josh. xii. 2, xiii. 10, 25; Judges xi. 22). Cities belonging to them are mentioned (Judges xi. 33; II Sam. xii. 31), whence it appears that they were in part a settled people, in part nomadic. Their chief city and the one most frequently named was Rabbah (Rabbath-ammon; Deut. iii. 11; Josh. xiii. 25; II Sam. xii. 26-27; Ezek. xxi. 20; and often), the modern Amman. They had a king in the earliest time. Their religion was doubtless like that of the Moabites; their chief divinity was Milcom (I Kings xi. 5, 33; II Kings xxiii. 13; the mention of Chemosh as god of the Ammonites in Judges xi. 24 is probably an error; see CHEMOBH). The name " Milcom " has been explained as meaning " Am is king," Am (`Am) being the name of an older deity (cf. Balsam, " Am is lord," and Gen. xix. 38). The relations between the Israelites and Ammonites were generally hostile (Judges xi.; I Sam. xi.; II Sam. x. 1-14, xii. 26-31; II Kings xxiv. 2; II Chron. xx.; Neh. ii. 10, iv. 3, vi. 1; Jer. xl. 13-14, xlix. 1-6; Ezek. xxv. 1-10; Amos i. 13; Zeph. ii. 8); and this fact is reflected in the account of their disgraceful origin in Gen. xix. 30-38. Solomon had an Ammonitish wife (I Kings xiv. 21). Assyrian inscriptions state that Baasha, king of Ammon, was among the allies defeated by Shalmaneser II. at Karkar (854 B.C.), and show that the Ammonite Puduilu, a contemporaryof Manasseh of Judah, like all the west-Asiatic princes of the time, was a vassal of Esarhaddon (681-668 B.C.).
In poetexilic times also the Ammonites shared the fortunes of their neighbors, and were under Persian, Egyptian, and Syrian rule. Their old capital Rabbah was made a Hellenistic city and named " Philadelphia " after Ptolemy II., Phila delphus. In 218 B.C. it was captured under Anti ochus the Great. In the Maccabean period the Ammonites were under a tyrant Timotheus, whom Judas defeated in several battles (I Mace. v. 6-8). About 135 B.C. Philadelphia was ruled by a tyrant named Zeno Cotylas (Josephus, Ant., XIII. viii. 1). It was included in the Decapolis by Pompey, and long remained under Roman rule. At the beginning of the Jewish wars, like most of the Hellenistic cities, it was attacked' by the Jews. The game " Ammonite " occurs for the last time in Justin Martyr (d.166), who says they were very numerous. The present extensive ruins at Amman belong to Roman times. (F. BUHL.)BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Kautaseh, in Riehm, Handmbrterbueh des bibliachen AUerdume, pp. bb-b8. Bielefeld, 1884 (an admirable sketch); A. H. Sayoe, Races o/ the Otd Testament, London, 1891; A. Dillmann, Commentary on Geaeris, on xix. 38, Edinburgh. 1897; DB, i. 82-83: BB, 5. 141145.
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plained it as meaning " the concealed," from the root 'MN, " to be veiled, hidden." Anion appears to have been originally a harvest-god; but as early as the Middle Kingdom he was thought of as sungod, according to the teaching that all Egyptian deities, whatever might be their names, were only different forms of the one sun-god. As such he was called Anion-Rasetnrnt8ru, " Anion the Sun God, the King of the Gods," and was later identified by the Greeks with their Zeus (hence the late Greek name for Thebes, Diospolis). His holy animal was a ram with horns curving downward. He is usually represented in human form, blue in color, wearing a close-fitting hat with two long upright plumes. Leas often he is represented ithyphallic, in the form of the harvest-god, min of Koptos, with whom he was often identified. Ram-headed figures of Anion are also found, especially in Nubia. Anion gained much from the changed political conditions after the fall of the Old Kingdom. Thebes became the metropolis of Egypt and its god took the chief place in the Egyptian pantheon. The Pharaohs undertook their campaigns in Asia and Nubia in the name of Anion and naturally the lion's share of the booty fell to him. His great temple, near the present Karnak, " the throne of the world," was begun by the kings of the twentietkS,dynasty, and was extended and adorned by succeeding generations until it became the most imposing of Egyptian temples (see No). His worship was introduced in the conquered provinces and his sanctuaries arose all over Nubia, in the oases of the Libyan desert, and in Syria. Under the New Kingdom he was preeminently the national god of Egypt. The only check to the growth of his power and wealth was the abortive attempt of Amenophis IV., about 1400 B.C., to introduce the worship of the sun's disk. Under the Ramesaids Anion's possessions were almost incredible (cf. Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt, London, 1894, pp. 302-303). His high priest came to be the first person in the State after the king, and eventually, toward the end of the twentieth dynasty, was able to supplant the latter. The priests of Anion did not long retain the throne, but their great wealth perpetuated their political influence until the twenty-sixth dynasty, when their power seems to have declined, and Anion gradually sank back to the position of a local deity. -In the oases, however, and in Ethiopia his worship and the authority of his priests lasted till Roman times and the introduction of Christianity.
(G. &E>Nnoa".)BniLI00HAPH7: C. P.15e1e, History of fha Egyptian Religion, PP. 147-1b0, Boston, 1882; 13. Brugeah. Religion . . .
der alter Aepypter. PP. 87 aqq., Leipaio. 1885; A. Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt, passim, London, 1894; A. Wiede-
mann. RAO- of the Ancient Egyptians, 109-110, New York, 1897 (authoritative); E. A. W. Budge. Gods of as Egyptians. i. 23. 79, 88, ii. 1-18, 324, London, 1903 (the
fullest account, in a volume richly illustrated); P.D. Chsn_ tepee de 18 Bausesye, Lehrbueh der Religionapeaehichte. i.
208-209 Tfibingen, 190b; G. 6teindorff, ReZipion of fhs Ancient EpWians, NewYork, 190b.
AMON, 6'men, KING OF JUDAH: Fourteenth king of Judah, son and successor of Manasseh. He teed, according to the old chronology, 642-841 B.C.; according to Hamphaueen, 640-839;
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The Amorites are mentioned in the Old Testament more frequently than any other people of Palestine except the Cansanites. West of the Jordan they seem to have been confounded the one with the other; but as the Cansanites are never said to have lived east of the Jordan so the Amoritea do not appear on the Mediterranean coast-land. The difficult question as to whether or not the two peoples are essentially identical is probably to be decided in the negative, though it is quite possible that the Amorites as well as the Canaanites were a Semitic people. There is, in any case, no sufficient warrant for the assumption of Sayce and others that they were akin to the Libyans. The Babylonian name for Canaan, mat Amurg, "land of the Amorites" shows that at least the eastern side of Palestine was Amoritic at an early date, and it is a plausible supposition that the two related peoples separated in southern Syria, the Canasnites following the coast-land-
(their proper home) and then spreading eastward to the hill-country, and the Amorites coming gradually southward, mainly east of the Jordan. A learned annotator intimates (Deut. iii. 9) that they were once the dominant people about Anti Lebanon, as the " Sidonians " or Phenicians were about Lebanon. After their loss of the Moabite country (Nam. xxi. 21-35) they were gradually ab sorbed by the Hebrews, Amorites, and Arameans. J. F. MCCURDY.BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. H. BRyee, The White Race of Ancient Palatine, in Expositor, July, 1888; idem, Races of the
D. T., London, 1891; DB, i. 84-8b; EB, i. 146-147, 840-843; Meyer, in.ZATW, i. (1881) 122 eqq.; J. F. McCurdy, Hjatory, Prophecy and the Monuments, §§ 130-131, 3 vole., New York, 1896-1901.AMOS, 6'mes: The third of the minor prophets, originally a herdsman and farmer of Tekoa (a town twelve miles s.s.e. of Jerusalem), and destitute of a prophetical education (Amos i. 1, vii. 12, 1415). The Fathers wrongly identified him with the father of Isaiah (Amoz), because his name
in the Septuagint is identical with Life. that of Isaiah's father. He prophe-
sied in the Northern Kingdom during, the reigns of Uzziah in Judah (777-736 B.c.) and Jeroboam II. in Israel (781-741), when Israel was at the, very height of its splendor (i. 1, vii. 10-11). His prophecies were apparently all given in one year, specified as "two years before the earthquake," a momentous but undatable event (i. 1; cf. Zech. xiv. 5; Josephus, Ant., IX. x. 4, gives a fabulous story). The place was Beth-el, the greatest sanctuary of the Northern Kingdom. His plain speaking led to the charge of conspiracy, and he was compelled to return to Judah (Amos vii. 1012). Nothing more is known of him.
The Book of Amos, after the opening verse, is divisible into three parts: (1) Chaps. i. 2-ii. 16, describing the judgments of God upon Damascus (i. 3-5), Philistia (i. 6-8), Tyre ti. 9-10), Edom (i. 11-12), Amnion (i. 13-15), Moab (ii. 1-3), Judah (ii. 4-5), and Israel (ii. 6-16). (2) Chaps. iii.-vi., a series of discourses against the Northern Kingdom threatening punishment and judgment. The sub-
division of this section is a matter of The dispute. The 'prophet sets forth in Book of his usual rhetorical manner the moral AmoB. and religious degeneracy of the people. (3) Chaps. vii.-ix., beginning with three successive threatening visions .(vii. 1-3, 4-6, 7-9). These were made the basis of the complaint' against Amos of Amaziah, high priest at Beth-el, to the king Jeroboam II., and hence resulted his banish ment (vii. 10-13). Before he goes, however, he insists upon the reality of his call (vii. 14-15), and foretells the sad fall of the high priest and his family (vii.16-17). Chaps. vii., viii., and ix. contain two visions and their explanations. The first is of threatening content, but the second (ix. 1-7) adds a promise of salvation for a faithful remnant and of the universal sway of religion and prosperity (ix-8-15). The book gives only an abstract of the prophet's complete discourses,The style of Amos is rhetorical. His figures, analogies, and similes are excellent, though at times surprising (cf. iii. 3-6; iv. 2; v. 7; xiii. 11-14). The
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notion that Amos borrows his similes chiefly from his early mode of life, and thus betrays his extraction, is generally accepted; but it is hardly well founded when the variety of them is observed (of. ii. 13; iii. 4, b, 8, 12; vi. 12; viii. 8; ix. 5; and the visions of vii. 1 and viii. 1). On the other hand, the Hebrew of Amos is abnormal, but it is uncertain how much belongs to the author himself. The integrity and genuineness of the book are generally acknowledged; only i. 9-11; ii. 4, 5; iii. 14b; iv. 13; v. 8, 9; viii. 6, 8, 11, 12; ix. 5, 6, 8-15, partly on account of the contents, partly on account of the connection, have been. regarded as glosses by modern critics (Duhm, Stade, Giesebrecht, Cornill, Schwally, Smend, Wellhausen).
The modern school of Biblical scholars regard the Book of Amos as the oldest written. testimony to that activity of the prophets of
Its Im- the eighth century B.C. whereby the portance. religion of Israel was given a more ethical and spiritual character. It is therefore important to note its contents and presuppositions. Two evils in the moral and religious conditions of the Northern Kingdom receive the prophet's severe condemnation, viz., the reprehensible conduct of the high and mighty (ii. 6-7a; iii. 10; iv. 1; v. 7, 11-12; viii. 4-6), and the perverted religious forms and observances (ii. 7b-8; v. 26; viii. 14). The latter, with their idolatrous representations of the deity, were specially offensive to a pious Judean, who believed that Yahweh dwelt on Zion and not in visible form. Reliance upon the offerings, gifts, feasts, and processions of Beth-el and the other sanctuaries as a means of securing Yahweh's favor was a terrible mistake, which could only bring the most direful consequences (iv. 4-13; v. 4-6, 21-24; ix. 1-8). The true way to serve Yahweh was to become like him and to practise goodness and righteousness (v. 14, 24). The prophet makes no claim to new ideas concerning Yahweh or his relations to the world in general and to Israel in particular. What he has to say upon these topics is all assumed as already known to the pious. It is the idolatrous worship, with its attendant evils, which he reprobates and wishes to correct. (A. KbH1.rRt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the works mentioned in the article MINOR PROPHare, consult: W. R. Harper, AMa and Hoses, in Inkrnational Critical Commentary, New York,1905 (gives a full list of the important literature, el xxviii: elxxxlx.); G. Baur, Der Prophet Amps erkldrt, Giessen, 1847; J. H. Gunning, De pod:praken roan Amos, Leyden, 1885; K. Hartung, Der Prophet Amos neck dem Grundtexte erkl&t. in BiNiache Studien, iii.. Freiburg, 1898; H. G. Mitchell, Amos, an Easy in Exeparis, Boston, 1893, 1900; J. J: P. Valeton, Amps en Rosso, Nijmwegen, 1894 (Germ. tranel., Giessen, 1898, an excellent work); S. R. Driver, Joel and Amps, in Cambridoe Btbde, 1897; S. Oettli. Amos and Hoses, swei zewen pepen die Antosnduny der Eroolutions0eorie auf die Religion lsraela, in Bearape sur Ftnderunp Ckristlichen Thedogie, v. 4, Gatersloh, 1901.
AMPHILOCHIUS, a,m"fi-la'ki-as, SAINT: Apparently a cousin of Gregory Nazianzen, and closely associated with him and with Basil the Great in directing the policy of the Church at the time of the defeat of Arianism. He was originally a lawyer, but retired to a life of devotion and asceticism. In 373 he was chosen bishop of Ioonium, the metropolitan see of Lycaonia. The year of
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG his death is uncertain; but Jerome includesim h,as still living, in his De triria illuatribus (392), and he appears as taking part in a synod at Constantinople in 394. Of the numerous works ascribed to him byCombefis (ef.MPG, xxsix.),not afeware doubtless not genuine. Late investigation, however, has brought to light other genuine works of Amphilochius. The Epiatola synodica in defense of the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity (376), and the lambi ad Selettcum, ascribed to Gregory Nazianzen (MPG, xxxvii.), not without importance for the history of the canon, are not the only works of Amphilochius which are still extant. (F. LOOFa.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: FRbricius·Harles, Bs'bliotheea Grava, viii. 373-381, Hamburg, 1802; DCB, i. 103-107 (quite ex haustive); J. Feeeler, Institutionea patrolopto:, i. 800-804. Innsbruck, 1900; K. Roll, Amphilochiw won Ikonium, Ti1-binqen. 1904: G. Ficker. Amphilochiana. Part i.. Leipeic, 1908.
AMPULL,E, am-pul'lf or -lA: [Flasks or vials for holding liquids. In ecclesiastical usage they have been employed for the water and wine of the mass and for the consecrated oil used in baptism, confirmation, and extreme unction. Such vessels were sometimes of considerable size and were made of gold, silver, crystal, onyx, or glass. Specimens are preserved at Paris, Cologne, Venice, and elsewhere; and there is one at Reims said to have been miraculously provided for the baptism of Clovis in 496.] Deserving of most notice are the so-called ampttlke sanguirwlentce, phiohe truentce or rubricatte (" blood-ampulls; "), glees flasks which contain a reddish sediment and are alleged to have once held the blood of martyrs. They have been found almost exclusively in the graves of the catacombs, near the slab with which the grave was sealed or fastened to it by mortar. They are first mentioned by Antonio Bosio, the explorer of the Roman catacombs, who relates that in certain graves as well as in glass or clay vessels, he found blood congealed and dried, which, when moistened with water, assumed its natural color (Rome sotterranea, Rome, 1632, p. 197). Soon afterward a certain Landucci discovered such vessels with a watery or milky fluid which, when shaken, assumed the color of blood (De Rossi, 619). The discovery of a phiola rubricata came to be regarded as certain proof of a martyr's grave, and the Ccngregation of the Sacred Rites decided accordingly in 1668 when doubts were raised concerning the irtdicia martyrGi at the removal of relics from the. catacombs. Doubts continued, however, and a Jesuit, Victor de Buck, made the strongest presentation of the case of the skeptics, arguing on scientific grounds (De phiolis rttbricatis, Brussels, 18bb). After a new find in the cemetery of S. Saturnino in 1872 a papal commission undertook an exact microscopical investigation, which was believed to establish the presence of blood. Roman Catholic archeologist); and theologians .had generally conceded a possibility that the claims might be well founded, while opposing the unsystematic and unscientific assumption that all red sediment was blood, and demanding an adequate investigation is each ease.
The following weighty and conclusive objections, however, are made even to the possibility: (1) There
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in no literary testimony that the blood of martyrs was preserved as is presupposed, and no satisfactory reason has been given why it should have been thus saved. (2) A large percentage of these ampullee come from the graves of children under seven years of age, who can hardly have suffered in the persecutions of the Christians; furthermore, more than one-half of them are of the time of Constantine or later. (3) Non-Christian graves furnish similar vessels with red sediment. (4) In no case has the sediment been proved to be blood by chemical and microscopic examination. The attempt made in 1872 is untrustworthy, and its results are rejected by competent judges. (5) The specimens with inscriptions (such as sang., sa., and the like) and the monogram of Christ or the cross are forgeries. The red sediment is probably oxid of iron produced by the decomposition of the glass. It has been suggested that it is the remains of communion wine, and the sixth canon of the Synod of Carthage of 397 lends support to the view, but the chemical analysis is against it (of., however, Berthelot in Revue arcUologique, new series, xxxui., 1877, p. 396). Certain heathen burial customs in which wine (cf. Schultze, Katakomben, pp. 52, 54, and note 15) or off was used offer analogies. The original purpose and significance of these ampullm was probably not uniform.
(VICTOR SCHULTZE.)BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. X. Kraus, Die Blutampuilen der r6misehen Katakomben, Frankfort, 1868; idem, Ueber den pepenw&rtipsn Stand der Frage each dem Inhalte and der Bedeutunp der r6bxiisehen Blutampullen, Freiburg, 1872; idern. Roma eotterranea, pp. 507 eqq., ib. 1879: " Paulinus," Die Mkrtyrer der Katakomben and die rbmische Praxis, Leipsie, 1871; G. B. de Rossi, Ronna sotterranea, iii. 602 sqq., Rome, 1877; Victor Schultze, Die sopenannten Blutplflaer der rbmischen Katakvmben, in ZKW, i. (1880) 515 sqq.; idem, Die Katakombcn, pp. 225 sqq., Leipnie. 1882.
AMRAPHEL. See HAafmuRASI AxD His CODE, I., § 1.
AMSDORF, NIKOLAUS VON: German Protestant; b. at Torgau (30 m. n.e. of Leipsic) Dec. 3, 1483; d. at Fisenach May 14, 1565. He began his studies at the University of Leipaic in 1500, but two years later went to Wittenberg, being among the first students in the newly founded university in that city. There he fell under the influence of Luther, whose intimate friend he became, and to whose teachings he lent unquestioning adhesion from the very beginning. He was with Luther at the Leipsic disputation in 1519, accompanied him to Worms in 1521, and was in the secret of his sojourn at the Wartburg. In 1524 he became pastor and superintendent in Magdeburg and was active in introducing the Reformation into that city, organizing the ritual closely on the model of Wittenberg. He performed similar services in Goslar and Einbeck. From the first he was rigid in his views, opposed to the least departure from the orthodox Lutheran doctrine, and fierce in his attacks on such men as Melanchthon and Butzer who came to represent a policy of conciliation and compromise both within the Protestant Church and toward the Roman Catholic princes. Thus he was largely instrumental in the failure of the Regensburg conference of 1541, where
his attitude toward the emperor was as fearless as it was narrow. In the same year the Elector John Frederick appointed him bishop of Natunburg-Zeitz against the wishes of the chapter and in spite of the protest of the emperor. The battle of Miihlberg (1547) compelled him to seek refuge in Weimar. His quarrel with Melanchthon and his supporters had grown embittered with time, and he helped to found a new university at Jena in opposition to the tendencies represented at Wittenberg. In the same spirit he assumed charge of the Jena edition of Luther's works, which was to correct the alleged faults and omissions of the Wittenberg edition.
In 1552 Amedorf was made superintendent at Eisenach, whence, with Flacius, whom he caused to be called to Jena, he carried on a virulent polemic against the so-called Philippists and Adi aphorists. The formal break between the orthodox Lutheran party and the followers of Melanchthon at the colloquy of Worms in 1557 was largely due to Amsdorf's efforts. From 1554 to 1559 he was engaged in a- violent controversy with Justus Menius, superintendent at Gotha, concerning the doctrine of good works as essential to salvation; and in the stress of conflict he was led to assume the extreme position that good works are actually detrimental to the welfare of the soul, denoting by " good works," however, those that man per forms for the express purpose of attaining sal vation. When; in 1561, as a result of his views on the doctrine of sin, Flacius, together with his followers, was expelled from Jena, Amsdorf was spared because of his advanced age and his great services to the Protestant cause in the early days of the Reformation. (G. KAWERAU.)BIBLIOasAPay: E. J. Meier, biography of Abudorf in M. Meurer, Dos Leben der Altvater der luderiachen Kirdte. iii., Leipsic, 1868; Eicbhorn, Amsdor/iana, in ZKG, vol. xxii., 1901.
AMULET, am'yu-let: A word first used to designate objects having a magical effect in warding off or driving away evils--the evil eye, illness, demons, etc.-and thus practically equivalent to " talisman." By degrees it came to be employed for objects worn about the person. Used down to the seventeenth century for things forbidden by the Church, it gradually acquired a more general meaning. The limits of this article preclude the discussion of the origin of amulets, of their psychological basis, or of their significance in the universal history of religion.
In the Old Testament, objects of the kind are mentioned among the ornaments worn by women
(Isa. iii. 16-26) and by animals (Judges In the Old viii. 21); the bells on the border of
Testament the high priest's robe had no other and Juda- primary significance (cf. " the bells ism. of the horses," Zech. xiv. 20). Later
Judaism completely surrounded the individual with intangible spirits, but provided numerous means of protection against the evil they might effect-the presence of angels, pronouncing the name of God, amulets containing the Holy Name, and fragments of Scripture worn on the person (the " phylacteries " of Matt. xxiii. 5) or fastened
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to the door-posts of houses. The special power over demons attributed to Solomon may also be mentioned; formulas of exorcism were referred to him, and the possessed were supposed to be healed, on the invocation of his name, by the methods prescribed by him.
The demonological conceptions of Judaism and the magic of the East had a very strong influence
on the Greco-Roman world. ChristiIn the anity, however, at first rejected these Early superstitious observances, and proChurch. tested against every accusation of
the use of magic arts. There came a change with the entrance of the pagan multitudes, with their material ideas of religion and their need for an external realization of the supernatural. The ideas about demons, found in the exorcisms of the second century (Origen, Contra Celsum, vi. 39, 40) were generalized, paganized, and Judaized. AB the ecclesiastical writers abundantly testify (see passages quoted in Bingham, Origines, vii. 250), magical formulas began to be used again; mysterious objects, inscribed with characters often unintelligible, were placed upon the bodies of newborn infants and the sick; and Chrysostom (on I Cor. vii. 3) warns his hearers against love-philters. The teachers of the Church branded all this as actual apostasy from the faith; and the Christian civil government punished severely the use of amulets in sickness. To meet this tendency an attempt was made to give these methods a Christian coloring, or to employ elements susceptible to a Christian interpretation. The demons, who had been supposed to have special care of races or of individuals, now became angels, and protection was afforded by their names inscribed on amulets. In like manner the name of God was used. Even some of the clergy provided such amulets, though the Church forbade them to do so, and excommunicated those who wore them (Synod of Laodicea; Synod of Agde, 544). The cross (see CRosa AND 1TBU USE A$ A SYMBOL, ¢ 3) took a specially prominent place among these protecting objects. Women and children commonly wore verses from the Gospels for this purpose. Chrysoatom told the people of Antioch that they ought rather to have the Gospels in their hearts. That of John was thought to be particularly efficacious; it was laid on the head to drive out fever, and Augustine commends the practise (Tractatus vi in cap. i. Johannis evangelic, MPL, xxv. 1443), "not because it is done for this purpose," but because it means the abandonment of the pagan ligatures. The whole range of sacred things was brought into service. Satyrua, the brother of Ambrose, in a shipwreck, hung the eucharistic bread, wrapped in an orarium about his neck "that he might get help from his faith" (Ambrose, De oWu frtltris,
-)- Similar use was made of oil and wax from holy places and of water and salt that had been blessed. Relics of the saints, enclosed in costly cases, were worn. Since the Church was unable entirely and all at once to drive out every vestige of heathen superstition, it did the next beat thing when it took into consideration the needs of popular, unspiritual devotion, and gradually, by
the conversion of the old means, forced into the background or effaced their non-Christian elementA.
Lack of space forbids the discussion in detail of the diversified forms even of Christian development of the idea, as they are found in the numerous relics of antiquity, from those of the catacombs down, or to give any account of the multiplicity of objects which are commonly used Survi- among the devout Roman Catholics vals. at the present day, with at least some remnant of the idea of the ancient amulets underlying them-scapulars, crosses, the agnua dei, rosaries, and an endless variety of medals with pictures of the Virgin and the saints. These objects may serve different purposes; they may be tokens of sharing in a wide-spread and approved devotion, or signs of membership in some pious confraternity, or souvenirs of a visit to some holy place; but in moat instances the priestly blessing which they have received is distinctly understood to give them a positive power (on condition of the proper faith and other dispositions on the part of the wearer or possessor) against the assaults of evil spirits and other ills.
(JoHANNEs FICKER.)BIBLIOORAPBT: W. King, Talisman and Amulets, in Archmolopical Journal, Iozvi.(1869) 25-34, 149-157, 225-235; J. A. Martigny, Dictionnaire des antiquitms chretiennes, arti cle Amulefe, Paris, 1877; W. R. Smith, in Journal o/ Philology, riv. (1881) 122-123; E. C. A. Riehm, Handw6rtsr buchdes biblischen Altertums, Bielefeld, 1884; J.Wellhausen, Skizzen. iii. 144, Berlin, 1887; M. Friedlander, Jewish Religion, pp. 331-338, London, 1891; J. L. Andr6, Talismans, in The Reliquary, vii. (1893) 162-167, 195-202, viii. (1894) 13-18; DB, i. 88-90, iii. 869874.
AMYOT. See AM1oT.AMYRAUT, am"f-ro', NOISE (Lat. Moses Amyraldus): Calvinist theologian and preacher; b. at Bourgueil (27 m. w.s.w. of Tours), Touraine, 1596; d. at Saumur Jan. 8, 1664. He came of an influential family in Orleans, began the study of law at Poitiers, and received the degree of licentiate in 1616; but the reading of Calvin's Institutio turned his mind to theology. This he studied eagerly at Saumur, under Cameron, to whom he was much attached. After serving as pastor for a short time at Saint-Aignan, he was called in 1626 to succeed Jean Daill6 at Saumur, and soon became prominent. The national synod held at Charenton in 1631 chose him to lay its requests before Louis XIII., on which occasion his tactful bearing attracted the attention and won the respect of Richelieu., In 1633 he was appointed professor of theology at Saumur with De la Place and Cappel, and the three raised the institution into a flourishing condition, students being attracted to it from foreign countries, especially from Switzerland. Theological novelties in their teaching, however, soon stirred up opposition, which came to little in France; but in Switzerland, where the professors were leas known, it reached such a pitch that students were withdrawn, and in 1675 the Helvetic Consensus was drawn up against the Saumur innovations. Amyraut was specially attacked because his teaching on grace and predestination seemed to depart from that of the Synod of Dort, by adding
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a conditional universal grace to the unconditional particular.
Amyraut first published his ideas in his TratM de la pr6destination (Saumur, 1634), which immediately caused great excitement. The controversy became so heated that the national synod at Alenpon in 1637 had to take notice of it. Amyraut and his friend Testard were acquitted of heterodoxy, and silence was imposed on both sides. The attacks continued, however, and the question came again before the synod of Charenton in 1644-45, but with the same result. Amyraut bore himself so well under all these assaults that he succeeded in conciliating many of his opponents, even the venerable Du Moulin (1655). But at the synod of Loudun in 1659 (the last for which permission was obtained-partly through Amyraut's influence-from the crown), fresh accusations were brought, this time including Daill6, the president of the synod, because he had defended what is called " Amyraldism." This very synod, however, gave Amyraut the honorable commission to revise the order of discipline. In France the harmlessness of his teaching was generally recognized; and the controversy would soon have died out but for the continual agitation kept up abroad, especially in Holland and Switzerland.
Amyraut's doctrine has been called " hypothetical universalism "; but the term is misleading, since it might be applied also to the Arminianism which he steadfastly opposed. His main proposition is this: God wills all men to be saved, on condition that they believe-a condition which they could well fulfil in the abstract, but which in fact, owing to inherited corruption, they stubbornly reject, so that this universal will for salvation actually saves no one. God also wills in particular to save a certain number of persons, and to pass over the others with this grace. The elect will be saved as inevitably as the others will be damned. The essential point, then, of Amyraldism is the combination of real particularism with a purely ideal universalism. Though still believing it as strongly as ever, Amyraut came to see that it made little practical difference, and did not press it in his last years, devoting himself rather to non-controversial studies, especially to his system of Christian morals (La morale chrestienne, 6 vols., Saumur, 1652-60). The read significance of Amyraut's teaching lies in the fact that, while leaving unchanged the special doctrines of Calvinism, he brought to the front its ethical message and its points of universal human interest. See CALVINISM, (E. F. KARL MLDLLER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. and It. Haag, La France proteatanfs. i. 72-80, Paris, 1846 (gives a complete hot of his voluminous
works); E. 8sigey, in Rev" de Woiopie, pp. 178 aqq., Paris, 1849; A. Schweizer, Tiibinga thsolopiwAa Jahr- l4cher. 1852. pp. 41 eqq., 155 sqq. ANABAPTISTS. I. The Sober Anabaptists. II. The Fanatical Anabap- In Switzerland (11). Anabaptist Tenets (§ 2). In the Netherlands and England (13). lisle. The Zwickau Prophets U I). In Strasburg and MGneter (§ 2). The name "Anabaptists" (meaning "Rebap tizera ") was given by their opponents to a party L-11among the Protestants in Reformation times whose distinguishing tenet was opposition to infant baptism, which they held to be unscriptural and therefore not true baptism. They baptized all who joined them; but, according to their belief, this was not a rebaptism as their opponents charged. In opposition to the Church doctrine they held that baptism should be administered only to those who were old enough to express by means of it their acceptance of the Christian faith, and hence, from their point of view, their converts were really baptized for the first time. Another epithet often applied to them was " Catabaptieta," meaning paeudobaptists, as if their baptism were a mockery, and with an implication of drowning, which was considered the appropriate punishment for their conduct and frequently followed their arrest.
In studying this movement the following facts should be borne in mind: (1) The Anabaptists did not invent their rejection of infant baptism, for there have always been parties in the Church which were antipedobaptista (cf. A. H. Newman, History of Antipedobaptiam, Philadelphia, 1897). (2) There are two kinds of Anabaptists, the sober and the fanatical. Failure to make this distinction has done mischief and caused modern Baptists to deny their connection with the Baptists of the Reformation, whereas they are the lineal descendants of the sober kind and have no reason to be ashamed of their predecessors. (3) Even among the fanatical Anabaptists there were harmless dreamers; not all the fanatics were ready to establish a Kingdom of the Saints by unsaintly deeds. (4) Information concerning the Anabaptists is largely derived from prejudiced and deficient sources.
I. The Sober Anabaptists: These were the product of the Reformation in Switzerland started by Zwingli. Shortly after he began to preach Ref ormation doctrine in Zurich, in 1519, some of his hearers, very humble persons mostly, gathered in pri vate houses to discuss his sermons, and Zwingli often met with them. He had laid it down as a principle that what is not taught in the Bible is not a law of God for Christians, and had applied this prin ciple to the payment of tithes and the observance of Lent. In 1522 these friends of Zwingli asked him where he found his plain Scripture authorizing infant baptism and whether, according to his principle he was not compelled toz. In give it up. Zwingli, however, though Switzer- he wavered at first, decided to stand by
land. the Church, arguing that there was fair inferential support in the Bible for the practise, and that it was the Christian substitute for the Jewish rite of circumcision. Over this point an estrangement took place between him and his parishioners. The little company received accessions of a desirable character, and came to include scholars and theologians like Felix Manz and Conrad Grebel, who socially and intellectually were the peers of Zwingli's followers. Hffbmaier was a visitor. In 1524 as the result of letters or visits from Thomas Mower and Andreas Carlstadt they took very decided antipedobaptist positions; but public opinion in Zurich was against|
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them, and the magistrates on Jan. 18, 1525, after what was considered the victory of the Church party in a public debate, following many private conferences, ordered that these antipedobaptiata present their children for baptism, and made it a law that any parents refusing to have their infant children baptized should be banished. On Jan. 21 they forbade the meetings of the antipedobaptists and banished all foreigners who advocated their views. Shortly after this the antipedobaptista began to practise believers' baptism. In a company composed entirely of laymen one poured water in the name of the Trinity on other members in succession, after they had expressed a desire to be baptized, and so, as they claimed, they instituted veritable Christian baptism. Like scenes were enacted in other assemblies. It is noteworthy that these first believers' baptisms were by pouring; immersion was introduced later. Also that in all the lengthy treatises of Zwingli on baptism there is no discussion as to the mode. These early Baptists practised pouring, sprinkling, and immersion as suited their convenience, and did not consider the mode as of much importance.
Though infant baptism was the first and the main issue between the Anabaptists and the Church party, there were others of great i. Anabap- importance. The former said that fist Tenets. only those who had been baptized after confession of faith in Christ con stituted a real Church; the latter, that all baptized persons living in a certain district constituted the State Church. The Anabaptists maintained that there should be a separation between the State and the Church; that no Christian should bear arms, take an oath, or hold public office; that there should be complete religious liberty. All this was not in accord with the times; and thus the Anabaptists were considered to be enemies of the standing order, and were treated accordingly. On Sept. 9, 1527, the cantons of Zurich, Bern, and St. Gall united in an edict which maybe taken as a specimen of its class. It gives reasons for prose cuting the Anabaptists, which are manifestly prej udiced and even in part false, and then decrees the death by drowning of all of them who are teachers, baptizing preachers, itinerants, leaders of conventiclea, or who had once recanted and then relapsed. Foreigners in these cantons associating with the Anabaptists were banished, and if found again were to be drowned. Simple adherents were to be fined. It was made the bounden duty of all good citizens to inform against the Anabap tists (for the full text consult S. M. Jackson, Huldreich Zwingli, New York, 1903, pp. 259-281). Similar laws against the Anabaptists were made and enforced in South Germany, Austria, the Tyrol, the Netherlands, England, and wherever they went. Such treatment suppressed Anabap tism, or stall events, drove it beneath the surface. How ineffectual it was to extinguish it appears from the fact that early in 1537, four Anabaptists from the Netherlands quietly stole into Geneva, and began making converts. John Calvin, who neg lected no opportunity to do God service, as he conceived it, got wind of their presence and hadthem and their seven converts banished by the magistrates (the incident is described by Beza in his life of Calvin, ed. Neander, p. 8; cf. Calvin's Tracts, Eng. transl., i. xxx.; Doumergue, Jean Calvin, ii. 242; Herminjard, Correapmidance des R9formuteura, iv. 272). Anabaptists persisted in great numbers in Moravia, the Palatinate, Switzerland, Poland, and elsewhere.
Only in the Netherlands did the Anabaptists escape persecution, and there they became quite numerous. They were joined in 1538by 3. In the a remarkable man, Menno Simona(q.v.), Nether- who organized them and his name has lands and been given to the sect (see MFjiNoN- England. ITEB). From the Netherlands they passed into England; but no sooner did they make converts there than Henry VIII. in cluded them in a decree of banishment, and those who remained he threatened to put to death. Indeed, in 1535 there is record of ten persons who were burned in London and other English towns on the charge of Anabaptism (cf. John Foxe, Acts and Monuments, ed. Townsend, v., London, 1843, p. 44). How little this cruel course succeeded is evidenced by the continued presence in England of the Baptist Church.That among the sober kind of Anabaptists there were unworthy persons, that some of them held visionary views, and that a few may have -been goaded into occasional violence of expression, and possibly of conduct, may be accepted as proved; but that they were as a party guilty of the charges brought against them, as in the joint edict mentioned above, is untrue. As a class they were as holy in life as their persecutors; and their leaders, in Biblical knowledge and theological acumen, were no mean antagonists.
II. The Fanatical Anabaptists: The earliest mention of Anabaptism in connection with the Lutheran Reformation is in the spring of 1521 when Niklaue Storch, Markus Stilbner, and a third person, who was a weaver, as Storch had been,
I r. The made their appearance in Wittenberg Zwickau and sought to convert the professors Prophets. of its university to their views, which I were the familiar Anabaptist ones of L opposition to military service, private prop ', erty, government by those not true Christians, infant baptism, and the oath, together with the novel one that there should be a dissolution of the marriage bond in the cases where there was not agreement between the married couple in religious belief. These views they pressed with great vehemence and no little success. They also claimed to be inspired to make their deliveraaeea. Aa they came from Zwickau, they are called the Zwick au Prophets (q.v.). Carlstadt was impressed by them, and characteristically allowed iconoclastic practises in his church. Melanchthon wavered, but Luther, who at the time of their visit was at the Wartburg, was so much stirred by the confusion they induced that he left his seclusion and opposed them stoutly and silenced them by ridicule rather than by arguments.Among theleadera and followers on the peasant aide in the Peasants' war which desolated Germany
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in 1525, were those who held antipedobaptist views. After the war Strasburg became the center of the Anabaptists and, after 1529, when it was visited by
Melchior Hoffmann (q.v.), " the evil z. In Stras- genius of the Anabaptists," it was burg and the center of their propaganda. HoffMunster. mann united to the usual Anabaptist
views, belief in himself as the inspired interpreter of prophecy and as inspired leader generally. He declared that he was one of the "two witnesses" of Rev. xi. 3; that Strasburg was to be the New Jerusalem, and the seat of universal dominion; and that non-resistance might be given up. These views he preached with great effect through East Friesland and the Netherlands, and his followers called themselves " Melchiorites." After he had been thrown into prison (1533) Jan Matthys, a baker from Haarlem, appeared in Strasburg and claimed to be the other " witness " of the Apocalypse; but he altered the programme by transferring the capital of the kingdom of the saints to Munster, and advocating force in maintaining it. After sending four apostles, one of whom was the notorious John of Leyden, he came thither himself (Feb., 1535), and led a successful revolt against the magistracy and bishop of the city. In Apr., 1535 he was killed and was succeeded by John of Leyden who caused himself to be proclaimed king, and declared polygamy to be the law of the kingdom. Meanwhile the city was besieged by the expelled bishop aided by the neighboring princes and by the imperial troops. If half that is said to have gone on within the city be true (the reports come from very prejudiced sources), fanaticism was there the order of the day. Hence the defense was lax, owing to dependence on divine power to work deliverance. Nevertheless, the siege lasted many months, and treachery within rather than assaults without at last opened the gates on June 25, 1535 (see MfJNBTER, ANABAPTISTS IN). The fanatical Anabaptists were universally taken as typical, and to this day when Anabaptism is mentioned it is supposed to be the equivalent of absurd interpretation of Scripture, blasphemous assumption, and riotous indecency. Munster was, however, only the culminating point of fanaticism engendered by persecution, and Anabaptism in itself, strictly interpreted, is not responsible for it.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The sources are the writings of Anabaptists, the official records of proceedings against them. and the writings of their opponents. Of the extensive literature, the following works may be mentioned: C. W. Bouterwek, Zur Lit<erahsr and Geschichta der Wiedertaufer, Bonn, 1864; C. A. Cornelius, Die niederlandieden Wieder diufer, Munieb, 1869; E. Egli, Die Zihuher Wiedertkufer, Zurich, 1878; idem, Die St. Gallen Wiedertdufer, 1887 ; H. s. Burrage, History of the Anabaptists in Switzerland, New York, 1882; L. Keller, Die Reformation and die dlteren Reformparteien, Leipsic. 1885; R. Nitsehe, Ge achichte der Wiedertdufer in der Schwew, Einsiedeln, 1885; J. Loserth. Der Anabaptiemue in Tirol, Vienna, 1892; idem, Der Kommuniemua der mahrischen Wiedertaufer, 1894; K. Kautsky, Der Kommunismus im Mittelalter im Ze0alter der Reformation,. Stuttgart, 1894, Eng. transl., Communion in Central Europe in the Time of the Reformation, London, 1897; H. Lfldemann, Reformation and T aufertum in Qrem Verhdltnis sum chriatliden Princip, Bern, 1896; R. Heath, Anabaptism from its Rise at Zwickau to 1536, London, 1895; E. Miller, Geachichk der berniechen
TBufer, Frauenfeld, 1895; K. Rembert, Die Wiedertaufer im Herzogtum JWich, Berlin, 1899; G. Trumbillt, Die Wiedertaufer, in Monographien zur Weltgeschichte, vii., Leipsie, 1899; E. C. Pike, The Story of the Anabaptists, in Eras of Nonconformity, London, 1904; the biographies of Anabaptist leaders, especially that of Balthasar Hfibmaier, by H. C. Vedder, New York, 1905, and works on the Reformation. See also the works mentioned in the article, MUNSTER, ANABAPTIBTg IN.
ANACHORITE. See ANCHORET.ANACLETUS, an"a kli'tus: The name of one pope and one antipope.
Anacletus I.: Roman presbyter at the close of the first century. The hypothesis of Volkmar, that he had no historical existence is opposed by the prevailing unanimity of the Greek and Latin lists of the popes. These differ, however, in the place which they ascribe to him, some naming him fourth and some third. The latter is the older order. As the name in Greek is sometimes written Anenkletos and sometimes Kletos, the Catalogus Laberianus and other early authorities were betrayed into the mistake of making two distinct persons. It is impossible to determine his date. Twelve years is the longest time assigned to his pontificate. The assertion, that he, as well as Linus and Clemens, was consecrated by St. Peter, sprang from the tendency to connect him as closely as possible with the beginnings of the Church. That he met a martyr's death under Domitian, or, as Baronius and Hausrath assert, under Trajan, can not be adequately demonstrated. His festival in the Roman Catholic Church falls on July 13.
(A. HAucs.)BIBLIOGRAPHY: Liber pontifu;alis, ed. Duchesne, v ol. i., pp. lxix. lxx., 52; G. Volkmar, Ueber Eunodia, Eunodiua, and Anaclet, in Baur and Zeller, Theologische Jahrbiicher, xvi. 147-151, Tfibingen, 1857; A. Hausrath, Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte, iii. 391,, Heidelberg, 1875; J. B. Light foot, The Apostolic Fathers, I. i. 201 sqq., London, 1890; A. Hamack. in Sitzungaberichte der Berliner Akademie, 1892, 817-658; idem, Litteratur, II. i. 70 sqq.
Anacletus Il. (Pietro Pierleoni): Antipope, 113038. He was descended from a Jewish family which had grown rich and powerful under Gregory VIL, studied in Paris, and later became a Cluniac monk. Paschal II. recalled him to Rome, and in 1116 made him a cardinal. He accompanied Gelasius II. on his flight to France, and after his death took a-leading part in the elevation of Calixtus II., who made him legate to England and France in 1121, and, conjointly with Cardinal Gregory, who was to be his rival for the papacy, to France in 1122. It is.impossible to determine how far the description of him as an immoral and avaricious prelate is based on the enmity of his later opponents; but it is certain that even under Paschal II. he was already laying his plans to be made pope. On Feb. 14; 1130, he attained his aim so far as to be chosen by a majority of the cardinals, though not to be enthroned before nine of them had elected Gregorio Papareschi as Innocent II. Anacletus used both his own resources and those of the Church to win over the Romans, and Innocent was obliged to flee. In Sept., 1130, Anacletus allied himself with Roger of Sicily, and thus made a decided enemy of Lothair the Saxon, who was already inclined to support Innocent, and now, with England and
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France, declared for him. In Oct., 1131, Innocent excommunicated Anacletus at Reims; in the following spring he set out for Italy; and in Apr., 1133, entering Rome in Lothair's company, he took possession of the Lateran, while Anacletus held the Vatican. Lothair pronounced the latter an outlaw and a criminal against both the divine and the royal majesty; but he was himself forced to leave Rome in June, and Anacletus forced Innocent once more to flee to Pisa. In the autumn of 1136 Lothair returned, and succeeded in compelling southern Italy to recognize Innocent. The end of the schism was, however, due less to him than to Bernard of Clairvaux, who succeeded in separating not only the city of Milan, but many of the principal Romans from Anacletus's party (see BERNARD, SAINT, OF CLAIRVAUX). [(see BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX)] Negotiations were even opened with Roger of Sicily, his last supporter; but at this juncture Anacletus died, Jan. 25, 1138. His letters and privileges are in MPL, clxxix. 689-732, and in Jaffé, Regesta, i. 911-919. (A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY:A. von Reumont, [A. Von Reumont] Geschichte der Stadt Rom, ii. 408, 3 vols., Berlin, 1867-70; [1867-1870;] P. Jaffé, Geschichte des deutschen Reichs unter Lothar, Berlin, 1843; Bower, Popes, ii. 484-470; W. Bernhardi, Lothar von Supplinburg, Leipsic, 1879; W. Martens, Die Besetzung des päpstlichen Stuhls, 323 sqq., Freiburg, 1886; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, v. 406 sqq.; J. Langen, Geschichte der römischen Kirche, pp. 315 sqq., Bonn, 1893; Hauck, KD, iv. 128-138.
ANAGNOST. See LECTOR.
ANAMMELECH, a-nam'e'lec or a"nam"mê'lec: According to II Kings xvii. 31, a deity worshiped with child-sacrifice by the Sepharvites who were settled in Samaria by Sargon (see ADRAMMELECH). If Sepharvaim be sought in Babylonia, it is natural to refer the name "Anammelech " to the Babylonian god Anu (Anu-malik or Anu-malku, "King Anu"; cf. Jensen, pp. 272 sqq.; Schrader, p. 353; Bæthgen, pp. 254-255). If, however, as is more probable, Sepharvaim was a city of Syria, the Babylonian derivation is untenable. The name of a goddess Anath is found in a Greco-Phenician inscription (CIS, i. 95) of Lapithos in Cyprus belonging to the time of Ptolemy I. Soter (d. 283 BC). It occurs also on a Phenician coin with a picture of the goddess riding upon a lion, and a star above her head. The name "Anath" appears in the Old Testament towns Beth-anath (in Naphtali, Josh. xix. 38; Judges i. 33) and Beth-anoth (in Judah, Josh. xv. 59); also in the proper name " Anath " (Judges iii. 31, v. 6), and perhaps in the town Anathoth near Jerusalem. It is not impossible that the passage in II Kings is corrupt, and " Anammelech " may be merely a variant of " Adrammelech." It is wanting in Lucian's text of the Septuagint.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. Schols, Götzendienst und Zauberwesen bei den alten Hebräern und den benachbarten Völkern, pp. 405-407, Ratisbon, 1877; F. Baethgen, Beiträge zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, Berlin. 1889; P. Jensen, Die Kosmologie der Babylonier, Strasburg, 1890; Schrader, KAT.
ANANIAS, an"-a-nai'as: The high priest in whose time the apostle Paul was imprisoned at Jerusalem (probably 58 AD; Acts xxiii. 2, xxiv. 1). In the Lucan description of the conflict between Paul and Palestinian Judaism (xxi.-xxvi.; cf. K. Schmidt, APostelgeschichte, i., Erlangen, 1882, pp. 240 sqq.), Ananias is represented as head of the Sadducaic hierarchical party which was dominant in the Sanhedrin, and confirmed its complete apostasy from the hope of Israel by persecution of the apostle of Christ, whereas tile apostle deposes and divests of its divine authority and dignity the leadership which had become faithless to its calling. According to Josephus (Ant., XX. v. 2, vi. 2, ix. 2-4; War, II. xii. 6, xvii. 6, 9), Ananias, son of Nebedæus, was appointed high priest about 47 AD by Herod of Chalcis (the twentieth in the succession of high priests from the accession of Herod the Great to the destruction of Jerusalem). In the year 52 he had to go to Rome to defend himself before Claudius against a charge made by the Samaritans against the Jews. He was not deposed at this time, how ever (cf. C. Wieseler, Chronologische Synopse der vier Evangelien, Hamburg, 1843, pp. 187-188), but held his office until Agrippa II. appointed Ishmael, son of Phabi, his successor, probably in 59 AD Ananias is the only high priest after Caiaphas who ruled for any length of time. He exercised considerable influence after leaving his office until he was murdered in the beginning of the Jewish war. (K. SCHMIDT.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Schürer, Geschichte, i. 584; -03, ii. 204, 219,221, Eng. transl., I. ii. 173, 188-189, II. i. 182, 200 sqq.
ANAPHORA, an-af'o-ra: Name used in the Eastern liturgies for the later or more sacred part of the eucharistic service, answering to the Missa fidelium of the early times, from which the catechumens were excluded, and in the main to the canon of the Roman mass. It begins with the kiss of peace and accompanying prayers, after the "greater entrance" or solemn oblation of the elements on the altar. (GEORG RIETSCHEL.)
ANASTASIUS: Of the many bearers of this name in the Eastern Church the following three are specially deserving of notice:
1. Anastasius I: Patriarch of Antioch, 559-599. He was a friend of Gregory I, and strongly opposed Justinian's later church policy, which favored the Aphthartodocetæ (see JULIAN OF HALICARNASSUS; JUSTINIAN; MONOPHYSITES). He was banished in 570 by Justin II, was recalled in 593 by Maurice, and died in 599. His day is Apr. 21. [April 21.] Of his writings there have been printed: (1) Five addresses on true dogmas; (2) four sermons (of doubtful genuineness); (3) "A Brief Exposition of the Orthodox Faith" (in Greek); (4) fragments; (5) an oration delivered Mar. 25, [March 25,] 593, when he resumed the patriarchal chair.
2. Anastasius II: Patriarch of Antioch, 599-609, in which year he was murdered by Antiochian Jews. His day is Dec. 21. [December 21.] He translated the Cura pastoradis of Gregory I.
3. Anastasius Sinaita: Priest, monk, and abbot of Mount Sinai; b. before 640; d. after 700. He defended ecclesiastical theology against hexetica and Jews, and composed various works which have not been fully collected and examined. They include: (1) A "Guide" in defense of the faith of the Church against the many forms of Monophysitiam; (2) "Questions and Answers by Different Persons on Different Topics"; (3) "A Discourse on the Holy
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Acacias and was thus, according to the Roman view, a heretic. This seems to have aroused opposition among the Roman clergy, and a suspicion arose that the pope intended to reverse the decision against Acacias. In the Decretum of Gratian he is said to have been " repudiated by the Roman Church" (MPL, clxxxvii. 111), and hence ecclesiastical writers as late as the sixteenth century usually regard him se a heretic. The baptism of Clovis, king of the Franks, fell at the beginning of his pontificate, but the letter of congratulation which the pope is supposed to have written to him is a forgery. He died in November, 498.
(A. HAUCK.)BIBLIOGRAPHY: Liber pontificatis, ed. Duchesne, i. 258 eqq., Paris. 1888; Bower. Popes, i. 291-298; R. Bsamann, Die Politak der PBpste van Gregor 1. bia au/ Gregor VII., i. 20 eqq.. Elberfeld, 1888; J. Havet, Questions Mbro· vinpiannes, Paris, 1885; J. Langen, Geechichte der rGmi· achan Kirche bia Nicholas 1., pp. 214 aqq., Bonn, 1885.
Anastasius III.: Pope 911-913. He was a Roman by birth. His pontificate fell in the period during which Rome and its Church were under the domination of the noble factions, and consequently little is known of his acts. Nicholas, patriarch of Constantinople, protested to him against the toleration by the legates of his predecessor, Sergius III., of the fourth marriage of the Eastern emperor, Leo VI. Before Anastssius could answer this letter, he died, probably in August, 913. Two privileges ascribed to him, one genuine, one spurious, are in MPL, exxxi.
(A. HAUCK.)BIBLIOGRAPHY: Leer pond fioalia, ed. Duchesne, ii. 239. Paris, 1892; Bower, Popes, ii. $07-308; R. Baamann. Die Politik der P9pate, ii. 82. Elberfeld, 1888.
Anastasius IV. (Conrad of Suburra): Pope 1153-54.- He had been a canon regular and abbot of St. Rufus in the diocese of Oridans, and was made cardinal-bishop of Sabina by Honorius II. After the contested election of 1130, he had taken his stand as one of the moat determined opponents of Anacletus II. He remained in Rome as the vicar of Innocent II. when the latter fled to France, and on the death of Eugenius III. (July 5, 1153), was elected to succeed him. In his short reign he ended the controversy with Frederick Bar barosea over the title to the archiepiscopal see of Magdeburg, recognizing Wichmann of Naumburg, which Eugenius III. had refused to do. The decision was looked upon in Germany as a victory for the emperor. Another long-standing dispute in Eng land was terminated by Anastasius's final recog nition of Archbishop William of York, who had been rejected by Innocent II. and Celestine IL, had been confirmed by Lucius IL, and had again been deposed by Eugenius III. He died Dec. 3, 1154, and was succeeded on the following day by the English cardinal Nicholas Breakspear as Adrian IV. His letters and privileges are in MPL, clxxsviii. (A. HAUCK.)BIBLIOGRAPHY: Libor pontifieoLu, ed. Duchesne, ii. 281, 888. 449. Paris. 1892; Bower. Popes, ii. 48b-487: A. von Remnant, GesrAiehte der Btadt Rom ii. 442, 3 vole., Berlin. 1887-70: Hefele, Coaeilisnpuchiehte, v. 537; J. Lsngen. GeecAichts der rMaisebsn Kirehe von Gregor vll. bia Innocent Ill., p. 414, Bonn, 1893.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY: Libor pontificalie, ed. Duchesne, ii. 106 sqq., Paris, 1892; MPL, oxxviii., pp. 1331,1345; Bower, Popes, ii. (1845) 227-228; J. Langen, Geacb"lM der rthniechan %irche bia Nickoiaa 1., pp. 837, 844, Bonn, 1885; Hefele, Concaienpeechichte, iv. 178 sqq.
ANASTASIUS BIBLIOTHECARIUS: One of the few important men among the Roman clergy in the middle of the ninth century; d. 879. He grew up in Rome, and inherited from his uncle Arsenius (whose visits to the Carolingian courts in 865 had such an important influence on the development of the papal power) close relations with both the spiritual and secular powers of the day. He was for some time abbot of what is now Santa Maria in Trastevere, and about the end of 867 Adrian II. made him librarian of the Roman church. In 869 Emperor Louis II. sent him to Constantinople to arrange the marriage of his daughter Irmengard with the eldest son of Basil the Macedonian. Here he attended the last session of the eighth ecumenical council; and when the acts of the council, entrusted to the Roman legates, were taken from them by pirates on the homeward journey, he supplied a copy of his own. He seems to have influenced John VIII. in favor of his friend Photius. Hinc mar of Reims begged his intercession, which was successful, with Adrian II. The references in Hinemar's writings seem to identify the librarian with the cardinal-priest of St. Mareellus who was the iconoclastic candidate for the papacy in 855, and was several times excommunicated. (On the question of his part in the compilation of the Lxzer Ponti ficalis see LiBER PONTIFICALIS.) His Chrolto graPh'a tripartite is important for its influence on THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 11 7Z7, 7CMKW~-- 188the study of general church history in the West. In a rough age, when East and West were drifting further asunder, he labored zealously to make the fruits of Eastern culture accessible to the Latins. Most of his works are in MPL, exxix.; the Chronographia tripartite is in Theophanis chranograPhia,
ed. C. de Boor, Leipsic, 1883, pp. 31-345. (F. ARNOLD.)BIHLIOO8AP8Y: J. Hergenr5ther, Phohua, ii. 228-241, Regensburg, 1888; P. A. Lapbtre, De Anaataaio biblwtkocario. Paris, 1884; Krumbacher, Geeehichte. pp. 122-124, 127: Libor Ponfificatie, ed. Duchesne, ii., pp. vi.. 188, Paris, 1892; Wattenbach, DGQ. 304. ii. 510.
ANATHEMA, a-nath'e-ma: Among the Greeks the word anathema denoted an object consecrated to a divinity; a use of the word which is explained by the custom of hanging or fastening (anatithesthai) such objects to trees, pillars, and the like. The weaker form anathema was originally used side by side with anathema in the same sense. The double form explains the frequent variations of manuscripts between the two, which later become confusing, since anathema took on a restricted signification and was used in a sense exactly opposite to anathema. This later usage arose partly from the use of anathema. in the Septuagint as an equivalent for the Hebrew herein, which is correct enough according to the root-idea of the Hebrew word; but the latter had acquired a special meaning in the religious law of the Old Testament, designating not only that which was dedicated to God and withdrawn from ordinary use as holy, but also and more especially that which was offered to God in expiation, to be destroyed. In like manner anathema came to denote not only what belonged irrevocably to God, but what was abandoned to him for punishment or annihilation. This double meaning is explicable by the interrelation of law and religion under the old covenant. The declaration of herein recognized God's right to exclusive possession of certain things and to the annihilation of whatever offended his majesty. Under this law booty taken in war was wholly or partly destroyed (Dent. xiii. 16; Josh. vi. 18, viii. 26), idolatrous peoples were put to death, and cities were razed, never to be rebuilt (Josh. vi. 26; I Kings xvi. 34). The same double sense of h,.erem, anathema, is found in the early Greek and Roman law, which has the same combination of religious and secular bearing; devotio in one aspect is the same as the Greek kathier8sis, in another as imPrecatio, maledictio, ezaecratio.
In postexilic Israel the here;m found a new use as a penal measure directed to the maintenance of the internal purity of the community. It then denoted the penalty . of exclusion or excommunication, sometimes with confiscation of property (Ezra x. 8). It was developed by the synagogue into two grades, ndddui. (Luke vi. 22; John ix. 22, xii. 42) and herein, which included the pronouncing of a curse. It was now an official act with a formal ritual. The connection between exclusion and cursing explains the use of anathema in the sense of simple cursing (Mark w. 71) or of binding by a solemn vow (Acts xxiii. 12). In the technical sense the word anathema occurs in four passages
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ANATOLIUS, sin"a-tb'li-us, OF CONSTANTINOPLE: Patriarch of Constantinople; d. 458. He belonged to the Alexandrian school, was apocrisiarius at Constantinople of Dioscurus of Alexandria (q.v.), and succeeded Flavian as patriarch after the "Robber Synod" of Ephesus (449). It was a time of conflict, and Anatolius was more than once accused of heresy, ambition, and injustice. At the Council of Chalcedon (451) he succeeded in having reaffirmed a canon of the second general council (Constantinople, 381) which placed Constantinople on an equal footing with Rome. He crowned the emperor Leo I. in 457, which is said by Gibbon (chap. xxxvi.) to be the first instance of the performance of such a ceremony by an ecclesiastic. Anatolius is identified by John Mason Neale (Hymns of the Eastern Church, London, 1862) with the author of the hymns (in Neale's translation) Fierce was the wild biuow, and The day is past and over. Others think that Anatolius the hymn-writer lived at a later time.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: DC$, i. 111; Julian, Hymnolopy, pp. 63, 1140.ANATOLIUS OF LAODICEA : Bishop of Laodicea in the third century. He was a native of Alexandria, and excelled in rhetoric and philosophy, the natural sciences, and mathematics. His fellow citizens requested him to
establish a school of Aristotelian Philosophy- In 262 he left Alexandria, acted for a time as coadjutor of Bishop Theotecnus of Csesarea, and was made bishop of Laodiceain268or269. Eusebius(Hist.eccl., VII. xxxii. 14-20) gives a considerable extract from a work of his on the paschal festival, and mentions another, in ten books, on calculation. The Latin Lcber A natoli de ratione paschali probably belongs to the sixth century. It is in MPG, x., and in B. Krusch, Studien z tar mittelalterlichen C hrono logie, Leipsic, 1880, pp. 311-327; cf. ANF, vi . 146-153. G. KRtYGER.BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. Zahn, Forachungen zur Geachichte den %anona, iii. 177-196, Leipsic, 1884; A. Anacombe, The Paschal Canon attributed to Anatolius o/ Laodicea, in English Historical Review, x. (1895) 515-535; Krt&r, History, p. 216.
ANCHIETA, dn"shf-6'ta, JOSL DE: The apostle of Brazil; b. at La Laguna, Teneriffe, Canary Islands, 1533; d. at Retirygba, Brazil, June 15, 1597. He joined the Jesuits in 1550, and three years later went to Brazil. In 1567 he was ordained priest, and thenceforth lived as missionary in the wild interior, laboring amid great hardships for the conversion of the savages. He became provincial before his death. Both the Indians and the Portuguese believed that he worked miracles. He wrote two catechisms in the native Brazilian tongue, a dictionary of the same, and a grammar (Ante de grammatica da lingoa mail usada na costs do Brash, Coimbra, 1595), which is the standard work on the subject. A treatise by him in Latin on the natural products of Brazil was published by the Academy of Sciences at Lisbon (1812).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: His life has been published in Spanish (Jerez de la Frontera, 1677), in Portuguese (Lisbon, 1672), in Latin (Cologne, 1617), and in English (London, 1849).
AHCHORET (ANCHORITE, ANACHORITE)A name applied to one of the class of early ascetics who withdrew from the world to devote themselves in solitude to the service of God and the care of their souls, practically synonymous with hermit. See AscETICIsm j MONABTICIBM.
ANCILLON, an-sf'yen: Name of an old Huguenot family of France, one of whose members resigned a high judicial position in the sixteenth century for the sake of his faith. His son, Georges Ancillon, was one of the founders of the Evangelical Church of Metz. Other members of the family were the following:
David Ancillon: Great-grandson of Georges Ancillon; b. at Metz Mar. 17, 1617; d. at Berlin Sept. 3, 1692. He attended the Jesuit college of his native city, studied theology at Geneva (1633-41), and was appointed preacher at Meaux (1641) and Metz (1653). In 1657 he held a conference on the traditions of the Church with Dr. Maciar, suffragan of the bishop of Metz; and, as a false report of this conference was spread by a monk, tie published his celebrated Traitd de la Tradition (Sedan, 1657). At the revocation of the edict of Nantes he went to Frankfort and became pastor at Hanau (1685), where he wrote an apology of Luther, Zwingli, Calvin, and Beza. Later he went to Berlin, where the Elector Frederick William appointed him preacher to the French congregation. The
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vie de Farel, which appeared at Amsterdam in 1691 under his name, is a mutilated copy of a manuscript which he had not intended for publication.
Charles Ancillon: Eldest son of David Ancillon; b. at Metz July 28, 1659; d. in Berlin July 5, 1715. He was judge and director of the French colony in Brandenburg and historiographer to Frederick I. Of his writings the following have interest for the Church historian: