Editor-in-Chief
Editor-in-Chief
of
Supplementary Volumes
Associate Professor of Church History
Princeton Theological Seminary
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CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH, D.D. (Department of Systematic Theology) HENRY KING CARROLL, LL.D. (Department of Minor Denominations) JOHN THOMAS CREAGH, D.D. (Department of Liturgics and Religious Orders) (VOL. I.) JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D. (Department of Liturgics and Religious Orders) (VOLS. II. TO XII.) |
JAMES FREDERIC McCURDY, PH.D., LL.D. (Department of the Old Testament) HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D.D. (Department of the New Testament) ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D. (Department of Church History) FRANK HORACE VIZETELLY, F.S.A. (Department of Pronunciation and Typography) |
SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.
(Editor-in-Chief.)
Professor of Church History, New York University.
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CHARLES COLEBROOK SHERMAN Editor in Biblical Criticism and Theology on "The New International Encyclopedia," New York. |
GEORGE WILLLAM GILMORE, M.A. New York, Formerly Professor of Biblical History and Lecturer on Comparative Religion, Bangor Theological Seminary. |
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CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH, D.D. (Department of Systematic Theology.) Professor of Systematic Theology, Chicago Theological Seminary. HENRY KING CARROLL, LL.D. (Department of Minor Denominations.) One of the Corresponding Secretaries of the Board of Foreign Missions of the Methodist Episcopal Church, New York. JOHN THOMAS CREAGH, D.D. (Department of Liturgies and Religious Orders.) Professor of Canon Law, Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C. HUBERT EVANS, Ph.D. (Office Editor.) Member of the Editorial Staff of the Encyclopædia Britannica, Company, New York City. |
JAMES FREDERICK McCURDY, Ph.D., LL.D. (Department of the Old Testament.) Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Toronto. HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D.D. (Department of the New Testament.) Professor of the Literature and Interpretation of the New Testament, Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass. ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D. (Department of Church History.) Professor of Church History, Baylor Theological Seminary (Baylor University), Waco, Tex. FRANK HORACE VIZRETELLY, F.S.A. (Department of Pronunciation and Typography.) Managing Editor of the Standard Dictionary, etc., New York City. |
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HANS ACHELIS, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Church History, University of Halle. SAMUEL JAMES ANDREWS (†), Late Pastor of the Catholic Apostolic Church, Hartford, Conn. CARL FRANKLIN ARNOLD, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Church History, Evangelical Theological Faculty, University of Breslau. CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH, D.D., Professor Of Systematic Theology, Chicago Theological Seminary. KARL BENRATH, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Church History, University of Königsberg. IMMANUEL GUSTAV ADOLF BENZINGER, Ph.D., Th.Lic., Formerly Privat-docent in Old Testament Theology, University of Berlin. Member of the Executive Committee of the German Society for the Exploration of Palestine, Jerusalem. |
CARL BERTHEAU, Th.D., Pastor of St. Michael's Church and President of the Society for the Inner Mission, Hamburg. EDWIN MUNSELL BLISS, D.D., Editor of the Encyclopedia of Missions, etc., Washington, D. C. EDUARD BOEHMER (†), Ph.D., Th.D., Formerly Professor of Romance Languages, Universities of Halle and Strasburg. AMY GASTON BONET-MAURY, D.D., LL.D, Professor of Church History, Independent School of Divinity, Paris. GOTTLIEB NATHANAEL BONWETSCH, Th.D., Professor of Church History, University of Göttingen. FRIEDRICH BOSSE, Ph.D., Th.Lic., Professor of the New Testament and Church History, University of Greifswald. GUSTAV BOSSERT, Ph.D., Th.D., Formerly Pastor at Nabery near Kirchheim, Württemberg. |
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JOHANN FRANZ WILHELM BOUSSET, Th.D., Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Göttingen. JOHANNES FRIEDRICH THEODOR BRIEGER, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Church History, University of Leipsic. CHARLES AUGUSTUS BRIGGS, D.D., D.Litt. (Oxon.), Professor of Theological Encyclopedia and Symbolics, Union Theological Seminary, New York. CARL VON BUCHRUCKER, (†), Th.D., Late Supreme Consistorial Councilor, Munich. FRANTS PEDER WILLIAM BUHL, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Oriental Languages, University of Copenhagen. WALTER CASPARI, Ph.D., Th.Lic., University Preacher and Professor of Practical Theology, Pedagogics, and Didactics, University of Erlangen. ALEXIS IRENEE DU PONT COLEMAN, M.A. Instructor of English, College of the City of New York. JOHN THOMAS CREAGH, D.D., Professor of Canon Law, Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C. AUGUST HERMANN CREMER (†), Th.D., Late Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Greifswald. GUSTAF HERMAN DALMAN, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Leipsic, and President of the German Evangelical Archeological Institute, Jerusalem. SAMUEL MARTIN DEUTSCH, Th.D., Professor of Church History, University of Berlin. FRANZ WILHELH DIBELIUS, Ph.D., Th.D., Supreme Consistorial Councilor, City Superintendent, and Pastor of the Church of the Cross, Dresden. PAUL GOTTFRIED DREWS, Th.D., Professor of Practical Theology, University of Giessen. WILHELIM DREXLER, Ph.D., Librarian, University of Greifswald. HEINRICH DUNCKER (†), Th.D., Late Consistorial Councilor, Dessau. HENRY OTIS DWIGHT, LL.D., Recording Secretary of the American Bible Society, New York. DAVID ERDMANN (†), Th.D., Formerly General Superintendent and Honorary Professor of Church History, Evangelical Theological Faculty, University of Breslau. HERMANN AUGUST PAUL EWALD, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Dogmatics and New Testament Exegesis, University of Erlangen. PAUL FEINE, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Berlin. BARB FERRKE, Writer on Art and Architecture, New York City. |
JOHANNES FICKER, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Church History, Evangelical Theological Faculty, University of Strasburg. THEODOR FORESTER (†), Th.D., Late Professor of Church History, University of Halle. NORMAN FOX (†), D.D., Late Baptist Clergyman and Author, Morristown, N. J. ALBERT FREYBE, Ph.D., Th.D., Gymnasial Professor, Parchim, Mecklenburg. EMIL ALBERT FRIEDBERG, Dr.Jur., Professor of Ecclesiastical, Public, and German Law, University of Leipsic. HEINRICH GELZER (†), Ph.D. Late Professor of Classical Philology and Ancient History, University of Jena. GEORGE WILLIAIM GILMORE, M.A., Formerly Lecturer on comparative Religion, Bangor Theological Seminary. WALTER GOETZ, Ph.D., Professor of History, University of Tübingen. WILHELM GOETZ, Ph.D., Honorary Professor of Geography, Technical School, and Professor, Military Academy, Munich. JOHANNES FRIEDRICH GOTTSCHICK (†), Th.D., Late Professor of New Testament Exegesis, Ethics, and Practical Theology, Evangelical Theological Faculty, University of Tübingen. HERMANN GUTHE, Th.D., Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Leipsic. HEINRICH HAHN, Ph.D., Formerly Professor of History and German in the Luisenstadt Real-Gymnasium, Berlin. ADOLF HARNACK, Ph.D., M.D., Dr.Jur., Th.D., Professor of Church History, University of Berlin, and General Director of the Royal Library, Berlin. ALBERT HAUCK, Ph.D., Dr.Jur., Th.D., Professor of Church History, University of Leipsic; Editor of the Realencyklopädie, Founded by J. J. Herzog. HERMAN HAUPT, Ph.D., Professor, and Director of the University Library, Giessen. RICHARD HAUSMANN, Hist.D., Formerly Professor of History, Dorpat, Russia. JOHANNES HAUSSLEITER, Ph.D., Th.D., Consistorial Councilor, Professor of New Testament Theology and Exegesis, University of Greifswald. CARL FRIEDRICH GEORG HEINRICI, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Leipsic. MAX HEROLD, Th.D., Dean, Neustadt-on-the-Aisch, Bavaria, Editor of Siona. PAUL HINSCHIUS, (†), Dr.Jur., Late Professor of Ecclesiastical Law, University of Berlin. |
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HERMANN WILHELM HEINRICH HOELSCHER, Th.D., Pastor of the Church of St. Nicholas, Leipsic, Editor of the Allgemeine evangelisch-lutherische Kirchenseitung and of the Theologisches Literaturblatt. RUDOLF HUGO HOFMANN, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Homiletics and Liturgies, University of Leipsic. ALFRED JEREMIAS, Ph.D., Th.Lic., Pastor of the LutherChurch and Privat-docent for the History of Religion and the Old Testament in the University, Leipsic. FRIEDRICH WILHELM FERDINAND KATTENBUSCH, Th.D., Professor of Dogmatics, University of Halle. PETER GUSTAV KAWERAU, Th.D., Consistorial Councilor, University Preacher, and Professor of Practical Theology, Evangelical Theological Faculty, University of Breslau. HANS KESSLER, Th.D., Supreme Consistorial Councilor, Berlin. RUDOLF KITTEL, Ph.D., Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Leipsic. HEINRICH AUGUST KLOSTERMANN, Th.D., Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Kiel. AUGUST KOEHLER (†), Ph.D., Th.D., Late Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Erlangen. FRIEDRICH EDUARD KOENIG, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, Evangelical Theological Faculty, University of Bonn. THEODOR FRIEDRICH HERMANN KOLDE, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Church History, University of Erlangen. HERMANN GUSTAV EDUARD KRUEGER, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Church History, University of Giessen. JOHANNES WILHELM KUNZE, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Systematic and Practical Theology, University of Greifswald. EARL LUDWIG LEIMRACH (†), Ph.D., Th.D., Late Provincial Councilor for Schools, Hanover. LUDWIG LEMME, Th.D., Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Heidelberg. EDUARD LEMMP, Ph.D., Chief Inspector of the Royal Orphan Asylum, Stuttgart. FRIEDRICH LEZIUS, Th.D., Professor of Church History, University of Königsberg. BRUNO LINDNER, Ph.D., Professor of Aryan Languages, University of Leipsic. |
FRIEDRICH LIST (†), Ph.D., Late Studiendirektor, Munich. GEORG LOESCHE, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Church History, Evangelical Theological Faculty, Vienna. FRIEDRICH ARMIN LOOFS, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Church History, University of Halle. WILHELM LOTZ, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Erlangen. ANDERS HEREZAN LUNDSTROEM, Th.D., Professor of Church History, University of Upsala, Sweden. JAMES FREDERICK MCCURDY, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Toronto. GEORGE DUNCAN MATHEWS, D.D., Secretary of the Alliance of the Reformed Churches, London. PHILIPP MEYER, Th.D., Supreme Consistorial Councilor, Member of the Royal Consistory, Hanover. CARL THEODOR MIRBT, Th.D., Professor of Church History, University of Marburg. ERNST FRIEDRICH KARL MUELLER, Th.D., Professor of Reformed Theology, University of Erlangen. GEORG MUELLER, Ph.D., Th.D., Councilor for Schools, Leipsic. NIKOLAUS SELLER, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Christian Archeology, University of Berlin. HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D.D., Professor of the Literature and Interpretation of the New Testament, Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass. CHRISTOF EBERHARD NESTLE, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor in the Theological Seminary (Teacher of Hebrew, New Testament Greek, and Religion), Maulbronn, Württemberg. CARL NEUMANN, Ph.D., Professor of the History of Art, University of Kiel. ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D., Professor of Church History, Baylor Theological Seminary (Baylor University), Waco, Texas. JULIUS NEY, Th.D., Supreme Consistorial Councilor, Speyer, Bavaria. FREDERIK CHRISTIAN NIELSEN (†), Th.D., Late Bishop of Aalborg, Denmark. HANS CONRAD VON ORELLI, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and History of Religion, University of Basel. CHARLES PFENDER Pastor of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, Parish of St. Paul, Paris. WILLIAM HENRY PHELEY, Ph.D., General Secretary of the Brotherhood of Andrew and Philip, Philadelphia. |
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BERNHARD PICK, Ph.D., D.D., Pastor of the First German Evangelical Lutheran St. John's Church, Newark, N. J. WILLIAM PRICE, Formerly Instructor in French, Yale College and Sheffield Scientific School, New Haven, Conn. TRAUGOTT OTTO RADLACH, Pastor at Gatersleben, Prussian Saxony. GEORG CHRISTIAN RIETSCHEL, Th.D., University Preacher and Professor of Practical Theology, University of Leipsic. HENDRIK CORNELIS ROGGE (†), Th.D., Late Professor of History, University of Amsterdam. HUGO SACHSSE, Ph.D., Th.Lic., Dr.Jur., Professor of Ecclesiastical Law, University of Rostock. KARL RUDOLF SAHRE, Professor for Religious Instruction and Hebrew, Holy Cross Gymnasium, Dresden. DAVID SCHLEY SCHAFF, D.D., Professor of Church History, Western Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Pa. PHILIP SCHAFF (†), D.D., LL.D., Late Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. KARL SCHMIDT, Th.D., Pastor at Goldberg, Mecklenburg. EMIL SCHUERER, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Göttingen. VICTOR SCHULTZE, Th.D., Professor of Church History and Christian Archeology, University of Greifswald. LUDWIG THEODOR SCHULZE, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Systematic Theology. University of Rostock. REINHOLD SEEBERG, Th.D., Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Berlin. |
EMIL SEHLING, Dr.Jur., Professor of Ecclesiastical and Commercial Law, University of Erlangen. FRIEDRICH ANTON EMIL SIEFFERT Ph.D., Professor of Dogmatics and New Testament Exegesis, Evangelical Theological Faculty, University of Bonn. RUDOLF STAEHELIN (†), Th.D., Late Professor of Church History, University of Basel. GEORG STEINDORFF, Ph.D., Professor of Egyptology, University of Leipsic. EMIL ELIAS STEINMEYER, Ph.D., Privy Councilor, Professor of the German Language and Literature, University of Erlangen. ALFRED STOECKIUS, Ph.D., Astor Library, New York City. PAUL TSCHACKERT, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Church History, University of Göttingen. WILHELM VOLCK (†), Ph.D., Th.D., Late Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Rostock. BENJAMIN BRECKINRIDGE WARFIELD, D.D., LL.D., Professor of Didactic and Polemical Theology, Princeton Theological Seminary. JOHANNES WEISS, Th.D., Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Marburg. AUGUST WILHELM ERNST WERNER, Th.D., Pastor Primarius, Guben, Prussia. EDUARD VON WOELFFLIN, Ph.D., Professor of Classical Philology, University of Munich. THEODOR ZAHN, Th.D., Litt.D., Professor of New Testament Exegesis and Introduction, University of Erlangen. OTTO ZOECKLER (†), Ph.D., Th.D., Late Professor of Church History and Apologetics, University of Greifswald. |
This encyclopedia presents in a condensed and modified form that great body of Protestant learning called the Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie und Kirche, edited by Professor Albert Hauck, Ph.D., D.Th., D.Jur., the famous church historian of Germany. The German work is the third edition of that religious encyclopedia which was originally edited by the late Professor Johann Jakob Herzog and bore his name popularly as a convenient short title. The late Professor Philip Schaff was requested by his intimate friend Dr. Herzog to adapt the encyclopedia to the American public and this he did. To this combination of German and American scholarship the publishers gave the happy title of The Schaff-Herzog Encyclopædia of Religious Knowledge. This name has been familiar to thousands of the religious public on both sides of the sea for the past twenty-five years and so has been preserved as the title of this publication, with the prefix "New."
The history of this encyclopedia up to the present is this: In December, 1853, there appeared at Gotha the first part of the Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie und Kirche, which was the Protestant reply to the challenge of the Roman Catholic scholars engaged upon the Kirchenlexikon oder Encyklopädie der katholischen Theologie und ihrer Hülfswissenschaften, which had been appearing at Freiburg im Breisgau since 1846. The credit for suggesting the latter work must be given to Benjamin Herder (1818-88), one of the leading publishers of Germany. Its editors were Heinrich Joseph Wetzer (1801-53), professor of Oriental philology in the University of Freiburg im Breisgau, a layman, and Benedict Welte (1805-85), a priest and professor of theology in the University of Tübingen. The proposition to do as much for Protestant theology and research was mooted by a company of Protestant theologians, and Matthias Schneckenburger (1804-18), professor of theology in Bern, had been chosen editor of the projected work. But the political troubles of 1848 prevented the carrying out of the scheme and the death of Schneckenburger that year made it necessary to find another leader. At this juncture Friedrich August Tholuck (1799-1877), professor of theology in Halle, where Johann Jakob Herzog was professor from 1847 to 1854, was consulted and he named his colleague. It was an ideal choice, as Professor Herzog was a competent scholar, a friend of progress in theology, moderate in his views, and a persona grata to all parties among the Protestants. The publisher of the Protestant encyclopedia was Christian Friedrich Adolf Rost (1790-1856), who was carrying on the business of Johann Conrad Hinrichs, and under that name.
Both the Roman Catholic and Protestant religious encyclopedias were conspicuous successes and came to be called popularly, by the names of their editors, "Wetzer and Welte" and "Herzog" respectively. The former was finished in 1856 in twelve volumes, followed by an index volume in 1860; the latter in 1868 in twenty-two volumes including the index. In December, 1877, the Herders entrusted a new edition of "Wetzer and Welte" to Joseph Hergenröther (1824-80), at that time a professor of theology in Munich. On his elevation to the cardinalate in 1879 he transferred his editorial duties to Franz Philipp Kaulen (1827-1907), Roman Catholic professor of theology in Bonn, and under him the new edition was finished in 1901 in twelve volumes, each one much larger than those of the first edition. In September, 1903, the index volume appeared. In 1877 the first volume of the second edition of "Herzog" appeared, edited by Professor Herzog with the assistance of his colleague in the theological faculty in Erlangen, Gustav Leopold Plitt (1836-80). On Plitt's death Herzog called in another colleague, Albert Hauck (1845-), the professor of church history, who survived him and brought the work to its triumphant close in 1888 in eighteen volumes, including the index. In the spring of 1896 appeared the first part of the third edition of "Herzog" with Hauck, who meanwhile had gone to Leipsic as professor of church history, as sole editor. It is upon this third edition that the present work is based.
The idea of translating "Herzog" in a slightly condensed form occurred to John Henry Augustus
Bomberger (1817-90), a minister of the German Reformed Church, and then president of Ursinus College,
Collegeville, Pa., and in 1856 he brought out in Philadelphia the first volume, whose title-page
reads thus: The Protestant Theological and Ecclesiastical Encyclopedia: Being a Condensed Translation
of Herzog's Real Encyclopedia. With Additions from Other Sources. By Rev. J. H. A. Bomberger, D.D., Assisted
by Distinguished Theologians of Various Denominations. Vol. I. Philadelphia: Lindsay & Blakiston,
In 1877 Professor Philip Schaff (1819-93) was asked by Dr. Herzog himself to undertake an English reproduction of the second edition of his encyclopedia, and this work was fairly begun when, in the autumn of 1880, Clemens Petersen and Samuel Macauley Jackson were engaged to work daily on it in Dr. Schaff's study in the Bible House, New York City. The next year Dr. Schaff's son, the Rev. David Schley Schaff, now professor of church history in the Western Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Pa., joined the staff. The original publishers were S. S. Scranton & Company, Hartford, Conn., but a change was made before the issue of the first volume and the encyclopedia was issued by Funk & Wagnalls. The title-page read thus: A Religious Encyclopædia: or Dictionary of Biblical, Historical, Doctrinal, and Practical Theology. Based on the Real-Encyklopädie of Herzog, Plitt, and Hauck. Edited by Philip Schaff, D.D., LL.D., Professor in the Union Theological Seminary, New York. Associate editors: Rev. Samuel M. Jackson, M. A., and Rev. D. S. Schaff. Volume I. New York: Funk & Wagnalls, Publishers, 10 and 18 Dey Street. The first volume was issued Wednesday, November 1, 1882, the second Thursday, March 1, 1883, and the third Tuesday, March 4, 1884. Volume I. had pp. xix. 1-847; volume II. pp. xvii. 848-1714; and volume III. pp. xix. 1715-2631. In November, 1886, a revised edition was issued and at the same time the Encyclopedia of Living Divines and Christian Workers of All Denominations in Europe and America, Being a Supplement to Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge. Edited by Rev. Philip Schaff, D.D., LL.D., and Rev. Samuel Macauley Jackson, M. A. New York: Funk & Wagnalls, Publishers, 18 and 20 Astor Place, 1887. In 1891 the third edition of the encyclopedia was issued and with it was incorporated the Encyclopedia of Living Divines, with an appendix, largely the work of Rev. George William Gilmore, bringing the biographical and literary notices down to December, 1890. The entire work was repaged sufficiently to make it one of four volumes of about equal size, and it is this four-volume edition which is known to the public as the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia, the volumes being respectively of pp. xlviii. 679 and four pages unnumbered; 680-1378; 1379-2086; iv. 2087-2629, viii. 296. As the German work at its base was overtaken by the time "S" had been reached, the "Schaff-Herzog" from that letter on was based on the first edition of "Herzog." Therefore much of its matter is now very old. Yet it has been a useful work, and in 1903 its publishers determined on a new edition based on the third edition of "Herzog" which had been appearing since 1896. But inasmuch as there was a space of ten years between the beginnings of the two works, it has been necessary to bring the matter from the German down to date. This end has been accomplished by two courses: first by securing from the German contributors to "Herzog" condensations of their contributions, in which way matter contributed to the German work has in many instances been brought down to date, and second by calling on department editors for supplementary matter.
As appears from what has been said above, this encyclopedia is not entirely anew work. It
is really an old work reconstructed. Its list of titles is largely the same and it follows the same
general plan as in the old work. The points of identity are: (1) that at its base lies the Realencyklopädie
für protestantische Theologie and Kirche, once associated with the name of Herzog,
now with the name of Albert Hauck, professor of church history in the University of Leipsic,
and the author of the authoritative history of the Church in Germany; (2) that it gives in
condensed form the information in that work, and takes such matter directly from the German
work in most instances, although occasionally while the topic is the same the treatment
is independent of the German contributor's; (3) that it has much matter contributed by
the editorial staff and specially secured contributors; (4) that in Biblical matters it
limits its titles to those of the German base, so that it should not be considered as a Bible
dictionary, although the Biblical department comprehends the principal articles of such a
dictionary. The points of dissimilarity are these: (1) It contains much matter furnished
directly by those contributors to the German work who have kindly consented to condense
their articles and bring them within prescribed limits. These limits have often been narrow,
but in no other way was it possible to utilize the German matter. (2) It contains
hundreds of sketches of living persons derived in almost every instance from matter
furnished by themselves. In writing these sketches much help has been received, principally
in the suggestion of names, from the English and American Who's Who and from the German
Wer ist's (which is a similar work for Germany), and we desire to acknowledge our indebtedness
with thanks. But comparison between the sketches in this book and those given of the same
individual in the books referred to will reveal many differences and be so many proofs of the
We here mention with gratitude the permission given by the publisher of the Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie und Kirche, Mr. HEINRICH ROST, the head of the great publishing house of J. C. HINRICHS of Leipsic, and by the editor of its third edition, Professor ALBERT HAUCK, Ph.D., D.Th., D.Jur., of the University of Leipsic, to use its contents in our discretion. Dr. Hauck has done far more than give permission. He has manifested a kindly interest in our work, has revised the condensations of his articles, and facilitated our efforts to secure from his contributors advance articles. This helpfulness is much appreciated, and we would fain give it prominent recognition.
Rev. DAVID SCHLEY SCHAFF, D.D., who holds the chair of church history in the Western Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Pa., whose father was the founder of this work and who was himself one of its original associate editors, felt unable on account of other duties to assume any editorial responsibility for the present work, as he had been asked to do by the publishers when the new edition was determined on, but he entered heartily into the arrangement whereby the sole responsibility of general editor should be lodged with his former associate editor, and has cooperated by bringing down to date almost all the articles which he and his father contributed to the first edition.
The labor of coordinating the material sent in by the many persons who have cooperated to bring out this work has fallen upon the managing editor, CHARLES COLEBROOK SHERMAN, who has discharged his difficult duties with conscientious fidelity and marked ability.
When the contributors to the Realencyklopädie have chosen not to condense their articles themselves, but have preferred that this work should be done by the editors of the New Schaff-Herzog, the fact is indicated by the use of parentheses enclosing the signature. Editorial addition's or changes in the body of signed articles for which the contributors should not be held responsible are indicated by brackets. A double signature indicates that an article originally prepared by the contributor whose name appears first (in parentheses) has been revised by the contributor whose name follows. The cross (†) following the name of a contributor indicates that he is dead.
| SEPTEMBER 15, 1907. | THE EDITOR. |
For purposes of research and definite information the student is constantly under the
necessity of discovering not only lists of works on a given subject, but also initials or full
names of authors and place and date of publication and often the exact form of the title
of a book inaccurately or partially known. To furnish this information the work which
will prove useful beyond all others is the British Museum Catalogue, which with its
Supplement records the books received down to 1900; accessions beyond this date
are also recorded in supplementary issues. Especially valuable to the theological student
are the four parts devoted to the Bibles and Bible-works in the British Museum,
though the large number of entries makes it hard to consult these parts. Some help is
given by the tables of arrangement. A Subject Index for 1881-1905, ed. G. K. Fortescue,
4 vols., London, 1902-06, makes available a very considerable part of the late literature
upon all subjects. Next to this, if indeed not equally valuable so far as it is finished, is
the exhaustive work doing for the French National Library and for publications in French
what the work just named does for the British. This is the Catalogue général . . . de la
Bibiliotheque Nationale, now in course of publication, Paris, 1897 sqq., of which volume xxiv.,
the last received, carries the list through "Catzius." The value of these two publications
will be more accurately estimated when it is recalled that the two institutions are stated
repositories for copyrighted books in the two countries respectively. An important
feature of the first volume of the French catalogue is a helpful account of previous
catalogues of the French National Library. The English work is in folio,
the French in octavo. Perhaps the next best general work is that of J. C.
Brunet, Manuel du libraire, 3 vols., Paris, 1810, superseded by the 5th ed., 6 vols.,
1860-65, with Supplement, 2 vols., 1878-80. After these two works come in point of
usefulness what may be called the ,national catalogues, recording the books published in
Germany, France, Great Britain, Italy, and America. For Germany the work was begun
in the Allgemeines Bücher-Lexicon, by W. Heinsius, reedited and enlarged by O. A. Schulz,
then by F. A. Schiller, covering the period 1700-1851 in 11 volumes, Leipsic, 1812-54, for
For publications in French there is the Catalogue général de la librairie française, covering the period 1840-99, 15 vols., Paris, 1867-1904, begun by O. Lorenz and continued by D. Jordell, with a Table des matieres or index published at irregular intervals, but exceedingly full and usable. The Table systématique de la bibliographie de la France is an annual list of copyrighted books classified according to subjects, published in Paris.
For British publications the London Catalogue, London, 1846, now very hard to obtain, carries the list of books from 1800 to 1846 with Index to the same. This was continued by the English Catalogue, now complete down to 1905, 7 vols., London, 1864-1905. The three volumes for 1890-1905 are arranged by authors and subjects in one alphabet. For the period 1837-89 there is an Index of Subjects, 4 vols., London, 1858-93. A Yearly Catalogue is issued, which, like the French annuals and German semiannuals, is superseded by the volume covering a series of years.
For modern Italian works the authoritative source is the Catalogo generale della libreria Italians, 1847-99, compilato dal Prof. Attilio Pagliaini, 3 vols., Milan, 1901-05, a work singularly complete for the period it covers.
For American publications the period 1820-71 is inadequately covered by the Bibliotheca Americana, by O. A. Roorbach to 1861, and then by J. Kelly, a set of books rarely on the market. The American Catalogue continues this to the end of 1905 in 6 vols. folio, 2 vols. roy. 8vo, New York, 1880-1906. This was begun by F. Leypoldt and is continued by the Publishers' Weekly. In this series a Yearly Catalogue is issued, superseded like the other annuals by the larger volume. The whole is being supplemented by Charles Evans with the American Bibliography, a Chronological Dictionary of All . . . Publications . . ., 1689-1820. Of this magnificent work, vols. i.-iv. are issued, Chicago, 1903-07, bringing the titles down to 1773.
For earlier books a valuable set of volumes is L. Hain, Repertorium bibliographicum, 2 vols. in 4 parts and an Index, Stuttgart, 1826-91, giving a list of books printed from the invention of printing to 1500. To this W. A. Copinger has added a Supplement in 2 vols., 3 parts, London, 1895-1902, and Dietrich Reichling, Appendices, in course of preparation and publication, containing corrections and additions, Munich, 1905 sqq.
Valuable as selected and classified lists of general literature, including theology, are Sonnenschein's Best Books and Reader's Guide, London, 1891-95. The foregoing are all in the field of general literature and are not specifically theological.
Of specifically Theological Bibliographies, giving lists of literature in the various departments
of the science, the older ones have principally a historic value. Some of the best
are: J. G. Walch, Bibliotheca theologica selecta, 4 vols., Jena, 1757-65, arranged topically
with an index of authors; G. B. Winer, Handbuch der theologischen Litteratur, 3d ed., 3 vols.,
Leipsic, 1837-42 (gives little literature in English); E. A. Zuchold, Bibliotheca theologica,
2 vols., Göttingen, 1864 (an alphabetical arrangement by authors of books in German issued
1830-62); W. Orme, Bibliotheca theologica, London, 1824 (contains critical notes). One of the
older books, often referred to for its lists of editions of Scripture, is J. Le Long, Bibliotheca sacra,
2 vols., Paris, 1709, enlarged by A. G. Masch, 5 vols., Halle, 1778-90. T. H. Horne added
to his Introduction a rich bibliography of the works issued before and in his time (also printed
Among the most useful guides to theological literature are the works on Introduction to Theology or on Theological Encyclopedia and Methodology, most of which give classified lists of literature. Schleiermacher's Kurze Darstellung des theologischen Studiums, Berlin, 1811, 1830, was followed by K. R. Hagenbach, Encyklopädie and Methodologie, Leipsic, 1833, revised by M. Reischle, 1889. This last, though not in its latest form, was practically reproduced by G. R. Crooks and J. F. Hurst, New York, 1884, rev. ed., 1894, with copious lists of literature, English and American, added. Better even than this is A. Cave, Introduction to Theology, 2d ed., Edinburgh, 1896, in which the lists of literature are especially valuable, though the lapse of a decade since the publication makes a new edition desirable. Of very high value for its citation of literature, including Continental, English, and American, is L. Emery, Introduction à l'étude de la théologie protestante, Paris, 1904.
In the way of Biblical and Theological Dictionaries and Encyclopedias the past decade has witnessed great progress. The two great Bible Dictionaries, superseding for English readers all others, are A Dictionary of the Bible, by J. Hastings and J. A. Selbie, 4 vols. and extra volume, Edinburgh and New York, 1898-1904 (comprehensive and fully up to date in the Old Testament subjects, but conservative and often timid in dealing with the New Testament), and Encyclopædia Biblica, by T. K. Cheyne and J. S. Black, 4 vols., London and New York, 1899-1903 (also comprehensive, much more "advanced" in the Old Testament and admitting representation to the "Dutch School" in the New Testament parts, but handicapped by the Jerahmeel theory of Prof. Cheyne). F. Vigouroux, Dictionnaire de la Bible, Paris, 1891 sqq., still in course of publication, has reached "Palestine" with part xxix., and is an excellent specimen of the conservative type of French Biblical scholarship.
In Christian Archeology the work of W. Smith and S. Cheetham, Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, 2 vols., London, 1875-80, is still valuable, and there is no later work in English to take its place. Of high value is F. X. Kraus, Real-Encyklopädie der christlichen Alterthümer, 2 vols., Freiburg, 1881-86. The best work, which must supersede all others because of its extraordinary completeness and fulness, but which has been only recently begun and must take many years to complete under its present plan, is F. Cabrol, Dictionnaire d'archéiologie chrétienne et de liturgie, Paris, 1903 sqq. (parts i.-xii. are out, and bring the reader down to "Baptême"). In a different field, and worthy of high praise, is W. Smith and H. Wace, Dictionary of Christian Biography, Literature, Sects, and Doctrines, 4 vols., London 1877-87, representing the best English scholarship of its day, and, from the nature of its contents, not easily to be superseded. A help to this, particularly in the matter of early Christian writers, is W. Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 3 vols., new edition, London, 1890.
In the general field of Historical and Doctrinal Theology must be mentioned on the Roman Catholic side the Kirchenlexikon of Wetzer and Welte, 2d ed., begun by Cardinal Hergenr&oum;ther, continued by F. Kaulen, 12 vols. and Register, Freiburg, 1880-1903. This work must be commended for its accurate scholarship, its admirable regard for proportion, and for the large range of subjects it treats with fairness and with only a suspicion of a tendency toward ultramontanism. Briefer is the Handlexikon der katholischen Theologie, begun by J. Schäfler (continued by J. Sax), 4 vols., Regensburg, 1880-1900. The new Kirchliches Handlexikon of M. Buchberger, Munich, 1904-06 (in progress), is not particularly valuable. The evangelical side of German scholarship is represented by the great work of J. J. Herzog, Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie and Kirche, 3d ed., revised under A. Hauck, Leipsic, 1896 sqq., 18 vols. issued to date. This is the great storehouse of German Protestant theology and the basis of the present work. The most ambitious work of American scholarship is J. McClintock and J. Strong, Cyclopædia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature, 10 vols., New York, 1867-1881, with two supplementary volumes, 1884-86 (claims to have over 50,000 titles; necessarily it is now in need of revision). Other works, each having its distinctive field, are: W. F. Hook, A Church Dictionary, 8th ed., London, 1859, reprinted Philadelphia, 1854; J. Eadie, The Ecclesiastical Cyclopedia, ib., 1861; J. H. Blunt, Dictionary of Doctrinal and Historical Theology, 2d ed:, ib., 1872; idem, Dictionary of Sects, Heresies, and Schools of Thought, ib., 1891 (both of considerable worth, representing "High Anglicanism"); W. E. Addis and T. Arnold, A Catholic Dictionary, London and New York, 6th ed., 1903; J. Hamburger, Real-Encyklopädie des Judenthums, 3 vols., 3d ed., Leipsic, 1891-1901 (deals with both Biblical and Talmudic subjects; "by a Jew for Jews"); The Jewish Encyclopedia, published under the direction of an editorial board of which I. K. Funk was chairman and Isidore Singer managing editor, 12 vols., New York, 1901-06; F. Lichtenberger, Encyclopédie des sciences religieuses, 13 vols., Paris, 1877-82 (for French Protestants). T. P. Hugh, Dictionary of Islam, London, 1885, is the only encyclopedic work on the subject, but defective and unreliable. In Hymnology there are: H. A. Daniel, Thesaurus hymnologicus, i. Latin hymns, ii. Latin sequences, iii. Greek hymns, iv.-v. supplement to vols. i.-ii., Leipsic, 1841-55 (a storehouse of material often inaccessible elsewhere, but ill digested, inaccurate, and perplexing to consult); E. E. Koch, Geschichte des Kirchenliedes and Kirchengesangs der christlichen . . . Kirche, 3d ed., partly posthumous, 8 vols. and index, 1866-77 (the greatest collection of biographies of hymnists, unfortunately not reliable); the one English cyclopedic work in hymnology is J. Julian, Dictionary of Hymnology, London and New York, 1907. A work of immense erudition and alone in its field, which comprehends much that is theological, is J. M. Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 3 vols., New York, 1901-06 (vol. iii. in 2 parts is devoted to the bibliography of the subject, duly classified).
While most of the Biblical Helps are noted under the appropriate titles in the text,
the following are worthy of special mention here. For the Old Testament all the books
except Exodus to Deuteronomy were published in handy form in the Hebrew by G. Baer
and F. Delitzsch, Leipsic, 1869-95 (the text, though critical, does not concern itself with
readings from the versions); the best ed. so far of the complete Hebrew text is C. D.
Ginsburg's Hebrew Bible, 2 vols., London, 1894; the text alone was reprinted in 1906
(the Introduction to the Hebrew Bible by Ginsburg, London, 1897, is the one indispensable
handbook to the text); yet a very excellent Biblia Hebraica has been
published by R. Kittel with the assistance of Professors G. Beer, F. Buhl, G. Dalman,
S. R. Driver, M. Löhr, W. Nowack, J. W. Rothstein, and V. Ryssel, in 2 parts,
Leipsic, 1905-06, obtainable also in smaller sections. The new series entitled The Sacred
Books of the Old Testament, ed. Paul Haupt, now in course of publication, Leipsic, London,
For New Testament texts the student will naturally turn either to the Editio octava critica major of Tischendorf, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1869-72, with Prolegomena by C. R. Gregory, 3 vols., ib., 1884-94 (containing the most complete collection of the variant readings with description of the sources from which they are derived); to the edition by B. F. Westcott and F. J. A. Hort, 2d ed., Cambridge, 1890; to R. F. Weymouth's Resultant Greek Testament, London, 1892; to E. Nestle's Novum Testamentum Græce, 3d ed., Stuttgart, 1901; or to O. von Gebhardt's ed., combining the readings of Tischendorf, Tregelles, and Westcott and Hort, 16th ed., Leipsic, 1900. Of lexicons the best for general purposes is J. H. Thayer, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, New York, 1895; but notice must be taken of H. Cremer, Biblisch-theologisches Wörterbuch, 9th ed., Gotha, 1902, Eng. transl. of 2d ed., Edinburgh, 1886, with supplement (a work that aims to bring out especially the theological, philosophical, and psychological elements of the New Testament vocabulary, and is not a general lexicon). A choice is given in concordances between C. H. Bruder, Concordantiæ . . . Novi Testamenti, 5th ed., Göttingen, 1900, and W. F. Moulton and A. S. Geden, Concordance to the Greek Testament, Edinburgh and New York, 1897 (good for Westcott and Hort's text). For the English Bible the two concordances of value now are R. Young, Analytical Concordance to the Bible, 7th ed., Edinburgh and New York, 1899; and J. Strong, Exhaustive Concordance to the Bible, New York, 1896. The best grammar of the New Testament is F. Blass, Grammatik des neutestamentlichen Griechisch, Göttingen, 1902, Eng. transl. of 2d ed., London, 1905, along with which should be used E. D. Burton, Syntax of Moods and Tenses in New Testament Greek, Chicago, 1901 (the best work on the subject). Of H. J. Moulton's Grammar of New Testament Greek, only vol. i., Prolegomena, is published, Edinburgh, 1906. General Semitic and Oriental philology is treated in separate volumes on the individual languages in the Porta linguarum orientalium, ed. J. H. Petermann, H. L. Strack, and others, Berlin, 1884 sqq.
In the department of Church History the sources available to the student are growing exceedingly abundant. For a survey of early Christian literature the most detailed work is that of A. Harnack, Geschichte der altchristlichen Litteratur bis Eusebius, 2 vols. in 3 parts, Leipsic, 1893-1904 (a book of reference). A handbook of great value is G. Krüger, Geschichte der altchristlichen Litteratur in den drei ersten Jahrhunderten, Freiburg, 1895, 2d ed., 1898, Eng. transl., New York,1897 (a model of compression and succinctness, including short lives of the writers and good lists of literature). C. T. Cruttwell, Literary History of Early Christianity, 2 vols., London, 1893, is also a work of merit. A massive work, doing for the Byzantine and later writers of the Greek Church what Harnack does for the early period, is K. Krumbacher, Byzantinische Litteraturgeschichte, 527-1453, Munich, 1897. As a guide to the use of medieval literature, and as a help to the sources and an indicator of all that is best in those sources in modern works, there is no book which can be compared with A. Potthast, Bibliotheca historica medii avi, Berlin, 1896, quoted in this work as Potthast, Wegweiser. No student of ecclesiastical history can afford to be without this most complete guide to the MSS. and the editions of the sources of knowledge of the lives of the saints, notables, and writers down to 1500 A. D.
As a source for original investigation in Patristics, as well as in medieval theological
writings, there is nothing so handy (because of its comprehensiveness) as the collection
made under the direction of the Abbé Migne, Patrologiæ cursus completus, Series
Latina, 221 vols., Paris, 1844-64; Series Græca, 162 vols., ib., 1857-66 (a set of works
rarely on the market, costing about $1,200, but possessed by the principal general and theological
libraries in the country; the drawback is that the text is often not critical and
is very badly printed). Subsidiary to the use of Migne the following works are often
quoted: J. A. Fabricius, Bibliotheca Græca, 14 vols., Hamburg, 1705-28, new ed., by G. C.
Harles, 12 vols., 1790-1811, incomplete (quoted as Fabricius-Harles), which is a bibliographical and biographical
directory to early patristic writings, and contains textual matter
of great importance; J. S. Assemani, Bibliotheca orientalis Clementino-Vaticana, 3 vols.,
Rome, 1719-28 (a collection of Syriac, Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Hebrew, Samaritan,
Among collections of Sources the first place is easily held by the massive Monumenta Germaniæ historica, still in course of publication, of which over 60 volumes are already issued in folio and quarto, Hanover and Berlin. This series originated in the Gesellschaft für die altere deutsche Geschichtskunde in Frankfort, 1819. The work was put into the hands of Dr. G. H. Pertz, to whom the great comprehensiveness of the series and its consequent value is largely due. Dr. Pertz was editor and did much of the work till in 1875 it passed into the hands of Prof. G. Waitz, at whose death in 1886 Prof. W. Wattenbach took charge, and in 1888 Prof. E. Dümmler. Most of the German experts in the branches which the collected documents represent have collaborated. There are five sections, Scriptores, Leges, Diplomata, Epistolæ, Antiquitates, and many subsections. The documents in this royal series concern Christendom at large and not, as the title suggests, the German empire alone. There is a volume of Indices by O. Holder-Egger and K. Zeumer, Berlin, 1890, covering the volumes issued up to that time, and the table of contents is carried five years, farther along in the work of Potthast mentioned above.
Other collections of value to the historical student are: the Bibliotheca rerum Germanicarun,
ed, P. Jaffé, 6 vols., Berlin, 1864-73; M. Bouquet, Rerum Gallicarum et Francicarum
scriptores. Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France, 23 vols., Paris, 1738-1876 (begun
by the Benedictines of St. Maur and continued by the Academy. A new ed. was published
under L. Delisle, 1869-94. The record is carried down to 1328 A. D.); L. A. Muratori, Rerum
For those who have not access to large libraries a number of selections from historical documents have been printed. For church history to the time of Constantine, cf. H. M. Gwatkin, Selection from Early Writers, London and New York, 1893; for the medieval and modern periods one of the best is E. Reich, Select Documents Illustrating Mediæval and Modern History, London, 1905, with which may be compared the smaller collection by S. Mathews, Select Mediæval Documents, 764.-1254 A.D., Boston, 1892 (both give the selections in the original languages). For students of the medieval period O. J. Thatcher and E. H. McNeal have translated many important documents in A Source Book for Mediæval History, New York, 1905. Other works of this character are E. F. Henderson, Select Documents of the Middle Ages, London, 1892; D. C. Munro and G. C. Sellery, Medieval Civilization, New York, 1904 (consists of translations or condensations from European writers on important topics); J. H. Robinson, Readings in European History, 2 vols., Boston, 1904-06 (containing translations, condensations, and adaptations of selections, ranging from Seneca to J. A. Hobson, useful for illustration of European and American history, sacred and secular). The reader of German will receive efficient help in such publications as M. Schilling, Quellenbuch zur Geschichte der Neuzeit, 2d ed., Berlin, 1890; K. Noack, Kirchengeschichtliches Lesebuch, 2d ed., Berlin 1890; D. A. Ludwig, Quellenbuch zur Kirchengeschichte, Davos, 1891; P. Mehlhorn, Aus den Quellen der Kirchengeschichte, Berlin, 1894; C. Mirbt, Quellen zur Geschichte des Papsttums, 2d ed., Tübingen, 1901; H. Rinn and J. Jilngst, Kirchengeschichtliches Lesebuch, Tübingen, 1905.
To English Ecclesiastical Sources an excellent guide is C. Gross, Sources and Literature
of English History to 1485, London, 1900. First among the collections of sources is
to be mentioned A. W. Haddan and W. Stubbs, Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents
relating to Great Britain and Ireland, 3 vols. (vol. ii. in 2 parts), London, 1869-78
(covering the period 200-870 A. D. a storehouse of original documents, unfortunately
left incomplete through the death of Haddan). Of high value are David Wilkins,
Concilia Magnæ Britanniæ . . . 446-1717, 4 vols., London, 1737; Monumenta historica
Britannica. Materials for the History of Britain . . . to the End of the Reign of Henry
VII. Notes by H. Petrie and J. Sharpe, Introduction by T. D. Hardy, vol. i. folio, London,
1848 (no more published; issued under the direction of the Record Commission); J. A.
Giles, Patres ecclesiæ Anglicani ad annum 1800, 36 vols., Oxford, 1838-43 (the work not
well done, but still useful). For the reader of English alone a large number of select sources
are given in H. Gee and W. J. Hardy, Documents Illustrative of English Church History,
London, 1896 (covers the period 314-1700). Known by the searcher after original sources
In the field of Biography a number of works should be known to students. A monumental work begun by J. S. Ersch and J. G. Gruber, continued by A. Leskien, is Allgemeine Encyklopädie der Wissenschaften und Künste in alphabetischer Folge, Leipsic, 1818-89 and still receiving additions. Already 100 volumes and more have been issued, and it is to be continued from time to time. The biographical interest is so pronounced in this production that it takes a front rank in this class of works. The biographical interest is also predominant in another work to which very frequent reference is made, L. S. Le Nain de Tillemont, Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire ecclésiastique des six premiers siècles, 2d ed., 16 vols., Paris, 1701-12, parts of it in an English translation by T. Deacon, 2 vols., London, 1721,1733-35. J. P. Niceron, Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire des hommes illustrés dans la republique des lettres, 43 vols., Paris, 1729-45, is a work of reference often used; mention is due also to the Biographie universelle, ancienne et moderne, 45 vols., Paris, 1843 sqq., and Nouvelle biographie universelle of J. C. F. Hoefer, 46 vols., Paris, 1852-56, both serviceable and sometimes the only available works. Of national biographical works, for Germany there is the Allgemeine deutsche Biographic, 50 vols., Leipsic, 1875-1905 (still in progress; it is under the auspices of the Historical Commission of the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences); for France, the Histoire littéraire de la France begun by the Benedictines of St. Maur, 12 vols., Paris, 1733-63, and continued by members of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-lettres to vol., xxxii., 1898 (a new edition is in progress, completed as far as vol. xvi.); for Protestant France may be consulted E. and E. Haag, La France protestante, 7 vols., Paris, 1846-59, 2d ed., enlarged by H. L. Bordier, vols. i.-vi., 1887-89; also belonging here is A. C. A. Agnew, Protestant Exiles from France, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1886 (printed for private circulation only). The one work of note for Holland is A. J. Van der As, Biographisch Woordenboek van der Nederlanden, Haarlem, 1852 sqq. For England there is the noble Dictionary of National Biography, edited by Leslie Stephen and Sidney Lee, 63 vols., and 3 supplement vols., with one of errata, London and New York, 1885-1904 (contains much of interest to Americans, especially on the founders and notables of colonial times; a cheaper ed. is promised); F. Boase, Modern English Biography of Persons who have died since . . . 1850, 3 vols., Truro, 1892-1901; and J. Gillow, Bibliographical Dictionary of English Catholics, 1534-1886, 5 vols., London and New York, n.d. (the lists of works by the subjects of the entries are an exceedingly valuable feature, being very complete). The Danes have also a biographical dictionary like those mentioned, Dansk biografisk lexikon, tillige omfallende Norge for tidsrummet, 1537-1814. Udgivet af C. F. Brisk&, Copenhagen, 1887 sqq.
There is still needed an adequate work on American Biography which shall correspond
to the English Dictionary of National Biography cited above. There are available the National
Cyclopedia of American Biography, 13 vols., New York, 1892-1906 (the alphabetical
order is abandoned and no consistent substitute adopted; an elaborate index volume
appeared in 1906); and Appleton's Cyclopædia of American Biography by James Grant
As a propædeutic to the study of General Church History an indispensable work is E. Schürer, Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi, 3d ed., 3 vols. and Index, Leipsic, 1898-1901, Eng. transl. of 2d ed., 5 vols., New York, 1891. Of works on general Church History there is a wide range of choice. A. Neander, History of the Christian Religion and Church, 11th Am. ed., 5 vols., Boston, 1872 (coming down to 1517 A. D.), and Index volume, 1881, is the most philosophical work on the subject yet published, superseded in parts by the discoveries made since it was written, but as a whole by no means obsolete; with this should go J. K. L. Gieseler, whose Ecclesiastical History in the German was in 5 vols., Darmstadt, 1824-25, Eng. transl. began by S. Davidson and others, 5 vols., Edinburgh, 1848-56, edited and translation carried further by H. B. Smith, translation completed by Miss Mary A. Robinson, 5 vols., New York, 1857-81 (especially valuable for its citation of original documents); and J. H. Kurtz, a translation of which from the 9th German edition by J. Macpherson appeared in London, 1888-89 (condensed in form and very usable; new ed. of the German by N. Bonwetsch and P. Tschackert, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1906). P. Schaff, History of the Christian. Church, 7 vols., New York, 1882-92, coming down through the Reformation, but omitting vol. v. on the scholastic period, is perhaps the most readable. A very compact work is W. Moeller, History of the Christian Church, 3 vols., London, 1892-1900 (comes down to 1648; the 2d ed. of the German original by H. von Schubert, Tübingen, 1902). J. F. Hurst, History of the Christian Church, 2 vols., New York, 1897-1900, is also compact; it is conservative in treatment of its subject. A. H. Newman, Manual of Church History, 2 vols., Philadelphia, 1900-03, is, like Hurst, compact but less conservative in tone. The reader in Church History will find three works constantly referred to; viz., J. Bingham, Origines ecclesiasticæ, or the Antiquities of the Christian Church, 10 vols., London, 1708-22, often reprinted, unfortunately not seldom in abbreviated form (recognized by scholars as a work of "profound learning and unprejudiced inquiry" and remaining one of the standards in this department; best ed. in 8 vols. of his complete works in 10 vols., by R. Bingham, Jun., Oxford, 1855); A. J. Binterim, Die vorzüglichsten Denkwürdigkeiten der christ-katholischen Kirche, 2d ed., 7 vols., Mainz, 1837-41 (a treasury of important notes on "things worthy of remembrance"); and J. C. W. Augusti, Denkwürdigkeiten aus der christlichen Archäologie, 12 vols., Leipsic, 1817-31. Out of the number of works on the History of Dogma the one likely to be most useful, though by no means the most philosophical, is A. Harnack, Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte, 3d ed., 3 vols., Freiburg, 1894-97, Eng. transl., 7 vols., London, 1894-99, and Boston, 1895-1900. A work of the first rank frequently referred to for the history of Europe till the fall of Constantinople is E. Gibbon, History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, best edition by J. B. Bury, 7 vols., London, 1896-1900 (Gibbon is said to be the only student who worked over thoroughly the Byzantine Histories; formerly regarded as an opponent of Christianity, many of his positions are now taken by church historians).
For the Church History of Germany three works with the same title, Kirchengeschichte
Deutschlands, are of supereminent worth and are generally used as works of reference: A.
Hauck, vol. i., 4th ed., Leipsic, 1904, vol. ii., 2d ed., 1900, vol. iii., 3d ed., 1906, vol. iv., 2d
ed., 1903 (contains rich bibliography); F. W. Rettberg, 2 vols., Göttingen, 1846-48 (especially
good for origins); and J. Friedrich, 2 vols., Bamberg, 1867-69 (like Hauck, good in
history of the dioceses). A handy help to the early sources of German Church History is
W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Gesehichtquellen . . . bis zum Mittel des. 13. Jahrhunderts,
5th ed., 2 vols., Berlin, 1885, 6th ed., 1893-94 (the changes are so great that both editions
are frequently quoted side by side). A work of genius, learning, and attractiveness, but
For the Church History of France a bibliography is furnished by A. Molinier, Les Sources de l'histoire de France, 2 vols., Paris, 1901-02. Besides Bouquet, already mentioned, there are available for early sources: F. Guizot, Collection des mémoires relatifs a l'histoire de France, 31 vols., Paris, 1823-35; and Gallia christiana, 16 vols., ib., 1715-1865. An important work is J. N. Jager, Histoire de l'Eglise catholique en France, 20 vols., ib., 1862-78. In English there are: W. H. Jervis, The Gallican Church, 2 vols., London, 1872; H. M. Baird, Rise of the Huguenots, 2 vols., New York, 1883; idem, The Huguenots and Henry of Navarre, 2 vols. ib., 1886-87; idem, The Huguenots and the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 2 vols., ib., 1895.
A fair survey of the course of the Church in England is obtained by combining W. Bright, Chapters in Early English Church History, Oxford, 1906, with the series edited by W. R. W. Stephens and W. Hunt, 7 vols., London, 1899-1906, as follows: W. Hunt, The English Church 597-1066 (1899); W. R. W. Stephens, The English Church 1066-1272 (1901); W. W. Capes, The English Church in the 14th and 16th Centuries (1900); J. Gairdner, The English Church in the 16th Century (1903); W. H. Frere, The English Church in the Reigns of Elizabeth and James I. (1904); W. H. Hutton, The English Church from the Accession of Charles I. to the Death of Anne (1903); J. H. Overton and B. Felton, The Church of England 1714-1800 (1906).
For the Church History of Ireland and Scotland the following are valuable: J. Colgan, Acta sanctorum veteris et majoris Scotiæ seu Hiberniæ sanctorum insulæ . . . 2 vols., Louvain, 1645-47; H. M. Luckock, The Church in Scotland, London, 1893; J. Lanigan, An Ecclesiastical History of Ireland . . . to the 18th Century, 2d ed., 4 vols., Dublin, 1829 (a very important and essential work); J. O'Hanlon, Lives of the Irish Saints, 7 vols., Dublin, 1875-1877; J. Healy, Insula sanctorum et doctorum, or Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars, Dublin, 1890; and T. Olden, The Church of Ireland, London, 1892. Consult particularly the list of literature under CELTIC CHURCH IN BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
American Church History as a whole is treated in the American Church History Series, 13 vols., New York, 1893-97, issued under the auspices of the American Society of Church History. The principal denominations receive extended treatment by some of their own specialists; for the minor denominations the provision made is only that given in vol. i. by H. K. Carroll, The Religious Forces of the United States, new ed., 1896. It is in respect to the minor sects that most difficulty is experienced in obtaining data. Another series of a more popular character The Story of the Churches, New York, 1904 sqq.
For the history of the Papacy an indispensable work is C. Mirbt, Quellen zur Geschichte
des Papsttums, 2d ed., Tübingen, 1901 (a guide to the history, giving citations from original
sources and a conspectus of the weightiest literature). The only work which covers nearly
the entire history of the popes is that of A. Bower, History of the Popes to 1768, 7 vols.,
London, 1748-61, with Introduction and Continuation by S. H. Cox, 3 vols., Philadelphia,
1847 (the latter is the ed. cited in this work; the character of the History is poor, as was
that of the author). H. H. Milman, History of Latin Christianity, 9 vols., new ed., London, 1883,
is excellent and brings the history down to 1455; for its period (590-795, 858-891) a worthy
work is R. C. Mann, Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages, vol. i., 2 parts, London,
1902; vol. iii., 1906; of great value is L. Pastor, Geschichte der Päpste seit dem Ausgang
des Mittelalters, 4 vols., 4th ed., Freiburg, 1901-07, Eng. transl., 6 vols., London, 1891-1902
(a most industrious and honest work, based on research in the original archives, covers the
A number of collections and discussions of the Decrees and Proceedings of the Councils has been made. Those most cited are P. Labbe and G. Cossart, Sacrosancta concilia, 17 vols. in 18, Paris, 1672; J. Harduin, Conciliorum collectio regia maxima, 12 vols., Paris, 1715; J. D. Mansi, Sacrorum conciliorum nova et amplissima collectio, 31 vols., Venice, 1759-1798 (of the older collections the one most cited); C. J. von Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, 7 vols., Freiburg, 1855-74 (coming down to 1433; a 2d ed. was begun by the author and carried on by Cardinal Hergenröther to 1536, 9 vols. in all, 1863-90; apparently vol. vii. of the 2d ed. never appeared); the Eng. transl. of Hefele by W. R. Clark includes only vols. i.-iii. of the German, down to 787 A. D., 5 vols., 1883-96. Of all these Hefele is the most accessible and now the oftenest cited.
On the subject of Monasticism all students are most deeply indebted to C. F. de T. Montalembert, Les Moines d'occident, 5 vols., Paris, 1860-67, authorized Eng. transl., 7 vols., London, 1861-79. For the history of religious orders the old standard, rich in erudition, is P. Helyot, Histoire des ordres monastiques, religieux et militaires et des, congrégations séculaires de l'un et de l'autre sexe, 8 vols., Paris, 1714-19; the best modern work is M. Heimbucher, Die Orden and Kongregationen der katholischen Kirche, 2 vols., Paderborn, 1896-97, 2d and enlarged ed., 3 vols., 1907, utilized from Vol. IV. on; the one work in English to be cited, which, however, leaves much to be desired, is C. W. Currier, History of Religious Orders, New York, 1896.
On the history of the separate Orders in the Roman Catholic Church the most
important are the following: for the Jesuits, A. and A. de Backer, Bibliothèque des
écrivains de la société de Jésus, 7 vols., Liege, 1853-61, new ed. by C. Sommervogel,
Paris, 1891 sqq.; the Historiæ societatis Jesu, by a number of hands, 6 parts
in 8 vols., Rome, 1615-1759 ; J. A. M. Cretineau-Joly, Histoire religieuse, politique
et littéraire de la compagnie de Jésus, 6 vols., Paris, 1844-46; for the Benedictines, J. Mabillon,
Acta ordinis sancti Benedictii, 9 vols., Paris, 1668-1702, and his Annales ordinis
. . . Benedicti, 6 vols., Paris, 1703-39; for the Carmelites, J. B. de Lezana, Annales
sacri prophetici et Eliani ordinis . . . de Monte Carmelo, 4 vols., Rome, 1651-66; for the
Dominicans, Monumenta ordinis fratrum prædicatomm, in course of publication at Louvain
since 1896 (the earlier works, now being superseded, are: A. Touron, Histoire des hommes illustres
de Saint-Dominique, 6 vols., Paris, 1743-49, and T. M. Mamachi, Annales ordinis
Somewhat akin to the foregoing is the subject of Hagiology, in which two works stand out as preeminent. The one is the Acta sanctorum of J. Bolland, the issue of which was begun in 1643, continued till the dispersion of the Jesuits compelled suspension of the work from 1794 (when vol. liii. was issued) till 1845. In all 63 vols. have been published, and a new ed. has appeared, Paris, 1863-94 (see ACTA MARTYRUM, ACTA SANCTORUM). This is supplemented by the Analecta Bollandiana, edited by a number of Jesuits, Paris and Brussels, 1882 sqq. (still in progress; it includes documents unused or passed by in the Acta, newly discovered material, variant accounts, notes on the old accounts, and description of manuscripts). The other important work is the Acta sanctorum ordinis S. Benedicti of J. Mabillon and T. Ruinart, 9 vols., Paris, 1668-1701, and Venice, 1733-40. Mention may be made of the Acta sanctorum Belgii of J. Ghesquiere and others, 6 vols., Brussels, 1783-94. J. Colgan's work on Scottish and Irish saints is noted above (p. xviii.). The plan of arrangement in these compilations is that of the Roman calendar, the substance is the lives and legends concerning the saints, and the value of the material varies greatly. A very large amount of the material is derived from contemporary sources and is therefore useful when sifted by the critical processes.
In the comparatively new and certainly interesting region of the Comparison and History of Religions the series of first importance, making available to readers of English many of the Bibles and Commentaries of the great religions, is that of the Sacred Books of the East, under the editorship of F. Max Müller, 48 vols., Oxford, 1879-1904. A valuable set of historical expositions of the historical religions is found in the Darstellungen am dem Gebiete der nichtchristlichen Religionsgeschichte, 15 vols., Münster, 1890-1903. The Annales du Musée Guimet, Paris, 1880 sqq., combine the features of the Sacred Books of the East (translations of native sources) and of the Hibbert Lectures (discussions of particular religions). The Hibbert Lectures are a number of series, each series amounting to a treatise on some individual religion or phase of religion, delivered in Great Britain between 1878 and 1902 by specialists of eminence. A corresponding series, known as the American Lectures on the History of Religion, has been in progress since 1895 and is planned ahead as far as 1910. A valuable set is found in the Handbooks on the History of Religions edited by M. Jastrow, of which the following have appeared, Boston, 1895-1905: E. W. Hopkins, Religion of India, 1895; M. Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, 1895; P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Religion of the Ancient Teutons, 1896; A. Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, 1897; M. Jastrow, Study of Religion, 1901; and G. Steindorff, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, 1905. The best individual work on the whole subject is P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte, 3d ed., 2 vols., Tübingen, 1905 (in which the author had the cooperation of numerous scholars). Next to this is C. P. Tiele, Inleiding tot de godsdienstwetenschap, 2d ed., Amsterdam, 1900. Other important volumes are E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, 4th ed:, 2 vols., London, 1903; J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough, 2d ed., 3 vols., ib., 1900; F. B. Jevons, introduction to the History of Religion, ib., 1896 (all dealing with primitive religion).
|
ABBEY: R. A. Cram, Ruined Abbeys of Great Britain, London, 1906. T. Perkins, Short Account of Ramsey Abbey, London and New York, 1907. ABBOTT, E. A.: Apologia: an Explanation and a Defense [of the Bible], London, 1907. ABBOTT, L.: Christ's Secret of Happiness, New York, 1907. Impressions of a Careless Traveler, New York, 1907. ABGAR: F. C. Burkitt, Early Eastern Christianity, pp. 11 sqq., London and New York, 1904. ABHEDANANDA: Vedanta Philosophy, New York, 1907. ABRAHAMS, I.: A Short History of Jewish Literature [70-178 A. D.], New York, 1907. Judaism, London, 1907. ABYSSINIA: R. P. Skinner, Abyssinia of Today, London, 1906. Lord Hindlip, Abyssinia, London, 1906. F. Rosen, Eine deutsche Gesandschaft in Abessinien, Leipsic, 1907. ACTA MARTYRUM, ACTA SANCTORUM: A. Dufourcq, Études sur les gesta martyrum romains, Paris, 1906 sqq. Henri Quentin, Les Martyrologes historiques du moyen âge. Étude sur la formation du martyrologe romain, Paris, 1907. P. Saintyves, Les Saints, successeurs des Dieux. Essais de mythologie chrétienne, Paris, 1907. ACTON, LORD: The History of Freedom and other Essays, London, 1907. Historical Essays and Studies, London, 1908. ADAMS, G. M.: Life, by E. E. Strong, Boston, 1907. ADDIS, W. E.: Christianity and the Roman Empire, new ed., London, 1906. ADENEY, W. F.: How to Read the Bible, new ed., London, 1907. ADLER, C.: Jews in the Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States, Philadelphia, 1907. ADRIAN IV.: Life, by J. Duncan Mackie, London, 1907. AFRICA: In General: E. d'Almeida, Historia Ætiopiæ. Libri I.-IV., Rome, 1907. B. Alexander, From the Niger to the Nile, London and New York, 1907. A. H. S. Landor, Across widest Africa, London and New York, 1907. A. B. Lloyd, In Dwarf Land and Cannibal Country, London and New York, 1907. C. G. Schillings, In Wildest Africa, New York, 1907. Algiers: Francs E. Nesbitt, Algeria and Tunis, Painted and Described, London, 1906. M. W. Hilton Simpson, Algiers and Beyond, London, 1906. Egypt: W. S. Blunt, Secret History of the English Occupation of Egypt, London, 1907. French Africa: G. François, L'Afrique occidentale française, Paris, 1907. |
A. Chevalier, L'Afrique centrale française (Mission Charir-Lac Tchad, 1902-04), Paris, 1907. L. Desplagnes, Le Plateau central Nigérien. Une Mission archéologique et ethnographique au Soudan français Paris, 1907. Portuguese Africa: R. C. F. Maugham, Portuguese East Africa, London, 1806. G. M. Theal, History and Ethnography of Africa South of the Zambesi. 1. The Portuguese in South Africa, from 1505-1700, London, 1907. South Africa: S. Passarge, Die Buschmänner der Kalahari, Berlin, 1907. idem, Südafrika Eine Landes-, Volks- und Wirtschaftskunde, Leipsic, 1908. J. P. Johnson, Stone Implements of South Africa, London, 1907. West Africa: R. E. Dennett, At the Back of the Black Man's Mind: or, Notes on the Kingly Office in West Africa, London, 1907. AGNES, SAINT: Life, by A. Smith, New York, 1907, and by F. Jubaru, Paris, 1907. AGNOSTICISM: W. H. Fitchett, Beliefs of Unbelief, Cincinnati, 1908. AXED, C. F.: One Hundred Responsive Readings from the Scriptures, New York, 1908. ALBERT OF BRANDENBURG: Life, by H. O. Nietschmann, Burlington, Ia., 1907. ALEXANDER IV.: Life, by F. Tenckhoff, Paderborn, 1907. ALEXANDER SEVERUS: Life, by R. V. N. Hopkins, New York, 1907. ALFRED THE GREAT: Proverbs; reed. from the MSS. by W. W. Skeat, London and New York, 1907. ALLARD, PAUL: Eng. transl. of Dix leçons sur le martyre, "Ten Lectures on the Martyrs," New York, 1907. ALLEN, A. V. G.: Life of Phillips Brooks, new ed., Boston. 1907. Freedom in the Church, Boston, 1907. cf. J. B. Johnson, Freedom through the Truth. An Examination of the Rev. A. V. G. Allen's "Freedom in the Church," New York, 1907. ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM: Life, by Miss Mary H. Allies, London, 1907. AMBROSE, SAINT, OF MILAN: J. E. Niederhuber, Die Eschatologie des heiligen Ambrosius, Paderborn, 1907. ANDREWS, L.: Primate Devotions, new ed., London, 1907. ANGUS, J.: Bible Handbook, rev. ed., 2d impression, 1907. ANNA COMNENA: L. Du Sommerard, Anne Comnène, témoin des croisades; Agnés de France, Paris, 1907. APHRAATES: F. C. Burkitt, Early Eastern Christianity, pp. 133 sqq., London and New York, 1904. |
|
APOCRYPHA, The Old Testament: Die Weisheit des Jesus Sirach. Hebräisch und deutsch. Mit einem hebräischen Glossar, Berlin, 1906. R. Smend, Griechisch-syrisch-hebräischer Index zur Weisheit des Jesus Sirach, Berlin, 1907. Die Weisheit des Jesus Sirach erkärt, Berlin, 1907. APOCRYPHA, The New Testament: The Gospel of Barnabas, ed. and transl. from the Italian MS. in the Imperial Library of Vienna, by Lonsdale and Laura Ragg, London, 1907. APOLLONIUS OF TYANA: T. Whittaker, Apollonius of Tyana and other Essays, London, 1906. APOLOGETICS: Jean Rivière, Saint Justin et les apologistes du second sièle, Paris, 1907. E. F. Scott, The Apologetic of the New Testament, London, 1907. S. Weber, Christliche Apologetik, Freiburg, 1907. O. Zoeckler, Geschichte der Apologie des Christentums, Gütersloh, 1907. ARIANISM: S. Rogala, Die Anfänge des arianischen Streites untersucht, Paderborn, 1907. ARISTOTLE: Transl. of the first book of his "Metaphysics," by A. E. Taylor, Chicago, 1907. New complete transl., ed. J. A. Smith and W. D. Ross, London and New York, 1908 sqq. ARTHUR, W.: Life, by T. B. Stephenson, London, 1907. ASIA MINOR: W. M. Ramsay, The Cities of Saint Paul; their Influence on his Life and Thought. The Cities of Eastern Asia Minor, London and New York, 1908. ASSYRIA: H. Winckler, History of Babylonia and Assyria, London and New York, 1907. ATHANASIUS: F. Cavallera, S. Athanase, Paris, 1907. ATONEMENT: John Scott Lidgett, The Spiritual Principle of the Atonement as a Satisfaction made to God for the Sins of the World, 4th ed., London, 1907. The Atonement in Modern Thought. A. Symposium, 3d ed., London, 1907. H. C. Beaching and A. Nairne, Bible Doctrine of the Atonement, London and New York, 1907. J. M. Campbell, The Atonement the Heart of the Gospel, London, 1907. AUGUSTINE, SAINT, OF HIPPO: Preaching and Teaching according to Saint Augustine. Being a new Translation of his De doctrina Christiana, Book 4, and De rudibus catechisandis. With three introductory Essays, by Rev. W. J. Vashon Baker and Rev. Cyril Bickersteth, London, 1907. |
P. Friedrich, Die Marieologie des heiligen Augustinus, Cologne, 1907. AUSTRALIA: N. W. Thomas, Natives of Australia, London, 1906. Kinship Organizations and Group Marriage in Australia, London and New York, 1907. K. L. Parker, The Euahlayi Tribe. Study of Aboriginal Life in Australia, London, 1906. A. Buchanan, The Real Australia, London, 1907. BABCOCK, M. D.: Fragments that Remain; Sermons, Addresses and Prayers, ed. Jessie B. Goetschius, New York, 1907. BABYLONIA: H. Winckler, History of Babylonia and Assyria, London and New York, 1907. R. J. Lau, Old Babylonian Temple Records, London, 1907. J. D. Prince, Materials for a Sumerian Lexicon, New York, 1908. E. Mayer, Sumerier und Semiten in Babylonia, Berlin, 1907. BAMPTON LECTURES: 1907: J. H. F. Peile, The Reproach of the Gospel: an Enquiry into the apparent Failure of Christianity as a General Rule of Life and Conduct, London and New York, 1907. BANKS, L. A.: The Sinner and his Friends, New York, 1907. BAPTISM: R. Ayres, Christian Baptism. A Treatise on the Male of Administering the Ordinance by the Apostles and their Successors in the Early Ages of the Church, London, 1907. Philalethes, Baptismon Didache; or, Scriptural Studies on Baptisms, especially Christian Baptism, London, 1907. BAPTISTS: H. C. Vedder, Short History, new ed., Philadelphia, 1907. BARDESANES: F. C. Burkitt, Early Eastern Christianity, lect. v., London and New York, 1904. BARING-GOULD: Sermons to Children, 2d series, London, 1907. Tragedy of the Cæsars, new ed., London, 1907. Nero, London, 1907. Devonshire and Strange Events, London, 1907. A Book of the Pyrenees, London, 1907. Restitution of All Things, London, 1907. BARTON, W. E.: Sweetest Story ever Told: Jesus and His Love, Chicago, 1907. |
| ADB | Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, 50 vols., Leipsic, 1875-1905 |
| Adv. | adversus, "against" |
| AJP | American Journal of Philology, Baltimore, 1880 sqq. |
| AJT | American Journal of Theology, Chicago, 1897 sqq. |
| AKR | Archiv für katholisches Kirchenrecht, Innsbruck, 1857-81, Mains, 1872 sqq. |
| ALKG | Archiv für Litteratur- und Kirchengeschichte des Mittalters, Freiburg, 1885 sqq. |
| Am. | American |
| AMA | Abhandlungen der Münehener Akademie, Munich, 1763 sqq. |
| ANF | Ante-Nicene Fathers, American edition by A. Cleveland Coxe, 8 vols., and index, Buffalo, 1887; vol. ix., ed. Allan Menzies, New York, 1897 |
| Apoc. | Apocrypha, apocryphal |
| Apol. | Apologia, Apology |
| Arab. | Arabic |
| Aram. | Aramaic |
| art. | article |
| Art. Schmal. | Schmalkald Articles |
| ASB | Acta sanctorum, ed. J. Bolland and others, Antwerp, 1643 sqq. |
| ASM | Acta sanctorum ordinis S. Benedicti, ed. J. Mabillon, 9 vols., Paris, 1668-1701 |
| Assyr. | Assyrian |
| A. T. | Altes Testament, "Old Testament" |
| Augs. Con. | Augsburg Confession |
| A. V. | Authorized Version (of the English Bible) |
| AZ | Allgemeine Zeitung, Augsburg, Tübingen, Stuttgart, and Tübingen, 1798 sqq. |
| Benzinger, Archäologie | I. Benzinger, Hebräische Archäologie, Freiburg, 1894 |
| Bertholdt, Einleitung | L. Bertholdt, Historisch-Kritische Einleitung . . . des Alten and Neuen Testaments, 8 vols., Erlangen, 1812-19 |
| BFBB | British and Foreign Bible Society |
| Bingham, Origines | J. Bingham, Origines ecclesiasticæ, 10 vols., London, 1708-22; new ed., Oxford, 1855 |
| Bouquet, Recueil | M. Bouquet, Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France, continued by various hands, 23 vols., Paris, 1738-76 |
| Bower, Popes | Archibald Bower, History of the Popes . . . to 1758. continued by S. H. Cox, 8 vols., Philadelphia, 1845-47 |
| BQR | Baptist Quarterly Review, Philadelphia, 1867 sqq. |
| BRG | See Jaffé |
| Cant. | Canticles, Song of Solomon |
| cap. | caput, "chapter" |
| Ceillier, Auteurs | R. Ceillier, Histoire des auteurs sacris et ecclisiastiques, 18 vols. in 17, Paris, 1858-69 |
| Chron. | Chronicon, "Chronicles" |
| I Chron. | I Chronicles |
| II Chron. | II Chronicles |
| CIG | Corpus inscriptionum Græcarum, Berlin, 1825 sqq. |
| CIL | Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum, Berlin, 1863 sqq. |
| CIS | Corpus inscriptionum Semiticarum, Paris, 1881 sqq. |
| cod. | codex |
| cod. D. | codex Beza |
| cod. Theod. | codex Theodosianus |
| Col. | Epistle to the Colossians |
| col., cols. | column, columns |
| Conf. | Confessiones, "Confessions" |
| I Cor. | First Epistle to the Corinthians |
| II Cor. | Second Epistle to the Corinthians |
| COT | See Schrader |
| CR | Corpus reformatorum, begun at Halle, 1834, vol. lxxxix., Berlin, 1905 |
| Creighton, Papacy | M. Creighton, A History of the Papacy from the Great Schism to the Sack of Rome, new ed., 8 vols., New York and London, 1897 |
| CSEL | Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum Latinorum, Vienna, 1887 sqq. |
| CSHB | Corpus scriptorum historiæ Byzantium, 48 vols., Bonn, 1828-78 |
| Currier, Religious Orders | C. W. Currier, History of Religious Orders, New York, 1896 |
| D. | Deuteronomist |
| DACL | F. Cabrol, Dictionnaire d'archéologie chretienne at de liturgie, Paris, 1903 sqq. |
| Dan. | Daniel |
| DB | J. Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, 4 vols. and extra vol., Edinburgh and New York, 1898-1904 |
| DCA | W. Smith and S. Cheetham, Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, 2 vols., London, 1875-80 |
| DCB | W. Smith and H. Wace, Dictionary of Christian Biography, 4 vols., Boston, 1877-87 |
| Deut. | Deuteronomy |
| De vir. ill. | De viris illustribus |
| De Wette-Schrader, Einleitung | W. M. L. de Wette, Lehrbuch der historisch-kritischen Einleitung in die Bibel. ed. E. Schrader. Berlin, 1869 |
| DGQ | See Wattenbach |
| DNB | L. Stephen and S. Lee, Dictionary of National Biography, 63 vols. and supplement 3 vols., London, 1885-1901 |
| Driver, Introduction | S. R. Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament, 5th ed., New York, 1894 |
| E. | Elohist |
| EB | T. K. Cheyne and J. S. Black, Encyclopædia Biblica, 4 vols., London and New York, 1899-1903 |
| Eccl. | Ecclesia, "Church"; ecclesiasticus, "ecclesiastical" |
| Eccles. | Ecclesiastes |
| Ecclus. | Ecclesiasticus |
| ed. | edition; edidit, "edited by" |
| EJ | Elohist Jahvist (Yahwist) |
| Eph. | Epistle to the Ephesians |
| Epist. | Epistola, Epistolæ, "Epistle," "Epistles" |
| Ersch and Gruber, Encyklopädie | J. S. Ersch and J. G. Gruber, Allgemeine Encyklopädie der Wissenschaften und Küste, Leipsic, 1818 sqq. |
| E. V. | English versions (of the Bible) |
| Ex. | Exodus |
| Ezek. | Ezekiel |
| fasc. | fasciculus |
| Friedrich, KD | J. Friedrich, Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands, 2 vols., Bamberg. 1887-69 |
| Fritzsche, Exegetisches Handbuch | O. F. Fritzsche and C. L. W. Grimm, Kurzgefassics exegetisches Handbuch su den Apocryphen des Allen Testaments, 6 parts, Zurich, 1851-60 |
| Gal. | Epistle to the Galatians |
| Gee and Hardy, Documents | H. Gee and W. J. Hardy, Documents Illustrative of English Church History, London, 1898 |
| Gen. | Genesis |
| Germ. | German |
| GCA | Göttingische gelehrte Anzeigen, Göttingen, 1824 sqq. |
| Gibbon, Decline and Fall | E. Gibbon, History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ed. J. B. Bury, 7 vols., London, 1896-1900 |
| Gk. | Greek, Grecized |
| Gross, Sources | C. Gross, The Sources and Literature of English History . . . to 1485, London, 1900 |
| Hab. | Habakkuk |
| Haddan and Stubbs, Councils | A. W. Haddan and W. Stubbs, Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents Relating to Great Britain and Ireland, 3 vols., Oxford, 1889-78 |
| Hær | Refers to patristic works on heresies or heretics, Tertullian's De prœscriptione, the Pros haireseis of Irenæus, the Panarion of Epiphanius, etc. |
| Hag. | Haggai |
| Harduin, Concilia | J. Harduin, Conciliorum collectio regia maxima, 12 vols., Paris, 1715 |
| Harnack, Dogma | A. Harnack, History of Dogma . . . from the 3d German edition, 7 vols., Boston, 1896-1900 |
| Harnack, Litteratur | A. Harnack, Geschichte der altchristlichen Litteratur bis Eusebius; 2 vols. in 3, Leipsic, 1893-1904 |
| Hauck, KD | A. Hauck, Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands, vol. i., Leipsic, 1904; vol. ii., 1900; vol. iii., 1905; vol. iv., 1903 |
| Hauck-Herzog, RE | Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie und Kirche, founded by J. J. Herzog, 3d ed. by A. Hauck, Leipsic, 1898 sqq. |
| Heb. | Epistle to the Hebrews |
| Hebr. | Hebrew |
| Hefele, Conciliengeschichte | C. J. von Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, continued by J. Hergenröther, 9 vols., Freiburg, 1883-93 |
| Heimbucher, Orden und Kongregationen | M. Heimbucher, Die Orden and Kongregationen der katholischen Kirche, 2 vols., Paderborn, 1898-97 |
| Helyot, Ordres monastiques | P. Helyot, Histoire des ordres monastiques, religieux et militaires, 8 vols., Paris, 1714-19; new ed., 1839-42 |
| Henderson, Documents | E. F. Henderson, Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages, London, 1892 |
| Hist. | History, histoire, historia |
| Hist. eccl. | Historia ecclesiastica, ecclesiæ, "Church History" |
| Hom. | Homilia, homiliai, "homily, homilies" |
| Hos. | Hosea |
| Isa. | Isaiah |
| Ital. | Italian |
| J | Jahvist (Yahwist) |
| JA | Journal Asiatique, Paris, 1822 sqq. |
| Jaffé, BRG | P. Jaffé, Bibliotheca rerum Germanicarum, 8 vols., Berlin, 1884-73 |
| Jaffé, Regesta | P. Jaffé, Regesta pontificum Romanorum . . . ad annum 1198, Berlin, 1851; 2d ed., Leipsic, 1881-88 |
| JBL | Journal of Biblical Literature and Exegesis, first appeared as Journal of the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis, Middletown, 1882-88, then Boston, 1890 sqq. |
| JE | The Jewish Encyclopedia, 12 vols., New York, 1901-06 |
| JE | the combined narrative of the Jahvist (Yahwist) and Elohist |
| Jer. | Jeremiah |
| Josephus, Ant. | Flavius Josephus, "Antiquities of the Jews" |
| Josephus, Apion | Flavius Josephus, "Against Apion" |
| Josephus, Life | Life of Flavius Josephus |
| Josephus, War | Flavius Josephus, "The Jewish War" |
| Josh. | Joshua |
| JPT | Jahrbücher für protestantische Theologie, Leipsic, 1875 sqq. |
| JQR | The Jewish Quarterly Review, London, 1888 sqq. |
| JTS | Journal of Theological Studies, London, 1899 sqq. |
| Julian, Hymnology | J. Julian, A Dictionary of Hymnology, New York, 1892 |
| KAT | See Schrader |
| KB | See Schrader |
| KD | See Friedrich Hauck, Rettberg |
| KL | Weiser and Welte'e Kirchenlexikon, 2d ed., by J. Hergenröther and F. Kaulen, 12 vols. Freiburg, 1882-1903 |
| G. Krüger, History | G. Krüger, History of Early Christian Literature in the First Three Centuries, New York, 1897. |
| Krumbacher, Geschichte | K. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur, 2d ed., Munich, 1897 |
| Labbe, Concilia | P. Labbe, Sacrorum concliorum nova et amplissima collectio. 31 vols., Florence and Venice, 1759-98 |
| Lam. | Lamentations |
| Lanigan, Eccl. Hist. | J. Lanigan, Ecclesiastical History of Ireland to the 13th Century, 4 vols., Dublin, 1829. |
| Lat. | Latin, Latinized |
| Leg. | Legis, Legum |
| Lev. | Leviticus |
| LXX. | The Septuagint |
| I Macc. | I Maccabees |
| II Macc. | II Maccabees |
| Mai, Nova collectio | A. Mai, Scriptorum veterum nova collectio, 10 vols., Rome, 1826-38 |
| Mal. | Malachi |
| Mann, Popes | R. C. Mann, Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages, London, 1902 sqq. |
| Mansi, Concilia | G. D. Mann, Sanctorum conciliorum collectio nova, 31 vols., Florence and Venice, 1728 |
| Matt. | Matthew |
| McClintock and Strong, Cyclopædia | J. McClintock and J. Strong, Cyclopædia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature, 10 vols. and supplement 2 vols., New York, 1869-87 |
| MGH | Monumenta Germania historica, ed. G. H. Perts and others, Hanover and Berlin, 1826 sqq. The following abbreviations are used for the sections and subsections of this work: Ant., Antiquitates, "Antiquities"; Auct. ant., Auctores antiquissimi, "Oldest Writers"; Chron. min., Chronica minora, "Lesser Chronicles"; Dip., Diplomata, "Diplomas, Documents"; Epist., Epistolæ,, "Letters"; Gest. pont. Rom., Gesta pontificum Romanorum, "Deeds of the Popes of Rome"; Leg., Leges, "Laws"; Lib. de lite, Libelli de lite inter regnum et sacerdotium sœculorum xi et xii conscripti, "Books concerning the Strife between the Civil and Ecclesiastical Authorities in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries"; Nec., Necrologia Germanœ, "Necrology of Germany"; Poet. Lat. œvi Car., Poetœ Latini œvi Carolini, "Latin Poets of the Caroline Time"; Poet. Lat. œvi. Poetœ Latini medii œvi, "Latin Poets of the Middle Ages"; Script., Scriptores, "Writers"; Script. rer. Germ., Scriptores rerum Germanicorum, "Writers on German Subjects"; Script. rer. Langob., Scriptores rerum Langobardicarum et Italicarum, "Writers on Lombard and Italian Subjects"; Script. rer. Merov., Scriptores rerum Merovingicarum, "Writers on Merovingian Subjects" |
| Mic. | Micah |
| Milman, Latin Christianity | H. H. Milman, History of Latin Christianity, Including that of the Popes to . . . Nicholas V., 8 vols., London, 1850-61 |
| Mirbt, Quellen | C. Mirbt, Quellen zur Geschichte des Papsttums und das fömischen Katholicismus, Tübingen, 1901 |
| Moeller, Christian Church | W. Moeller, History of the Christian Church, 3 vols., London, 1892-1900 |
| MPG | J. P. Migne, Patrologiæ cursus completus, series Græca, 162 vols., Paris, 1857-68 |
| MPL | J. P. Migne, Patrologiæ cursus completus, series Latina, 221 vols., Paris, 1844-64 |
| MS., MSS. | Manuscript, Manuscripts |
| Muratori, Scriptores | L. A. Muratori, Rerum Italicarum scriptores, 28 vols. 1723-51 |
| NA | Neuse Archiv der Gesselschaft für alters deutsche Geschichtskunde, Hanover, 1876 sqq. |
| Nah. | Nahum |
| n.d. | no date of publication |
| Neander Christian Church | A. Neander, General History of the Christian Religion and Church, 6 vols. and index, Boston, 1872-81 |
| Neh. | Nehemiah |
| Niceron, Memoires | R. P. Niceron, Memoires pour servir à l'histoire des hommes illustré . . ., 43 vols., Paris, 1729-45 |
| NKZ | Neus kirchliche Zeitschrift, Leipsic, 1890 |
| Nowack, Archäologie | W. Nowack, Lahrbuch der hebräischen Archäologie, 2 vols., Freiburg, 1894 |
| n.p. | no place of publication |
| NPNF | The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, 1st series, 14 vols., New York. 1887-92; 2d series, 14 vols., New York, 1890-1900 |
| N. T. | New Testament, Novum Testamentum, Nouveau Testament, Neuse Testament |
| Num. | Numbers |
| Ob. | Obadiah |
| O.B., O.S.B. | Ordo sancti Benediciti, "Order of St. Benedict" |
| O. T. | Old Testament |
| OTJC | See Smith |
| P | Priestly document |
| Pastor, Popes | L. Pastor, The History the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages, 6 vols., London 1891-1902 |
| PEA | Patres ecclesiæ Anglicanæ ed. J. A. Giles, 34 vols., London, 1838-46 |
| PEF | Palestine Exploration Fund |
| I Pet. | First Epistle of Peter |
| II Pet. | Second Epistle of Peter |
| Pliny, Hist. nat. | Pliny, Historia naturalis |
| Potthast, Wegweiser | A. Potthast, Bibliotheca historica medii œvi. Wegweiser durch die Geschichtswerke, Berlin, 1898 |
| Prov. | Proverbs |
| Ps. | Psalms |
| PSBA | Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archeology, London, 1880 sqq. |
| q.v., qq.v. | quod (quæ) vide, "which see" |
| R. | Redactor |
| Ranke, Popes | L. von Ranke, History of the Popes, 1896 |
| RDM | Revue des deux mondee, Paris, 1831 sqq. |
| RE | See Hauck-Herzog |
| Reich, Documents | E. Reich, Select Documents Illustrating Mediæval and Modern History, London, 1905 |
| REJ | Revue des études Juives, Paris, 1880 sqq. |
| Rettberg, KD | F. W. Rettberg, Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands, 2 vols., Göttingen, 1846-48 |
| Rev. | Book of Revelation |
| Richter, Kirchenrecht | A. L. Richter, Lehrbuch des katholischen und evangelischen Kirchenrechts, 8th ed. by W. Kahl, Leipsic, 1888 |
| Robinson, European History | J. H. Robinson, Readings in European History, 2 vols., Boston, 1904-08 |
| Robinson, Researches and Later Researches | E. Robinson, Biblical Researches in Palestine, Boston, 1841, and Later Biblical Researches in Palestine, 3d ed. of the whole, 3 vols., 1867 |
| Rom. | Epistle to the Romans |
| RTP | Revue de théologie et de philosophie, Lausanne, 1873 |
| R. V. | Revised Version (of the English Bible) |
| sæc. | sæculum, "century" |
| I Sam. | I Samuel |
| II Sam. | II Samuel |
| SBOT | Sacred Books of the Old Testament ("Rainbow Bible"), Leipsic, London, and Baltimore, 1894 sqq. |
| Schaff, Christian Church | P. Schaff, History of the Christian Church, vols. i.-iv., vi., vii., New York 1882-92 |
| Schaff, Creeds | P. Schaff, The Creeds of Christendom, 3 vols., New York, 1877-84 |
| Schrader, COT | E. Schrader, Cuneiform Inscriptions and the Old Testament, 2 vols., London, 1885-88 |
| Schrader, KAT | E. Schrader, Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, 2 vols., Berlin, 1902-03 |
| Schrader, KB | E. Schrader, Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek, 8 vols., Berlin, 1889-1901 |
| Schürer, Geschichte | E. Schürer, Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi, 3 vols., Leipsic, 1898-1901; Eng. transl., 5 vols., New York, 1891 |
| Script. | Scriptores, "writers" |
| Sent. | Sententiæ, "Sentences" |
| S. J. | Societas Jesu, "Society of Jesus" |
| SK | Theologische Studien und Kritiken, Hamburg, 1828 sqq. |
| Smith, Kinship | W. B. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, London, 1903 |
| Smith, OTJC | W. R. Smith, The Old Testament in the Jewish Church, London, 1892 |
| Smith, Prophets | W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel . . . to the Eighth Century, London, 1895 |
| Smith, Rel. of Sem. | W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, London, 1894 |
| S. P. C. K. | Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge |
| S. P. C. | Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts |
| sq., sqq. | and following |
| Strom. | Stromata, "Miscellanies" |
| s.v. | sub voce, or sub verbo |
| Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book | O. J. Thatcher and E. H. McNeal, A Source Book for Mediæval History, New York, 1905 |
| I Thess. | First Epistle to the Thessalonians |
| II Thess. | Second epistle to the Thessalonians |
| ThT | Theologische Tijdschrift, Amsterdam and Leyden, 1867 sqq. |
| Tillemont, Mémoires | L. S. le Nain de Tillemont, Mémoires . . . ecclésiastiques des six premiers siècles, 16 vols., Brussels, 1693-1712 |
| I Tim. | First Epistle to Timothy |
| II Tim. | Second Epistle to Timothy |
| TJB | Theologischer Jahresbericht, Leipsic, 1882-1887, Freiburg, 1888, Brunswick, 1889-1897, Berlin, 1898 sqq. |
| TLB | Theologisches Litteraturblatt, Bonn, 1866 sqq. |
| TLZ | Theologische Litteraturzeitung, Leipsic, 1876 sqq. |
| Tob. | Tobit |
| TQ | Theologische Quartalschrift, Tübingen, 1819 sqq. |
| TS | J. A. Robinson, Texts and Studies, Cambridge, 1891 sqq. |
| TSBA | Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archæology, London, 1872 sqq. |
| TSK | Theologische Studien und Kritiken, Hamburg, 1828 sqq. |
| TU | Texte und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der altchristlichen Litteratur, ed. O. von Gebhardt and A. Harnack, Leipsic, 1882 sqq. |
| TZT | Tübingen Zeitschrift für Theologie, Tübingen, 1838-40 |
| Ugolini, Thesaurus | B. Ugolinus, Thesaurus antiquitarum sacrarum, 34 vols., Venice, 1744-69 |
| V. T. | Vetus Testamentum, Vieux Testament, "Old Testament" |
| Wattenbach, DGQ | W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichtequellen, 5th ed., 2 vols., Berlin, 1885; 6th ed., 1893-94 |
| Wellhausen, Heidentum | J. Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentums, Berlin, 1887 |
| ZA | Zeitschrift für Assyriologie, Leipsic, 1886-88, Berlin, 1889 sqq. |
| Zahn, Kanon. | T. Zahn, Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanons, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1888-92 |
| ZATW | Zeitschrift für die alttestamentlichen Wissenschaft, Giessen, 1881 sqq. |
| ZDMG | Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gessellschaft, Leipsic, 1847 sqq. |
| ZDPV | Zeitschrift des deutschen Palästina-Vereins, Leipsic, 1878 sqq. |
| Zech. | Zechariah |
| Zeph. | Zephaniah |
| ZHT | Zeitschrift für die historische Theologie, published successively at Leipsic, Hamburg, and Gotha, 1832-75 |
| ZKG | Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte, Gotha, 1876 sqq. |
| ZKT | Zeitschrift für katholische Theologie, Innsbruck, 1877 sqq. |
| ZKW | Zeitschrift für kirchliche Wissenschaft und kirchliches Leben, Leipsic, 1880-89 |
| ZWT | Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Theologie, Jena, 1858-60, Halle, 1861-67, Leipsic, 1868 sqq. |
| The following system of transliteration has been used for Hebrew: | ||
| א = ’ or omitted at the | ז = z | ע = ‘ |
beginning of a word. |
ח = ḥ | פּ = p |
| בּ = b | ם = ṭ | פ = ph or p |
| ב = bh or b | י = y | צ = ẓ |
| גּ = g | כּ = k | ק = ḳ |
| ג = gh or g | כ = kh or k | ר = r |
| דּ = d | ל = l | שׂ = s |
| ד = dh or d | מ = m | שׁ = sh |
| ה = h | נ = n | תּ = t |
| ו = w | ס = s | ת = th or t |
|
The vowels are transcribed by a, e, i, o, u, without attempt to indicate quantity or quality. Arabic and other Semitic languages are transliterated according to the same system as Hebrew. Greek is written with Roman characters, the common equivalents being used. | ||
|
When the pronunciation is self-evident the titles are not respelled; when by mere division and accentuation it can be shown sufficiently clearly the titles have been divided into syllables, and the accented syllables indicated. |
||
| a as in sof |
o as in not | iu as in duration |
| ä " " arm | ö " " n or | c = k " " cat |
| a " " at | u " " full | ch " " church |
| ā " " fare | ū " " rule | cw = qu as in queen |
| e " " pen1 | U " " but | dh (th) " " the |
| ê " " fate | Ū " " burn | f " " fancy |
| i " " tin | ai " " pine | g (hard) " " go |
| î " " machine | au " " out | H " " loch (Scotch) |
| o " " obey | ei " " oil | hw (wh) " " why |
| ō " " no | iū " " few | j " " jaw |
| 1In accented syllables only; in unaccented syllables it approximates the sound of e in over. | ||
AACHEN, â´ken, SYNODS OF: The political importance of the town of Aachen (Latin Aquisgranum; French, Aix-la-Chapelle) under Charlemagne and his successors made it a favorite meeting-place for various assemblies. The first synod of Aachen (or Aix) is usually reckoned as having met on Mar. 23, 789, and there is no doubt that a gathering took place on that day; but its results are known only from two royal decrees, the so called Admonitio generalis (MGH, Leg., i., Capitularia regum Francorum, ed. A. Boretius, i., 1883, cap. 22), and the instructions for the royal representatives (cap. 23). The former repeats a summary of the earlier canonical legislation on the duties of the clergy, and adds further regulations for the improvement of clerical and social life, dealing with diligence in preaching, the education of the clergy, the observance of the Lord's Day, just judgment, equal weights and measures, hospitality, and the prevention of witchcraft and perjury. The other document treats of monastic discipline and the regulation of civil society. It is questionable if this gathering can be properly called a synod; and still less can the name be applied to that of 797 (cap. 27), which regulated the condition of the conquered Saxons. On the other hand, the assembly of June, 799, in which Alcuin disputed with Felix of Urgel (see Adoptionism) may be so called, and likewise the three meetings in the years 801 and 802. Their deliberations led to a series of decrees (cap. 33-35 and 36-41) which throw light on Charlemagne's endeavors to elevate clergy and laity. The most important is the great instruction for the missi dominici sent out in the spring of 802, dealing with the discipline of bishops, clergy, monks, and nuns, the faithful performance of their duties by public officials, and the establishment of justice throughout the empire. Among the results of the autumn synod of 802, cap. 36 and 38, deserve special attention; they deal with the duty of intercession for the emperor and bishops, the education of the people, tithes, divine worship and the sacraments, clerical discipline, and the system of ecclesiastical visitations. The next synod (Nov. 809), was occupied with the doctrine of the procession of the Holy Ghost. In the autumn of 816, or the summer of 817, Louis le Débonnaire assembled his first synod at Aachen, when the bishops laid down new regulations for the community life, both of canons and nuns. In the summer of 817 an assembly of abbots discussed the observance of the Benedictine rule. The diets of 819 and 825 and similar later assemblies can again scarcely be counted as synods, though the one held in the sacristy of the cathedral, Feb. 6, 835, has a synodical character. It adopted a thoroughgoing pronouncement on the life and teaching of bishops and inferior clergy, and on the position of the king, his family, and his ministers, with a view to regulating the confusion which the strife between Louis and his sons had caused. It also required of Pépin of Aquitaine that he should restore the church property which he had appropriated. For the synod held at Aachen in connection with the question of Lothaire's divorce, see Nicholas I. The last two synods of Aachen were held under Henry II, one in the year 1000 in connection with the restoration of the bishopric of Merseburg (see Willigis); the other, in 1023, when the contest between the dioceses of Cologne and Liége for the possession of the monastery of Burtscheid was decided in favor of the latter.
Bibliography: Fragmentum historicum de concilio Aquisgranensi, in Mabillon, Analecta, i. 52, Paris, 1723, and in Bouquet, Recueil, vi. 415-443; Epistola Synodi Aquisgranensis ad Pippin, in Labbe, Concilia, vii. 1728, and in Bouquet, Recueil, vi. 354; A. J. Binterim, Pragmatische Geschichte der deutschen . . . Concilien, ii., iii., Mains, 1836-37; MGH, Leg. i. (1835) 465; ib. Capitularia reg. Franc., ii. 2 (1893), 463-466; Hauck, KD, ii.; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, vols. iii., iv.; MGH, Leg. sectio iii., Concilia, i. 1 (1904).
AARON: The brother of Moses. In the Yahwistic sources of the Pentateuch he is called "Aaron, the Levite," i.e., the priest. He is first mentioned when Yahweh appoints him as spokesman for Moses in the mission to Pharaoh ( It is important for the history of the priesthood in Israel to notice that in the narratives of J and E (called "Yahwistic" above) the priestly function of Aaron is quite subordinate, he being mainly represented there as the spokesman and the minister of Moses and, along with Hur, as his representative—a "judge" of the people
( Bibliography: S. Baring-Gould, Legends
of O. T. Characters, 2 vols., London, 1871; J. Wellhausen, Geschichte Israels, chap. iv., Berlin. 1878; H. van Oort, Die Aaroneiden in
ThT, xviii. (1884) 289 and 235; J. Bensinger. Hebräische
Archäologie, pp. 405-428, Freiburg, 1894; W. Nowack,
Archäologie, ii. 87-130, ib. 1894; A. Kuenen in ThT, xxiv.
(1890) 1-42; A. van Hoonacker, Le Sacerdoce lévitique
dans la loi et dans l'histoire des Hebreux, Louvain, 1899;
S. I. Curtiss, The Levitical Priests, Edinburgh, 1877.
AARON AND JULIUS: English Martyrs. See Alban, Saint, of Verulam.
ABADDON, a-bad'en ("Destruction"): In the
Old Testament a poetic name for the kingdom of
the dead, Hades, or Sheol
(
AB'ADIM. See Talmud.
A-BAR'BA-NEL. See Abrabanel.
ABAUZIT, ā"bo"zî', FIRMIN: French Reformed scholar; b. of Huguenot parentage at Uzès (20 m. w.n.w. of Avignon), Languedoc, Nov. 11, 1679; d. at Geneva, Mar. 20,1767. After the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) an attempt was made to bring him up as a Roman Catholic, but it was frustrated by his mother. After some hardships and sufferings, mother and son settled in Geneva, where Abauzit was educated and where, with the exception of visits to Holland and England in 1698, he spent his long life devoted to study and the service of the city library. He was one of the most learned men of his time, possessed much versatility, and enjoyed the friendship of scholars like Bayle, Jurieu, Basnage, and Newton. Nevertheless, he published practically nothing; and after his death many of his manuscripts were destroyed by his heirs. A volume of Œuvres diverses appeared at Geneva in 1770; and a different edition in two volumes at London and Amsterdam in 1770-73. They include essays against the doctrine of the Trinity as commonly received, upon the Book of Daniel, and the Apocalypse. He rendered much service to a society for the translation of the New Testament into French (published 1726). Many of his theological writings are translated in E. Harwood's Miscellanies (London, 1774), with memoir; and seven essays are reprinted thence in Sparks's Collection of Essays and Tracts in Theology, vol. i. (Boston, 1823).
Bibliography: J. Senebier, Histoire littéraire de Genève, Geneva, 1786; E. and É. Haag, La France protestante, ed. H. L. Bordier, i. 2, Paris, 1877; A. Gibert, Abauzit et sa Théologie, Strasburg, 1865.
ABBADIE, ā"bā"dî', JACQUES: Protestant apologist; b. at Nay (10 m. s. by e. of Pau), France,
1654 (?); d. at Marylebone, London, 1727. He
studied in the French Reformed Church academies
of Saumur and Sedan, and early showed much
talent. On invitation of the elector of Brandenburg, he became pastor of the French Reformed
congregation in Berlin in 1680; after the death of
the elector (1688), he followed Marshal Schomberg
to England; and became pastor of the French
church in the Savoy, London, in 1689. In 1699
he was made dean of Killaloe, Ireland. His
Traité de la vérité de la religion Chrétienne
(vols. i. and ii.,
Bibliography: For full list of his writings, consult E. and E. Haag, La France protestante, i., s.v., Paris, 1846; for his life, the collection of his sermons, Amsterdam, 1760, iii., and D. C. A. Agnew, Protestant Exiles from France, pp. 223-228, Edinburgh, 1886; on his work, R. Elliott, The Consistent Protestant . . . with some observations on a treatise . . . by J. Abbadie, London, 1777, and M. Illaire, Étude sur J. Abbadie considéré comme prédicateur, Strasburg, 1858.
ABBATE; ABBÉ. See Abbot.
ABBESS: The title of the head of many monastic communities of women, even in some orders where the head of the monasteries for men does not bear the title of abbot. An abbess is commonly elected by the community. Cases of appointment by the pope on the nomination of the sovereign have occurred less frequently than in the case of abbots. By the ruling of the Council of Trent, only those are eligible who have been eight years professed and reached the age of forty, except, in exceptional circumstances, when a dispensation is granted by the pope. An absolute majority on a secret ballot is required. The election must be confirmed by the bishop (or, in certain cases of exemption, by the pope, or the head of the order), before the new abbess possesses full jurisdiction. A formal benediction, for which there is a form in the Pontificale Romanum, is also given by the bishop in many cases. The power thus assigned to the abbess is merely that requisite to rule her community, and in no sense a spiritual jurisdiction; she can not commute or dispense from vows, laws of the Church, or statutes of the order. She may inflict light punishments in the spirit of the rule; but the more severe ones are reserved to the ecclesiastical superior of the convent, who has jurisdiction in the forum externum. In general it may be said that the power of an abbess has been and is much more restricted than that of an abbot. For the peculiarly wide jurisdiction of abbesses over men as well as women in the order of Fontévraud (not without precedent in the Celtic monastic system), see Fontevraud, Order of . See also Abbot; Monasticism.
ABBEY: A monastic house under the rule of an abbot or an abbess. The name is strictly applicable only to the houses of those orders in which these titles are borne by the superiors. While in the East the free form of a group of scattered cells (known as a laura) continued side by side with the common dwelling of a cenobite community, the West developed a distinct style of its own in monastic architecture. The extant plan of the monastery of St. Gall (820) may be taken as typical of the construction of Western monasteries in the early Middle Ages. The center of the entire group of buildings was occupied by an open rectangular space, on the north side of which was the church, while on the other three sides ran the cloister or ambulatory, a vaulted passage open on the inner side, and serving both as a means of communication and as a place for exercise in bad weather. Connected with the cloister, on the ground floor, were the refectory and kitchen; the chapter-house, in which the reading and exposition of the rule and the chapter of faults took place; the calefactarium or winter dining-room; and the parleatorium or reception-room of outsiders. On the floor above, opening on a similar passage which connected with the choir of the church or the organ-loft, were the vestiarium, where the clothes were kept, the library, the dormitory, the infirmary, the rooms for the novices, and the apartments of the abbot, which were supposed to be accessible from outside without passing through the enclosure into which strangers were not allowed to penetrate. The kitchen, which lay within this enclosure, had in like manner a connection with the house for the reception of pilgrims, and with the various farm-buildings, which usually formed a separate quadrangle. The entire group of buildings was surrounded by a high, solid wall, which in some cases was fortified against the dangers of rude times by towers and strong gates. The monks' burying-ground was also within the enclosure.
This system was preserved, with slight modifications, throughout the Middle Ages, the Cistercians adhering to it with especial closeness, as may be seen at Clairvaux and Maulbronn. Sometimes it was enriched by architectural decoration, as in the high-vaulted double refectories of St. Martin at Paris and of Maulbronn, or adorned with painting, as the world-famous "Last Supper" of Leonardo da Vinci in the refectory of Santa Maria delle Grazie at Milan. In houses occupied by female religious the extensive farm-buildings were naturally lacking. The combination of hermit and community life among the Carthusians required a larger space, which was obtained by adding to the original quadrangle on the basis of the church a second larger one, commonly surrounded also by a cloister, with an open space or garden (containing a cemetery) in the center, and with individual dwellings for the monks around it. The mendicant orders strove for simplicity in building as in other things, and were forced by their situation in towns to a more restricted plan. The teaching orders added a wing or a separate house for their pupils. The Jesuits completely abandoned the traditional plan, and built themselves large palatial houses, while modern monasteries have little to differentiate them from other large institutions. For a more detailed treatment of the structural system of abbeys and monastic buildings, consult the exhaustive monograph by Venables in the Encyclopœdia Britannica, s.v. Abbey. See Monasticism.
Bibliography: In general: DCA, ii. (1880) 1243-68
(gives a list of 1,481 monasteries founded before 814);
DACL, i. 26-39; A. Ballu, Le Monastère de Tebessa,
Paris, 1897 (valuable for detailed description of a typical
abbey). Austria: G. Wolfsgruber, A. Hübl, and O.
Schmidt, Abteien und Klöster in Österreich, Vienna,
1902. France: L. P. Hérard, Études archéologiques sur les abbayes de
l'ancien diocèse de Paris, Paris, 1852;
M. F. de Montrond, Dictionnaire des abbayes et
monastères, ib. 1856; J. J. Bourassé, Abbayes et monastères;
histoire, monuments, souvenirs et ruines, ib. 1869;
E. P. M. Sauvage, Histoire litteraire des abbayes
Normandes, ib. 1872; A. Peigne-Delacourt, Tableau des
ABBO OF FLEURY, flu"ri': French abbot of the tenth century, one of the few men of that time who strove to cultivate learning and led the way for the later scholasticism; b. near Orléans; d. Nov. 13, 1004. He was brought up in the Benedictine abbey of Fleury (25 m. e.s.e. of Orléans); studied at Paris and Reims; in 985-987 was in England, on invitation of Archbishop Oswald of York, and taught in the school of the abbey of Ramsey; was chosen abbot of Fleury in 988, and brought the school there to a flourishing condition. He upheld the rights of his abbey against the Bishop of Orléans, and at the synod of St. Denis (995) took the part of the monks against the bishops. He twice represented King Robert the Pious as ambassador at Rome, and gained the favor of Pope Gregory V. He upheld strict monastic discipline; and an attempt to introduce reforms in the monastery of La Réole (in Gascony, 30 m. s.e. of Bordeaux), a dependency of Fleury, led to a mutiny by the monks in which he was fatally wounded. He wrote upon such diverse subjects as dialectics, astronomy, and canon law; and his extant letters are of much value for the history of the time.
Bibliography: For his works, and his life by his pupil Aimoin, consult MPL, cxxxix.; for his Epistolae, Bouquet, Recueil; for his life, J. B. Pardiac, Histoire de St. Abbon, Paris, 1872.
ABBOT: The head of one of the larger houses in the Benedictine and other older Western monastic orders. The term originated in the East, where it was frequently used as a title of respect for any monk (being derived from the Aramaic abba, "father"); but there it was replaced, as the title of the superior of a monastery, by archimandrite and other titles. In the Western orders founded before the end of the eleventh century the title is still in use. According to the present system, abbots are divided into secular and regular; the former are secular clerics who are incumbents of benefices originally bearing the title of abbey but since secularized; the latter are classified according as they have authority only over the members of their house, or over certain of the faithful, or enjoy a quasi-episcopal jurisdiction over a definite territory, or are merely titular abbots, their houses having fallen into decay. They are further divided according to the term of their office, which may be either for life or for three years. A special class known as mitered abbots have permission to wear episcopal insignia. The election of an abbot is commonly by vote of the professed brothers, in most cases only those in holy orders. The candidate must be twenty-five years of age, a professed brother of the order, and a priest. Actual jurisdiction is not conferred until his confirmation either by the bishop or, in the case of exempt abbeys, by the superior in the case, frequently the pope. His benediction is the next step, which takes place according to the office in the Pontificale Romanum, usually at the hands of the bishop of the diocese. He has the power to regulate the entire inner life of the abbey in accordance with the rule, and to require obedience from his subordinates; according to the rule of St. Benedict, however, abbots are required not to exercise their authority in an arbitrary manner, but to seek the counsel of their brethren. In many particulars a quasi-episcopal jurisdiction has in course of time been conceded to them. Since the eighth century they have been allowed to confer the tonsure and minor orders on their subjects, to bless their churches, cemeteries, sacred vessels, etc., to take rank as prelates, and, if generals exercising quasi-episcopal jurisdiction, to sit and vote in general councils.
The practise of granting abbeys in commendam to deserving clerics, or even to laymen, led to the creation of a class of merely titular abbots, who had nothing of this character but the name and the revenues. This practise, which was the source of many abuses, was regulated by the Council of Trent. From it sprang the custom in France of Applying the title abbé to any prominent clergyman who might, according to the custom of the time, lay claim to such an appointment, and then to the secular clergy in general. A somewhat analogous custom existed in Italy, where many professional men, lawyers, doctors, etc., though laymen and even married men, retained some marks of the clerical character which had earlier distinguished the majority of scholars in their dress and in the title of abbate. In some Protestant countries the title of abbot still clung to the heads of institutions that had grown out of monasteries suppressed at the Reformation. See Monasticism.
ABBOT, EZRA: Unitarian layman; b. at Jackson,
Waldo County, Me., Apr. 28, 1819; d. at Cambridge, Mass., Mar. 21, 1884. He was fitted for
college at Phillips Academy, Exeter, N. H., and
was graduated at Bowdoin, 1840. He then taught
in Maine and, after 1847, in Cambridge, Mass.,
also rendering service in the Harvard and Boston
Athenæum libraries. In 1856 he was appointed
assistant librarian of Harvard University, in 1871
he was university lecturer on the textual criticism
of the New Testament, and in 1872 he became
Bussey professor of New Testament criticism and
interpretation in the Harvard Divinity School.
From 1853 he was secretary of the American Oriental
Of his writings, besides those already adduced,
may be mentioned: an edition of Orme's Memoir
of the Controversy respecting the Three Heavenly
Witnesses (New York, 1866); work upon G. R.
Noyes's (posthumous) Translation of the New
Testament from the Greek Text of Tischendorf (1869);
work upon C. F. Hudson's Greek and English Concordance of the New Testament
(1870); The Late Professor Tischendorf, in The Unitarian Review,
Mar. 1875; On the Reading "an only begotten God,"
or "God only begotten,"
Bibliography: Ezra Abbot, a memoir edited by S. J. Barrows, Cambridge, 1884; Andover Review, i. (1884) 554; Literary World, xv. (1884) 113.
ABBOT, GEORGE: Archbishop of Canterbury; b. at Guildford (30 m. s.w. of London) Oct. 29, 1562; d. at Croydon (10 m. s. of London) Aug. 4, 1633. He studied at Balliol College, Oxford (B.A., 1582; probationer fellow, 1583; M.A., 1585; B.D., 1593; D.D., 1597), took orders in 1585, remained at Oxford as tutor, and became known as an able preacher and lecturer with strong Puritan sympathies. He was made master of University College 1597; dean of Winchester 1600; vice-chancellor of the university 1600, 1603, 1605; bishop of Coventry and Lichfield, 1609; bishop of London 1610; archbishop of Canterbury 1611. His learning and sincerity can not be questioned; but he was austere, narrow, almost a fanatic. His one great idea was to crush "popery," not only in England, but in all Europe; and popery to him meant every theological system except that of Calvin. To further his purposes abroad, he meddled persistently in the foreign policy of the State and chose arbitrary, high-handed, and cruel means to accomplish his ends at home. His principles allowed him to flatter the king, to help him generously in money matters, and to serve him in certain political undertakings, such as the restoration of episcopacy in Scotland in 1608-10. At other times his conscience compelled him to be just, and consequently he could not retain the royal favor. A Presbyterian at heart, he accepted episcopacy only from a love of order and sense of loyalty to constituted authority; and his appointment as archbishop was displeasing to the Anglican party, who had wanted Launcelot Andrewes. His undiplomatic course incensed his opponents, and they pursued him relentlessly and cruelly. In 1621 he killed a gamekeeper while hunting. It was purely accidental, and he was deeply shocked and grieved; nevertheless, William Laud (his successor as archbishop and his personal enemy for years) and others seized upon the incident to annoy him and weaken his influence. Charles I., after his accession, favored Laud, who brought about Abbot's sequestration for a year (1627-28) because he had refused to sanction a sermon by Dr. Robert Sibthorp, vicar of Brackley, indorsing an unlawful attempt by the king to raise money, and showing little sympathy with Abbot's favorite policy of support to the German Protestants. After this his public acts were few. But with all his faults and disappointments he was faithful to duty as he understood it; and he was generous with money, charitable to the poor, and a patron of learning. He was a member of the Oxford New Testament Company for the version of 1611; and through him Cyril Lucar presented the Codex Alexandrinus to Charles I. With other works, he published A Brief Description of the Whole World (London, 1599; 5th ed., 1664), a geography prepared for his pupils at Oxford, containing an interesting description of America; and An Exposition upon the Prophet Jonah (1600), which was reprinted in 1845 with a life by Grace Webster.
Bibliography: T. Fuller, Church History, 6 parts, London,
1655 (ed. Brewer, 1845); Biographic Britannica, 6 vols.,
ib. 1747-66 (contains his life by W. Oldys, reprinted by
Arthur Onslow, Guildford, 1777); W. F. Hook, Ecclesiastical Biography,
8 vols., London, 1845-52; idem, Lives of
ABBOT, ROBERT: 1. Bishop of Salisbury; elder brother of George Abbot, Archbishop of Canterbury; b. at Guildford (30 m. s.w. of London) about 1560; d. at Salisbury Mar. 2, 1618. He studied at Balliol College, Oxford (fellow, 1581; M.A., 1582; D.D., 1597), and held several important livings. In 1609 he became master of Balliol; in 1612 regius professor of divinity at Oxford; in 1615 bishop of Salisbury. He was a learned man, an able preacher, and a prolific writer, holding in general the same views as his brother, but advocating them with more discretion and tact. His works include two treatises in reply to Bellarmine, A Mirror of Popish Subtilties (London, 1594), and Antichristi demonstratio (1603); and A Defence of the Reformed Catholic of Mr. William Perkins (3 parts, 1606-09), which won him royal favor and a promise of preferment.
Bibliography: Thos. Fuller, Abel Redevivus, London, 1651 (ed. W. Nichols, 2 vols., 1867); idem, Church History, 6 pts., ib. 1655 (ed. by Brewer, 1845); A. Wood, Athena Oxonienses, ii. 224-227, ib. 1692; Biographia Britannica, 6 vols., ib. 1747-66 (life reprinted by A. Onslow, Guildford, 1777); Criminal Trials, illustrative of British History, ii. 366-367, ib. 1837 (deals with Abbot's part in the controversy over the Gunpowder Plot); DNB, i. 24.
2. Vicar of Cranbrook, Kent, 1616-43; b. probably, 1588; d. about 1657. He studied at Cambridge (college unknown), took the degree of M.A. there, and was incorporated at Oxford. Parliament having decided against pluralities of ecclesiastical offices, he resigned his Cranbrook vicarage in 1643, retaining that of Southwick, Hampshire, although much smaller. He was afterward rector of St. Austin's, London. He was a strong churchman; and engaged in many controversies, particularly with the Brownists, to whom he was not always fair. Many of his writings, as his Milk for Babes, or a Mother's Catechism for her Children (London, 1646), were very popular.
Bibliography: A. Wood, Fasti, appended to Athena Oxonienses, London, 1691-92 (ed. P. Bliss, i. 323, Oxford, 1848); John Walker, Sufferings of the Clergy, ii. 183, London, 1714; B. Brook, Lives of the Puritans, iii. 182, ib. 1813; DNB, i. 25-26.
ABBOTT, EDWARD: Protestant Episcopalian; b. at Farmington, Me., July 15, 1841. He was educated at the University of the City of New York (B.A., 1860) and at Andover Theological Seminary (1860-62; did not graduate). In 1862-63 he was an agent of the United States Sanitary Commission, and in the latter year was ordained to the Congregational ministry. Two years later he founded the Stearns Chapel Congregational Church (now the Pilgrim Church) at Cambridge, Mass., of which he was pastor four years. In 1872-73 he was chaplain of the Massachusetts Senate. In 1879 he was ordered deacon in the Protestant Episcopal Church, and priested in 1880, his parish being that of St. James, Cambridge, which he still holds. He refused the proffered missionary bishopric of Japan in 1889. At various times he has been a member of the Board of Visitors of Wellesley College, trustee of the Society for the Relief of the Widows and Orphans of Clergymen of the Protestant Episcopal Church, director and president of the Associated Charities of Cambridge, vice-dean and dean of the Eastern Convocation of the Diocese of Massachusetts, president of the Cambridge Branch of the Indian Rights Association, member of the Missionary Council of the Protestant Episcopal Church, secretary of the Standing Committee of the Diocese of Massachusetts, member of the Provisional Committee on Church Work in Mexico, president of the Indian Industries League, president of the Cambridge City Mission, and has been active in other religious and philanthropic movements. His theological position is that of the Broad Church, sympathizing neither with the extreme of medievalism nor higher criticism. In 1869-78 he was associate editor of the Boston Congregationalist, and was joint proprietor and editor of the Boston Literary World from 1877 to 1888, again editing it in 1895-1903. His principal works are The Baby's Things: A Story in Verse (New York, 1871); Paragraph History of the United States (Boston, 1875); Paragraph History of the American Revolution (1876); Revolutionary Times (1876); History of Cambridge (1880); Phillips Brooks (Cambridge, 1900); and Meet for the Master's Use: An Allegory (1900).
ABBOTT, EDWIN ABBOTT: Church of England, author and educator, b. in London Dec. 20, 1838. He studied at St. John's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1861), where he was elected fellow in 1862. He was assistant master at King Edward's School, Birmingham, in 1862-64, and at Clifton College in the following year, while from 1865 to 1889 he was headmaster at City of London School. He was Hulsean lecturer at Cambridge in 1876 and select preacher at Oxford in the succeeding year. His works include Bible Lessons (London, 1872); Cambridge Sermons (1875); Through Nature to Christ (1877); Oxford Sermons (1879); the article Gospels in the 9th ed. of the Encyclopœdia Britannica; The Common Tradition of the Synoptic Gospels (1884; in collaboration with W. G. Rushbrooke); The Good Voices, or A Child's Guide to the Bible, and Parables for Children (1875); Bacon and Essex (1877); Philochristus (1878); Onesimus (1882); Flatland, or A Romance of Many Dimensions (1884); Francis Bacon, an Account of his Life and Works (1885); The Kernel and the Husk (1886); The Anglican Career of Cardinal Newman (1892); The Spirit on the Waters (1897); St. Thomas of Canterbury (Edinburgh, 1898); Corrections of Mark Adopted by Matthew and Luke (1901); From Letter to Spirit (1903); Paradosis (1904); Johannine Vocabulary, A Comparison of the Words of the Fourth Gospel with Those of the Three (1905); and Silanus the Christian (1906).
ABBOTT, JACOB: American Congregationalist;
b. at Hallowell, Me., Nov. 14, 1803; d. at Farmington,
Me., Oct. 31, 1879. He was graduated at
Bowdoin, 1820; studied theology at Andover,
1822-24; was tutor and professor of mathematics
and natural philosophy at Amherst, 1824-29;
principal of the Mount Vernon School for Girls,
Boston, 1829-33; ordained evangelist and pastor
Bibliography: W. Lazinon, De historia certaminis apostolici, Paris, 1560, and often reprinted; Fabricius, Codex apocryphus, ii. (1st ed., 1703), and ii., iii. (2d ed., 1719); C. Oudin, Commentarius de scriptoribus ecclesiasticis, ii. 418-421, Leipsic, 1722; G. J. Voss, De historicis Grœcis, p. 243, ib. 1838; J. A. Giles, Codex apocryphus Novi Testamenti, London, 1852; Migne, Troisième et dernière encyclopédie théologique, xxiv. (66 vols., Paris, 1855-66); S. C. Malan, Conflicts of the Holy Apostles . . . translated from an Ethiopic MS., London, 1871; DCB, i. 1-4.
ABEEL, DAVID: Missionary; b. at New Brunswick, N. J., June 12, 1804; d. at Albany, N.Y., Sept. 4, 1846. He was graduated at the New Brunswick Theological Seminary in 1826; in 1829 he went to Canton as chaplain of the Seaman's Friend Society; and in 1831-33 he visited Java, Singapore, and Siam for the American Board. Returning to America by way of Europe in 1833, he aided in founding in England a society for promoting the education of women in the East. He went back to China in 1838 and founded the Amoy mission in 1842. He published a Journal of his first residence in China (New York, 1835), The Missionary Convention at Jerusalem (1838), Claims of the World to the Gospel (1838).
Bibliography: G. R. Williamson, David Abeel, New York, 1849.
A'BEL ("Breath"): Second son of Adam and
Eve and the brother of Cain, who, according to
Abelard is a name used as the common designation of Pierre de Palais (Petrus Palatinus), the first notable representative of the dialectico-critical school of scholasticism founded by Anselm of Canterbury, but kept by him within the limits of the traditional orthodoxy. The meaning as well as the original form of the by-name is uncertain; it has been connected with the Latin bajulus, "teacher," and with the French abeille, "bee." The ending "-ard" is Frankish, and the entire name may be.
Abelard was born at Palais (Le Pallet), a village of Brittany, about 12 m. e. of Nantes, in 1079; d. in the Priory of St. Marcel, near Chalon-sur-Saône (36 m. n. of Mâcon), Apr. 21, 1142. He voluntarily renounced his rights as first-born son of the knight Berengar, lord of the village, and chose a life of study. His first teacher was Roscelin, the Nominalist, at Locmenach, Brittany, now Locmine, 80 m. s. w. of Brest. Then he wandered from one teacher to another until he came to Paris, where William of Champeaux, the Realist, was head of the cathedral school and attracting great crowds. Young as he was, Abelard was bold enough to set himself up as William's rival; he lectured, first at Melun (27 m. s.s.e. of Paris), then at Corbeil (7 miles nearer Paris), and, after a few years, in Paris itself at the cathedral school. His success was sufficient to make William jealous, and he compelled Abelard to leave the city. About 1113 he betook himself to Anselm of Laon at Laon (86 m. n.e. of Paris) to study theology, having hitherto occupied himself wholly with dialectics. His stay at Laon was short and was followed by a few years at Paris, where crowds flocked to hear his lectures and brought him a considerable income.
This brilliant career was suddenly checked by the episode of Heloise, a young girl of eighteen, said to have been the natural daughter of a canon of Paris, living with her uncle, Canon Fulbert of Paris. Her education was confided to Abelard, and a passionate love sprang up between them. When Fulbert attempted to separate them, they fled toward Brittany, to the home of Abelard's sister, Dionysia, where Heloise bore a son, Astralabius. To satisfy Fulbert the lovers were married, Abelard asking that the marriage be kept secret out of regard for his ecclesiastical career. Fulbert disregarded this request and also treated his niece badly when she returned to his house. Abelard accordingly removed her to the Benedictine nunnery of Argenteuil (11 m. n.e. of Versailles), where she had been brought up, and where later she took the veil, a step which Fulbert interpreted as an attempt by her husband to get rid of her. In revenge he had Abelard attacked by night in his lodgings in Paris and mutilated, with the view probably of rendering him incapable of ever holding any ecclesiastical office. Abelard retired to the Benedictine abbey of St. Denis in Paris (probably about 1118), where he became a monk and lived undisturbed for a year or two, giving instruction in a secluded place (the "cella").
He received much sympathy and had many pupils.
In 1121 a synod at Soissons pronounced heretical
certain opinions expressed by him in a book on the
Trinity (De unitate et trinitate divina; discovered
by R. Stolzle and published, Freiburg, 1891). He
was required to burn the book, and
to retire to the monastery of St. Medard,
near Soissons. In a short time,
however, he was allowed to return to
St. Denis, but was ill received there; and his
assertion that the patron saint of the monastery
and of France was not the same as Dionysius the
Areopagite (see Denis, Saint) made more trouble
with the abbot, the monks, and the court. He
fled, but was compelled to return and recant his
opinion concerning St. Denis. Afterward he was
allowed to retire to Champagne, near Nogent-sur-Seine
(60 m. s.e. of Paris) where he built an oratory
to the Trinity. Pupils again gathered about him
and the original building of reeds and sedges was
replaced by one which he called the Paraclete.
But he was still under the jurisdiction of the abbot
of St. Denis and suffered much annoyance. He
accepted the election as abbot of the monastery of
St. Gildas in Brittany (on the peninsula of Ruis,
10 m. s. of Vannes), and stayed there ten years, but
he found it impossible to control the unruly monks
and they tried to poison him. He found refuge
For several years his life is obscure; it is only known that in 1136 John of Salisbury heard him lecture in the school on the hill of St. Genevieve in Paris, and that during this period he wrote his autobiography, the Historia calamitatum. In 1141 a council, instigated mainly by Bernard of Clairvaux, a man thoroughly antipathetic to Abelard, who had long considered his teaching wrong and his influence dangerous, met at Sens (61 m. s.s.e. of Paris). Certain extracts from Abelard's writings were pronounced erroneous and heretical (June 4, 1141). Abelard declined to defend himself; he appealed to the pope, and with his followers left the council. His former pupil, Cardinal Guido de Castello (afterward Pope Celestine II.), took his part at Rome; but Bernard wrote a letter denouncing Arnold of Brescia, another pupil, as one of the champions of Abelard, and thereby influenced the decision of Pope Innocent II., who condemned Abelard to silence, excommunicated his followers, ordered him and Arnold to retire to a monastery, and their books to be burned (July 16, 1141). Abelard wrote an apology defending himself against the action of the council, and sent a letter to Heloise maintaining his orthodoxy. He wrote a second apology submitting to the Church, and made peace with Bernard.
By the friendly intervention of Peter the Venerable, Abbot of Cluny, permission was given him to spend the rest of his days at Cluny. He continued his studies, "read constantly, prayed often, gladly kept silence." But, broken by his sufferings and misfortunes, he did not live long there. With a view to his physical betterment Peter sent him to the neighboring priory of St. Marcel, at Chalons and there he died. His body was taken to the Paraclete; and on the death of Heloise (May 16, 1164) her body was placed in the same coffin. In 1817 their remains were removed to the cemetery of Pere Lachaise, Paris, and a monument was erected of stone from the ruins of the Paraclete.
Abelard belonged to the school of Anselm of Canterbury, but he did not follow him slavishly; and he was more critic than apologist of any system. He borrowed much from Augustine, Jerome, and older Church Fathers, as well as from Agobard, Claudius of Turin, Erigena, and Fredegis. His originality is seen in his doctrine of the Trinity and the Atonement and, as a philosopher, particularly in his teaching concerning the principia and his position toward the question of universalia. The latter is not quite clear; but it appears that he was neither nominalist, realist, nor conceptualist. William of Champeaux, the extreme realist, declared the universalia to be the very essence of all existence, and individuality only the product of incidental circumstances. To this Abelard objected that it led to pantheism; and he pursued his criticism so keenly that he forced William to modify his system. He rejected nominalism also, according to which the universalia are mere names, declaring that our conceptions must correspond to things which occasion them. This view is not conceptualism in so far as it does not in one-sided fashion emphasize the assertion that the general ideas are mere conceptus mentis, mere subjective ideas.
As theologian Abelard is noteworthy for his
doctrine of revelation, his attitude toward belief
on authority, and his conception of the
relation between faith and knowledge.
Concerning revelation he emphasizes
the inner influence on the
human spirit rather than its external manifestation,
and does not limit inspiration to the writers of the
Scriptures, but holds that it was imparted also to
the Greek and Roman philosophers and to the
Indian Brahmans. He teaches that the Scriptures
are the result of the cooperation of the Spirit of
God with the human writers, recognizes degrees
of inspiration, and admits that prophets and
apostles may make mistakes. He does not hesitate
to disclose the contradictions in tradition, and
distinguishes like a good Protestant between the
authority of the Scriptures and that of the Fathers.
Faith means to him a belief in things not susceptible
to sense which can be grounded on rational demonstration
or satisfactory authority. He opposes
the compulsion of authority, will have free discussion
of religious things, and everywhere follows
his own conviction; but he sets narrow limits to
what can be known. An adequate knowledge of
the unity and trinity of God he declares impossible,
as well as a scientific proof that shall compel belief
in the existence of God and immortality. Here
he asserts merely a possibility of belief. He condemns
the acceptance of formulas of belief without
knowing what they mean, and will have no one
required to believe anything contrary to reason;
he found nothing of the kind himself in the Scriptures
or the teaching of the Church, and does not
mean to exclude the supernatural. The doctrine
of the Trinity he always treats in connection with
the divine attributes; and in spite of all precautions
the Trinity always becomes in his thought one of
the attributes. He qualifies omnipotence by
teaching that God does everything which he can,
and therefore he could not do more than he has done.
He can not prevent evil, but is able only to permit
it and to turn it to good. As for his ethics, he
teaches that moral good and ill inhere not in the
act but in the motive. The evil propensity is not
sin; it is the pœna merely, and not the culpa, which
has passed from Adam upon all. His theory of
the Atonement is moral. The aim of the incarnation
and sufferings of Christ was to move men to
love by this highest revelation of the divine love.
The love thus awakened frees from the bondage
of sin, enables to fulfil the law, and impels to do the
will of God, no longer in fear, but in the freedom of
the sons of God. By law he understands the natural
law which Christ taught and fulfilled, giving thereby
A practically complete edition of the works of Abelard (including certain writings which are spurious or of doubtful origin) was furnished by Victor Cousin in the Ouvrages inédits d'Abélard (Paris, 1836) and Petri Abelardi opera nunc primum in unum collecta (2 vols., 1849-59); the Opera, from the edition of A. Duchesne and F. Amboise (Paris, 1616), with Opuscula published later, are in MPL, clxxviii. (lacks the Sic et non, that brilliant piece of skeptical writing). Particular works have been published as follows: the Theologia Christiana and the Hexameron, ed. Martène and Durand, in the Thesaurus novus anecdotorum, v. (Paris, 1717); the Ethica (Scito te ipsum), ed. B. Pez, in the Thesaurus anecdotorum novissimus, iii. (1721); the Dialogus and the Epitome or Sententiœ, ed. F. H. Rheinwald (Berlin, 1831,1835); the Sic et non, ed. T. Henke and G. S. Lindenkohl (Marburg, 1851; incomplete in Cousin's edition, 1836); the Historia calamitatum, ed. Orelli (Zurich, 1841); the Planctus virginum Israel super filia Jeptœ Galaditœ, ed. W. Meyer and W. Brambach (Munich, 1886); the Hymnarius paraclitensis, ed. G. M. Dreves (Paris, 1891); the Tractatus de unitate et trinitate divina, ed. R. Stölzle (Freiburg, 1891). The letters have been often published in the original Latin and in translation (Latin, ed. R. Rawlinson, London, 1718; Eng., ed. H. Mills, London, 1850; ed. H. Morton, New York, 1901; Germ., with the Historia calamitatum, ed. P. Baumgärtner, Reclam, Leipsic, 1894; French, with Latin text, ed. Grérard, Paris, 1885); and selections will be found in some of the works cited in the bibliography below.
Bibliography: J. Berington, . . . Lives of Abeillard and Heloisa, with . . . Their Letters, 2d ed., Birmingham, 1788; C. de Rémusat, Abélard, 2 vols., Paris, 1845 (the standard biography); J. L. Jacobi, Abelärd and Heloise, Berlin, 1850; F. P. G. Guisot, Lettres d'Abailard et d'Héloise, précédées d'un essai historique, Paris, 1839, 1853; C. Prantel, Geschichte der Logik im Abendlande, ii. 160-204, Leipsic, 1861; O. W. Wight, Abélard and Heloise, New York, 1861; E. Bonnier, Abélard et St. Bernard, Paris, 1862; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, v. 321-326, 399-435; A. Stöckl, Geschichte der Philosophie des Mittelalters, i. 218-272, Mainz, 1864; H. Reuter, Geschichte der religiösen Aufklärung im Mittelalter, i. 183-259, Berlin, 1875; E. Vacaudard. Abélard et sa lutte avec St. Bernard, sa doctrine, sa méthode, Paris, 1881; S. M. Deutsch, Peter Abälard, Leipsic, 1883; A. S. Richardson, Abélard and Heloise, with a Selection of their Letters, New York, 1884; J. G. Compayré, Abelard and the . . . History of Universities, London, 1893; A. Hausrath, Peter Abälard Leipsic, 1895; Jos. McCabe, Peter Abélard, New York, 1901 (an excellent book); Hauck, KD, iv. 409 sqq.
ABELITES, ê'bel-āits (ABELIANS, ABELONIANS): A sect mentioned by Augustine (Haer., lxxxvii.; cf. Prœdestinatus, i. 87) as formerly living in the neighborhood of Hippo, but already extinct when he wrote. Their name was derived from Abel, the son of Adam. Each man took a wife, but refrained from conjugal relations, and each pair adopted a boy and a girl who inherited the property of their foster-parents on condition of living together in like manner in mature life. They were probably the remnant of a Gnostic sect, tinged perhaps by Manichean influences. [The name grew out of a wide-spread belief that Abel though married had lived a life of continence.]
Bibliography: C. W. F. Walch, Enhourf einer vollständigen Historie der Ketzereien, i. 607-608, Leipsic, 1762.
ABEN EZRA (Abraham ben Meir ibn Ezra): Jewish poet, grammarian, and commentator; b. in Toledo, Spain, 1092; d. Jan. 23, 1167. He left Toledo about 1138 and is known to have visited Bagdad, Rome (1140), Mantua and Lucca (1145), Dreux (45 m. w.s.w. of Paris; 1155-57), and London (1158); in 1166 he was in southern France. His poems show a mastery of the metrical art but have no inspiration, his grammatical works are not logically arranged, and his commentaries lack religious feeling. His exegetical principle was to follow the grammatical sense rather than the allegorical method of the Church; yet he resorts to figurative interpretation when the literal meaning is repugnant to reason. His critical insight is shown by hints that the Pentateuch and Isaiah contain interpolations (cf. H. Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch, Freiburg, 1893, pp. 28 sqq.; J. Fürst, Der Kanon des Alten Testaments, Leipsic, 1868, p. 16), though he lacked the courage to say so openly. His chief importance is that he made the grammatical and religio-philosophical works of the Spanish Jews, written in Arabic, known outside of Spain. His commentaries (on the Pentateuch, Isaiah, the Minor Prophets, Job, Psalms, the five Megilloth, and Daniel) are usually found in rabbinic Bibles. His introduction to the Pentateuch has been edited by W. Bacher (Vienna, 1876); the commentary on Isaiah, with Eng. trans. and two volumes of Essays on the Writings of Abraham ibn Ezra, by M. Friedlander (4 vols., London, 1873-77). His poems have been published by D. Rosin (4 parts, Breslau, 1885-91) and J. Egers (Berlin, 1886).
Bibliography: L. Zuns, Die synagogale Poesie des Mittelalters,
Berlin, 1855; S. I. Kämpf, Nichtandalusische Poesie
andalusischer Dichter, i. 213-240, Prague, 1858; M. Eisler,
Vorlesungen über die jüdische Philosophie des Mittelalters,
i. 113-120, Vienna, 1876; W. Bacher, Abraham ibn Ezra
als Grammatiker, Strasburg, 1882; J. S. Spiegler, Geschichte
der Philosophie des Judentums, pp. 263-265, Leipsic,
A practically complete edition of the works of Abelard (including certain writings which are spurious or of doubtful origin) was furnished by Victor Cousin in the Ouvrages inédits d'Abélard (Paris, 1836) and Petri Abelardi opera nunc primum in unum collecta (2 vols., 1849-59); the Opera, from the edition of A. Duchesne and F. Amboise (Paris, 1616), with Opuscula published later, are in MPL, clxxviii. (lacks the Sic et non, that brilliant piece of skeptical writing). Particular works have been published as follows: the Theologia Christiana and the Hexameron, ed. Martène and Durand, in the Thesaurus novus anecdotorum, v. (Paris, 1717); the Ethica (Scito te ipsum), ed. B. Pez, in the Thesaurus anecdotorum novissimus, iii. (1721); the Dialogus and the Epitome or Sententiœ, ed. F. H. Rheinwald (Berlin, 1831,1835); the Sic et non, ed. T. Henke and G. S. Lindenkohl (Marburg, 1851; incomplete in Cousin's edition, 1836); the Historia calamitatum, ed. Orelli (Zurich, 1841); the Planctus virginum Israel super filia Jeptœ Galaditœ, ed. W. Meyer and W. Brambach (Munich, 1886); the Hymnarius paraclitensis, ed. G. M. Dreves (Paris, 1891); the Tractatus de unitate et trinitate divina, ed. R. Stölzle (Freiburg, 1891). The letters have been often published in the original Latin and in translation (Latin, ed. R. Rawlinson, London, 1718; Eng., ed. H. Mills, London, 1850; ed. H. Morton, New York, 1901; Germ., with the Historia calamitatum, ed. P. Baumgärtner, Reclam, Leipsic, 1894; French, with Latin text, ed. Grérard, Paris, 1885); and selections will be found in some of the works cited in the bibliography below.
Bibliography: J. Berington, . . . Lives of Abeillard and Heloisa, with . . . Their Letters, 2d ed., Birmingham, 1788; C. de Rémusat, Abélard, 2 vols., Paris, 1845 (the standard biography); J. L. Jacobi, Abelärd and Heloise, Berlin, 1850; F. P. G. Guisot, Lettres d'Abailard et d'Héloise, précédées d'un essai historique, Paris, 1839, 1853; C. Prantel, Geschichte der Logik im Abendlande, ii. 160-204, Leipsic, 1861; O. W. Wight, Abélard and Heloise, New York, 1861; E. Bonnier, Abélard et St. Bernard, Paris, 1862; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, v. 321-326, 399-435; A. Stöckl, Geschichte der Philosophie des Mittelalters, i. 218-272, Mainz, 1864; H. Reuter, Geschichte der religiösen Aufklärung im Mittelalter, i. 183-259, Berlin, 1875; E. Vacaudard. Abélard et sa lutte avec St. Bernard, sa doctrine, sa méthode, Paris, 1881; S. M. Deutsch, Peter Abälard, Leipsic, 1883; A. S. Richardson, Abélard and Heloise, with a Selection of their Letters, New York, 1884; J. G. Compayré, Abelard and the . . . History of Universities, London, 1893; A. Hausrath, Peter Abälard Leipsic, 1895; Jos. McCabe, Peter Abélard, New York, 1901 (an excellent book); Hauck, KD, iv. 409 sqq.
ABELITES, ê'bel-āits (ABELIANS, ABELONIANS): A sect mentioned by Augustine (Haer., lxxxvii.; cf. Prœdestinatus, i. 87) as formerly living in the neighborhood of Hippo, but already extinct when he wrote. Their name was derived from Abel, the son of Adam. Each man took a wife, but refrained from conjugal relations, and each pair adopted a boy and a girl who inherited the property of their foster-parents on condition of living together in like manner in mature life. They were probably the remnant of a Gnostic sect, tinged perhaps by Manichean influences. [The name grew out of a wide-spread belief that Abel though married had lived a life of continence.]
Bibliography: C. W. F. Walch, Enhourf einer vollständigen Historie der Ketzereien, i. 607-608, Leipsic, 1762.
ABEN EZRA (Abraham ben Meir ibn Ezra): Jewish poet, grammarian, and commentator; b. in Toledo, Spain, 1092; d. Jan. 23, 1167. He left Toledo about 1138 and is known to have visited Bagdad, Rome (1140), Mantua and Lucca (1145), Dreux (45 m. w.s.w. of Paris; 1155-57), and London (1158); in 1166 he was in southern France. His poems show a mastery of the metrical art but have no inspiration, his grammatical works are not logically arranged, and his commentaries lack religious feeling. His exegetical principle was to follow the grammatical sense rather than the allegorical method of the Church; yet he resorts to figurative interpretation when the literal meaning is repugnant to reason. His critical insight is shown by hints that the Pentateuch and Isaiah contain interpolations (cf. H. Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch, Freiburg, 1893, pp. 28 sqq.; J. Fürst, Der Kanon des Alten Testaments, Leipsic, 1868, p. 16), though he lacked the courage to say so openly. His chief importance is that he made the grammatical and religio-philosophical works of the Spanish Jews, written in Arabic, known outside of Spain. His commentaries (on the Pentateuch, Isaiah, the Minor Prophets, Job, Psalms, the five Megilloth, and Daniel) are usually found in rabbinic Bibles. His introduction to the Pentateuch has been edited by W. Bacher (Vienna, 1876); the commentary on Isaiah, with Eng. trans. and two volumes of Essays on the Writings of Abraham ibn Ezra, by M. Friedlander (4 vols., London, 1873-77). His poems have been published by D. Rosin (4 parts, Breslau, 1885-91) and J. Egers (Berlin, 1886).
Bibliography: L. Zuns, Die synagogale Poesie des Mittelalters,
Berlin, 1855; S. I. Kämpf, Nichtandalusische Poesie
andalusischer Dichter, i. 213-240, Prague, 1858; M. Eisler,
Vorlesungen über die jüdische Philosophie des Mittelalters,
i. 113-120, Vienna, 1876; W. Bacher, Abraham ibn Ezra
als Grammatiker, Strasburg, 1882; J. S. Spiegler, Geschichte
der Philosophie des Judentums, pp. 263-265, Leipsic,
ABERCIUS. See Avercius.
ABERCROMBIE, ab´er-crum-bi, JOHN: Scotch physician and writer on metaphysics; b. at Aberdeen Oct. 10, 1780; d. at Edinburgh Nov. 14, 1844. He studied medicine at Edinburgh and London, and settled in the former city as practising physician in 1804. He became one of the foremost medical men of Scotland, but is best known as the author of Inquiries concerning the Intellectual Powers and the Investigation of Truth (Edinburgh, 1830) and The Philosophy of the Moral Feelings (London, 1833), works which he wrote from a belief that his knowledge of nervous diseases fitted him to discuss mental phenomena. The books long enjoyed great popularity, but were not written in the real spirit of a truth-seeker, have little originality, and are now superseded. A volume of Essays and Tracts, mainly on religious subjects, was published posthumously (Edinburgh, 1847).
Bibliography: W. Anderson, Scottish Nation, i. 2, Edinburgh, 1864; DNB, i. 37-38.
ABERNETHY, ab´er-neth-i, JOHN: Irish Presbyterian; b. at Brigh, County Tyrone, Oct.19, 1680; d. at Dublin Dec., 1740. He studied at Glasgow (M.A.) and Edinburgh, and became minister of the Presbyterian congregation at Antrim in 1703. In 1717, following his own judgment and desire, he chose to remain at Antrim, although the synod wished him to accept a call from a Dublin congregation. To disregard an appointment of the synod was an unheard-of act for the time, and the Irish Church was split into two parties, the "Subscribers" and "Non-Subscribers," Abernethy being at the head of the latter. The Non-Subscribers were cut off from the Church in 1726. From 1730 till his death he was minister of the Wood Street Church, Dublin. Here he again showed himself in advance of his time by opposing the Test Act and "all laws that, upon account of mere differences of religious opinions and forms of worship, excluded men of integrity and ability from serving their country." His published works are: Discourses on the Being and Perfections of God (2 vols., London, 1740-43); Sermons (4 vols., 1748-51), with life by James Duchal; Tracts and Sermons (1751).
Bibliography: J. S. Reid, Presbyterian Church in Ireland, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1834-37; DNB., i. 48-49.
ABERT, ä´bert, FRIEDRICH PHILIP VON: Roman Catholic archbishop of Bamberg; b. at Mümnerstadt (35 m. n.n.e. of Würzburg) May 1, 1852. He was educated at the Passau Lyceum (1870-71) and the University of Würzburg (Ph.D., 1875), and from 1875 to 1881 was active as a parish priest. In the latter year he was appointed an assistant at the episcopal clerical seminary at Würzburg, and four years later was made professor of dogmatics at the Royal Lyceum, Regensburg. In 1890 he was appointed professor of dogmatics and symbolics at Würzburg, where he was dean in 1894-95,1899-1900, and rector in 1900-01. In 1905 he was consecrated archbishop of Bamberg. He has written Einheit des Seins in Christus nach der Lehre des heiligen Thomas von Aquin (Regensburg, 1889); Von den göttlichen Eigenschaften und von der Seligkeit, zwei dem heiligen Thomas von Aquin zugeschriebene Abhandlungen (Würzburg, 1893); Bibliotheca Thomistica (1895); and Das Wesen des Christentums nach Thomas von Aquin (1901).
ABGAR (Lat. Abgarus): Name (or title) of eight of the kings (toparchs) of Osrhoene who reigned at Edessa for a period of three centuries and a half ending in 217. The fifteenth of these kings, Abgar V., Uchomo ("the black," 9-46 A.D.), is noteworthy for an alleged correspondence with Jesus, first mentioned by Eusebius (Hist. eccl., i. 13), who states that Abgar, suffering sorely in body and having heard of the cures of Jesus, sent him a letter professing belief in his divinity and asking him to come to Edessa and help him. Jesus wrote in reply that he must remain in Palestine, but that after his ascension he would send one of his disciples who would heal the king and bring life to him and his people. Both letters Eusebius gives in literal translation from a Syriac document which he had found in the archives of Edessa. On the same authority he adds that after the ascension the Apostle Thomas sent Thaddaeus, one of the seventy, to Edessa and that, with attendant miracles, he fulfilled the promise of Jesus in the year 340 (of the Seleucidan era=29 A.D.). The Doctrina Addœi (Addæus = Thaddæus; edited and translated by G. Phillips, London, 1876), of the second half of the fourth century, makes Jesus reply by an oral message instead of a letter, and adds that the messenger of Abgar was a painter and made and carried back with him to Edessa a portrait of Jesus. Moses of Chorene (c. 470) repeats the story (Hist. Armeniaca, ii. 29-32), with additions, including a correspondence between Abgar and Tiberius, Narses of Assyria, and Ardashes of Persia, in which the "king of the Armenians" appears as champion of Christianity; the portrait, he says, was still in Edessa. Gross anachronisms stamp the story as wholly unhistorical. Pope Gelasius I. and a Roman synod about 495 pronounced the alleged correspondence with Jesus apocryphal. A few Roman Catholic scholars have tried to defend its genuineness (e.g. Tillemont, Mémoires, i., Brussels, 1706, pp. 990-997; Welte, in TQ, Tübingen, 1842, pp. 335-365), but Protestants have generally rejected it. See Jesus Christ, Pictures and Images of .
Bibliography: R. A. Lipsius, Die edessenische Abgarsage, Brunswick, 1880; K. C. A. Matthes, Die edessenische Abgarsage, Leipsic, 1882; ANF, viii. 702 sqq.; L. J. Tixeront, Les origines de l’eglise d'Edesse et la l’gende d'Abgar, Paris, 1888; Lipsius and Bonnet, Acts apostolorum apocrypha, vol. i., Leipsic, 1891; W. T. Winghille, The Letter from Jesus Christ to Abgarus and the Letter of Abgarus to Christ, 1891; Harnack, Litteratur, i. 533-540, ib. 1893; TU, new ser. iii., 1899, 102-196.
ABHEDANANDA, ä-bed"a-nan-da', SWAMI: Hindu leader of the Vedanta propaganda in America; b. at Calcutta Nov. 21, 1866. He was educated at Calcutta University, and after being professor of Hindu philosophy in India went to London in 1896 to lecture on the Vedanta. In the following year he went to New York, where he has since
ABIATHAR. See Ahimelech.
ABIJAH, a-bai'ja (called Abijam in
According to the more correct chronology Abijah reigned 918-915 B.C.
Bibliography: See under Ahab.
ABILENE, ab"i-lî'ne: A district mentioned in
Bibliography: A. Reland, Palastina, 527 sqq., Utrecht, 1714; Robinson, Later Researches, pp. 479-484; J. L. Porter, Giant Cities of Bashan, i. 261, New York, 1871; C. R. Conder, Tent-Work in Palestine, p. 127, London, 1880; ZDP, viii. (1885) 40; Ebers and Guthe, Palästina in Bild und Wort, i. 456-460, Stuttgart, 1887; Schürer, Geschichte, i. 716 sqq., Eng. transl., I. ii. 335 sqq.; W. H. Waddington, Inscriptions Grecques et Latines de la Syrie, Paris, 1870.
ABISHAI, a-bish'a-ai: Elder brother of Joab and Asahel (
ABJURATION: A formal renunciation of heresy required of converts to the Roman Catholic Church. The First and Second Councils of Nicæa insisted on a written abjuration from those who, after having fallen into the religious errors of the time, desired to be restored to membership in the Church. The necessity of abjuration is reaffirmed in the Decree of Gratian and in the Decretals of Gregory IX., and found an important place in the procedure of the Inquisition. This tribunal distinguished four kinds of abjuration, according as the heresy to be renounced was a matter of notoriety or of varying degrees of suspicion,—de formali, de levi, de vehementi, de violento. Abjuration of notorious heresy or of very strongly suspected heretical inclinations took the form of a public solemn ceremony. In modern times the Roman Inquisition requires that a diligent investigation shall be conducted regarding the baptism of persons seeking
ABLON: Village on the left bank of the Seine, about 9 m. s. of Paris, noteworthy as the place where public worship was first conceded to the Protestants of Paris. Notwithstanding the edict of Nantes (May 2, 1598), the Protestants of the capital were not allowed a church within the city itself, but had to travel to Ablon. In 1602 they petitioned the King for a place nearer the city, alleging that during the winter forty children had died from being carried so far for baptism. In 1606 their petition was granted and the church was removed to Charenton, at the junction of the Seine and Marne, six or seven miles nearer the city. The toilsome and sometimes dangerous "expeditions" to Ablon are often spoken of by Sully and Casaubon.
ABLUTIONS OF THE MASS: The rubrics of the mass prescribe that immediately after communion the celebrant shall purify the chalice with wine, and his fingers with wine and water. These ablutions, as they are called, are drunk by the priest unless he is obliged to celebrate a second time on the same day, in which case he pours the wine and water of the last ablution into a special vessel, kept for the purpose near the tabernacle, and consumes them at the next mass. Pope Pius V. in 1570 introduced into his Missal the rubrics on this matter as they exist to-day. The first clear references to the ablutions as practised to-day are found in the eleventh century. Ablution of the hands is also prescribed before mass, before the canon, and after the distribution of communion outside of mass.
ABNER. See Ish-bosheth.
ABODAH ZARAH. See Talmud.
ABOT (PIRKE ABOT). See Talmud.
ABOT de-RABBI NATHAN. See Talmud.
ABRABANEL, a-bra"ba-nel' (ABRAVANEEL, ABARBANUL), ISAAC: The last Jewish exegete of importance; b. of distinguished family, which boasted of Davidic descent, at Lisbon 1437; d. in Venice 1509. He was treasurer of Alfonso V. of Portugal, but was compelled to flee the country under his successor, John II., in 1483. He lived in Spain until the Jews were expelled thence by Ferdinand and Isabella (1492), when he went to Naples. In both countries he rendered important services to the government as financier. From 1496 till 1503 he lived at Monopoli in Apulia, southern Italy, occupied with literary work, and later settled in Venice. He wrote commentaries on the Pentateuch (Venice, 1579) and on the earlier and the later Prophets (Pesaro, 1520 [?]) which show little originality, and are valuable chiefly for the extracts he makes from his predecessors. In his Messianic treatises (Yeshu'ot meshihho, "The Salvation of his Anointed," Carlsruhe, 1828; Ma'yene ha-yeshu'ah, "Sources of Salvation," Ferrara, 1551; Mashmia' Yeshu'ah, "Proclaiming Salvation," Salonica, 1526) he criticizes Christian interpretations of prophecy, but with no great insight. His religio-philosophical writings are less important. In the interest of Jewish orthodoxy he defends the creation of the world from nothing (in Mif'alot Elohim, "Works of God," Venice, 1592) advocates the thirteen articles of faith of Maimonides (in Rosh amanah, "The Pinnacle of Faith," Constantinople, 1505). His eschatological computations made the year of salvation due in 1503.
Abrabanel held a place of some importance in the history of Christian exegesis due to the facts that he appreciated and quoted freely the earlier Christian exegetes and that many of his own writings were in turn condensed and translated by Christian scholars of the next two centuries (Alting, Buddæus, the younger Buxtorf, Carpzov, and others).
Bibliography: J. H. Majus, Vita Don Isaac Abrabanielis, Giessen(?), 1707(?); C. F. Bischoff, Dissertatio . . de . . . vita atque scriptis Isaaci Abrabanielis, Altdorf, 1708; M. Schwab, Abravanel et son époque, Paris, 1865; JQR, i. (1888) 37-52; H. Grætz, Geschichte der Juden, viii. 324-334, ix. 5-7, ii. 208, 213, Eng. transl., London, 1891-98; Winter and Wunsche, Geschichte der judischen Litteratur, ii. 333, 339, 443, 451, 791-792, Berlin, 1894; D. Cassel, Judische Geschichte und Litteràtur, Leipsic, 1879, pp. 321 sqq., 427, 425 sqq.
This article will be limited to an attempt to establish the credibility of the tradition which represents Abraham as the first ancestor of the Israelites, against the arguments of those who doubt or deny the existence of the patriarch as an historical personage.
Knowledge of Abraham's history must be derived
exclusively from
Most of the critics ascribe Deuteronomy to the
last century of the monarchy of Judah. The
narrative of EJ is, then, the oldest
written attestation of Abraham; and
the question arises, how far can this
narrative be accepted as historical?
If it is not historical the origin of its
conception of Abraham must be explained. It has been suggested that Abraham
was a deity adored in antiquity and afterward
humanized (Dozy, Nöldeke, E. Meyer). But in
all Semitic literature no god named Abraham is
found; and no indication exists that Abraham
was ever conceived of in Israel as a deity or higher
being. More plausible is the view that Abraham,
Isaac, and Jacob were ethnographic collective
names (Wellhausen, Prolegomena, Berlin, 1895,
pp. 322 sqq.). Abraham in particular was a combination of Israelitic, Edomitic, Moabitic, and
Ammonitic nations. These collective names were
afterward conceived of as names of individuals of
remote antiquity, to whom fancy involuntarily
ascribed a history reflecting the views and wishes
of the later period. But there is little to prove
that the names of the patriarchs were originally
collective names; and against the supposition is
the fact that the Israelites did not call themselves
after the name of Abraham but after that of Isaac,
Jacob, Israel. Moreover, the picture of Abraham
presented by EJ is not what one would expect
Israel's fancy of the time of the Prophets to paint
as the portrait pf a patriarch par excellence.
Wellhausen says of the patriarchs as they appear in EJ:
"They are not courageous and manly, but good
house-masters, a little under the influence of their
more judicious wives." It is hardly conceivable,
that the Israel of the monarchy should have imagined as the type of an Israelite indeed a man
without courage, devoid of manliness, and ruled
by his wife. Abraham's faith and obedience are
emphasized and he is depicted as interceding with
Yahweh; but EJ also makes him marry his halfsister, which was incest according to the Israelitic
conception; he took Lot with him against Yahweh's command; though Yahweh had promised
him Canaan as his abode, he went thence to Egypt;
more than once he endangered the honor of his
wife; his faith is occasionally, though only momentarily, not free from doubt (
Another point raised against the historicity of the Biblical narratives of the patriarchs is that in the time of Moses, and later, Yahweh was a thunder-god dwelling on Sinai and was worshiped in a fetishistic manner by the Israelitic tribes, which at the same time were devoted to totemism. But this objection rests upon a rash inference, from single phenomena of the religious life at the time of Moses and the subsequent period, that the religious conceptions and usages of the Israelites were identical with those of the Arabs who lived two thousand years later in the time before Mohammed's appearance. The Israelites were not conscious of any special relationship with the Arabs, and the religion of the latter before Mohammed can not be proved to be a petrifaction of former millenniums.
The effort to prove the patriarchs unhistorical
from the narrative of the sending of the spies (Num.
xiii.-xiv.)—because it appears questionable in that
narrative whether it was worth while or possible
for Israel to take Canaan, whereas on the basis of
the history of the patriarchs both were certain—falls to the ground when it is remembered that the
authors who wrote the story of the spies were fully
convinced that Yahweh had promised Canaan to
the fathers, and that they wrote with the supposition
that no intelligent reader would see in their narrative a contradiction of this conviction. The most
plausible objection to the historicity of the narratives of the patriarchs is the length of time between
the events recorded and the origin of the documentary sources extant in Genesis. But that tradition
may preserve a faithful record of former events
No one of the three sources which are pieced together in the present Genesis can be fully reconstructed. The document P must have contained much more material than the sum total of all the excerpts from it. The source E appears first with certainty in chapter xx.; and J, especially for Abraham's later years, is preserved only in fragments. There is thus no means of knowing all that the sources originally contained; and, furthermore, many passages of Genesis can be assigned with certainty neither to one nor another of the sources. Hence the accuracy and completeness of our knowledge of Abraham's history is dependent on the fidelity and good judgment with which the compiler of Genesis has done his work; and in attempting to delineate the true story of Abraham's life it is an imperative duty to weigh carefully the possibility and probability of each detail.
The historicity of the personal as distinguished from the tribal Abraham is still held by a wide though perhaps narrowing circle of scholars. In the above article the difficulties are too lightly treated. The embarrassing question of Abraham's date is disposed of (§ 1) by the assumption that it can not have been later than 1900 B.C. But Gen. xiv., by its Babylonian synchronism, puts it in the twenty-third century B.C., at least one thousand years before Moses, and fifteen hundred years before the generally accepted date of Abraham's first biographer. Moreover, practically nothing is known of the history of his descendants until the era of Moses. When we seek for at least a substantial personality amid the vagueness, inconsistencies, and contradictions direct or inferential, that mark the several accounts, we are thrown back upon the fact of the persistent general tradition, which evidently had a very early origin, and to which great weight should in fairness be attached.
Bibliography: Besides the histories of Israel and commentaries on Genesis, consult W. J. Deane, Abraham: His Life and Times, London, 1886; H. C. Tomkins, Abraham and His Age, ib. 1897; C. H. Cornill, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Leipsic, 1898, Eng. transl., Chicago, 1898; P. Dornstetter, Abraham; Studien über die Anfänge des hebräischen Volkes, Frieburg, 1902. For the extra-Biblical traditions: G. Weil, Biblische Legenden der Muselmänner, Frankfort, 1845; H. Beer, Leben Abrahams, nach Auffassung der füdischen Sage, Leipsic, 1859; T. P. Hughes, Dictionary of Islam, pp. 4–7, London, 1895 (gives Abraham passages in the Koran); B. W. Bacon, Abraham the Heir of Yahweh, in the New World, vol. viii. (1899); JE, i. 83-92.
ABRAHAM, APOCALYPSE OF. See Pseudepigrapha, Old Testament, II., 21.
ABRAHAM A SANCTA CLARA: Monastic name by which a famous German preacher, Ulrich Megerle, is usually known; b. at Kreenheinstetten (20 m. n. of Constance), Baden, July 2, 1644; d. in Vienna Dec. 1, 1709. He was the son of an innkeeper, and received his education from the Jesuits at Ingolstadt and from the Benedictines at Salzburg. In 1662 he entered the order of the barefooted Augustinians, and rose to positions of authority, becoming prior of his house, provincial, and definitor. After 1668 or 1669, with the exception of seven years (1682-89) spent at Graz, he was attached to the Augustinian Church in Vienna. He was primarily a preacher, and his first published works were reprints of sermons. His definite literary activity dates from the plague of 1679, which called forth three small books; but these, as well as similar occasional writings—such as Auf, auf, ihr Christen (1683), inspired by the danger of the Turkish invasion and imitated by Schiller in the Capuchin's address in Wallensteins Lager, viii.; Gack Gack (1685), a book for pilgrims; Heilsames Gemisch-Gemasch (1704)—are of comparatively slight importance. His principal work, Judas, der Erz-Schelm (4 parts, 1686-95), is an imaginary biography of the betrayer of Christ, written from the standpoint of a satirical preacher. About the same time he wrote a compendium of moral theology, Grammatica religiosa (1691) in which the more dignified Latin precludes the characteristic pungent flavor of his vernacular works.
Abraham represents the Catholicism of his age not in its noblest, but in its most usual form. He is fanatical, eager to make converts, intolerant; constant in praise of the Jesuits, full of the bitterest reproaches against Protestants and Jews. He has the most childish notions of science; but he makes very skilful use of his scanty equipment of learning. He has a perfect command of every rhetorical artifice, and knows how to play upon the feelings of his hearers, to appeal to their weaknesses, and to call up vivid pictures before their minds, not disdaining to raise a laugh. Satire is his strongest weapon; and he is a direct inheritor of the old German satiric tradition. He exercises the functions of a critic with the fearlessness of a mendicant friar; neither his audience, nor the court, nor his brethren of the clergy are spared. The burlesque manner which he uses in treating the most serious subjects was popular in the fifteenth century, and may have suited that age; but it was out of place in the second half of the seventeenth. The force of the contrast becomes apparent when it is remembered that Abraham was appointed court preacher in 1677, sixteen years after the same title had been conferred on a Bossuet. It is only fair, however, to recall what the general level of education was in Roman Catholic Germany at the time, and to see in Abraham rather a popular entertainer than a preacher.
A complete edition of his works in twenty-one
volumes was published at Passau and Lindau
Bibliography: T. G. von Karajan, Abraham a Sancta Clara, Vienna, 1867; W. Scherer, Vorträge und Aufsätze zur Geschichte des geistlichen Lebens in Deutschland und Oesterreich, Berlin, 1874; H. Mareta, Ueber Judas den Erzschelm, Vienna, 1875; A. Silberstein, Denksäulen im Gebiete der Cultur and Literatur. Abraham a Sancta Clara, ib. 1879; E. Schnell, Pater Abraham a Sancta Clara, Munich, 1895; C. Blanckenburg, Studien über die Sprache Abrahams a Sancta Clara, Halle, 1897.
ABRAHAM ECCHELLENSIS, ek"el-en'sis: A learned Maronite; b. at Eckel, Syria, in the latter part of the sixteenth century; d. at Rome in 1664. He was educated in the college of the Maronites at Rome and was promoted to doctor of philosophy and theology. For a time he was professor of Arabic and Syriac at Pisa, and afterward at Rome, where he was called by Urban III. He was one of the first to promote Syriac studies in Europe, and his Syriac grammar (Rome, 1628) was long used. In 1640 he was called to Paris by Le Jay to assist in the Paris Polyglot. The Arabic and Syriac texts for this work had been entrusted to Gabriel Sionita, a Maronite professor at Paris, who performed his work in an unsatisfactory manner. Abraham agreed to undertake the books of Ruth, Esther, Tobit, Judith, Baruch, and Maccabees, on the ground that he possessed better codices than Gabriel. The latter, however, took offense; whereupon Abraham resigned the work and returned to Rome (1642), having edited only the books of Ruth and III Maccabees. He was attacked in four letters (Paris, 1646) by Valérien de Flavigny, who wrote on the side of his friend Gabriel, and a sharp controversy ensued (cf. A. G. Masch, Bibliotheca sacra, Halle, 1778, p. 358). During a second residence in Paris (1645-53) Abraham taught at the Sorbonne, and published the concluding volume of an edition of the works of St. Alithony (1646; vol. i., containing the letters, had appeared in 1641), as well as Catalogus librorum Chaldœorum auctore Hebed Jesu (1653) and Chronicon orientale (1653), a history of the patriarchate of Alexandria, translated from the Arabic of Ibn al-Rahib, with an appendix treating of Arabia and the Arabs before Mohammed. In 1653 he returned to Rome. He published two works in answer to the views of John Selden concerning the early position of the episcopate, viz., De origine nominis papœ (Rome, 1660) and Eutychius patriarcha Alexandrinus vindicatus (1661).
Bibliography: For his life consult J. S. Ersch and J. G. Gruber, Allgemeine Encyclopädie der Wissenschaften, i. 30, 360, Leipsic, 1818; Biographie universelle ancienne et moderne, xii. 457-458, Paris, 1814.
ABRAHAMITES: A deistic sect which appeared in the district of Pardubitz, eastern Bohemia, after 1782. They claimed to hold to the faith of Abraham before his circumcision; rejected most of the Christian doctrines, but professed belief in one God, and accepted, of the Scriptures, only the Decalogue and the Lord's Prayer. The government took measures against them, and they were soon suppressed. The name was also applied to the followers of one Abraham (Ibrahim) of Antioch at the beginning of the ninth century; they were charged with idolatrous and licentious practises, probably on insufficient grounds, and may have been related to the Paulicians.
Bibliography: [P. A. Winkopp], Geschichte der böhmischen Deisten, Leipsic, 1785; J. G. Meusel, Vermischte Nachrichten und Bemerkungen, Erlangen, 1818; H. Grégoire, Histoire des sectes réligieuses, v. 419 sqq., 6 vols., Paris, 1828-45.
ABRAHAMS, ISRAEL: English rabbinical scholar and author; b. at London Nov. 26, 1858. He was educated at Jews' College and University College, London (M.A., 1881). After teaching at Jews' College for several years, he was appointed senior tutor there in 1900, but in 1902 accepted a call to Cambridge as reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature. He has been a member of the Committee for Training Jewish Teachers, the Committee of the Anglo-Jewish Association, was the first president of the Union of Jewish Literary Societies, and has been successively honorary secretary and president of the Jewish Historical Society.
Abrahams has been one of the editors of the Jewish Quarterly Review since 1889, and contributes each week to the Jewish Chronicle. His works include Aspects of Judaism (London, 1895; in collaboration with Claude G. Montefiore); Jewish Life in the Middle Ages (1896); Chapters on Jewish Literature (1899); Maimonides (Philadelphia, 1903; in collaboration with D. Yellin); and Festival Thoughts (London, 1905-06).
ABRAHAMSON, LAURENTIUS GUSTAV: Lutheran; b. at Medaker, Sweden, Mar. 2, 1856. He was educated at the public schools of his native country, and at Augustana College and Theological Seminary (Rock Island, Ill.), graduating in 1880. He entered the Lutheran ministry in the same year, and in 1886 was called to the pastorate of the Salem Lutheran Church, Chicago, where he has since remained. He was associate editor of Augustana, the official organ of the Augustana Synod, from 1885 to 1896, and for six years was president of the Illinois Conference of the same synod. He is also a member of the board of directors of Augustana College and Theological Seminary, president of the board of directors of Augustana Hospital, Chicago, a member of the board of missions of the Augustana Synod and the Illinois Conference, and was a delegate to the International Lutheran World's Congress at Lund, Sweden, in 1901. In 1894 he received the Swedish decoration of Knight Royal of the Order of the Polar Star from King Oscar II. In theology he belongs to the historic Evangelical Lutheran Church, and adheres to its original unaltered creeds. He has written Jubel Album (Chicago, 1893).
Abrasax (which is far commoner in the sources
than the variant form Abraxas) is a word of
mystic meaning in the system of the Gnostic
Basilides, being there applied to the "Great
Much labor has been spent in seeking an explanation for and the etymology of the name. Salmasius thought it Egyptian, but never gave the proofs which he promised. Münter separates it into two Coptic words signifying "new fangled title." Bellermann thinks it a compound of the Egyptian words abrak and sax, meaning "the honorable and hallowed word," or "the word is adorable." Sharpe finds in it an Egyptian invocation to the Godhead, meaning "hurt me not." Others have endeavored to find a Hebrew origin. Geiger sees in it a Grecized form of ha-berakhah, "the blessing," a meaning which King declares philologically untenable. Passerius derives it from abh, "father," bara, "to create," and a- negative—"the uncreated Father." Wendelin discovers a compound of the initial letters, amounting to 365 in numerical value, of four Hebrew and three Greek words, all written with Greek characters: ab, ben, rouach, hakadōs; sōtēria apo xylou ("Father, Son, Spirit, holy; salvation from the cross"). According to a note of De Beausobre's, Hardouin accepted the first three of these, taking the four others for the initials of the Greek anthrōpoussōzōn hagiōi xylōi, "saving mankind by the holy cross." Barzilai goes back for explanation to the first verse of the prayer attributed to Rabbi Nehunya ban ha-Kanah, the literal rendering of which is "O [God], with thy mighty right hand deliver the unhappy [people]," forming from the initial and final letters of the words the word Abrakd (pronounced Abrakad), with the meaning "the host of the winged ones," i.e., angels. But this extremely ingenious theory would at most explain only the mystic word Abracadabra, whose connection with Abrasax is by no means certain. De Beausobre derives Abrasax from the Greek habros and saō, "the beautiful, the glorious Savior." It is scarcely necessary to remark upon the lack of probability for all these interpretations; and perhaps the word may be included among those mysterious expressions discussed by Harnack (Ueber das gnostische Buch Pistis-Sophia, TU, vii. 2, 1891, 86-89), "which belong to no known speech, and by their singular collocation of vowels and consonants give evidence that they belong to some mystic dialect, or take their origin from some supposed divine inspiration." That the numerical value of the letters amounts to 365, the number of the heavens of Basilides and of the days of the year, was remarked by the early Fathers (Irenæus, Hippolytus, the pseudo-Tertullian, and others); but this does not explain the name any more than it explains Meithras and Neilos, of which the same is true. And the number 365 is made use of not only by Basilides, but by other Gnostics as well.
The Gnostic sect which comes into light in Spain and southern Gaul at the end of the fourth century and at the beginning of the fifth, which Jerome connects with Basilides, and which (according to his Epist., lxxv.) used the name Abrasax, is considered by recent scholars to have nothing to do with Basilides. Moreover, the word is of frequent occurrence in the magic papyri; it is found on the Greek metal tesserœ among other mystic words, and still more often on carved gems. The fact that the name occurs on these gems in connection with representations of figures with the head of a cock, a lion, or an ass, and the tail of a serpent was formerly taken in the light of what Irenæus says (Adversus hœreses, I. xxiv. 5) about the followers of Basilides: "These men, moreover, practise magic, and use images, incantations, invocations, and every other kind of curious art. Coining also certain names as if they were those of the angels, they proclaim some of these as belonging to the first, and others to the second heaven; and then they strive to set forth the names, principles, angels, and powers of the 365 imagined heavens." From this an attempt was made to explain first the gems which bore the name and the figures described above, and then all gems with unintelligible inscriptions and figures not in accord with pure Greco-Roman art, as Abrasax-stones, Basilidian or Gnostic gems. Some scholars, especially Bellermann and Matter, took great pains to classify the different representations. But a protest was soon raised against this interpretation of these stones. De Beausobre, Passerius, and Caylus decisively declared them to be pagan; and Harnack has gone so far as to say that it is doubtful whether a single Abrasax-gem is Basilidian. Having due regard to the magic papyri, in which many of the unintelligible names of the Abrasax-gems reappear, besides directions for making and using gems with similar figures and formulas for magical purposes, it can scarcely be doubted that these stones are pagan amulets and instruments of magic.
Bibliography: C. Salmasius, De armis climactericis, p. 572,
Leyden, 1648; Wendelin, in a letter in J. Macarii Abraxas . . . accedit
Abraxas Proteus, seu multiformis gemmœ Basilidainœ portentosa varietas, exhibita . . . a J. Chifletio, pp.
112-115. Antwerp, 1657; I. de Beausobre, Histoire
critique de Manichée et du Manichéisme, ii. 50-69, Amsterdam,
1739; J. B. Passerius, De gemmis Basilidianis diatriba,
in Gori, Thesaurus gemmarum antiquarum astriferarum,
ii. 221-286, Florence, 1750; Tubières de Grimvard,
Count de Caylus, Recueil d'antiquités, vi. 65-66, Paris,
1764; F. Münter, Versuch über die kirchlichen Alterthümer
der Gnostiker, pp. 203-214, Anspach, 1790; J. J. Bellermann,
Versuch über die Gemmen der Alton mit dem Abraxas-Bilde,
3 parts, Berlin, 1818-19; J. Matter, Histoire critique du Gnosticisme, i., Paris, 1828, and Strasburg, 1843;
idem, Abraxas in Herzog, RE, 2d ed., 1877; S. Sharpe,
Egyptian Mythology, p. 252, note, London, 1863; Geiger,
Abraxas und Elxai, in ZDMG, xviii. (1864) 824-825;
G. Barzilai, Gli Abraxas, studio archeologico, Triest, 1873;
idem, Appendice alla dissertazione sugli Abraxas, ib. 1874; E.
Renan, Histoire des origines du Christianisme, vi. 160, Paris,
1879; C. W. King, The Gnostics and their Remains, London,
1887; Harnack, Geschichte, i. 161. The older material is
listed by Matter, ut sup., and Wessely, Ephesia grammata,
ABRAVANEL. See Abrabanel.
ABSALOM. See David.
ABSALON (AXEL): Archbishop of Lund (1178-1201), one of the principal figures in Scandinavian medieval history; b. on the island of Zealand, then under his father's government, probably in Oct., 1128; d. in the abbey of Sorö (on the island of Zealand, 44 m. w.s.w. of Copenhagen) Mar. 21, 1201. He was brought up with the future king Waldemar, amid surroundings which befitted his birth. When he was eighteen or nineteen, his father retired from the world to the Benedictine monastery of Sorö, which he had built, and the lad went to Paris to study theology and canon law. He came back to Denmark to find civil war raging among the partizans of three princes. As he was already a priest, he probably took no part in the bloody battle of Gradehede near Viborg (1157) which finally decided the strife in favor of his old playmate Waldemar; but in the following spring he and his retainers repelled an attack of Wendish pirates who were ravaging Zealand. When Bishop Asser of Roskilde died (on Good Friday, 1158), the chapter and the citizens quarreled over the choice of a successor, and the armed intervention of Waldemar became necessary. At an election held in his presence, Absalon was unanimously chosen, and soon showed that he considered the defense of his country not the least among his episcopal duties. The Danes now assumed the offensive against the pagan Wends, and two campaigns were made against them in 1159. The next year Waldemar joined forces with Henry the Lion, with the result that Mecklenburg was added to the German territory, and the island of Rügen to the Danish.
All this time Absalon was busy building fortresses and providing guards for the coasts, sometimes undertaking perilous winter voyages to inspect the defenses, with the aspect of a Viking but the spirit of a crusader. At the same time he was laboring for internal peace by endeavoring to attach the partizans of the defeated factions to the king, and busily providing for monastic reform and extension. He brought to Denmark his old fellow student William, canon of St. Geneviève at Paris, and placed him over the canons of Eskilsö near Roskilde, whose house he later removed to Ebelholt near Arresö, helping them to build their new church and richly endowing it. After his father's death (c. 1157) discipline had decayed among the Benedictines of Sorö, and Absalon brought Cistercian monks from Esrom to restore it, making it one of the richest of Cistercian abbeys. He and his kinsfolk were buried in the great church there which he began to build after 1174. In 1162 he accompanied Waldemar to St. Jean de Laune on the Saône, where Frederick Barbarossa solemnly recognized Victor IV. as the legitimate pope and banned Alexander III. and his adherents. Absalon was much dissatisfied with this result; he desired Waldemar to refuse the oath of allegiance to the emperor, and induced him to withdraw from the sitting in which Alexander was denounced. He also protested later when Victor IV. undertook to consecrate a bishop for Odense, and was supported in his attitude by the bishops of Viborg and Börglum and by most of the monastic communities, while Archbishop Eskil of Lund took the same position so strongly that he had to spend seven years in exile at Clairvaux. The bishops of Sleswick, Ribe, Aarhus, and Odense were on the side of the imperial pope.
In the fresh campaigns against the Wends, between 1164 and 1185, Absalon took an active part, winning from his contemporaries the name of pater patriœ. In 1167 the king gave him the town of Havn (Copenhagen), and he erected a strong fortress, which was of great importance for the development of commerce. He was active in establishing a system of tithes, which aroused much opposition. The disturbances in Eskil's jurisdiction (he had now become reconciled with the king) induced him to resign his archbishopric, naming Absalon as his successor. The latter accepted his promotion unwillingly, and was allowed to retain the see of Roskilde for thirteen years after his assumption of the higher office in 1178. As archbishop he withdrew more and more from political activity to devote himself to the interests of the Church. The part taken by the Danes in the third crusade was no doubt due to his influence. He was a strong upholder of clerical celibacy, and the purity of his own life was universally admired. He is also credited with having done much for liturgical uniformity; and it was at his wish that Saxo, one of his clergy, undertook to write his Historia Danica, one of the most important sources for Danish history.
Bibliography: J. Langebek [continued by P. F. Suhm and Others], Scriptores rerum Danicarum medii œvi, 9 vols., Copenhagen, 1774-87; H. J. F. Estrup, Life (in Danish), Soröe, 1826, Germ. transl., Leipsic, 1832; Saxo Grammaticus, Historia Danica, part i., ed. P. E. Müller, part ii., ed. J. M. Velschow, Copenhagen, 1839-58.
ABSOLUTION. See Confession of Sins.
ABSTINENCE. See Fasting; Total Abstinence.
ABULFARAJ (Abu al-Faraj ibn Harun, commonly called
Bar Hebrœus; his real name was
Gregory): Syriac writer and bishop; b. in the
Cappadocian town of Melitene (200 m. n.e. of Antioch) 1226; d. at Maragha (60 m. s. of Tabriz),
Azerbaijan, Persia, July 30, 1286. He belonged
to a Jewish family which had gone over to Jacobite
Christianity, but whether his father or a more
remote ancestor made the change is uncertain.
He finished his studies at Antioch and lived for a
time there as a monk in a cave; he went to Tripoli,
Syria, to perfect himself in medicine (his father's
profession) and rhetoric; became bishop of Gubos,
near Melitene (1246), of Lakabhin (1247), of Aleppo
(1253); maphrian (primate) of the Jacobites in
Bibliography: E. Nestle, Syrische Grammatik, "Literatura," pp. 46-50 Berlin, 1888 (gives published works of Abulfaraj); life by T. Nöldeke, in Orientalische Skizzen, pp. 250 sqq., Berlin, 1892, Eng. transl., London, 1892; W. Wright, Short History of Syriac Literature, pp. 265-281, London, 1894 (reprinted, with additions, from Encyc. Brit., xxii.; gives complete list of works of Abulfaraj); Hauck-Herzog, RE, i. 123-124, ii. 780; E. A. W. Budge, The Laughable Stories collected by Mar Gregory John Bar Hebrœus, Syriac Text . . . and Eng. transl., London, 1897.
ABUNA. See Abyssinia and the Abyssinian Church, §§ 2, 5.
The modern Abyssinia is a country of East Africa, between the Red Sea and the Blue Nile, to the southeast of Nubia. Its boundaries are not definite, and its area is variously given from 150,000 to 240,000 square miles. Estimates of the population vary from 3,500,000 to 8,500,000. In antiquity the term "Ethiopia" was used rather vaguely to signify Abyssinia (with somewhat wider extent than at present), Nubia, and Sennar. These were the lands of the Ethiopian Church, of which the Abyssinian Church is the modem representative. Christianity is now confined to the plateau and mountain regions of Abyssinia.
Native tradition ascribes the name of the country and the foundation of the state to Ethiops, the son of Cush, the son of Ham. The queen of Sheba who visited Solomon is identified with an Abyssinian queen, Makeda; and her visit is said to have led to the conversion of the people to Judaism. The tradition continues that she bore to Solomon a son, Menelik, who was educated in Jerusalem by his father. He then returned to the old capital, Axum, and brought with him both Jewish priests and the ark, which was carried away from the Temple in Jerusalem and deposited in the Ethiopian capital; and from that time to the present Abyssinia is said to have been ruled by a Solomonic dynasty, the succession having been broken only now and then by usurpers and conquerors. Of course, all this has no historic value. That Judaism preceded Christianity in the land is not proved by the observance of certain Jewish customs (such as circumcision, the Mosaic laws about foods, the Sabbath, etc.); these may have been introduced from ancient Egypt or the Coptic Church. A Jewish immigration, however, must have taken place, as it is proved by the presence in the land of numerous Jews, the so-called Falashas (see below, § 7); but the time, manner, and magnitude of this immigration can not be ascertained.
There is no independent native tradition of the conversion of the Abyssinians to Christianity According to the Greek and Roman Church historians (Rufinus, i. 9; Theodoret, i. 22; Socrates, i. 19; Sozomen, ii. 24), in the time of Constantine the Great (about 330), Frumentius and Edesius accompanied the uncle of the former from Tyre on a voyage in the Red Sea. They were shipwrecked on the Ethiopian coast and carried by the natives to the court at Axum. There they won confidence and honor, and were allowed to preach Christianity. Edesius afterward returned to Tyre; but Frumentius continued the work, went to Alexandria, where Athanasius occupied the patriarchal see, obtained missionary coworkers from him, and was himself consecrated bishop and head of the Ethiopian Church, with the title Abba Salama, "Father of Peace," which is still in use along with the later Abuna, "Our Father." It is not improbable that Christianity was known to the Abyssinians before the time of Frumentius (whose date has been fixed by Dillmann at 341); but he is properly regarded as the founder of the Ethiopian Church. In the fifth and sixth centuries the mission received a new impulse by the immigration of a number of monks (Monophysites) from upper Egypt.
The close connection between the Abyssinian Church and Egypt is very apparent in the sphere of doctrine. Like the Coptic Church, the Abyssinian holds a monophysitic view of the person of Christ. This question has long been settled; but it is still debated whether Christ had a double or threefold birth. The Abuna and the majority of the priests hold to the twofold view, which is the more purely monophysitic. The threefold view was introduced by a monk about 100 years ago, and is prevalent in Shoa (the southern and southeastern district). Also the questions of the person and dignity of Mary, whether she really bore God, or was only the mother of Jesus; whether she is entitled to the same worship as Christ, etc.,—are eagerly debated though it seems to be the general view that an almost divine worship is due to the Virgin, and that she and the saints are indispensable mediators between Christ and man. Some even assert that the saints, who died not for their own sins, died like Christ for the sins of others.
The church books are all in the Ethiopic language,
which is a dead tongue, studied only by the priests,
and not understood by them. For the Ethionic
Bible translation see Bible Versions, A, VIII.
The Abyssinian canon, called Semanya Ahadu,
"Eighty-one," because it consists of eighty-one
sacred books, comprises, besides the sixty-five
books of the usual canon, the Apocrypha, the
At the head of the Church stands the Abuna, who resides in Gondar. He is appointed by the Coptic patriarch of Cairo; and, according to a law, dating from the thirteenth century, no Abyssinian, but only a Copt, can be Abuna. He alone has the right to anoint the king and to ordain priests and deacons. Both in secular and in ecclesiastical affairs he has great power. The duties of the priests are to conduct divine service three or four times daily and for three or four hours on Sunday, to attend to the church business, and to purify houses and utensils. Priests, monks, and scholars celebrate the Holy Communion every morning. The deacons bake the bread for the Lord's Supper and perform menial duties. Any one who can read may be ordained deacon, and a priest is merely required to recite the Nicene Creed. To learn the long liturgies, however, is often a matter of years. It is usual to marry before ordination, as marriage is not allowed afterward. Besides priests and deacons each church has its alaka, who looks after church property and attends to secular business. The debturas sing at divine service; and the larger churches have a komofat who settles disputes among the clergy. Beside the secular clergy stand the monastic under the head of the Etsh'ege, who ranks next to the Abuna and decides many ecclesiastical and theological questions in common with him. The number of monks and nuns (living after the rule of Pachomius) is very great. At Debra Damo, one of the chief monasteries, about 300 monks live together in small huts. A part of their duties is the education of the young. The church buildings are exceedingly numerous, generally small, low, circular structures, with a conical roof of thatch and four doors, one toward each of the cardinal points. Surrounding the building is a court, occupied during service by the laymen, and often serving at night as a place of refuge to travelers. The interior, dirty and neglected, is divided into two apartments,—the holy for the priests and deacons, and the holy of holies, where stands the ark. This ark is the principal object in the whole church. Neither the deacons, laymen, nor non-Christians dare touch it; if they do, the church and the adjacent cemetery become unclean, and must be purified. Indifferent pictures of the numerous saints, the Virgin, the angels, and the devil adorn the interior; but statues are forbidden. Crosses are found, but no crucifixes.
Service consists of singing of psalms, recitals of parts of the Bible and liturgy, and prayers, especially to the Virgin and the wonder-working saints; it is undignified and unedifying. They believe that every one has a guardian spirit and therefore venerate the angels. The archangel Michael is considered especially holy. They divide the good angels into nine classes, of which there were originally ten, but one fell away under Satanael. Relics are preserved and venerated as by the Roman Catholic Church. Of sacraments, the Church numbers two, baptism and the Lord's Supper. Both adults and children are baptized, the former by immersion, the latter by sprinkling. For boys the rite is performed forty days after birth; for girls, eighty days. The purpose of baptism is the forgiveness of sins. The Lord's Supper is preceded by a severe fast; and offerings of incense, oil, bread, and wine are usually brought. The Jewish Sabbath is kept as well as the Christian Sunday; and altogether there are one hundred and eighty holidays in the year. Fasting, observed with great strictness, plays a prominent part in the discipline, and about half the days of the year are nominally fast-days.
Not all the inhabitants of Abyssinia are Christians; and not all Christians belong to the State Church. The Zalanes, a nomadic tribe, consider themselves to be Jews, and keep aloof from the Christians, though they are described as being really Christians. The Chamantes are baptized, and have Christian priests; but in reality they are nearly pagans, and celebrate many thoroughly pagan rites. The real Jews, the Falashas, live along the northern shore of Lake Tsana, in the neighborhood of Gondar and Shelga, where they pursue agriculture and trade. They are more industrious than the Christians, but also more ignorant and spiritually more forlorn. Mohammedanism is steadily progressing. In order to distinguish themselves from all non-Christians, the Christians receive at baptism a cord of blue silk or cotton, called mateb, which they always wear around the neck.
The first missionary work which the Western
Church undertook in Abyssinia was the Jesuit
mission of 1555, which labored there for nearly
a century; but the missionary activity of the
Jesuits was deeply mixed with the politics of the
country; and their main purpose seems to have
been to establish there the authority of the Roman
Catholic Church. At last they reached the goal.
After a frightful massacre of the opposite party,
King Sasneos declared the Roman Catholic Church
the Church of the State. In 1640, however, the
Jesuits, with their Roman archbishop, were compelled to leave the country, and the old religion
with its old Church was reestablished. With the
Since that time, few missionary attempts have been made in Abyssinia. The Swedes have one or two stations in the country; and during the past ten years there has been some effort to resume work on the part of the Roman Catholics (mainly French). There is a vicar apostolic for Abyssinia with residence in Alitiena, Tigre; and a Uniat "Geez Church" is said to number 10,000 members. See Africa, II., Abyssinia.
Bibliography: Makrisi (d. 1441), Historia Coptorum Christianorum, ed. T. Wüstenfeld, Göttingen, 1845; H. Ludolf, Historia œthiopica and Commentarius, Frankfort, 1681, 1693; J. Lobo, Voyage d'Abyssinie (Eng. transl., with continuation of the history of Abyssinia . . . by M. L. Grand, . . . London, 1735; J. Stœcklein, Allerhand so Lehr- als Geist-reiches Brief, schriften und Reis-Beschreibungen . . . von denen Missionariis der Gesellschaft Jesu, I. viii., Augsburg, 1728; V. de la Croze, Histoire du Christianisme d'Ethiope, . . . The Hague 1739; J. Bruce, Travels to Discover the Sources of the Nile, 1768-1773, Edinburgh, 1790 (often reprinted); G. A. Hoskins, Travels in Ethiopia, London, 1835; C. W. Isenberg and J. L. Krapf, Journals detailing their Proceedings in the Kingdom of Shoa, London, 1843; C. W. Isenberg, Abessinien und die evangelische Mission, Bonn, 1844; J. L. Krapf, Travels in East Africa, London, 1860; idem, Travels and Missionary Labours in Africa and Abyssinia, ib. 1867; Lady Mary E. Herbert, Abyssinia and its Apostle, ib. 1868; J. M. Flad, The Falashas of Abyssinia, ib. 1869; idem, Zwölf Jahre in Abessinien, 2 vols., Basel, 1869-87; A. Dillmann, Die Anfänge des axumitischen Reiches, Berlin, 1879; A. Raffray, Les Églises monolithes de la ville de Lalibéla, Paris, 1882; T. Waldmeier, Autobiography, London, 1890; J. T. Bent, The Sacred City of the Ethiopians, ib. 1893; A. B. Wylde, Modern Abyssinia, ib. 1901; H. Vivian, Abyssinia, ib. 1901; M. Fowler, Christian Egypt, ch. vii., ib. 1901. For the liturgy, etc.: J A Giles, Codex apocryphus Novi Testamenti, ib. 1852; E. Trumpp, Das Taufbuch der œthiopischen Kirche, Munich, 1878; C. A. Swainson, Greek Liturgies, Cambridge 1884; C. von Arnhard, Liturgie zum Tauf-Fest der œthiopischen Kirche, Munich, 1888.
ACACIUS, a-kê'shi-us, OF BERŒA: A monk of the monastery of Gindanus near Antioch, afterward abbot of a monastery near Berœa (Aleppo), and from 378 bishop of that city; d. about 435. He took an active part in the ecclesiastical controversies of the East, and was one of the principal complainants against Chrysostom at the synod held in 403 in a suburb of Chalcedon known as Ad Quercum. For this reason he fell out with Rome, but was acknowledged again by Innocent I. in 415. In the Nestorian controversy he occupied a mediating position. The Syrian Balæus wrote five songs in his praise. His extant writings are a letter to Cyril of Alexandria and two to Alexander of Hierapolis, as well as a confession of faith (MPG, lxxvii. 1445-48).
Bibliography: M. Le Quien, Oriens Christianus, ii. 782-783, Paris, 1763; G. Bickell, Ausgewählte Gedichte der syrischen Kirchenväter Cyrillonas, Balœus, . . . in Bibliothek der Kirchenväter, pp. 83-89, Kempten, 1878-73; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, ii. passim; DCB, i. 12-14.
ACACIUS OF CÆSAREA: One of the most influential bishops in the large middle party which opposed
the Nicene Creed during the Arian controversy. He
was the disciple of Eusebius, and his successor in
the bishopric of Cæsarea. He took part in the
Eusebian synod at Antioch in the spring of 341,
and in another at Philippopolis in 343. By the
orthodox council of Sardica in the same year he was
regarded as one of the heads of the opposing party,
and threatened with deposition. Common opposition to the Nicene doctrine held the party
together until about 356. Thus, on the death
of Maximus of Jerusalem (350 or 351), Acacius
helped to get the vacant see for Cyril, who belonged
rather to the opposite wing of the party, the later Homoiousians or Semi-Arians. That he fell out with
Cyril and procured his deposition (357 or 358) was due
partly to jealousy between the two sees, partly to the
changed attitude of parties under Constantius (351-361). The two wings fell apart, and Acacius became
the leader of the court party, the later Homoians,
in the East. In 355 he seems to have been one of
the few Easterns who represented the emperor at
the Council of Milan; and, according to Jerome,
his influence with Constantius was so great that he
had much to do with setting up Felix as pope in
the place of the banished Liberius. After the so-called Second Council of Sirmium (357) had avoided
the controverted terms altogether and said nothing
about the ousia ("substance"), it was undoubtedly
Acacius who at the Council of Antioch (358) influenced Eudoxius to accept this compromise for the
East. At the Synod of Seleucia (359) he took a
prominent part. In obvious concert with the imperial delegates, he seemed to favor what Ursacius
and Valens tried to carry in the Synod of Rimini, the acceptance of the so-called third Sirmian
formula ("similar [homoios] according to the
Scriptures . . . similar in all things"). He and his
party, it is true, expressly condemned the anomoios
("dissimilar") theory, but they omitted the "in all
things," which agreed as little with the real views
of Acacius as with those of the Western Homoians.
The council ended in a schism; the Homoiousian
majority, in a separate session, deposed Acacius
Along with Eunomius and Aetius, Acacius may be said to have given dialectic completeness to Arianism. In their polemics against the Nicene Symbol they laid chief stress on the fact that the Father was "unbegotten," depending for his being neither upon himself nor another, which could not be said of the Son. They insisted also upon the complete comprehensibility of God.
Bibliography: Tillemont, Mémoires, vi. 1699; M. Le Quien, Orieins Christianus, iii. 559, Paris, 1740; Fabricius-Harles, vii. (1801) 336, ix. (1804) 254, 256; James Raine, Priory of Hexham, vol. i., Newcastle, 1864; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, i. 677, 712, 714 sqq., 721 sqq., 734-735; DCB, i. 11-12.
ACACIUS OF CONSTANTINOPLE. See Monophysites.
ACACIUS OF MELITENE, mel-i-tî'ne: A bitter opponent of Nestorius in the Council of Ephesus in 431; d. after 437. A homily delivered by him at Ephesus and two letters to Cyril are in MPG, lxxvii. 1467-72. Melitene was a town of Armenia Secunda, the modern Malatie.
Bibliography: M. Le Quien, Oriens Christianus, i. 441, Paris, 1762; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, ii. 271, 275, 314; DCB, i. 14-15.
ACCA, ak'ka: Fifth bishop of Hexham (18 m. w. of Newcastle, Northumberland); d. there 740. He was the devoted friend of Wilfrid of York, shared his missionary labors in Friesland and Sussex, accompanied him to Rome in 704, and succeeded him as bishop in 709. He was also the intimate friend of Bede, who received help and encouragement from Acca in his scholarly labors, and dedicated to him his Hexameron and several of his commentaries. Acca seems to have been worthy of his friends. He completed and adorned the buildings begun at Hexham by Wilfrid and collected there a large and excellent library. He was a good musician, and induced a famous singer, Maban by name, to come to Hexham and instruct the rude Northumbrians. In 732 he was expelled from his bishopric for some unknown reason, but returned before his death.
Bibliography: Bede, Hist. eccl., v. 19-20; J. Raine, Priory of Hexham, i. pp. xxx-xxxv., 31-36, Newcastle, 1864; W. Bright, Early English Church History, pp. 447-448, Oxford, 1897.
ACCAD (AKKAD). See Babylonia, IV., § 11.
ACCEPTANTS: The name of that party which in the Jansenist controversy accepted the bull Unigenitus. See Jansen, Cornelius; Jansenism.
ACCOLTI, ak-kel'tî: The name of two cardinals who have sometimes been confused.
1. Pietro Accolti: "The Cardinal of Ancona"; b. at Florence 1455; d. at Rome Dec. 12, 1532. He studied law, but later entered the Church, and was made bishop of Ancona and cardinal by Julius II. He was the author of the famous bull of 1520 against Luther.
2. Benedetto Accolti: "The Cardinal of Ravenna," nephew of the preceding; b. at Florence, Oct. 29, 1497; d. there Sept. 21, 1549. He belonged to the college of abbreviators under Leo X., and was made a cardinal by Clement VII. in 1527. In 1535 Paul III. for some obscure reason imprisoned him in the castle of St. Angelo; and he obtained his release after some months only by payment of a large sum of money. He left some Latin writings including a few poems (published in Quinque illustrium poetarum carmina, Florence, 1562).
The word "Accommodation" is used in theology in two senses: (1) the wider, that of a general ethical conception; and (2) the narrower, by certain writers of the latter half of the eighteenth century, in reference to a particular method of Biblical exegesis. The ethical reserve denoted by this term was known to the Greek philosophers as synkatabasis, and the same word is used by the Greek Fathers for that method of teaching which adapts itself to the needs or to the preconceived ideas of the scholars; the expression kat' oikonomian didaskein is also employed, whence the word "economy" is often applied to this method by later writers.
Such accommodation or economy is required
by ethics in two cases: (1) when, in a spirit of
love, it spares a condition of ignorance
existing in another's mind, or (2) when,
in the same spirit, it keeps back some
truth which the imperfect state of
development of the other is not ready
to receive. Love bids to have patience with erring
or weak consciences, so long as they are unconscious of their error or weakness, and therefore
The use of accommodation in matter, as distinguished from manner, is more disputable. It
may be either negative, dissimulatio, when the
teacher passes over in silence the existence of
erroneous ideas in his scholars; or positive, simulatio,
when he distinctly approves such erroneous
ideas or consciously sets them forth as the truth,
with the purpose in both cases of thus leading by
an indirect road to the truth. Negative accommodation may be justified pedagogically by the
fact that no teacher is in a position to remove all
obstacles at one stroke, the gradual process being
equivalent to a toleration of a certain amount of
error for the time. Thus no reproach
can lie against Christ because in some
particulars he allowed his disciples
to remain temporarily under the influence of false impressions, as long
as he did this not by declared approval
and with the distinct looking forward to the time
when the Spirit of Truth should lead them into all
truth; this covers the Jewish beliefs and practises which they were allowed to retain in his very
presence. The apostles also tolerated the continued existence of numerous ancient errors in their
converts, being sure that these would fall away
with their gradual growth in Christian knowledge
(
The case is quite different, however, with regard to positive accommodation in the matter of the teaching. There is no purely objective system of commandments, the same for all alike. Ethical law is subjective, varying with the individual and his circumstances—position, calling, age, sex, and the like. One is not to be a slave to prevailing customs, but is bound to take them into account, so as not to offend others. The same thing applies to prevailing beliefs and views; a man has to consider that he will be judged by his contemporaries according to the standards of the time and place; nay, that if he is to be understood by them at all, he must accommodate himself to their standpoint, and speak to a certain extent as they speak. This leads to a point which has been in the past vehemently discussed by theologians. The truth just stated was pressed by certain writers for the purpose of rendering more acceptable their doctrines in regard to revelation. It is their attitude which gave rise to the narrower meaning of the word "accommodation."
A transition to the theory that many things in the Bible are to be taken as spoken only in this accommodated sense is to be found in the treatise of Zachariä, Erklärung der Herablassung Gottes zu den Menschen (Schwerin, 1762): it asserted that the revelations of God in the Old Testament, the establishment of the old and new covenants, the incarnation of Christ—in other words, the facts of revelation in general—were only set forth as an "accommodation" of God to men. It was seen that this struck at the very root of the Christian faith; and the question was hotly discussed how far many Biblical expressions were mere concessions to the ideas prevalent at the time. The controversy lasted until the rise of the modern critical school, early in the nineteenth century, afforded an easier way of meeting the difficulties which these theologians had thus sought to avoid. With the help of their theory, such writers as Behn, Senf, Teller, Van Hemert, and Vogel sought to bring about a harmony between their views of reason and the Scriptural expressions. Thus, for example, they got rid of the Messianic prophecies which, they said, Jesus referred to himself merely to convince the Jews that he was the Messiah, without himself believing that they were written of the Messiah; the doctrine of angels and devils was simply a use of the common conceptions; that of the atonement becomes only a condescension of the same kind to popular ideas, intended to reconcile the Jews to the loss of their sacrifices.
In more recent times this theory has been increasingly recognized as scientifically and
theologically untenable. It is of course,
obvious that many expressions of
Christ and the apostles relate to merely
local and temporal circumstances,
and do not contain permanent rules
of conduct. The apparent contradictions between revelation and the facts of physics
and chemistry offer no more difficulty; Christ did
not come to teach natural science; and he was
obliged to adapt himself to current forms of expression in order to be understood, just as one
speaks of the rising and setting of the sun, when
he knows it is the motion of the earth and not that
As to the general ethical use of accommodation,
a case may arise in which one is
bound by the law of love not to make
use of a liberty which in the abstract
he possesses, lest the weaker brethren
should be scandalized. From this
point of view Paul lays down his rule
in regard to the eating of meats offered to idols
(
The theory of theological accommodation, so far as it is drawn from the New Testament, grows out of a particular conception of the knowledge of Christ and the scope of inspiration. (1) If one holds that Christ possessed complete knowledge of all matters relating to the natural world, the Old Testament, the events of his own time, and the future of the kingdom of God on earth, he may affirm either that all of Christ's teaching on these subjects is authoritative and final, or else that in many instances he fitted his teaching to the immediate needs of his hearers; in the latter case, one could not be sure as to the precise nature of the objective fact. (2) If, how ever, it be alleged that Jesus's intelligence followed the laws of human growth, that he shared the common scientific, historical, and critical beliefs of his day, and that for us his knowledge is restricted to the spiritual content of revelation, then his allusions to the natural world, to persona, events, books, and authors of the Old Testament, to demons, and the like are to be interpreted according to universal laws of human intelligence; thus the principle of accommodation drops away. (3) In like manner, inspiration may be conceived of either as equipping the sacred writers with an accurate knowledge concerning all things to which they refer, and yet leading them to fit their communications to the temporary prejudice or ignorance of their readers, or as quickening their consciousness concerning spiritual truth, while they were left unillumined about matters which belong to literary, historical, or scientific inquiry. It is thus evident that the question of theological accommodation in the New Testament turns in part on a solution of two previous questions—the content of our Lord's knowledge, and the scope of inspiration in the authors of the various books (cf. C. J. Ellicott, Christus Comprobator, London, 1892; J. Moorhouse, The Teaching of Christ, ib. 1892; H. C. Powell, The Principle of the Incarnation, ib. 1896; G. B. Stevens, The Theology of the New Testament, New York, 1899; L. A. Muirhead, The Eschatology of Jesus, London, 1904).
Under the title "Accommodation Controversy" is also frequently understood the long and bitter dispute between the Jesuits and the Dominicans as to the extent of lawful concessions to the prejudices of their pagan hearers by missionaries. The Jesuits were the first to preach Christianity in China—Xavier went there in 1552. They were attacked by the Dominicans and Franciscans, when, forty years later, these orders entered the same field, on the charge of having made an improper compromise with Chinese beliefs, especially in regard to the practise of ancestor worship and to the name adopted to designate the Supreme Being in Chinese. They maintained, however, that such concessions were an inevitable condition of the toleration of Christian missions in the empire. The "Chinese rites" were provisionally forbidden by Innocent X. in 1645, but were again tolerated by Alexander VII. in 1656, on the ground that they might be regarded as purely civil ceremonies. Clement IX. took a middle course in 1669; but at the end of the century the controversy broke out with renewed violence, to be terminated only by a bull of Clement XI. in 1715, absolutely prohibiting the "Chinese rites." The legate Mezzabarba attempted to mitigate the strict enforcement of this ruling; but Benedict XIV. confirmed it in 1742, with the result of provoking a severe persecution which almost exterminated Christianity in China. A somewhat similar controversy raged in the eighteenth century over the so-called Malabar rites, terminated in the same sense by the bull Omnium sollicitudinum of Benedict XIV. (1742), the pope refusing, even at the cost of imperiling the future of missions, to permit any compromise with paganism. A heated controversy on the general subject of accommodation was provoked in England by the publication of No. 80 in the Oxford Tracts for the Times, On Reserve in Communicating Religious Knowledge, written by Isaac Williams, which caused the author to be accused of Jesuitical and un-English insincerity, and provoked additional antagonism to the Oxford movement.
Bibliography: On the general subject: K. F. Senff, Versuch über die Herablassung Gottes zu den Menschen, Leipsic, 1792; W. A. Teller, Die Religion der Vollkommern, Berlin, 1792; P. van Hemert, Accommodation, Dortmund, 1797. On the Accommodation Controversy: G. Daniel, Histoire apologétique de la conduite des Jésuites de la Chine, in Recueil des divers ouvrages, vol. iii., 3 vols., Paris, 1724; T. M. Mamachi, Originum et antiquitatum christianarum libri xx, ii. 373, 424, 425-426, 441-442; 6 vols., Rome, 1749-55; G. Pray, Historia controversiarum de ritibus sinicis, Budapest, 1789.
ACHELIS, ERNST CHRISTIAN: Reformed Church of Germany; b. at Bremen Jan. 13, 1838. He studied theology at Heidelberg and Halle from 1857 to 1860, and was pastor successively at Arsten near Bremen (1860-62), Hastedt, a suburb of Bremen (1862-75), and Barmen-Unterbarmen (1875-82). Since 1882 he has been professor of practical theology in the University of Marburg. He is president of the Marburg branch of the Evangelischer Bund, a member of the Freie deutsche evangelische Konferenz, and since 1888 has been the representative of the University of Marburg at the Hessian General Synod at Cassel, while in 1897 he was appointed a royal Konsistorialrat. He was created a knight of the Order of the Red Eagle, fourth class, in 1896 and of the Order of the Prussian Crown in 1905. His theological position is that of "the ancient faith, but modern theology." His writings, in addition to numerous articles in the Allgemefine deutsche Biographie and other standard works of reference, as well as monographs in theological magazines, include: Die biblischen Thatsachen und die religiöse Bedeutung ihrer Geschichtlichkeit (Gotha, 1869); Der Krieg im Lichte der christlichen Moral (Bremen, 1871); Die Bergpredigt nach Matthäus und Lukas, exegetisch und kritisch untersucht (Bielefeld, 1875); Parteiwesen und Evangelium (Barmen, 1878); Die Entstehungszeit von Luthers geistlichen Liedern (Marburg, 1884); Die evangelische Predigt eine Grossmacht (1887); Aus dem akademischen Gottesdienst in Marburg (1888; a collection of sermons delivered in 1886-88); Die Gestaltung des evangelischen Gottesdienstes (Herborn, 1888); Gottfried Menkers Homilien in Auswahl und mit Einleitung (2 vols., Gotha, 1888); Christusreden (3 vols., Freiburg, 1890-97; new edition, in 1 vol., Leipsic, 1898; collected sermons); Lehrbuch der praktischen Theologie (2 vols., Freiburg, 1890-91; revised edition, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1898); Zur Symbolfrage (Berlin, 1892); Grundriss der praktischen Theologie (Freiburg, 1893; 5th ed., 1903); Achelis und Lachese: Die Homiletik und die Katechetik des Andreas Hyperius, verdeutscht und mit Einleitungen versehen (Berlin, 1901); Björnsons Ueber unsere Kraft und das Wesen des Christentums (1902); and Der Dekalog als katechetisches Lehrstück (Giessen, 1905).
ACHELIS, HANS: Reformed Church of Germany; b. at Bremen Mar. 16, 1865. He studied at Erlangen, Berlin, and Marburg (Ph.D., Marburg, 1887); became privat-docent at Göttingen in 1893; was appointed professor there in 1897; went to Königsberg in 1901, and to Halle in 1907. His theological position is that of a "modern representative of the ancient faith." He has published: Das Symbol des Fisches (Marburg, 1888); Acta sanctorum Nerei et Achillei (TU, Leipsic, 1890); Die ältesten Quellen des orientalischen Kirchenrechts, I. Canones Hippolyti (1891), II. Die syrischen Didaskalia, übersetzt und erklärt (1903; in collaboration with J. Flemming); Hippolyt-studien (1897); Die Martyrologien, ihre Geschichte und ihr Wert (Berlin, 1900); Virgines subintroductœ. Ein Beitrag zu I. Kor. vii (Leipsic, 1902); and an edition of the works of Hippolytus, in collaboration with G. L. Bonwetsch (Leipsic, 1897).
ACHERY, a"shê"rî', JEAN LUC d' (Dom Luc d'Achery; Lat. Dacherius): Benedictine; b. at St. Quentin (80 m. n.e. of Paris), Picardy, 1609; d. in Paris Apr. 29, 1685. He entered the Benedictine order while still very young, and in 1632 joined the congregation of St. Maur at Vendôme. He was of weak constitution and suffered much physically, which led his superiors to send him to Paris. There he became librarian of St. Germain-des-Prés, and for forty-five years lived solely for his books and scholarly work. He took especial delight in searching out unknown books and bringing unprinted manuscripts to publication, and was ever ready to help others from his vast store of learning. His chief work was the Spicilegium veterum aliquot scriptorum qui in Galliœ bibliothecis, maxime Benedictinorum, latuerant (13 vols., Paris, 1655-77; 2d ed., by De la Barre, with comparison of later-found manuscripts by Baluze and Martène, 3 vols., 1723, better arranged but less correct). He edited the first edition of the Epistle of Barnabas (1645), the life and works of Lanfranc (1648), the works of Guibert of Nogent (1651), and the Regula solitariorum of a certain priest Grimlaic (1656); he compiled a catalogue of ascetic writings (1648); and he gathered the material for the Acta sanctorum ordinis S. Benedicti, which was published by his scholar and assistant, Mabillon (9 vols., 1668-1701), and for which the latter has usually received the credit.
Bibliography: L. E. Dupin, Bibliotheque des auteurs ecclésiastiques, xviii. 1445, Amsterdam ed.; Tassin, Histoire littéraire de la congrégation de St. Maur, pp. 103 sqq., Brussels, 1770.
ACHTERFELDT JOHANN HEINRICH. See Hermes, Georg.
ACŒMETI, a-sem'e-tai or a"cei-mê'tî,-tê ("Sleepless"): An order of monks who sang the divine praises in their monasteries night and day without cessation, dividing themselves into three choirs for the purpose and undertaking the service in rotation. A certain Alexander (ASB, Jan., i. 1018-28) founded their first monastery on the Euphrates about the year 400, and a second at Constantinople. The abbot Marcellus spread the custom in the East. Monks from his monastery were transferred in 459 by the consular Studius to the monastery newly founded by him in Constantinople and called, after his name, the Studium, which later became famous. The members of the order are sometimes called Studites. In the controversy with the Theopaschites they opposed the views of the papal legate, and in 534 they were disavowed and excommunicated by Pope John II.
ACOLYTE: A member of the highest of the
minor orders of the Roman Catholic Church. The
order was established in the fourth or fifth decade
of the third century, at the same time as the other
minor orders, probably by Pope Fabian (236-250),
but was not known to the East. The name (from
the Gk. akolouthos, "a follower, attendant")
indicates that the acolyte was originally the personal attendant of the bishop or of the presbyters.
In this capacity he appears in Cyprian's epistles,
where acolytes carry letters and fraternal gifts as
Since the Middle Ages the order has been understood as conferring the right to act as official assistant of the subdeacon in a solemn mass. No canonical age is now explicitly prescribed, but the requirement of a knowledge of Latin excludes the very young.
Bibliography: Bingham, Origines, book i.; J. Mabillon, Museum Italicum, ii. 84, Paris, 1687-89; L. A. Muratori, Liturgia Romana vetus, ii. 407, Venice, 1748; A. Harnack, Die Quellen der sogenannten apostolischen Kirchenordnung nebst einer Untersuchung über die Ursprung des Lectorats und der anderen niederen Weihen, TU, ii. 5 (1886), 94 sqq.; R. Sohm, Kirchenrecht, i. 128-137, Leipsic, 1892.
ACOSTA, JOSE DE: Jesuit; b. at Medina del Campo (26 m. s.s.w. of Valladolid), Spain, about 1539; d. at Salamanca as rector of the university Feb. 11, 1600. He joined the Jesuits as early as 1553. In 1571 he went to the West Indies and later became second provincial of Peru. He wrote Confessionario para los curas de Indios, in Kechua and Aymara (1583), perhaps the first book printed at Lima; a catechism in Spanish and the native tongues (Lima, 1585); De natura novi orbis et de promulgatione evangelii apud barbaros (Salamanca, 1589), which he afterward translated into Spanish and incorporated in the Historia natural y moral de las Indias (Seville, 1590; Eng. transl., The Natural and Moral History of the East and West Indies, London, 1604), one of the most valuable of the early works on America; De Christo revelato et de temporibus novissimis (Rome, 1590); Concilium provincials Limense in anno MDLXXXIII. (Madrid, 1590); Concionum tomi iii. (Salamanca, 1596).
ACOSTA, URIEL (originally Gabriel da Costa): Jewish rationalist; b. at Oporto, Portugal, 1594; d. at Amsterdam 1647. He belonged to a noble family of Jewish origin but Christian confession, and was educated as a Roman Catholic. In early manhood he wished to return to the faith of his fathers; and, as an open change from Christianity to Judaism was not allowed in Portugal, he fled to Amsterdam, where he was circumcised and admitted to the synagogue. Disappointed in the teaching and practise of the Amsterdam Jews, he criticized them unsparingly; in particular he aroused their resentment by declaring that the Law made no mention of the immortality of the soul or a future life. After the publication of his Examen dos tradiçoens phariseas conferidas con a ley escrita (1624) they put him out of the synagogue and brought him to trial before the magistrates on a charge of atheism. He was imprisoned, fined, and his book was burned. After some years he made public recantation of his alleged errors, was scourged in the synagogue, and trampled upon at the door. According to rumor, he died by his own hand. He left an autobiography, Exemplar humanœ vitœ, published by Philip Limborch (Gouda, 1687; republished in Latin and German, with introduction, Leipsic, 1847).
Bibliography: T. Whiston, The Remarkable Life of Uriel Acosta, an Eminent Free-Thinker, London, 1740; H. Jellinek, U. Acosta's Leben und Lehre, Zerbst, 1847; I. da Costa, Israel en de volke, Haarlem, 1849, Eng. transl., London, 1850; H. Graetz, Geschichte der Juden, 3d ed., x. 120-128, 399-401.
ac'ta mär'ter-um, ac'ta sanc"to'rum.
By Acta Martyrum and Acta Sanctorum are meant collections of biographies of holy persons, especially of the older Church. The former title refers particularly to those who have suffered death for the faith; the latter is more general, including all "saints," i.e., Christians canonized by the Church on account of their eminently pious and pure lives.
(Acta sive passiones martyrum; Martyrologia): The oldest authentic
sources for the history of the early martyrs are the
court records of the Roman empire (Acta proconsularia, prœsidialia). They are not preserved in
their original form, but more or less complete
extracts from them constitute the kernel of the
passion histories recorded by Christian hands;
and they are acknowledged to be the authentic
bases of these histories (cf. the works of Le Blant
and Egli cited below), which, so far as they are
based upon these official documents and thus
demonstrate that they belong to the
class of acta martyrum sincera, are
either written in the form of a letter
or are devotional narratives without
the epistolary character (passiones,
gesta martyrum). The former class includes the
oldest of these histories; the chief examples are:
the Passio Polycarpi, in a letter of the congregation
of Smyrna, of which extracts are given by Eusebius (Hist. eccl., IV. xv.), while the complete text is
handed down in five Greek manuscripts; the letter
of the churches of Lyons and Vienne to the Christians
Passions in narrative force are more numerous. Among the oldest and historically most important are: From the second century, the Acta Justini philosophi et martyris; the Acta Carpi, Papyli, et Agathonicœ (cf. Eusebius, IV. xv. 48); the Passio sanctorum Scilitanorum of the year 180, a report of the martyrdom at Carthage of six Numidian Christians under the proconsul Vigellius Saturninus July 17, 180, distinguished by its strictly objective form, reproducing the official proconsular acts without Christian additions; the Acta Apollonii, belonging to the time of Commodus (cf. Eusebius, V. xxi.). To the third century belong the Passio Perpetuœ et Felicitatis, covering the martyrdom of certain Carthaginian Christians, belonging probably to Tertullian's congregation, Mar. 7, 203; the martyrdom of Pionius (cf. Eusebius, IV. xv. 47), of Achatius, and of Conon, all three belonging to the epoch of Decius; the Acta Proconsularia which record the trial and execution of Cyprian of Carthage under Valerianus, Sept. 14, 258. Finally, belonging to the beginning of the fourth century (the time of persecution under Diocletian and his coemperors, 303-323), there are the records collected by Eusebius, which now form an appendix to book VIII. of his church history, and treat of the Palestinian martyrs of that time, as well as somewhat numerous martyria of the period, to which must be ascribed a greater or less historical value (such as the Testamentum xl martyrum from Sebaste in Armenia, belonging to the time of Licinius, the newly discovered Greek text of which has full documentary value).
Much greater than the number of such acta martyrum sincera sive genuina is that of the non-authentic histories of martyrs which contain little or nothing of contemporaneous notices and have an essentially legendary character. To these belong, among others: two accounts of the martyrdom of Ignatius of Antioch; the Martyrium colbertinum and the Martyrium Vaticanum; the Acta Nerei et Achillei; the Passio Felicitatis et septem filiorum; the Acta S. Cypriani et Justinœ; the legends of St. Agnes, St. Cecilia, St. Catherine, St. Maurice, and others.
After the cessation of persecutions the memory of the martyrs was cherished mainly by two kinds of written records: (1) calendaria, i.e., lists of the names of martyrs in calendar form for the purpose of fixing their memorial days for the liturgical use of individual congregations or greater church dioceses; (2) more detailed memorial books (gesta martyrum) for the purpose of private devotion and instruction, incorporating also longer passion narratives, and avoiding as much as possible the putting together of mere names in calendary statistical form. Of the latter kind may have been that copious collection of martyrological material from all branches of the Church which Eusebius composed in addition to the booklet on the Palestinian martyrs already mentioned (cf. his references to this collection, Hist. eccl., IV. xv. 47; V. Proem., iv. 3; also V. xxi. 5), but which was lost at a very early period (cf. Gregory the Great, Epist., viii. 29). Biographical and other notices were gradually added to the names of the martyrs in many of the calendaria; and by such inclusion of general hagiological matter they somewhat approached the character of the devotional reading-books. This enrichment of the calendaria with material not strictly martyrological in its nature (i.e., additions of a narrative character, not mere names) commenced in the West. While a calendarium of the Syriac Church from the year 412 (ed. W. Wright, 1865) still shows a strictly martyrological character, the old calendar of the Roman congregation from the year 354 (ed. Ægidius Bucher, Antwerp, 1633; T. Mommsen, in Abhandlungen der sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, 1850) gives, besides the names of martyrs, those of Roman bishops (twelve in number). The same is true of the Calendorium Africanum vetus from the year 500, edited by Mabillon (Vetera Analecta, iii. 398 sqq.). The martyrologium of the Church of Rome mentioned by Gregory the Great in his epistle to Eulogius of Alexandria (Epist., viii. 29) consisted of martyrological and non-martyrological (especially papal) elements, and had even admitted the older Roman festival calendar. The so-called Martyrologium Hieronymianum is an enlarged revision of this Roman calendar. In its present form it is a compilation edited about the year 600 at Auxerre in Gaul; but it was previously recast in upper Italy, as is indicated in the correspondence of the alleged author Jerome, with the bishops Chromatius of Aquileia and Heliodorus of Altinum, which stands at the beginning. It is a medley of names of places and saints, data of martyrs, and the like, collected from older local and provincial calendars. The Syriac calendarium already mentioned was used (in a somewhat enlarged form) by the compiler as a source of information for the East; for North Africa a Calendarium Carthaginense (probably from pre-Vandalic times) was used; and for Rome, no doubt, the Roman martyrologium to which Gregory the Great referred. Jerome probably contributed nothing to the collection (cf. the critical edition of the work, ed. J. B. de Rossi and L. Duchesne, from numerous manuscripts, in ASB, Nov., ii., 1894, and the criticism of B. Krusch in Neues Archiv für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde, xx., 1895, 437-440). To still later times belong similar compilations ascribed to the Venerable Bede, to Florus Magister of Lyons (c. 840), to the abbot Wandelbert of Prüm (848), and others (see below, II., 2).
From the end of the fourth century, under the influence of the Vitœ patrum, disseminated
In the Churches of the East, the older calendary statistical form of the compilations, confining itself to martyrological material proper and serving only liturgical purposes, was still cultivated, especially in the so-called menologia, or monthly registers, as well as in the liturgical anthologia ("collections"). But besides these arose hagiological collections of considerable copiousness: the menœa arranged in a calendary form and divided according to months; and shorter, condensed synaxaria (from synaxis, "religious gathering") or extracts. In the Byzantine Church the large collection of legends by Simeon Metaphrastes (10th cent.), which is preserved in a greatly revised and corrupt form, exercised much influence (see Simeon Metaphrastes). Of the editors of the martyrologies and menœa literature of the Syriac Church in the earlier time, Stephan Evodius Assemani deserves mention, more recently Paul Bedjan (Acta martyrum et sanctorum Syriace, 7 vols., Paris, 1890-97); of those of the Russian Orthodox Church, Joseph Simonius Assemani, and in recent times J. E. Martinov (Annus ecclesiasticus Grœco-Slavicus, Brussels, 1863,—ASB, Oct., xi. 1-385) and V. Jagic ("The Menæa of the Russian Church from Manuscripts of 1095-97," St. Petersburg, 1886, Russian); of those of the Armenian Church, the Mekhitarists, who published a martyrologium in two volumes at Venice in 1874; and of those of the Coptic Church, H. Hyvernat (Les Actes des martyrs de l'Égypte, Paris, 1886 sqq.).
In the Western Church, during the Middle Ages the hagiological literature, critically considered, deteriorated. Ado of Vienne and Usuardus (both c. 870); the author of the Martyrologium Sangalense (c. 900); Wolfard of Herrieden (c. 910); later, especially Jacobus de Voragine (d. 1298), author of the so-called "Golden Legend," and Petrus de Natalibus (d. 1382), author of a Catalogus sanctorum (often reprinted since 1493), are the main representatives of the writers of this legendary literature, of whose eccentricities and extravagancies humanists and reformers often complain. Since the end of the fifteenth century efforts have been made to publish critically genuine and older texts. Early attempts were: the Sanctuarium of Boninus Mombritius (Venice, 1474; Rome, 1497); the first (and only) volume of the Martyrum agones of Jacobus Faber Stapulensis (1525); and the De probatis sanctorum historiis of the Carthusian Laurentius Surius (d.1578; arranged according to the calendar; 6 vols. folio, Cologne, 1570 sqq.; 2d ed., 7 vols., 1581 sqq.). As concerns the abundance of matter and critical treatment of the documents, these first labors of modern times are far surpassed by the gigantic hagiological work the Acta Sanctorum quotquot toto orbe coluntur, the publication of which began at Antwerp in 1643. It was conceived by the Jesuit Heribert Rosweyde; and after his death (1629) was undertaken by Jan Bolland and others. From the name of the first actual editor it is generally known as the Acta Sanctorum Bollandi or Bollandistarum (cited in this encyclopedia as ASB). With the exception of a period somewhat less than fifty years, consequent upon the disturbances of the French Revolution, the labor of preparation and publication has proceeded continuously to the present time, when the editors (following the calendary arrangement) are engaged upon the month of November (see Bolland, Jan, Bollandists). More or less valuable are the extracts from the Bollandist main work in collections like that of Alban Butler (The Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and Other Principal Saints, 4 vols., London, 1756-59; see Butler, Alban), his French imitator, the Abbé J. F. Godescard (Vies des Pères, des martyrs et autres principaux saints, traduit librement de l'anglais d' Alban Butler, 12 vols., Paris, 1763 sqq.), and A. Räss and N. Weiss, the German successors of both Butler and Godescard (Leben der Heiligen, 23 vols., Mainz, 1823 sqq.); mention may also be made of a later French work by Paul Guérin, Les Petits Bollandistes (7th ed., 18 vols., Paris, 1876). In lexical form the lives of the saints are treated by the Abbé Pétin (Dictionnaire hagiographique, 2 vols., Paris, 1850) and J. E. Stadler and F. J. Heim (Vollständiges Heiligen lexikon, 5 vols., Augsburg, 1858 sqq.). There are also hagiological collections devoted to the members of particular orders, of which the Acta Sanctorum ordinis S. Benedicti of J. Mabillon and others (9 vols., Paris, 1668-1701) is the most important.
The best-known work in English is that of Alban
Butler, already mentioned. It is written in a
heavy eighteenth century style. Much pleasanter
reading is the work of Sabine Baring-Gould, The
Lives of the Saints (15 vols., London, 1872-77;
new illustrated ed., revised and enlarged, 16 vols.,
1897-98). The author is a High-church Anglican,
not untouched by the modern critical spirit. He
states in his introduction that his work is not
intended to supplant Butler, being prepared on
somewhat different lines. Butler "confined his
attention to the historical outlines of the saintly
lives, and he rarely filled them in with anecdote.
Yet it is the little details of a man's life that give
A number of works are devoted to saints of the British Isles. As to the older works of this character Baring-Gould remarks (Introduction, i., pp. xxix.-xxx., ed. 1897):
"With regard to England there is a Martyrology of Christ Church, Canterbury, written in the thirteenth century, and now in the British Museum; also a Martyrology written between 1220 and 1224 from the southwest of England; this also is in the British Museum. A Saxon Martyrology, incomplete, is among the Harleian MSS. in the same museum; it dates from the fourteenth century. There is a transcript among the Sloane MSS. of a Martyrology of North-English origin, but this also is incomplete. There are others, later, of less value. The most interesting is the Martiloge in Englysshe after the use of the churche of Salisbury, printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1526, reissued by the Henry Bradshaw Society in 1893. To these Martyrologies must be added the Legenda of John of Tynemouth, 1350; that of Capgrave, 1450, his Nova legenda, printed in 1516; Whitford's Martyrology, 1526; Wilson's Martyrologe, 1st ed., 1608, 2d. ed., 1640 and Bishop Challoner's Memorial of Ancient British Piety 1761."
Bishop Challoner's larger Britannia Sancta, or the Lives of the Most Celebrated British, English, Scottish, and Irish Saints (2 parts, London, 1745) may also be mentioned. The Saints and Missionaries of the Anglo-Saxon Era, by D. C. O. Adams (2 ser., Oxford, 1897-1901), is a collection of brief and popular lives brought down to Queen Margaret of Scotland (d. 1093). A Menology of England and Wales, compiled by Richard Stanton, priest of the Oratory, London (London, 1887; Supplement, 1892), is probably the fullest list in existence of names of English and Welsh saints, with brief biographical notices. It is a scholarly work based upon sources (calendars, martyrologies, legends, histories, acts) many of which were previously inedited. A somewhat wide interpretation is given to the terms "English" and "saint." The Lives of the Irish Saints, with Special Festivals, and the Commemoration of Holy Persons, by John O'Hanlon, is an exhaustive work, in somewhat florid style, arranged according to the calendar, one volume being devoted to each month (Dublin, 1875 sqq.). Scottish calendars have been edited, with brief biographies of the saints, by A. P. Forbes in his Kalendars of Scottish Saints (Edinburgh, 1874). For Wales there is W. J. Rees's Lives of the Cambro-British Saints of the Fifth and Immediate Succeeding Centuries (Llandovery, 1853), Cardinal John Henry Newman's Lives of the English Saints (15 vols., London, 1844-45, and often) is more interesting now for the history of the movement which called it forth than as a contribution to hagiology. See also the bibliography of the article Celtic Church in Britain and Ireland.
Bibliography: For elaborate bibliographical lists of acts and lives of saints: A. Potthast, Bibliotheca historica medii avi, pp. xxxii.–xxxv., 1131–1646, Berlin, 1898 (the most complete list yet made in which the editions are accurately given); MGH, Index volume, Hanover, 1890; T. Ruinart, Acta primorum martyrum sincera et selecta, Paris, 1689 (latest ed., Ratisbon, 1859); Gross, Sources, pp. 84-89, 213-222, 245-249, 390-400, 442, 517-525; R. Knopf, Ausgewahlte Märtyrakten, Tübingen, 1901; O. von Gebhardt, Acta Martyrum selecta, Leipsic, 1902. For history and criticism: A. Ebert, Allgemeine Geschichte der Literatur des Mittelalters im Abendlande, 3 vols., ib. 1874–87 (2d ed. of vol. i., 1889, perhaps the best survey of the subject); C. Jauningus, Apologia pro Actis Sanctorum, Antwerp, 1695; A. Scheler, Zur Geschichte des Werkes Acta Sanctorum, Leipsic, 1846; J. B. Pitra, Études sur la collection des Actes des Saintés publiés par les Bollandistes, Paris, 1850; J. Carnandet and J. Fèvre, Les Bollandistes et l'hagiographie ancienne of moderne, ib., 1866; Dehaisnes, Les Origines des Acta Sanctorum et les protecteurs des Bollandistes dans le nord de France, Douai, 1870; A. Tougard, De l'histoire profane dans les actes grece des Bollandistes, Paris, 1874; C. de Smedt, Introductio generalis ad hist. eccl., Ghent, 1876 (contains a bibliography in pp. 111-197); E. le Blant, Acta Sanctorum et leur sources, Paris, 1880; idem, Les Actes des martyres, supplément aux Acta sincera de Dom Ruinart, ib. 1882; E. Egli, Altchristliche Martyrien und Martyrologien ältester Zeit, Zurich, 1887; A. Ehrhard, Die altchristliche Litteratur und ihre Erforschung, i. 539-592, Freiburg, 1900; Harnack, Litteratur, ii. 2, 463-482.
ACTON, JOHN EMERICH EDWARD DALBERG,
first Baron Acton: Roman Catholic layman; b.
in Naples, Italy, Jan. 10, 1834; d. at Tegernsee (31 m. s. of Munich) June 19, 1902. He was
educated at Oscott College, Birmingham, from
1843 to 1848, then at Edinburgh, finally at the
University of Munich. At Oscott the president,
Nicholas Wiseman, afterward archbishop and
cardinal, greatly influenced him, but at Munich
the greater scholar, Dr. Döllinger, still more.
These men fostered his love of truth and passion
for accurate historical knowledge. Being wonderfully gifted and highly trained, he set forth upon
a career of learned acquisition which made him
the admiration of his associates. But in his own
communion he soon became unpopular because he
was a pronounced liberal. He conducted the
"Home and Foreign Review" from 1862 to 1864
in the interest of anti-Ultramontanism, and so was
condemned by the hierarchy and his journal virtually suppressed. He then pursued the same
course in the "North British Review" from 1868
to 1872. His chief object of attack was the doctrine of papal infallibility, and he did all he could
Lord Acton possessed vast stores of accurate information, but he wrote very little except review articles and book-notices. So his list of separate publications is singularly short for so great a scholar. He edited Les Matinées royales, ou l'art de regner, the work of Frederick the Great (London, 1863); made a great sensation by his Sendschreiben an einem deutschen Bischof des vaticanischen Concils (Nördlingen, 1870); by his Zur Geschichte des vaticanischen Concils (Munich, 1871); and by his letters as correspondent of the London "Times" during the Council. His lectures, The War of 1870 (London, 1871), and especially those masterly ones on The History of Freedom in Antiquity and on The History of Freedom in Christianity (both Bridgnorth, 1877), fragments of that complete history of freedom which he dreamed he should one day write, and finally his inaugural lecture at Cambridge on The Study of History (London, 1895), show his range of knowledge and love of truth. Since his death his Letters to Mary [now Mrs. Drew], Daughter of the Right Honorable W. E. Gladstone (1904), edited with a memoir by Herbert Paul, his Cambridge Lectures (1906), and Lectures on Modern History (1906) have been published.
Bibliography: Wm. A. Shaw's Bibliography of Lord Acton, London, Royal Historical Society, 1903; Lord Acton and His Circle, edited by F. A. Gasquet, London, 1906 (178 letters, mostly on literary subjects, by Lord Acton, with introduction by Gasquet).
ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. See Luke II. For Apocryphal Books of Acts, see Apocrypha, B, II.
ADALBERT (ADELBERT, ALDEBERT): Frankish bishop; contemporary of Boniface. He is known only from the letters of Boniface, who was his bitter opponent, and from the accounts of the proceedings instituted against him for heresy, which represent him as a dangerous misleader of the people, a skilful impostor, and arrogant blockhead, who thought himself equal to the apostles, declared himself canonized before birth, and claimed the power of working miracles and of remitting sins. It is said that he pretended to have a letter from Jesus, which the archangel Michael had found in Jerusalem, and other relics brought to him by angels. He disregarded confession, not thinking it necessary for the remission of sins, and planted crosses and founded chapels on the hills and by the streams, inducing the people to come thither for service instead of going to the churches of the apostles and martyrs. In his prayers unknown and suspicious names of angels were found. At the instigation of Boniface two Frankish synods (744 and 745) deposed Adalbert and condemned him to penance as a "servant and forerunner of Antichrist." A Roman synod confirmed his sentence and added excommunication. In 747 a general Frankish synod received a command from the pope to apprehend Adalbert and send him to Rome. The major domus, Pepin, burned his crosses and chapels; but the people seem to have sympathized with their bishop, who did not acknowledge the authority of his judges and who was not allowed to defend himself. His fate is unknown. Mainz tradition relates that he was defeated in a discussion with Boniface, that he was imprisoned at Fulda, and was killed by a swineherd while trying to escape. Opinions concerning him differ. Some look upon him as mentally unsound, as an impostor, or as a fanatic. Others see in him, as in his countryman Clement among the East Franks, freedom from Rome, an opponent of the romanizing tendencies of his time, and a victim of the ecclesiastical policy of Boniface.
Bibliography: Rettberg, i. (1846) 314-317, 368-370; H. Hahn, Jahrbücher des fränkischen Reichs, pp. 67-82, Berlin, 1863; Boniface, Epistolœ, in Jaffé, Monumenta Moguntina, 1866; J. H. A. Ebrard, Die iroschottische Missionskirche der sechsten, siebenten, und achten Jahrhunderten, pp. 341, 432-434, Gütersloh, 1873; A. Werner, Bonifatius, pp. 279-297, Leipsic, 1875; DCB, i. 77-78; Hauck, KD, i. (1904) 507-513.
ADALBERT OF HAMBURG-BREMEN (formerly
often called Albert): Archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen 1045 (1043?)–1072; d. at Goslar Mar. 16, 1072.
He came of a noble Saxon-Thuringian
family, is first heard of as canon of Halberstadt,
and followed the head of his chapter, Hermann, to
Bremen when the latter was made archbishop, in
1032; on Hermann's death, three years later, he
returned to Halberstadt and became provost there
himself. He is probably the Adalbert who early
in 1045 was acting as chancellor for Henry III. in
Italian affairs. Henry nominated him to the archbishopric of Hamburg, probably in 1045, though
some recent historians have placed the date at 1043.
He soon showed that he had a lofty conception of
the dignity of his office; and his ambition was
supported by many advantages—a handsome and
imposing presence, intellectual force, and the reputation of singular personal purity and moderation
at a time when such qualities were rare. The reign
of Henry III. was the period of his success and
domination. King and archbishop, endowed with
similar gifts, were attracted to each other, and found
it necessary to make common cause against the
Saxon dukes of the Billung house, who had already
troubled the Church of Hamburg. Adalbert's frequent absences from his diocese gave the Billungs
opportunity to attack it; but the archbishop, often
accompanied by his vassals, could not avoid spending considerable time on the king's business. He
accompanied Henry on his campaign of 1045, and
went to Rome with him in the next year, taking
part in the synods which deposed the three rival
Adalbert returned with Henry in May, 1047, and devoted himself to diocesan affairs. In the territories of the Abodrites (Obotrites) Gottschalk had gained supreme power, and worked with Adalbert for the introduction of Christianity (see Gottschalk, 2). Norway, Sweden, and Denmark had all recognized the spiritual jurisdiction of Hamburg; but an effort was now made to break away from it. Svend Estridsen, king of Denmark after 1047, made an alliance with Henry through Adalbert's mediation, and brought forward a plan for the establishment of a separate ecclesiastical province in Denmark, with an archbishop and seven suffragans. Adalbert naturally could not look with complacency on the withdrawal of so large a part of his jurisdiction, after the sacrifices which the Church of Hamburg had made in the previous two hundred years for the evangelization of the northern kingdoms; and he feared that Sweden and Norway would follow. Yet he could not deny that there was some justification for Svend's desire. The emperor and Pope Leo IX., who took part in the Council of Mainz in 1049, seemed not indisposed to grant it. Adalbert offered to consent, on condition that he should have the rank of patriarch for the whole north. This, he thought, would solve the difficulty; one archbishop could not be subject to another, but might be to a patriarch. The project grew on him; and he planned the establishment of eleven new German sees to serve as a basis for his dignity. He did not contemplate any immediate rejection of Rome's suzerainty; but it was obvious that his plan might easily give him a position in the north not far short of that which the pope held in the south. Leo died in 1054, and Henry in 1056; and further thought of so far-reaching a scheme had to be postponed.
Deprived of Henry's, support, Adalbert suffered much at the hands of the Billung dukes. Henry's son and successor (but five years old at his father's death) in 1062 fell into the power of Anno, archbishop of Cologne; but the latter was soon forced to share his power with Adalbert, and then to see it passing more and more into his rival's hands. Of the two, Adalbert had much the better influence on the young king. He reached the height of his power when he had the king proclaimed of age at Worms (Mar. 29, 1065), and practically held the government in his own hands. But in Jan., 1066, the princes, with Anno at their head, forced Henry to banish Adalbert from court; and his remaining years were clouded by many troubles. New assaults of the Billungs forced him to flee from Hamburg. Paganism once more got the upper hand among the Wends, who laid waste the neighboring Christian lands; in Sweden the Church had to fight for its very existence. He was recalled to court in 1069, but did not succeed in restoring the prestige of his position. He still worked for the consolidation of the royal power in Germany, but had to leave the Saxon problem behind him unsolved. He bore long physical sufferings with remarkable firmness, laboring to the last for the king and for his diocese. He wished to be buried at Hamburg; but the destruction of that city by the Wends prevented this; and his body was laid in the cathedral of Bremen, the rebuilding of which he had himself completed.
Bibliography: Bruno, De bello Saxonico, in MGH, Script., v. (1844) 327-384 (2d ed., by W. Wattenbach, in Script. rer. Germ., sœc. xi, 1880); Adam of Bremen, Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiœ pontificum, in MGH, Script., vii. (1846) 267-389 (printed separately, Hanover, 1846; 2d ed., 1876), Germ. transl. by J. C. M. Laurent (2d ed., by W. Wattenbach, Leipsic, 1888); Chronicon Gozecensis, in MGH, Script., x. (1852) 140-157; Colmar Grünhagen, Adalbert Erzbischof von Hamburg, Leipsic, 1854; Lambert, Annales, in MGH, Script., xvi. (1859), 645-650 (2d ed., by Holder-Egger, in Script. rer. Germ., 1894); E. Steindorff, Jahrbücher des deutschen Reichs unter Heinrich III., 2 vols., Leipsic, 1874-81, and in ADB, i. 56-61; G. Dehio, Geschichte des Erzbistums Hamburg-Bremen, i. 178-277, Berlin, 1876; R. Ballheimer, Zeittafeln zur hamburgischen Geschichte, pp. 18-24, Hamburg, 1895; Hauck, KD, iii. 649-664.
ADALBERT OF PRAGUE (Czech, Woitech, "Comfort of the Army"): An early German missionary, sometimes improperly called "the Apostle of the Slavs" or "of the Prussians"; b. about 950; murdered Apr. 23, 997. He was the son of a rich Czech nobleman named Slavenik, connected with the royal house of Saxony. He was educated at Magdeburg, but on the death of Adalbert (981), first archbishop of that place, whose name he had taken at confirmation, he returned home and was ordained priest by Thietmar, the first bishop of Prague, whom he succeeded two years later. He received investiture at Verona from Emperor Otho II., his kinsman, and was consecrated by Willigis, archbishop of Mainz, his metropolitan. His troubles soon began. The attempt to execute strictly what he conceived to be his episcopal duties brought him into conflict with his countrymen, who were hard to wean from their heathen customs. After five years of struggle, he left his diocese, intending to make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem; but after a sojourn at Monte Cassino, he entered the monastery of St. Boniface at Rome, where he led a singularly devoted and ascetic life. In 992, however, he was required by the pope and his metropolitan to return to Prague. The conflict with stubbornly persistent heathen customs—polygamy, witchcraft, slavery—proved as hard as ever, and he once more left his diocese, returning, after a missionary tour in Hungary, to the peaceful seclusion of his Roman cloister.
In 996 Willigis visited Rome and obtained fresh
orders for Adelbert to return to his see, with permission to go and preach to the heathen only in case
his flock should absolutely refuse to receive him.
He went north in company with the young emperor,
Otho III., and in the next spring, through Poland,
approached Bohemia. Things had grown worse
than ever there: his family had fallen under suspicion of treason through their connections with
Germany and Poland; and the greater part of them
had been put to death. His offer to return to
Prague having been contumeliously rejected, he
Bibliography: J. Canaparius, Vita Adalberti, in MGH, Script., iv. (1841) 574-620; Bruno, Vita Adalberti, ib. pp. 595-612; Miracula Adelberti, ib. 613-616; Passio Adalberti, ib., xv. part 2 (1888), 705-708; De St. Adalberto, ib. pp. 1177-84; MPL, cxxxvii. 859-888 (life and miracles); H. Zeiseberg, Die polnische Geschichtsschreibung des Mittelalters, pp. 19 sqq., Leipsic, 1873; H. G. Voigt, Adalbert von Prag, Berlin, 1898; Hauck, KD, iii. (1906) 1041 sqq.
ADALBOLD, ad'al-bold: Bishop of Utrecht; d. Nov. 27, 1026. He was born probably in the Low Countries, and received his education partly from Notker of Liége. He became a canon of Laubach, and apparently was a teacher there. The emperor Henry II., who had a great regard for him, invited him to the court, and nominated him as Bishop of Utrecht (1010), and he must be regarded as the principal founder of the territorial possessions of the diocese, especially by the acquisition in 1024 and 1026 of the counties of Thrente and Teisterbant. He was obliged to defend his bishopric not only against frequent inroads by the Normans, but also against the aggressions of neighboring nobles. He was unsuccessful in the attempt to vindicate the possession of the district of Merwede (Mircvidu), between the mouths of the Maas and the Waal, against Dietrich III. of Holland. The imperial award required the restitution of this territory to the bishop and the destruction of a castle which Dietrich had built to control the navigation of the Maas; but the expedition under Godfrey of Brabant which undertook to enforce this decision was defeated; and in the subsequent agreement the disputed land remained in Dietrich's possession. Adalbold was active in promoting the building of churches and monasteries in his diocese. His principal achievement of this kind was the completion within a few years of the great cathedral of St. Martin at Utrecht. He restored the monastery of Thiel, and completed that of Hohorst, begun by his predecessor Ansfried. To the charge of the latter he appointed Poppo of Stablo, and thus introduced the Cluniac reform into the diocese.
Adalbold is also to be mentioned as an author. A life of Henry II., carried down to 1012, has been ascribed to him; but the evidence in favor of attributing to him the extant fragment of such a life (MGH, Script., iv., 1841, 679-695; MPL, cxl. 87-108) is not decisive. He wrote a mathematical treatise upon squaring the circle (MPL, cxl. 1103-08), and dedicated it to Pope Sylvester II., who was himself a noted mathematician. There is also extant a philosophical exposition of a passage of Boethius (ed. W. Moll in Kerkhistorisch Archief, iii., Amsterdam, 1862, pp. 198-213). The discussion Quemadmodum indubitanter musicœ consonantiœ judicari possint (ed. M. Gerbert, in Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra, i., St. Blasien, 1784, pp. 303-312; MPL, cxl. 1109) seems to have been ascribed to him on insufficient grounds.
Bibliography: Van der Aa, Adelbold, bisschop van Utrecht, Utrecht, 1862; Hauck, KD, iii.
ADALDAG, ad'al-dag: Seventh archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen (937-988); d. at Bremen Apr. 28 or 29, 988. He was of noble birth, a relation and pupil of Bishop Adalward of Verden and became canon of Hildesheim. Otho I. made him his chancellor and notary immediately after his accession, and on the death of Archbishop Unni of Hamburg-Bremen (936) nominated him to the vacant see. None of the early incumbents of the see ruled so long a time; and none did so much for the diocese, though his success was partly the fruit of his predecessors' labors and of peculiarly favorable circumstances. Under Adaldag the metropolitan see obtained its first suffragans, by the erection of the bishoprics of Ripen, Sleswick, and Aarhus; and that of Aldenburg was also placed under Hamburg, though the Slavic territories of the present Oldenburg had formerly belonged to the diocese of Verden. He resisted successfully a renewal of the efforts of Cologne to claim jurisdiction over Bremen (see Adalgar). He gained many privileges for his see, in jurisdiction, possession of land, and market rights, by his close relations with the emperors, especially Otho I. He accompanied the latter on his journey to Rome, and remained with him from 961 to 965, and is mentioned as the emperor's chief counselor at the time of his coronation in Rome. Otho placed the deposed pope Benedict V. in his custody. After Adaldag's return to Hamburg, he still maintained these relations, and his privileges were confirmed by Otho II. and by the regency of Otho III. The later years of his life were troubled by inroads of the Danes and Slavonians on the north, and he may have witnessed the sack of Hamburg by the latter under Mistiwoi (if its date, as Usinger and Dehio think, was 983).
Bibliography: Adam of Bremen, Gesta Hammenburgensis ecclesiœ pontificum, in MGH, Script., vii. (1846) 267-389 (issued separately, Hanover, 1846; 2d ed., 1876); W. von Giesebrecht, Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit, i., Brunswick, 1874; R. Köpcke and E. Dümmler, Kaiser Otto der Grosse, Leipsic, 1876; G. Dehio, Geschichte des Erzbistums Hamburg-Bremen, i. 65, 104-132, Berlin, 1877; Hauck, KD, vol. ii.
ADALGAR, ad'al-gar: Third archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen (888-909); d. May 9, 909. When Rimbert, who was appointed in 865 to succeed Ansgar, the first archbishop of Hamburg, stopped at the abbey of Corvey on his way to his field of labor, the abbot Adalgar gave him his brother, also named Adalgar, as a companion. The younger Adalgar was then a deacon. Toward the end of Rimbert's life he was consecrated bishop to assist the latter; and he succeeded him in the archbishopric (June 11, 888). During the latter half of his twenty years' rule, age and infirmity made it necessary for him also to have a coadjutor in the person of Hoger, another monk of Corvey; and later five neighboring bishops were charged to assist the archbishop in his metropolitan duties.
Adalgar lived in troublous times. Although
Arnulf's victory over the Normans (891) was a
relief to his diocese, and although under Louis the
Child (900-911) it suffered less from Hungarian
Bibliography: Vita Rimberti, in MGH, Script., ii. (1829) 764-775, and in MPL, cxxvi. 991-1010; Adam of Bremen, Gesta Hammenburgensis ecclesiœ pontificum, in MGH, Script., vii. (1846) 267-389 (issued separately, Hanover, 1846; 2d ed., 1876); Jaffé, Regesta, vol. i.; G. Dehio, Geschichte des Erzbistums Hamburg-Bremen, i. 97-100, Berlin, 1877; Hauck, KD, vol. ii.
ADALHARD AND WALA, ad'al-hard, wa'la: Abbots of Corbie (10 m. e. of Amiens) from about 775 to 834. They were brothers, cousins of Charlemagne, pupils and friends of Alcuin and Paul the Deacon, and men of much authority and influence in both church and state. The elder, Adalhard (b. about 751; d. Jan. 2, 826), was interested in the German language and the education of the clergy, and is especially famous for the establishment of diocesan colleges and the foundation of the abbey of New Corbie (Corvey) on the Weser (see Corvey). He gave new laws to his monastery of Corbie (MPL, cv. 535-550), and defended against Pope Leo III. the resolutions de exitu Spiritus Sancti passed in the autumn of 809 by the Synod of Aachen (see Filioque Controversy). When Charlemagne's son Pepin, king of Italy, died (810), Adalhard was appointed counselor of his young son Bernard in the government of Italy.
The younger brother, Wala (d. at Bobbio in Italy Sept. 12, 836), also enjoyed the confidence of Charlemagne, and became chief of the counts of Saxony. In 812 he was sent to join Adalhard and Bernard in Italy and work for the choice of the last-named as king of the Lombards. After the death of Charlemagne and the accession of the incapable Louis (814), whom the brothers had always opposed, they returned to Corbie, and fell into disgrace for having favored Bernard. They were deprived of their estates and Adalhard was banished. After seven years, however, a reconciliation took place between them and Louis. Wala, as successor of Adalhard at Corbie, continued his brother's work and gave especial care to the mission in the north. As head of the opposition to the repeal of the law of succession of 817 and a bold defender of the rights of the Church, he was imprisoned by Louis in 830, and regained his liberty only when, in 833, Louis's eldest son, Lothair, the future emperor, came north with an army, accompanied by Pope Gregory IV. Wala's counsel was gratefully received by both Lothair and Gregory; and the former rewarded him with the abbey of Bobbio in northern Italy. Just before his death Wala became reconciled with Louis, and, at the head of an embassy sent to that monarch by Lothair, made peace between father and son.
Bibliography: Paschasius Radbertus, Vita Adelhardi, complete in ASM, iv. 1, pp. 308-344; Vita Wala, ib. pp. 455-522; also in MPL, cxx. 1507-1650; extracts in MGH, Script., ii. (1829) 524-569; F. Funk, Ludwig der Fromme, Frankfort, 1832; Himly, Wala et Louis-le-Débonnaire, Paris, 1849; Jaffé, Regesta, vol. i.; A. Enck, De St. Adalhardo abbate Corbeiœ antiquœ et novœ, Münster, 1873; B. E. Simson, Jahrbücher des fränkischen Reichs unter Ludwig dem Frommen, i., Munich, 1874 ; Hauck, KD, vol. ii.; W. Wattenbach, DGQ, i. (1893) 250, ii. (1894) 170; D. C. Munro and G. C. Sellery, Mediœval Civilization, pp. 319-320, New York, 1904.
According to the literal statement
of Genesis (v. 2), the name "Adam" (Heb. adham,
"man") was given by God himself to the first human
being. The important place occupied by man, according to the Biblical idea, is the
close, the appointed climax, of creation.
Inanimate nature looked forward to
man. To his creation God gave special
care. It was sufficient for the Creator
to order the other creatures into being; but man was molded by the
divine fingers out of the dust of the earth. Thus far
he belonged to the created world; but into him
God breathed the breath of life, and thus put him
in an immeasurably higher place; for the possession of this breath made him the "image" of God.
What this "image" was is learned from the Bible
(
But man's true position can not be comprehended
until he is considered in relation to Christ, the
second man, as is most clearly expressed in
Materialism sees in man a mere product of nature. It is difficult to see how it makes place for self-consciousness. The unity of the race is also given up; and so logically Darwinism leads to belief in a plurality of race origins. Theology, on the other hand, holds fast to the personality of man, but has, from the beginning of the science, wavered in regard to the position occupied by Adam toward the race. The oldest Greek Fathers are silent upon this point. Irenæus is the first to touch it; and he maintains that the first sin was the sin of the race, since Adam was its head (III. xxiii. 3; V. xii. 3; cf. R. Seeberg, Dogmengeschichte, i., Leipsic, 1895, p. 82). Origen, on the other hand, holds that man sinned because he had abused his liberty when in a preexistent state. In Adam seminally were the bodies of all his descendants (Contra Celsum, iv.; cf. C. F. A. Kahnis, Dogmatik, ii., Leipsic, 1864, pp. 107 sqq.). Gregory Nazianzen, Gregory of Nyssa, and Chrysostom derive sin from the fall. Tertullian, Cyprian, Hilary, Ambrose, and Augustine represent the Biblical standpoint. Pelagius saw in Adam only a bad example, which his descendants followed. Semi-Pelagianism similarly regarded the first sin merely as opening the flood-gates to iniquity; but upon this point Augustinianism since it was formulated has dominated the Church—in Adam the race sinned.
The prominent orthodox views are: (1) The Augustinian, known as realism, which is that human nature in its entirety was in Adam when he sinned, that his sin was the act of human nature, and that in this sin human nature fell; that is, lost its freedom to the good, becoming wholly sinful and producing sinners. "We sinned in that man when we were that man." This is the view of Anselm, Peter Lombard, Thomas Aquinas, and Luther. (2) The federal theory of the Dutch divines Cocceius and Witsius is that Adam became the representative of mankind and that the probation of the human race ended once for all in his trial and fall in the garden of Eden. Accordingly the guilt of Adam's sin was imputed to his posterity. This is the theory of Turretin and the Princeton theologians. (3) The theory of mediate imputation (Placæus) is that the sin of Adam is imputed to his descendants not directly, but on account of their depravity derived from him and their consent to his sin. (See Imputation; Sin.)
According to the evolutionary view of man's origin, which is not necessarily materialistic, Adam may be designated as the first individual or individuals in the upward process of development in whom self-consciousness appeared or who attained such stability of life that henceforth humanity was able to survive the shock of death. By some, the first man is conceived of as a special instance of creative wisdom and power; by others, as the natural result of the evolutionary process. Whether the human race sprang from one individual or from several is, for lack of evidence, left an open question. In this position the unity of the race is in no wise compromised, since this is grounded not in derivation from a single pair but in identity of constitution and ideal ethical and spiritual aim. This view of the first man brings into prominence the dignity of human nature and its kinship with the divine, yet at the same time profoundly modifies the traditional doctrine of original sin. In the disproportion between the inherited instincts, appetites, and desires of the animal nature and the weak and struggling impulses of the moral consciousness there arises an inevitable conflict in which the higher is temporarily worsted and the sense of sin emerges. By virtue of heredity and the organic and social unity of the race, all the descendants of the earliest man are involved with him in the common struggle, the defeat, and the victory of the moral and spiritual life. This conflict is a sign that man is not simply a fallen being, but is in process of ascent. The first man, although of the earth, is a silent prophecy of the second man, the Lord from heaven.
The sources of knowledge of
Adam are exclusively Biblical and, indeed, wholly
of the Old Testament, since the New Testament
adds nothing concerning his personality and his
doings to what is recorded of him in the Book of
Genesis. The main inquiry, therefore, must be
as to the place occupied by Adam
in the Old Testament. Here several
striking facts confront us: (1) There
is no allusion to Adam direct or indirect after the early genealogies.
In
The secondary character of the notion of an individual Adam is also made probable by the fact that the genealogical system of P is artificial and of foreign origin or at least of foreign suggestion. The whole scheme of the ten generations of Gen. v. is modeled upon and in part borrowed from the Babylonian tradition of the first ten kings of Babylon. Of these lists of ten there are five names in either list which show striking correspondences with five in the other, ending with the tenth, which in either case is the name of the hero of the flood story. These Babylonian kings also were demigods, having lives of immense duration, two of them, moreover (the seventh and the tenth), having, like Enoch and Noah, special communications with divinity.
In brief, as regards P, the matter stands as
follows:—His first theme was the process and
plan of creation according to an ascending scale
of being. At the head of creation
were put the first human beings,
"man" or mankind
(
Turning now to the story of Paradise and the Fall,
which, as has been seen, speaks of the first man
only as "the man" and not as "Adam,"
the main motive of Gen. ii.–iv. is to account for
certain characteristics and habits of mankind,
above all to set forth the origin, nature, and
consequences of sin as disobedience to and alienation from Yahweh. Man is presented
first as a single individual; next as
being mated with a woman, with and
for whom he has a divinely constituted
affinity; then as the head of the race
upon which he brings the curse due to his own
disobedience. At first sight this might seem to
imply a preconception of the individuality and
personality of the first man, who may as well as
not have borne the name "Adam," which J himself gives him in the fragmentary genealogy of
Some of the primitive mythical material in Genesis has analogies in other literatures. Not to mention the more remote Avesta, attention must again be called to some of the Babylonian parallels. It is now indisputable that Eden is a Babylonian name; that the whole scenery of the region is Babylonian; that the tree of life, the cherubim, and the serpent, the enemy of the gods and men, are all Babylonian. There is also the Babylonian story of how the first man came to forfeit immortality. Adapa, the human son of the good god Ea, had offended Anu, the god of heaven (see Babylonia, VII, 3, § 3), and was summoned to heaven to answer for his offense. Before his journey thither he was warned by his divine father to refuse the "food of death" and "water of death" which Anu would offer to him. At the trial, Anu, who had been moved by the intercession of two lesser gods, offered him instead "food of life" and "water of life." These he refused, and thus missed the immortality intended for him; for Anu when placated had wished to place him among the gods. Some such story as this by a process of reduction along monotheistic lines may have contributed its part to the framework of the narrative of the rejection of Adam. It is indeed possible that Adam and Adapa are ultimately the same name.
An important element in the whole case is the
general character of the literary material of which
the story of Adam forms a portion. Apart from
The New Testament references show that Jesus
and Paul used the earliest stories of Genesis for
didactic purposes. The remark is
often made in explanation that their
age was not a critical one and that
the sacred authors did not in their
own minds question the current belief
in the accuracy of the oldest documents. This is probably true, at any rate of Paul
(cf. especially
Bibliography: I. §§ 1, 2: Jos. Butler, Sermons on Human Nature, in vol. ii. of his Works, Oxford, 1844; S. Baird, The First Adam and the Second, Philadelphia, 1860; J. Mauer, Christliche Lehre von der Sünde, Breslau, 1867, Eng. transl., Doctrine of Sin, Edinburgh, 1868; Chas. Hodge, Systematic Theology, ii., ch. v., vii., viii., New York, 1872; R. W. Landis, Original Sin and Imputation, Richmond, 1884; W. G. T. Shedd, Dogmatic Theology, ii. 1-257, iii. 249-377, New York, 1888 (vol. iii. gives catena of citations from early Christian times to the middle of the eighteenth century); H. B. Smith, System of Christian Theology, pp. 273-301, ib. 1890; W. N. Clarke, Outline of Christian Theology, pp. 182-198, 227-259, ib. 1898; R. V. Foster, Systematic Theology, pp. 348-355, 363-381, Nashville, 1898; A. H. Strong, Systematic Theology, pp. 234-260, 261-272, New York, 1902.
I. § 3: H. B. Smith, System of Christian Theology, New York, 1886; G. P. Fisher, Discussions in History and Theology, pp. 355-409, ib. 1880; cf. Calvin, Institutes, book ii., ch. 1., §§ 6-8.
I. § 4: H. Drummond, The Ascent of Man, New York, 1894; J. Le Conte, Evolution and its Relation to Religious Thought, ib. 1894; J. Fiske, The Destiny of Man Viewed in the Light of his Origin, Boston, 1895; idem, Through Nature to God, ib. 1899; J. M. Tyler, The Whence and the Whither of Man, ib. 1896; C. R. Darwin, The Descent of Man, pp. 174-180, New York, 1896; J. Deniker, The Races of Man, London, 1900.
II. §§ 1-7: M. Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 511, 544 sqq., Boston, 1898; idem, in DB, supplement vol., pp. 573-574; H. Gunkel, Schöpfung und Chaos, pp. 420 sqq., Göttingen, 1895; idem, Genesis, pp. 5 sqq., 33, 98 sqq., ib. 1902; Schrader, KAT, pp. 397, 520 sqq.
ADAM, BOOKS OF. See Pseudepigrapha, Old Testament, II., 39.
ADAM OF BREMEN: Author of the Gesta Hammenburgensis ecclesiœ pontificum, a history of the archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen extending down to the death of Adalbert (1072). The work itself tells of its author only that his name began with "A," that he came to Bremen in 1068 and ultimately became a canon there, and that he wrote the book between the death of Adalbert and that of King Svend Estridsen of Denmark (1072–76). But there is no doubt that this is the work referred to by Helmold and assigned to a Magister Adam; in which case the author must be the Adam magister scholarum who wrote and was one of the signatories to an extant document of Jan. 11, 1069, and also the same whose death on Oct. 12, year not given, is recorded in a Bremen register.
It may be conjectured from scanty indications that Adam was born in upper Saxony and educated at Magdeburg. His education was in any case a thorough one for his time. His book is one of the best historical works of the Middle Ages. Not only is it the principal source for the early history of the archbishopric and its northern missions, but it gives many valuable data both for Germany and other countries. The author was unusually well provided with documents and with the qualities necessary for their use. His general credibility and love of truth have never been seriously challenged; and his impartiality is shown by the way in which he records the weaknesses of Adalbert, with whom he was in close relations and whom he admired. The best edition of Adam's book is by J. M. Lappenberg, in MGH, Script., vii. (1846) 267-389 (issued separately, Hanover, 1846; 2d ed., with full introduction and notes, 1876); the work is also in MPL, cxlvi. 451-620. There is a German translation by J. C. M. Laurent (2d ed., revised by W. Wattenbach, Leipsic, 1888).
Bibliography: J. H. a Seelen, De Adamo Bremensi, in his Miscellanea, ii. 415-493, Lübeck, 1736; L. Giesebrecht, Historische und literarische Abhandlung der Königsberger deutschen Gesellschaft, ed. F. W. Schubert, iii. 141, Königsberg, 1834; W. Giesebrecht, Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit, i. 752, Brunswick, 1874; G. Dehio, Geschichte des Erzbistums Hamburg-Bremen, i. 176-177, Berlin, 1877; W. Wattenbach, DGQ, iii. (1894) 78-82; Hauck, KD, iii.
ADAM, MELCHIOR, mel'kî-er: Protestant biographer; b. at Grottkau (35 m. s.e. of Breslau), Silesia; d. at Heidelberg, where he was rector of the city school, Mar. 23, 1622. He is remembered for his series of 136 biographies, mostly of German Protestant scholars, especially theologians (5 vols., Heidelberg and Frankfort, 1615-20; 2d ed., under the title Dignorum laude virorum immortalitas, 1653; 3d ed., 1706).
ADAM OF SAINT VICTOR: One of the most
important of the liturgical poets of the Middle Ages;
his nationality is described by the Latin word Brito
("Breton"?), and he was canon of St. Victor of
Paris in the second half of the twelfth century.
From his sequence upon Thomas Becket of Canterbury it is inferred that he survived the latter's
canonization (1174). His poems do not include
all of his writings, but are the most important.
From the ninth century it was customary to set
words (called prosa and sequentia) to the melodies
Bibliography: L. Gautier, Œuvres poétiques d'Adam de St. Victor, 2 vols., Paris, 1858 (complete and critical ed., with life in vol. i.; 3d ed., 1894), reprinted in MPL, cxcvi, 1421-1534 (Eng. transl. by D. S. Wranghem, The Liturgical Poetry of Adam of St. Victor, 3 vols., London, 1881); K. Bartsch, Die lateinischen Sequenzen des Mittelalters, pp. 170 sqq., Rostock, 1868; Histoire littéraire de la France, xv. 39-45; E. Misset, Poésie rythmique du moyen âge; essai . . . sur les œuvres poétiques d'Adam de St. Victor, Paris, 1882.
ADAM THE SCOTCHMAN (Adamus Scotus, called also Adamus Anglicus): A mystic-ascetic author of the twelfth century. According to his biographer, the Premonstrant Godefroi Ghiselbert of the seventeenth century, he was of north-English origin, belonged to the Premonstrant order, was abbot at Whithorn (Casa Candida) in Galloway toward 1180, and about the same time also lived temporarily at Prémontré, the French parent monastery of the order. He seems to have died soon after. It is highly improbable that he was living in the thirteenth century, as Ghiselbert thinks, who identifies him with the English bishop of the Order of St. Norbert mentioned by Cæsarius of Heisterbach (Miraculorum, iii. 22). The first incomplete edition of Adam's works was published by Ægidius Gourmont (Paris, 1518). It contains his three principal writings of mystic-monastic content: (1) Liber de ordine, habitu, et professione Prœmonstratensium, fourteen sermons; (2) De tripartito tabernaculo; (3) De triplici genere contemplationis. The edition of Petrus Bellerus (Antwerp, 1659) contains also Ghiselbert's life and a collection of forty-seven sermons on the festivals of the church year, which seem to have belonged to a larger collection of 100 sermons comprising the whole church year. In 1721 Bernhard Pez (Thesaurus anecdotorum, i. 2, 335 sqq.) published Soliloquia de instructione discipuli, sive de instructione animœ, which has been ascribed to Adam of St. Victor, but belongs probably to Adam the Scotchman. All of these works with Ghiselbert's life are in MPL, cxcviii. 9-872.
Bibliography: Godefroi Ghiselbert, Vita Adami, in MPL, cxcviii.; C. Oudin, De scriptoribus ecclesiœ, ii. 1544 sqq., Frankfort, 1722 ; A. Miræus, Chronicon ordinis Prœmonstratensis, in M. Kuen, Collectio scriptorum variorum religiosorum ordinum, vi. 36, 38, Ulm, 1768; G. Mackenzie, The Lives and Characters of the most Eminent Writers of the Scots Nation, i. 141-145, Edinburgh, 1708.
ADAMITES (ADAMIANI): 1. Epiphanius (Hœr., lii.) gives an account of a sect of "Adamiani," that held their religious assemblies in subterranean chambers, both men and women appearing in a state of nature to imitate Adam and Eve, and calling their meetings paradise. Since Epiphanius knew of them only from hearsay, and is himself doubtful whether to make of them a special class of heretics, their existence must be regarded as questionable. There are further unverifiable notices in John of Damascus (Opera, i. 88; following the Anakephalaiosis, attributed to Epiphanius), in Augustine (Hœr., lxxxi.), and in Hœreticarum fabularum epitome, i. 6).
2. Charges of community of women, ritual child-murder, and nocturnal orgies were brought by the heathen world against the early Christians, and by the latter against various sects of their own number (Montanists, Manicheans, Priscillianists, etc.). Similar accusations were made against almost all medieval sects, notably the Cathari, the Waldensians, the Italian Fraticelli, the heretical flagellants of Thuringia in 1454, and the Brethren of the Free Spirit. All of these allegations are to be regarded with much suspicion. The doctrine of a sinless state, taught by the Brethren of the Free Spirit, and, in other cases, extravagant acts of overwrought mystics may have furnished a basis, which, without doubt, was often elaborated from the accounts of "Adamites" mentioned above.
3. The name "Adamites" has become the permanent designation of a sect of Bohemian Taborites, who, in Mar., 1421, established themselves on an island in the Luschnitz, near Neuhaus, and are said to have indulged in predatory forays upon the neighborhood, and to have committed wild excesses in nocturnal dances. They were suppressed by Ziska and Ulrich von Neuhaus in Oct., 1421. It is probable that they were merely a faction of the Taborites who carried to an extreme their belief in the necessity of a complete separation from the Church and resorted to violence to spread their principles. The charges against their moral character are in the highest degree suspicious. Even in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries certain religious sectaries were persecuted in Bohemia as "Adamites."
4. An Anabaptist sect in the Netherlands about 1580 received the name "Adamites" because they required candidates for admission to appear unclothed before the congregation and thus show that physical desire had no power over them. Members of an Amsterdam congregation who in 1535 ran through the streets naked and crying wo to the godless were probably insane. The followers of Adam Pastor were called "Adamites" from their leader. Silly stories of orgies by so-called devil-worshipers (the "black mass") are sometimes heard at the present time.
Bibliography: (1) I. de Beausobre, Dissertation sur les
Adamites de Bohème, in J. Lenfant, Historie de la guerre
des Hussites, ii. 355-358, Amsterdam. 1731; C. W. F.
Walch, Entwurf einer vollständigen Historie der Ketzereien,
i. 327-335, Leipsic, 1762. (2) J. Nider, Formicarius, III.
vi., Cologne, 1470; C. Schmidt, Historie et doctrine de la
secte des Cathares, ii. 150 sqq., Paris, 1849; W. Preger,
Geschichte der deutschen Mystik, i. 207 sqq., 461 sqq., Leipsic,
1874; A. Jundt, Histoire du panthéisme populaire, pp.
48-49, 56, 111 sqq., Paris, 1875; H. Haupt, in ZKG. vi.
(1885) 552 sqq.; H. C. Lea, History of the Inquisition, i.
100 sqq., New York, 1888; K. Müller, Kirchengeschichte,
i. 610, Freiburg, 1892. (3) J. Dobrowsky, Geschichte der
böhmischen Pikarden und Adamiten, in Abhandlungen der
ADAMNAN ("Little Adam"): Ninth abbot of Iona (679-704); b. probably at Drumhome in the southwest part of County Donegal, Ireland (50 m. s.w. of Londonderry), c. 625; d. on the island of Iona Sept. 23, 704. He was a relative of Columba and the greatest of the abbots of Iona after its illustrious founder, famed alike for learning (he had some knowledge of even Greek and Hebrew), piety, and practical wisdom. He was a friend (and perhaps the teacher) of Aldfrid, king of Northumbria (685-705), visited his court in 686 and again in 688, and was converted there to the Roman tonsure and Easter computation by Ceolfrid of Jarrow. He was unable, however, to win over his monks of Iona, but had more success in Ireland, where he spent considerable time, attended several synods, and warmly advocated the Roman usages. Many churches and wells are dedicated to him in Ireland and Scotland, and his name appears corrupted into various forms, as "Ownan," "Eunan" (the patron of Raphoe), "Dewnan," "Thewnan," and the like.
The extant writings of Adamnan are: (1) Arculfi relatio de locis sanctis, written down from information furnished personally by Arculf, a Gallic bishop who was driven to England by stress of weather when returning from a visit to Palestine, Syria, Alexandria, and Constantinople. Adamnan added notes from other sources known to him, and presented the book to King Aldfrid. Bede made it the basis of his De locis sanctis and gives extracts from it in the Hist. eccl., v. 16, 17. (2) Vita S. Columbœ, written between 692 and 697, not so much a life as a presentation without order of the saint's prophecies, miracles, and visions, but important for the information it gives of the customs, the land, the Irish and Scotch tongues, and the history of the time. (3) The "Vision of Adamnan," in old Irish, describing Adamnan's journey through heaven and hell, is probably later than his time, but may present his real spiritual experiences and his teaching. Other works are ascribed to him without good reason.
Bibliography: For works consult MPL, lxxxviii.; Arculfi relatio, in Itinera Hierosolymitana bellis sacris anteriora, i., pp. xxx-xxxiii., 139-210, 238-240, 392-418 (Publications of the Société de l'Orient latin, Série géographique, i., Geneva, 1879), and in Itinera Hierosolymitana sœculi iiii.-viii., ed. P. Geyer, pp. 219-297 (CSEL, xxxix., 1898); Eng. transl. by J. R. Macpherson (Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society, 1889); Vita S. Columbœ, ed. W. Reeves, Dublin, 1857 (new ed., with Eng. transl. and an unfortunate rearrangement of the notes, by W. F. Skene, Edinburgh, 1874); also by J. T. Fowler, Oxford, 1894 (Eng. transl., 1895); the text of the Vision, with Eng. transl., has been published by Whitley Stokes, Fis Adamnain, Simla, 1870; E. Windisch, Irische Texte, pp. 165-196, Leipsic, 1880 (contains the text). For Adamnan's life: Lanigan, Eccl. Hist., passim; Reeves, in his ed. of the Vita Columbœ, pp. xl.-lxviii., Dublin, 1857; A. P. Forbes, Kalendars of Scottish Saints, Edinburgh, 1872; DCB, i. 41-43; W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland, ii. 170-175, Edinburgh, 1877; DNB, i. 92-93; J. Healy, Insula Sanctorum, pp. 334-347, Dublin, 1890; P. Geyer, Adamnan, Augsburg, 1895; T. Olden, Church of Ireland, pp. 59, 77, 104, 119, London, 1895; Cain Adamnan, an old Irish Treatise on the Law of Adamnain, ed. Kuno Meyer, in Anecdota Oxoniensa, Oxford, 1905.
ADAMS, GEORGE MOULTON: Congregationalist; b. at Castine, Me., July 7, 1824; d. at Auburndale, Mass., Jan. 11, 1906. He was educated at Bowdoin College (B.A., 1844), Bangor Theological Seminary (1844-46), the universities of Leipsic, Halle, and Berlin (1847-49), and Andover Theological Seminary (1849-50). He held successive pastorates at Conway, Mass. (1851-63); Portsmouth, N. H. (1863-71); and Holliston, Mass. (1873-89), and also acted as supply at Mentham, Mass. (1890-91), and Waban, Mass. (1905), although after 1889 he was engaged chiefly in literary work. In his theological position he was a Trinitarian Congregationalist. He was historian of the New England Historic-Genealogical Society and a member of its Council, a member of the Board of Overseers of Bowdoin College, the treasurer of the Trustees of Donations for Education in Liberia and of the Mount Coffee Association for the promotion of education in Liberia, and in 1903 was made Knight Commander of the Liberian Humane Order of African Redemption. In addition to a number of briefer studies and occasional addresses, he revised the Biblical Museum of James Comper Gray (8 vols., New York and London, 1871-81) under the title of The Biblical Encyclopedia (5 vols., Cleveland, O., 1903).
ADAMS, JAMES ALONZO: Congregationalist; b. at Ashland, O., May 21, 1842. He was educated at Knox College (A.B., 1867) and Union Theological Seminary (1870), after having served in the Civil war as a member of Company D, 69th Illinois Volunteers. He was pastor of the Congregational Church at Marshfield, Mo., in 1870-71; of the Plymouth Congregational Church, St. Louis, in 1880-86; of the Millard Avenue Congregational Church, Chicago, in 1887-88; and of the Warren Avenue Congregational Church in the same city in 1889-95. In 1891 he was a delegate from the Congregational churches of Illinois to the International Congregational Council in London, and has also been their representative at a number of national councils. He was professor in Straight University, New Orléans, 1873-77, and president in 1875-77, and then became editor of the Dallas Daily Commercial, Dallas, Tex. From 1887 to 1903 he was editorial writer on the Chicago Advance, becoming its editor-in-chief in the latter year. His principal works are Colonel Hungerford's Daughter (Chicago, 1896) and Life of Queen Victoria (1901).
ADAMS, JOHN COLEMAN: Universalist; b. at
Malden, Mass., Oct. 25, 1849. He was educated
ADAMS, SARAH (FULLER) FLOWER: English Unitarian; b. at Harlow (25 m. n.e. of London), Essex, Feb. 22, 1805; d. in London Aug. 14, 1848. Her father was Benjamin Flower (1755-1829), printer, editor, and political writer, and, Sept. 24, 1834, she married William Bridges Adams (1797-1872), an inventor and engineer of distinction, also a writer on political subjects. She was a highly gifted woman, much esteemed by a circle of friends which included, among others, W. J. Linton, Harriet Martineau, Leigh Hunt, and Robert Browning. Inherited deafness and a weak constitution prevented her from following the stage as a profession, which she had chosen in the belief that "the drama is an epitome of the mind and manners of mankind, and wise men in all ages have agreed to make it, what in truth it ought to be, a supplement to the pulpit." She wrote poems on social and political subjects, chiefly for the Anti-Corn-Law League; contributed poems and articles to the Monthly Repository during the years 1832-53, when it was conducted by her pastor W. J. Fox, and published a long poem, The Royal Progress, in the Illuminated Magazine in 1845. In book form she published Vivia Perpetua, a Dramatic Poem (London, 1841; reprinted with her hymns and a memoir by Mrs. E. F. Bridell-Fox, 1893), and The Flock at the Fountain (1845), a catechism. In addition, she furnished fourteen original hymns and two translations to Hymns and Anthems (1840), a collection for Fox's chapel at Finsbury, including her best-known production, Nearer, my God, to thee. Her sister, Eliza Flower (1803-46), possessed much musical talent and furnished the original music for this hymn as well as for others in the book.
Bibliography: DNB, i. 101; S. W. Duffield, English, Hymns, pp 382-388, New York, 1886; Julian, Hymnology, p. 16; N. Smith, Hymns Historically Famous, pp. 174-182, Chicago, 1901.
ADAMS, THOMAS: English preacher and commentator of the seventeenth century, called by Southey "the prose Shakespeare of Puritan theologians . . . scarcely inferior to Fuller in wit or to Taylor in fancy." Little is known of his life beyond what may be gathered from the title-pages and dedications of his books. He was preaching in Bedfordshire in 1612; in 1614 became vicar of Wingrave, Bucks; from 1618 to 1623 preached in London; he was chaplain to Sir Henry Montagu, lord chief justice of England, in 1653 was a "necessitous and decrepit" old man, and died probably before the Restoration. He published many occasional sermons (collected into a folio volume, London, 1630), besides a commentary on the Second Epistle of Peter (1633; ed. J. Sherman, 1839). His works, ed. Thomas Smith, with life by Joseph Angus, were published in Nichol's Series of Standard Divines (3 vols., Edinburgh, 1862-63).
ADAMS, WILLIAM: American Presbyterian; b. at Colchester, Conn., Jan. 25, 1807; d. at Orange Mountain, N. J., Aug. 31, 1880. He was graduated at Yale (1827) and at Andover Theological Seminary (1830); was pastor at Brighton, Mass. (1831-34); of the Broome Street (Central) Presbyterian Church, New York (1834-53); and of the Madison Square Presbyterian Church, formed from the Broome Street Church (1853-73). From 1873 till his death he was president and professor of sacred rhetoric and pastoral theology in Union Theological Seminary. He was one of the leading clergymen in New York in his time, and his influence was not bounded by his own denomination or land. Besides many individual sermons he published an edition of Isaac Taylor's Spirit of Hebrew Poetry, with a biographical introduction (New York, 1862); The Three Gardens (1856); In the World and not of the World (1867); Conversations of Jesus Christ with Representative Men (1868); Thanksgiving (1869).
ADAMS, WILLIAM FORBES: Protestant Episcopal bishop of Easton (Md.); b. at Enniskillen (70 m. s.w. of Belfast), County Fermanagh, Ireland, Jan. 2, 1833. He came to America at the age of eight, was educated at the University of the South, and was admitted to the Mississippi bar in 1854, but subsequently studied theology, and was ordained deacon in 1859, and priest in the following year. He was rector of St. Paul's Church, Woodville, Mass., from 1860 to 1866, when he was called to the rectorate of St. Peter's, New Orléans, but went in the following year to St. Paul's in the same city, where he remained until 1875. In that year he was consecrated first missionary bishop of New Mexico and Arizona, but was compelled by illness to resign. He then accepted the rectorate of Holy Trinity Church, Vicksburg, Miss., where he remained from 1876 to 1887, when he was consecrated bishop of Easton.
ADAMSON, PATRICK: Scotch prelate; b. in
Perth Mar. 15, 1537 (according to another account,
1543); d. at St. Andrews Feb. 19, 1592. He was
educated at the University of St. Andrews; preached
for two or three years in Scotland; was in France
as private tutor at the time of the Massacre of St.
Bartholomew; returned to Scotland and to the
ministry; and was made archbishop of St. Andrews
in 1576. Thenceforth his life was a continual
struggle with the Presbyterian party, and he died
in poverty. His enemies have assailed his character, but all agree that he was a scholar and an able
preacher and writer. He composed a Latin catechism
ADAMSON, WILLIAM: Evangelical Union; b. at New Galloway (20 m. w. of Dumfries), Kirkcudbrightshire, Aug. 29, 1830. He was educated at Glasgow and St. Andrews Universities and at Evangelical Union Theological Hall. He was pastor in Perth eleven years and in Edinburgh twenty-seven years, and also conducted a public theological class in the latter city for eighteen years. He was for several years a member of the Edinburgh School Board, and took an active interest in politics and movements for reform. He is now pastor of the Carver Memorial Church, Windermere, Westmorelandshire. His writings include The Righteousness of God (London, 1870); The Nature of the Atonement (1880); Religious Anecdotes of Scotland (1885); Knowledge and Faith (1886); Robert Milligan: A Story (Glasgow, 1891); Missionary Anecdotes (1896); Argument of Adaptation (London, 1897); Life of the Rev. James Morison (1898); Life of the Rev. Fergus Ferguson (1900); and Life of the Rev. Joseph Parker (1902). He is also the editor of The Christian News.
ADDICKS, GEORGE B.: Methodist Episcopalian; b. at Hampton, Ill., Sept. 9, 1854. He was educated at the Central Wesleyan College, Warrenton, Mo., and at the Garrett Bible Institute, Evanston, Ill. (1876-77). He taught in the preparatory department of the Central Wesleyan College in 1875-76, and in 1877-78 preached at Geneseo, Ill., being ordained to the Methodist Episcopal ministry in the latter year. From 1878 to 1885 he taught the German language and literature in Iowa Wesleyan University and German College, Mount Pleasant, Ia., and from 1885 to 1890 held a pastorate at Pekin, Ill. In 1890 he returned to the Central Wesleyan College as professor of practical theology and philosophy, and since 1895 has been president and professor of philosophy of the same institution. In 1900 he was a delegate to the General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church and was a member of the University Senate of the same denomination from 1896 to 1904.
ADDIS, WILLIAM EDWARD: Church of England; b. at Edinburgh May 9, 1844. He was educated at Glasgow University and Balliol College, Oxford (B.A., 1866). Originally a member of the Church of England, he became a convert to the Roman Catholic Church in 1866, and was ordained to the priesthood in 1872 at the London Oratory, being parish priest of Sydenham from 1878 to 1888. In the latter year he renounced this faith and became minister of the Australian Church, Melbourne, Australia, an undenominational institution, where he remained until 1892, when he took a similar position at the High Pavement Chapel, Nottingham (1893-98). In 1899 he was appointed Old Testament lecturer at Manchester College, Oxford, and shortly afterward returned to the Church of England. His college accordingly attempted to expel him and to declare itself officially non-conformist, but the movement was proved illegal, and he still retains his position, although the hostile attitude of the trustees of Manchester College prevents him from resuming his work as a priest of the Church of England. He has written A Catholic Dictionary (London, 1883; in collaboration with Thomas Arnold); Christianity and the Roman Empire (1893); Documents of the Hexateuch (2 vols., 1893-98); and Hebrew Religion to the Establishment of Judaism Under Ezra (1906).
ADDISON, DANIEL DULANY: Protestant Episcopalian; b. at Wheeling, W. Va., Mar. 11, 1863. He received his education at Union College and the Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass. (1886). He was curate of Christ Church, Springfield, Mass., in 1886-89 and rector of St. Peter's Church, Beverly, Mass., in 1889-95, while since 1895 he has been rector of All Saints' Church, Brookline, Mass. He is examining chaplain to the bishop of Massachusetts, director of the Church Temperance Society, member of the executive committee of the archdeaconry of Boston, president of the New England Home for Deaf-Mutes and the Brookline Education Society, vice-president of the Trustees of Donations for Education in Liberia, and a trustee of the College of Monrovia, Liberia, and of the Brookline public library. In 1904 he was made Knight Commander of the Liberian Humane Order of African Redemption. He has written: Lucy Larcom, Life, Letters and Diary (Boston, 1894); Phillips Brooks (1894); Life and Times of Edward Bass, First Bishop of Massachusetts (1897); All Saints' Church, Brookline (Cambridge, 1896); The Clergy in American Life and Letters (New York, 1900); and The Episcopalians (1904).
ADELBERT. See Adalbert.
ADELMANN: Bishop of Brescia in the eleventh
century. The time and place of his birth are unknown, and the date of his death, as well as that of
his consecration as bishop, is uncertain. Gams (Series
episcoporum, Regensburg, 1872, p. 779) assigns the
latter two events to 1053 and 1048, respectively.
Adelmann himself states that he was not a German;
he has been commonly taken for a Frenchman, but
may have been a Lombard. The first certain fact
of his life is that, together with Berengar of Tours,
he studied under Fulbert at Chartres. Afterward
he studied, and later taught (probably from 1042),
in the school of Liége, then at Speyer. The
works which have made him known are: (1) a
collection of Rhythmi alphabetici de viris illustribus
sui temporis, devoted to the praise of Fulbert and
his school, and (2) a letter to Berengar on his
eucharistic teaching; the letter was written before
Berengar's first condemnation, but after his departure
from the traditional doctrine was notorious (both works in MPL,
cxliii. 1289-98). The letter is not so much an independent investigation
as a solemn warning to his friend against the danger
of falling into heresy. Adelmann treats the subject from the purely traditional standpoint, and
considers it settled by the words of institution.
Bibliography: Histoire littéraire de la France, vii. 542; Hauck, KD, vol. iii., p. 963.
ADELOPHAGI, ad"el-ef'a-jai or -gî ("Not Eating in Public"): Certain people, mentioned in Prœdestinatus (i. 71), as thinking it unseemly for a Christian to eat while another looked on. They are also referred to by Augustine (Hœr., lxxi.), who copies Philastrius (Hœr., lxxvi.) and is uncertain whether their scruple included members of their own sect or applied only to others. Further statements in Prœdestinatus are to be accepted with extreme caution.
ADENEY, WALTER FREDERIC: Congregationalist; b. at Ealing (9 m. w. of London), Middlesex, Eng., Mar. 14, 1849. He received his education at New College and University College, London. He was minister of the Congregational Church at Acton, London, from 1872 to 1889, and from 1887 to the same year was lecturer in Biblical and systematic theology at New College, London. In 1889 he was appointed professor of New Testament exegesis and church history in the same institution, holding this position until 1903, as well as a lectureship on church history in Hackney College, London, after 1898. In 1903 he was chosen principal of Lancastershire College, in the University of Manchester, and two years later was appointed lecturer on the history of doctrine in the same university. As a theologian, he accepts the results of Biblical criticism which he feels to be warranted, and welcomes scientific and philosophic investigation and criticism of religion, although he seeks to adhere firmly to basal Christian truths and to harmonize them with what he holds to be other ascertained verities. His works include, in addition to numerous articles in magazines and Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, as well as in nine volumes of the Pulpit Commentary (1881-90), The Hebrew Utopia (London, 1877); From Christ to Constantine (1886); From Constantine to Charles the Great (1888); two volumes in the Expositor's Bible (1893-94; the first on Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther; and the second on Ecclesiastes and the Song of Solomon); The Theology of the New Testament (1894); How to Read the Bible (1896); Women of the New Testament (1899); the section on the New Testament in the Biblical Introduction written by him in collaboration with W. H. Bennett (1899); and A Century's Progress (1901). He is likewise editor of The Century Bible, to which he himself has contributed the volumes on Luke (London, 1901) and the Epistles to the Thessalonians (1902).
ADEODATUS, ad"î-o-da'tus: Bishop of Rome from Apr. 11, 672, to his death, June 16, 676. His pontificate was unimportant. The Liber pontificalis (ed. Duchesne, i. 346) ascribes to him the restoration of the basilica of St. Peter at Campo di Merlo, near La Magliana (7 1/2 m. from Rome), and the enlargement of the monastery of St. Erasmus in Rome, where he had been a monk. The only documents of his extant (MPL, lxxxvii. 1139-46) are concessions of privileges to the churches of St. Peter at Canterbury and St. Martin at Tours. For his participation in the Monothelite controversy, see Monothelites. He is sometimes known as Adeodatus II., because the form "Adeodatus" is used also for the name of a former pope Deusdedit (615-618).
In the history of Christian ethics the term "adiaphora" (pl. of Gk., adiaphoron, "indifferent") signifies actions which God neither bids nor forbids, the performance or omission of which is accordingly left as a matter of indifference. The term was employed by the Cynics, and borrowed by the Stoics. To the latter that only was good or evil which was always so and which man could control. Such matters as health, riches, etc., and their opposites were classed as adiaphora, being regarded for this purpose, not as actions, but as things or conditions. Adiaphora were divided into absolute and relative; the former being such as had to do with meaningless distinctions, while the latter involved preference, as in the case of sickness versus health. The Stoics did not, however, from the adiaphoristic nature of external things deduce that of the actions connected therewith.
Jesus's ideal of righteousness as devotion of the
entire person to God revealed as perfect moral
character, signified, on the one side, freedom from
every obligation to a statutory law, particularly
precepts concerning worship. He regarded the
observance of external rites as a matter of indifference so far as real personal purity was concerned,
and, with his disciples observed the Jewish rites as a means to the fulfilment of his mission to Israel when they did not interfere with doing good
(
Paul emphasizes, on the one hand, the comprehensive character of Christian ethics and, on the
other, the freedom which is the Christian's; and
he concludes that the observance or disregard of
dicta pertaining to external things is a matter of
In place of this view of freedom, combining obligation with unconstraint, there soon arose one of a more legal cast. At the time of Tertullian there was in connection with concrete questions a conflict between the two principles (1) that what is not expressly permitted by Scripture is forbidden; and (2) that what is not expressly forbidden is permitted. The restriction of the idea of duty by that of the permissible, and the recognition of an adiaphoristic sphere were further confirmed by the distinction between prœcepta and consilia and by the doctrine of supererogatory merits. The question of adiaphora was argued by the schoolmen. Thomas Aquinas and his followers held that there were certain actions which, so far as being intrinsically capable of subserving a good or an ill purpose, were matters of indifference; but they recognized no act proceeding from conscious consideration which was not either disposed toward a fitting end or not so disposed, and hence good or bad. Duns Scotus and his adherents recognized actions indifferent in individuo, i.e., those not to be deemed wrong though without reference, actual or virtual, to God. The early Church at first appropriated the Cynic and Stoic opposition to culture, holding that it interfered with the contemplation of God and divine things. But with large heathen accessions, this attitude was no longer maintained. The primitive Christian ideal was, to be sure, preserved; but its complete fulfilment was required of only those bound thereto by the nature of their calling.
Luther based his position on that of Paul. He
appears, indeed, to determine the idea of adiaphora
(the expression does not occur in his works) according to a legalizing criterion when he distinguishes
between things or works which are clearly bidden
or forbidden by God in the New Testament and
those which are left free—to neglect which is no
wrong; to observe, no piety. But he further says
in the same connection that under the rule of
faith the conscience is free, and Christians are
superior to all things, particularly externals and
precepts in connection therewith. In accordance
with this view he considers that an
external form of divine worship is
nowhere enjoined (the Lord's Supper is
a beneficium, not an officium); and he
distinguishes between the necessary and the free
in churchly forms by their effects. Prayer, the
Lord's Supper, and preaching are necessary to
edification; but the time, place, and mode have no
part in edification, and are free. His standpoint,
then, was not simply that there were certain things
left free, but that the assertion of freedom (or adiaphorism) applied to the whole realm of externals.
In individual cases, however, a limitation was imposed by ethical aims and rules. Christians were
to take part in the external worship of God to fulfil
the duty of public confession and that they
might "communicate"
(
The churchly adiaphora formed the subject of the first adiaphoristic controversy. The Wittenberg theologians believed that the concessions on the basis of which the Leipsic interim was concluded could be justified by the principles enunciated and exemplified at the outset of the Reformation. They held that, despite formal modifications, they had surrendered only traditional points of church government and worship, and even then only such as were unopposed by Scripture, had been so recognized in the primitive Church, and had seemed to themselves excellent arrangements, conducive to order and discipline. Further, they maintained that every idolatrous usage had been discountenanced, and that from what was retained idolatrous significance had been excluded. It may be mentioned, by way of example, that the Latin liturgy of the mass was admitted, with lights, canonicals, etc., though with communion and some German hymns; also confirmation, Corpus Christi day, extreme unction, fasting, and the jurisdiction of bishops.
Before the interim had been authentically published there arose a controversy in which the attack
was led by Flacius. In his De veris et falsis
adiaphoris (1549), he raised the question by not
only maintaining that preaching, baptism, the
Lord's Supper, and absolution had been commanded
by God, but even by concluding from
In the so-called second adiaphoristic controversy the Lutheran and Calvinistic systems came into conflict. Luther had maintained the right of temperate enjoyment of secular amusements. Calvin, on the other hand, stood for fundamentally different principles, in accordance with which he enforced his Genevan code of discipline. Voetius carried these principles still further. On the Lutheran side was Meisner, who is in this respect the classic opponent of the Calvinists. He puts secular amusements under the head of adiaphora as being actions neither right nor wrong per se but per aliud,—the person and the purpose especially to be considered,—and in concrete instances becoming always either right or wrong. The controversy began at the close of the seventeenth century, when secular amusements were attacked per se by several writers, such as Reiser and Winkler, the Pietistic theologians of Hamburg, Vockerodt, Lange, and Zierold. Lange, for example, contended that in the light of revealed law there are no indifferent acts. Those actions alone are right which are under the influence of the Holy Spirit for the honor of God in the faith and name of Christ; and he holds that the divine will exercises a direct and immediate control. Hence actions not bidden of God are necessarily actions which profit not and are therefore collectively wrong. He enumerates nineteen separate reasons why Christians should take no part in secular amusements and would exclude from the Lord's Supper those who do. He regards the defense of adiaphora as a heresy which abrogates all evangelical doctrine. Spener's theory was equally severe, but his practise was wisely modified. He counseled that those who participated in secular amusements should be dissuaded therefrom not harshly, but by indirect exhortations to follow Christ; and he would not refuse absolution to such, since many of them did not really appreciate the wrong of those things. Rothe, Warnsdorf, and Schelwig were the principal champions of the previously existing Lutheran teaching; but their defense was far less resolute than the attack.
The question of adiaphora has subsequently been a subject of discussion. The first to introduce a new point of view of any considerable value was Schleiermacher (Kritik der bisherigen Sittenlehre, 2d ed.; Werke zur Philosophie, ii.), who contested the ethical right of adiaphora on the basis of the necessity in the moral life of unity and stability. Only in the realm of civil law, and in the moral judgment of others whose actions must frequently, for lack of evidence, remain unexplained, does he admit of adiaphora. Most later evangelical authorities, for example Martensen, Pfleiderer, Wuttke, and, most closely, Rothe, are in substantial agreement with this position, though introducing some variations and modifications.
Among British and American Christians no adiaphoristic controversy has found place; but the types of religious and ethical thought that underlay the opposing forces in the controversies above considered have been in conflict at all times and everywhere. English Puritanism and early Scottish Presbyterianism, as well as New England Puritanism, either rejected adiaphora wholly or reduced them to the smallest proportions. The English Tractarians in seeking to overcome the difficulties involved in uniting with the Church of Rome gave earnest attention to adiaphora. A sign of the times is the watchword of the Evangelical Alliance, "In essentials, unity; in nonessentials, liberty; in all things, charity." The Lambeth articles proposing the Nicene and Apostles' Creeds, the two sacraments, the open Bible, and the historic episcopate as the basis of union with non-conforming Churches treated as adiaphora the Athanasian Creed, uniformity of worship, and use of the Prayer Book. The Protestant Episcopal Church in America has settled the chief point in dispute between Churchman and Puritan
by eliminating the State from necessary union with the Church. In the union of religious bodies both in Great Britain and America, for which there is a growing tendency, minor differences are ignored in favor of essential principles. In all Churches some dogmas once deemed essential to the integrity of truth are laid aside never to regain
their former position (cf. the Westminster Confession with the "Brief Statement of Faith" published by authority of the Presbyterian Church
in the United States). With reference to conduct prescribed by ecclesiastical bodies or recognized as belonging to personal responsibility—the "personal instance"—two diametrically opposite tendencies are evident. In the first case, the spirit
of democracy and of enlightened public sentiment
is rapidly withdrawing many actions once regarded
as legitimately under church jurisdiction, as
amusements and the like, from such supervision. In
the second case, if life is to be ruled by moral
Bibliography: For the ethical and theological treatment of Adiaphora consult in general: the treatises on ethics, casuistry, dogmatics, and the history of philosophy. Special treatment will be found in C. C. E. Schmid, Adiaphora, wissenschaftlich und historisch untersucht, Leipsic, 1809; J. Schiller, Probleme der christlichen Ethik, Berlin, 1888; J.H. Blunt, Dictionary of Sects, Heresies, . . . s.v., Philadelphia, 1874; KL, i. 223-232. On the Adiaphoristic Controversy consult: Schmid, Controversia de adiaphoris, Jena, 1807; J. L. v. Mosheim, Institutes of Eccl. Hist., ed. W. Stubbs, ii. 574-576, London, 1863; KL, i. 232-235, 769; iv. 1528; v. 769; xii. 1568, 1719.
ADLER, CYRUS: American Jewish scholar; b. at Van Buren, Ark., Sept. 13, 1863. He was educated at the Philadelphia High School, the University of Pennsylvania (B.A., 1883) and Johns Hopkins (Ph.D., 1887). He was fellow in Semitics at Johns Hopkins in 1885-87, and was appointed instructor in the same subject in 1887, and associate professor five years later. In 1887 he was also made assistant curator of Oriental antiquities in the United States Museum, Washington, and custodian of the section of historic religious ceremonials in 1889. In 1905 he was appointed assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. He was virtually the founder of the American Jewish Historical Society in 1892 and has been its president since 1898, and was likewise one of the reorganizers (1902) of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America (New York City), of which he is a life trustee, besides serving as president in 1902-05. He has edited the American Jewish Year Book since 1899, has been a member of the editorial staff of the Jewish Encyclopedia, in which he had charge of the departments of post Biblical antiquities and the history of the Jews in America, and has published, in collaboration with Allan Ramsay, Told in the Coffee House (New York, 1898).
ADLER, FELIX: Founder of the Society for Ethical Culture; b. at Alzey (20 m. s.w. of Mainz) Aug. 13, 1851. He came to America in 1857, when his father was called to the rabbinate of Temple Emanu-El, New York City, and was educated at Columbia College (A.B., 1870), the Hochschule für die Wissenschaft des Judenthums at Berlin and the university of the same city, and the University of Heidelberg (Ph.D., 1873). From 1874 to 1876 he was professor of Hebrew and Oriental literature at Cornell, but in the latter year went to New York and established the Society for Ethical Culture, a non-religious association for the ethical improvement of its members, of which he has since been the head. He has been active in various philanthropic enterprises and in popular education, being a member of the State Tenement Committee in 1884 and of the Committee of Fifteen in 1901, and in 1902 was appointed professor of political and social ethics at Columbia University. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Ethics and has written Creed and Deed (New York, 1877); The Moral Instruction of Children (1898); Life and Destiny (1903); Marriage and Divorce (1905); Religion of Duty (1905), and Essentials of Spirituality (1905).
ADLER, HERMANN NATHAN: Chief rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of the British Empire; b. at Hanover, Germany, May 30, 1839. He was educated at the University College School and University College, London (B.A., 1859), and also at the universities of Prague and Leipsic (Ph.D., Leipsic, 1861). He received the rabbinical diploma at Prague in 1862, and in the following year was appointed principal of Jews' College, London. In 1864 he became minister of the Bayswater Synagogue, London, but continued to be tutor in theology in Jews' College until 1879, when he was appointed delegate chief rabbi to relieve his father, Nathan Marcus Adler, whom age had rendered unable to perform all the duties of chief rabbi. On the death of his father, Adler was chosen his successor as chief rabbi in 1891, and at the same time was elected president of Jews' College, where he had already been chairman of the council since 1887. He is also president of Aria College and the London beth din, vice-president of the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children and the Mansion House Association for Improving the Dwellings of the Poor, governor of University College, and a member of the committee of the King Edward Hospital Fund and the Metropolitan Hospital Sunday Fund. He has likewise been president of the Jewish Historical Society, vice-president of the Jewish Religious Educational Board and the Anglo-Jewish Association, and representative of the Russo-Jewish Committee at Berlin (1889) and Paris (1890). In addition to numerous briefer contributions, he has written Solomon ibn Gabirol and his Influence upon Scholastic Philosophy (London, 1865) and Sermons on the Biblical Passages adduced by Christian Theologians in Support of the Dogmas of their Faith (1869).
ADLER, NATHAN MARCUS: English chief rabbi; b. at Hanover, Germany, Jan. 15, 1803; d. at Brighton (50½ m. s. of London), Sussex, England, Jan. 21, 1890. He was educated at the universities of Göttingen, Erlangen (Ph.D., 1826), Würzburg, and Heidelberg, and in 1830 was appointed chief rabbi of Oldenburg. Before a year had passed he was made chief rabbi of the kingdom of Hanover, and in 1845 he was installed in the far more important post of chief rabbi of the British Empire. In 1845 he received the assistance of a deputy delegate chief rabbi, but retained his own position until his death. Active both in philanthropic and educational measures, he was the founder of Jews' College, London, in 1855, besides being the real originator of the Hospital Sabbath among his coreligionists. He was the author of many works in English, German, and Hebrew, including Die Liebe zum Vaterlande (Hanover, 1838); The Jewish Faith (London, 1867); and Nethinah la-Ger (commentary on the Targum of Onkelos, Wilna, 1875).
ADO, a"dö': Archbishop of Vienne 860-875; b. near Sens about 800; d. at Vienne Dec. 16, 875. He was considered one of the principal upholders
ADONAI. See Yahweh.
ADONAI SHOMO. See Communism, II., 1.
Adoption is a term of theology denoting the new relation to God which Jesus experienced and into which he brings his followers. In tracing the history of this conception, attention is to be paid to the different senses in which the analogy is used in religion, the idea of homogeneousness with God, of the relation to him, and the divine basis of both.
In the Old Testament, the people, the king, and individual pious men and women are called children of God. The people become children of God by their introduction into the promised land, the king by his election, individual persons by their physical creation. It is only with regard to the heavenly spirits that the state of being a child of God (Gotteskindschaft) expresses homogeneousness of being. The relation is one in which God helps, pardons, educates, even through suffering, and in which men have to obey God and trust in him. But the obedience of children is not different from that of servants, and their trust is paralyzed by God's inexplicable disposition to wrath. In later Judaism the relation became one of right,—the pious man must secure his reward, which is a matter of natural desire, by his own merits and sacrifices, and he always wavers between self-righteous security and anxiety.
Jesus as seen in the synoptic Gospels, knows God as the lofty lord to whom men are subjected in service, and as the just judge; but by inner experiences he recognizes this God as his father who discloses to him his love, and he encourages men to believe not that they are
God's children, but that they become such by conducting themselves and feeling as children. The innovation lies in the quality of the relation. In spite of God's physical and spiritual superiority, man is free from the feeling of oppression and insecurity, in the first place,
before the demanding will of God. Through the recognition of God as Father, Jesus knows himself urged to the service of saving love, renouncing every worldly desire, but this service means for him freedom and blessedness
(
In opposition to philosophy, this idea is new in so far as God in the current systems of philosophy was represented as father only as the shaper of the world, and the capacity of becoming a child of God was merely a general function of reason. The religious importance of the ideal is here only secondary; it originates rather in personal dignity and is an altruism which does not extend to the love of enemies. As faith in a fatherly providence, it believes only in an order of the world which offers an opportunity to prove one's strength of will, and thus does not attain submission as expressed in Christian adoption, but only resignation.
Jesus speaks of adoption only in the imperative,—we must become children of God by imitation of God and trust in God; but he admonishes to become such by pointing to God's disposition and
promise. His word receives additional emphasis from his personality which lives in God; and he judges the conduct of God's child in the last analysis as an effect of God
(
This effect, according to Paul, is juridical, i.e., a real adoption, a granting of the right of children (
The Gospel and Epistles of John trace adoption back to the testimony of God (Gospel iii. 5; First Epistle ii. 19). According to them, adoption consists in a close and intimate life in and with God by which there is vouchsafed, on the one hand, the impossibility of sinning and the self-evidence of justice and love to God and our brethren, and, on the other hand, the victory over the world and blessing and the future homogeneousness with God (
According to Jesus, Paul, and John, the child of God is independent of men and yet he must seek communion with men. Jesus teaches to pray "Our Father"; and according to Paul and John, the spirit communicates with the individual through baptism and makes him a member of the community.
The Church has not always maintained this ideal. When its growth necessitated a stricter inculcation of the ethical conditions of salvation, the relation of children was changed under the influence of the Jewish idea of retaliation, of philosophical moralism, and the ideas of Roman law. According to the apologetic
Augustine deepened the physical change into an ethical change which governs ethical actions. Because God's nature is first of all justice, and only secondarily immortal, adoption, as being deification, is in the first place justification, infusion of love (amando Deum efficimur dii—"by loving God we are made gods"; again—"he who justifies also deifies, because by justifying he makes sons of God"), which takes place under the influence of faith, i.e., hopeful prayer, or through baptism. Thus man faces the task—Reddite diem, efficimini spiritus ("Do your part, and become spirit"). Adoption becomes a reality in a process in which the capacity for it increases by continual forgiveness and inspiration of love until after death the second adoption occurs, the liberation from the body which contains the law of sin. Our life is a relation between child and father in so far as love to God, childlike fear, and hope rule in it. But the idea of the New Testament is curtailed in so far as forgiveness concerns always only past sins, and hope is bound to rely upon one's own consciousness of love to God and upon merit, and forgiveness becomes uncertain in consequence of predestination, and in so far as, with the task to serve God in the world, the New Testament manner of trusting in God is also done away with, and a holy indifference takes its place. The relation of God seems to be intensified in so far as there is added as a new element the highest stage of divine love—the mystical contemplation of God; but the apparent plus discloses itself as a minus, since love to God is now conceived of by analogy with that between man and woman instead of that between father and child. Mysticism, it is true, elevates man to freedom from the Church, but it effects also indifference toward men; however, in the premystical stage there shows itself lack of independence of the Church.
In the Occident the curtailment of the childlike in Christian life was still further indulged in by bringing to prominence the ideas of the natural, juridical, and mystical; of the natural in so far as according to the scholastics a habit of grace is infused into the secret recesses of the soul, the existence of which can only be surmised by way of inference from one's own ethical transformation; of the juridical in so far as the provenience of hope from merit ("spes provenit ex meritis") is more strongly emphasized; of the mystical inasmuch as the higher stage of the love of God seems realizable only in a thorough separation from occupation with worldly matters (the lower stage is identified with childlike fear) and inasmuch as even the mysticism of calmness and resignation over against an arbitrary Lord is far inferior to trust in the Father.
It was Luther who again conceived the relation of Christians to God as that of children to a father in the full sense of the word. For Luther Christ
is the "mirror of the fatherly heart of God," the revelation and security of God's gracious disposition, and he draws from this "image of grace" faith and individual trust. He differs from Paul in so far as he understands by the inner testimony of the Holy Spirit the personal certainty of faith which has its basis in Christ. As for Paul, so for Luther,
forgiveness of sins or justification or adoption is a declaration of the will of God that he adopts us as children. It is more than the remittance of past sins, it is the reception of the whole personality into the grace
of God, the transposition into a permanent state which always has to be seized again by faith. Thus it is shown to be an error that meritorious works are necessary in order to obtain grace and eternal life. In this way Luther does not destroy the ethical quality of adoption, but makes it more prominent. For secure trust unites the will with God's entire will in love and thus spontaneously produces, without needing the instruction and inculcation of the law, the free and cheerful fulfilment of the will of God which takes place without any thought of reward and in which eternal life is enjoyed. This psychological derivation of morality from the nature of faith actually invalidates Luther's other derivation from the natural or unconscious impulse of the Holy Spirit. Only his opposition to the doctrine of merits made him forget to do justice to the eschatological motives of morality as they are found in Jesus and Paul, although he might have done so, considering his premises; for will needs an aim and for the will united with God in faith and love, this aim can only be the completion of that which was begun here. Faith gives
him new courage and power for trust in the guidance of the whole life by the Father in which again the joy of eternal life is anticipated, and thus lays the basis for the freedom of the Christian or his royal dominion over all things which manifests itself in fearlessness and pride and defiance of Satan, world, and death as the counterpart of humble submission to God and which through the certainty of the blessing of divine guidance surpasses mysticism—ecstasies as well as resignation in God. This attitude of children is a life which is homogeneous to that of the Father, in the first place, to his disposition, in so far as our trust is a reflex of God's disposition toward us and our love corresponds to the love of God since it is not borrowed from the amiability of men, but is spontaneous, and not a divided love like that of men, but an all-comprehending one; in the second place, to the nature
During the period of orthodoxy in Germany trust in God on the part of his children was regarded as natural religion. Pietism subordinated adoption to regeneration. In theology as influenced by Hegel, childlike union with God after the example of mysticism was traced back to an inner self-manifestation of the absolute spirit. It was Ritschl who renewed the specific ideas of Luther.
At the present time two ideas of adoption are advocated: (1) Resting back on Calvin, it is held that the primary relation of God to man was that of Creator and Governor. Man is son of God, not by virtue of anything in his constitution as a creature of God, nor on account of a natural relation to him as subject of the divine government, but solely by reason of gracious adoption. The only essential sonship is that of Christ primarily as the eternal Son, and secondarily as his humanity shares this prerogative through union with the divine nature. Through adoption the elect in Christ become partakers of Christ's sonship. Adoption is grounded neither in justification nor in regeneration, but in God's free and sovereign grace alone. Through justification the legal and judicial disabilities caused by sin are removed; through regeneration the nature is changed so as to become filial. Thus a basis is laid for the distinction between the state of adoption and the spirit of adoption (R. S. Candlish, The Fatherhood of God, London, 1870; J. Macpherson, Christian Dogmatics, Edinburgh, 1898). (2) According to the other view, man's filial relation to God is archetypal and inalienable. Adoption, in order to be real, necessarily involves the essential and universal Fatherhood of God and the natural and inherent sonship of man to God. By becoming partaker of the spirit of Christ, who, as Son, realized the filial ideal of the race, one passes out of natural into gracious sonship; that is, is adopted into the ethical and spiritual family of God, and so enters upon his ideal filial relation to God and his brotherly relation to men (A. M. Fairbairn, The Place of Christ in Modern Theology, New York, 1893; J. S. Lidgett, The Fatherhood of God, pp. 20-21, Edinburgh, 1902; James Orr, Progress of Dogma, pp. 325-327, New York, 1902).
Bibliography: J. Gerhard, Loci Theologici, iv. 311, 374, vii. 219-222, ix. 296-297, Berlin, 1866-75; R. L. Dabney, Syllabus of Systematic and Polemic Theology, pp. 627 sqq., St. Louis, 1878; B. Weiss, Biblical Theology of the New Testament, §§ 17, 20-21, 46, 71, 83, 100, 118, 150, Edinburgh, 1882-83; W. Bousset, Jesu Predigt in ihrem Gegensatz zum Judentum, pp. 41-42, Göttingen, 1892; H. Shultz, Old Testament Theology, ii. 254 sqq., Edinburgh, 1892; R. A. Lipsius, Lehrbuch der evangelisch-protestantischen Dogmatik, pp. 126-129, 584-596, 653-703, Brunswick, 1893; J. McL. Campbell, Nature of the Atonement, pp. 298 sqq., London, 1896; A. Titius, Die neutestamentliche Lehre von der Seligkeit, i. 103-104, ii. 27-28, 138-139, 266-267, Tübingen, 1895-1900; W. Beyschlag, New Testament Theology, i. 60-70, 241, 310, ii. 418-419, 480, Edinburgh, 1896; E. Hatch, Greek Ideas and Usages, their Influence upon the Christian Church, London, 1897; R. V. Foster, Systematic Theology, p. 679, Nashville, 1898; H. Cremer, Die paulinische Rechtfertigungslehre, pp. 71-78, 224-233, 247-248, 265-266, 369-370, Gütersloh, 1899; A. Ritschl, Christian Doctrine of Justification and Reconciliation, pp. 75, 96, 507, 534, 603, New York, 1900.
Adoptionism—a heresy maintaining that Christ is the Son of God by adoption—is of interest chiefly for the commotion which it produced in the Spanish and Frankish Churches in the latter part of the eighth century, although the formulas around which the conflict raged can indeed be traced back to the earliest period of Western theology; but the spirit of the controversy and the result showed that the orthodoxy of the eighth century could no longer entirely accept the ancient formulas. The phrases in which such writers as Novatian, Hilary, and Isidore of Seville had spoken not merely of the assumption of human nature by the Son of God, but also of the assumption of man or the eon of man, led by an easy transition to words which seemed to imply that Christ, according to his humanity, was the adopted son of God; and formulas of this kind occur not infrequently in the old Spanish liturgy.
The Spanish bishops of the eighth century, and especially their leader, Elipandus (b. 718; bishop of Toledo from about 780), so used such phrases as to provoke criticism and disapproval first in Asturia, then in the neighboring Frankish kingdom, and finally at Rome. A certain Migetius, preaching in that part of Spain which was held by
the Moors, had given a very gross exposition of the doctrine of the Trinity, teaching that there were three bodily persons, and a triple manifestation in history of the one God. Against him Elipandus
wrote a letter vindicating the orthodox idea of the immanence of the Trinity, but at the same time establishing a very sharp distinction between the second person of the Trinity and the human nature of Christ. The person of the Son was not that made according to the flesh, in time, of the seed of David, but that begotten by the Father before all worlds; even after the incarnation, the second person of the Godhead is not the bodily, of which Christ says "My Father is greater than I," but that of which he says "I and my Father are one." Elipandus did not mean to do violence to the orthodox teaching by this distinction; but
if the expression were pressed, the human nature
At what period the most prominent representative of Adoptionism, Felix, bishop of Urgel in the Pyrenees, first took part in the strife is unknown. At the synod of Regensburg in 792, he defended the heresy in the presence of Charlemagne, but the bishops rejected it. Felix, although he had retracted his doctrine, was sent by the emperor to Rome, where Pope Adrian kept him a prisoner until he signed an orthodox confession, which on his return to Urgel he repudiated as forced, and then fled to Moorish territory. In 793 Alcuin, just back from England, wrote to Felix begging him to abandon the suspicious word "adoption," and to bring Elipandus back into the right path; and he followed this up by his controversial treatise Adversus hœresim Felicis. About the same time Elipandus and the Spanish bishops who belonged to his party addressed a letter to the bishops of Gaul, Aquitaine, and Asturia, and to Charlemagne himself, asking for a fair investigation and the restoration of Felix. Charlemagne communicated with the pope, and caused a new investigation of the case in the brilliant assembly at Frankfort (794). Two separate encyclicals were the result—one from the Frankish and German bishops; the other from those of northern Italy—which agreed in condemning Adoptionism. Charlemagne sent these, with one from the pope (representing also the bishops of central and southern Italy) to Elipandus, urging him not to separate himself from the authority of the apostolic see and of the universal Church. Strong efforts were put forth to recover the infected provinces. Alcuin wrote repeatedly to the monks of that region; Leidrad, bishop of Lyons, and the saintly Abbot Benedict of Aniane worked there personally, supporting Bishop Nefrid of Narbonne. In 798 Felix wrote a book and sent it to Alcuin, who replied in the following spring with his more extended treatise Adversus Felicem. Felix must by this time have been able to return to Urgel, as he wrote thence to Elipandus. Leo III. decisively condemned him in a Roman synod of 798 or 799. Alcuin received a contumelious answer, and was anxious to cross swords personally with his antagonist.
Leidrad induced Felix to appear before Charlemagne, with the promise of a fair hearing from the bishops. They met at Aix-la-Chapelle in June, 799 (others say Oct., 798). After a lengthy discussion Felix acknowledged himself defeated and was restored to communion, though not to his see, and he was placed in Leidrad's charge. Felix then composed a recantation, and called on the clergy of Urgel to imitate his example. Leidrad and Benedict renewed their endeavors, with such success that Alcuin was soon able to assert that they had reclaimed 20,000 souls. He supported them with a treatise in four books against Elipandus, and prided himself on the conversion of Felix. The heretical leader seems, however, to have quietly retained his old beliefs at Lyons for the rest of his life, and even to have pushed them logically further, since Agobard, Leidrad's successor, accused him of Agnoetism, and wrote a reply to some of his posthumous writings. In the Moorish part of Spain, Elipandus seems to have had a numerous following; but here also he found determined opponents. The belief was gradually suppressed, though Alvar of Cordova (d. about 861) found troublesome remnants of it.
With the rise of scholastic theology there was a natural tendency of rigid dialectic to lead away from the Christology of Cyril and Alcuin toward a rational distinction between the two natures, not so much with any wish to insist on this as from a devotion to the conception of the immutability of God. This caused the charge of Nestorianism to be brought against Abelard. Peter Lombard's explanations of the sense in which God became man leaned in the same direction. A German defender of this aspect of the question, Bishop Eberhard of Bamberg, in the twelfth century, accused his opponents roundly of Eutychianism. In fact, the assailants of Adoptionism, starting from their thesis that Christ is really and truly the Son of God, even according to his human nature, because this nature was appropriated by the Son of God, came ultimately, for all their intention of holding the Church's doctrine of the two natures and the two wills, to a quite distinct presentation of an altogether divine Person who has assumed impersonal human substance and nature. They really deserted the position taken by Cyril, though he was one of their main authorities. If one seeks the historical origin of this late form of Christological controversy, distinguishing it from the immediate cause, it must be found in the unsettlement of mind necessarily consequent upon the attempts of the ecclesiastical Christology to reconcile mutually exclusive propositions.
The intellectual mood which led directly to this distinction between the Son of God and the man in Christ has been variously explained. Some ascribe it to the surrounding Mohammedanism, making it an attempt to remove as far as possible the stumbling-blocks in the doctrine of Christ's
Bibliography: The writings of Elipandus, Felix, and Heterius in MPL, xcvi.; Paulinus, Vita et Litterœ, ib. xcix.; Alcuin, Opera, ib. c.-ci.; Monumenta Alcuiniana, in Jaffé, Bibliotheca rerum Germanicarum, vol. vi., Berlin, 1873; MGH, Epist., iv., 1895; Agobard, Vita et Opera, in MPL, civ.; the Acta of the Synods of Narbonne, Ratisbon, Frankfort, and Aix-la-Chapelle, in Harduin, Concilia, iv., in Mansi, Concilia, xiii., in Gallandi, Bibliotheca, xiii., and MGH, Concilia, ii., 1904; C. W. F. Walch, Historia Adoptianorum, Göttingen, 1755; idem, Entwurf einer vollständigen Historíe der Ketzereien, vol. iii., 11 vols., Leipsic, 1762-85; F. C. Baur, Die Christliche Lehre von der Dreieinigkeit und Menschwerdung Gottes, 3 vols., Berlin, 1841-43; Rettberg, i. (1846) 428; J. C. Robertson, History of the Christian Church, 590-1122, London, 1856; A. Helfferich, Der westgothische Arianismus und die spanische Ketzergeschichte, Berlin, 1860; J. Bach, Dogmengeschichte des Mittelalters, i. 102 sqq., Vienna, 1873; K. Werner, Alcuin und sein Jahrhundert, Paderborn, 1876; C. J. B. Gaskoin, Alcuin, pp. 79 sqq., London, 1904; DCB i. 44-47; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, iii. 642-693, 721-724; Hauck, KD, ii. 289 sqq.
ADORATION OF THE SACRAMENT: A term of the Roman Catholic Church, where, in consequence of the doctrine of transubstantiation which affirms the presence of Christ in the Eucharist under the species of bread and wine, divine worship is paid to the Sacrament of the altar, a worship that includes adoration. This adoration is manifested in various ways, especially in genuflexions and, if the Sacrament be solemnly exposed, in prostrations. Certain forms of devotion are intended to promote adoration of the Sacrament, notably the ceremony called Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament, the Forty Hours Devotion, and the practise of perpetual adoration which secures the presence of adorers before the altar at all hours of the day and night. A congregation of priests, the Society of Priests of the Most Holy Sacrament, is devoted particularly to the worship of Christ on the altar.
AD QUERCUM, SYNODUS. See Chrysostom.
ADRAMMELECH, a-dram´el-ec: 1. Name of a deity worshiped with child-sacrifice by the colonists whom Sargon, king of Assyria, transplanted from Sepharvaim to Samaria
(
2. According to
Bibliography: (1) Schrader, KAT, ii. 408, 450; P. Scholz, Götzendienst und Zauberwesen bei den alten Hebräern, pp. 401-405, Ratisbon, 1877. (2) H. Winckler, Der Mörder Sanheribs, in ZA, ii. (1887) 392-396.
ADRIAN: Author of an extant Introduction to the Holy Scriptures, written in Greek. He was evidently a Greek-speaking Syrian; but nothing is to be learned of his life from the book. There is no doubt, however, that he is identical with the monk and presbyter Adrian to whom St. Nilus addressed three letters (ii. 60, iii. 118, 266, in MPG, lxxix. 225-227, 437, 516-517), and who lived in the first half of the fifth century. This work is no introduction in the modern sense, but a piece of Biblical rhetoric and didactics, aiming to explain the figurative phraseology of the Scriptures, especially of the Old Testament, from numerous examples. It closes with hints for correct exegesis. The hermeneutical and exegetical principles of the author are those of the Antiochian school. F. Gössling edited the Greek text with German translation and an introduction (Berlin, 1887).
Bibliography: A. Merx, Rede vom Auslegen, pp. 64-67, Halle, 1879.
ADRIAN: The name of six popes.
Adrian I.: Pope 772-795. A Roman of noble birth, he entered the clerical state under Paul I., and was ordained deacon by Stephen III., whom he succeeded Feb. 1, 772, not, apparently, by as unanimous a choice as the official record of his election asserts; for soon afterward he encountered vehement opposition from the Lombard party in Rome led by Paul Afiarta. His adherence to the Frankish faction, his hesitation to crown the sons of