__________________________________________________________________ Title: Smith's Bible Dictionary Creator(s): Smith, William Print Basis: 1884 Rights: Public Domain CCEL Subjects: All; Dictionary; Reference LC Call no: BS440 .S6 LC Subjects: The Bible Works about the Bible __________________________________________________________________ Smith's Bible Dictionary William Smith 1884 __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ A See [1]Alpha Aarat (high or holy ground), a mountainous district of Asia mentioned in the Bible in connection with the following events:-- (1) As the resting-place of the ark after the deluge. (Genesis 8:4) (2) As the asylum of the sons of Sennacherib. (2 Kings 19:37; Isaiah 37:38) Authorized Version has "the land of Armenia." (3) As the ally, and probably the neighbor, of Minni and Ashchenaz. (Jeremiah 51:27) [[2]Armenia] The name Ararat was unknown to the geographers of Greece and Rome, as it still is to the Armenians of the present day; but it was an ancient name for a portion of Armenia. In its biblical sense it is descriptive generally of the Armenian highlands--the lofty plateau which over looks the plain of the Araxes on the north and of Mesopotomia on the south. Various opinions have been put forth as to the spot where the ark rested, as described in (Genesis 8:4) (but it is probable that it rested on some of the lower portions of the range than on the lofty peak to which exclusively) Europeans have given the name Ararat, the mountain which is called Massis by the Armenians, Agri-Dagh, i.e. Steep Mountain, by the Turks, and Kuh-i-Nuh, i.e. Noah's Mountain, by the Persians. It rises immediately out of the plain of the Araxes, and terminates in two conical peaks, named the Great and Less Ararat, about seven miles distant from each other; the former of which attain an elevation of 17,260 feet above the level of the sea and about 14,000 above the plain of the Araxes, while the latter is lower by 4000 feet. The summit of the higher is covered with eternal snow for about 3000 feet. Arguri, the only village known to have been built on its slopes, was the spot where, according to tradition, Noah planted his vineyard. "The mountains of Ararat " are co-extensive with the Armenian plateau from the base of Ararat in the north to the range of Kurdistan in the south, we notice the following characteristics of that region as illustrating the Bible narrative; (1) its elevation. It rises to a height of from 6000 to 7000 feet above the level of the sea. (2) Its geographical position . Viewed with reference to the dispersion of the nations, Armenia is the true centre of the world; and at the present day Ararat is the great boundary-stone between the empires of Russia, Turkey and Persia. (3) Its physical character . The plains as well as the mountains supply evidence of volcanic agency. (4) The climate . Winter lasts from October to May, and is succeeded by a brief spring and a summer of intense heat. (5) The vegetation . Grass grows luxuriantly on the plateau, and furnishes abundant pasture during the summer months to the flocks of the nomad Kurds. Wheat, barley and vines ripen at far higher altitudes than on the Alps and the Pyrenees. Aaron (a teacher, or lofty), the son of Amram and Jochebed, and the older brother of Moses and Miriam. (Numbers 26:59; 33:39) (B.C. 1573.) He was a Levite, and is first mentioned in (Exodus 4:14) He was appointed by Jehovah to be the interpreter, (Exodus 4:16) of his brother Moses, who was "slow of speech;" and accordingly he was not only the organ of communication with the Israelites and with Pharaoh, (Exodus 4:30; 7:2) but also the actual instrument of working most of the miracles of the Exodus. (Exodus 7:19) etc. On the way to Mount Sinai, during the battle with Amalek, Aaron with Hur stayed up the weary hands of Moses when they were lifted up for the victory of Israel. (Exodus 17:9) He is mentioned as dependent upon his brother and deriving all his authority from him. Left, on Moses' departure into Sinai, to guide the people, Aaron is tried for a moment on his own responsibility, and he fails from a weak inability to withstand the demand of the people for visible "gods to go before them," by making an image of Jehovah, in the well-known form of Egyptian idolatry (Apis or Mnevis). He repented of his sin, and Moses gained forgiveness for him. (9:20) Aaron was not consecrated by Moses to the new office of the high priesthood. (Exodus 29:9) From this time the history of Aaron is almost entirely that of the priesthood, and its chief feature is the great rebellion of Korah and the Levites. Leaning, as he seems to have done, wholly on Moses, it is not strange that he should have shared his sin at Meribah and its punishment. See [3]Moses. (Numbers 20:10-12) Aaron's death seems to have followed very speedily. It took place on Mount Hor, after the transference of his robes and office to Eleazar. (Numbers 20:28) This mount is still called the "Mountain of Aaron." See [4]Hor. The wife of Aaron was Elisheba, (Exodus 6:23) and the two sons who survived him, Eleazar and Ithamar. The high priesthood descended to the former, and to his descendants until the time of Eli, who, although of the house of Ithamar, received the high priesthood and transmitted it to his children; with them it continued till the accession of Solomon, who took it from Abiathar and restored it to Zadok (of the house of Eleazar). See [5]Abiathar. Aaronites (1 Chronicles 12:27) priests of the family of Aaron. Ab See [6]Month. (father), an element in the composition of many proper names, of which Abba is a Chaldaic form, having the sense of "endowed with," "possessed of." Abaddon See [7]Apollyon. Abagtha (God-given), one of the seven eunuchs in the Persian court of Ahasuerus. (Esther 1:10) Abana (perennial, stony), one of the "rivers of Damascus." (2 Kings 5:12) The Barada and the Awaj are now the chief streams of Damascus, the former representing the Abana and the latter the Pharpar of the text. The Barada (Abana) rises in the Antilibanus, at about 23 miles from the city, after flowing through which it runs across the plain, of whose fertility it is the chief source, till it loses itself in the lake or marsh Bahret-el-Kibliyeh. Abarim (regions beyond), a mountain or range of highlands on the east of the Jordan, in the land of Moab, facing Jericho, and forming the eastern wall of the Jordan valley at that part. Its most elevated spot was "the Mount Nebo, head of the Pisgah," from which Moses viewed the Promised Land before his death. These mountains are mentioned in (Numbers 27:12; 33:47,48) and Deuteronomy 32:49 Abba See [8]Ab. Abda + Father of Adoniram. (1 Kings 4:6) + Son of Shammua, (Nehemiah 11:17) called Obadiah in (1 Chronicles 9:16) Abdeel father of Shelemiah. (Jeremiah 36:26) Abdi (my servant). + A Merarite, and ancestor of Ethan the singer. (1 Chronicles 6:44) (B.C. before 1015.) + The father of Kish, a Merarite, in the reign of Hezekiah. (2 Chronicles 29:12) (B.C. before 736.) + One of the Bene-Elam in the time of Ezra, who had married a foreign wife. (Ezra 10:26) (B.C. 659.) Abdiel (the servant of God), son of Guni and father of Ahi, one of the Gadites who were settled in the land of Bashan, (1 Chronicles 5:15), in the days of Jotham king of Judah. (B.C. 758.) Abdon (servile). + A judge of Israel, (Judges 12:13,(15) perhaps the same person as Bedan, in (1 Samuel 12:11) (B.C. 1233-1225). + Son of Shashak. (1 Chronicles 8:23) + First-born son of Jehiel, son of Gideon. (1 Chronicles 8:30; 9:35,36). + Son of Micah, a contemporary of Josiah, (2 Chronicles 34:20) called Achbor in (2 Kings 22:12) (B.C. 628.) + A city in the tribe if Asher, given to the Gershonites, (Joshua 21:30; 1 Chronicles 6:74) the modern Abdeh, 10 miles northeast of Accho. Abednego (i.e. servant of Nego, perhaps the same as Nebo), the Chaldean name given to Azariah, one of the three friends of Daniel, miraculously save from the fiery furnace. Dan. 3. (B.C. about 600.) Abel the name of several places in Palestine, probably signifies a meadow . (i.e., breath, vapor, transitoriness, probably so called from the shortness of his life), the second son of Adam, murdered by his brother Cain, (Genesis 4:1-16) he was a keeper or feeder of sheep. Our Lord spoke of Abel as the first martyr, (Matthew 23:35) so did the early Church subsequently. The traditional site of his murder and his grave are pointed out near Damascus. Abel, Stone Of (the great abel), the place where the ark rested in the field of Joshua at Beth-shemesh. (1 Samuel 6:18) Abelbethmaachah (meadow of the house of oppression), a town of some importance, (2 Samuel 20:15) in the extreme north of Palestine, which fell an early prey to the invading kings of Syria, (1 Kings 15:20) and Assyria. (2 Kings 15:29) Abelmaim (Abel on the waters), also called simply Abel, (2 Samuel 20:14,18) another name for Abel-bethmaachah. (2 Chronicles 16:4) Abelmeholah (meadow of the dance), in the northern pat of the Jordan valley, (1 Kings 4:12) to which the routed Bedouin host fled from Gideon, (Judges 7:22) Here Elisha was found at his plough by Elijah returning up the valley from Horeb. (1 Kings 19:16-19) Abelmizraim (meadow of Egypt), the name given by the Canaanites to the floor of Atad, at which Joseph, his brothers and the Egyptians made their mourning for Jacob. (Genesis 50:11) It was beyond (on the east of) Jordan. See [9]Atad. (Schaff and others say it was on the west bank, for the writer was on the east of Jordan. It was near Jericho, or perhaps Hebron.) Abelshittim (the meadow of the acacias), in the "plains" of Moab, on the low level of the Jordan valley, opposite Jericho. The last resting-place of Israel before crossing the Jordan. (Numbers 33:49) The place is most frequently mentioned by its shorter name of Shittim. See [10]Shittah Tree, Shittim, [11]Shittim. Abez (lofty), a town in the possession of Issachar, named between Kishion and Remeth in (Joshua 19:20) only. Abi mother of King Hezekiah, (2 Kings 18:2) written [12]Abia, Abiah, Or Abijah, [13]Abijah Or Abijam in (2 Chronicles 29:1) Abia, Abiah, Or Abijah + Son of Becher, the son of Benjamin. (1 Chronicles 7:8) + Wife of Hezron. (1 Chronicles 2:24) + Second son of Samuel. (1 Samuel 8:2; 1 Chronicles 7:28) + The son of Rehoboam. (1 Chronicles 3:10; Matthew 1:7) See [14]Abijah Or Abijam, 1. + Mother of King Hezekiah. [[15]Abi] + Same as [16]Abijah Or Abijam, 4. Abia, Course Of the eighth of the 24 courses or classes into which the priests were divided for serving at the altar. (1 Chronicles 24; Luke 1:5) See [17]Abia, Abiah, Or Abijah, [18]Abijah Or Abijam, 4. Abiaibon (father of strength). See [19]Abiel Or Abiel. Abiasaph (father of gathering, i.e. gathered), (Exodus 6:24) otherwise written Ebi/asaph. (1 Chronicles 6:23,37; 9:19) one of the descendants of Korah, and head of the Korhites. Among the remarkable descendants of Abiasaph were Samuel the prophet, (1 Samuel 1:11) and Heman the singer. Abiathar (father of abundance, i.e. liberal), High priest and fourth in descent from Eli. (B.C. 1060-1012.) Abiathar was the only one of the all the sons of Ahimelech the high priest who escaped the slaughter inflicted upon his father's house by Saul, in revenge for his father's house by Saul, in revenge of his having inquired of the Lord for David and given him the shew-bread to eat. (1 Samuel 22:1) ... Abiathar having become high priest fled to David, and was thus enabled to inquire of the Lord for him. (1 Samuel 23:9; 30:7; 2 Samuel 2:1; 5:19) etc. He adhered to David in his wanderings while pursued by Saul; he was with him while he reigned in Hebron, and afterwards in Jerusalem. (2 Samuel 2:1-3) He continued faithful to him in Absalom's rebellion. (2 Samuel 15:24,29,35,36; 17:15-17; 19:11) When, however, Adonijah set himself up fro David's successor on the throne, in opposition to Solomon, Abiathar sided with him, while Zadok was on Solomon's side. For this Abiathar was deprived of the high priesthood. Zadok had joined David at Hebron, (1 Chronicles 12:28) so that there was henceforth who high priests in the reign of David, and till the deposition of Abiathar by Solomon, when Zadok became the sole high priest. Abib (green fruits). [[20]Month] Abida, Or Abidah (father of knowledge), a son of Midian. (Genesis 25:4; 1 Chronicles 1:33) Abidan (father of the judge), chief of the tribe of Benjamin at the time of the Exodus. (B.C. 1491.) (Numbers 1:11; 2:22; 7:60,65; 10:24) Abiel Or Abiel (father of strength, i.e. strong). + Father of Kish, and consequently grandfather of Saul, (1 Samuel 9:1) as well as of Abner, Saul's commander-in-chief. (1 Samuel 14:51) (B.C. 1093-1055.) + One of David's mighty men. (1 Chronicles 11:32) In (2 Samuel 23:31) he is called ABI-ALBON. (B.C. 1053.) Abiezer (father of help, helpful). + Eldest son of Gilead, and descendant of Manasseh. (Joshua 17:2; 1 Chronicles 7:18) (B.C. 1450.) He was the ancestor of the great judge Gideon. [[21]Gideon] + One of David's mighty men. (2 Samuel 23:27; 1 Chronicles 11:28; 27:12) (B.C. 1014.) Abigail (father, i.e. source, of joy). + The beautiful wife of Nabal, a wealthy owner of goats and sheep in Carmel. (B.C. 1060.) When David's messengers were slighted by Nabal, Abigail supplies David and his followers with provisions, and succeeded in appeasing his anger. The days after this Nabal died, and David sent for Abigail and made her his wife. (1 Samuel 25:14) etc. By her he had a son, called Chileab in (2 Samuel 3:3) but Daniel in (1 Chronicles 3:1) + A sister of David, married to Jether the Ishmaelite, and mother, by him, of Amasa. (1 Chronicles 2:17) In (2 Samuel 17:25) for Israelite read Ishmaelite. (B.C. 1068.) Abihail (father of, i.e. possessing, strength). + Father of Zuriel, chief of the Levitical father of Merari, a contemporary of Moses. (Numbers 3:35) (B.C. 1490.) + Wife of Abishur. (1 Chronicles 2:29) + Son of Huri, of the tribe of Gad. (1 Chronicles 5:14) + Wife of Rehoboam. She is called the daughter, i.e. descendant, of Eliab, the elder brother of David. (2 Chronicles 11:18) (B.C. 972.) + Father of Esther and uncle of Mordecai. (Esther 2:15; 9:29) Abihu (he (God) is my father), the second son, (Numbers 3:2) of Aaron by Elisheba. (Exodus 6:23) Being, together with his elder brother Nadab, guilty of offering strange fire to the lord, he was consumed by fire from heaven. (Leviticus 10:1,2) Abihud (father of renown, famous), son of Bela and grandson of Benjamin. (1 Chronicles 8:3) Abijah Or Abijam (my father is Jehovah). + Son and successor of Rehoboam on the throne of Judah. (1 Kings 4:21; 2 Chronicles 12:16) He is called [22]Abia, Abiah, Or Abijah in Chronicles, [23]Abijam in Kings. He began to reign B.C. 959, and reigned three years. He endeavored to recover the kingdom of the Ten Tribes, and made war on Jeroboam. He was successful in battle, and took several of the cities of Israel. We are told that he walked in all the sins of Rehoboam. (1 Kings 14:23,24) + The second son of Samuel, called [24]Abia, Abiah, Or Abijah, [25]Abia, Course OfH in our version. [[26]Abia, Course Of, [27]Abia, Abiah, Or Abijah, [28]Abia, Course OfH, No. 3] + Son of Jeroboam I., king of Israel; died in his childhood. (1 Kings 14:1) ... + A descendant of Eleazar, who gave his name to the eighth of the 24 courses into which the priests were divided by David. (1 Chronicles 24:10; 2 Chronicles 8:14; Nehemiah 12:4,17) + One of the priests who entered into a covenant with Nehemiah to walk in God's law, (Nehemiah 10:7) unless the name is rather that of a family, and the same with the preceding. Abijam [[29]Abia, Abiah, Or Abijah, [30]Abijah Or Abijam, 1] Abila [[31]Abilene] Abilene (land of meadows), (Luke 3:1) a city situated on the eastern slope of Antilibanus, in a district fertilized by the river Barada (Abana). The city was 18 miles from Damascus, and stood in a remarkable gorge called Suk Wady Barada . Abimael (father of Mael), a descendant of Joktan, (Genesis 10:28; 1 Chronicles 1:22) and probably the progenitor of an Arab tribe (Mali). Abimelech (father of the king), the name of several Philistine kings, was probably a common title of these kings, like that of Pharaoh among the Egyptians and that of Caesar and Augustus among the Romans. Hence in the title of (Psalms 34:1) ... the name of Abimelech is given to the king, who is called Achish in (1 Samuel 21:11) + A Philistine, king of Gerar, Genesis 20,21, who, exercising the right claimed by Eastern princes of collecting all the beautiful women of their dominions into their harem, (Genesis 12:15; Esther 2:3) sent for and took Sarah. A similar account is given of Abraham's conduct of this occasion to that of his behavior towards Pharaoh. [[32]Abraham] (B.C. 1920.) + Another king of Gerar int he time of Isaac, of whom a similar narrative is recorded in relation to Rebekah. (Genesis 26:1) etc. (B.C. 1817.) + Son of the judge Gideon by his Shechemite concubine. (Judges 8:31) (B.C. 1322-1319.) After his father's death he murdered all his brethren, 70 in number, with the exception of Jotham, the youngest, who concealed himself; and he then persuaded the Shechemites to elect him king. Shechem now became an independent state. After Abimelech had reigned three years, the citizens of Shechem rebelled. He was absent at the time, but he returned and quelled the insurrection. Shortly after he stormed and took Thebez, but was struck on the head by a woman with the fragment of a millstone, comp. (2 Samuel 11:21) and lest he should be said to have died by a woman, he bade his armor-bearer slay him. + A son of Abiathar. (1 Chronicles 18:16) Abinadab + A Levite, a native of Kirjath-jearim, in whose house the ark remained 20 years. (1 Samuel 7:1,2; 1 Chronicles 13:7) (B.C. 1124.) + Second son of Jesse, who followed Saul to his war against the Philistines, (1 Samuel 16:8; 17:13) (B.C. 1063.) + A son of Saul, who was slain with his brothers at the fatal battle on Mount Gilboa. (1 Samuel 31:2) (B.C. 1053.) + Father of one of the twelve chief officers of Solomon. (1 Kings 4:11) (B.C. before 1014.) Abiner (father of light). Same as [33]Abner. (1 Samuel 14:50) margin. Abinoam the father of Barak. (Judges 4:6,12; 5:1,12) (B.C. 1300.) Abiram + A Reubenite, son of Eliab, who with Korah, a Levite, organized a conspiracy against Moses and Aaron. (Numbers 16:1) ... [For details, see [34]Korah] (B.C. 1490.) + Eldest son of Hiel the bethelite, who died when his father laid the foundations of Jericho, (1 Kings 16:34) and thus accomplished the first part of the curse of Joshua. (Joshua 6:26) (B.C. after 905.) Abishag a beautiful Shunammite (from Shunem, in the tribe of Issachar), taken into David's harem to comfort him in his extreme old age. (1 Kings 1:1-4) Abishai, Or Abishai (father of a gift), The eldest of the three sons of Zeruiah, David's sister, and brother to Joab and Asahel. (1 Chronicles 2:16) Like his two brothers he was the devoted follower of David. He was his companion in the desperate night expedition to the camp of Saul. (1 Samuel 26:6-9) (B.C. 1055.) On the outbreak of Absalom's rebellion he remained true to the king,a nd commanded a third part of the army in the decisive battle against Absalom. He rescued David from the hands of the gigantic Philistine, Ishbi-benob. (2 Samuel 21:17) His personal prowess on this, as on another occasion, when he fought singlehanded against three hundred, won for him a place as captain of the second three of David's mighty men. (2 Samuel 23:18; 1 Chronicles 11:20) Abishalom (father of peace), father or grandfather of Maachah, who was the wife of Rehoboam and mother of Abijah. (1 Kings 15:2,10) He is called Absalom in (2 Chronicles 11:20,21) This person must be David's son. See LXX.; (2 Samuel 14:27) Abishua, Or Abishua (father of deliverance). + Son of Bela, of the tribe of Benjamin. (1 Chronicles 8:4) + Son of Phinehas, the son of Eleazar, and father of Bukki, in the genealogy of the high priests. (1 Chronicles 6:4,5,50,51; Ezra 7:4,5) Abishur (father of the wall), son of Shammai. (1 Chronicles 2:28) Abital (father of the dew), one of David's wives. (2 Samuel 3:4; 1 Chronicles 3:3) Abitub (father of goodness), son of Shaharaim by Hushim. (1 Chronicles 8:11) Abiud (father of praise), descendant of Zorobabel in the genealogy of Jesus Christ. (Matthew 1:13) Ablution [[35]Purification] Abner (father of light). + Son of Ner, who was the brother of Kish, (1 Chronicles 9:36) the father of Saul. (B.C. 1063.) Abner, therefore, was Saul's first cousin, and was made by him commander-in-chief of his army. (1 Samuel 14:51; 17:57; 26:5-14) After the death of Saul David was proclaimed king of Judah; and some time subsequently Abner proclaimed Ish-bosheth, Saul's son, king of Israel. War soon broke out between the two rival kings, and a "very sore battle" was fought at Gibeon between the men of Israel under Abner and the men of Judah under Joab. (1 Chronicles 2:16) Abner had married Rizpah, Saul's concubine, and this, according to the views of Oriental courts, might be so interpreted as to imply a design upon the throne. Rightly or wrongly, Ish-bosheth so understood it, and he even ventured to reproach Abner with it. Abner, incensed at his ingratitude, opened negotiations with David, by whom he was most favorably received at Hebron. He then undertook to procure his recognition throughout Israel; but after leaving his presence for the purpose was enticed back by Joab, and treacherously murdered by him and his brother Abishai, at the gate of the city, partly, no doubt, from fear lest so distinguished a convert to their cause should gain too high a place in David's favor, but ostensibly in retaliation for the death of Asahel. David in sorrow and indignation, poured forth a simple dirge over the slain hero. (2 Samuel 3:33,34) + The father of Jaasiel, chief of the Benjamites in David's reign, (1 Chronicles 27:21) probably the same as the preceding. Abomination Of Desolation Mentioned by our Saviour, (Matthew 24:15) as a sign of the approaching destruction of Jerusalem, with reference to (Daniel 9:27; 11:31; 12:11) The prophecy referred ultimately to the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans, and consequently the "abomination" must describe some occurrence connected with that event. It appears most probable that the profanities of the Zealots constituted the abomination, which was the sign of the impending ruin; but most people refer it to the standards or banners of the Roman army. They were abomination because there were idolatrous images upon them. Abraham (father of a multitude) was the son of Terah, and founder of the great Hebrew nation. (B.C. 1996-1822.) His family, a branch of the descendants of Shem, was settled in Ur of the Chaldees, beyond the Euphrates, where Abraham was born. Terah had two other sons, Nahor and Haran. Haran died before his father in Ur of the Chaldees, leaving a son, Lot; and Terah, taking with him Abram, with Sarai his wife and his grandson Lot, emigrated to Haran in Mesopotamia, where he died. On the death of his father, Abram, then in the 75th year of his age, with Sarai and Lot, pursued his course to the land of Canaan, whither he was directed by divine command, (Genesis 12:5) when he received the general promise that he should become the founder of a great nation, and that all the families of the earth should be blessed in him. He passed through the heart of the country by the great highway to Shechem, and pitched his tent beneath the terebinth of Moreh. (Genesis 12:6) Here he received in vision from Jehovah the further revelation that this was the land which his descendants should inherit. (Genesis 12:7) The next halting-place of the wanderer was on a mountain between Bethel and Ai, (Genesis 12:8) but the country was suffering from famine, and Abram journeyed still southward to the rich cornlands of Egypt. There, fearing that the great beauty of Sarai might tempt the powerful monarch of Egypt and expose his own life to peril, he arranged that Sarai should represent herself as his sister, which her actual relationship to him, as probably the daughter of his brother Haran, allowed her to do with some semblance of truth. But her beauty was reported to the king, and she was taken into the royal harem. The deception was discovered, and Pharaoh with some indignation dismissed Abram from the country. (Genesis 12:10-20) He left Egypt with great possessions, and, accompanied by Lot, returned by the south of Palestine to his former encampment between Bethel and Ai. The increased wealth of the two kinsmen was the ultimate cause of their separation. Lot chose the fertile plain of the Jordan near Sodom, while Abram pitched his tent among the groves of Mamre, close to Hebron. (Genesis 13:1) ... Lot with his family and possessions having been carried away captive by Chedorlaomer king of Elam, who had invaded Sodom, Abram pursued the conquerors and utterly routed them not far from Damascus. The captives and plunder were all recovered, and Abram was greeted on his return by the king of Sodom, and by Melchizedek king of Salem, priest of the most high God, who mysteriously appears upon the scene to bless the patriarch and receive from him a tenth of the spoil. (Genesis 14:1) ... After this the thrice-repeated promise that his descendants should become a mighty nation and possess the land in which he was a stranger was confirmed with all the solemnity of a religious ceremony. (Genesis 15:1) ... Ten years had passed since he had left his father's house, and the fulfillment of the promise was apparently more distant than at first. At the suggestion of Sarai, who despaired of having children of her own, he took as his concubine Hagar, her Egyptian main, who bore him Ishmael in the 86th year of his age. (Genesis 16:1) ... [[36]Hagar; [37]Ishmael] But this was not the accomplishment of the promise. Thirteen years elapsed, during which Abram still dwelt in Hebron, when the covenant was renewed, and the rite of circumcision established as its sign. This most important crisis in Abram's life, when he was 99 years old, is marked by the significant change of his name to Abraham, "father of a multitude;" while his wife's from Sarai became Sarah. The promise that Sarah should have a son was repeated in the remarkable scene described in ch. 18. Three men stood before Abraham as he sat in his tent door in the heat of the day. The patriarch, with true Eastern hospitality, welcomed the strangers, and bade them rest and refresh themselves. The meal ended, they foretold the birth of Isaac, and went on their way to Sodom. Abraham accompanied them, and is represented as an interlocutor in a dialogue with Jehovah, in which he pleaded in vain to avert the vengeance threatened to the devoted cities of the plain. (Genesis 18:17-33) In remarkable contrast with Abraham's firm faith with regard to the magnificent fortunes of his posterity stand the incident which occurred during his temporary residence among the Philistines in Gerar, whither he had for some cause removed after the destruction of Sodom. It was almost a repetition of what took place in Egypt a few years before. At length Isaac, the long-looked for child, was born. Sarah's jealousy aroused by the mockery of Ishmael at the "great banquet" which Abram made to celebrate the weaning of her son, (Genesis 21:9) demanded that, with his mother Hagar, he should be driven out. (Genesis 21:10) But the severest trial of his faith was yet to come. For a long period the history is almost silent. At length he receives the strange command to take Isaac, his only son, and offer him for a burnt offering at an appointed place Abraham hesitated not to obey. His faith, hitherto unshaken, supported him in this final trial, "accounting that God was able to raise up his son, even from the dead, from whence also he received him in a figure." (Hebrews 11:19) The sacrifice was stayed by the angel of Jehovah, the promise of spiritual blessing made for the first time, and Abraham with his son returned to Beersheba, and for a time dwelt there. (Genesis 22:1) ... But we find him after a few years in his original residence at Hebron, for there Sarah died, (Genesis 23:2) and was buried in the cave of Machpelah. The remaining years of Abraham's life are marked by but few incidents. After Isaac's marriage with Rebekah and his removal to Lahai-roi, Abraham took to wife Keturah, by whom he had six children, Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbok and Shuah, who became the ancestors of nomadic tribes inhabiting the countries south and southeast of Palestine. Abraham lived to see the gradual accomplishment of the promise in the birth of his grandchildren Jacob and Esau, and witnessed their growth to manhood. (Genesis 25:26) At the goodly age of 175 he was "gathered to his people," and laid beside Sarah in the tomb of Machpelah by his sons Isaac and Ishmael. (Genesis 25:7-10) Abram (a high father), the earlier name of Abraham. Absalom (father of peace),third son of David by Maachah, daughter of Tamai king of Geshur, a Syrian district adjoining the northeast frontier of the Holy Land. (Born B.C. 1050.) Absalom had a sister, Tamar, who was violated by her half-brother Amnon. The natural avenger of such an outrage would be Tamar's full brother Absalom. He brooded over the wrong for two years, and then invited all the princes to a sheep-shearing feast at his estate in Baalhazor, on the borders of Ephraim and Benjamin. Here he ordered his servants to murder Amnon, and then fled for safety to his grandfather's court at Geshur, where he remained for three years. At the end of that time he was brought back by an artifice of Joab. David, however, would not see Absalom for two more years; but at length Joab brought about a reconciliation. Absalom now began at once to prepare for rebellion. He tried to supplant his father by courting popularity, standing in the gate, conversing with every suitor, and lamenting the difficulty which he would find in getting a hearing. He also maintained a splendid retinue, (2 Samuel 15:1) and was admired for his personal beauty. It is probable too that the great tribe of Judah had taken some offence at David's government. Absalom raised the standard of revolt at Hebron, the old capital of Judah, now supplanted by Jerusalem. The revolt was at first completely successful; David fled from his capital over the Jordan to Mahanaim in Gilead, and Absalom occupied Jerusalem. At last, after being solemnly anointed king at Jerusalem, (2 Samuel 19:10) Absalom crossed the Jordan to attack his father, who by this time had rallied round him a considerable force. A decisive battle was fought in Gilead, in the wood of Ephraim. Here Absalom's forces were totally defeated, and as he himself was escaping his long hair was entangled in the branches of a terebinth, where he was left hanging while the mule on which he was riding ran away from under him. He was dispatched by Joab in spite of the prohibition of David, who, loving him to the last, had desired that his life might be spared. He was buried in a great pit in the forest, and the conquerors threw stones over his grave, an old proof of bitter hostility. (Joshua 7:26) Absaloms Pillar, Or Place A monument of tomb which Absalom had built during his lifetime in the king's dale, i.e. the valley of the Kedron, at the foot of Mount Olivet, near Jerusalem, (2 Samuel 18:18) comp. with 2Sam 14:27 For his three sons, and where he probably expected to be buried. The tomb there now, and called by Absalom's name was probably built at a later date. Accad one of the cities in the land of Shinar. (Genesis 10:10) Its position is quite uncertain. Accaron [[38]Ekron] Accho (the [39]Ptolemais of the Maccabees and New Testament), Now called Acca, or more usually by Europeans St. Jean d'Acre, the most important seaport town on the Syrian coast, about 30 miles south of Tyre. It was situated on a slightly projecting headland, at the northern extremity of that spacious bay which is formed by the bold promontory of Carmel on the opposite side. Later it was named Ptolemais, after one of the Ptolemies, probably Soter. The only notice of it in the New Testament is in (Acts 21:7) where it is called Ptolemais . Aceldama (the field of blood) (Akeldama in the Revised Version), the name given by the Jews of Jerusalem to a field near Jerusalem purchased by Judas with the money which he received for the betrayal of Christ, and so called from his violent death therein. (Acts 1:19) The "field of blood" is now shown on the steep southern face of the valley or ravine of Hinnom, "southwest of the supposed pool of Siloam." Achaia (trouble) signifies in the New Testament a Roman province which included the whole of the Peloponnesus and the greater part of Hellas proper, with the adjacent islands. This province, with that of Macedonia, comprehended the while of Greece; hence Achaia and Macedonia are frequently mentioned together in the New Testament to indicate all Greece. (Acts 18:12; 19:21; Romans 15:26; 16:5; 1 Corinthians 16:15; 2 Corinthians 7:5; 9:2; 11:10; 1 Thessalonians 1:7,8) In the time of the emperor Claudius it was governed by a proconsul, translated in the Authorized Version "deputy," of Achaia. (Acts 18:12) Achaicus (belonging to Achaia), a name of a Christian. (1 Corinthians 16:17) Achan (troubler), an Israelite of the tribe of Judah, who, when Jericho and all that it contained were accursed and devoted to destruction, secreted a portion of the spoil in his tent. For this sin he was stoned to death with his whole family by the people, in a valley situated between Ai and Jericho, and their remains, together with his property, were burnt. (Joshua 7:19-26) From this event the valley received the name of Achor (i.e. trouble). [[40]Achor, Valley Of] (B.C. 1450.) Achar = Achan (1 Chronicles 2:7) Achaz = Ahaz king of Judah, (Matthew 1:9) Achbor (mouse). + Father of Baalhanan king of Edom. (Genesis 36:38,39; 1 Chronicles 1:49) + Son of Michaiah, a contemporary of Josiah, (2 Kings 22:12,14; Jeremiah 26:22; 36:12) called [41]Abdon in (2 Chronicles 34:20) (B.C. 623.) Achim son of Sadoc and father of Eliud in our Lord's genealogy. (Matthew 1:14) The Hebrew form of the name would be Jachin, which is a short form of Jehoiachin, the Lord will establish. Achish (angry), a Philistine king of Gath, who in the title of the 34th Psalm is called Abimelech. David twice found a refuge with him when he fled from Saul. (B.C. 1061.) On the first occasion he was alarmed for his safety, feigned madness, and was sent away. Achmetha [[42]Ecbatana] Achor, Valley Of (valley of trouble), the spot at which Achan was stoned. (Joshua 7:24,26) On the northern boundary of Judah, (Joshua 15:7) near Jericho. Achsa (1 Chronicles 2:49) [[43]Achsah] Achsah (ankle-chain, anklet), daughter of Caleb. Her father promised her in marriage to whoever should take Debir. Othniel, her father's younger brother, took that city, and accordingly received the hand of Achsah as his reward. Caleb added to her dowry the upper and lower springs. (B.C. 1450-1426.) (Joshua 15:15-19; Judges 1:11-15) Achshaph (fascination), a city within the territory of Asher, named between Beten and Alammelech, (Joshua 19:25) originally the seat of a Canaanite king. (Joshua 11:1; 12:20) Achzib (lying, false). + A city in the lowlands of Judah, named with Keilah and Mareshah. (Joshua 15:44; Micah 1:14) It is probably the same with [44]Chezib and [45]Chozeba, which see. + A town belonging to Asher, (Joshua 19:29) from which the Canaanites were not expelled, (Judges 1:31) afterwards Ecdippa. It is now es-Zib, on the seashore, 2h. 20m. north of Acre. Acrabbim See MAALEH-ACRABBIM, (Joshua 15:3) in the margin. Acts Of The Apostles the fifth book in the New testament and the second treatise by the author of the third Gospel, traditionally known as Luke. The book commences with an inscription to one Theophilus, who was probably a man of birth and station. The readers were evidently intended to be the members of the Christian Church, whether Jews or Gentiles; for its contents are such as are of the utmost consequence to the whole Church. They are the fulfillment of the promise of the Father by the descent of the Holy Spirit, and the results of that outpouring by the dispersion of the gospel among the Jews and Gentiles. Under these leading heads all the personal and subordinate details may be arranged. First St. Peter becomes the prime actor under God int he founding of the Church. He is the centre of the first group of sayings and doings. The opening of the door to Jews, ch. 2, and Gentiles, ch. 10, is his office, and by him, in good time, is accomplished. Then the preparation of Saul of Tarsus for the work to be done, the progress, in his hand, of that work, his journeyings, preachings and perils, his stripes and imprisonments, his testifying in Jerusalem and being brought to testify in Rome,--these are the subjects of the latter half of the book, of which the great central figure is the apostle Paul. The history given in the Acts occupies about 33 years, and the reigns of the Roman emperors Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero. It seems most probable that the place of writing was Roma, and the time about two years from the date of St. Paul's arrival there, as related in (Acts 28:30) This would give us fro the publication about 63 A.D. Adadah (festival or boundary), one of the cities in the extreme south of Judah, named with Dimonah and Kedesh. (Joshua 15:22) Adah (ornament, beauty). + The first of the two wives of Lamech, by whom were borne to him Jabal and Jubal. (Genesis 4:19) (B.C. 3600). + A Hittitess, one of the three wives of Esau, mother of Eliphaz. (Genesis 36:2,10,12,16) In (Genesis 26:34) she is called [46]Bashemath. (B.C. 1797.) Adaiah (adorned by Jehovah). + Maternal grandfather of King Josiah, and native of Boscath in the lowlands of Judah. (2 Kings 22:1) (B.C. 648.) + A Levite of the Gershonite branch, and ancestor of Asaph. (1 Chronicles 6:41) In v. (1 Chronicles 6:21) Heb Isa called [47]Iddo. + A Benjamite, son of Shimhi, (1 Chronicles 8:21) who is apparently the same as Shema in v. (1 Chronicles 8:13) + A priest, son of Jehoram. (1 Chronicles 9:12; Nehemiah 11:12) + Ancestor of Maaseiah, one of the captains who supported Jehoiada. (2 Chronicles 23:1) + One of the descendants of Bani, who had married a foreign wife after the return from Babylon. (Ezra 10:29) (B.C. 459). + The descendant of another Bani, who had also taken a foreign wife. (Ezra 10:39) + A man of Judah, of the line of Pharez. (Nehemiah 11:5) Adalia (a fire-god), the fifth son of Haman. (Esther 9:8) Adam a city on the Jordan, "beside Zaretan," in the time of Joshua. (Joshua 3:16) Man, generically, for the name Adam was not confined to the father of the human race, but like homo was applicable to woman as well as to man . (Genesis 5:2) (red earth), the name given in Scripture to the first man. It apparently has reference to the ground from which he was formed, which is called in Hebrew Adamah . The idea of redness of color seems to be inherent in either word. The creation of man was the work of the sixth day--the last and crowning act of creation. Adam was created (not born) a perfect man in body and spirit, but as innocent and completely inexperienced as a child. The man Adam was placed in a garden which the Lord God had planted "eastward in Eden," for the purpose of dressing it and keeping it. [[48]Eden] Adam was permitted to eat of the fruit of every tree in the garden but one, which was called ("the tree of the knowledge of good and evil," because it was the test of Adam's obedience. By it Adam could know good and evil int he divine way, through obedience; thus knowing good by experience in resisting temptation and forming a strong and holy character, while he knew evil only by observation and inference. Or he could "know good and evil," in Satan's way, be experiencing the evil and knowing good only by contrast. -ED.) The prohibition to taste the fruit of this tree was enforced by the menace of death. There was also another tree which was called "the tree of life." While Adam was in the garden of Eden, the beasts of the field and the fowls of the air were brought to him to be named. After this the Lord God caused a deep sleep to fall upon him, and took one of his ribs from him, which he fashioned into a woman and brought her to the man. At this time they were both described as being naked without the consciousness of shame. By the subtlety of the serpent the woman who was given to be with Adam was beguiled into a violation of the one command which had been imposed upon them. She took of the fruit of the forbidden tree and gave it to her husband. The propriety of its name was immediately shown in the results which followed; self-consciousness was the first-fruits of sin their eyes were opened and they knew that they were naked. Though the curse of Adam's rebellion of necessity fell upon him, yet the very prohibition to eat of the tree of life after his transgression was probably a manifestation of divine mercy, because the greatest malediction of all would have been to have the gift of indestructible life super-added to a state of wretchedness and sin. The divine mercy was also shown in the promise of a deliverer given at the very promise of a deliverer given at the very time the curse was imposed, (Genesis 3:15) and opening a door of hope to Paradise, regained for him and his descendants. Adam is stated to have lived 930 years. His sons mentioned in Scripture are Cain, Abel and Seth; it is implied, however, that he had others. Adamah (red earth), one of the "fenced cities" of Naphtali, named between Chinnereth and Ramah. (Joshua 19:36) Adamant the translation of the Hebrew word Shamir in (Ezekiel 3:9) and Zech 7:12 In (Jeremiah 17:1) it is translated "diamond." In these three passages the word is the representative of some stone of excessive hardness, and is used metaphorically. It is very probable that by Shamir is intended emery, a variety of corundum, a mineral inferior, only to the diamond in hardness. Adami (my man, earth), a place on the border of Naphtali. (Joshua 19:33) Adar [[49]Month] (high), a place on the south boundary of Judah. (Joshua 15:3) Adasa (new), a place in Judea, about four miles from Beth-horon. 1Ma 7:40,45 [[50]Hadashah] Adbeel (offspring of God), a son of Ishmael, (Genesis 25:13; 1 Chronicles 1:29) and probably the progenitor of an Arab tribe. (B.C. about 1850.) Addan (strong or stony), one of the places from which some of the captivity returned with Zerubbabel to Judea who could not show their pedigree as Israelites. (Ezra 2:59) Called [51]Addon (Nehemiah 7:61) Addar (mighty one), son of Bela, (1 Chronicles 8:3) called [52]Ard in (Numbers 26:40) Adder This word is used for any poisonous snake, and is applied in this general sense by the translators of the Authorized Version. The word adder occurs five times in the text of the Authorized Version (see below), and three times int he margin as synonymous with cockatrice, viz., (Isaiah 11:8; 14:29; 59:5) It represents four Hebrew words: + Acshub is found only in (Psalms 140:3) and may be represented by the Toxicoa of Egypt and North Africa. + Pethen. [[53]Asp] + Tsepha, or Tsiphoni, occurs five times in the Hebrew Bible. In (Proverbs 23:32) it is it is translated adder, and in (Isaiah 11:8; 14:29; 59:5; Jeremiah 8:17) it is rendered cockatrice . From Jeremiah we learn that it was of a hostile nature, and from the parallelism of (Isaiah 11:8) it appears that the Tsiphoni was considered even more dreadful than the Pethen . + Shephipon occurs only in (Genesis 49:17) where it is used to characterize the tribe of Dan. The habit of lurking int he sand and biting at the horse's heels here alluded to suits the character of a well-known species of venomous snake, and helps to identify it with the celebrated horned viper, the asp of Cleopatra (Cerastes), which is found abundantly in the dry sandy deserts of Egypt, Syria and Arabia. The cerastes is extremely venomous. Bruce compelled a specimen to scratch eighteen pigeons upon the thigh as quickly as possible, and they all died in nearly the same interval of time. Addi (ornament). (Luke 3:28) Son of Cosam, and father of Melchi in our Lord's genealogy; the third above Salathiel. Addon (lord). [[54]Addan] Ader (flock), a Benjamites, son of Beriah, chief of the inhabitants of Aijalon. (1 Chronicles 8:15) The name is more correctly Eder. Adida a fortified town near Jerusalem, probably the [55]Hadid of (Ezra 2:33) and referred to in 1Ma 12:38 Adiel (ornament of God). + A prince of the tribe of Simeon, descended from the prosperous family of Shimei. (1 Chronicles 4:36) He took part in the murderous raid made by his tribe upon the peaceable Hamite shepherds of the valley of Gedor in the reign of Hezekiah. (B.C. about 711.) + A priest, ancestor of Maasiai. (1 Chronicles 9:12) + Ancestor of Azmaveth, David's treasurer. (1 Chronicles 27:25) (B.C. 1050.) Adin (dainty, delicate), ancestor of a family who returned form Babylon with Zerubbabel, to the number of 454, (Ezra 2:15) or 655 according to the parallel list in (Nehemiah 7:20) (B.C. 536.) They joined with Nehemiah in a covenant to separate themselves from the heathen. (Nehemiah 10:16) (B.C. 410.) Adina (slender), one of David's captains beyond the Jordan, and a chief of the Reubenites. (1 Chronicles 11:42) Adino, Or Adino, The Eznite (2 Samuel 23:8) See [56]Jashobeam. Adithaim (double ornament), a town belonging to Judah, lying in the low country, and named, between Sharaim and hag-Gederah, in (Joshua 15:36) only. Adlai Or Adlai (justice of Jehovah), Ancestor of Shaphat, the overseer of David's herds that fed in the broad valleys. (1 Chronicles 27:29) (B.C. before 1050.) Admah (earthy, fortress), one of the "cities of the plain," always coupled with Zeboim. (Genesis 10:19; 14:2,8; 29:23; Hosea 11:8) Admatha (given by the highest), one of the seven princes of Persia. (Esther 1:14) Adna (rest, pleasure). + One of the family of Pahath-moab, who returned with Ezra and married a foreign wife. (Ezra 10:30) (B.C. 459.) + A priest, descendant of Harim in the days of Joiakim, the son of Jeshua. (Nehemiah 12:15) (B.C. 500.) Adnah (pleasure). + A Manassite who deserted from Saul and joined the fortunes of David on his road to Ziklag from the camp of the Philistines. He was captain of a thousand of his tribe, and fought at David's side in the pursuit of the Amalekites. (1 Chronicles 12:20) (B.C. 1054.) + The captain of over 300,000 men of Judah who were in Jehoshaphat's army. (2 Chronicles 17:14) (B.C. 908.) Adonibezek (lord of Bezek), king of Bezek, a city of the Canaanites. [[57]Bezek] This chieftain was vanquished by the tribe of Judah, (Judges 1:3-7) who cut off his thumbs and great toes, and brought him prisoner to Jerusalem, where he died. He confessed that he had inflicted the same cruelty upon 70 petty kings whom he had conquered. (B.C. 1425). Adonijah (my Lord is Jehovah). + The fourth son of David by Haggith, born at Hebron while his father was king of Judah. (2 Samuel 3:4) (B.C. about 1050.) After the death of his three brothers, Amnon, Chileab and Absalom, he became eldest son; and when his father's strength was visibly declining, put forward his pretensions to the crown. Adonijah's cause was espoused by Abiathar and by Joab the famous commander of David's army. [[58]Joab] His name and influence secured a large number of followers among the captains of the royal army belonging to the tribe of Judah, comp. (1 Kings 1:5) and these, together with all the princes except Solomon, were entertained by Adonijah at the great sacrificial feast held "by the stone Zoheleth, which is by En-rogel." [EN-ROGEL] Apprised of these proceedings, David immediately caused Solomon to be proclaimed king, (1 Kings 1:33,34) at Gihon. [[59]Gihon] This decisive measure struck terror into the opposite party, and Adonijah fled to the sanctuary, but was pardoned by Solomon on condition that he should "show himself a worthy man." (1 Kings 1:52) The death of David quickly followed on these events; and Adonijah begged Bath-sheba to procure Solomon's consent to his marriage with Abishag, who had been the wife of David in his old age. (1 Kings 1:3) This was regarded as equivalent to a fresh attempt on the throne [[60]Absalom; [61]Abner]; and therefore Solomon ordered him to be put to death by Benaiah. (1 Kings 2:25) + A Levite in the reign of Jehoshaphat. (2 Chronicles 17:8) + The same as Adonikam. (Nehemiah 10:16) [[62]Adonikam, Or Adonikam] Adonikam, Or Adonikam The sons of Adonikam, 666 in number, were among those who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:13; Nehemiah 7:18); 1Esd 5:14 (B.C. 506-410.) The name is given as [63]Adonijah in (Nehemiah 10:16) Adoniram (lord of heights), (1 Kings 4:6) by an unusual contraction [64]Adoram, (2 Samuel 20:24) and 1Kin 12:18 Also [65]Hadoram, (2 Chronicles 10:18) chief receiver of the tribute during the reigns of David, (2 Samuel 20:24) Solomon, (1 Kings 4:6) and Rehoboam. (1 Kings 12:18) This last monarch sent him to collect the tribute from the rebellious Israelites, by whom he was stoned to death, (B.C. 1014-973.) Adonizedek (lord of justice), the Amorite king of Jerusalem who organized a league with four other Amorite princes against Joshua. The confederate kings having laid siege to Gibeon, Joshua marched to the relief of his new allies and put the besiegers to flight. The five kings took refuge in a cave at Makkedah, whence they were taken and slain, their bodies hung on trees, and then buried in the place of their concealment. (Joshua 10:1-27) (B.C. 1450.) Adoption an expression used by St. Paul in reference to the present and prospective privileges of Christians. (Romans 8:15,23; Galatians 4:5; Ephesians 1:5) He probably alludes to the Roman custom by which a person not having children of his own might adopt as his son one born of other parents. The relationship was to all intents and purposes the same as existed between a natural father and son. The term is used figuratively to show the close relationship to God of the Christian. (Galatians 4:4,5; Romans 8:14-17) He is received into God's family from the world, and becomes a child and heir of God. Ador, Or Adora [[66]Adoraim] Adoraim (double mound), a fortified city built by Rehoboam, (2 Chronicles 11:9) in Judah. Adoraim is probably the same place with Adora, 1Ma 13:20 Unless that be Dor, on the seacoast below Carmel. Robinson identifies it with Dura, a "large village" on a rising ground west of Hebron. Adoram [[67]Adoniram; [68]Hadoram] Adoration The acts and postures by which the Hebrews expressed adoration bear a great similarity to those still in use among Oriental nations. To rise up and suddenly prostrate the body was the most simple method; but, generally speaking, the prostration was conducted in a more formal manner, the person falling upon the knee and then gradually inclining the body until the forehead touched the ground. Such prostration was usual in the worship of Jehovah, (Genesis 17:3; Psalms 95:6) it was the formal mode of receiving visitors, (Genesis 18:2) of doing obeisance to one of superior station, (2 Samuel 14:4) and of showing respect to equals. (1 Kings 2:19) It was accompanied by such acts as a kiss, (Exodus 18:7) laying hold of the knees or feet of the person to whom the adoration was paid, (Matthew 28:9) and kissing the ground on which he stood. (Psalms 72:9; Micah 7:17) Similar adoration was paid to idols, (1 Kings 19:18) sometimes, however, the act consisted simply in kissing the hand to the object of reverence, (Job 31:27) and in kissing the statue itself. (Hosea 13:2) Adrammelech (splendor of the king). + The name of an idol introduced into Samaria by the colonists from Sepharvaim. (2 Kings 17:31) He was worshipped with rites resembling those of Molech, children being burnt in his honor. Adrammelech was probably the male power of the sun, and [69]Anammelech, who is mentioned with Adrammelech as a companion god, the female power of the sun. + Son of the Assyrian king Sennacherib, who, with his brother Sharezer, murdered their father in the temple of Nisroch at Nineveh, after the failure of the Assyrian attack on Jerusalem. The parricides escaped into Armenia. (2 Kings 19:37; 2 Chronicles 32:21; Isaiah 37:38) Adramyttium named form Adramys, brother of Croesus king of Lydia, a seaport in the province of Asia [[70]Asia], situated on a bay of the Aegean Sea, about 70 miles north of Smyrna, in the district anciently called Aeolis, and also Mysia. See (Acts 16:7) [[71]Mitylene] (Acts 27:2) The modern Adramyti is a poor village. Adria more properly A'drias, the Adriatic Sea. (Acts 27:27) The word seems to have been derived from the town of Adria, near the Po. In Paul's time it included the whole sea between Greece and Italy, reaching south from Crete to Sicily. [[72]Melita] Adriel (flock of God), son of Barzillai, to whom Saul gave his daughter Merab, although he had previously promised her to David. (1 Samuel 18:19) (B.C. about 1062.) His five sons were amongst the seven descendants of Saul whom David surrendered to the Gibeonites. (2 Samuel 21:8) Adullam (justice of the people), Apocr. [73]Odollam, a city of Judah int he lowland of the Shefelah, (Joshua 15:35) the seat of a Canaanite king, (Joshua 12:15) and evidently a place of great antiquity. (Genesis 38:1,12,20) Fortified by Rehoboam, (2 Chronicles 11:7) it was one of the towns reoccupied by the Jews after their return from Babylon, (Nehemiah 11:30) and still a city in the time of the Macabees. 2Ma 12:38 Adullam was probably near Deir Dubban, five or six miles north of Eleutheropolis. The limestone cliffs of the whole of that locality are pierced with extensive excavations, some one of which is doubtless the "cave of Adullam," the refuge of David. (1 Samuel 22:1; 2 Samuel 23:13; 1 Chronicles 11:15) Adultery (Exodus 20:14) The parties to this crime, according to Jewish law, were a married woman and a man who was not her husband. The Mosaic penalty was that both the guilty parties should be stoned, and it applied as well to the betrothed as to the married woman, provided she were free. (22:22-24) A bondwoman so offending was to be scourged, and the man was to make a trespass offering. (Leviticus 19:20-22) At a later time, and when owing, to Gentile example, the marriage tie became a looser bond of union, public feeling in regard to adultery changed, and the penalty of death was seldom or never inflicted. The famous trial by the waters of jealousy, (Numbers 5:11-29) was probably an ancient custom, which Moses found deeply seated--(But this ordeal was wholly in favor of the innocent, and exactly opposite to most ordeals. For the water which the accused drank was perfectly harmless, and only by a miracle could it produce a bad effect; while in most ordeals the accused must suffer what naturally produces death, and be proved innocent only by a miracle. Symbolically adultery is used to express unfaithfulness to covenant vows to God, who is represented as the husband of his people.) Adummim (the going up to), a rising ground or pass over against Gilgal," and "on the south side of the 'torrent'" (Joshua 15:7; 18:17) which is the position still occupied by the road leading up from Jericho and the Jordan valley to Jerusalem, on the south face of the gorge of the Wady Kelt. (Luke 10:30-36) Advocate or Paraclete, one that pleads the cause of another. (1 John 2:1) Used by Christ, (John 14:16; 15:26; 16:7) to describe the office and work of the Holy Spirit, and translated Comforter, i.e. (see margin of Revised Version) Advocate, Helper, Intercessor. This use of the word is derived from the fact that the Jews, being largely ignorant of the Roman law and the Roman language, had to employ Roman advocates in their trials before Roman courts. Applied to Christ, (1 John 2:1) Aegypt [[74]Egypt] Aeneas (laudble), a paralytic at Lydda healed by St. Peter. (Acts 9:33,34) Aenon (springs) a place "near to Salim," at which John baptized. (John 3:23) It was evidently west of the Jordan, comp. (John 3:22) with John 3:26 and with John 1:28 And abounded in water. It is given in the Omomasticon as eight miles south of Scythopolis "near Salem and the Jordan." Aera [[75]Chronology] Aethiopia [[76]Ethiopia] Affinity [[77]Marriage] Agabus (a locust), a Christian prophet in the apostolic age, mentioned in (Acts 11:28) and Acts 21:10 He predicted, (Acts 11:28) that a famine would take place in the reign of Claudius. Josephus mentions a famine which prevailed in Judea in the reign of Claudius, and swept away many of the inhabitants. (In (Acts 21:10) we learn that Agabus and Paul met at Caesarea some time after this.) Agag (flame), possibly the title of the kings of Amalek, like Pharaoh of Egypt. One king of this name is mentioned in (Numbers 24:7) and another in 1Sam 15:8,9,20,32 The latter was the king of the Amalekites, whom Saul spared contrary to Jehovah's well-known will. (Exodus 17:14; 25:17) For this act of disobedience Samuel was commissioned to declare to Saul his rejection, and he himself sent for Agag and cut him in pieces. (B.C. about 1070.) [[78]Samuel]. Haman is called the [79]Agagite in (Esther 3:1,10; 8:3,5) The Jews consider him a descendant of Agag the Amalekite. Agagite [[80]Agag] Agar [[81]Hagar] Agate a beautifully-veined semi-transparent precious stone, a variety of quartz. Its colors are delicately arranged in stripes or bands or blended in clouds. It is mentioned four times in the text of the Authorized Version, viz., in (Exodus 28:19; 39:12; Isaiah 54:12; Ezekiel 27:16) In the two former passages; where it is represented by the Hebrew word shebo it is spoken of as forming the second stone in the third row of the high priest's breastplate; in each of the two latter places the original word is cadced, by which, no doubt, is intended a different stone. [RUBY] Our English agate derives its name from the Achates, on the banks of which it was first found. Age, Old The aged occupied a prominent place in the social and political system of the Jews. In private life they were looked up to as the depositaries of knowledge, (Job 15:10) the young were ordered to rise up in their presence, (Leviticus 19:32) they allowed them to give their opinion first, (Job 32:4) they were taught to regard gray hair as a "crown of glory," (Proverbs 16:31; 20:29) The attainment of old age was regarded as a special blessing. (Job 5:26) In pubic main qualification of those who acted as the representatives of the people in all matter of difficulty and deliberation. [ELDERS] Agee, Or Agee (fugitive), a Hararite, father of Shammah, one of David's three mightiest heroes. (2 Samuel 23:11) (B.C. 1050.) Agriculture This was little cared for by the patriarchs. The pastoral life, however, was the means of keeping the sacred race, whilst yet a family, distinct from mixture and locally unattached, especially whilst in Egypt. When grown into a nation it supplied a similar check on the foreign intercourse, and became the basis of the Mosaic commonwealth. "The land is mine," (Leviticus 25:23) was a dictum which made agriculture likewise the basis of the theocratic relation. Thus every family felt its own life with intense keenness, and had its divine tenure which it was to guard from alienation. The prohibition of culture in the sabbatical year formed a kind of rent reserved by the divine Owner. Landmarks were deemed sacred, (19:14) and the inalienability of the heritage was insured by its reversion to the owner in the year of jubilee; so that only so many years of occupancy could be sold. (Leviticus 25:8-16; 23-35) Rain.--Water was abundant in Palestine from natural sources. (8:7; 11:8-12) Rain was commonly expected soon after the autumnal equinox. The period denoted by the common scriptural expressions of the "early" and the "latter rain," (11:1; Jeremiah 5:24; Hosea 6:3; Zechariah 10:1; James 5:7) generally reaching from November to April, constituted the "rainy season," and the remainder of the year the "dry season." Crops.--The cereal crops of constant mention are wheat and barley, and more rarely rye and millet(?). Of the two former, together with the vine, olive and fig, the use of irrigation, the plough and the harrow, mention is made ln the book of (Job 31:40; 15:33; 24:6; 29:19; 39:10) Two kinds of cumin (the black variety called fitches), (Isaiah 28:27) and such podded plants as beans and lentils may be named among the staple produce. Ploughing and Sowing.--The plough was probably very light, one yoke of oxen usually sufficing to draw it. Mountains and steep places were hoed. (Isaiah 7:25) New ground and fallows, (Jeremiah 4:3; Hosea 10:12) were cleared of stones and of thorns, (Isaiah 5:2) early in the year, sowing or gathering from "among thorns" being a proverb for slovenly husbandry. (Job 5:5; Proverbs 24:30,31) Sowing also took place without previous ploughing, the seed being scattered broad cast and ploughed in afterwards. The soil was then brushed over with a light harrow, often of thorn bushes. In highly-irrigated spots the seed was trampled by cattle. (Isaiah 32:20) Seventy days before the passover was the time prescribed for sowing. The oxen were urged on by a goad like a spear. (Judges 3:31) The proportion of harvest gathered to seed sown was often vast; a hundred fold is mentioned, but in such a way as to signify that it was a limit rarely attained. (Genesis 26:12; Matthew 13:8) Sowing a field with divers seed was forbidden. (22:9) Reaping and Threshing.--The wheat etc., was reaped by the sickle or pulled by the roots. It was bound in sheaves. The sheaves or heaps were carted, (Amos 2:13) to the floor--a circular spot of hard ground, probably, as now, from 50 to 80 or 100 feet in diameter. (Genesis 1:10,11; 2 Samuel 24:16,18) On these the oxen, etc., forbidden to be muzzled, (25:4) trampled out the grain. At a later time the Jews used a threshing sledge called morag, (Isaiah 41:15; 2 Samuel 24:22; 1 Chronicles 21:23) probably resembling the noreg, still employed in Egypt--a stage with three rollers ridged with iron, which, aided by the driver's weight crushed out, often injuring, the grain, as well as cut or tore the straw, which thus became fit for fodder. Lighter grains were beaten out with a stick. (Isaiah 28:27) The use of animal manure was frequent. (Psalms 83:10; 2 Kings 9:37; Jeremiah 8:2) etc. Winnowing.--The shovel and fan, (Isaiah 30:24) indicate the process of winnowing--a conspicuous part of ancient husbandry. (Psalms 35:5; Job 21:18; Isaiah 17:13) Evening was the favorite time, (Ruth 3:2) when there was mostly a breeze. The fan, (Matthew 3:12) was perhaps a broad shovel which threw the grain up against the wind. The last process was the shaking in a sieve to separate dirt and refuse. (Amos 9:9) Fields and floors were not commonly enclosed; vineyard mostly were, with a tower and other buildings. (Numbers 22:24; Psalms 80:13; Isaiah 5:5; Matthew 21:33) comp. Judg 6:11 The gardens also and orchards were enclosed, frequently by banks of mud from ditches. With regard to occupancy, a tenant might pay a fixed money rent, (Song of Solomon 8:11) or a stipulated share of the fruits. (2 Samuel 9:10; Matthew 21:34) A passer by might eat any quantity of corn or grapes, but not reap or carry off fruit. (23:24,25; Matthew 12:1) The rights of the corner to be left, and of gleaning [[82]Corner; [83]Gleaning], formed the poor man's claim on the soil for support. For his benefit, too, a sheaf forgotten in carrying to the floor was to be left; so also with regard to the vineyard' and the olive grove. (Leviticus 19:9,10; 24:19) Agrippa [[84]Herod] Agur (a gatherer, i.e. together of wise men), The son of Jakeh, an unknown Hebrew sage who uttered or collected the sayings of wisdom recorded in Prov 30. Ahab (uncle). + Son of Omri, seventh king of Israel, reigned B.C. 919-896. He married Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal king of Tyre; and in obedience to her wishes, caused temple to be built to Baal in Samaria itself; and an oracular grove to be consecrated to Astarte. See (1 Kings 18:19) One of Ahab's chief tastes was for splendid architecture which he showed by building an ivory house and several cities. Desiring to add to his pleasure-grounds at Jezreel the vineyard of his neighbor Naboth, he proposed to buy it or give land in exchange for it; and when this was refused by Naboth in accordance with the Levitical law, (Leviticus 25:23) a false accusation of blasphemy was brought against him, and he was murdered, and Ahab took possession of the coveted fields. (2 Kings 9:26) Thereupon Elijah declared that the entire extirpation of Ahab's house was the penalty appointed for his long course of wickedness. [[85]Elijah] The execution, however, of the sentence was delayed in consequence of Ahab's deep repentance. (1 Kings 21:1) ... Ahab undertook three campaigns against Ben-hadad II. king of Damascus, two defensive and one offensive. In the first Ben-hadad laid siege to Samaria, but was repulsed with great loss. (1 Kings 20:1-21) Next year Ben-hadad again invaded Israel by way of Aphek, on the east of Jordan; yet Ahab's victory was so complete that Ben-hadad himself fell into his hands, but was released contrary to God's will, (1 Kings 20:22-34) on condition of restoring the cities of Israel, and admitting Hebrew commissioners into Damascus. After this great success Ahab enjoyed peace for three years, when he attacked Ramoth in Gilead, on the east of Jordan, in conjunction with Jehoshaphat king of Judah, which town he claimed as belonging to Israel. Being told by the prophet Micaiah that he would fall, he disguised himself, but was slain by "a certain man who drew a bow at a venture." When buried in Samaria, the dogs licked up his blood as a servant was washing his chariot; a partial fulfillment of Elijah's prediction, (1 Kings 21:19) which was more literally accomplished in the case of his son. (2 Kings 9:26) + A lying prophet, who deceived the captive Israelites in Babylon, and was burnt to death by Nebuchadnezzar. (Jeremiah 29:21) Aharah (after the brother), third son of Benjamin. (1 Chronicles 8:1) [[86]Aher; [87]Ahiram] Aharhel (behind the breastwork), a name occurring in an obscure fragment of the genealogies of Judah. (1 Chronicles 4:8) Ahasai (whom Jehovah holds), a priest, ancestor of Maasiai, (Nehemiah 11:13) called [88]Jahzerah in (1 Chronicles 9:12) Ahasbai (blooming), father of Eli-phelet, one of David's thirty-seven captains. (2 Samuel 23:34) In the corrupt list in (1 Chronicles 11:35) Eliphelet appears as "Eliphal the son of Ur." (B.C. about 1050.) Ahashverosh Another (the Hebrew) form of AHASUERIUS. (Ezra 4:6) in margin. Ahasuerus (lion-king), the name of one Median and two Persian kings mentioned in the Old Testament. + In (Daniel 9:1) Ahasuerus is said to be the father of Darius the Mede. [[89]Darius] This first Ahasuerus is Cyaxares, the conqueror of Nineveh. (Began to reign B.C. 634.) + The Ahasuerus king of Persia, referred to in (Ezra 4:6) must be Cambyses, thought to be Cyrus' successor, and perhaps his son. (B.C. 529.) + The third is the Ahasuerus of the book of Esther. This Ahasuerus is probably Xerxes of history, (Esther 1:1) (B.C. 485), and this conclusion is fortified by the resemblance of character and by certain chronological indications, the account of his life and character agreeing with the book of Esther In the third year of Ahaseuerus was held a great feast and assembly in Shushan the palace, (Esther 1:3) following a council held to consider the invasion of Greece. He divorced his queen Vashti for refusing to appear in public at this banquet, and married, four years afterwards, the Jewess Esther, cousin and ward of Mordecai. Five years after this, Haman, one of his counsellors, having been slighted by Mordecai, prevailed upon the king to order the destruction of all the Jews in the empire. But before the day appointed for the massacre, Esther and Mordecai influenced the king to put Haman to death and to give the Jews the right of self-Defence. Ahava (water), a place, (Ezra 8:15) or a river, Ezra 8:21 On the banks of which Ezra collected the second expedition which returned with him from Babylon to Jerusalem. Perhaps it is the modern Hit, on the Euphrates due east of Damascus. Ahaz (possessor), eleventh king of Judah, son of Jotham, reigned 741-726, about sixteen years. At the time of his accession, Rezin king of Damascus and Pekah king of Israel had recently formed a league against Judah, and they proceeded to lay siege to Jerusalem. Upon this Isaiah hastened to give advice and encouragement to Ahaz, and the allies failed in their attack on Jerusalem. Isai 7,8,9. But, the allies inflicted a most severe injury on Judah by the capture of Elath, a flourishing port on the Red Sea, while the Philistines invaded the west and south. 2Kin 16; 2Chr 28. Ahaz, having forfeited God's favor by his wickedness, sought deliverance from these numerous troubles by appealing to Tiglath-pileser king of Assyria, who forced him from his most formidable enemies. But Ahaz had to purchase this help at a costly price; he became tributary to Tiglath-pileser. He was weak, a gross idolater, and sought safety in heathen ceremonies, making his son pass through the fire to Molech, consulting wizards and necromancers. (Isaiah 8:19) and other idolatrous practices. (2 Kings 23:12) His only service of permanent value was the introduction of the sun-dial. He died at the age of 36, but was refused a burial with the kings his ancestors. (2 Chronicles 28:27) + Son of Micah. (1 Chronicles 8:35,36; 9:42) Ahaziah (sustained by the Lord). + Son of Ahab and Jezebel eighth king of Israel, reigned B.C. 896-895. After the battle of Ramoth in Gilead, in which Ahab perished [[90]Ahab], the vassal king of Moab refused his yearly tribute; comp. (Isaiah 16:1) Before Ahaziah could take measures for enforcing his claim, he was seriously injured by a fall through a lattice in his palace at Samaria. Being an idolater, he sent to inquire of the oracle of Baalzebub in the Philistine city of Ekron whether he should recover his health. But Elijah, who now for the last time exercised the prophetic office, rebuked him for this impiety, and announced to him his approaching death. The only other recorded transaction of his reign, his endeavor to join the king of Judah in trading to Ophir, is related under [91]Jehoshaphat. (1 Kings 22:49-53; 2 Kings 1:1; 2 Chronicles 20:35-37) + Fifth king of Judah, son of Jehoram and Athaliah (daughter of Ahab), and therefore nephew of the preceding Ahaziah, reigned one year, B.C. 884. He is Galled [92]Azariah, (2 Chronicles 22:2) probably by a copyist's error, and [93]Jehoahaz. (2 Chronicles 21:17) He was 22 years old at his accession. (2 Kings 8:26) (his age 42, in (2 Chronicles 22:2) Isa a copyist's error). Ahaziah was an idolater, and he allied himself with his uncle Jehoram king of Israel against Hazael, the new king of Syria. the two kings were, however defeated at Ramoth, where Jehoram was severely wounded. The revolution carried out in Israel by Jehu under the guidance of Elisha broke out while Ahaziah was visiting his uncle at Jezreel. As Jehu approached the town, Jehoram and Ahaziah went out to meet him; the former was shot through the heart by Jehu, and Ahaziah was pursued and mortally wounded. He died when he reached Megiddo. Ahban (brother of the wise, discreet), son of Abishur by his wife Abihail. (1 Chronicles 2:29) He was of the tribe of Judah. Aher (following), ancestor of Hushim a Benjamite. The name occurs in the genealogy of Benjamin. (1 Chronicles 7:12) It is not improbable that Aher and Ahiram, (Numbers 26:38) are the same. Ahi (a brother). + A Gadite, chief of a family who lived in Gilead in Bashan, (1 Chronicles 5:15) in the days of Jotham and of Judah. (B.C. 758.) + A descendant of Shamer, of the tribe of Asher. (1 Chronicles 7:34) Ahiah, Or Ahijah (friend of Jehovah). + Son of Ahitub, grandson of Phinehas and great-grandson of Eli, succeeded his father as high priest in the reign of Saul. (1 Samuel 14:3,18) Ahiah is probably the same person as Ahimelech the son of Ahitub. (B.C. 980.) + One of Solomon's princes. (1 Kings 4:3) + A prophet of Shiloh, (1 Kings 14:2) hence called the Shilonite, (1 Kings 11:29) of whom we have two remarkable prophecies extant, the one in (1 Kings 11:30-39) addressed to Jeroboam, announcing the rending of the ten tribes from Solomon; the other in (1 Kings 14:6-16) in which he foretold the death of Abijah, the king's son, who was sick, and the destruction of Jeroboam's house on account of the images which he had set up. (1 Kings 14:2,3) (B.C. about 956.) + Father of Baasha king of Israel. (1 Kings 15:27,33) + Son of Jerahmeel. (1 Chronicles 2:25) + Son of Bela. (1 Chronicles 8:7) + One of David's mighty men. (1 Chronicles 11:36) + A Levite in David's reign. (1 Chronicles 26:20) + One of the "heads of the people" who joined in the covenant with Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 10:26) Ahiam son of Sharar the Hararite (or of Sacar,) (1 Chronicles 11:35) one of David's thirty mighty men. (2 Samuel 23:33) (B.C. 1050.) Ahian a Manassite of the family of Shemidah. (1 Chronicles 7:19) Ahiezer (brother of help). + Son of Ammishaddai, hereditary chieftain of the tribe of Dan. (Numbers 1:12; 2:25; 7:66) (B.C. 1490). + The Benjamite chief of a body of archers in the time of David. (1 Chronicles 12:3) (B.C. 1050.) Ahihud (brother of renown). + The son of Shelomi and prince of the tribe of Asher. (Numbers 34:27) + Chieftain of the tribe of Benjamin. (1 Chronicles 8:7) Ahijah [[94]Ahiah, Or Ahijah] Ahikam (a brother who raises up), son of Shaphan the scribe, an influential officer at the court of Josiah, was one of the delegates sent by Hilkaih to consult Huldah. (2 Kings 22:12-14) In the reign of Jehoiakim he successfully used his influence to protect the prophet Jeremiah. (Jeremiah 26:24) He was the father of Gedaliah. [[95]Gedaliah] (B.C. 641). Ahilud (a brother of one born, i.e. before him). + Father of Jehoshaphat, the recorder or chronicler of the kingdom in the reigns of David and Solomon. (2 Samuel 8:16; 20:24; 1 Kings 4:3; 1 Chronicles 18:15) (B.C. before 1015.) + The father of Baana, one of Solomon's twelve commissariat officers. (1 Kings 4:12) It is uncertain whether he is the same with the foregoing. Ahimaaz (brother of anger). + Son of Zadok the high priest in David's reign, and celebrated for his swiftness of foot. During Absalom's rebellion he carried to David the important intelligence that Ahithophel had counselled an immediate attack upon David and his followers. (2 Samuel 15:24-37; 17:15-22) Shortly afterwards he was the first to bring to the king the good news of Absalom's defeat. (2 Samuel 18:19-33) (B.C. 972-956.) + Saul's wife's father. (1 Samuel 14:50) (B.C. before 1093.) + Solomon's son-in-law. (1 Kings 4:15) (B.C. after 1014.) Ahiman (brother of the right hand). + One of the three giant Anakim who inhabited Mount Hebron, (Numbers 13:22,23) seen by Caleb and the spies. (B.C. 1490.) The whole race was cut off by Joshua, (Joshua 11:21) and the three brothers were slain by the tribe of Judah. (Judges 1:10) + A Levite porter. (1 Chronicles 9:17) Ahimelech (brother of the king). + Son of Ahitub, (1 Samuel 22:11,12) and high priest of Nob in the days of Saul. He gave David the shew bread to eat, and the sword of Goliath; and for so doing was put to death, with his whole house, by Saul's order. Abiathar alone escaped. [[96]Abiathar] (B.C. 1085-1060.) + A Hittite. (1 Samuel 26:6) Ahimoth (brother of death), a Levite apparently in the time of David. (1 Chronicles 6:25) In v. (1 Chronicles 6:35) for Ahimoth we find [97]Mahath, as in (Luke 3:26) Ahinadab (brother the noble, i.e. a noble brother), Son of Iddo, one of Solomon's twelve commissaries who supplied provisions for the royal household. (1 Kings 4:14) (B.C. 1014-975.) Ahinoam (brother of grace, i.e. gracious). + The daughter of Ahimaaz and wife of Saul. (1 Samuel 14:50) (B.C. about 1090.) + A native of Jezreel who was married to David during his wandering life. (1 Samuel 25:43) (B.C. 1060.) She lived with him and his other wife Abigail at the court of Achish, (1 Samuel 27:3) was taken prisoner with her by the Amalekites when they plundered Ziklag, (1 Samuel 30:5) but was rescued by David. (1 Samuel 30:18) Ahio (brotherly). + Son of Abinadab, who accompanied the ark when it was brought out of his father's house. (2 Samuel 6:3,4; 1 Chronicles 13:7) (B.C.1043.) + A Benjamite, one of the sons of Beriah. (1 Chronicles 8:14) + A Benjamite, Son of Jehiel. (1 Chronicles 8:31; 9:37) Ahira (brother of evil, i.e. unlucky), Chief of the tribe of Naphtali. (Numbers 1:15; 2:29; 7:78,83; 10:27) Ahiram (brother of height, lofty), one of the sons of Benjamin, and ancestor of the AHIRAMITES (Numbers 26:38) In (Genesis 46:21) the name appears as "Ehi and Rosh." It is uncertain whether Ahiram is the same as [98]Aher, (1 Chronicles 7:12) or [99]Aharah, (1 Chronicles 8:1) Ahisamach (brother of help), a Danite, father of Aholiab one of the architects of the tabernacle. (Exodus 31:6; 35:34; 38:23) (B.C. 1490) Ahishahar (brother of the dawn), one of the sons of Bilhan, the grandson of Benjamin. (1 Chronicles 7:10) Ahishar the controller of Solomon's household. (1 Kings 4:6) Ahithophel (brother of foolishness), a native of Giloh, was a privy councillor of David, whose wisdom was highly esteemed, though his name had an exactly opposite signification. (2 Samuel 16:23) (B.C. 1055-1023.) He was the grandfather of Bathsheba. Comp. (2 Samuel 11:3) with 2Sam 23:34 Ahithophel joined the conspiracy of Absalom against David, and persuaded him to take possession of the royal harem, (2 Samuel 16:21) and recommended an immediate pursuit of David. His advice was wise; but Hushai advised otherwise. When Ahithophel saw that Hushai's advice prevailed, he despaired of success, and returning to his own home "put his household in order and hanged himself." (2 Samuel 17:1-23) Ahitub (brother of goodness). + The son of Phinehas and grandson of Eli, and therefore of the family of Ithamar. (1 Samuel 14:3; 22:9,11) (B.C. 1125.) He was succeeded by his son Ahijah ([100]Ahimelech). (B.C. 1085.) + Son of Amariah, and father of Zadok the high priest, (1 Chronicles 6:7,8; 2 Samuel 8:17) of the house of Eleazar. (B.C. before 1045.) Ahlab (fertile), a city of Asher from which the Canaanites were not driven out. (Judges 1:31) Ahlai, Or Ahlai (ornamental) daughter of Sheshan, whom, having no issue, he gave in marriage to his Egyptian slave Jarha. (1 Chronicles 2:31,35) From her were descended Zabad, one of David's mighty men, (1 Chronicles 11:41) and Aza-riah, one of the captains of hundreds in the reign of Joash. (2 Chronicles 23:1) Ahoah (brothely), son of Bela the son of Benjamin. (1 Chronicles 8:4) In (1 Chronicles 8:7) he is called [101]Ahiah, Or Ahijah. The patronymic, [102]Ahohite, is found in (2 Samuel 23:9,28; 1 Chronicles 11:12,29; 27:4) Ahohite [[103]Ahoah] Aholah And Aholibah (my tabernacle) two symbolical names, are described as harlots, the former representing Samaria and the latter Judah. Ezek. 23. Aholiab a Danite of great skill as a weaver and embroiderer, whom Moses appointed with Bezaleel to erect the tabernacle. (Exodus 35:30-35) (B.C. 1490.) Aholibamah Or Abolibamah (my tabernacle is exulted), One of the three wives of Esau. (B.C. 1797.) She was the daughter of Anah. (Genesis 36:2,26) In the earlier narrative, (Genesis 26:34) Aholi-bamah is called Judith, which may have been her original name. Ahumai (brother of water, i.e. cowardly), Son of Jabath, a descendant of Judah, and head of one of the families of the Zorathites. (1 Chronicles 4:2) Ahuzam (possession), properly Ahuzzam son of Ashur, the father or founder of Tekoa, by his wife Naarah. (1 Chronicles 4:6) Ahuzzath (possesions) one of the friends of the Philistine king Abimelech, who accompanied him at his interview with Isaac. (Genesis 26:26) (B.C. about 1877.) Ai (heap of ruins). + A city lying east of Bethel and "beside Bethaven." (Joshua 7:2; 8:9) It was the second city taken by Israel after the passage of the Jordan, and was "utterly destroyed." (Joshua 7:3-5; 8:1; Joshua 9:3; 10:1,2; 12:9) + A city of the Ammonites, apparently attached to Heshbon. (Jeremiah 49:3) Aiah (clamor). + Son of Zibeon, a descendant of Seir and ancestor of one of the wives of Esau, (1 Chronicles 1:40) called in (Genesis 36:24) [104]Ajah = A Iah. He probably died before his father, as the succession fell to his brother Anah. + Father of Rizpah, the concubine of Saul. (2 Samuel 3:7; 21:8,10,11) (B.C. before 1040.) Aiath (feminine of Ai), a place named by Isaiah, (Isaiah 10:28) in connection with Migron and Michmash probably the same as Ai. Aija like Aiath probably a variation of the name Ai, mentioned with Michmash and Bethel. (Nehemiah 11:31) Aijalon, Or Ajalon (place of gazelles). + A city of the Kohathites. (Joshua 21:24; 1 Chronicles 6:69) It was a Levitical city and a city of refuge. It was originally allotted to the tribe of Dan, (Joshua 19:42) Authorized Version, AJALON, which tribe, however, was unable to dispossess the Amorites of the place. (Judges 1:35) Aijalon was one of the towns fortified by Reheboam, (2 Chronicles 11:10) and the last we hear of it is being in the hands of the Philistines. (2 Chronicles 28:18) Being on the very frontier of the two kingdoms, we can understand how Aijalon should be spoken of sometimes, (1 Chronicles 6:69) comp. with 1Chr 6:66 As in Ephraim and sometimes, (2 Chronicles 11:10; 1 Samuel 14:31) as in Judah and Benjamin. It is represented by the modern Yalo, a little to the north of the Jaffa road, about 14 miles out of Jerusalem. + A broad and beautiful valley near the city of Aijalon over which Joshua commanded the moon to stand still during the pursuit after the battle of Gibeon. (Joshua 10:12) + A place in Zebulon, mentioned as the burial-place of Elon, one of the Judges. (Judges 12:12) Aijeleth Shahar (the hind of the morning dawn), found once only in the Bible, in the title of (Psalms 22:1) It probably describes to the musician the melody to which the psalm was to be played. Ain (spring, well). + One of the landmarks on the eastern boundary of Palestine. (Numbers 34:11) It is probably 'Ain el-'Azy, the main source of the Orontes. + One of the southernmost cities of Judah, (Joshua 15:32) afterwards allotted to Simeon, (Joshua 19:7; 1 Chronicles 4:32) and given to the priests. (Joshua 21:16) Aj Alon [[105]Aijalon, Or Ajalon] Ajah = A Iah + (Genesis 36:24) Akan (sharp sighted), son of Ezer, one of the "dukes" or chieftains of the Horites, and descendant of Seir. (Genesis 36:27) He is called [106]Jakan in (1 Chronicles 1:42) Akeldama Revised Version of (Acts 1:19) for [107]Aceldama. Akkub (insidious). + A descendant of Zerubbabel and son of Elioenai. (1 Chronicles 3:24) + One of the porters or doorkeepers at the east gate of the temple. (B.C. 636-440.) + One of the Nethinim, whole family returned with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:45) (B.C. 536.) + A Levite who assisted Ezra in expounding the law to the people. (Nehemiah 8:7) Akrabbim (the ascent of, or the going up to); also MAALEH-ACRABBIM (the scorpion pass), A pass between the south end of the Dead Sea and Zin, forming one of the landmarks on the south boundary at once of Judah, (Joshua 15:3) and of the Holy Land. (Numbers 34:4) Also the boundary of the Amorites. (Judges 1:36) As to the name, scorpions abound in the whole of this district. Alabaster from the Arabic al bastraton, a whitish stone or from Alabastron, the place in Egypt where it is found. It occurs only in (Matthew 26:7; Mark 14:3; Luke 7:37) The ancients considered alabaster to be the best material in which to preserve their ointments. The Oriental alabaster (referred to in the Bible) is a translucent carbonate of lime, formed on the floors of limestone caves by the percolation of water. It is of the same material as our marbles, but differently formed. It is usually clouded or banded like agate, hence sometimes called onyx marble. Our common alabaster is different from this, being a variety of gypsum or sulphate of lime, used In its finer forms for vases, etc.; in the coarser it is ground up for plaster of Paris. The noted sculptured slabs from Nineveh are made of this material. Alameth properly Al'emeth (covering), one of the sons of Beecher,the son of Benjamin. (1 Chronicles 7:8) Alammelech (king's oak), a place within the limits of Asher, named between Achshaph and Amad. (Joshua 19:26) only. Alamoth (virgins), (Psalms 46:1) title; (1 Chronicles 15:20) Some interpret it to mean a musical instrument, and others a melody. Alemeth (covering), a Benjamite, son of Jehoadah or Jarah, (1 Chronicles 8:36; 9:42) and descended from Jonathan the son of Saul. (B.C after 1077.) Alexander + Son of Simon the Cyrenian, who was compelled to bear the cross for our Lord. (Mark 15:21) + One of the kindred of Annas the high priest. (Acts 4:6) + A Jew at Ephesus whom his countrymen put forward during the tumult raised by Demetrius the silversmith, (Acts 19:33) to plead their cause with the mob. + An Ephesian Christian reprobated by St. Paul in (1 Timothy 1:20) as having, together with one Hymenaeus, put from him faith and a good conscience, and so made shipwreck concerning the faith. This may be the same with + Alexander the coppersmith, mentioned by the same apostle, (2 Timothy 4:14) as having done him many mischiefs. Alexander Iii (helper of men--brave) king of Macedon, surnamed the Great, the son of Philip and Olympias, was born at Pella B.C. 356, and succeeded his father B.C. 336. Two years afterwards he crossed the Hellespont (B.C. 334) to carry out the plans of his fathers and execute the mission of (Greece to the civilized world. He subjugated Syria and Palestine B.C. 334-332. Egypt next submitted to him B.C. 332, and in this year he founded Alexandria. In the same year he finally defeated Darius at Gaugamela, who in B.C. 330 was murdered. The next two years were occupied by Alexander in the consolidation of his Persian conquests and the reduction of Bactria. In B.C. 327 he crossed the Indus; turning westward he reached Susa B.C. 325, and proceeded to Babylon B.C. 324, which he chose as the capital of his empire. In the next year (B.C. 323) he died there of intemperance, at the early age of 32, in the midst of his gigantic plans; and those who inherited his conquests left his designs unachieved and unattempted. cf. (Daniel 7:6; 8:5; 11:3) Alexander is intended in (Daniel 2:39) and also Dani 7:6; 8:5-7; 11:3,4 The latter indicating the rapidity of his conquests and his power. He ruled with great dominion, and did according to his will, (Daniel 11:3) "and there was none that could deliver .... out of his hand." (Daniel 8:7) Alexandria, Or Alexandria (from Alexander), 3 Ma 3:1; (Acts 18:24; 6:9) the Hellenic, Roman and Christian capital of Egypt. Situation .-- (Alexandria was situated on the Mediterranean Sea directly opposite the island of Pharos, 12 miles west of the Canopic branch of the Nile and 120 miles from the present city of Cairo.) It was founded by Alexander the Great, B.C. 332, who himself traced the ground plan of the city. The work thus begun was continued after the death of Alexander by the Ptolemies. Description .-- Under the despotism of the later Ptolemies the trade of Alexandria declined, but its population and wealth were enormous. Its importance as one of the chief corn-ports of Rome secured for it the general favor of the first emperors. Its population was mixed from the first. According to Josephus Alexander himself assigned to the Jews a place in his new city. Philo estimated the number of the Alexandrine Jews in his time at a little less than 1,000,000 and adds that two of the five districts of Alexandria were called "Jewish districts," and that many Jews lived scattered in the remaining three. "For a long period Alexandria was the greatest of known cities." After Rome became the chief city of the world, Alexandria ranked second to Rome in wealth and importance, and second to Athens only in literature and science. Its collection of books grew to be the greatest library of ancient times, and contained at one time 700,000 rolls or volumes. Here was made the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament into Greek, begun about B.C. 285, especially in grain, was very great. According to the common legend, St. Mark first "preached the gospel in Egypt, and founded the first church in Alexandria." At the beginning of the second century the number of Christians at Alexandria must have been very large, and the great leaders of Gnosticism who arose there (Basilides, Valentinus) exhibit an exaggeration of the tendency of the Church. PRESENT CONDITION. The city still bears the same name and is a thriving metropolis, with inhabitants from nearly every European and Oriental nation. Cleopatra's needle, set up by Thotmes in 1500 B.C., was found in Alexandria. Alexandrians the Jewish colonists of Alexandria, who were admitted to the privileges of citizenship and had a synagogue at Jerusalem. (Acts 6:9) Algum Or Almug Trees the former occurring in (2 Chronicles 2:8; 9:10,11) the latter in (1 Kings 10:11,12) These words are identical. From (1 Kings 10:11,12; 2 Chronicles 9:10,11) we learn that the almug was brought in great plenty from Ophir for Solomon's temple and house, and for the construction of musical instruments. It is probable that this tree is the red sandle wood, which is a native of India and Ceylon. The wood is very heavy, hard and fine grained, and of a beautiful garnet color. Aliah [[108]Alvah] Alian [[109]Alvan] Allegory a figure of speech, which has been defined by Bishop Marsh, in accordance with its etymology as, "a representation of one thing which is intended to excite the representation of another thing." ("A figurative representation containing a meaning other than and in addition to the literal." "A fable or parable; is a short allegory with one definite moral."--Encyc. Brit.) In every allegory there is a twofold sense--the immediate or historic, which is understood from the words, and the ultimate, which is concerned with the things signified by the words. The allegorical interpretation is not of the words, but of the thing signified by them, and not only may, but actually does, coexist with the literal interpretation in every allegory, whether the narrative in which it is conveyed be of things possible or real. An illustration of this may be seen in (Galatians 4:24) where the apostle gives an allegorical interpretation to the historical narrative of Hagar and Sarah, not treating that narrative as an allegory in itself; as our Authorized Version would lead us to suppose, but drawing from it a deeper sense than is conveyed by the immediate representation. (Addison's Vision of Mirza and Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress are among the best allegories in all literature.) Alleluia so written in (Revelation 19:6) foll., or more properly [110]Hallelujah, praise ye Jehovah, as it is found in the margin of (Psalms 104:35; 105:45; 106; 111:1; 112:1; 113:1) comp. Psal 113:9; 115:18; 116:19, 117:2 The literal meaning of "hallelujah" sufficiently indicates the character of the Psalms in which it occurs as hymns of praise and thanksgiving. Alliances On the first establishment of the Hebrews in Palestine no connections were formed between them and the surrounding nations. But with the extension of their power under the kings alliances became essential to the security of their commerce. Solomon concluded two important treaties exclusively for commercial purposes the first with Hiram king of Tyre (1 Kings 5:2-12; 9:27) the second with a Pharaoh, king of Egypt. (1 Kings 10:28,29) When war broke out between Amaziah I and Jeroboam II, a coalition was formed between Rezin, king of Syria, and Pekah on the one side, and Ahaz and Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria, on the other. (2 Kings 16:5-9) The formation of an alliance was attended with various religious rites. A victim was slain and divided into two parts, between which the contracting parties passed. (Genesis 15:10) Generally speaking the oath alone is mentioned in the contracting of alliances, either between nations, (Joshua 9:15) or individuals. (Genesis 25:28; 31:53; 1 Samuel 20:17; 2 Kings 11:4) The event was celebrated by a feast. Genesis l.c.; (Exodus 24:11; 2 Samuel 3:12,20) Salt, as symbolical of fidelity, was used on these occasions. Occasionally a pillar or a heap of stones was set up as a memorial of the alliance. (Genesis 31:52) Presents were also sent by the parties soliciting the alliance. (1 Kings 15:18; Isaiah 30:6); 1 Macc 16:18. The fidelity of the Jews to their engagements was conspicuous at all periods of their history, (Joshua 9:18) and any breach of covenant was visited with very severe punishment. (2 Samuel 21:1; Ezekiel 17:16) Allon a large strong tree of some description probably an oak. + [111]Allon more accurately [112]Elon, a place named among the cities of Naphtali. (Joshua 19:33) Probably the more correct construction is to take it with the following word, i.e., "the oak by Zaanannim. [[113]Elon] + [114]Allon BACHUTH (oak of weeping) the tree under which Rebekah's nurse, Deborah, was buried. (Genesis 35:8) (an oak) a Simeonite, ancestor of Ziza, a prince of his tribe in the reign of Hezekiah (1 Chronicles 4:37) (B.C. 727.) Almodad (measure) the first in order of the descendants of Joktan. (Genesis 10:26; 1 Chronicles 1:20) Almon (concealed) a city within the tribe of Benjamin, with "suburbs" given to the priests. (Joshua 21:18) [[115]Alemeth] Almond Tree; Almond This word is found in (Genesis 43:11; Exodus 25:33,34; 37:19,20; Numbers 17:8; Ecclesiastes 12:5; Jeremiah 1:11) in the text of the Authorized Version. It is invariably represented by the same Hebrew word, shaked meaning hasten. (Jeremiah 1:11,12) The almond tree is a native of Asia and North Africa, but it is cultivated in the milder parts of Europe." It resembles the peach tree in form, blossom and fruit. It is in fact only another species of the same genus." The height of the tree is about 12 or 14 feet; the flowers are pink, and arranged for the most part in pairs, the leaves are long, ovate, with a serrated margin and an acute point. The covering of the fruit is down and succulent, enclosing the hard shell which contains the kernel. It is this but for which the tree is chiefly valued. It is curious to observe, in connection with the almond bowls of the golden candlestick, that, in the language of lapidaries, almonds are pieces of rock crystal, even now used in adorning branch candlesticks. Almondiblathaim (concealing the two cakes), one of the latest stations of the Israelites between Dibon-gad and the mountains of Abarim (Numbers 33:46,47) It is probably identical with Beth-diblathaim. Alms The duty of alms-giving, especially in kind, consisting chiefly in portions to be left designedly from produce of the field, the vineyard and the oliveyard, (Leviticus 19:9,10; 23:22; 15:11; 24:19; 26:2-13; Ruth 2:2) is strictly enjoined by the law. Every third year also, (14:28) each proprietor was directed to share the tithe of his produce with "the Levite, the stranger, the fatherless and the widow." The theological estimate of alms-giving among the Jews is indicated in the following passages: (Job 31:17; Proverbs 10:2; 11:4; Esther 9:22; Psalms 112:9; Acts 9:36) the case of Dorcas; (Acts 10:2) of Cornelius; to which may be added Tobit 4:10,11; 14:10,11, and Ecclus. 3:30; 40:24. The Pharisees were zealous in almsgiving, but too ostentatious their mode of performance, for which our Lord finds fault with them. (Matthew 6:2) The duty of relieving the poor was not neglected by the Christians. (Matthew 6:1-4; Luke 14:13; Acts 20:35; Galatians 2:10) Regular proportionate giving was expected. (Acts 11:30; Romans 15:25-27; 1 Corinthians 16:1-4) Almug Trees [[116]Algum Or Almug Trees TREES] Aloes, Lign Aloes (in Heb. Ahalim, Ahaloth), The name of a costly and sweet-smelling wood which is mentioned in (Numbers 24:6; Psalms 45:8; Proverbs 7:17; Song of Solomon 4:14; John 19:39) It is usually identified with the Aquilaria agollochum, an aromatic wood much valued in India. This tree sometimes grows to the height of 120 feet, being 12 feet in girth. Aloth a place or district, forming with Asher the jurisdiction of the ninth of Solomon's commissariat officers. (1 Kings 4:16) Alpha (A), the first letter of the Greek alphabet. With Omega, the last letter, it is used in the Old Testament and in the New to express the eternity of God, as including both the beginning and the end. (Revelation 1:8,11; 21:6; 22:13; Isaiah 41:4; 44:6) hence these letters became a favorite symbol of the eternal divinity of our Lord, and were used for this purpose in connection with the cross, or the monogram of Christ (i.e. the first two letters, ch and r, of Christ's name in Greek). Both Greeks and Hebrews employed the letters of the alphabet as numerals. Alphabet [[117]Writing] Alphaeus (changing) the father of the apostle James the Less, (Matthew 10:3; Mark 3:18; Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13) and husband of Mary. (John 19:25) [[118]Mary] In this latter place he is called Clopas (not, as in the Authorized Version, Cleophas). Altar The first altar of which we have any account is that built by Noah when he left the ark. (Genesis 8:20) In the early times altars were usually built in certain spots hallowed by religious associations, e.g., where God appeared. (Genesis 12:7; 13:18; 26:25; 35:1) Though generally erected for the offering of sacrifice, in some instances they appear to have been only memorials. (Genesis 12:7; Exodus 17:15,16) Altars were most probably originally made of earth. The law of Moses allowed them to be made of either earth or unhewn stones. (Exodus 20:24,25) I. The Altar of Burnt Offering . It differed in construction at different times. (1) In the tabernacle, (Exodus 27:1) ff.; Exod 38:1 ff., it was comparatively small and portable. In shape it was square. It as five cubits in length, the same in breadth, and three cubits high. It was made of planks of shittim (or acacia) wood overlaid with brass. The interior was hollow. (Exodus 27:8) At the four corners were four projections called horns made, like the altar itself, of shittim wood overlaid with brass, (Exodus 27:2) and to them the victim was bound when about to be sacrificed. (Psalms 118:27) Round the altar, midway between the top and bottom, ran a projecting ledge, on which perhaps the priest stood when officiating. To the outer edge of this, again, a grating or network of brass was affixed, and reached to the bottom of the altar. At the four corners of the network were four brazen rings, into which were inserted the staves by which the altar was carried. These staves were of the same material as the altar itself. As the priests were forbidden to ascend the altar by steps, (Exodus 20:26) it has been conjectured that a slope of earth led gradually up to the ledge from which they officiated. The place of the altar was at the door of the tabernacle of the congregation.)" (Exodus 40:29) (2) In Solomon's temple the altar was considerably larger in its dimensions. It differed too in the material of which it was made, being entirely of brass. (1 Kings 8:64; 2 Chronicles 7:7) It had no grating, and instead of a single gradual slope, the ascent to it was probably made by three successive platforms, to each of which it has been supposed that steps led. The altar erected by Herod in front of the temple was 15 cubits in height and 50 cubits in length and breadth. According to (Leviticus 6:12,13) a perpetual fire was to be kept burning on the altar. II. The Altar of Incense, called also the golden altar to distinguish it from the altar of burnt offering which was called the brazen altar. (Exodus 38:30) (a) That in the tabernacle was made of acacia wood, overlaid with pure gold. In shape it was square, being a cubit in length and breadth and two cubits in height. Like the altar of burnt offering it had horns at the four corners, which were of one piece with the rest of the altar. This altar stood in the holy place, "before the vail that is by the ark of the testimony." (Exodus 30:6; 40:5) (b) The altar of Solomon's temple was similar, (1 Kings 7:48; 1 Chronicles 28:18) but was made of cedar overlaid with gold. III. Other Altars . In (Acts 17:23) reference is made to an alter to an unknown God. There were several altars in Athens with this inscription, erected during the time of a plague. Since they knew not what god was offended and required to be propitiated. Altaschith (destroy not), found in the introductory verse to Psalms 57,58,59,75. It was probably the beginning of some song or poem to the tune of which those psalms were to be chanted. Alush (a crowd of men) one of the stations of the Israelites on their journey to Sinai, the last before Rephidim. (Numbers 33:13,14) Alvah (evil), a duke of Edom, (Genesis 36:40) written [119]Aliah in (1 Chronicles 1:51) Alvan (tall), a Horite, son of Shobal, (Genesis 36:23) written [120]Alian in (1 Chronicles 1:40) Amad (enduring), an unknown place in Asher, between Alammelech and Misheal. (Joshua 19:26) only. Amadatha (Esther 16:10,17) and Amad'athus . (Esther 12:6) [[121]Hammedatha] Amal (labor), an Asherite, son of Helem. (1 Chronicles 7:35) Amalek (dweller in a valley), a son of Eliphaz by his concubine Timnah grandson of Esau, and chieftain ("duke," Authorized Version) of Edom. (Genesis 36:12,16; 1 Chronicles 1:36) (B.C. about 1700.) Amalekites a nomadic tribe of uncertain origin, which occupied the peninsula of Sinai and the wilderness intervening between the southern hill-ranges of Palestine and the border of Egypt. (Numbers 13:29; 1 Samuel 15:7; 27:8) Their wealth consisted in flocks and herds. Mention is made of a "town" (1 Samuel 15:5) but their towns could have been little more than stations or nomadic enclosures. The Amalekites first came in contact with the Israelites at Rephidim, but were signally defeated. (Exodus 17:8-16) In union with the Canaanites they again attacked the Israelites on the borders of Palestine, and defeated them near Hormah. (Numbers 14:45) Saul undertook an expedition against them. (1 Samuel 14:48) Their power was thenceforth broken, and they degenerated into a horde of banditti. Their destruction was completed by David. (1 Samuel 30:1-17) Amalekites, Mount Of a mountain in Ephraim, (Judges 12:15) probably so named because the Amalekites once held possession of it. Amam (gathering place), a city in the south of Judah named with Shema and Moladah in (Joshua 15:26) only. Aman [[122]Haman] (Esther 10:7; 12:6; 13:3,12; 14:17; 16:10,17) Amana (a covenant), apparently a mountain in or near Lebanon. (Song of Solomon 4:8) It is commonly assumed that this is the mountain in which the river Abana, (2 Kings 5:12) has its source. Amariah (the Lord says, i.e. promises). + Father of Ahitub according to (1 Chronicles 6:7,52) and son of Meraioth, in the line of the high priests. + The high priest in the reign of Jehoshaphat. (2 Chronicles 19:11) He was the son of Azariah. + The head of a Levitical house of the Kohathites. (1 Chronicles 23:13; 24:23) + The head of one of the twenty-four courses of priest. (2 Chronicles 31:15; Nehemiah 10:3; 12:2,13) + One of the sons of Bani in the time of Ezra. (Ezra 10:42) + A priest who returned with Zerubbabel. (Nehemiah 10:3; 12:2,13) + A descendant of Pharez. (Nehemiah 11:4) + An ancestor of Zephaniah the prophet. (Zephaniah 1:1) Amasa (a burden). + Son of Ithra, or Jether, by Abigail, David's sister. (2 Samuel 17:25) He joined in Absalom's rebellion, B.C. 1023, was appointed commander-in-chief and suffered defeat by Joab. (2 Samuel 18:6) David, incensed against Joab for killing Absalom, forgave Amasa and appointed him Joab's successor. (2 Samuel 19:13) Joab afterwards, when they were both in pursuit of the rebel Sheba, pretending to salute Amasa stabbed him with his sword. (2 Samuel 20:10) + A prince of Ephraim, son of Hadlai, in the reign of Ahaz. (2 Chronicles 28:12) Amasai, Or Amasai (burdensome) + A Kohathite, father of Mahath and ancestor of Samuel (1 Chronicles 6:25,35) + Chief of the captains of Judah and Benjamin, who deserted to David while an outlaw at Ziklag. (1 Chronicles 12:18) (B.C. 1060.) + One of the priests who blew trumpets before the ark. (1 Chronicles 15:24) + Another Kohathite, in the reign of Hezekiah. (2 Chronicles 29:12) Amashai Or Amashai (burdensome), son of Azareel, a priest in the time of Nehemiah, (Nehemiah 11:13) apparently the same as [123]Maasiai. (1 Chronicles 9:12) (B.C. 440.) Amasiah (whom Jehovah bears), son of Zichri and captain of 200,000 warriors of Judah in the reign of Jehoshaphat. (2 Chronicles 17:16) (B.C. 910.) Amath [[124]Hamath] Amaziah (the strength of the Lord). + Son of Joash, and eighth king of Judah, reigned B.C. 837-809. He succeeded to the throne at the age of 25, on the murder of his father, and punished the murderers. In order to restore his kingdom to the greatness of Jehoshaphat's days, he made war on the Edomites, defeated them in the Valley of Salt, south of the Dead Sea, and took their capital, Selah or Petra, to which he gave the name of Jokteel, i.e. "God-subdued." Flushed with his success, he challenged Joash king of Israel to battle, but was completely defeated, and himself was taken prisoner and conveyed by Joash to Jerusalem, which opened its gates to the conqueror. Amaziah lived 15 years after the death of Joash; and in the 29th year of his reign was murdered by conspirators at Lachish, whither he had retired from Jerusalem for safety. (2 Chronicles 25:27) + A descendant of Simeon (1 Chronicles 4:34) + A Levite. (1 Chronicles 6:45) + Priest of the golden calf at Bethel who endeavored to drive the prophet Amos from Israel into Judah. (Amos 7:11,12,14) Ambassador a person of high rank employed by a government to represent it and transact its business at the seat of government of some other power. The earliest examples of ambassadors employed occur in (Numbers 20:14; 21:21; Judges 11:7-19) afterwards in that of the fraudulent Gibeonites, (Joshua 9:4) etc., and in the instances of civic strife mentioned (Judges 11:12) and Judg 20:12 Ambassadors are found to have been employed not only on occasions of hostile challenge or insolent menace, (1 Kings 20:2,6; 2 Kings 14:8) but of friendly compliment, of request for alliance or other aid, of submissive deprecation and of curious inquiry. (2 Kings 14:8; 16:7; 18:14; 2 Chronicles 32:31) Ministers are called ambassadors of Christ. Ambassage embassy, a message of a public nature brought by ambassadors. The word also sometimes includes the ambassadors themselves. (Luke 14:32) Amber (Heb. chasmal) occurs only in (Ezekiel 1:4,27; 8:2) It is usually supposed that the Hebrew word chasmal (denotes a metal) and not the fossil resin called amber . Amen literally "true" and used as a substantive, "that which is true," "truth," (Isaiah 65:16) a word used in strong asseverations, fixing, as it were, the stamp of truth upon the assertion which it accompanied, and making it binding as an oath. Comp. (Numbers 5:22) In the synagogues and private houses it was customary for the people or members of the family who were present to say "amen" to the prayers which were offered. (Matthew 6:13; 1 Corinthians 14:16) And not only public prayers, but those offered in private, and doxologies, were appropriately concluded with "amen." (Romans 9:5; 11:36; 15:33; 16:27; 2 Corinthians 13:14) etc. Amethyst (Heb. achlamah) a subspecies of quartz of a bluish-violet color. Mention is made of this precious stone, which formed the third in the third row of the high priestly breastplate, in (Exodus 28:19; 39:12) It occurs also in (Revelation 21:20) Ami (builder), one of Solomon's servants, (Ezra 2:57) called [125]Amon, Or Amen, [126]Amon in (Nehemiah 7:59) Amittai (true), father of the prophet Jonah. (2 Kings 14:25; Jonah 1:1) Ammah (head), The hill of, A hill facing Giah by the way of the wilderness of Gibeon, named as the point to which Joab pursued Abner (2 Samuel 2:24) Ammi i.e., as explained in the margin of the Authorized Version, my people . (Hosea 2:1) Ammiel (people of God). + The spy from the tribe of Dan. (Numbers 13:12) (B.C. 1490.) He perished by the plague for his evil report. + Father of Machir of Lo-debar. (2 Samuel 9:4; 17:27) + Father of Bath-sheba, (1 Chronicles 3:5) called [127]Eliam in (2 Samuel 11:3) + The sixth son of Obed-edom, (1 Chronicles 26:5) and one of the doorkeepers of the temple. (B.C. 1014.) Ammihud (people of praise). + An Ephraimite father of Elishama, the chief of the tribe at the time of the Exodus. (Numbers 1:10; 2:18; 7:48,53; 10:22; 7:26) and, through him, ancestor of Joshua. (B.C. 1491.) + A Simeonite, father of Shemuel. (Numbers 34:20) + The father of Pedahel, prince of the tribe of Naphtali. (Numbers 34:28) + The father-of Talmai king of Geshur. (2 Samuel 13:37) + A descendant of Pharez, son of Judah. (1 Chronicles 9:4) Amminadab (one of the prince's people). + Son of Ram or Aram, and father of Nahshon, or [128]Naasson (as it is written) (Matthew 1:4; Luke 3:32); (Numbers 1:7; 2:3; Ruth 4:19,20; 1 Chronicles 2:10) One of the ancestors of Jesus Christ. + The chief of the 112 sons of Uzziel, a Junior Levitical house of the family of the Kohathites. (Exodus 6:23; 1 Chronicles 15:10,11) + In (1 Chronicles 6:22) Izhar, the son of Kohath, is called [129]Amminadib; probably a clerical error. Amminadib Probably another form of Amminadab. He was noted for the swiftness of his chariot. (Song of Solomon 6:12) It is uncertain whether we ought to read here AMMINADIB, with the Authorized Version, or my willing people, as in the margin. Ammishad'da-i (people of the Almighty), the father of Ahiezer, prince of the tribe of Dan at the time of the Exodus. (Numbers 1:12; 2:25; 7:66,71; 10:25) (B.C. 1491.) Ammizabad (people of the Giver, i.e. God), the son of Benaiah, who commanded the third division of David's army. (1 Chronicles 27:6) (B.C. 1050.) Ammon (sons of renown, mountaineers), Am'monites, Children of Ammon, A people descended from Ben-ammi, the son of Lot by his younger daughter. (Genesis 19:38) comp Psal 83:7,8 The Ammonites are frequently mentioned with the Moabites (descendants of Ben-ammi's half-brother), and sometimes under the same name. Comp. (Judges 10:6; 2 Chronicles 20:1; Zephaniah 2:8) etc. The precise position of the territory of the Ammonites is not ascertainable. In the earliest mention of them, (2:20) they are said to have dwelt in their place, Jabbok being their border. (Numbers 21:24; 2:37; 3:16) (i.e. Land or country is, however, but rarely ascribed to them. Their capital city was Rabbath, called also Rabbath Ammon on the Jabbok. We find everywhere traces of the fierce habits of maranders in their incursions.) (1 Samuel 11:2; Amos 1:13) and a very high degree of crafty cruelty to their toes. (Jeremiah 41:6,7; Judges 17:11,12) Moab was the settled and civilized half of the nation of Lot, and Ammon formed its predatory and Bedouin section. On the west of Jordan they never obtained a footing. The hatred in which the Ammonites were held by Israel is stated to have arisen partly from their denial of assistance, (23:4) to the Israelites on their approach to Canaan. But whatever its origin the animosity continued in force to the latest date. The tribe was governed by a king, (Judges 11:12) etc.; (1 Samuel 12:12; 2 Samuel 10:1; Jeremiah 40:14) and by "princes." (2 Samuel 10:3; 1 Chronicles 19:3) The divinity of the tribe was Molech [[130]Molech], and they were gross idolaters. Ammonitess a woman of Ammonite race. (1 Kings 14:21,31; 2 Chronicles 12:13) Ammonno See [131]No-Amon. Amninadab (Matthew 1:4; Luke 3:33) [[132]Amminadab, 1] Amnon (faithful). + Eldest son of David. (B.C. 1052.) He dishonored his half-sister Tamar, and was in consequence murdered by her brother. (2 Samuel 13:1-29) + Son of Shimon. (1 Chronicles 4:20) Amok a priest who returned with Zerubbabel. (Nehemiah 12:7,20) (B.C. 536.) Amon (builder). + One of Ahab's governors. (1 Kings 22:26; 2 Chronicles 18:25) + King of Judah, son and successor of Manasseh, reigned two years, from B.C. 642 to 640. Amon devoted himself wholly to the service of false gods, but was killed in a conspiracy, and was succeeded by his son Josiah. Amon, Or Amen (the mysterious), an Egyptian divinity, whose name occurs in that of No-amon. (Nahum 3:8) Amen was one of the eight gods of the first order and chief of the triad of Thebes. He was worshipped at that city as Amen-Ra, or "Amen the Sun." Amorite, The Amorites (dwellers on the summits, mountaineers), one of the chief nations who possessed the land of Canaan before its conquest by the Israelites. As dwelling on the elevated portions of the country, they are contrasted with the Canaanites, who were the dwellers in the lowlands; and the two thus formed the main broad divisions of the Holy Land, (Numbers 13:29) and see (14:7; 1:7,20) "Mountain of the Amorites;" (1:44; Joshua 5:1; 10:6; 11:3) They first occupied the barren heights west of the Dead Sea, at the place called afterwards Engedi. From this point they stretched west to Hebron. At the date of the invasion of the country, Sihon, their then king, had taken the rich pasture land south of the Jabbok. This rich tract, bounded by the Jabbok on the north, the Arnon on the south, the Jordan on the west and "the wilderness" on the east, (Judges 11:21,22) was, perhaps in the most special sense the "land of the Amorites," (Numbers 21:31; Joshua 12:2,3; 13:10; Judges 11:21,22) but their possessions are distinctly stated to have extended to the very foot of Hermon, (3:8; 4:48) embracing "Gilead and all Bashan," (3:10) with the Jordan valley on the east of the river. (4:49) After the conquest of Canaan nothing of importance is heard of the Amorites in the Bible. Amos (burden), native of Tekoa in Judah, about six miles south of Bethlehem, originally a shepherd and dresser of sycamore trees, who was called by God s Spirit to be a prophet, although not trained in any of the regular prophetic schools. (Amos 1:1; 7:14,15) He travelled from Judah into the northern kingdom of Israel or Ephraim, and there exercised his ministry, apparently not for any long time. (His date cannot be later than B.C. 808 for he lived in the reigns of Uzziah king of Judah and Jeroboam king of Israel; but his ministry probably took place at an earlier date, perhaps about the middle of Jeroboam's reign Nothing is known of the time or manner of his death.--ED.) Amos, Book Of The book of the prophecies of Amos seems to be divided into four principal portions closely connected together. (1) From 1:1 to 2:3 he denounces the sins of the nations bordering on Israel and Judah. (2) From 2:4 to 6:14 he describes the state of those two kingdoms, especially, the former. (3) From 7:1 to 9:10 he relates his visit to Bethel, and sketches the impending punishment of Israel. At last he promises blessings. The chief peculiarity of the style consists in the number of allusions to natural objects and agricultural occupations, as might be expected from the early life of the author. Amoz (strong), father of the prophet Isaiah, and, according to rabbinical tradition, brother of Amaziah king of Judah. (2 Kings 19:2,20; 20:1; Isaiah 1:1) (B.C. before 756.) Amphipolis (a city surrounded by the sea), a city of Macedonia, through which Paul and Silas passed on their way from Philippi to Thessalonica (Acts 17:1) It was distant 33 Roman miles from Philippi, to the southwest, and about three miles from the sea. Its site is now occupied by a village called Neokhorio ; in Turkish Jeni-Keni, or "New Town." Amplias (large), a Christian at Rome. (Romans 16:8) (A.D. 55.) Ampliatus (Revised Version,) (Romans 16:8) (the full name of which [133]Amplias, above, is the contraction. The name in this form is "common in the sepulchral inscriptions of persons connected with Caesar's household." (A.D. 55.)--ED.) Amram (an exalted people). + A Levite of the family of the Kohathites, and father of Moses. (Exodus 6:18,20) (B.C. 1571.) + A son of Dishon and descendant of Seir, (1 Chronicles 1:41) properly "Hamram" = [134]Hemdan in (Genesis 36:26) + One of the sons of Bani in the time of Ezra, who had married a foreign wife. (Ezra 10:34) (B.C. 459). Amramites A branch of the great Kohathite family of the tribe of Levi, (Numbers 3:27; 1 Chronicles 26:23) descended from Amram, the father of Moses. Amraphel (keeper of the gods) perhaps a Hamite king of Shinar or Babylonia, who joined the victorious incursion of the Elamite Chedorlaomer against the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah and the cities of the plain. Gen. 14. (B.C. 1898.) Amulets were ornaments, gems, scrolls. etc.. worn as preservatives against the power of enchantments, and generally inscribed with mystic forms or characters. The "earrings" in (Genesis 35:4) were obviously connected with idolatrous worship and were probably amulets taken from the bodies of the slain Shechemites. They are subsequently mentioned among the spoils of Midian. (Judges 8:24) In (Hosea 2:13) is another like reference. The "earrings" in (Isaiah 3:20) were also amulets. Amzi (strong). + A Levite of the family of Merari. (1 Chronicles 6:46) + A priest. (Nehemiah 11:12) Anab (grape-town), a town in the mountains of Judah, (Joshua 15:50) named with Debir and Hebron as once belonging to the Anakim. (Joshua 11:21) Anah (one who answers), the son of Zibeon and father of Aholibamah, one of Esau's wives. (Genesis 36:2,14,25) He is supposed to have discovered the "hot springs" (not "mules," as in the Authorized Version) in the desert as he fed the asses of Zibeon his father. (B.C. 1797.) Anaharath (gorge or pass), a place within the border of Issachar, named with Shihon and Rabbith. (Joshua 19:19) Anaiah (whom Jehovah answers). + Probably a priest. (Nehemiah 8:4) + One of the "heads of the people" who signed the covenant with Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 10:22) Anakim (long-necked), a race of giants, descendants of Arba, (Joshua 15:13; 21:11) dwelling in the southern part of Canaan, and particularly at Hebron, which from their progenitor received the name of "city of Arba." Anak was the name of the race rather than that of an individual. (Joshua 14:15) The race appears to have been divided into three tribes or families, bearing the names Sheshai, Ahiman and Talmai. Though the war-like appearance of the Anakim had struck the Israelites with terror in the time of Moses, (Numbers 13:28; 9:2) they were nevertheless dispossessed by Joshua, (Joshua 11:21,22) and their chief city, Hebron, became the possession of Caleb. (Joshua 15:14; Judges 1:20) After this time they vanish from history. Anamim a Mizraite people or tribe. (Genesis 10:13; 1 Chronicles 1:11) Anammelech (image of the king), one of the idols worshipped by the colonists introduced into Samaria from Sepharvaim. (2 Kings 17:31) He was worshipped with rites resembling those of Molech, and is the companion-god to Adrammelech. Anan (a cloud), one of the "heads of the people" who signed the covenant with Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 10:26) (B.C. 410.) Anani (Protected by Jehovah), the seventh son of Elioenai, descended from the royal line of Judah. (1 Chronicles 3:24) Ananiah a place, named between Nob and Hazor, in which the Benjamites lived after their return from captivity. (Nehemiah 11:32) (protected by Jehovah) probably a priest, and ancestor of Azariah, who assisted in rebuilding the city wall in the days of Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 3:23) (B.C. before 446.) Ananias (whom Jehovah has graciously given) + A high priest in (Acts 23:2-5; 24:1) He was the son of Nebedaeus. He was nominated to the office by Herod king of Chalcis in A.D. 48; was deposed shortly before Felix left the province and assassinated by the Sicarii at the beginning of the last Jewish war. + A disciple at Jerusalem, husband of Sapphira. (Acts 5:1-11) having sold his goods for the benefit of the church he kept back a part of the price, bringing to the apostles the remainder as if it was the whole, his wife being privy to the scheme. St. Peter denounced the fraud, and Ananias fell down and expired. + A Jewish disciple at Damascus, (Acts 9:10-17) of high repute, (Acts 22:12) who sought out Saul during the period of blindness which followed his conversion, and announced to him his future commission as a preacher of the gospel. Tradition makes him to have been afterwarded bishop of Damascus, and to have died by martyrdom. Anath (answer), father of Shamgar. (Judges 3:31; 5:6) Anathema which literally means a thing suspended, is the equivalent of the Hebrew word signifying a thing or person voted. Any object so devoted to Jehovah was irredeemable. If an inanimate object, it was to be given to the priests, (Numbers 18:14) if a living creature or even a man, it was to be slain. (Leviticus 27:28,29) The word anathema frequently occurs in St. Paul's writings, and is generally translated accused. An examination of the passages in which it occurs shows that it had acquired a more general sense as expressive either of strong feeling, (Romans 9:3) or of dislike and condemnation. (1 Corinthians 12:3; 16:22; Galatians 1:9) Anathoth a priests' city belonging to the tribe of Benjamin, with "suburbs." (Joshua 21:18; 1 Chronicles 6:60) Anathoth lay about three miles from Jerusalem. (Isaiah 10:30) The cultivation of the priests survives in tilled fields of grain, with figs and olives. There are the remains of walls and strong foundations, and the quarries still supply Jerusalem with building stones. (answers to prayer). + Son of Becher, a son of Benjamin. (1 Chronicles 7:8) + One of the "heads of the people" who signed the covenant in the time of Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 10:19) (B.C. 410.) Anchor (Acts 27:29) Andrew (manly), one of the apostles of our Lord, (John 1:40; Matthew 4:18) brother of Simon Peter. He was of Bethsaida, and had been a disciple of John the Baptist, leaving him to follow our Lord. By his means his brother Simon was brought to Jesus. (John 1:41) His place among the apostles seems to have been fourth, next after the three Peter, James and John, and in company with Philip. (Mark 3:18; Acts 1:13) The traditions about him are various. He is said to have preached in Scythia, in Greece, in Asia Minor and Thrace, and to have been crucified at Patrae in Achaia. Andronicus (man-conqueror). + An officer left as viceroy, 2 Macc. 4:31, in Antioch by Antiochus Epiphanes during his absence. 2 Macc. 4:31-38. (B.C. 171.) + Another officer of Antiochus Epiphanes who was left by him on Garizem. 2 Macc. 5:23. + A Christian at Rome, saluted by St. Paul, (Romans 16:7) together with Junia. Anem (two springs), a city of Issachar, with "suburbs," belonging to the (Gershonites). (1 Chronicles 6:70) Aner one of the three Amorite chiefs of Hebron who aided Abraham in the pursuit after the four invading kings. (Genesis 14:13,24) (boy), a city of Manasseh, west of Jordan, with "suburbs," given to the Kohathites. (1 Chronicles 6:70) Anethothite (2 Samuel 23:27) Anet'othite, (1 Chronicles 27:12) and An'tothite, (1 Chronicles 11:28; 12:3) an inhabitant of Anathoth, of the tribe of Benjamin. Angel Of The Lord (Genesis 16:7) etc. (The special form in which God manifested himself to man, and hence Christ's visible form before the incarnation. Compare (Acts 7:30-38) with the corresponding Old-Testament history; and (Genesis 18:1,13,14,33) and Genesis 19:1) Angels By the word "angels" (i.e. "messengers" of God) we ordinarily understand a race of spiritual beings of a nature exalted far above that of man, although infinitely removed from that of God--whose office is "to do him service in heaven, and by his appointment to succor and defend men on earth. I. Scriptural use of the word .--There are many passages in which the expression "angel of God" is certainly used for a manifestation of God himself (Genesis 22:11) with Genesis 22:12 and Exod 3:2 with Exod 3:6 and Exod 3:14 It is to be observed, also, that side by side with these expressions we read of God's being manifested in the form of man--as to Abraham at Mamre, (Genesis 18:2,22) comp. Genesis 19:1 To Jacob at Penuel, (Genesis 32:24,30) to Joshua at Gilgal, (Joshua 5:13,15) etc. Besides this, which is the highest application of the word angel, we find the phrase used of any messengers of God, such as the prophets, (Isaiah 42:19; Haggai 1:13; Malachi 3:1) the priests, (Malachi 2:7) and the rulers of the Christian churches. (Revelation 1:20) II. Nature of angels--Angels are termed "spirits," as in (Hebrews 1:14)--but it is not asserted that the angelic nature is incorporeal. The contrary seems expressly implied in (Luke 20:36; Philemon 3:21) The angels are revealed to us as beings such as man might be, and will be when the power of sin and death is removed, because always beholding his face, (Matthew 18:10) and therefore being "made like him." (1 John 3:2) Their number must be very large, (1 Kings 22:19; Matthew 26:53; Hebrews 12:22) their strength is great, (Psalms 103:20; Revelation 5:2; 18:21) their activity marvelous (Isaiah 6:2-6; Matthew 26:53; Revelation 8:13) their appearance varied according to circumstances, but was often brilliant and dazzling. (Matthew 28:2-7; Revelation 10:1,2) Of the nature of "fallen angels," the circumstances and nature of the temptation by which they fell, we know absolutely nothing. All that is certain is that they "left their first estate" and that they are now "angels of the devil." (Matthew 25:41; Revelation 12:7,9) On the other hand the title especially assigned to the angels of God--that of the "holy ones," see (Daniel 4:13,23; 8:13; Matthew 25:31)--is precisely the one which is given to those men who are renewed in Christ's image. Comp. (Hebrews 2:10; 5:9; 12:23) III. Office of the angels . Of their office in heaven we have only vague prophetic glimpses as in (1 Kings 22:19; Isaiah 6:1-3; Daniel 7:9,10; Revelation 6:11), etc., which show us nothing but a never-ceasing adoration. They are represented as being, in the widest sense, agents of God's providence, natural and supernatural, to the body and to the soul. In one word, they are Christ's ministers of grace now, and they shall be of judgment hereafter. (Matthew 13:39,41,49; 16:27; 24:31) etc. That there are degrees of the angelic nature, both fallen and unfallen, and special titles and agencies belonging to each, is clearly declared by St. Paul, (Ephesians 1:21; Romans 8:38) but what their general nature is it is useless to speculate. Aniam (sighing of the people), a Manassite, son of Shemidah (1 Chronicles 7:19) Anim (fountains), a city in the mountains of Judah, named with Eshtemoh and Goshen. (Joshua 15:50) Anise This word occurs only in (Matthew 23:23) It is by no means a matter of certainty whether the anise (Pimpinella anisum, Lin.) or the dill (Anethum graveolens) is here intended though the probability is more in favor of the latter plant. "Anise is an annual plant growing to the height of one foot, carries a white flower, and blooms from June till August. The seeds are imported and used in large quantities on account of their aromatic and carminative properties. It grows wild in Egypt, in Syria, Palestine and all parts of the Levant. Among the ancients anise seems to have been a common pot-herb in every garden. Although it is less used in medicine by the moderns than by the ancients, it still retains its former reputation as an excellent stomachic, particularly for delicate women and young children. The Romans chewed it in order to keep up an agreeable moisture in the mouth and to sweeten the breath, while some Orientals still do the same." Dill, a somewhat similar plant, is an annual, bearing small aromatic seeds, used also for cookery and medicine. Anklet This word does not occur in the Authorized Version; but anklets are referred to in (Isaiah 3:16,18,20) They were fastened to the ankle band of each leg; were as common as bracelets and armlets and made of much the same material. The pleasant jingling and tinkling which they made as they knocked against each other was no doubt one of the reasons why they were admired, They are still worn in the East. Anna (grace), a "prophetess" in Jerusalem at the time of our Lord's Presentation in the temple. (Luke 2:36) She was of the tribe of Asher. Annas (humble), the son of one Seth was appointed high priest A.D. 7 by Quirinus, the imperial governor of Syria, but was obliged by Valerius Gratus, procurator of Judea, to give way to Ismael, son of Phabi, at the beginning of the reign of Tiberius, A.D. 14. About A.D. 25 Joseph Caiaphas, son-in-law of An-nas, became high priest, (John 18:13) but in Luke 3:2 Annas and Caiaphas are both called high priests. Our Lord's first hearing, (John 18:13) was before Annas, who then sent him bound to Caiaphas. Some maintain that the two, Annas and Caiaphas, were together at the head of the Jewish people,--Caiaphas as actual high priest, Annas as resident of the Sanhedrin- (Acts 4:6) Others again suppose that Annas held the office of sagin, or substitute of the high priest; others still that Annas held the title and was really the ruling power. He lived to old age, having had five sons high priests. Anointing in Holy Scripture, is either, I. Material--with oil--or II. Spiritual--with the Holy Ghost. I. MATERIAL.-- + Ordinary . Anointing the body or head with oil was a common practice with the Jews, as with other Oriental nations. (28:40; Ruth 3:3; Micah 6:15) Anointing the head with oil or ointment seems also to have been a mark of respect sometimes paid by a host to his guests. (Luke 7:46) and Psal 23:5 + Official . It was a rite of inauguration into each of the three typical offices of the Jewish commonwealth. a. Prophets were occasionally anointed to their office, (1 Kings 19:16) and were called messiahs, or anointed. (1 Chronicles 16:22; Psalms 105:15) b. Priests, at the first institution of the Levitical priesthood, were all anointed to their offices, (Exodus 40:15; Numbers 3:3) but afterwards anointing seems to have been specially reserved for the high priest, (Exodus 29:29; Leviticus 16:32) so that "the priest that is anointed," (Leviticus 4:3) is generally thought to mean the high priest. c. Kings. Anointing was the principal and divinely-appointed ceremony in the inauguration of the Jewish Kings. (1 Samuel 9:16; 10:1; 1 Kings 1:34,39) The rite was sometimes performed more than once. David was thrice anointed. d. Inanimate objects also were anointed with oil, in token of their being set apart for religious service. Thus Jacob anointed a pillar at Bethel. ((Genesis 31:13; Exodus 30:26-28) + Ecclesiastical . Anointing with oil is prescribed by St. James to be used for the recovery of the sick. (James 5:14) Analogous to this is the anointing with oil practiced by the twelve. (Mark 6:13) II. SPIRITUAL.-- + In the Old Testament a Deliverer is promised under the title of Messiah, or Anointed, (Psalms 2:2; Daniel 9:25,26) and the nature of his anointing is described to be spiritual, with the Holy Ghost. (Isaiah 61:1) see Luke 4:18 In the New Testament Jesus of Nazareth is shown to be the Messiah, or Christ or Anointed, of the Old Testament, (John 1:41; Acts 9:22; 17:2,3; 18:4,28) and the historical fact of his being anointed with the Holy Ghost is asserted and recorded. (John 1:32,33; Acts 4:27; 10:38) Christ was anointed as prophet priest and king. + Spiritual anointing with the Holy Ghost is conferred also upon Christians by God. (2 Corinthians 1:21) " Anointing "expresses the sanctifying influences of the Holy Spirit upon Christians who are priests and kings unto God. Ant (Heb. nemalah). This insect is mentioned twice in the Old Testament: in (Proverbs 6:6; 30:25) In the former of these passages the diligence of this insect is instanced by the wise man as an example worthy of imitation; in the second passage the ant's wisdom is especially alluded to; for these insects "though they be little on the earth, are exceeding wise." (For a long time European commentators and naturalists denied that ants stored up grain for future use, as was asserted in Proverbs but while this is true of most of the 104 European species, two of those species do lay up food, and are called harvesting ants . Like species have been found in Texas and South America, and are known to exist in Palestine. They show many other proofs of their skill. Some of them build wonderful houses; these are often several stories high, sometimes five hundred times the height of the builders, with rooms, corridors, and vaulted roofs supported by pillars. Some species keep a kind of cows; others have a regular army of soldiers; some keep slaves--"No closer imitation of the ways of man could be found in the entire animal economy." (See Encyc. Brit.) McCook's "The Honey Ants" gives many curious facts about the habits of this peculiar kind of ant, and of the harvesting ants of the American plains.--ED.) Antichrist This term is employed by the apostle John alone, and is defined by him in a manner which leaves no doubt as to its intrinsic meaning. With regard to its application there is less certainty. In the first passage-- (1 John 2:18)--in which it occurs, the apostle makes direct reference to the false Christs whose coming, it had been fore-told, should mark the last days. In v. 22 we find, "he is antichrist, that denieth the Father and the Son;" and still more positively, "every spirit that confesseth not that Jesus Christ is come in the flesh is of antichrist." Comp. (2 John 1:7) From these emphatic and repeated definitions it has been supposed that the object of the apostle in his first epistle was to combat the errors of Cerinthus, the Docetae and the Gnostics on the subject of the Incarnation. (They denied the union of the divine and human in Christ.) The coming of Antichrist was (believed to be foretold in the "vile person" of Daniel's prophecy, (Daniel 11:21) which received its first accomplishment in Antiochus Epiphanes but of which the complete fulfillment was reserved for the last times. He is identified with "the man of sin, the son of perdition." 2 Thessalonians 2:3) This interpretation brings Antichrist into close connection with the gigantic power of evil, symbolized by the "beast," (Revelation 13:1) ... who received his power from the dragon (i.e. the devil, the serpent of Genesis), continued for forty and two months, and was invested with the kingdom of the ten kings who destroyed the harlot Babylon, (Revelation 17:12,17) the city of seven hills. The destruction of Babylon is to be followed by the rule of Antichrist for a short period, (Revelation 17:10) to be in his turn overthrown in "the battle of that great day of God Almighty," (Revelation 16:14) with the false prophet and all his followers. Rev. 19. The personality of Antichrist is to be inferred as well from the personality of his historical precursor as from that of him to whom he stands opposed. Such an interpretation is to be preferred to that which regards Antichrist as the embodiment and personification of all powers and agencies inimical to Christ, or of the Antichristian might of the world. Antioch (from Antiochus)- + IN [135]Syria. The capital of the Greek kings of Syria, and afterwards the residence of the Roman governors of the province which bore the same name. Situation .--This metropolis was situated where the chain of Lebanon, running northward, and the chain of Taurus, running eastward. are brought to an abrupt meeting. Here the Orontes breaks through the mountains; and Antioch was placed at a bend of the river, 16 1/2 miles from the Mediterranean, partly on an island, partly on the levee which forms the left bank, and partly on the steep and craggy ascent of Mount Silpius, which, rose abruptly on the south. It is about 300 miles north of Jerusalem. In the immediate neighborhood was Daphne the celebrated sanctuary of Apollo 2 Macc. 4:33; whence the city was sometimes called Antioch by Daphne, to distinguish it from other cities of the same name. Destruction .--The city was founded in the year 300 B.C., by Seleucus Nicator. It grew under the successive Seleucid kings till it became a city of great extent and of remarkable beauty. One feature, which seems to have been characteristic of the great Syrian cities,--a vast street with colonnades, intersecting the whole from end to end,--was added by Antiochus Epiphanes. By Pompey it was made a free city, and such it continued till the time of Antoninus Pius. The early emperors raised there some large and important structures, such as aqueducts, amphitheatres and baths. (Antioch, in Paul's time, was the third city of the Roman empire, and contained over 200,000 inhabitants. Now it is a small, mean place of about 6000.--ED.) Bible History .--No city, after Jerusalem, is so intimately connected with the history of the apostolic church. Jews were settled there from the first in large numbers, were governed by their own ethnarch, and allowed to have the same political privileges with the Greeks. The chief interest of Antioch, however, is connected with the progress of Christianity among the heathen, Here the first Gentile church was founded, (Acts 11:20,21) here the disciples of Jesus Christ were first called Christians (Acts 11:26) It was from Antioch that St. Paul started on his three missionary journeys. + IN [136]Pisidia, (Acts 13:14; 14:19,21; 2 Timothy 3:11) on the borders of Phrygia, corresponds to Yalobatch, which is distant from Aksher six hours over the mountains. This city, like the Syrian Antioch, was founded by Seleucus Nicator. Under the Romans it became a colonia, and was also called Caesarea. Antiochus (an opponent), the name of a number of kings of Syria who lived during the interval between the Old and New Testaments, and had frequent connection with the Jews during that period. They are referred to in the Apocrypha especially in the books of the Maccabees. Antipas [[137]Herod] (like the father), martyr at Pergamos, (Revelation 2:13) and according to tradition the bishop of that place. (A.D. before 100.) Antipatris, Or Antipatris (for his father), a town to which the soldiers conveyed St. Paul by night on their march. (Acts 23:31) Its ancient name was Capharsaba; and Herod, when he rebuilt the city, changed it to Antipatris, in honor of his father, Antipater. The village Kefr-Sabba still retains the ancient name of Antipatris. Antonia (from Marc Antony) (a square stone fortress or castle adjoining the northwest corner of the temple area at Jerusalem. There was a tower at each corner. It was rebuilt by Herod the Great, and named by him from Marc Antony. From the stairs of this castle Paul addressed the multitude who had assaulted him (Acts 21:31-40)--ED.) Antothijah (answers of Jehovah), a Benjamite, one of the sons of Jeroham. (1 Chronicles 8:24) Antothite a dweller at Anathoth. (1 Chronicles 11:28; 12:3) [[138]Anathoth] Anub (confederate), son of Coz and descendant of Judah, through Ashur the father of Tekoa (1 Chronicles 4:8) Apelles (called), a Christian saluted by St. Paul in (Romans 16:10) Tradition makes him bishop of Smyrna or Heraclea. (A.D. 55.) Apes (Heb. kophim) are mentioned in (1 Kings 10:22) and 2Chr 9:21 There can be little doubt that the apes were brought from the same country which supplied ivory and peacocks, both of which are common in Ceylon; and Sir E. Tennent has drawn attention to the fact that the Tamil names for apes, ivory and peacocks are identical with the Hebrew. Apharsathchites, Apharsites, Apharsacites the names of certain tribes, colonies from which had been planted in Samaria by the Assyrian leader Asnapper. (Ezra 4:9; 5:6) The first and last are regarded as the same. Whence these tribes came is entirely a matter of conjecture. Aphek (strength), the name of several places in Palestine. + A royal city of the Canaanites, the king of which was killed by Joshua, (Joshua 12:18) probably the same as [139]Aphekah in (Joshua 15:53) + A city, apparently in the extreme north of Asher, (Joshua 19:30) from which the Canaanites were not ejected, (Judges 1:31) though here it is [140]Aphik. This is probably the same place as APHEK, (Joshua 13:4) on the extreme north "border of the Amorites,"; identified with the Aphaca of classical times, the modern Afka . + A place at which the Philistines encamped while the Israelites pitched in Eben-ezer, before the fatal battle in which the sons of Eli were killed and the ark was taken. (1 Samuel 4:1) This would be somewhere to the northwest of and at no great distance from Jerusalem. + The scene of another encampment of the Philistines, before an encounter not less disastrous than that just named,--the defeat and death of Saul. (1 Samuel 29:1) It is possible that it may be the same place as the preceding. + A city on the military road from Syria to Israel. (1 Kings 20:26) It is now found in Fik, at the head of the Wady Fik, six miles east of the Sea of Galilee. Aphekah (strong place), a city of Judah, in the mountains (Joshua 15:53) probably the same as [141]Aphek, 1. Aphiah (refreshed), one of the fore-fathers of King Saul. (1 Samuel 9:1) Aphik (strong), a city of Asher from which the Canaanites were not driven out. (Judges 1:31) Probably the same place as [142]Aphek, 2. Aphrah (dust), The house of, a place mentioned in (Micah 1:10) Its site is uncertain. Aphses (the dispersion), chief of the 15th of the 24 courses in the service of the temple. (1 Chronicles 24:15) Apocalypse A Greek word meaning revelation, applied chiefly to the book of Revelation by John. [[143]Revelation Of St. John] Apocrypha (concealed, hidden). + Old Testament Apocrypha ._The collection of books to which this term is popularly applied includes the following (the order given is that in which they stand in the English version); I. 1 Esdras; II. 2 Esdras; III. Tobit; IV. Judith; V. The rest of the chapters of the book of Esther, which are found neither in the Hebrew nor in the Chaldee; VI. The Wisdom of Solomon; VII. The Wisdom of Jesus the Son of Sirach, or Ecclesiasticus; VII. Baruch; IX. The Song of the Three Holy Children, X. The History of Susanna; XI. The History of the destruction of Bel and the Dragon; XII. The Prayer of Manasses king of Judah; XIII. 1 Maccabee; XIV. 2 Maccabees. The primary meaning of apocrypha, "hidden, secret," seems, toward the close of the second century to have been associated with the signification "spurious," and ultimately to have settled down into the latter. The separate books of this collection are treated of in distinct articles. Their relation to the canonical books of the Old Testament is discussed under [144]Canon Of Scripture, The. + New Testament Apocrypha-- (A collection of legendary and spurious Gospels, Acts of the Apostles, and Epistles. They are go entirely inferior to the genuine books, so full of nonsensical and unworthy stories of Christ and the apostles, that they have never been regarded as divine, or bound up in our Bibles. It is said that Mohammed obtained his ideas of Christ entirely from these spurious gospels.--ED.) Apollonia (belonging to Apollo), a city of Macedonia, through which Paul and Silas passed in their way from Philippi and Amphipolis to Thessalonica. (Acts 17:1) According to the Antonine Itinerary it was distant 30 Roman miles from Amphipolis and 37 Roman miles from Thessalonica. Apollos (given by Apollo) a Jew from Alexandria, eloquent (which may also mean learned) and mighty in the Scriptures; one instructed in the way of the Lord, according to the imperfect view of the disciples of John the Baptist, (Acts 18:24) but on his coming to Ephesus during a temporary absence of St. Paul, A.D. 54, more perfectly taught by Aquila and Priscilla. After this he became a preacher of the gospel, first in Achaia and then in Corinth. (Acts 18:27; 19:1) When the apostle wrote his First Epistle to the Corinthians, Apollos was with or near him, (1 Corinthians 16:12) probably at Ephesus in A.D. 57. He is mentioned but once more in the New Testament, in (Titus 3:13) After this nothing is known of him. Tradition makes him bishop of Caesarea. Apollyon or, as it is literally in the margin of the Authorized Version of (Revelation 9:11) "a destroyer," is the rendering of the Hebrew word [145]Abaddon, "the angel of the bottomless pit." From the occurrence of the word in (Psalms 88:11) the rabbins have made Abaddon the nethermost of the two regions into which they divide the lower world; but that in (Revelation 9:11) Abaddon is the angel and not the abyss is perfectly evident in the Greek. Apostle (one sent forth), in the New Testament originally the official name of those twelve of the disciples whom Jesus chose to send forth first to preach the gospel and to be with him during the course of his ministry on earth. The word also appears to have been used in a non-official sense to designate a much wider circle of Christian messengers and teachers See (2 Corinthians 8:23; Philemon 2:25) It is only of those who were officially designated apostles that we treat in the article. Their names are given in (Matthew 10:2-4) and Christ's charge to them in the rest of the chapter. Their office.-- (1) The original qualification of an apostle, as stated by St. Peter on the occasion of electing a successor to the traitor Judas, was that he should have been personally acquainted with the whole ministerial course of our Lord from his baptism by John till the day when he was taken up into heaven. (2) They were chosen by Christ himself (3) They had the power of working miracles. (4) They were inspired. (John 16:13) (5) Their world seems to have been pre-eminently that of founding the churches and upholding them by supernatural power specially bestowed for that purpose. (6) The office ceased, a matter of course, with its first holders-all continuation of it, from the very condition of its existence (cf. (1 Corinthians 9:1)), being impossible. Early history and training .--The apostles were from the lower ranks of life, simple and uneducated; some of them were related to Jesus according to the flesh; some had previously been disciples of John the Baptist. Our Lord chose them early in his public career They seem to have been all on an equality, both during and after the ministry of Christ on earth. Early in our Lord's ministry he sent them out two and two to preach repentance and to perform miracles in his name Matt 10; Luke 9. They accompanied him in his journey, saw his wonderful works, heard his discourses addressed to the people, and made inquiries of him on religious matters. They recognized him as the Christ of God, (Matthew 16:16; Luke 9:20) and described to him supernatural power (Luke 9:54) but in the recognition of the spiritual teaching and mission of Christ they made very low progress, held back as they were by weakness of apprehension and by national prejudices. Even at the removal of our Lord from the earth they were yet weak in their knowledge, (Luke 24:21; John 16:12) though he had for so long been carefully preparing and instructing them. On the feast of Pentecost, ten days after our Lord's ascension, the Holy Spirit came down on the assembled church, Acts 2; and from that time the apostles became altogether different men, giving witness with power of the life and death and resurrection of Jesus, as he had declared they should. (Luke 24:48; Acts 1:8,22; 2:32; 3:15; 5:32; 13:31) Later labors and history.--First of all the mother-church at Jerusalem grew up under their hands, Acts 3-7, and their superior dignity and power were universally acknowledged by the rulers and the people. (Acts 5:12) ff. Their first mission out of Jerusalem was to Samaria (Acts 8:5-25) where the Lord himself had, during his ministry, sown the seed of the gospel. Here ends the first period of the apostles' agency, during which its centre is Jerusalem and the prominent figure is that of St. Peter. The centre of the second period of the apostolic agency is Antioch, where a church soon was built up, consisting of Jews and Gentiles; and the central figure of this and of the subsequent period is St. Paul. The third apostolic period is marked by the almost entire disappearance of the twelve from the sacred narrative and the exclusive agency of St. Paul, the great apostle of the Gentiles. Of the missionary work of the rest of the twelve we know absolutely nothing from the sacred narrative. Appaim or Ap'paim (the nostrils), son of Nadab, and descended from Jerahmeel, the founder of an important family of the tribe of Judah. (1 Chronicles 2:30,31) Appeal The principle, of appeal was recognized by the Mosaic law in the establishment of a central court under the presidency of the judge or ruler for the time being, before which all cased too difficult for the local court were to be tried. (17:8,9) According to the above regulation, the appeal lay in the time of the Judges to the judge, (Judges 4:5) and under the monarchy to the king. Jehoshaphat delegated his judicial authority to a court permanently established for the purpose. (2 Chronicles 19:8) These courts were re-established by Ezra. (Ezra 7:25) After the institution of the Sanhedrin the final appeal lay to them. St. Paul, as a Roman citizen, exercized a right of appeal from the jurisdiction of the local court at Jerusalem to the emperor. (Acts 25:11) Apphia (fruitful) a Christian woman addressed jointly with Philemon and Archippus in Phil. 2; apparently a member of Philemon's household, and not improbably his wife. (A.D. 57) Appii Forum (market-place of Appius), a well-known station on the Appian Way, the great road which led from Rome to the neighborhood of the Bay of Naples. (Acts 28:15) There is no difficulty in identifying the site with some ruins near Treponti . [[146]Three Taverns [147]Taverns, The Three] Appius, Market Of Revised Version for Appii Forum. (Acts 28:16) Apple Tree, Apple (Heb. tappuach). Mention of the apple tree occurs in the Authorized Version in (Song of Solomon 2:3; 8:5) and Joel 1:12 The fruit of this tree is alluded to in (Proverbs 25:11) and Song 2:5; 7:8 It is a difficult matter to say what is the specific tree denoted by the Hebrew word tappuach . ("The apple proper is rare in Syria, and its fruit inferior.") Most modern writers maintain that it is either the quince or the citron; (others speak of the apricot, which is abundant and deliciously perfumed.) The quince had some plausible arguments in its favor. Its fragrance was held in high esteem by the ancients. The quince was sacred to Venus. On the other hand Dr Royle says,"The rich color, fragrant odor and handsome appearance of the citron, whether in flower or in fruit, are particularly suited to the passages of scripture mentioned above." But neither the quince nor the citron nor the apple appears fully to answer to all the scriptural allusions. The orange would answer all the demands of the scriptural passages, and orange trees are found in Palestine; but there does not appear sufficient evidence that this tree was known in the earlier times to the inhabitants of Palestine. The question of identification therefore, must still be left an open one. Aquila (an eagle), a Jew whom St. Paul found at Corinth on his arrival from Athens. (Acts 18:2) (A.D, 52,) He was a native of Pontus, but had fled with his wife Priscilla, from Rome, in consequence of an order of Claudius commanding all Jews to leave the city. He became acquainted with St. Paul, and they abode together, and wrought at their common trade of making the Cilician tent or hair-cloth. On the departure of the apostle from Corinth, a year and eight months after, Priscilla and Aquila accompanied him to Ephesus. There they remained and there they taught Apollos. At what time they became Christians is uncertain. Ar (a city), or Ar of Moab, one of the chief places of Moab. (Numbers 21:28; Isaiah 15:1) In later times the place known as Areopolis and Rabbath-Moab. The site still called Rabba . It lies about halfway between Kerak and the Wady Mojeb, 10 or 11 miles from each, the Roman road passing through it. Ara (lion), one of the sons of Jether, the head of a family of Asherites. (1 Chronicles 7:88) Arab (ambush) a city of Judah in the mountainous district, probably in the neighborhood of Hebron; mentioned only in (Joshua 15:62) Arabah (burnt up). Although this word appears in the Authorized Version in its original shape only in (Joshua 18:18) yet in the Hebrew text it is of frequent occurrence. It indicates more particularly the deep-sunken valley or trench which forms the most striking among the many striking natural features of Palestine, and which extends with great uniformity of formation from the slopes of Hermon to the Elanitic Gulf (Gulf of Akabah) of the Red Sea; the most remarkable depression known to exist on the surface of the globe. Through the northern portion of this extraordinary fissure the Jordan rushes through the lakes of Huleh and Gennesaret down its tortuous course to the deep chasm of the Dead Sea. This portion, about 150 miles in length, is known amongst the Arabs by the name of el-Ghor . The southern boundary of the (Ghor is the wall of cliffs which crosses the valley about 10 miles south of the Dead Sea. From their summits, southward to the Gulf of Akabah, the valley changes its name, or, it would be more accurate to say, retains old name of Wady el-Arabah . Arabia (desert, barren), a country known in the Old Testament under two designations:-- + The East Country, (Genesis 25:6) or perhaps the East, ((Genesis 10:30; Numbers 23:7; Isaiah 2:6) and Land of the Sons of the East, (Genesis 29:1) Gentile name, Sons of the East, (Judges 6:3; 7:12; 1 Kings 4:30; Job 1:3; Isaiah 11:14; Jeremiah 49:28; Ezekiel 25:4) From these passages it appears that Land of the East and Sons of the East indicate, primarily, the country east of Palestine, and the tribes descended from Ishmael and from Keturah; and that this original signification may have become gradually extended to Arabia and its inhabitants generally, though without any strict limitation. + 'Arab and 'Arab, whence Arabia. (2 Chronicles 9:14; Isaiah 21:13; Jeremiah 26:24; Ezekiel 27:21) (Arabia is a triangular peninsula, included between the Mediterranean and Red seas, the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf. Its extreme length, north and south, is about 1300 miles, and its greatest breadth 1500 miles. -Encyc. Brit.) Divisions .--Arabia may be divided into Arabia Proper, containing the whole peninsula as far as the limits of the northern deserts; Northern Arabia (Arabia Deserta), constituting the great desert of Arabia; and Western Arabia, the desert of Petra and the peninsula of Sinai, or the country that has been called Arabia Petraea, I. Arabia Proper, or the Arabian penninsula consists of high tableland, declining towards the north. Most of it is well peopled, watered by wells and streams, and enjoys periodical rains. The moist fertile tracts are those on the southwest and south. II. Northern Arabia, or the Arabian Desert, is a high, undulating, parched plain, of which the Euphrates forms the natural boundary from the Persian Gulf to the frontier of Syria, whence it is bounded by the latter country and the desert of Petra on the northwest and west, the peninsula of Arabia forming its southern limit. It has few oases, the water of the wells is generally either brackish or unpotable and it is visited by the sand-wind called Samoom . The inhabitants principally descended from Ishmael and from Keturah, have always led a wandering and pastoral life. They conducted a considerable trade of merchandise of Arabia and India from the shore of the Persian Gulf. (Ezekiel 27:20-24) III. Western Arabia includes the peninsula of Sinai [[148]Sinai, Or Sinai] and the desert of Petra; corresponding generally with the limits of Arabia Petraea. The latter name is probably derived from that of its chief city, not from its stony character. It was mostly peopled by descendants of Esau, and was generally known as the land of Edom or Idumea [[149]Edom, Idumaea Or Idumea], as well as by its older appellation, the desert of Seir or Mount Seir. [[150]Seir] Inhabitants .-- (Arabia, which once ruled from India to the Atlantic, now has eight or nine millions of inhabitants, about one-fifth of whom are Bedouin or wandering tribes, and the other four-fifths settled Arabs.--Encyc. Brit.) + The descendants of [151]Joktan occupied the principal portions of the south and southwest of the peninsula, with colonies in the interior. The principal Joktanite kingdom, and the chief state of ancient Arabia, was that of the Yemen. + The ISHMAELITES appear to have entered the peninsula from the northwest. That they have spread over the whole of it (with the exception of one or two districts on the south coast), and that the modern nation is predominantly Ishmaelite, is asserted by the Arabs. + Of the descendants of [152]Keturah the Arabs say little. They appear to have settled chiefly north of the peninsula in Desert Arabia, from Palestine to the Persian Gulf. + In northern and western Arabia are other peoples, which, from their geographical position and mode of life are sometimes classed with the Arabs, of these are [153]Amalek, the descendants of [154]Esau, etc. (Productions-- The productions are varied. The most noted animal is the horse. Camels, sheep, cattle, asses, mules and cats are common. Agricultural products are coffee, wheat, barley, millet, beans, pulse, dates and the common garden plants. In pasture lands Arabia is peculiarly fortunate. In mineral products it is singularly poor, lead being most abundant.--Encyc. Brit.) Religion .-- The most ancient idolatry of the Arabs we must conclude to have been fetishism. Magianism, an importation from Chaldaea and Persia, must be reckoned among the religions of the pagan Arabs; but it never had very numerous followers. Christianity was introduced into southern Arabia toward the close of the second century, and about a century later it had made great progress. It flourished chiefly in the Yemen, where many churches were built. Judaism was propagated in Arabia, principally by Karaites, at the captivity. They are now nominally Mohammedans. Language .-- Arabic the language of Arabia, is the most developed and the richest of Shemitic languages, and the only one of which we have an extensive literature; it is, therefore, of great importance to the study of Hebrew. Government .-- Arabia is now under the government of the Ottoman empire. Arabians the nomadic tribes inhabiting the country to the east and south of Palestine, who in the early times of Hebrew history were known as Ishmaelites and descendants of Keturah. Arad a royal city of the Canaanites, named with Hormah and Libnah. (Joshua 12:14) The wilderness of Judah was to the south of Arad." (Judges 1:16) It may be identified with a hill, Tel 'Arad, an hour and a half northeast by east from Milh (Moladah), and eight hours from Hebron. (a wild ass), a Benjamite, son of Beriah, who drove out the inhabitants of Gath. (1 Chronicles 8:15) (B.C. 536.) Arah (wayfaring). + An Asherite, of the sons of Ulla. (1 Chronicles 7:39) + The sons of Arah returned with Zerubbabel in number 775 according to (Ezra 2:5) but 652 according to (Nehemiah 7:10) (B.C. 536.) One of his descendants, Shechaniah, was the father-in-law of Tobiah the Ammonite. (Nehemiah 6:18) Aram (high). + The name by which the Hebrews designated, generally, the country lying to the northeast of Palestine; the great mass of that high tableland which, rising with sudden abruptness from the Jordan and the very margin of the Lake of Gennesaret, stretched at an elevation of no less than 2000 feet above the level of the sea, to the banks of the Euphrates itself. Throughout the Authorized Version the word is, with only a very few exceptions, rendered, as in the Vulgate and LXX., [155]Syria. Its earliest occurrence in the book of Genesis is in the form of Aram-naharaim, i.e. the "highland of or between the two rivers." (Genesis 24:10) Authorized Version "Mesopotamia." In the later history we meet with a number of small nations or kingdoms forming parts of the general land of Aram; but as Damascus increased in importance it gradually absorbed the smaller powers, (1 Kings 20:1) and the name of Aram was at last applied to it alone. (Isaiah 7:8) also 1Kin 11:24,25; 15:18 etc. + Another Aram is named in (Genesis 22:21) as a son of Kemuel and descendant of Nahor. + An Asherite, one of the sons of Shamer. (1 Chronicles 7:34) + Son of Esrom or Hezron, and the Greek form of the Hebrew [156]Ram. (Matthew 1:3,4; Luke 3:33) Aramitess a female inhabitant of Aram. (1 Chronicles 7:14) Aramnahataim (highlands of two rivers). (Psalms 60:1), title. [[157]Aram] Aramzobah Psal 60:1, title. [[158]Aram, 1] Aran (wild goat), a Horite, son of Dishan and brother of Uz. Genesis 36:28; 1Chr 1:42 Araunah (ark), a Jebusite who sold his threshing floor on Mount Moriah to David as a site for an altar to Jehovah, together with his oxen. (2 Samuel 24:18-24; 1 Chronicles 21:25) Arba (city of the four), the progenitor of the Anakim, or sons of Anak, from whom their chief city, [159]Hebron, received its name of Kirjath-Arba. (Joshua 14:15; 15:13; 21:11) Arbah Hebron, or Kirjath-Arba, as "the city of Arbah" is always rendered elsewhere. (Genesis 35:27) Arbathite a native of the Arabah or Ghor . [[160]Arabah] Abi-albon the Arbathite was one of David's mighty men. (2 Samuel 23:31; 1 Chronicles 11:32) Arbite a native of Arab. Paarai the Arbite was one of David's guard. (2 Samuel 23:35) Arch Of Titus A triumphal arch erected at Rome, and still remaining there, to commemorate the conquest of Judea and the destruction of Jerusalem by the emperor Titus. It was erected after his death, A.D. 91, by the senate and people of Rome. It was a magnificent structure, decorated with bas-reliefs and inscriptions, and is of especial interest because its historic bas-reliefs represent the captors carrying in triumph to Rome the golden candlestick and sacred utensils from the Jewish temple at Jerusalem. From these we obtain our best idea of their shape.--ED. Archelaus (prince of the people), son of Herod the Great by a Samaritan woman, Malthake, and, with his brother Antipas brought up at Rome. At the death of Herod (B.C. 4) his kingdom was divided between his three sons, Herod Antipas, Archelaus and Philip. Archelaus never properly bore the title of king, (Matthew 2:22) but only that of ethnarch. In the tenth year of his reign, or the ninth according to Dion Cassius, i.e. A.D. 6, a complaint was preferred against him by his brothers and his subjects on the ground of his tyranny, in consequence of which he was banished to Vienne in Gaul, where he is generally said to have died. Archery [[161]Arms, Armor] Archevites perhaps the inhabitants of Erech, some of whom had been placed as colonists in Samaria. (Ezra 4:9) Archi (Joshua 16:2) A place in the neighborhood of Bethel, on the boundary between Ephraim and Benjamin. It designates a clan perhaps originally from Erech in Babylonia, of which Hushai was one. [[162]Archite, The] Archippus (master of the horse), a Christian teacher in Colossae, (Colossians 4:17) called by St. Paul his "fellow soldier," Phil 2. He was probably a member of Philemon's family. (A.D. 62.) Archite, The (as if from a place named Erech, on the frontiers of Ephraim), the usual designation of David's friend Hushai. (2 Samuel 15:32; 17:5,14; 1 Chronicles 27:33) Architecture The book of (Genesis 4:17,20,22) appears to divide mankind into two great characteristic sections, viz., the "dwellers in tents" and the "dwellers in cities." To the race of Shem is attributed (Genesis 10:11,12,22; 11:2-9) the foundation of those cities in the plain of Shinar, Babylon Nineveh and others. The Israelites were by occupation shepherds, and by habit dwellers in tents. (Genesis 47:3) They had therefore originally, speaking properly, no architecture. From the time of the occupation of Canaan they became dwellers in towns and in houses of stone. (Leviticus 14:34,45; 1 Kings 7:10) The peaceful reign and vast wealth of Solomon gave great impulse to architecture; for besides the temple and his other great works, he built fortresses and cities in various places, among which Baalath and Tadmor are in all probability represented by Baalbec and Palmyra. But the reigns of Herod and his successors were especially remarkable for their great architectural works. Not only was the temple restored, but the fortifications and other public buildings of Jerusalem were enlarged and embellished. (Luke 21:5) The town of Caesarea was built on the site of Strato's Tower; Samaria was enlarged, and received the name of Sebaste. Of the original splendor of these great works no doubt can be entertained; but of their style and appearance we can only conjecture that they were formed on Greek and Roman models. The enormous stones employed the Assyrian Persepolitan and Egyptian buildings find a parallel in the substructions of Baalbec and in the huge blocks which still remain at Jerusalem, relics of the buildings either of Solomon or of Herod. Arcturus (bear-keeper). The Hebrew words 'Ash and 'Aish, rendered "Arcturus" in the Authorized Version of (Job 9:9; 38:32) in conformity with the Vulgate of the former passages are now generally believed to be identical, and to represent the constellation Ursa Major, known commonly as the Great Bear or Charles' Wain. Ard (one that descending), the son of Bela and grandson of Benjamin. (Genesis 46:21; Numbers 26:40) In (1 Chronicles 8:3) he is called [163]Addar. Ardites the descendants of Ard or Addar, the grandson of Benjamin. (Numbers 26:40) Ardon (fugitive) a Son of Caleb, the son of Hezron, by his wife Azubah. (1 Chronicles 2:18) Areli (heroic), a son of Gad. (Genesis 46:16; Numbers 26:17) His descendants are called Arelites. Numb 26:17. Areopagite a member of the court of Areopagus. (Acts 17:31) [[164]Mars Hill' HILL] Areopagus [[165]Mars Hill' HILL] Aretas, Or Aretas (graver). + A contemporary of Antiochus Epiphanes, B.C. 170, and Jason. 2 Macc. 5:8. + The Aretas alluded to by St. Paul (2 Corinthians 11:32) was father-in-law of Herod Antipas. Argob perhaps a Gileadite officer who was governor of Argob. He was either an accomplice of Pekah in the murder of Pekahiah or was slain by Pekah. (2 Kings 15:25) (stony), a tract of country on the east of the Jordan, in Bashan, the kingdom of Og, containing 60 great and fortified cities. In later times it was called Trachonitis, and it is now apparently identified with the Leiah, a very remarkable district south of Damascus and east of the Sea of Galilee. (3:4,13,14) Aridai (the strong), ninth son of Haman. (Esther 9:9) Aridatha sixth son of Haman. (Esther 9:8) Arieh (lion). Either one of the accomplices of Pekah in his conspiracy against Pekahiah, or one of the princes of Pekahiah who was put to death with him. (2 Kings 15:20) (B.C. 757.) Ariel (lion of God). + One of the "chief men" who under Ezra directed the caravan which he led back from Babylon to Jerusalem. (Ezra 8:16) (B.C. 459.) The word occurs also in reference to two Moabites slain by Benaiah. (2 Samuel 23:20; 1 Chronicles 11:22) Many regard the word as an epithet, "lion-like;" but it seems better to look upon it as a proper name, and translate "two [sons] of Ariel." + A designation given by Isaiah to the city of Jerusalem. (Isaiah 29:1,2,7) We must understand by it either "lion of God," as the chief city, or "hearth of God," a synonym for the altar of burnt offering. On the whole it seems most probable that, as a name given to Jerusalem, Ariel means "lion of God," whilst the word used by Ezekiel, (Ezekiel 43:15,16) means "hearth of God." Arimathea (heights). (Matthew 27:57; Luke 23:51; John 19:38) St. Luke calls it "a city of Judea." It is identified by many with the modern Ramleh . Arioch (venerable). + The king of Eliasar, one of the allies of Chedorlaomer in his expedition against his rebellious tributaries. (Genesis 14:1) (B.C. 1921-1912.) + The captain of Nebuchadnezzar's body-guard. (Daniel 2:14) etc. + Properly Eirioch, or Erioch, mentioned in Judith 1:6 as king of the Elymaeans. Arisai (lion-like), eighth son of Haman. (Esther 9:9) Aristarchus (the best ruler), a Thessalonian, (Acts 20:4; 27:2) who accompanied St. Paul on his third missionary journey. (Acts 19:29) He was with the apostle on his return to Asia, (Acts 20:4) and again, Acts 27:2 On his voyage to Rome. We trace him afterwards as St. Paul's fellow prisoner in (Colossians 4:10) and Phle 1:24 Tradition makes him bishop of Apamea. Aristobulus (the best counsellor), a resident at Rome, some of whose household are greeted in (Romans 16:10) Tradition makes him one of the 70 disciples and reports that he preached the gospel in Britain. Ark Of Moses A small boat or basket made of the papyrus, a reed which grows in the marshes of Egypt. It was covered with bitumen to make it water tight. Ark Of The Covenant The first piece of the tabernacle's furniture, for which precise directions were delivered. Exod 25. I. Description.-- It appears to have been an oblong chest of shittim (acacia) wood, 2 1/2 cubits long by 1 1/2 broad and deep. Within and without gold was overlaid on the wood, and on the upper side or lid, which was edged round about with gold, the mercy-seat was placed. The ark was fitted with rings, one at each of the four corners, and through these were passed staves of the same wood similarly overlaid, by which it was carried by the Kohathites. (Numbers 7:9; 10:21) The ends of the staves were visible without the veil in the holy place of the temple of Solomon. (1 Kings 8:8) The ark, when transported, was enveloped in the "veil" of the dismantled tabernacle, in the curtain of badgers' skins and in a blue cloth over all, and was therefore not seen. (Numbers 4:5,20) II. Its purpose was to contain inviolate the divine autograph of the two tables, that "covenant" from which it derived its title. It was also probably a reliquary for the pot of manna and the rod of Aaron. III. History .--Before David's time its abode was frequently shifted. It sojourned among several, probably Levitical, families, (1 Samuel 7:1; 2 Samuel 6:3,11; 1 Chronicles 13:13; 15:24,25) in the border villages of eastern Judah; and did not take its place in the tabernacle, but dwelt in curtains, i.e. in a separate tent pitched for it in Jerusalem by David. Subsequently the temple, when completed, received, in the installation of the ark in its shrine, the signal of its inauguration by the effulgence of divine glory instantly manifested. It was probably taken captive or destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, 2 Esdr. 10:22, so that there was no ark in the second temple. Ark, Noahs [[166]Noah] Arkite, The from Arka, one of the families of the Canaanites, (Genesis 10:17; 1 Chronicles 1:16) and from the context evidently located in the north of Phoenicia. The site which now bears the name of 'Arka lies on the coast, 2 to 2 1/2 hours from the shore, about 12 miles north of Tripoli and 5 south of the Nahr el-Kebir . Armageddon (the hill or city of Megiddo). (Revelation 16:16) The scene of the struggle of good and evil is suggested by that battle-field, the plain of Esdraelon, which was famous for two great victories, of Barak over the Canaanites and of Gideon over the Midianites; and for two great disasters, the deaths of Saul and Josiah. Hence it signifies in Revelation a place of great slaughter, the scene of a terrible retribution upon the wicked. The Revised Version gives the name as Har-Magedon, i.e. the hill (as Ar is the city) of Megiddo .--ED.) Armenia (land of Aram) is nowhere mentioned under that name in the original Hebrew, though it occurs in the English version, (2 Kings 19:37) for Ararat. Description.--Armenia is that lofty plateau whence the rivers Euphrates, Tigris, Araxes and Acampsis pour down their waters in different directions; the first two to the Persian Gulf, the last two respectively to the Caspian and Euxine seas. It may be termed the nucleus of the mountain system of western Asia. From the centre of the plateau rise two lofty chains of mountains, which run from east to west. Divisions.--Three districts are mentioned in the Bible. (1) ARARAT is mentioned as the place whither the sons of Sennacherib fled. (Isaiah 37:38) It was the central district, surrounding the mountain of that name. (2) [167]Minni only occurs in (Jeremiah 51:27) It is probably identical with the district Minyas, in the upper valley of the Murad-su branch of the Euphrates. (3) [168]Togarmah is noticed in two passages of (Ezekiel 27:14; 38:6) both of which are in favor of its identity with Armenia. Present condition.--The Armenians, numbering about two millions, are nominally Christians. About half of them live in Armenia. Their favorite pursuit is commerce. The country is divided, as to government, between Russia, Turkey and Persia.--ED. Armlet an ornament universal in the East, especially among women; used by princes as one of the insignia of royalty, and by distinguished persons in general. The word is not used in the Authorized Version, as even in (2 Samuel 1:10) it is rendered by "the bracelet on his arm." Armoni son of Saul by Rizpah. (2 Samuel 21:8) Arms, Armor The subject naturally divides itself into-- I. Offensive weapons: Arms. II. Defensive weapons: Armor. I. Offensive weapons.-- + Apparently the earliest known and most widely used was the Chereb or [169]Sword. Very little can be gathered as to its shape, size, material or mode of use. Perhaps if anything is to be inferred it is that the Chereb is both a lighter and a shorter weapon than the modern sword. It was carried in a sheath, (1 Samuel 17:51; 2 Samuel 20:8; 1 Chronicles 21:27) slung by a girdle, (1 Samuel 25:13) and resting upon the thigh, (Psalms 45:3; Judges 3:16) or upon the hips. (2 Samuel 20:8) + Next we have the [170]Spear; and of this weapon we meet with at least three distinct kinds. A. The Chanith, a "spear," and that of the largest kind. It was the weapon of Goliath, (1 Samuel 17:7,45; 2 Samuel 21:19; 1 Chronicles 20:5) and also of other giants, (2 Samuel 23:21; 1 Chronicles 11:23) and mighty warriors. (2 Samuel 2:23; 23:18; 1 Chronicles 11:11,20) b. Apparently lighter than the preceding was the Cidon or "javelin." When not in action the Cidon was carried on the back of the warrior, (1 Samuel 17:6) Authorized Version "target." c. Another kind of spear was the Romach . In the historical books it occurs in (Numbers 25:7) and 1Kin 18:28 And frequently in the later books, as in (1 Chronicles 12:8) ("buckler"); (2 Chronicles 11:12) (It varied much in length, weight and size.) d. The Shelach was probably a lighter missile or "dart." see (2 Chronicles 23:10; 32:5) ("darts"); (Nehemiah 4:17,23) (see margin); (Job 33:18; 36:12; Joel 2:8) e. Shebet, a rod or staff, is used once only to denote a weapon. (2 Samuel 18:14) + Of missile weapons of offence the chief was undoubtedly the [171]Bow, Kesheth . The [172]Arrows were carried in a quiver. (Genesis 27:3; Isaiah 22:6; 49:2; Psalms 127:5) From an allusion in Job 6:4 they would seem to have been some times poisoned; and (Psalms 120:4) may point to a practice of using arrows with some burning material attached to them. + The [173]Sling is first mentioned in (Judges 20:16) This simple weapon, with which David killed the giant Philistine, was the natural attendant of a shepherd. Later in the monarchy, slingers formed part of the regular army. (2 Kings 3:25) + The BATTLE AXE, (Jeremiah 51:20) a powerful weapon of whose exact form we have no knowledge. II. Armor.-- + The [174]Breastplate, enumerated in the description of the arms of Goliath, a "coat of mail," literally a "breastplate of scales." (1 Samuel 17:5) This word has furnished one of the names of Mount Hermon. See (3:9) + The [175]Habergeon is mentioned but twice--in reference to the gown of the high priest. (Exodus 28:32; 39:28) It was probably a quilted shirt or doublet. + The [176]Helmet is referred to in (1 Samuel 17:5; 2 Chronicles 26:14; Ezekiel 27:10) + ([177]Greaves) or defences for the feet, made of brass, are named in (1 Samuel 17:6) only. + Two kinds of [178]Shield are distinguishable. A. The large shield; encompassing, (Psalms 6:12) the whole person. When not in actual conflict it was carried before the warrior. (1 Samuel 17:7,41) b. Of smaller dimensions was the buckler or target, probably for use in hand-to-hand fight. (1 Kings 10:16; 2 Chronicles 9:15,16) Army I. [179]Jewish ARMY.--Every man above 20 years of age was a soldier, (Numbers 1:3) each tribe formed a regiment, with its own banner and its own leader (Numbers 2:2; 10:14) their positions in the camp or on the march were accurately fixed, Numb. 2; the whole army started and stopped at a given signal, (Numbers 10:5,6) thus they came up out of Egypt ready for the fight. (Exodus 13:18) On the approach of an enemy a conscription was made from the general body, under the direction of a muster-master, (20:5; 2 Kings 25:19) by whom also the officers were appointed. (20:9) The army had then divided into thousands and hundreds under their respective captains, (Numbers 31:14) and still further into families. (Numbers 2:34; 2 Chronicles 25:5; 26:12) With the king arose the custom of maintaining a body-guard, which formed the nucleus of a standing army, and David's band of 600, (1 Samuel 23:13; 25:13) he retained after he became king, and added the [180]Cherethites and [181]Pelethites. (2 Samuel 15:18; 20:7) David further organized a national militia, divided into twelve regiments under their respective officers, each of which was called out for one month in the year. (1 Chronicles 27:1) ... It does not appear that the system established by David was maintained by the kings of Judah; but in Israel the proximity of the hostile kingdom of Syria necessitated the maintenance of a standing army. The maintenance and equipment of the soldiers at the public expense dated from the establishment of a standing army. It is doubtful whether the soldier ever received pay even under the kings. II. [182]Roman Empire ARMY.--The Roman army was divided into legions, the number of which varied considerably (from 3000 to 6000), each under six tribuni ("chief captains,") (Acts 21:31) who commanded by turns. The legion was subdivided into ten cohorts ("band,") (Acts 10:1) the cohort into three maniples, and the maniple into two centuries, containing originally 100 men, as the name implies, but subsequently from 50 to 100 men, according to the strength of the legion. There were thus 60 centuries in a legion, each under the command of a centurion. (Acts 10:1,22; Matthew 8:5; 27:54) In addition to the legionary cohorts, independent cohorts of volunteers served under the Roman standards. One of these cohorts was named the Italian, (Acts 10:1) as consisting of volunteers from Italy. The headquarters of the Roman forces in Judea were at Caesarea. Arnan In the received Hebrew text "the sons of Arnan" are mentioned in the genealogy of Zerubbabel. (1 Chronicles 3:21) Arni (Used in the Revised Version for Aram in (Luke 3:33) and is probably another name or form of the name of Aram. [[183]Aram, 4]) Arnon (roaring), the river or torrent which formed the boundary between Moab and the Amorites, on the north of Moab, (Numbers 21:13,14,24,26; Judges 11:22) and afterwards between Moab and Israel (Reuben). (2:24,36; 3:8,12,16; 4:48; Joshua 12:1,2; 13:9,16; Judges 11:13,26) There can be no doubt that the Wady el-Mojeb of the present day is the Arnon. Its principal source is near Katrane, on the Haj route. Arod (a wild ass), a son of Gad, (Numbers 26:17) called [184]Arodi in (Genesis 46:16) Arodi [[185]Arod] Arodites [[186]Arod] Aroer (ruins). + A city on the torrent Arnon, the southern point of the territory of Sihon king of the Amorites and afterwards of the tribe of Reuben, (2:36; 3:12; 4:48; Joshua 12:2; 13:9,16; Judges 11:26; 2 Kings 10:33; 1 Chronicles 5:8) but later again in possession of Moab. (Jeremiah 48:19) It is the modern Ara'ir, upon the very edge of the precipitous north bank of the Wady Mojeb . + Aroer, "that is 'facing' Rahbah" (Rabbah of Ammon), a town built by and belonging to Gad. (Numbers 32:34; Joshua 13:25; 2 Samuel 24:5) This is probably the place mentioned in (Judges 11:33) which was shown in Jerome's time. + Aroer, in (Isaiah 17:2) if a place at all, must be still farther north than either of the two already named. + A town in Judah, named only in (1 Samuel 30:28) perhaps Wady Ar'arah, on the road from Petra to Gaza. Aroerite Hothan the Aroerite was the father of two of David's captains. (1 Chronicles 11:44) Arpad, Or Arphad (strong city), (Isaiah 36:19; 37:13) a city or district in Syria, apparently dependent on Damascus. (Jeremiah 49:23) No trace of its existence has yet been discovered. (2 Kings 18:34; 19:13; Isaiah 10:9) Arphaxad (stronghold of the Chaldees). + The son of Shem and ancestor of Eber. (Genesis 10:22,24; 11:10) + Arphaxad, a king "who reigned over the Medes in Ecbatana," Judith 1:1-4; perhaps the same as Phraortes, who fell in a battle with the Assyrians, 633 B.C. Arrows [[187]Arms, Armor] Artaxerxes (the great warrior). + The first Artaxerxes is mentioned in (Ezra 4:7) and appears identical with Smerdis, the Magian impostor and pretended brother of Cambyses, who usurped the throne B.C. 522, and reigned eight months. + In (Nehemiah 2:1) we have another Artaxerxes. We may safely identify him with Artaxerxes Macrocheir or Longimanus, the son of Xerxces, who reigned B.C. 464-425. Artemas (gift of Artemis), a companion of St. Paul. (Titus 3:12) According to tradition he was bishop of Lystra. Aruboth (windows), the third of Solomons commissariat districts. (1 Kings 4:10) It included Sochoh, and was therefore probably a name for the rich corn-growing lowland country. Arumah (height), a place apparently in the neighborhood of Shechem, at which Abimelech resided. (Judges 9:41) Arvad (wandering) (Ezekiel 27:8,11) The island of Ruad, which lies off Tortosa (Tartus), two or three miles from the Phoenician coast. In agreement with this is the mention of "the Arvadite, in (Genesis 10:18) and 1Chr 1:16 As a son of Canaan, with Zidon, Hamath an other northern localities. Arvadite [[188]Arvad] Arza prefect of the palace at Tirzah to Elah king of Israel, who was assassinated at a banquet in his house by Zimri. (1 Kings 16:9) Asa (physician, or cure). + Son of Abijah and third king of Judah. (B.C. 956-916.) (His long reign of 41 years was peaceful in its earlier portion, and he undertook the reformation of all abuses, especially of idolatry. He burnt the symbol of his grandmother Maachah's religion and deposed her from the dignity of "king's mother,") and renewed the great altar which the idolatrous priests apparently had desecrated. (2 Chronicles 15:8) Besides this he fortified cities on his frontiers, and raised an army, amounting, according to (2 Chronicles 14:8) to 580,000 men, a number probably exaggerated by an error of the copyist. During Asa's reign, Zerah, at the head of an enormous host, (2 Chronicles 14:9) attacked Mareshah. There he was utterly defeated, and driven back with immense loss to Gerar. The peace which followed this victory was broken by the attempt of Baasha of Israel to fortify Ramah. To stop this Asa purchased the help of Benhadad I. king of Damascus, by a large payment of treasure, forced Baasha to abandon his purpose, and destroyed the works which he had begun at Ramah. In his old age Asa suffered from gout, He died, greatly loved and honored, in the 41st year of his reign. + Ancestor of Berechiah a Levite who resided in one of the villages of the Netophathites after the return from Babylon. (1 Chronicles 9:16) Asahel (made by God). + Nephew of David, being the youngest son of his sister Zeruiah. He was celebrated for his swiftness of foot. When fighting under his brother Joab at Gibeon, he pursued Abner, who was obliged to kill him in self-defence. (2 Samuel 2:18) ff. [[189]Abner] (B.C. 1050.) + One of the Levites in the reign of Jehoshaphat, who went throughout the cities of Judah to instruct the people in the knowledge of the law. (2 Chronicles 17:8) (B.C. 910.) + A Levite in the reign of Hezekiah, who had charge of the tithes and dedicated things in the temple. (2 Chronicles 31:13) (B.C. 927.) + A priest, father of Jonathan, in the time of Ezra. (Ezra 10:15) He is called AZAEL in 1Esd 9:14. (B.C. before 459.) Asahiah (the Lord hath made), a servant of King Josiah, sent by him to seek information of Jehovah respecting the book of the law which Hilkiah found in the temple, (2 Kings 22:12,14) also called [190]Asaiah. (2 Chronicles 34:20) (B.C. 641.) Asaiah (the Lord hath made). + A prince of one of the families of the Simeonites in the reign of Hezekiah. (1 Chronicles 4:36) (B.C. 910.) + A Levite in the reign of David, chief of the family of Merari. (1 Chronicles 6:30) With 120 of his brethren he took part in bringing the ark from the house of Obed-edom to the city of David. (1 Chronicles 15:6,11) + The first-born of "the Shilonite," from Shiloni, (1 Chronicles 9:5) who with his family dwelt in Jerusalem after the return from Babylon. (B.C. 536.) In (Nehemiah 11:5) he is called [191]Maaseiah. + (2 Chronicles 34:20) [[192]Asahiah] Asaph (collector of the people). + A Levite, son of Berechiah, one of the leaders of David's choir. (1 Chronicles 6:39) Psalms 50 and 73-83 are attributed to him; and he was in after times celebrated as a seer as well as a musical composer. (2 Chronicles 29:30; Nehemiah 12:46) (B.C. 1050.) + The father or ancestor of Joah, the chronicler to the kingdom of Judah in the reign of Hezekiah, (2 Kings 18:18,37; Isaiah 36:3,22) probably the same as the preceding. + The keeper of the royal forest or "paradise" of Artaxerxes, (Nehemiah 2:8) a Jew, in high office at the court of Persia. (B.C. 536.) + Ancestor of Mattaniah, the conductor of the temple-choir after the return from Babylon. (1 Chronicles 9:16; Nehemiah 11:17) Most probably the same as 1 and 2. Asaph, Sons Of (A school of poetry and musical composers founded by Asaph.) Asareel (whom God hath bound (by an oath)), a son of Jehaleleel, in the genealogies of Judah. (1 Chronicles 4:16) Asarelah (upright toward God), one of the sons of Asaph, a musician, (1 Chronicles 25:2) called [193]Jesharelah in ver. 14 Ascalon [[194]Ashkelon, Askelon] Asenath (worshipper of Neith), daughter of Potipherah, priest, or possibly prince, of On [[195]Potipherah, Or Potipherah], wife of Joseph, (Genesis 41:45) and mother of Manasseh and Ephraim. (Genesis 41:50; 46:20) (B.C. 1715.) Aser (Luke 2:36; Revelation 7:6) [[196]Asher, [197]Asher] Ash (Heb. oren), only in (Isaiah 44:14) As the true ash is not a native of Palestine, some understand this to be a species of pine tree. Perhaps the larch (Laryx europaea) may be intended. Ashan (smoke), a city in the low country of Judah. (Joshua 15:42) In (Joshua 19:7) and 1Chr 4:32 It is mentioned again as belonging to Simeon. It has not yet been identified. Ashbea (I adjure), a proper name, but whether of a person or place is uncertain. (1 Chronicles 4:21) Ashbel (reproof of God), second son of Benjamin and ancestor of the Ashbelites. (Genesis 46:21; Numbers 26:38; 1 Chronicles 8:1) Ashchenaz (1 Chronicles 1:6; Jeremiah 51:27) [[198]Ashkenaz] Ashdod, Or Azotus (a stronghold), (Acts 8:40) one of the five confederate cities of the Philistines situated about 30 miles from the southern frontier of Palestine, three from the Mediterranean Sea, and nearly midway between Gaza and Joppa. It was assigned to the tribe of Judah, (Joshua 15:47) but was never subdued by the Israelites. Its chief importance arose from its position on the high road from Palestine to Egypt. It is now an insignificant village, with no memorials of its ancient importance, but is still called Esdud. Ashdodites the inhabitants of Ashdod, (Nehemiah 4:7) called Ashdothites in (Joshua 13:3) Ashdothpisgah (3:17; Joshua 12:3; 13:20) and in Deuteronomy 4:49 Authorized Version, translated springs of Pisgah, i.e. a valley or fountain near Mount Pisgah. Asher a place which formed one boundary of the tribe of Manasseh on the south. (Joshua 17:7) Mr. Porter suggests that Teyasir may be the Asher of Manasseh. Handbook, p.348. Apocrypha and New Testament, A'ser (blessed), the eighth son of Jacob, by Zilpah, Leah's handmaid. (Genesis 30:13) (B.C. 1753.) The general position of his tribe was on the seashore from Carmel northward with Manasseh on the south, Zebulun and Issachar on the southeast, and Naphtali on the north-east. (Joshua 19:24-31; 17:10,11) and Judg 1:31,32 They possessed the maritime portion of the rich plain of Esdraelon;, probably for a distance of 8 or 10 miles from the shore. This territory contained some of the richest soil in all Palestine. Asherah (straight), the name of a Phoenician goddess, or rather of the idol itself (Authorized Version "grove"). Asherah is closely connected with [199]Ashtoreth and her worship, (Judges 3:7) comp. Judg 2:3; 6:25; 1Kin 18:19 Ashtoreth being, perhaps, the proper name of the goddess, whilst Asherah is the name of her image or symbol, which was of wood. See (Judges 6:25-30; 2 Kings 23:14) Asherites descendants of Asher, and members of his tribe. (Judges 1:32) Ashes The ashes on the altar of burnt offering were gathered into a cavity in its surface. The ashes of a red heifer burnt entire, according to regulations prescribed in Numb. 19, had the ceremonial efficacy of purifying the unclean, (Hebrews 9:13) but of polluting the clean. [[200]Sacrifice] Ashes about the person, especially on the head, were used as a sign of sorrow. [[201]Mourning] Ashima a god of the Hamathite colonists in Samaria. (2 Kings 17:30) It has been regarded as identical with the Pan of the Greeks. Ashkelon, Askelon Apocrypha As'calon (migration), one of the five cities of the Philistines, (Joshua 113:3; 1 Samuel 6:17) a seaport on the Mediterranean, 10 miles north of Gaza. Samson went down from Timnath to Ashkelon. (Judges 14:19) In the post-biblical times Ashkelon rose to considerable importance. Near the town were the temple and sacred lake of Derceto, the Syrian Venus. The soil around was remarkable for its fertility. Ashkelon played a memorable part in the struggles of the Crusades. Ashkenaz (spreading fire), one of the three sons of Gomer, son of Japhet. (Genesis 10:3) We may probably recognize the tribe of Ashkenaz on the northern shore of Asia Minor in the name of Lake Ascanius, and in Europe in the name Scandia, Scandinavia . Knobel considers that Ashkenaz is to be identified with the German race. Ashnah the name of two cities, both in the lowlands of Judah: (1) named between Zoreah and Zanoah, and therefore probably northwest of Jerusalem, (Joshua 15:33) and (2) between Jiptah and Nezib, and therefore to the southwest of Jerusalem. (Joshua 15:43) Each, according, to Robinson's map (1857), would be about 16 miles from Jerusalem. Ashpenaz (horse-nose), the master of the eunuchs of Nebuchadnezzar. (Daniel 1:3) Ashriel properly As'riel (vow of God). (1 Chronicles 7:14) Ashtaroth and once As'taroth (a star), a city on the east of Jordan in Bashan, in the kingdom of Og, doubtless so called from being a seat of the worship of the goddess of the same name. (1:4; Joshua 9:10; 12:4; 13:12) Ashterathite a native or inhabitant of Ashtaroth, (1 Chronicles 11:44) beyond Jordan. Ashteroth Karnaim (Ashteroth of the two horns or peaks) a place of very great antiquity, the abode of the Rephaim. (Genesis 14:5) The name reappears but once, as Carnaim or Carnion, 1 Macc. 5:26,43,44; 2 Macc. 12:21,26, in "the land of Galaad." It is probably the modern Es-Sanamein, on the Haj route, about 25 miles south of Damascus. Ashtoreth (a star) the principal female divinity of the Phoenicians, called Ishtar by the Assyrians and Astarte by the Greeks and Romans. She was by some ancient writers identified with the moon. But on the other hand the Assyrian Ishtar was not the moon-goddess, but the planet Venus; and Astarte was by many identified with the goddess Venus (or Aphrodite), as well as with the plant of that name. It is certain that the worship of Astarte became identified with that of Venus, and that this worship was connected with the most impure rites is apparent from the close connection of this goddess with [202]Asherah. (1 Kings 11:5,33; 2 Kings 23:13) Ashur (black), the posthumous son of Hezron by his wife Abiah. (1 Chronicles 2:24; 4:5) He became "father" or founder of the town of Tekoa. (B.C. 1658.) Ashurim (steps), a tribe descended from Dedan, the grandson of Abraham. (Genesis 26:3) Knobel considers them the same with the Asshur of (Ezekiel 27:28) and connected with southern Arabia. Ashurites, The Only in (2 Samuel 2:9) By some of the old interpreters the name is taken as meaning the Geshurites; but if we follow the Targum of Jonathan, "the Asherites" will denote the inhabitants of the whole of the country west of the Jordan above Jez-reel. Ashvath One of the sons of Japhlet, of the tribe of Asher. (1 Chronicles 7:33) Asia (orient). The passages in the New Testament where this word occurs are the following; (Acts 2:9; 6:9; 16:6; 19:10,22,26,27; 20:4,16,18; 21:27; 27:2; Romans 16:5; 1 Corinthians 16:19; 2 Corinthians 1:8; 2 Timothy 1:15; 1 Peter 1:1; Revelation 1:4,11) In all these it may be confidently stated that the word is used for a Roman province which embraced the western part of the peninsula of Asia Minor and of which Ephesus was the capital. Asiarchae (chief of Asia) (Authorized Version; (Acts 19:31)), officers chosen annually by the cities of that part of the province of Asia of which Ephesus was, under Roman government, the metropolis. They had charge of the public games and religious theatrical spectacles, the expenses of which they bore. Asiel (created by God). + A Simeonite whose descendant Jehu lived in the reign of Hezekiah. (1 Chronicles 4:35) + One of the five swift writers whom Esdras was commanded to take to write the law and the history of the world. 2 Esd. 14:24. Asnah (thorn-bush). The children of Asnah were among the Nethinim who returned with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:50) Asnapper (swift), mentioned in (Ezra 4:10) as the person who settled the Cutheans in the cities of Samaria. He was probably a general of Esarhaddon. (B.C. 712.) Asp (Heb. pethen), translated (adder in) (Psalms 58:4; 91:13) Probably the Egyptian cobra, a small and very poisonous serpent, a dweller in the holes of walls, (Isaiah 11:8) and a snake upon which the serpent-charmers practiced their art. Aspalathus the name of some sweet perfume mentioned in Ecclus. 24:15. The Lignum rhodianum, is by some supposed to be the substance indicated by the aspalathus, the plant which yields it is the Convolvulus scoparius if Linnaeus. Aspatha third son of Haman. (Esther 9:7) Asphar the pool in the "wilderness of Thecoe." 1 Macc. 9:33. Is it possible that the name is a corruption of lacus Asphaltites? Asriel the son of Gilead and great-grandson of Manasseh. (Numbers 26:31; Joshua 17:2) He was the founder of the family of the Asrielites. (B.C. 1444.) Ass Five Hebrew names of the genus Asinus occur in the Old Testament. + Chamor denotes the male domestic ass. + Athon, the common domestic she-ass. + Air, the name of a wild ass, which occurs (Genesis 32:15; 49:11) + Pere, a species of wild ass mentioned (Genesis 12:16) + Arod occurs only in (Job 39:5) but in what respect it differs from the Pere is uncertain. The ass in eastern countries is a very different animal from what he is in western Europe. The most noble and honorable amongst the Jews were wont to be mounted on asses. (With us the ass is a symbol of stubbornness and stupidity, while in the East it is especially remarkable for its patience, gentleness, intelligence, meek submission and great power of endurance."--L. Abbott. The color is usually a reddish brown, but there are white asses, which are much prized. The ass was the animal of peace as the horse was the animal of war; hence the appropriateness of Christ in his triumphal entry riding on an ass. The wild ass is a beautiful animal.--ED.) Mr. Lavard remarks that in fleetness the wild ass (Asinus hemippus) equals the gazelle and to overtake it is a feat which only one or two of the most celebrated mares have been known to accomplish. Asshur second son of Shem, (Genesis 10:22) also the Hebrew form for Assyria. [[203]Assyria, Asshur] Assir (captive). + Son of Korah. (Exodus 6:24; 1 Chronicles 6:22) + Son of Ebiasaph, and a forefather of Samuel (1 Chronicles 6:23,37) + Son of Jeconiah, (1 Chronicles 3:17) unless "Jeconiah the captive" be the true rendering. Assos, Or Assus (approaching), a seaport of the Roman province of Asia in the district anciently called Mysia, on the northern shore of the Gulf of Adrn-myttium, and about seven miles from Lesbos. (Acts 20:13,14) Assur (Ezra 4:2; Psalms 83:8) [[204]Asshur, [205]Assyria, Asshur; ASSYRIA] Assyria, Asshur was a great and powerful country lying on the Tigris, (Genesis 2:14) the capital of which was Nineveh. (Genesis 10:11) etc. It derived its name apparently from Asshur, the son of Shem, (Genesis 10:22) who in later times was worshipped by the Assyrians as their chief god. + Extent.-- The boundaries of Assyria differed greatly at different periods, Probably in the earliest times it was confined to a small tract of low country lying chiefly on the left bank of the Tigris. Gradually its limits were extended, until it came to be regarded as comprising the whole region between the Armenian mountains (lat. 37 30') upon the north, and upon the south the country about Baghdad (lat. 33 30'). Eastward its boundary was the high range of Zagros, or mountains of Kurdistan; westward it was, according to the views of some, bounded by the Mesopotamian desert, while according to others it reached the Euphrates. + General character of the country.-- On the north and east the high mountain-chains of Armenia and Kurdistan are succeeded by low ranges of limestone hills of a somewhat arid aspect. To these ridges there succeeds at first an undulating zone of country, well watered and fairly productive, which extends in length for 250 miles, and is interrupted only by a single limestone range. Above and below this barrier is an immense level tract, now for the most part a wilderness, which bears marks of having been in early times well cultivated and thickly peopled throughout. + Original peopling.--Scripture informs us that Assyria was peopled from Babylon, (Genesis 10:11) and both classical tradition and the monuments of the country agree in this representation. + Date of the foundation of the kingdom.--As a country, Assyria was evidently known to Moses. (Genesis 2:14; 25:18; Numbers 24:22,24) The foundation of the Assyrian empire was probably not very greatly anterior to B.C. 1228. + History.--The Mesopotamian researches have rendered it apparent that the original seat of government was not at Nineveh, but at Kileh-Sherghat, on the right bank of the Tigris. The most remarkable monarch of the earlier kings was called Tiglath-pileser. He appears to have been king towards the close of the twelfth century, and thus to have been contemporary with Samuel. Afterwards followed Pul, who invaded Israel in the reign of Menahem (2 Kings 15:29) about B.C. 770, and Shalmaneser who besieged Samaria three years, and destroyed the kingdom of Israel B.C. 721, himself or by his successor Sargon, who usurped the throne at that time. Under Sargon the empire was as great as at any former era, and Nineveh became a most beautiful city. Sargon's son Sennacherib became the most famous of the Assyrian kings. He began to reign 704 B.C. He invaded the kingdom of Judea in the reign of Hezekiah. He was followed by Esarhaddon, and he by a noted warrior and builder, Sardanapalus. In Scripture it is remarkable that we hear nothing of Assyria after the reign of Esarhaddon, and profane history is equally silent until the attacks began which brought about her downfall. The fall of Assyria, long previously prophesied by Isaiah, (Isaiah 10:5-19) was effected by the growing strength and boldness of the Medes, about 625 B.C. The prophecies of Nahum and Zephaniah (Zephaniah 2:13-15) against Assyria were probably delivered shortly before the catastrophe. + General character of the empire.-- The Assyrian monarchs bore sway over a number of petty kings through the entire extent of their dominions. These native princes were feudatories of the great monarch, of whom they held their crown by the double tenure of homage and tribute. It is not quite certain how far Assyria required a religious conformity from the subject people. Her religion was a gross and complex polytheism, comprising the worship of thirteen principal and numerous minor divinities, at the head of all of whom stood the chief god, Asshur, who seems to be the deified patriarch of the nation. (Genesis 10:22) + Civilization of the Assyrians.-- The civilization of the Assyrians was derived originally from the Babylonians. They were a Shemitic race originally resident in Babylonia (which at that time was Cushite) and thus acquainted with the Babylonian inventions and discoveries, who ascended the valley of the Tigris and established in the tract immediately below the Armenian mountains a separate and distinct nationality. Still, as their civilization developed it became in many respects peculiar. Their art is of home growth. But they were still in the most important points barbarians. Their government was rude and inartificial, their religion coarse and sensual, and their conduct of war cruel. + Modern discoveries in Assyria.-- (Much interest has been excited in reference to Assyria by the discoveries lately made there, which confirm and illustrate the Bible. The most important of them is the finding of the stone tablets or books which formed the great library at Nineveh, founded by Shalmaneser B.C. 860, but embodying tablets written 2000 years B.C. This library was more than doubled by Sardanapalus. These tablets were broken into fragments, but many of them have been put together and deciphered by the late Mr. George Smith, of the British Museum. All these discoveries of things hidden for ages, but now come to light, confirm the Bible.--ED.) Astaroth (1:4) [[206]Ashtaroth] Astarte [[207]Ashtoreth] Asuppim, And House Of (1 Chronicles 26:15,17) literally house of the gatherings. Some understand it as the proper name of chambers on the south of the temple others of certain store-rooms, or of the council chambers in the outer court of the temple in which the elders held their celebrations. Asyncritus (incomparable), a Christian at Rome, saluted by St. Paul. (Romans 16:14) Atad (thorn), The threshing-floor of, called also Abel-mizraim, (Genesis 50:10,11) afterwards called Beth-hogla, and known to have lain between the Jordan and Jericho, therefore on the west side of Jordan. Atarah (a crown) a wife of Jerahmeel, and mother of Onam. (1 Chronicles 2:26) Ataroth (crowns). + One of the towns in the "land of Jazer and land of Gilead," (Numbers 32:3) east of the Jordan, taken and built by the tribe of Gad. (Numbers 32:34) + A place on the (south?) boundary of Ephraim and Manasseh. (Joshua 16:2,7) It is impossible to say whether Ataroth is or is not the same place as + ATAROTH-ADAR, or -[208]Addar, on the west border of Benjamin, "near the 'mountain' that is on the south side of the nether Beth-horon." (Joshua 16:5; 18:13) Perhaps the modern Atara, six miles northeast of Bethel. + "ATAROTH, THE [209]House OF [210]Joab," a place(?) occurring in the list of the descendants of Judah. (1 Chronicles 2:54) Ater (shut up). + The children of Ater were among the porters or gate-keepers of the temple who returned with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:42; Nehemiah 7:45) + The children of ATER OF [211]Hezekiah to the number of 98 returned with Zerubbabel, (Ezra 2:16; Nehemiah 7:21) and were among the heads of the people who signed the covenant with Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 10:17) Athach (lodging place). (1 Samuel 30:30) As the name does not occur elsewhere, it has been suggested that it is an error of the transcriber for Ether, a town in the low country of Judah. (Joshua 15:42) Athaiah (whom Jehovah made), a descendant of Pharez, the son of Judah, who dwelt at Jerusalem after the return from Babylon, (Nehemiah 11:4) called [212]Uthai in (1 Chronicles 9:4) Athaliah (afflicted of the Lord) daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, married Jehoram the son of Jehoshaphat king of Judah and introduced into that kingdom the worship of Baal. (B.C. 891.) After the great revolution by which Jehu seated himself on the throne of Samaria she killed all the members of the royal family of Judah who had escaped his sword. (2 Kings 11:1) From the slaughter one infant, named Joash, the youngest son of Ahaziah, was rescued by his aunt Jehosheba wife of Jehoiada, (2 Chronicles 23:11) the high priest. (2 Chronicles 24:6) The child was brought up under Jehoiada's care, and concealed in the temple for six years, during which period Athaliah reigned over Judah. At length Jehoiada thought it time to produce the lawful king to the people, trusting to their zeal for the worship of God and their loyalty to the house of David. His plan was successful, and Athaliah was put to death. Athenians natives of Athens (Acts 17:21) Athens (city of Athene), the capital of Attica, and the chief seat of Grecian learning and civilization during the golden period of the history of Greece. Description--Athens is situated about three miles from the seacoast, in the central plain of Attica. In this plain rise several eminences Of these the most prominent is a lofty insulated mountain with a conical peaked Summit, now called the Hill of St. George, and which bore in ancient times the name of Lycabettus . This mountain, which was not included within the ancient walls, lies to the northeast of Athens, and forms the most striking feature in the environs of the city. It is to Athens what Vesuvius is to Naples, or Arthur's Seat to Edinburgh Southwest of Lycabettua there are four hills of moderate height, all of which formed part of the city. Of these the nearest to Lycabettus and at the distance of a mile from the latter, was the Aeropolis, or citadel of Athens, a square craggy rock rising abruptly about 150 feet, with a flat summit of about 1000 feet long from east to west, by 500 feet broad from north to south. Immediately west of the Aeropolis is a second hill of irregular form, the Areopagus (Mars' Hill). To the southwest there rises a third hill, the Pnyx, on which the assemblies of the citizens were held. South of the city was seen the Saronic Gulf, with the harbors of Athens. History.--Athens is said to have derived its name from the prominence given to the worship of the goddess Athena (Minerva) by its king, Erechtheus. The inhabitants were previously called Cecropidae, from Cecrops, who, according to tradition, was the original founder of the city. This at first occupied only the hill or rock which afterwards became the Acropolis; but gradually the buildings spread over the ground at the southern foot of this hill. It was not till the time of Pisistratus and his sons (B.C. 560-514) that the city began to assume any degree of splendor. The most remarkable building of these despots was the gigantic temple of the Olympian Zeus or Jupiter. Under Themistocles the Acropolis began to form the centre of the city, round which the new walls described an irregular circle of about 60 stadia or 7 1/4 miles in circumference. Themistocles transferred the naval station of the Athenians to the peninsula of Piraeus, which is distant about 4 1/2 miles from Athens, and contains three natural harbors. It was not till the administration of Pericles that the walls were built which connected Athens with her ports. Buildings.--Under the administration of Pericles, Athens was adorned with numerous public buildings, which existed in all their glory when St. Paul visited the city. The Acropolis was the centre of the architectural splendor of Athens. It was covered with the temples of gods and heroes; and thus its platform presented not only a sanctuary, but a museum containing the finest productions of the architect and the sculptor, in which the whiteness of the marble was relieved by brilliant colors, and rendered still more dazzling by the transparent clearness of the Athenian atmosphere. The chief building was the Parthenon (i.e. House of the Virgin), the most perfect production of Grecian architecture. It derived its name from its being the temple of Athena Parthenos, or Athena the Virgin, the invincible goddess of war. It stood on the highest part of the Acropolis, near its centre. It was entirely of Pentelic marble, on a rustic basement of ordinary limestone, and its architecture, which was of the Doric order, was of the purest kind. It was adorned with the most exquisite sculptures, executed by various artists under the direction of Phidias. But the chief wonder of the Parthenon was the colossal statue of the virgin goddess executed by Phidias himself: The Acropolis was adorned with another colossal figure of Athena, in bronze, also the work of Phidias. It stood in the open air, nearly opposite the Propylaea. With its pedestal it must have been about 70 feet high, and consequently towered above the roof of the Parthenon, so that the point of its spear and the crest of its helmet were visible off the promontory of Sunium to ships approaching Athens. The Areopagus, or Hill of Ares (Mars), is described elsewhere. [[213]Mars Hill' HILL] The Pnyx, or place for holding the public assemblies of the Athenians, stood on the side of a low rocky hill, at the distance of about a quarter of a mile from the Areopagus. Between the Pnyx on the west) the Areopagus on the north and the Acropolis on the east, and closely adjoining the base of these hills, stood the Agora or "Market," where St. Paul disputed daily. Through it ran the road to the gymnasium and gardens of the Academy, which were situated about a mile from the walls. The Academy was the place where Plato and his disciples taught. East of the city, and outside the walls was the Lyceum, a gymnasium dedicated to Apollo Lyceus, and celebrated as the place in which Aristotle taught. Character.--The remark of the sacred historian respecting the inquisitive character of the Athenians (Acts 17:21) is attested by the unanimous voice of antiquity. Their natural liveliness was partly owing to the purity and clearness of the atmosphere of Attica, which also allowed them to pass much of their time in the open air. The Athenian carefulness in religion is confirmed by the ancient writers. Of the Christian church, founded by St. Paul at Athens, according to ecclesiastical tradition, Dionysius the Areopagite was the first bishop. [[214]Dionysius] Present condition.-- (The population of Athens in 1871 was 48,000. Its university has 52 professors and 1200 students. Educational institutions are very numerous. A railway connects the Pirzeus or port with the city and its terminus stands in the midst of what was once the Agora.--ED.) Athlai (whom Jehovah afflicts), one of the sons of Bebai, who put away his foreign wife at the exhortation of Ezra. (Ezra 10:28) Atonement, The Day Of I. The great day of national humiliation, and the only one commanded in the Mosaic law. [[215]Fasts] The mode of its observance is described in Levi 16, and the conduct of the people is emphatically enjoined in (Leviticus 23:26-32) II. Time.-- It was kept on the tenth day of Tisri, that is, from the evening of the ninth to the evening of the tenth of that month, five days before the feast of tabernacles. Tisri corresponds to our September-October, so that the 10th of Tisri would be about the first of October. [[216]Festivals] III. How observed.-- It was kept by the people as a high solemn sabbath. On this occasion only the high priest was permitted to enter into the holy of holies. Having bathed his person and dressed himself entirely in the holy white linen garments, he brought forward a young bullock for a sin offering, purchased at his own cost, on account of himself and his family, and two young goats for a sin offering, with a ram for a burnt offering, which were paid for out of the public treasury, on account of the people. He then presented the two goats before the Lord at the door of the tabernacle and cast lots upon them. On one lot "For Jehovah " was inscribed, and on the other "For Azazel ." A phrase of unusual difficulty. The best modern scholars agree that it designates the personal being to whom the goat was sent, probably Satan. This goat was called the scapegoat . After various sacrifices and ceremonies the goat upon which the lot "For Jehovah " had fallen was slain and the high priest sprinkled its blood before the mercy-seat in the same manner as he had done that of the bullock. Going out from the holy of holies he purified the holy place, sprinkling some of the blood of both the victims on the altar of incense. At this time no one besides the high priest was suffered to be present in the holy place. The purification of the holy of holies and of the holy place being thus completed, the high priest laid his hands upon the head of the goat on which the lot "For Azazel " had fallen and confessed over it all the sins of the people. The goat was then led, by a man chosen for the purpose, into the wilderness, into "a land not inhabited," and was there let loose. The high priest after this returned into the holy place bathed himself again, put on his usual garments of office, and offered the two rams as burnt offerings, one for himself and one for the people. IV. Significance. In considering the I. meaning of the particular rites of the day, three points appear to be of a very distinctive character. + The white garments of the high priest. + His entrance into the holy of holies. + The scapegoat. The writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews, (Hebrews 9:7-25) teaches us to apply the first two particulars. The high priest himself, with his person cleansed and dressed in white garments, was the best outward type which a living man could present in his own person of that pure and holy One who was to purify his people and to cleanse them from their sins. But respecting the meaning of the scapegoat we have no such light to guide us, and the subject is one of great doubt and difficulty. It has been generally considered that it was dismissed to signify the carrying away of the sins of the people, as it were, out of the sight of Jehovah. If we keep in view that the two goats are spoken of as parts of one and the same sin offering, we shall not have much difficulty in seeing that they form together but one symbolical expression; the slain goat setting forth the act of sacrifice, in giving up its own life for others "to Jehovah;" and the goat which carried off its load of sin "for complete removal" signifying the cleansing influence of faith in that sacrifice. Atroth (crowns), a city of Gad. (Numbers 32:35) Attai (opportune). + Grandson of Sheshan the Jerahmeelite through his daughter Ahlai, whom he gave in marriage to Jarha, his Egyptian slave. (1 Chronicles 2:35,36) His grandson Zabad was one of David's mighty men. (1 Chronicles 11:41) + One of the lion-faced warriors of Gad, captains of the host, who forded the Jordan at the time of its overflow and joined David in the wilderness. (1 Chronicles 12:11) (B.C. 1060.) + Second son of King Rehoboam by Maachah the daughter of Absalom. (2 Chronicles 11:20) (B.C. 975.) Attalia (from Attalus), a coast-town of Pamphylia, mentioned (Acts 14:25) It was built by Attalus Philadelphus, king of Pergamos, and named after the monarch. All its remains are characteristic of the date of its foundation. Leake fixes Attalia at Adalia, on the south court of Asia Minor, north of the Duden Su, the ancient Catarrhactes. Augustus (venerable) Cae'sar, the first Roman emperor. He was born A.U.C. 691, B.C. 63. His father was Caius Octavius; his mother Atia, daughter of Julia the sister of C. Julius Caesar. He was principally educated by his great-uncle Julius Caesar, and was made his heir. After his murder, the young Octavius, then Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus, was taken into the triumvirate with Antony and Lepidus, and, after the removal of the latter, divided the empire with Antony. The struggle for the supreme power was terminated in favor of Octavianus by the battle of Actium, B.C. 31. On this victory he was saluted imperator by the senate, who conferred on him the title Augustus, B.C. 27. The first link binding him to New Testament history is his treatment of Herod after the battle of Actium. That prince, who had espoused Antony's side, found himself pardoned, taken into favor and confirmed, nay even increased, in his power. After Herod's death, in A.D. 4, Augustus divided his dominions, almost exactly according to his dying directions, among his sons. Augustus died in Nola in Campania, Aug. 19, A.U.C. 767, A.D. 14, in his 76th year; but long before his death he had associated Tiberius with him in the empire. Augustus Band (Acts 27:1) [[217]Army] Ava (ruin), a place in the empire of Assyria, apparently the same as Ivan. (2 Kings 17:24) Aven (nothingness). + The "plain of Aven" is mentioned by (Amos 1:5) in his denunciation of Syria and the country to the north of Palestine. This Aven is by some supposed to be the once magnificent Heiropolis, "city of I the sun," now Baalbek (Bal'bek) of Coele-Syria, whose ruins are one of the wonders of the ages. It was situated in a plain near the foot of the Anti-Libanus range of mountains, 42 miles northwest of Damascus. It is famous for the colossal ruins of its temples, one of which with its courts and porticos, extended over 1000 feet in length. The temples were built of marble or limestone and granite. Some of the columns were 7 feet in diameter and 62 feet high, or including capital and pedestal, 89 feet. Some of the building-stones were 64 feet long and 12 feet thick. The temples are of Roman origin. + In (Hosea 10:8) the word is clearly an abbreviation of Bethaven, that is, Bethel. Comp. (Hosea 4:15) etc. + The sacred city of Heliopolis or On, in Egypt. (Ezekiel 30:17) Avim (ruins), A'vims or A'vites . + A people among the early inhabitants of Palestine, whom we meet with in the southwest corner of the seacoast, whither they may have made their way north-ward from the desert, (2:23) probably the same as the Hivites. + The people of Avva, among the colonists who were sent by the king of Assyria to reinhabit the depopulated cities of Israel. (2 Kings 17:31) Avith (ruins), the city of Hadad ben-Bedad, one of the kings of Edom before there were kings in Israel. (Genesis 36:35; 1 Chronicles 1:46) Awl a tool of which we do not know the ancient form. The only notice of it is in connection with the custom of boring the ear of the slave. (Exodus 21:6; 15:17) Azal a name only occurring in (Zechariah 14:5) It is mentioned as the limit to which the ravine of the Mount of Olives will extend when "Jehovah shall go forth to fight." Azaliah (whom the Lord reserved), the father of Shaphan the scribe in the reign of Josiah. (2 Kings 22:3; 2 Chronicles 34:8) (B.C. before 641.) Azaniah (whom the Lord hears), the father or immediate ancestor of Jeshua the Levite, in the time of Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 10:9) Azarael a Levite musician. (Nehemiah 12:36) Azareel, Or Azareel (whom the Lord helps). + A Korhite who joined David in his retreat at Ziklag. (1 Chronicles 12:6) (B.C. 1060.) + A Levite musician of the family of Heman in the time of David, (1 Chronicles 25:18) called [218]Uzziel in (1 Chronicles 25:4) (B.C. 1050.) + Son of Jeroham, and prince of the tribe of Dan when David numbered the people. (1 Chronicles 27:22) + One of the sons of Bani, who put away his foreign wife on the remonstrance of Ezra. (Ezra 10:41) (B.C. 459.) + Father or ancestor of Maasiai, or Amashai, a priest who dwelt in Jerusalem after the return from Babylon. (Nehemiah 11:13) comp. 1Chr 9:12 (B.C. about 440.) Azariah (whom the Lord helps) a common name in Hebrew, and especially in the families of the priests of the line of Eleazar, whose name has precisely the same meaning as Azariah. It is nearly identical, and is often confounded, with Ezra as well as with Zerahiah and Seraiah. The principal persons who bore this name were-- + Son of Ahimaaz. (1 Chronicles 6:9) He appears from (1 Kings 4:2) to have succeeded Zadok, his grandfather, in the high priesthood, in the reign of Solomon, Ahimaaz having died before Zadok. (B.C. About 1000.) [[219]Ahimaaz] + A chief officer of Solomon's, the son of Nathan, perhaps David's grandson. (1 Kings 4:5) + Tenth king of Judah, more frequently called Uzziah. (2 Kings 14:21; 15:1,6,8,17,23,27; 1 Chronicles 8:12) + Son of Ethan, of the sons of Zerah, where, perhaps, Zerahiah is the more probable reading. (1 Chronicles 2:8) + Son of Jehu of the family of the Jerahmeelites, and descended from Jarha the Egyptian slave of Sheshan. (1 Chronicles 2:38,39) He was probably one of the captains of hundreds in the time of Athaliah mentioned in (2 Chronicles 23:1) (B.C. 886.) + The son of Johanan. (1 Chronicles 6:10) He must have been high priest in the reign of Abijah and Asa. (B.C. 939.) + Another Azariah is inserted between Hilkiah, in Josiah's reign, and Seraiah who was put to death by Nebuchadnezzar, in (1 Chronicles 6:13,14) + Son of Zephaniah, a Kohathite, and ancestor of Samuel the prophet. (1 Chronicles 6:36) Apparently the same as Uzziah in ver. 24. + Azariah; the son of Oded, (2 Chronicles 15:1) called simply Oded in ver. 8, was a remarkable prophet in the days of King Asa, and a contemporary of Azariah the son of Johanan the high priest, and of Hanani the seer. (B.C. 939.) + Son of Jehoshaphat king of Judah. (2 Chronicles 21:2) (B.C.910.) + Another son of Jehoshaphat, and brother of the preceding. (2 Chronicles 21:2) + In (2 Chronicles 22:6) Azariah is a clerical error for Ahaziah. + Son of Jeroham, one of the captains of Judah in the time of Athaliah. (2 Chronicles 23:1) + The high priest in the reign of Uzziah king of Judah. The most memorable event of his life is that which is recorded in (2 Chronicles 26:17-20) (B.C. 810.) Azariah was contemporary with Isaiah the prophet and with Amos and Joel. + Son of Johanan, one of the captains of Ephraim in the reign of Ahaz. (2 Chronicles 28:12) + A Kohathite, father of Joel, in the reign of Hezekiah. (2 Chronicles 29:12) (B.C. 726.) + A Merarite, son of Jehalelel, in the time of Hezekiah. (2 Chronicles 29:12) + The high priest in the days of Hezekiah. (2 Chronicles 31:10,13) He appears to have co operated zealously with the king in that thorough purification of the temple and restoration of the temple service, which was so conspicuous a feature in his reign. He succeeded Urijah, who was high priest in the reign of Ahaz. + Son of Maaseiah who repaired part of the wall of Jerusalem in the time of Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 3:23,24) (B.C. 446-410.) + One of the leaders of the children of the province who went up from Babylon with Zerubbabel. (Nehemiah 7:7) + One of the Levites who assisted Ezra in instructing the people in the knowledge of the law. (Nehemiah 8:7) + One of the priests who sealed the covenant with Nehemiah (Nehemiah 10:2) and probably the same with the Azariah who assisted in the dedication of the city wall. (Nehemiah 12:33) + (Jeremiah 13:2) (Jezaniah). + The original name of Abednego. (Daniel 1:6,7,11,19) He appears to have been of the seed-royal of Judah. (B.C. 603.) Azaz (strong), a Reubenite, father of Bela. (1 Chronicles 5:8) Azaziah (whom the Lord strengthens) + A Levite musician in the reign of David, appointed to play the harp in the service which attended the procession by which the ark was brought up from the house of Obed-edom. (1 Chronicles 15:21) (B.C. 1048.) + The father of Hoshea, prince of the tribe of Ephraim when David numbered the people. (1 Chronicles 27:20) + One of the Levites in the reign of Hezekiah, who had charge of the tithes, and dedicated things in the temple. (2 Chronicles 31:13) Azbuk (strong devastation), father or ancestor of Nehemiah, the prince of part of Bethzur. (Nehemiah 3:16) Azekah (dugover), a town of Judah, with dependent villages, lying in the Shefelah or rich agricultural plain. It is most clearly defined as being near Shochoh, (1 Samuel 17:1) but its position has not yet been recognized. Azel (noble), a descendant of Saul. (1 Chronicles 8:37,38; 9:43,44) Azem (bone), a city in the extreme south of Judah, (Joshua 15:29) afterwards allotted to Simeon. (Joshua 19:3) Elsewhere it is [220]Ezem. Azgad (strength of fortune). The children of Azgad, to the number of 1222 (2322 according to) (Nehemiah 7:17) were among the laymen who returned with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:12; 8:12) With the other heads of the People they joined in the covenant with Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 10:15) (B.C. 536.) Aziel (whom God comforts), a Levite. (1 Chronicles 15:20) The name is a shortened form of Jaaziel in ver. 18. Aziza (strong) a layman of the family of Zattu, who had married a foreign wife after the return from Babylon. Azmaveth a place to all appearance in Benjamin, being named with other towns belonging to that tribe. (Ezra 2:24) The name elsewhere occurs as BETH-AZMAVETH. (strong unto death). + One of David's mighty men, a native of Bahurim, (2 Samuel 23:31; 1 Chronicles 11:33) and therefore probably a Benjamite. (B.C. 1060). + A descendant of Mephibosheth, or Merib-baal. (1 Chronicles 8:36; 9:42) + The father of Jeziel and Pelet, two of the skilled Benjamite slingers and archers who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chronicles 10:3) perhaps identical with No. 1. + Overseer of the royal treasures in the reign of David. (1 Chronicles 27:25) Azmon (strong), a place named as being on the southern boundary of the Holy Land, apparently near the torrent of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish). (Numbers 34:4,5; Joshua 15:4) It has not yet been identified. Aznothtabor (the ears (i.e. possibly the summits) of Tabor), one of the landmarks of the boundary of Naphtali. (Joshua 19:34) The town, if town it be, has hitherto escaped recognition. Azor (a helper), son of Eliakim, in the line of our Lord. (Matthew 1:13,14) Azotus [[221]Ashdod, Or Azotus] Azriel (whom God helps). + The head of a house of the half tribe of Manasseh beyond Jordan, a man of renown. (1 Chronicles 5:24) (B.C. 741.) + A Naphtalite, ancestor of Jerimoth, the head of the tribe at the time of David's census. (1 Chronicles 27:19) (B.C. 1015.) + The father of Seraiah, an officer of Jehoiakim. (Jeremiah 36:26) (B.C. 605.) Azrikam (help against the enemy). + A descendant of Zerubbabel, and son of Neariah of the royal line of Judah. (1 Chronicles 3:23) + Eldest son of Azel, and descendant of Saul. (1 Chronicles 8:38; 9:44) (B.C after 1037.) + A Levite, ancestor of Shemaiah, who lived in the time of Nehemiah. (1 Chronicles 9:14; Nehemiah 11:15) (B.C. before 536.) + Governor of the house, or prefect of the palace, to King Ahaz, who was slain by Zichri, an Ephraimite hero, in the successful invasion of the southern kingdom by Pekah king of Israel. (2 Chronicles 28:7) (B.C. 738.) Azubah (forsaken). + Wife of Caleb, son of Hezron. (1 Chronicles 2:18,19) + Mother of King Jehoshaphat. (1 Kings 22:42; 2 Chronicles 20:31) (B.C. 950.) Azur properly Az'zur (he that assists) + A Benjamite of Gibeon, and father of Hananiah the false prophet. (Jeremiah 28:1) + Father of Jaazaniah, one of the princes of the people against whom Ezekiel was commanded to prophesy. (Ezekiel 11:1) Azzah (the strong). The more accurate rendering of the name of the well-known Philistine city Gaza. (2:23; 1 Kings 4:24; Jeremiah 25:20) Azzan (very strong), the father of Paltiel prince of the tribe of Issachar, who represented his tribe in the division of the promised land. (Numbers 34:26) Azzur (one who helps), one of the heads of the People who signed the covenant with Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 10:17) (B.C. 410.) The name is probably that of a family, and in Hebrew is the same as is elsewhere represented by [222]Azur. __________________________________________________________________ Baal geographical. This word occurs as the prefix or suffix to the names of several places in Palestine, some of which are as follows: + BAAL a town of Simeon, named only in (1 Chronicles 4:33) which from the parallel list in (Joshua 19:8) seems to have been identical with BAALATH-BEER. + [223]Baalah (mistress). A. Another name for [224]Kirjath-JEARIM, or [225]Kirjath BAAL, the well-known town now Kuriet el Enab . (Joshua 15:9,10; 1 Chronicles 13:6) b. A town in the south of Judah, (Joshua 15:29) which in Josh 19:3 Is called [226]Balah, and in the parallel list, (1 Chronicles 4:29) [227]Bilhah. + [228]Baalath (mistress), a town of Dan named with Gibbethon, Gath-rim-mon and other Philistine places. (Joshua 19:44) + BAALATH-BEER (lord of the well). BAAL 1, a town among those in the south part of Judah, given to Simeon, which also bore the name of RAMATH-NEGEB, or "the height of the south." (Joshua 19:8) + BAAL-GAD (lord of fortune), used to denote the most northern, (Joshua 11:17; 12:7) or perhaps northwestern, (Joshua 13:5) point to which Joshua's victories extended. It was in all probability a Phoenician or Canaanite sanctuary of Baal under the aspect of Gad or Fortune. + BAAL-HAMON (lord of a multitude), a place at which Solomon had a vineyard, evidently of great extent. (Song of Solomon 8:11) + BAAL-HAZOR (village of Baal), a place where Absalom appears to have had a sheep-farm, and where Amnon was murdered. (2 Samuel 13:23) + [229]Mount, [230]Mount, Mountain BAAL-HERMON (Lord of Hermon), (Judges 3:3) and simply Baal-hermon. (1 Chronicles 5:23) This is usually considered as a distinct place from Mount Hermon; but we know that this mountain had at least three names (3:9) and Baal-hermon may have been a fourth in use among the Phoenician worshippers. + BAAL-MEON (lord of the house), one of the towns which were built by the Reubenites. (Numbers 32:38) It also occurs in (1 Chronicles 5:8) and on each occasion with Nebo. In the time of Ezekiel it was Moabite, one of the cities which were the "glory of the country." (Ezekiel 25:9) + BAAL-[231]Perazim (lord of divisions), the scene of a victory of David over the Philistines, and of a great destruction of their images. (2 Samuel 5:20; 1 Chronicles 14:11) See (Isaiah 28:21) where it is called [232]Mount, [233]Mount, Mountain [234]Perazim. + BAAL-SHALISHA (lord of Shalisha), a place named only in (2 Kings 4:42) apparently not far from Gilgal; comp. (2 Kings 4:38) + BAAL-TAMAR (lord of the palm tree), a place named only in (Judges 20:33) as near Gibeah of Benjamin. The palm tree (tamar) of Deborah, (Judges 4:5) was situated somewhere in the locality, and is possibly alluded to. + BAAL-ZEPHON (lord of the north), a place in Egypt near where the Israelites crossed the Red Sea. (Numbers 33:7; Ezekiel 14:2,9) We place Baal-zephon on the western shore of the Gulf of Suez, a little below its head, which at that time was about 30 or 40 miles northward of the Present head. the supreme male divinity of the Phoenician and Canaanitish nations, as Ashtoreth was their supreme female divinity. Some suppose Baal to correspond to the sun and Ashtoreth to the moon; others that Baal was Jupiter and Ashtoreth Venus. There can be no doubt of the very high antiquity of the worship of Baal. It prevailed in the time of Moses among the Moabites and Midianites, (Numbers 22:41) and through them spread to the Israelites. (Numbers 25:3-18; 4:3) In the times of the kings it became the religion of the court and people of the ten tribes, (1 Kings 16:31-33; 18:19,22) and appears never to have been permanently abolished among them. (2 Kings 17:16) Temples were erected to Baal in Judah, (1 Kings 16:32) and he was worshipped with much ceremony. (1 Kings 18:19,26-28; 2 Kings 10:22) The attractiveness of this worship to the Jews undoubtedly grew out of its licentious character. We find this worship also in Phoenician colonies. The religion of the ancient British islands much resembled this ancient worship of Baal, and may have been derived from it. Nor need we hesitate to regard the Babylonian Bel, (Isaiah 46:1) or Beaus, as essentially identical with Baal, though perhaps under some modified form. The plural, [235]Baalim, is found frequently, showing that he was probably worshipped under different compounds, among which appear-- + BAAL-BERITH (the covenant Baal), (Judges 8:33; 9:4) the god who comes into covenant with the worshippers. + BAAL-ZEBUB (lord of the fly), and worshipped at Ekron. (2 Kings 1:2,3,16) + BAAL-HANAN. a. The name of one of the early kings of Edom. (Genesis 36:38,39; 1 Chronicles 1:49,50) b. The name of one of David's officers, who had the superintendence of his olive and sycamore plantations. (1 Chronicles 27:28) + BAAL-PEOR (lord of the opening, i.e. for others to join in the worship). We have already referred to the worship of this god. The narrative (Numb 25) seems clearly to show that this form of Baal-worship was connected with licentious rites. (lord). + A Reubenite (1 Chronicles 5:5) + The son of Jehiel, and grandfather of Saul. (1 Chronicles 8:30; 9:36) Baalah [[236]Baal, NO. 2] Baalath [[237]Baal, Nos. 3,4] Baale Of Judah [[238]Baal, NO. 2, a] Baali (Hosea 2:16) [[239]Baal] Baalim [[240]Baal] Baalis king of the Ammonites at the time of the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. (Jeremiah 40:14) (B.C. 588.) Baana + The son of Ahilud, Solmon's commissariat officer in Jezreel and the north of the Jordan valley. (1 Kings 4:12) (B.C.1000.) + Father of Zadok, who assisted in rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem under Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 3:4) (B.C. 446.) Baanah + Son of Rimmon, a Benjamite, who with his brother Rechab murdered Ishbosheth For this they were killed by David; and their mutilated bodies hung up over the pool at Hebron. (2 Samuel 4:2,5,6,9) (B.C. 1046.) + A Netophathite, father of Heleb or Heled, one of David's mighty men. (2 Samuel 23:29; 1 Chronicles 11:30) (B.C. before 1066.) + Accurately Baana, son of Hushai, Solomon's commissariat officer in Asher. (1 Kings 4:16) (B.C. 1012.) + Aman who accompanied Zerubbabel on his return from the captivity. (Ezra 2:2; Nehemiah 7:7) Possibly the same person is intended in (Nehemiah 10:27) (B.C. 536.) Baara (brutish) one of the wives of Shaharaim, a descendant of Benjamin. (1 Chronicles 8:8) Baaseiah, Or Basseiah (work of Jehovah), a Gershonite Levite, one of the forefathers of Asaph the singer. (1 Chronicles 6:40), [ 1Chr 6:25 ]. (B.C. 1310.) Baasha (wicked), B.C. 953-931, third sovereign of the separate kingdom of Israel, and the founder of its second dynasty. He was son of Ahijah of the tribe of Issachar and conspired against King Nadab, (1 Kings 15:27) and killed him with his whole family. He appears to have been of humble origin. (1 Kings 16:2) It was probably in the 13th year of his reign that he made war on Asa, and began to fortify Ramah. He was defeated by the unexpected alliance of Asa with Ben-hadad I. of Damascus. Baasha died in the 24th year of his reign, and was buried in Tirzah, (Song of Solomon 6:4) which he had made his capital. (1 Kings 16:6; 2 Chronicles 16:1-6) Babel (confusion), Bab'ylon (Greek form of Babel), is properly the capital city of the country which is called in Genesis Shinar, and in the later books Chaldea, or the land of the Chaldeans. The first rise of the Chaldean power was in the region close upon the Persian Gulf; thence the nation spread northward up the course of the rivers, and the seat of government moved in the same direction, being finally fixed at Babylon, perhaps not earlier than B.C, 1700. I. Topography of Babylon--Ancient description of the city.--All the ancient writers appear to agree in the fact of a district of vast size, more or less inhabited having been enclosed within lofty walls and included under the name of Babylon. With respect to the exact extent of the circuit they differ. The estimate of Herodotus and of Pliny is 480 stades (60 Roman miles, 53 of our miles) of Strabo 385, of Q. Curtius 368, of Clitarchus 365 and of Ctesias 360 stades (40 miles). (George Smith, in his "Assyrian Discoveries," differs entirely from all these estimates, making the circuit of the city but eight miles.) Perhaps Herodotus spoke of the outer wall, which could be traced in his time. Taking the lowest estimate of the extent of the circuit, we shall have for the space within the rampart an area of above 100 square miles--nearly five times the size of London! It is evident that this vast space cannot have been entirely covered with houses. The city was situated on both sides of the river Euphrates, and the two parts were connected together by a stone bridge five stades (above 1000 yards) long and 30 feet broad. At either extremity of the bridge was a royal palace, that in the eastern city being the more magnificent of the two. The two palaces were joined not only by the bridge, but by a tunnel under the river. The houses, which were frequently three or four stories high, were laid out in straight streets crossing each other at right angles. II. Present state of the ruins.--A portion of the ruins is occupied by the modern town of Hillah . About five miles above Hillah, on the opposite or left bank of the Euphrates occurs a series of artificial mounds of enormous size. They consist chiefly of three great masses of building,--the high pile of unbaked brickwork which is known to the Arabs as Babel, 600 feet square and 140 feet high; the building denominated the Kasr or palace, nearly 2000 feet square and 70 feet high, and a lofty mound upon which stands the modern tomb of Amram-ibn-'Alb . Scattered over the country on both sides of the Euphrates are a number of remarkable mounds, usually standing single, which are plainly of the same date with the great mass of ruins upon the river bank. Of these by far the most striking is the vast ruin called the Birs-Nimrud, which many regard as the tower of Babel, situated about six miles to the southwest of Hillah. [BABEL, [241]Tower OF] III. Identification of sites.--The great mound of Babel is probably the ancient temple of Beaus. The mound of the Kasr marks the site of the great palace of Nebuchadnezzar. The mound of Amram is thought to represent the "hanging gardens" of Nebuchadnezzar; but most probably it represents the ancient palace, coeval with Babylon itself, of which Nebuchadnezzar speaks in his inscriptions as adjoining his own more magnificent residence. IV. History of Babylon.--Scripture represents the "beginning of the kingdom" as belonging to the time of Nimrod. (Genesis 10:6-10) The early annals of Babylon are filled by Berosus, the native historian, with three dynasties: one of 49 Chaldean kings, who reigned 458 years; another of 9 Arab kings, who reigned 245 years; and a third of 49 Assyrian monarchs, who held dominion for 526 years. The line of Babylonian kings becomes exactly known to us from B.C. 747. The "Canon of Ptolemy" gives us the succession of Babylonian monarchs from B.C. 747 to B.C. 331, when the last Persian king was dethroned by Alexander. On the fall of Nineveh, B.C. 625, Babylon became not only an independent kingdom, but an empire. The city was taken by surprise B.C. 539, as Jeremiah had prophesied, (Jeremiah 51:31) by Cyrus, under Darius, Dan. 5, as intimated 170 years earlier by Isaiah, (Isaiah 21:1-9) and, as Jeremiah had also foreshown, (Jeremiah 51:39) during a festival. With the conquest of Cyrus commenced the decay of Babylon, which has since been a quarry from which all the tribes in the vicinity have derived the bricks with which they have built their cities. The "great city" has thus emphatically "become heaps." (Jeremiah 51:37) Ba'bel, Tower of. The "tower of Babel" is only mentioned once in Scripture, (Genesis 11:4,5) and then as incomplete. It was built of bricks, and the "slime" used for mortar was probably bitumen. Such authorities as we possess represent the building as destroyed soon after its erection. When the Jews, however, were carried captive into Babylonia, they thought they recognized it in the famous temple of Beaus, the modern Birs Nimrod . But the Birs-Nimrrud though it cannot be the tower of Babel itself; may well be taken to show the probable shape and character of the edifice. This building appears to have been a sort of oblique pyramid built in seven receding stages, each successive one being nearer to the southwestern end which constituted the back of the building. The first, second and third stories were each 26 feet high the remaining four being 15 feet high. On the seventh stage there was probably placed the ark or tabernacle, which seems to have been again 15 feet high, and must have nearly, if not entirely, covered the top of the seventh story The entire original height, allowing three feet for the platform, would thus have been 156 feet, or, without the plat-form, 163 feet. Babylon in the Apocalypse, is the symbolical name by which Rome is denoted. (Revelation 14:8; 17:18) The power of Rome was regarded by the later Jews as was that of Babylon by their forefathers. Comp. (Jeremiah 51:7) with Reve 14:8 The occurrence of this name in (1 Peter 5:13) has given rise to a variety of conjectures, many giving it the same meaning as in the Apocalypse; others refer it to Babylon in Asia, and others still to Babylon in Egypt. The most natural supposition of all is that by Babylon is intended the old Babylon of Assyria, which was largely inhabited by Jews at the time in question. Babylonians the inhabitants of Babylon, a race of Shemitic origin, who were among the colonists planted in the cities of Samaria by the conquering Assyrian. (Ezra 4:9) Babylonish Garment literally "robe of Shinar," (Joshua 7:21) an ample robe, probably made of the skin or fur of an animal, comp. (Genesis 25:25) and ornamented with embroidery or perhaps a variegated garment with figures inwoven in the fashion for which the Babylonians were celebrated. Baca (weeping), The Valley of, A valley in Palestine, through which the exiled Psalmist sees in vision the pilgrims passing in their march towards the sanctuary of Jehovah at Zion. (Psalms 84:6) That it was a real locality is most probable from the use of the definite article before the name. The rendering of the Targum is Gehenna, i.e. the Ge-Hinnom or ravine below Mount Zion. This locality agrees well with the mention of became (Authorized Version "mulberry") trees in (2 Samuel 5:23) Bachrites, The the family of [242]Becher, son of Ephraim. (Numbers 26:35) Badger Skins There is much obscurity as to the meaning of the word tachash, rendered "badger" in the Authorized Version, (Exodus 25:5; 35:7) etc. The ancient versions seem nearly all agreed that it denotes not an animal but a color, either black or sky-blue. The badger is not found in the Bible lands. The Arab duchash or tufchash denotes a dolphin, including seals and cetaceans. The skins referred to are probably those of these marine animals, some of which are found in the Red Sea. The skin of the Halicore, one of these, from its hardness would be well suited for making soles for shoes. (Ezekiel 16:10) Bag is the rendering of several words in the Old and New Testaments. + Charitim, the "bags" in which Naaman bound up the two talents of silver for Gehazi. (2 Kings 5:23) They were long cone-like bags of the size to hold a precise amount of money, and tied or sealed for that amount, as we stamp the value on a coin. + Cis, a bag for carrying weights, (25:13) also used as a purse (Proverbs 1:14) + Celi, in (Genesis 42:25) is the "sack" in which Jacob's sons carried the corn which they brought from Egypt. + The shepherd's "bag" used by David was for the purpose of carrying the lambs unable to walk. (Zechariah 11:15; 16:5) + Tschar, properly a "bundle," (Genesis 42:35) appears to have been used by travellers for carrying money during a long journey. (Proverbs 7:20) + The "bag" which Judas carried was probably a small box or chest. (John 12:6; 13:29) Baharumite, The [[243]Bahurim] Bahurim (low ground), a village, (2 Samuel 16:6) apparently on or close to the road leading up from the Jordan valley to Jerusalem, and near the south boundary of Benjamin. Bajith (the horse), referring to the "temple" of the false gods of Moab, as opposed to the "high places" in the same sentence. (Isaiah 15:2) and comp. (Isaiah 16:12) Bakbakkar (admirable), a Levite, apparently a descendant of Asaph. (1 Chronicles 9:15) (B.C.588.) Bakbuk (bottle). "Children of Bakkuk" were among the Nethinim who returned from captivity with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:51; Nehemiah 7:53) (B.C. before 536). Bakbukiah (wasting of Jehovah), a Levite in the time of Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 11:17; 12:9) (B.C. before 536.) Bake Reference to baking is found in (Leviticus 26:26; 1 Samuel 8:13; 2 Samuel 13:8; Jeremiah 7:18; 37:21; Hosea 7:4-7) Balaam (B.C. 1451), the son of beor, a man endowed with the gift of prophecy. (Numbers 22:5) He is mentioned in conjunction with the five kings of Midian, apparently as a person of the same rank. (Numbers 31:8) cf. Numb 31:16 He seems to have lived at Pethor, (23:4; Numbers 22:5) on the river Euphrates, in Mesopotamia. Such was his reputation that when the Israelites were encamped in the plains of Moab, Balak, the king of Moab, sent for Balaam to curse them. Balaam at first was prohibited by God from going. He was again sent for by the king and again refused, but was at length allowed to go. He yielded to the temptations of riches and honor which Balak set before him; but God's anger was kindled at this manifestation of determined self-will, and the angel of the Lord stood in the way for an adversary against him. See (2 Peter 2:16) Balaam predicted a magnificent career for the people whom he was called to curse, but he nevertheless suggested to the Moabites the expedient of seducing them to commit fornication. The effect of this is recorded in (Numbers 25:1) ... A battle was afterwards fought against the Midianites, in which Balaam sided with them, and was slain by the sword of the people whom he had endeavored to curse. (Numbers 31:8) Balac (Revelation 2:14) [[244]Balak] Baladan [MERODACH-BALADAN] Balah (Joshua 19:3) [[245]Baal, Geogr. No. 2, b] Balak (spoiler), son of Zippor, king of the Moabites, who hired Balaam to curse the Israelites; but his designs were frustrated int he manner recorded in (Numbers 22:24) (B.C. 1451.) Balamo [[246]Baal, Geogr. No. 6] Balances Reference to balances is found in (Leviticus 19:36) They were in common use, gold and silver being paid out and received by weight. Reference is also made in (Micah 6:11; Hosea 12:7) to the dishonest practice of buying by heavier and selling by lighter weights. Baldness Natural baldness seems to have been uncommon, since it exposed people to public derision. (Leviticus 13:29; 2 Kings 2:23; Isaiah 3:24; 15:2; Jeremiah 47:5; Ezekiel 7:18) Artificial baldness marked the conclusion of a Nazarite's vow, (Numbers 6:9; Acts 18:18) and was a sign of mourning. Balm (from balsam, Heb. tzori, tezri) occurs in (Genesis 37:25; 43:11; Jeremiah 8:22; 46:11; 51:8; Ezekiel 27:17) (It is an aromatic plant, or the resinous odoriferous sap or gum which exudes from such plants.) It is impossible to identify it with any certainty. It is impossible to identify it with any certainty. It may represent the gum of the Pistacia lentiscus, or more probably that of the Balsamodendron opobalsamum, allied to the balm of Gilead, which abounded in Gilead east of the Jordan. The trees resembled fig trees (or grape vines), but were lower, being but 12 to 15 feet high. It is now called the BALM OF [247]Gilead, or Meccabalsam, the tree or shrub being indigenous in the mountains around Mecca. [[248]Incense; [249]Spice, Spices] Hasselquist says that the exudation from the plant "is of a yellow color, and pellucid. It has a most fragrant smell, which is resinous, balsamic and very agreeable. It is very tenacious or glutinous, sticking to the fingers, and may be drawn into long threads." It was supposed to have healing as well as aromatic qualities. Bamah (high place). Found only in (Ezekiel 20:29) applied to places of idolatrous worship. Bamothbaal (heights of Baal), a sanctuary of Baal in the country of Moab (Joshua 13:17) which is probably mentioned in (Numbers 21:19) under the shorter form of Bamoth, or Bamoth-in-the-ravine (20), and again in (Isaiah 15:2) Band The "band of Roman soldiers" referred to in (Matthew 27:27) and elsewhere was the tenth part of a legion. It was called a "cohort," and numbered 400 to 600 men. [See [250]Army] Bani (built). + A Gadite, one of David's mighty men. (2 Samuel 23:36) (B.C. 1046.) + A Levite of the line of Merari, and forefather to Ethan. (1 Chronicles 6:46) + A man of Judah of the line of Pharez. (1 Chronicles 9:4) + "Children of Bani" returned from captivity with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:10; 10:29,34; Nehemiah 10:14) 1 Esd. 5:12. [[251]Binnui; MANI] + An Israelite "of the sons of Bani." (Ezra 10:38) + A Levite. (Nehemiah 3:17) + A Levite. (Nehemiah 8:7; 9:4,5; 10:13) + Another Levite, of the sons of Asaph. (Nehemiah 11:22) Banner [See [252]Ensign] Banquets among the Hebrews, were not only a means of social enjoyment, but were a part of the observance of religious festivity. At the three solemn festivals the family also had its domestic feast. (16:11) Sacrifices, both ordinary and extraordinary, (Exodus 34:15; Judges 16:23) includes a banquet. Birthday banquets are only mentioned (Genesis 40:20; Matthew 14:6) The usual time of the banquet was the evening, and to begin early was a mark of excess. (Ecclesiastes 10:16; Isaiah 5:11) The most essential materials of the banqueting room, next to the viands and wine, which last was often drugged with spices, (Proverbs 9:2) were perfumed unguents, garlands or loose flowers, white or brilliant robes; after these, exhibitions of music singers and dancers, riddles, jesting and merriment. (Judges 14:12; 2 Samuel 19:35; Nehemiah 8:10; Ecclesiastes 10:19; Isaiah 5:12; 25:6; 28:1; Matthew 22:11; Luke 15:25) The posture at table in early times was sitting, (1 Samuel 16:11; 20:5,18) and the guests were ranged in order of dignity. (Genesis 43:33; 1Sam 9:22 Words which imply the recumbent posture belong to the New Testament. Baptism It is well known that ablution or bathing was common in most ancient nations as a preparation for prayers and sacrifice or as expiatory of sin. In warm countries this connection is probably even closer than in colder climates; and hence the frequency of ablution in the religious rites throughout the East. Baptism in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Ghost is the rite or ordinance by which persons are admitted into the Church of Christ. It is the public profession of faith and discipleship. Baptism signifies-- + A confession of faith in Christ; + A cleansing or washing of the soul from sin; + A death to sin and a new life in righteousness. The mode and subjects of baptism being much-controverted subjects, each one can best study them in the works devoted to those questions. The command to baptize was co-extensive with the command to preach the gospel. All nations were to be evangelized; and they were to be made disciples, admitted into the fellowship of Christ's religion, by baptism. (Matthew 28:19) It appears to have been a kind of transition from the Jewish baptism to the Christian. The distinction between John's baptism and Christian baptism appears in the case of Apollos, (Acts 18:26,27) and of the disciples at Ephesus mentioned (Acts 19:1-6) We cannot but draw from this history the inference that in Christian baptism there was a deeper spiritual significance. Barabbas (son of Abba), a robber, (John 18:40) who had committed murder in an insurrection, (Mark 15:7; Luke 28:18) in Jerusalem and was lying in prison the time of the trial of Jesus before Pilate.p Barachel (God has blessed), father of Elihu. (Job 32:2,6) [[253]Buz] Barachias (Matthew 23:35) [[254]Zacharias] Barak (lightning), son of Abinoam of Kedesh, a refuge city in Mount Naphtali, was incited by Deborah, a prophetess of Ephraim, to deliver Israel from the yolk of Jabin. Judges 4. He utterly routed the Canaanites int eh plain of Jezreel (Esdraelon). (B.C. 1291-1251.) Barbarian "every one not a Greek is a barbarian" is the common Greek definition, and in this strict sense the word is sued in (Romans 1:14) It often retains this primitive meaning, as in (1 Corinthians 14:11; Acts 28:24) Barhumite, The [[255]Bahurim] Bariah (fugitive), a descendant of the royal family of Judah. (1 Chronicles 3:22) (B.C. before 410.) Barjesus (son of Jesus). [[256]Elymas] Barjona (son of Jonah). [[257]Peter] Barkos (painted). "Children of Barkos" were among the Nethinim who returned from the captivity with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:53; Nehemiah 7:55) (B.C. 536.) Barley is one of the most important of the cereal grains, and the most hardy of them all. It was grown by the Hebrews, (Leviticus 27:16; 8:8; Ruth 2:17) etc., who used it for baking into bread chiefly among the poor, (Judges 7:13; 2 Kings 4:42; John 6:9,13) and as fodder for horses. (1 Kings 4:28) The barley harvest, (Ruth 1:22; 2:23; 2 Samuel 21:9;10) takes place in Palestine in March and April, and in the hilly district as late as May. It always precedes the wheat harvest, in some places by a week, in others by fully three weeks. In Egypt the barley is about a month earlier than the wheat; whence its total destruction by the hail storm. (Exodus 9:31) Barnabas (son of consolation or comfort) a name given by the apostles, (Acts 4:36) to Joseph (or Jose), a Levite of the island of Cyprus, who was early a disciple of Christ. In (Acts 9:27) we find him introducing the newly-converted Saul to the apostles at Jerusalem. Barnabas was sent to Jerusalem, (Acts 11:19-26) and went to Tarsus to seek Saul, as one specially raised up to preach to the Gentiles. (Acts 26:17) He brought him to Antioch, and was sent with him to Jerusalem. (Acts 11:30) On their return, they were ordained by the church for the missionary work, (Acts 13:2) and sent forth (A.D. 45). From this time Barnabas and Paul enjoy the title and dignity of apostles. Their first missionary journey is related in (Acts 13:14) Returning to Antioch (A.D. 47 or 48), they were sent (A.D. 50), with some others, to Jerusalem. (Acts 15:1,36) Afterwards they parted and Barnabas took Mark and sailed to Cyprus, his native island. Here the Scripture notices of him cease. The epistle attributed to Barnabas is believed to have been written early in the second century. Barsabas (son of Sabas or rest). [[258]Joseph BARSABAS; [259]Judas BARSABAS] Barsabbas Revised Version of (Acts 1:23) for BAR'SABAS. Bartholomew (son of Tolmai), one of the twelve apostles of Christ. (Matthew 10:3; Mark 3:18; Luke 6:14; Acts 1:13) It has been not improperly conjectured that he is identical with Nathanael. (John 1:45) ff. He is said to have preached the gospel in India, that is, probably, Arabia Felix, and according to some in Armenia. Bartimaeus (son of Timeus), a blind beggar of Jericho who, (Mark 10:46) ff., sat by the wayside begging as our Lord passed out of Jericho on his last journey to Jerusalem. Baruch (blessed). + Son of Neriah, the friend, (Jeremiah 32:12) amanuensis, (Jeremiah 26:4-32) and faithful attendant of Jeremiah. (Jeremiah 36:10) ff. (B.C. 603.) He was of a noble family, comp. (Jeremiah 51:59) Bar. 1:1, and of distinguished acquirements. His enemies accused him of influencing Jeremiah in favor of the Chaldaeans, (Jeremiah 43:3) cf. Jere 27:13 And he was imprisoned until the capture of Jerusalem, B.C. 586. By the permission of Nebuchadnezzar he remained with Jeremiah at Mizpeh, Jos. Ant. x.9, 1, but was afterwards forced to go down to Egypt. (Jeremiah 43:6) Nothing is known certainly of the close of his life. + The son of Zabbai, who assisted Nehemiah in rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem. (Nehemiah 3:20) (B.C. 446.) + A priest, or family of priests, who signed the covenant with Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 10:6) (B.C. 410.). + The son of Col-hozeh, a descendant of Perez or Pharez, the son of Judah. (Nehemiah 11:5) (B.C. 536.) Baruch, Book Of One of the apocryphal books of the Old Testament. The book was held in little esteem by the Jews, and both its date and authorship are very uncertain. Barzillai (iron, i.e., strong). + A wealthy Gileadite who showed hospitality to David when he fled form Absalom. (2 Samuel 17:27) (B.C. 1023.) He declined the king's offer of ending his days at court. (2 Samuel 19:32-39) + A Meholathite, whose son Adriel married Michal, Saul's daughter. (2 Samuel 21:8) (B.C. before 1062.) + Son-in-law to Barzillai the Gileadite. (Ezra 2:61; Nehemiah 7:63,64) (B.C. before 536.) Bashan (fruitful), a district on the east of Jordan. It is sometimes spoken of as the "land of Bashan," (1 Chronicles 5:11) and comp. Numb 21:33; 32:33 And sometimes as "all Bashan." (3:10,13; Joshua 12:5; 13:12,30) It was taken by the children of Israel after their conquest of the land of Sihon from Arnon to Jabbok. The limits of Bashan are very strictly defined. It extended from the "border of Gilead" on the south to Mount Hermon on the north, (3:3,10,14; Joshua 12:5; 1 Chronicles 5:23) and from the Arabah or Jordan valley on the west to Salchah (Sulkhad) and the border of the Geshurites and the Maachathites on the east. (Joshua 12:3-5; 3:10) This important district was bestowed on the half-tribe of Manasseh, (Joshua 13:29-31) together with "half Gilead." This country is now full of interesting ruins, which have lately been explored and from which much light has been thrown upon Bible times. See Porter's "Giant Cities of Bashan." Bashanhavothjair (Bashan of the villages of Jair), a name given to Argob after its conquest by Jair. (3:14) Bashemath (fragrant, pleasing), daughter of Ishmael, the last married of the three wives of Esau. (Genesis 26:34; 36:3,4,13) (B.C. after 1797.) In (Genesis 28:9) she is called Mahalath. Basin Among the smaller vessels for the tabernacle or temple service, many must have been required to receive from the sacrificial victims the blood to be sprinkled for purification. The "basin" from which our Lord washed the disciples' feet was probably deeper and larger than the hand-basin for sprinkling. Basket The Hebrew terms used in the description of this article are as follows: (1) Sal, so called from the twigs of which it was originally made, specially used for holding bread. (Genesis 40:16) ff. (Exodus 29:3,23; Leviticus 8:2,26,31; Numbers 6:15,17,19) (2) Salsilloth, a word of kindred origin, applied to the basket used in gathering grapes. (Jeremiah 6:9) (3) Tene, in which the first-fruits of the harvest were presented. (26:2,4) (4) Celub, so called from its similarity to a bird-cage. (5) Dud, used for carrying fruit, (Jeremiah 24:1,2) as well as on a larger scale for carrying clay to the brick-yard, (Psalms 81:6) (pots, Authorized Version), or for holding bulky articles. (2 Kings 10:7) In the New Testament baskets are described under three different terms. Basmath (fragrant, pleasing), a daughter of Solomon, married to Ahimaaz, one of his commissariat officers. (1 Kings 4:15) (B.C. after 1014.) Bastard Among those who were excluded from entering the congregation, even to the tenth generation, was the bastard. (23:2) The term is not, however, applied to any illegitimate offspring, born out of wedlock, but is restricted by the rabbins to the issue of any connection within the degrees prohibited by the law. Bat (Leviticus 11:19; 14:18) Many travellers have noticed the immense numbers of bats that are found in caverns in the East, and Mr. Layard said that on the occasion of a visit to a cavern these noisome beasts compelled him to retreat. Bath [[260]Measures] Bath, Bathing This was a prescribed part of the Jewish ritual of purification in cases of accident, or of leprous or ordinary uncleanness, (Leviticus 15; 16:28; 22:6; Numbers 19:7; 19; 2 Samuel 11:2,4; 2 Kings 5:10) as also after mourning, which always implied defilement. (Ruth 3:3; 2 Samuel 12:20) The eastern climate made bathing essential alike to health and pleasure, to which luxury added the use of perfumes. (Esther 2:12) Judith 10:3; Susan 17. The "pools," such as that of Siloam and Hezekiah, (2 Kings 20:20; Nehemiah 3:15,16; Isaiah 22:11; John 9:7) often sheltered by porticos, (John 5:2) are the first indications we have of public bathing accommodation. Bathrabbim (daughter of many), The gate of, One of the gates of the ancient city of heshbon. (Song of Solomon 7:4,5) Bathsheba, Or Bathsheba (daughter of the oath), (2 Samuel 11:3) etc., also called Bath-shua in (1 Chronicles 3:5) the daughter of Eliam, (2 Samuel 11:3) or Ammiel, (1 Chronicles 3:5) the son of Ahithophel, (2 Samuel 23:34) and wife of Uriah the Hittite. (B.C. 1035.) The child which was the fruit of her adulterous intercourse with David died; but after marriage she became the mother of four sons, Solomon, (Matthew 1:6) Shimea, Shobab and Nathan. When Adonijah attempted to set aside the succession promised to Solomon, Bath-sheba informed the king of the conspiracy. (1 Kings 1:11,15,23) After the accession of Solomon, she, as queen-mother, requested permission of her son for Adonijah to take in marriage Abishag the Shunammite. (1 Kings 2:21-25) Bathshua [BATH-SHEBA] Batteringram (Ezekiel 4:2; 21:22) a large beam with a head of iron which was sometimes made to resemble the head of a ram. It was suspended by ropes to a beam supported by posts, and balanced so as to swing backward and forward, and was impelled by men against the wall. In attacking the walls of a fort or city, the first step appears to have been to form an inclined plane or bank of earth, comp. (Ezekiel 4:2) "cast a mount against it," by which the besiegers could bring their battering-rams and other engines to the foot of the walls. "The battering-rams," says Mr. Layard "were of several kinds. Some were joined to movable towers which held warriors and armed men. The whole then formed one great temporary building, the top of which is represented in sculptures as on a level with the walls, and even turrets, of the besieged city. In some bas-reliefs the battering-ram is without wheels: it was then perhaps constructed upon the spot and was not intended to be moved." Battleaxe (Jeremiah 51:20) [[261]Maul] Battlement Among the Jews a battlement was required by law to be built upon every house. It consisted of a low wall built around the roofs of the houses to prevent persons from falling off, and sometimes serving as a partition from another building. (22:8; Jeremiah 5:10) Bavai son of Henadad, ruler of the district of Keilah in the time of Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 3:18) (B.C. 446.) Bay Tree A species of laurel. Laurus nobilis . An evergreen, with leaves like our mountain laurel. (Psalms 37:35) Bazlith (asking). "Children of Bazlith" were among the Nethinim who returned with Zerubbabel. (Nehemiah 7:54) In (Ezra 2:52) the name is given as [262]Bazluth. (B.C. 536.) Bazluth [[263]Bazlith] Bdellium (bedolach). (Genesis 2:12; Numbers 11:7) It is quite impossible to say whether bedolach denotes a mineral or an animal production or a vegetable exudation. Bdellium is an odoriferous exudation from a tree which is perhaps the Borassus flabelliformis, Lin., of Arabia Felix. Beacon A signal or conspicuous mark erected on an eminence for direction. (Isaiah 30:17) Bealiah (Jehovah is lord), a Benjamite who went over to David at Ziklag. (1 Chronicles 12:5) (B.C. 1062.) Bealoth (ladies) a town in the extreme south of Judah. (Joshua 15:24) Beans (2 Samuel 17:28; Ezekiel 4:9) Beans are cultivated in Palestine, which produces many of the leguminous order of plants, such, as lentils, kidney-beans, vetches, etc. Bear (1 Samuel 17:34; 2 Samuel 17:8) The Syrian bear, Ursus syriacus, which is without doubt the animal mentioned in the Bible, is still found on the higher mountains of Palestine. During the summer months these bears keep to the snowy parts of Lebanon, but descend in winter to the villages and Gardens. It is probable also that at this period in former days they extended their visits to other parts of Palestine. Bearbel (house of God's court), named only in (Hosea 10:14) as the scene of a sack and massacre by Shalman. Beard Western Asiatics have always cherished the beard as the badge of the dignity of manhood, and attached to it the importance of a feature. The Egyptians, on the contrary for the most part shaved the hair of the face and head, though we find some instances to the contrary. The beard is the object of an oath, and that on which blessing or shame is spoken of as resting. The custom was and is to shave or pluck it and the hair out in mourning, (Ezra 9:3; Isaiah 15:2; 50:6; Jeremiah 41:5; 48:37) Bar. 6:31; to neglect it in seasons of permanent affliction, (2 Samuel 19:24) and to regard any insult to it as the last outrage which enmity can inflict. (2 Samuel 10:4) The beard was the object of salutation. (2 Samuel 20:9) The dressing, trimming, anointing, etc., of the beard was performed with much ceremony by persons of wealth and rank (Psalms 133:2) The removal of the beard was a part of the ceremonial treatment proper to a leper. (Leviticus 14:9) Bebai (fatherly). + "Sons of Bebai," 623 (Nehe 628) in number, returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel, (Ezra 2:11; Nehemiah 7:16) (B.C. 536), and at a later period twenty-eight more under Zechariah, son of Bebai, returned with Ezra. (Ezra 8:11) Four of this family had taken foreign wives. (Ezra 10:28) The name occurs also among those who sealed the covenant. (Nehemiah 10:15) + Father of Zechariah, who was the leader of the twenty-eight men of his tribe mentioned above. Becher (young or firstborn) + The second son of Benjamin, according to the list in both (Genesis 46:21) and 1Chr 7:6 But omitted in (1 Chronicles 8:1) (B.C. about 1690.) + Son of Ephraim, (Numbers 26:35) called [264]Bered in (1 Chronicles 7:20) Same as the preceding. Bechorath (first-born), son of Aphiah or Abiah, and grandson of Becher according to (1 Samuel 9:1; 1 Chronicles 7:8) (B.C. before 1093.) Bed The Jewish bed consisted of the mattress, a mere mat, or one or more quilts; the covering, a finer quilt, or sometimes the outer garment worn by day, (1 Samuel 19:13) which the law provided should not be kept in pledge after sunset, that the poor man might not lack his needful covering, (24:13) the pillow, (1 Samuel 19:13) probably formed of sheep's fleece or goat's skin with a stuffing of cotton, etc.; the bedstead, a divan or bench along the side or end of the room, sufficing at a support for the bedding. Besides we have bedsteads made of ivory, wood, etc. referred to in (3:11; Amos 6:4) The ornamental portions were pillars and a canopy, Judith 13:9, ivory carvings, gold and silver, and probably mosaic work, purple and fine linen. (Esther 1:6; Song of Solomon 3:9,10) The ordinary furniture of a bedchamber in private life is given in (2 Kings 4:10) Bedad (solitary), the father of Hadad king of Edom. (Genesis 36:35; 1 Chronicles 1:46) (B.C. before 1093.) Bedan (son of judgement). + Mentioned in (1 Samuel 12:11) as a judge of Israel between Jerubbaal (Gideon) and Jephthah. The Chaldee Paraphrase reads Samson for Bedan; the LXX., Syriac and Arabic all have Barak. Ewald suggests that it may be a false reading for Abdon. (B.C. about 1150.) + The son of Gilead. (1 Chronicles 7:17) Bedeiah one of the sons of Bani, in the time of Ezra, who had taken a foreign wife. (Ezra 10:35) (B.C. 458.) Bee (deborah). (1:44; Judges 14:8; Psalms 118:12; Isaiah 7:18) Bees abounded in Palestine, honey being a common article of food (Psalms 81:16) and was often found in the clefts of rocks and in hollow trees. (1 Samuel 14:25,27) English naturalists know little of the species of bees that are found in Palestine, but are inclined tn believe that the honey-bee of Palestine is distinct from the honey-bee (Apis mellifica) of this country. The passage in (Isaiah 7:18) refers "to the custom of the people in the East of calling attention to any one by a significant hiss or rather hist ." We read, (Judges 14:8) that "after a time," probably many days, Samson returned to the carcass of the lion he had slain, and saw bees and honey therein. "If any one here represents to himself a corrupt and putrid carcass, the occurrence ceases to have any true similitude, for it is well known that in these countries, at certain seasons of the year, the heat will in the course of twenty-four hours completely dry up the moisture of dead camels, and that, without their undergoing decomposition their bodies long remain like mummies, unaltered and entirely free from offensive odor."--Edmann . Beeliada (the Lord knows); one of David's 9 sons, born in Jerusalem. (1 Chronicles 14:7) In the lists in Samuel the name is [265]Eliada. (B.C. after 1045.) Beelzebub [See [266]Beelzebul] Beelzebul (lord of the house), the title of a heathen deity, to whom the Jews ascribed the sovereignty of the evil spirits; Satan, the prince of the devils. (Matthew 10:25; 12:24; Mark 3:22; Luke 11:15) ff. The correct reading is without doubt Beelzebul, and not Beelzebub . Beer (a well). + One of the latest halting-places of the Israelites, lying beyond the Arnon. (Numbers 21:16-18) This is possibly the BEER-ELIM of (Isaiah 15:8) + A place to which Jotham, the son of Gideon, fled for fear of his brother Abimelech. (Judges 9:21) Beera (a well), son of Zophah, of the tribe of Asher. (1 Chronicles 7:37) (B.C. after 1450.) Beerah prince of the Reubenites, carried away by Tiglath-pileser. (1 Chronicles 5:6) (B.C. 738). Beerelim (well of heroes), a spot named in (Isaiah 15:8) as on the "border of Moab." (Numbers 21:16) comp. Numb 21:13 Beeri + The father of Judith, one of the wives of Esau. (Genesis 26:34) [[267]Anah] (B.C. 1797.) + Father of the prophet Hosea. (Hosea 1:1) (B.C. before 725.) Beerlahairoi (a well of the living), a living spring, Authorized Version, fountain, comp. (Jeremiah 6:7) between Kadesh and Bered, in the wilderness. (Genesis 24:62) Beeroth (wells), one of the four cities of the Hivites who deluded Joshua into a treaty of peace with them. (Joshua 9:17) It is now el-Bireh, which stands about 10 miles north of Jerusalem. Beeroth Of The Children Of Jaakan the wells of the tribe of Bene-Jaakan, which formed one of the halting-places of the Israelites in the desert. (10:6) In (Numbers 33:31) the name is given as BENE-JAAKAN only. Beersheba, Or Beersheba (well of the oath), the name of one of the old places in Palestine which formed the southern limit of the country. There are two accounts of the origin of the name. According to the first, the well was dug by Abraham, and the name given to Judah, (Joshua 15:28) and then to Simeon, (Joshua 19:2; 1 Chronicles 4:28) In the often-quoted "from Dan even unto Beersheba," (Judges 20:1) it represents the southern boundary of Canaan, as Dan the northern. In the time of Jerome it was still a considerable place, and still retains its ancient name--Bir es-Seba . There are at present on the spot two principal wells and five smaller ones. The two principal wells are on or close to the northern bank of the Wady es-Seba . The larger of the two, which lies to the east, is, according to Dr. Robinson, 12 1/2 feet in diameter, and at the time of his visit (April 12) was 44 1/2 feet to the surface of the water. The masonry which encloses the well extends downward 28 1/2 feet. The other well is 5 feet in diameter, and was 42 feet to the water. The curb-stones around the mouth of both wells are worn into deep grooves by the action of the ropes of so many centures. These wells are in constant use today. The five lesser wells are in a group in the bed of the wady. On some low hills north of the large wells are scattered the foundations and ruins of a town of moderate size. Beeshterah (house of Ashterah), one of the two cities allotted to the sons of Gershon out of the tribe of Manasseh beyond Jordan. (Joshua 21:27) Probably identical with Ashtaroth. (1 Chronicles 6:71) Beetle [[268]Locust] Beeves Same as cattle. (Leviticus 22:19) [See [269]Bull, Bullock] Beggar, Begging The poor among the Hebrews were much favored. They were allowed to glean in the fields, and to gather whatever the land produced in the year in which it was not tilled (Leviticus 19:10; 25:5,6; 24:19) They were also invited to feasts. (14:29) and Deuteronomy 26:12 The Israelite could not be an absolute pauper. His land was in alienable, except for a certain term, when it reverted to him or his posterity. And if this resource were insufficient, he could pledge the services of himself and family or a valuable sum. Those who were indigent through bodily infirmities were usually taken care of by their kindred. A beggar was sometimes seen, however, and was regarded and abhorred as a vagabond. (Psalms 109:10) In later times beggars were accustomed, it would seem, to have a fixed place at the corners of the streets, (Mark 10:46) or at the gates of the temple, (Acts 3:2) or of private houses, (Luke 16:20) Behemoth (great beasts). There can be little or no doubt that by this word, (Job 40:15-24) the hippopotamus is intended since all the details descriptive of the behemoth accord entirely with the ascertained habits of that animal. The hippopotamus is an immense creature having a thick and square head, a large mouth often two feet broad, small eyes and ears, thick and heavy body, short legs terminated by four toes, a short tail, skin without hair except at the extremity of the tail. It inhabits nearly the whole of Africa, and has been found of the length of 17 feet. It delights in the water, but feeds on herbage on land. It is not found in Palestine, but may at one time have been a native of western Asia. Bekah [[270]Weights And Measures AND [271]Measures] Bel [[272]Baal] Bela (destruction). + One of the five cities of the plain which was spared at the intercession of Lot, and received the name of Zoar, (Genesis 14:2; 19:22) [[273]Zoar] + Son of Beor, who reigned over Edom in the city of Dinhabah, eight generations before Saul. (Genesis 36:31-33; 1 Chronicles 1:43,44) + Eldest son of Benjamin, according to (Genesis 46:21) (Authorized Version "Belah"); (Numbers 26:38,40; 1 Chronicles 7:6; 8:1) and head of the family of the Belaites. + Son of Ahaz, a Reubenite. (1 Chronicles 5:8) Belah [[274]Bela, 3] Belaites, The (Numbers 26:38) [[275]Bela, 3] Belial The meaning of this word as found in the Scriptures is worthlessness, and hence reckless, lawlessness. The expression son or man of Belial must be understood as meaning simply a worthless, lawless fellow. The term as used in (2 Corinthians 6:15) is generally understood as an appellative of Satan, as the personification of all that was bad. Bellows The word occurs only in (Jeremiah 6:29) where it denotes an instrument to heat a smelting furnace. Wilkinson in "Ancient Egypt," iii. 338, says, "They consisted of a leather, secured and fitted into a frame, from which a long pipe extended for carrying the wind to the fire. They were worked by the feet, the operator standing upon them, with one under each foot, and pressing them alternately, while he pulled up each exhausted skin with a string he held in his hand." Bells In (Exodus 28:33) the bells alluded to were the golden ones 72 in number, round the hem of the his priest's ephod. The object of them was so that his sound might be heard." (Exodus 28:34) Ecclus. 45:9. To this day bells are frequently attached, for the sake of their pleasant sound, to the anklets of women. The little girls of Cairo wear strings of them around their feet. In (Zechariah 14:20) "bells of the horses" were concave or flat pieces of brass, which were sometimes attached to horses for the sake of ornament. Belshazzar (prince of Bel), the last king of Babylon. In (Daniel 5:2) Nebuchadnezzar is called the father of Belshazzar. This, of course, need only mean grandfather or ancestor. According to the well-known narrative Belshazzar gave a splendid feast in his palace during the siege of Babylon (B.C. 538), using the sacred vessels of the temple, which Nebuchadnezzer had brought from Jerusalem. The miraculous appearance of the handwriting on the wall, the calling in of Daniel to interpret its meaning the prophecy of the overthrow of the kingdom, and Belshazsar's death, accorded in Dan. 5. Belteshazzar (favored by Bel .) [[276]Daniel, [277]Daniel, The Book Of] Ben (son), a Levite, one of the porters appointed by David for the ark. (1 Chronicles 15:18) Benaiah (made by the Lord). + The son of Jehoiada the chief priest, (1 Chronicles 27:5) of the tribe of Levi, though a native of Kabzeel, (2 Samuel 23:20) set by David, (1 Chronicles 11:25) over his body-guard. (2 Samuel 8:18; 20:23; 1 Kings 1:38; 1 Chronicles 18:17) One of the mighty men. (2 Samuel 23:22,23; 1 Chronicles 11:25; 27:6) The exploits which gave him this rank are narrated in (2 Samuel 23:20,21; 1 Chronicles 11:22) He was captain of the host for the third month. (1 Chronicles 27:5) Benaiah remained faithful to Solomon during Adonijah's attempt on the crown, (1 Kings 1:8,10,32,38,44) and was raised unto the place of Joab as commander-in-chief of the whole army. (1 Kings 2:35; 4:4) (B.C. 1005.) + Benaiah the Pirathonite, an Ephraimite, one of David's thirty mighty men, (2 Samuel 23:30; 1 Chronicles 11:31) and the captain of the eleventh monthly course. (1 Chronicles 27:14) + A Levite in the time of David, who "played with a psaltry on Alamoth." (1 Chronicles 15:18,20; 16:5) + A priest in the time of David, appointed to blow the trumpet before the ark. (1 Chronicles 15:24; 16:6) + A Levite of the sons of Asaph. (2 Chronicles 20:14) + A Levite in the time of Hezekiah. (2 Chronicles 31:13) + One of the "princes" of the families of Simeon. (1 Chronicles 4:36) + Four laymen in the time of Ezra who had taken strange wives. (Ezra 10:25,30,35,43) + The father of Pelatiah. (Ezekiel 11:1,13) Benammi (son of my people), the son of the younger daughter of Lot, and progenitor of the Ammonites. (Genesis 19:38) (B.C. 1897.) Beneberak (son of lightning), one of the cities of the tribe of Dan, mentioned only in (Joshua 19:45) Benejaakan (sons of Jaakan), a tribe who gave their name to certain wells in the desert which formed one of the halting-places of the Israelites on their journey to Canaan. [[278]Beeroth Of The Children Of Jaakan BENE-JAAKAN] Also given in (Genesis 36:27) as [279]Akan. Benekedem (the children of the East), an appellation given to a people or to peoples dwelling to the east of Palestine. It occurs in (Genesis 29:1; Judges 6:3,33; 7:12; 8:10; Job 1:3) Benhadad (son of Hadad), the name of three kings of Damascus. BENHADAD I., King of Damascus, which in his time was supreme in Syria. He made an alliance with Asa, and conquered a great part of the north of Israel. (1 Kings 15:18) His date is B.C. 950. BEN-HADAD II., son of the preceding, and also king of Damascus. Long wars with Israel characterized his reign. Some time after the death of Ahab, Benhadad renewed the war with Israel, attacked Samaria a second time, and pressed the siege so closely that there was a terrible famine in the city. But the Syrians broke up in the night in consequence of a sudden panic. Soon after Ben-hadad fell sick, and sent Hazael to consult Elisha as to the issue of his malady. On the day after Hazael's return Ben-hadad was murdered, probably by some of his own servants. (2 Kings 8:7-15) Ben-hadad's death was about B.C. 890, and he must have reigned some 30 years. BEN-HADAD III., son of Hazael, and his successor on the throne of Syria. When he succeeded to the throne, Jehoash recovered the cities which Jehoahaz had lost to the Syrians, and beat him in Aphek. (2 Kings 13:17,25) The date of Ben-hadad III is B.C. 840. Benhail (son of the host, strong), one of the princes whom King Jehoshaphat sent to teach in the cities of Judah. (2 Chronicles 17:7) Benhanan (son of the gracious), son of Shimon, in the line of Judah. (1 Chronicles 4:20) Beninu (our son), a Levite; one of those who sealed the covenant with Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 10:13,14) Benjamin (son of the right hand, fortunate). + The youngest of the children of Jacob. His birth took place on the road between Bethel and Bethlehem, near the latter, B.C. 1729. His mother, Rachel, died in the act of giving him birth, naming him with her last breath Ben-oni (son of my sorrow). This was by Jacob changed into Benjamin. (Genesis 35:16,18) Until the journeys of Jacob's sons and Jacob himself into Egypt we hear nothing of Benjamin. Nothing personal is known of him. Henceforward the history of Benjamin is the history of the tribe. + A man of the tribe of Benjamin, son of bilhan, and the head of a family of warriors. (1 Chronicles 7:10) + One of the "sons of Harim," an Israelite in the time of Ezra who had married a foreign wife. (Ezra 10:32) Benjamin, High Gate Or Gate Of (Jeremiah 20:2; 37:13; 38:7; Zechariah 14:10) [[280]Jerusalem] Benjamin, The Land Of The proximity of Benjamin to Ephraim during the march to the promised land was maintained in the territory allotted to each. That given to Benjamin formed almost a parallelogram, of about 26 miles in length by 12 in breadth, lying between Ephraim, the Jordan, Judah and Dan. The general level of this part of Palestine is not less than 2000 feet above the Mediterranean or than 3000 feet above the valley of the Jordan, the surrounding country including a large number of eminences--almost every one of which has borne some part in the history of the tribe--and many torrent beds and deep ravines. Benjamin, The Tribe Of The contrast between the warlike character of the tribe and the peaceful image of its progenitor comes out in many scattered notices. Benjamin was the only tribe which seems to have pursued archery to any purpose, and their skill in the bow, (1 Samuel 20:20,36; 2 Samuel 1:232; 1 Chronicles 8:40; 12:2; 2 Chronicles 17:17) and the sling, (Judges 20:16) is celebrated. The dreadful deed recorded in Judges 19 was defended by Benjamin. Later the tribe seems, however, to assume another position, as Ramah, (1 Samuel 9:12) etc., Mizpeh, (1 Samuel 7:5) Bethel and Gibeon, (1 Kings 3:4) were all in the land of Benjamin. After the struggles and contests which followed the death of Saul, the history of Benjamin becomes merged in that of the southern kingdom. Beno (his son), a Levite of the sons of Merari. (1 Chronicles 24:26,27) Benon (Numbers 32:3) [BETH-BAALMEON] Comp. ver. 38. Benoni (son of my sorrow). (Genesis 35:18) [[281]Benjamin, [282]Benjamin, The Tribe Of] Benzoheth (son of Zoheth), a descendant of Judah. (1 Chronicles 4:20) Beor (burning or torch). + The father of Bela, one of the early Edomite kings. (Genesis 36:32; 1 Chronicles 1:43) + Father of Balaam. (Numbers 22:5; 24:3,15; 31:8; 23:4; Joshua 13:22; 24:9; Micah 6:5) He is called [283]Bosor in the New Testament. (B.C. before 1450.) Bera (son of evil) king of Sodom. (Genesis 14:2) also (Genesis 14:17,21) Beraa (well watered). + A city of Macedonia, mentioned in (Acts 17:10,13) It is now called Verria or Kara-Verria, and is situated on the eastern slope of the Olympian mountain range, and has 15,000 or 20,000 inhabitants. + The modern Aleppo, mentioned in 2 Macc. 13:4. + A place in Judea, apparently not very far from Jerusalem. 1 Macc. 9:4. Berachah (blessing), a Benjamite who attached himself to David at Ziklag. (1 Chronicles 12:3) (B.C. 1054.) Berachah, Valley Of a valley in which Jehoshaphat and his people assembled to "bless" Jehovah after the overthrow of the hosts of Moabites. (2 Chronicles 20:26) It is now called Bereikut, and lies between Tekua and the main road from Bethlehem to Hebron. Berachiah (blessed of Jehovah), a Gershonite Levite, father of Asaph. (1 Chronicles 6:39) [[284]Berechiah] Beraiah (created by Jehovah), son of Shimhi, a chief man of Benjamin. (1 Chronicles 8:21) Berechiah (blessed of Jehovah). + A descendant of the royal family of Judah. (1 Chronicles 3:20) + A man mentioned as the father of Meshullam, who assisted in rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem. (Nehemiah 3:4,30; 6:18) + A Levite. (1 Chronicles 9:16) + A doorkeeper for the ark. (1 Chronicles 15:23) + One of the tribe of Ephraim in the time of Ahaz. (2 Chronicles 28:12) + Father of Asaph the singer. (1 Chronicles 15:17) [[285]Berachiah] + Father of Zechariah. (Zechariah 1:1,7) Bered (hail). + A place in the south of Palestine, near the well Lahairoi. (Genesis 16:14) + A son or descendant of Ephraim, (1 Chronicles 7:20) possibly identical with Becher in (Numbers 26:35) Berenice [[286]Bernice, Or Berenice] Beri (a well), son of Zophah, of the tribe of Asher. (1 Chronicles 7:36) Beriah (in evil, or a gift). + A son of Asher. (Genesis 46:17; Numbers 26:44,45) + A son of Ephraim. (1 Chronicles 7:20-23) + A Benjamite. (1 Chronicles 8:13,16) + A Levite. (1 Chronicles 23:10,11) Beriites, The A tribe of people who are named with Abel and Beth-maachah, and who were therefore doubtless situated in the north of Palestine. (2 Samuel 20:14) Berith (Judges 9:46) [BAAL-BERITH] Bernice, Or Berenice (bringing victory), the eldest daughter of Herod Agrippa I. (Acts 12:1) etc. She was first married to her uncle Herod, king of Chaleis, and after his death (A.D. 48) she lived under circumstances of great suspicion with her own brother, Agrippa II., in connection with whom she is mentioned, (Acts 25:13,23; 26:30) as having visited Festus on his appointment as procurator of Judea. Berodachbaladan (2 Kings 20:12) [MERODACH-BALADAN] Berothah (toward the wells), Bero'-tha-i (my wells). The first of these two names is given by Ezekiel, (Ezekiel 47:16) in connection with Hahlath and Damascus as forming part of the northern boundary of the promised land. The second is mentioned, (2 Samuel 8:8) in the same connection. The well-known city Beirut (Berytus) naturally suggests itself as identical with one at least of the names; but in each instance the circumstances of the case seem to require a position farther east. They were probably in the vicinity of the springs near the present Hasbeya. Berothite, The (1 Chronicles 11:39) [[287]Beeroth Of The Children Of Jaakan] Beryl (tarshish) occurs in (Exodus 28:20) It is generally supposed that the tarshish derives its name from the place so called, in Spain. Beryl is a mineral of great hardness, and, when transparent, of much beauty. By tarshish the modern yellow topaz is probably intended, while in (Revelation 21:20) a different stone is perhaps referred to, probably the mineral now called beryl, which is identical with the emerald except in color, being a light green or bluish-green. Besai (sword). "Children of Besai" were among the Nethinim who returned to Judea with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:49; Nehemiah 7:52) Besodeiah (n the secret of the Lord) father of one of the repairers of the wall of Jerusalem. (Nehemiah 3:6) Besom a brush or broom of twigs for sweeping (Isaiah 14:23) Besor, The Brook (cool), a torrent-bed or wady in the extreme south of Judah. (1 Samuel 30:9,10,21) Betah (confidence), a city belonging to Hadadezer king of Zobah, mentioned with Berothai. (2 Samuel 8:8) In the parallel account, (1 Chronicles 18:8) the name is called Tibhath. Beten (height), one of the cities on the border of the tribe of Asher. (Joshua 19:25) Beth the most general word for a house or habitation. It has the special meaning of a temple or house of worship Beth is more frequently employed in compound names of places than any other word. Bethabara (house of the ford), a place beyond Jordan, in which according to the Received Text of the New Testament, John was baptizing. (John 1:28) If this reading be correct, Bethabara is identical with Beth-barah (fords of Abarah) the ancient ford of Jordan on the road to Gilead; or, which seems more likely, with Beth-nimrah, on the east of the river, nearly opposite Jericho. The Revised Version reads [288]Bethany, which see below. Bethanath (house of echo or reply), one of the "fenced cities" of Naphtali, named with Beth-shemesh, (Joshua 19:38) from neither of them were the Canaanites expelled. (Judges 1:33)). Bethanoth (house of echo), a town in the mountainous district of Judah, named with Halhul, Beth-zur and others in (Joshua 15:58) only. Bethany In the Revised Version for [289]Bethabara, (John 1:28) where Jesus was baptized by John. It was probably an obscure village near Bethabara, and in time its name faded out and was replaced by the larger and more important Bethabara. (house of dates, or house of misery), a village which, scanty as are the notices of it contained in Scripture, is more intimately associated in our minds than perhaps any other place with the most familiar acts and scenes of the last days of the life of Christ. It was situated "at" the Mount of Olives, (Mark 11:1; Luke 19:29) about fifteen stadia (furlongs, i.e. 1 1/2 or 2 miles) from Jerusalem (John 11:18) on or near the usual road From Jericho to the city, (Luke 19:29) comp. Mark 11:1 comp. Mark 10:46 And close by the west(?) of another village called Bethphage, the two being several times mentioned together. Bethany was the home of Mary and Martha and Lazarus, and is now known by a name derived from Lazarus--el-Azariyeh or Lazarieh . It lies on the eastern slope of the Mount of Olives, fully a mile beyond the summit, and not very far from the point at which the road to Jericho begins its more sudden descent towards the Jordan valley. El-'Azariyeh is a ruinous and wretched village, a wild mountain hamlet of some twenty families. Bethany has been commonly explained "house of dates," but it more probably signifies "house of misery." H. Dixon, "Holy Land," ii. 214, foll. Betharabah (house of the desert), one of the six cities of Judah which were situated down in the Arabah, the sunk valley of the Jordan and Dead Sea, (Joshua 15:61) on the north border of the tribe. It is also included in the list of the towns of Benjamin. (Joshua 18:22) Betharam (house of the height), accurately BETH-HARAM, one of the towns of Gad on the east of Jordan, described as in "the valley," (Joshua 13:27) and no doubt the same place as that named BETH-HARAN in (Numbers 32:36) Bethaven (house of nothingness, i.e. of idols), a place on the mountains of Benjamin, east of Bethel, (Joshua 7:2; 18:12) and lying between that place and Michmash. (1 Samuel 13:5; 14:28) In (Hosea 4:15; 5:8; 10:5) the name is transferred to the neighboring Bethel,--once the "house of God" but then the house of idols of "naught." Bethbaalmaveth (house of Azmaveth). Under this name is mentioned, in (Nehemiah 7:28) only, the town of Benjamin which is elsewhere called [290]Azmaveth and BETH-SAMOS. Bethbaalmeon (house of Baalmeon), a place in the possessions of Reuben, on the downs (Authorized Version "plain") east of the Jordan. (Joshua 13:17) At the Israelites' first approach is name was BAAL-MEON, (Numbers 32:38) or, in its contracted form, BEON (Numbers 32:3) to which the Beth was possibly a Hebrew addition. Later it would seem to have come into possession of Moab, and to be known either as Beth-meon, (Jeremiah 48:23) or Baal-meon. (Ezekiel 25:9) The name is still attached to a ruined place of considerable size a short distance to the southwest of Hesban, and bearing the name of "the fortress of Mi'un, " or Makin . Bethbarah (house of the ford), named only in (Judges 7:24) It derived its chief interest in the possibility that its more modern representative may have been Beth-abara, where John baptized. It was probably the chief ford of the district. Bethbirei (house of my creation), a town of Simeon, (1 Chronicles 4:31) which by comparison with the parallel list in (Joshua 19:6) appears to have had also the name Of BETH-LEBAOTH. It lay to the extreme south. Bethcar (house of the lamb), a place named as the point to which the Israelites pursued the Philistines, (1 Samuel 7:11) and therefore west of Mizpeh. Bethdagon (house of Dagon). + A city in the low country of Judah, (Joshua 15:41) and therefore not far from the Philistine territory. + A town apparently near the coast, named as one of the landmarks of the boundary of Asher. (Joshua 19:27) Bethdiblathaim (house of fig-cakes), a town of Moab, (Jeremiah 48:22) apparently the place elsewhere called ALMON-DIBLATHAIM. Bethel (the house of God) well known city and holy place of central Palestine, about 12 mlles north of Jerusalem. If we are to accept the precise definition of (Genesis 12:8) the name of Bethel would appear to have existed at this spot even before the arrival of Abram in Canaan. (Genesis 12:8; 13:3,4) Bethel was the scene of Jacob's vision. (Genesis 28:11-19; 31:13) Jacob lived there. (Genesis 35:1-8) The original name was Luz. (Judges 1:22,23) After the conquest Bethel is frequently heard of. In the troubled times when there was no king in Israel, it was to Bethel that the people went up in their distress to ask counsel of God. (Judges 20:18,26,31; 21:2) Authorized Version, "house of God." Here was the ark of the covenant. (Judges 20:26-28; 21:4) Later it is named as one of the holy cities to which Samuel went on circuit. (1 Samuel 7:16) Here Jeroboab placed one of the two calves of gold. Toward the end of Jeroboam's life Bethel fell into the hands of Judah. (2 Chronicles 13:19) Elijah visited Bethel, and we hear of "sons of the prophets" as resident there. (2 Kings 2:2,3) But after the destruction of Baal worship by Jehu Bethel comes once more into view. (2 Kings 10:29) After the desolation of the northern kingdom by the king of Assyria, Bethel still remained an abode of priests. (2 Kings 17:27,28) In later times Bethel is named only once under the scarcely-altered name of Beitin . Its ruins still lie on the righthand side of the road from Jerusalem to Nablus. + A town in the south part of Judah, named in (Joshua 12:16) and 1Sam 30:27 In (Joshua 15:30; 19:4; 1 Chronicles 4:29,30) the place appears under the name of [291]Chesil, [292]Bethul and [293]Bethuel. Hiel the Bethelite is recorded as the rebuilder of Jericho. (1 Kings 16:34) + In (Joshua 16:1) and 1Sam 13:2 Mount Bethel, a hilly section near Beth-el, is referred to. Bethemek (house of the valley), a place on or near the border of Asher, on the north side of which was the ravine of Jiphthah-el (Joshua 19:27) Bether (depth), The mountains of. (Song of Solomon 2:17) There is no clue to guide us as to what mountains are intended here. Bethesda (house of mercy, or the flowing water), the Hebrew name of a reservoir or tank, with five "porches," close upon the sheep-gate or "market" in Jerusalem. (John 5:2) The largest reservoir - Birket Israil - 360 feet long, 120 feet wide and 80 feet deep, within the walls of the city, close by St. Stephen's Gate, and under the northeast wall of the Haram area, is generally considered to be the modern representative of Bethesda. Robinson, however, suggests that the ancient Bethesda is identical with what is now called the Pool of the Virgin, an intermittent pool, south of Birket Israil and north of the pool of Siloam. Bethezel (neighbor's house), a place named only in (Micah 1:11) From the context it was doubtless situated in the plain of Philistia. Bethgader (house of the wall), doubtless a place, though it occurs in the genealogies of Judah as if a person. (1 Chronicles 2:51) Bethgamul (camel-house), a town of Moab, in the downs east of Jordan. (Jeremiah 48:23) comp. Jere 48:21 Bethgilgal Same as Gilgal. (Nehemiah 12:29) Bethhaccerem (house of the vine). (Nehemiah 3:14; Jeremiah 6:1) A beacon station near Tekoa, supposed to be the Frank Mountain, a few miles southeast of Bethlehem. Bethharan (Numbers 32:36) It is no doubt the same place as BETH-ARAM. (Joshua 13:27) Bethhogla (partridge-house), and Holg'lah a place on the border of Judah, (Joshua 15:6) and of Benjamin. (Joshua 18:19,21) A magnificent spring and a ruin between Jericho and the Jordan still bear the names of Ainhajala. Bethhoron (house of caverns), the name of two towns or villages, an "upper" and a "nether," (Joshua 16:3,5; 1 Chronicles 7:24) on the road from Gibeon to Azekah, (Joshua 10:10,11) and the Philistine plain. 1 Macc. 3:24. Beth-horon lay on the boundary line between Benjamin and Ephraim, (Joshua 16:3,5) and Josh 18:13,14 Was counted to Ephraim, (Joshua 21:22; 1 Chronicles 7:24) and given to the Kohathites. (Joshua 21:22; 1 Chronicles 6:68) (1Chr 6:53) The two Beth-horons still survive in the modern villages of Beit-ur, et-tahta and el-foka . Bethjeshimoth (house of deserts) or Jes'imoth, a town or place east of Jordan, on the lower level at the south end of the Jordan valley, (Numbers 33:49) and named with Ashdod-pisgah and Beth-peor. It was one of the limits of the encampment of Israel before crossing the Jordan. Later it was allotted to Reuben, (Joshua 12:3; 13:20) but came at last into the hands of Moab, and formed one of the cities which were "the glory of the country." (Ezekiel 25:9) Bethlebaoth (house of lionesses), a town in the lot of Simeon, (Joshua 19:6) in the extreme south of Judah. [ (Joshua 15:32) [294]Lebaoth] In (1 Chronicles 4:31) the name is given BETH-BIREI. Bethlehem (house of bread). + One of the oldest towns in Palestine, already in existence at the time of Jacob's return to the country. Its earliest name was [295]Ephratah, Or Ephrath or EPHRATAH. See (Genesis 35:16,19; 48:7) After the conquest Bethlehem appears under its own name, BETHLEHEM-JUDAH. (Judges 17:7; 1 Samuel 17:12; Ruth 1:1,2) The book of Ruth is a page from the domestic history of Bethlehem. It was the home of Ruth, (Ruth 1:19) and of David. (1 Samuel 17:12) It was fortified by Rehoboam. (2 Chronicles 11:6) It was here that our Lord was born, (Matthew 2:1) and here that he was visited by the shepherds, (Luke 2:15-17) and the Magi. Matt 2. The modern town of Beit-lahm lies to the east of the main road from Jerusalem to Hebron, six miles from the former. It covers the east and northeast parts of the ridge of a long gray hill of Jura limestone, which stands nearly due east and west, and is about a mile in length. The hill has a deep valley on the north and another on the south. On the top lies the village in a kind of irregular triangle. The population is about 3000 souls, entirely Christians. The Church of the Nativity, built by the empress Helena A.D. 330, is the oldest Christian church in existence. It is built over the grotto where Christ is supposed to have been born. + A town in the portion of Zebulun, named nowhere but in (Joshua 19:15) Now known as Beit-lahm . Bethlomon 1 Esd. 5:17. [[296]Bethlehem, 1] Bethmaachah (house of oppression), a place named only in (2 Samuel 20:14,15) In the absence of more information we can only conclude that it is identical with Maachah or Aram-maachah, one of the petty Syrian kingdoms in the north of Palestine. (Comp. (2 Kings 15:29) Bethmarcaboth (house of the chariots), one of the towns of Simeon, situated to the extreme south of Judah. (Joshua 19:5; 1 Chronicles 4:31) In the parallel list, (Joshua 15:31) [297]Madmannah occurs in place of Beth-marcaboth. Bethmeon (Jeremiah 48:23) A contracted form of Beth-baal-meon. Bethnimrah (house of leopards) one of the fenced cities on the east of Jordan taken and built by the tribe of Gad (Numbers 32:36) and described as being in the valley beside Beth-haran. (Joshua 13:27) In (Numbers 32:3) it is called simply [298]Nimrah. The name still survives in the modern Nahr Nimrim, above Jericho on the Jordan. Bethpalet (house of flight), a town among those in the extreme south of Judah, named in (Joshua 15:27) Bethpazzez (house of the dispersion), a town of Issachar named with En-haddah (Joshua 19:21) and of which nothing is known. Bethpeor (house of Peor), a place on the east of Jordan, opposite Jericho and six miles above Libias or Beth-haran. (Joshua 13:20; 3:29; 4:46) Bethphage (g hard) (house of figs) the name of a place on the Mount of Olives on the road between Jericho and Jerusalem. It was apparently close to Bethany. (Matthew 21:1; Mark 11:1; Luke 19:29) Bethphelet (Nehemiah 11:26) [[299]Bethpalet] Bethrapha a name which occurs in the genealogy of Judah as the son of Eshton. (1 Chronicles 4:12) Bethrehob (house of Rehob), place mentioned as having near it the valley in which lay the town of Laish or Dan. (Judges 18:28) It was one of the little kingdoms of Aram or Syria. (2 Samuel 10:6) Robinson conjectures that this ancient place is represented by the modern Hunin . Bethsaida (house of fish) of Galilee, (John 12:21) a city which was the native place of Andrew, Peter and Philip, (John 1:44; 12:21) in the land of Gennesareth, (Mark 6:46) comp. Mark 6:53 And therefore on the west side of the lake. By comparing the narratives in (Mark 6:31-53) and Luke 9:10-17 It appears certain that the Bethsaida at which the five thousand were fed must have been a second place of the same name on the east of the lake. (But in reality "there is but one Bethsaida, that known on our maps at Bethsaida Julias." L. Abbot in Biblical and Oriental Journal . The fact is that Bethsaida was a village on both sides of the Jordan as it enters the sea of Galilee on the north, so that the western part of the village was in Galilee and the eastern portion in Gaulonitis, part of the tetrarchy of Philip. This eastern portion was built up into a beautiful city by Herod Philip, and named by him Bethsaida Julias, after Julia the daughter of the Roman emperor Tiberius Caesar. On the plain of Butaiha, a mile or two to the east, the five thousand were fed. The western part of the town remained a small village.--ED.) Bethshean (house of rest), or in Samuel, BETHSHAN, a city which belonged to Manasseh, (1 Chronicles 7:29) though within the limits of Issachar (Joshua 17:11) and therefore on the west of Jordan. Comp. 1 Macc. 5:62. In later times it was called Scythopolis. 2 Macc. 12:29. The place is still known as Beisan . It lies in the Ghor or Jordan valley, about twelve miles south of the Sea of Galilee and four miles west of the Jordan. Bethshemesh (house of the sun). + One of the towns which marked the north boundary of Judah. (Joshua 15:10) It is now 'Ainshems, about two miles from the great Philistine plain, and seven from Ekron. + A city on the border of Issachar. (Joshua 19:22) + One of the "fenced cities" of Naphtali. (Joshua 19:38; Judges 1:33) + An idolatrous temple, or place in Egypt. (Jeremiah 43:13) In the middle ages Heliopolis was still called by the Arabs Ain Shems . Bethshittah (home of the acacia), one of the spots to which the flight of the host of the Midianites extended after their discomfiture by Gideon. (Judges 7:22) Bethtappuah (house of apples), one of the towns of Judah in the mountainous district, and near Hebron. (Joshua 15:53) comp. 1Chr 2:43 Here it has actually been discovered by Robinson under the modern name of Teffuh, five miles west of Hebron, on a ridge of high table-land. Bethuel (dweller in God), the son of Nahor by Milcah; nephew of Abraham, and father of Rebekah, (Genesis 22:22,23; 24:15,24,47; 28:2) In (Genesis 25:20) and (Genesis 28:5) he is called "Bethuel the Syrian." Bethul (dweller in God) a town of Simeon in the south named with Eltolad and Hormah, (Joshua 19:4) called also Chesil and Bethuel. (Joshua 15:30; 1 Chronicles 4:30) Bethzur (house of rock) a town in the mountains of Judah, built by Jeroboam, (Joshua 15:58; 2 Chronicles 11:7) now Beit-zur . It commands the road from Beersheba and Hebron, which has always been the main approach to Jerusalem from the south. Betonim a town of Gad, apparently on the northern boundary. (Joshua 13:26) Betrothing [[300]Marriage.1] Beulah (married), the name which the land of Israel is to bear when "the land shall be married." (Isaiah 62:4) Bezai (conqueror). "Children of Bezai," to the number of 328, returned from captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2:17; Nehemiah 7:23; 10:18) Bezaleel (in the shadow of God). + The son of Uri, the son of Hur, of the tribe of Judah and one of the architects of the tabernacle. (Exodus 31:1-6) His charge was chiefly in all works of metal, wood and stone. (B.C. 1490.) + One of the sons of Pahath-moab who had taken a foreign wife. (Ezra 10:30) (B.C. 458.) Bezek (lightning). + The residence of Adonibezek, (Judges 1:6) in the lot of Judah. ver. (Judges 1:3) + Where Saul numbered the forces of Israel and Judah before going to the relief of Jabesh-gilead. (1 Samuel 11:8) This was doubtless somewhere in the centre of the country, near the Jordan valley. No identification of either place has been made in modern times. Bezer (gold ore), son of Zophah, one of the heads of the houses of Asher. (1 Chronicles 7:37) Bezer In The Wilderness a city of refuge in the downs on the east of the Jordan. (4:43; Joshua 20:8; 21:36; 1 Chronicles 6:78) Bible The Bible is the name given to the revelation of God to man contained in sixty-six books or pamphlets, bound together and forming one book and only one, for it has in reality one author and one purpose and plan, and is the development of one scheme of the redemption of man. I. ITS [301]Names.-- (1) The Bible, i.e. The Book, from the Greek "ta biblia," the books. The word is derived from a root designating the inner bark of the linden tree, on which the ancients wrote their books. It is the book as being superior to all other books. But the application of the word BIBLE to the collected books of the Old and New Testaments is not to be traced farther back than the fifth century of our era. (2) The Scriptures, i.e. the writings, as recording what was spoken by God. (3) The Oracles, i.e. the things spoken, because the Bible is what God spoke to man, and hence also called (4) The Word. (5) The Testaments or Covenants, because it is the testimony of God to man, the truths to which God bears witness; and is also the covenant or agreement of God with man for his salvation. (6) The Law, to express that it contains God's commands to men. II. COMPOSITION.--The Bible consists of two great parts, called the Old and New Testaments, separated by an interval of nearly four hundred years. These Testaments are further divided into sixty-six books, thirty-nine in the Old Testament and twenty-seven in the New. These books are a library in themselves being written in every known form old literature. Twenty-two of them are historical, five are poetical, eighteen are prophetical, twenty-one are epistolary. They contain logical arguments, poetry, songs and hymns, history, biography, stories, parables, fables, eloquence, law, letters and philosophy. There are at least thirty-six different authors, who wrote in three continents, in many countries, in three languages, and from every possible human standpoint. Among these authors were kings, farmers, mechanics, scientific men, lawyers, generals, fishermen, ministers and priests, a tax-collector, a doctor, some rich, some poor, some city bred, some country born--thus touching all the experiences of men extending over 1500 years. III. UNITY.--And yet the Bible is but one book, because God was its real author, and therefore, though he added new revelations as men could receive them, he never had to change what was once revealed. The Bible is a unit, because (1) It has but one purpose, the salvation of men. (2) The character of God is the same. (3) The moral law is the same. (4) It contains the development of one great scheme of salvation. IV. ORIGINAL LANGUAGES.--The Old Testament was written in Hebrew, a Shemitic language, except that parts of the books of Ezra (Ezra 5:8; 6:12; 7:12-26) and of Daniel (Daniel 2:4-7,28) and one verse in Jeremiah (Jeremiah 10:11) were written in the Chaldee language. The New Testament is written wholly in Greek. V. ANCIENT MANUSCRIPTS OF THE ORIGINAL.--There are no ancient Hebrew manuscripts older than the tenth century, but we know that these are in the main correct, because we have a translation of the Hebrew into Greek, called the Septuagint, made nearly three hundred years before Christ. Our Hebrew Bibles are a reprint from what is called the Masoretic text. The ancient Hebrew had only the consonant printed, and the vowels were vocalized in pronunciation, but were not written. Some Jewish scholars living at Tiberias, and at Sora by the Euphrates, from the sixth to the twelfth century, punctuated the Hebrew text, and wrote is the vowel points and other tone-marks to aid in the reading of the Hebrew; and these, together with notes of various kinds, they called Masora (tradition), hence the name Masoretic text. 0F the Greek of the New Testament there are a number of ancient manuscripts They are divided into two kinds, the Uncials, written wholly in capitals, and the Cursives, written in a running hand . The chief of these are-- (1) the Alexandrian (codex Alexandrinus, marked A), so named because it was found in Aiexandria in Egypt, in 1628. It date back to A.D. 350, and is now in the British Museum. (2) The Vatican (codex Vaticanus, B), named from the Vatican library at Rome, where it is kept. Its date is A.D. 300 to 325. (3) The Sinaitic (codex Sinaiticus) so called from the convent of St. Catherine on Mount Sinai, there it was discovered by or Tichendorf in 1844. It is now at St. Petersburg Russia. This is one of the earliest best of all the manuscripts. VI. TRANSLATIONS.--The Old Testament was translated into Greek by a company of learned Jews at Alexandria, who began their labor about the year B.C. 286. It is called the Septuagint, i.e. the seventy, from the tradition that it was translated by seventy (more exactly seventy-two) translators. The Vulgate, or translation of the Bible into Latin by Jerome, A.D. 385-405, is the authorized version of the Roman Catholic Church. The first English translation of the whole Bible was by John Deuteronomy Wickliffe (1324-1384). Then followed that of William Tyndale (1525) and several others. As the sum and fruit of all these appeared our present Authorized Version, or King James Version, in 1611. It was made by forty-seven learned men, in two years and nine months, with a second revision which took nine months longer. These forty-seven formed themselves into six companies, two of whom met at Westminster, two at Oxford and two at Cambridge. The present English edition is an improvement, in typographical and grammatical correctness, upon this revision, and in these respects is nearly perfect. [See [302]Versions, Authorized] A REVISED VERSION of this authorized edition was made by a group of American and English scholars, and in 1881 the Revised New Testament was published simultaneously in the United States and England. Then followed the Revised Old Testament in 1885, and the Apocrypha in 1894. The American revision committee was permitted to publish its own revision, which appeared in 1901 as the American Standard Version. Modern-speech translations have been made from time to time between 1898-1945. Among these were Moulton's Modern Reader's Bible, the Twentieth century New Testament, Weymouth's, Moffatt's, and the American translation. As a result of the modern-speech translations that have appeared and been widely received, the American Revision Committee set to work again, and in 1946 the Revised Standard Version of the New Testament was published. VII. DIVISIONS INTO CHAPTERS AND VERSES.--The present division of the whole Bible into chapters was made by Cardinal Hugo Deuteronomy St. Gher about 1250. The present division into verses was introduced by Robert Stephens in his Greek Testament, published in 1551, in his edition of the Vulgate, in 1555. The first English Bible printed with these chapters and verses was the Geneva Bible, in 1560. VIII. CIRCULATION OF THE BIBLE.--The first book ever printed was the Bible; and more Bibles have been printed than any other book. It has been translated, in its entirety or in part, into more than a thousand languages and dialects and various systems for the blind. The American Bible Society (founded in 1816) alone has published over 356 million volumes of Scripture. Bichri (first-born), (2 Samuel 20:1) an ancestor of Sheba. Bidkar (son of stabbing, i.e, one who stabs), Jehu's "captain," originally his fellow officer, (2 Kings 9:25) who completed the sentence on Jehoram, son of Ahab. Bier [[303]Burial, Sepulchres.1] Bigtha (gift of God), one of the seven chamberlains or eunuchs of the harem of King Ahasuerus. (Esther 1:10) (B.C. 483.) Bigthan, Or Bigthana (gift of God), a eunuch (chamberlain, Authorized Version) in the court of Ahasuerus, one of those "who kept the door," and conspired with Teresh against the king's life. (Esther 2:21) (B.C. 479.) Bigvai (happy). + "Children of Bigvai," 2056 (Neh. 2067) in number, returned from the captivity with Zerubbabel, (Ezra 2:14; Nehemiah 7:19) and 72 of them at a later date with Ezra. (Ezra 8:14) (B.C. 536.) + Apparently one of the chiefs of Zerubbabel's expedition, (Ezra 2:2; Nehemiah 7:7) whose family afterwards signed the covenant. (Nehemiah 10:16) (B.C. 410.) Bildad (son of contention), the second of Job's three friends. He is called "the Shuhite," which implies both his family and nation. (Job 2:11) (B.C. about 2000.) Bileam (foreigners), a town in the western half of the tribe of Manasseh, named only in (1 Chronicles 6:70) same as Ibleam and Gath-rimmon. (Joshua 17:11) and Josh 21:24 Bilgah (first-born). + A priest in the time of David; the head of the fifteenth course for the temple service. (1 Chronicles 24:14) (B.C. 1015.) + A priest or priestly family who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel and Jeshua. (Nehemiah 12:5,18) (B.C. 536.) Bilgai (Nehemiah 10:8) [[304]Bilgah, 2] Bilhah (timid, bashful), handmaid of Rachel, (Genesis 29:29) and concubine of Jacob, to whom she bore Dan and Naphtali. (Genesis 30:3-8; 35:25; 46:25; 1 Chronicles 7:13) (B.C 53.) Bilhan (modest). + A Horite chief dwelling in Mount Seir. (Genesis 36:27; 1 Chronicles 1:42) + A Benjamite, son of Jediael. (1 Chronicles 7:10) Bilshan (eloquent), one of Zerubbabel's companions on his expedition from Babylon. (Ezra 2:2; Nehemiah 7:7) (B.C. 536). Bimhal (circumcised), one of the sons of Japhlet in the line of Asher. (1 Chronicles 7:33) Binea (fountain), one of the descendants of Saul. (1 Chronicles 8:37; 7:43) (B.C. 850.) Binnui (familyship). + A Levite, father of Noadiah. (Ezra 8:33) + One who had taken a foreign wife. (Ezra 10:30) + Another Israelite who had also taken a foreign wife. (Ezra 10:38) + Altered from [305]Bani in the corresponding list in Ezra. (Nehemiah 7:15) + A Levite, son of Henadad, who assisted at the reparation of the wall of Jerusalem, under Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 3:24; 10:9) Birds [[306]Sparrow] Birsha (son of godlessness), a king of Gomorrah. (Genesis 14:2) Birthday The custom of observing birthdays is very ancient, (Genesis 40:20; Jeremiah 20:15) and in (Job 1:4) etc., we read that Job's sons "feasted every one his day." In Persia birthdays were celebrated with peculiar honors and banquets, and in Egypt those of the king were kept with great pomp. It is very probable that in (Matthew 14:6) the feast to commemorate Herod's accession is intended, for we know that such feasts were common, and were called "the day of the king." (Hosea 7:5) Birthright the advantages accruing to the eldest son. These were not definitely fixed in patriarchal times. Great respect was paid to him in the household, and, as the family widened into a tribe, this grew into a sustained authority, undefined save by custom, in all matters of common interest. Thus the "princes" of the congregation had probably rights of primogeniture. (Numbers 7:2; 21:18; 25:14) (Gradually the rights of the eldest son came to be more definite: (1) The functions of the priesthood in the family with the paternal blessing. (2) A "double portion" of the paternal property was allotted by the Mosaic law. (21:16-17) (3) The eldest son succeeded to the official authority of the father. The first-born of the king was his successor by law. (2 Chronicles 21:3) In all these Jesus was the first-born of the father. Birzavith a name occurring in the genealogies of Asher. (1 Chronicles 7:31) Bishop The word originally signified an "overseer" or spiritual superintendent. The titles bishop and elder, or presbyter, were essentially equivalent. Bishop is from the Greek, and denotes one who exercises the function of overseeing. Presbyter was derived from the office in the synagogue. Of the order in which the first elders or bishops were appointed, as of the occasion which led to the institution of the office, we have no record. The duties of the bishop-elders appear to have been as follows: + General superintendence over the spiritual well-being of the flock. (1 Peter 5:2) + The work of teaching, both publicly and privately. (1 Thessalonians 5:12; Titus 1:9; 1 Timothy 5:17) + The work of visiting the sick, (James 5:14) + Among other acts of charity, that of receiving strangers occupied a conspicuous place. (1 Timothy 3:2; Titus 1:8) Peter calls Christ "the shepherd and bishop of your souls." (1 Peter 2:25) Bishopric the district over which the jurisdiction of a bishop extended. (Acts 1:20; 1 Timothy 3:1) Bithiah (daughter of the Lord), daughter of a Pharaoh, and wife of Mered. (1 Chronicles 4:18) (B.C. about 1491.) Bithron more accurately the Bithron (a craggy gorge or ravine), a place, doubtless a district, in the Jordan valley on the east side of the river. (2 Samuel 2:29) Bithynia a Roman province of Asia Minor. Mentioned only in (Acts 16:7) and in 1Pet 1:1 The chief town of Bithynia was Nicaea, celebrated for the general Council of the Church held there in A.D. 325 against the Arian heresy. Bitter Herbs The Israelites were commanded to eat the Paschal lamb "with unleavened bread and with bitter herbs." (Exodus 12:8) These "bitter herbs" consisted of such plants as chicory, bitter cresses, hawkweeds, sow-thistles and wild lettuces, which grow abundantly in the peninsula of Sinai, in Palestine and in Egypt. The purpose of this observance was to recall to the minds of the Israelites their deliverance from the bitter bondage of the Egyptians. Bittern The word occurs in (Isaiah 14:23; 34:11; Zephaniah 2:14) and we are inclined to believe that the Authorized Version is correct. The bittern (Botaurus stellaris) belongs to the Ardeidae, the heron family of birds, and is famous for the peculiar nocturnal booming sound which it emits. Bizjothjah (contempt of Jehovah), a town in the south of Judah. (Joshua 15:28) Biztha (eunuch), the second of the seven eunuchs of King Ahasuerus' harem. (Esther 1:10) (B.C. 483.) Blains violent ulcerous inflammations, the sixth plague of Egypt, (Exodus 9:9,10) and hence called in (28:27,35) "the botch of Egypt." It seems to have been the black leprosy, a fearful kind of elephantiasis. Blasphemy in its technical English sense, signifies the speaking evil of God and in this sense it is found (Psalms 74:18; Isaiah 52:5; Romans 2:24) etc. But according to its derivation it may mean any species of calumny and abuse: see (1 Kings 21:10; Acts 18:6; Jude 1:9) etc. Blasphemy was punished by stoning, which was inflicted on the son of Shelomith. (Leviticus 24:11) On this charge both our Lord and St. Stephen were condemned to death by the Jews. The blasphemy against the Holy Ghost, (Matthew 12:32; Mark 3:28) consisted in attributing to the power of Satan those unquestionable miracles which Jesus performed by "the finger of God" and the power of the Holy Spirit. It is plainly such a state of wilful, determined opposition to God and the Holy Spirit that no efforts will avail to lead to repentance. Among the Jews it was a sin against God answering to treason in our times. Blastus (sprout), the chamberlain of Herod Agrippa I. (Acts 12:20) Blindness is extremely common in the East from many causes. Blind beggars figure repeatedly in the New Testament (Matthew 12:22) and "opening the eyes of the blind" is mentioned in prophecy as a peculiar attribute of the Messiah. (Isaiah 29:18; 42:7) etc. The Jews were specially charged to treat the blind with compassion and care. (Leviticus 19:14; 27:18) Blindness willfully inflicted for political or other purposes is alluded to in Scripture. (1 Samuel 11:2; Jeremiah 39:7) Blood To blood is ascribed in Scripture the mysterious sacredness which belongs to life, and God reserved it to himself when allowing man the dominion over and the use of the lower animals for food. Thus reserved, it acquires a double power: (1) that of sacrificial atonement; and (2) that of becoming a curse when wantonly shed, unless duly expiated. (Genesis 9:4; Leviticus 7:26; 17:11-13) Blood, Revenger Of He who avenged the blood of one who had been killed. The nearest relative of the deceased became the authorized avenger of blood. (Numbers 35:19) The law of retaliation was not to extend beyond the immediate offender. (24:16; 2 Kings 14:6; 2 Chronicles 25:4; Jeremiah 31:29,30; Ezekiel 18:20) Boanerges a name signifying sons of thunder, given by our Lord to the two sons of Zebedee, James and John, probably on account of their fiery earnestly. (Mark 3:17) See (Luke 9:54; Mark 9:38) comp. Matt 20:20 etc. Boar [[307]Swine] Boaz (fleetness). + A wealthy Bethlehemite kinsman to Elimelech the husband of Naomi. He married Ruth, and redeemed the estates of her deceased husband Mahlon. (Ruth 4:1) Boaz is mentioned in the genealogy of Christ, (Matthew 1:5) (B.C. 1250, but there is great difficulty in assigning his date.) + The name of one of Solomon's brazen pillars erected in the temple porch. [[308]Jachin] It stood on the left, and was eighteen cubits high. (1 Kings 7:15; 21; 2 Chronicles 3:15; Jeremiah 52:21) Bocheru (youth), son of Azel, according to the present Hebrew text of (1 Chronicles 8:38) Bochim (the weepers) a place on the west of Jordan, above Gilgal; so named from the weeping of Israel. (Judges 2:1,6) Bohan (thumb), a Reubenite. (Joshua 15:6; 18:17) Bohan, Stone Of a stone erected in honor of Bohan on the boundary between Judah and Benjamin, in the valley of Achor, along the eastern side of the present Wady Dahr, running into the Dead Sea. Boil [[309]Medicine] Bondage [[310]Slave] Book [[311]Writing] Booths [[312]Succoth; [313]Tabernacles, The Feast Of, FEAST OF] Booty consisted of captives of both sexes, cattle, and whatever a captured city might contain, especially metallic treasures. Within the limits of Canaan no captives were to be made, (20:14,16) beyond these limits, in case of warlike resistance, all the women and children were to be made captives, and the men put to death. The law of booty is given in (Numbers 31:26-47) As regarded the army, David added a regulation that the baggage guard should share equally with the troops engaged. (1 Samuel 30:24; 25) Booz (Matthew 1:5; Luke 3:32) [[314]Boaz] Boscath (2 Kings 22:1) [[315]Bozkath] Bosor same as [316]Beor. (2 Peter 2:15) Bottle The Arabs keep their water, milk and other liquids in leathern bottles. These are made of goatskins. When the animal is killed they cut off its feet and its head, and draw it in this manner out of the skin without opening its belly. The great leathern bottles are made of the skin of a he-goat, and the small ones, that serve instead of a bottle of water on the road, are made of a kid's skin. The effect of external heat upon a skin bottle is indicated in (Psalms 119:83) "a bottle in the smoke," and of expansion produced by fermentation in (Matthew 9:17) "new wine in old bottles." Vessels of metal, earthen or glassware for liquids were in use among the Greeks, Egyptians, Etruscans and Assyrians, and also no doubt among the Jews, especially in later times. Thus (Jeremiah 19:1) "a potter's earthen bottle." (Bottles were made by the ancient Egyptians of alabaster, gold, ivory and stone. They were of most exquisite workmanship and elegant forms. Tear-bottles were small urns of glass or pottery, made to contain the tears of mourners at funerals, and placed in the sepulchres at Rome and in Palestine. In some ancient tombs they are found in great numbers. (Psalms 56:8) refers to this custom.--ED.) Bow (Genesis 37:10) The eastern mode of salutation, by kneeling upon one knee and bending the head forward till it touched the ground. Boxtree (Isaiah 41:19; 60:13) A beautiful evergreen growing in many parts of Europe and Asia. Its hard wood is much prized by engravers. The reference in (Isaiah 60:13) is supposed by some to mean a species of cedar. Bozes (the height), one of the two sharp rocks between the passages which Jonathan entered the Philistine garrison. It seems to have been that on the north. (1 Samuel 14:4,5) Bozkath (rocky height), a city of Judah in the lowlands (Joshua 15:39; 2 Kings 22:1) Bozrah (fortress). + In Edom, the city of Jobab the son of Zerah, one of the early king of that nation. (Genesis 36:33; 1 Chronicles 1:44) Mentioned by Isaiah, (Isaiah 34:6; 63:1) in connection with Edom, and by Jeremiah, (Jeremiah 49:13,22; Amos 1:12) and (Micah 2:12) Its modern representative is el-Busaireh, which lies on the mountain district to the southeast of the Dead Sea. + In his catalogue of the cities of the land of Moab, Jeremiah, (Jeremiah 48:24) mentions a Bozrah as in "the plain country" (ver 21), i.e. the high level downs on the east of the Dead Sea. Bracelet [See [317]Armlet] Bracelets of fine twisted Venetian gold are still common in Egypt. In (Genesis 38:18,25) the word rendered "bracelet" means probably a string by which a seal-ring was suspended. Men as well as women wore bracelets, as we see from (Song of Solomon 5:14) Layard says of the Assyrian kings, "The arms were encircled by armlets, and the wrists by bracelets." Bramble [[318]Thorns] Brass The word nechosheth is improperly translated by "brass." In most places of the Old Testament the correct translation would be copper, although it may sometimes possibly mean bronze a compound of copper and tin. Indeed a simple metal was obviously intended, as we see from (8:9; 33:25; Job 28) Copper was known at a very early period. (Genesis 4:22) Brazen Serpent [[319]Serpent] Bread The preparation of bread as an article of food dates from a very early period. (Genesis 18:6) The corn or grain employed was of various sorts. The best bread was made of wheat, but "barley" and spelt were also used. (John 6:9,13; Isaiah 28:25) The process of making bread was as follows: the flour was first mixed with water or milk; it was then kneaded with the hands (in Egypt with the feet also) in a small wooden bowl or "kneading-trough" until it became dough. (Exodus 12:34,39; 2 Samuel 13:3; Jeremiah 7:18) When the kneading was completed, leaven was generally added [[320]Leaven]; but when the time for preparation was short, it was omitted, and unleavened cakes, hastily baked, were eaten as is still the prevalent custom among the Bedouins. ((Genesis 18:6; 19:3; Exodus 12:39; Judges 6:19; 1 Samuel 28:24) The leavened mass was allowed to stand for some time, (Matthew 13:33; Luke 13:21) the dough was then divided into round cakes, (Exodus 29:23; Judges 7:13; 8:5; 1 Samuel 10:3; Proverbs 6:26) not unlike flat stones in shape and appearance, (Matthew 7:9) comp. Matt 4:8 About a span in diameter and a finger's breadth in thickness. In the towns where professional bakers resided, there were no doubt fixed ovens, in shape and size resembling those in use among ourselves; but more usually each household poured a portable oven, consisting of a stone or metal jar, about three feet high which was heated inwardly with wood, (1 Kings 17:12; Isaiah 44:15; Jeremiah 7:18) or dried grass and flower-stalks. (Matthew 6:30) Breastplate [[321]Arms, Armor] Brethren Of Jesus [[322]James The Less] Brick (Genesis 11:3) The brick in use among the Jews were much larger than with us, being usually from 12 to 13 inches square and 3 1/2 inches thick; they thus possess more of the character of tiles. (Ezekiel 4:1) The Israelites, in common with other captives, were employed by the Egyptian monarchs in making bricks and in building. (Exodus 1:14; 5:7) Egyptian bricks were not generally dried in kilns, but in the sun. That brick-kilns were known is evident from (2 Samuel 12:31; Jeremiah 43:9) When made of the Nile mud they required straw to prevent cracking. [See [323]Straw] Bride, Bridegroom [[324]Marriage] Brigandine (Jeremiah 46:4) elsewhere "habergeon," or "coat of mail." Brimstone Brimstone, or sulphur, is found in considerable quantities on the shores of the Dead Sea. (Genesis 19:24) It is a well-known simple mineral substance, crystalline, easily melted, very inflammable, and when burning emits a peculiar suffocating odor. It is found in great abundance near volcanoes. The soil around Sodom and Gomorrah abounded in sulphur and bitumen. Brother The Hebrew word is used in various senses in the Old Testament, as, + Any kinsman, and not a mere brother; e.g. nephew, (Genesis 13:8; 14:16) husband, (Song of Solomon 4:9) + One of the same tribe. (2 Samuel 19:13) + Of the same people, (Exodus 2:11) or even of a cognate people. (Numbers 20:14) + An ally. (Amos 1:9) + Any friend, (Job 5:15) + One of the same office. (1 Kings 9:13) + A fellow man. (Leviticus 19:17) + Metaphorically of any similarity, as in (Job 30:19) The word adelphos has a similar range of meanings in the New Testament. Bukki (wasting). + Son of Abishua and father of Uzzi fifth from Aaron in the line of the high priests in (1 Chronicles 6:5; 6:5,51) (Authorized Version), and in the genealogy of Ezra. (Ezra 7:4) + Son of Jogli, prince of the tribe of Dan, one of the ten men chosen to apportion the land of Canaan between the tribes. (Numbers 34:22) Bukkiah (wasting from Jehovah), a Kohathite Levite, of the sons of Heman, one of the musicians in the temple. (1 Chronicles 25:4,13) Bul (rain). [[325]Month] Bull, Bullock terms used synonymously with ox, oxen, and properly a generic name for horned cattle when a full age and fit for the plough. It is variously rendered "bullock," (Isaiah 65:25) "cow," (Ezekiel 4:15) "oxen," (Genesis 12:16) Kine is used in the Bible as the plural of cow. In (Isaiah 51:20) the "wild bull" ("wild ox" in (14:5)) was possibly one of the larger species of antelope, and took its name from its swiftness. Dr. Robinson mentions larger herds of black and almost harmless buffaloes as still existing in Palestine, and these may be the animal indicated. Bulrush (or papyrus), a red growing in the shallow water on the banks of the Nile. It grows to the height of 12 or 15 feet, with a stalk two or three inches in diameter. The stalks are very pliable and can be very closely interwoven, as is evident from their having been used in the construction of arks. (Exodus 2:3,5) Paper was made from this plant, from which it derives its name. Bunah (understanding), a son of Jerahmeel, of the family of Pharez in Judah. (1 Chronicles 2:25) (understanding), a son of Jerahmeel, of the family of Pharez in Judah. (1 Chronicles 2:25) Bunni (my understanding). + One of the Levites in the time of Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 9:4) + Another Levite, but of earlier date than the preceding. (Nehemiah 11:15) Burial, Sepulchres [TOMBS] On this subject we have to notice-- + The place of burial, its site and shape; + The mode of burial; + The prevalent notions regarding this duty. + A natural cave enlarged and adapted by excavation, or an artificial imitation of one was the standard type of sepulchre. Sepulchres, when the owner's means permitted it, were commonly prepared beforehand, and stood often in gardens, by roadsides, or even adjoining houses. Kings and prophets alone were probably buried within towns. (1 Kings 2:10; 16:6,28) Cities soon became populous and demanded cemeteries, (Ezekiel 39:15) which were placed without the walls. Sepulchres were marked sometimes by pillars or by pyramids. Such as were not otherwise noticeable were scrupulously "whited," (Matthew 23:27) once a year, after the rains before the passover, to warn passers-by of defilement. + "The manner of the Jews" included the use of spices, where they could command the means. (2 Chronicles 16:10) A portion of these was burnt in honor of the deceased, and to this use was probably destined part of the one hundred pounds weight of "myrrh and aloes" in our Lord's case. In no instance, save that of Saul and his sons, were the bodies burned; and even then the bones were interred, and re-exhumed for solemn entombment. It was the office of the next of kin to perform and preside over the whole funeral office; though public buriers were not unknown in New Testament times. (Acts 5:6,10) The body was borne by the nearest relatives. The grave-clothes were probably of the fashion worn in life, but swathed and fastened with bandages, and the head covered separately. + The precedent of Jacob's and Joseph's remains being returned to the land of Canaan was followed, in wish at least, by every pious Jew. Burnt Offering The word is applied to the offering which was wholly consumed by fire on the altar, and the whole of which, except the refuse ashes "ascended" in the smoke to God. The meaning of the whole burnt offering was that which is the original idea of all sacrifice, the offering by the sacrificer of himself, soul and body, to God--the submission of his will to the will of the Lord. The ceremonies of the burnt offering are given in detail in the book of Leviticus. [[326]Sacrifice] Bush The Hebrew word seneh occurs only in those passages which refer to Jehovah's appearance to Moses "in the flame of fire in the bush." (Exodus 3:2,3,4; 33:16) It is quite impossible to say what kind of thorn bush is intended; but it was probably the acacia a small variety of the shittim tree found in the Sinai region. Bushel [[327]Weights And Measures AND [328]Measures] Butler One of the officers of the king's household, (Nehemiah 1:11) who had charge of the wine and poured it out for the king. The chief butler, as the title signifies, was in charge of the butlers. (Genesis 40:1-13) Butter Curdled milk. (Genesis 18:8; 32:14; Judges 5:25; Job 20:17) Milk is generally offered to travellers in Palestine in a curdled or sour state, leben, thick, almost like butter. Hasselquist describes the method of making butter employed by the Arab women: "they made butter in a leather bag, hung on three poles erected for the purpose, in the form of a cone, and drawn to and fro by two women." Buz (contempt). + The second son of Milcah and Nahor. (Genesis 22:21) Elihu "the Buzite" was probably a descendant of Buz. + A name occurring in the genealogies of the tribe of Gad. (1 Chronicles 5:14) Buzi (contempt), father of Ezekiel the prophet. (Ezekiel 1:3) __________________________________________________________________ Cab [[329]Measures] Cabbon a town in the low country of Judah. (Joshua 15:40) Cabul + One of the landmarks on the boundary of Asher, (Joshua 19:27) now Kabul, 9 or 10 miles east of Accho . + Name of the land given to Hiram by Solomon. (1 Kings 9:10-13) Caesar always in the New Testament the Roman emperor, the sovereign of Judea. (John 19:12,15; Acts 17:7) Caesarea (Acts 8:40; 9:30; 10:1,24; 11:11; 12:19; 18:22; 21:8,16; 23:23,33; 25:1,4,6,13) was situated on the coast of Palestine, on the line of the great road from Tyre to Egypt, and about halfway between Joppa and Dora. The distance from Jerusalem was about 70 miles; Josephus states it in round numbers as 600 stadia. In Strabo's time there was on this point of the coast merely a town called "Strato's Tower," with a landing-place, whereas in the time of Tacitus Caesarea is spoken of as being the head of Judea. It was in this interval that the city was built by Herod the Great. It was the official residence of the Herodian kings, and of Festus, Felix and the other Roman procurators of Judea. Here also lived Philip the deacon and his four prophesying daughters. Caesarea continued to be a city of some importance even in the time of the Crusades, and the name still lingers on the site (Kaisariyeh), which is a complete desolation, many of the building-stones having been carried to other towns. Caesarea Philippi is mentioned only in the first two Gospels, (Matthew 16:13; Mark 8:27) and in accounts of the same transactions. It was at the easternmost and most important of the two recognized sources of the Jordan, the other being at Tel-el-Kadi . The spring rises from and the city was built on a limestone terrace in a valley at the base of Mount Hermon 20 miles north of the Sea of Galilee. It was enlarged by Herod Philip, and named after Caesar, with his own name added to distinguish it from Caesarea. Its present name is Banias, a village of some 50 houses, with many interesting ruins. Caesarea Philippi has no Old Testament history, though it has been not unreasonably identified with Baal-gad . It was visited by Christ shortly before his transfiguration, (Matthew 16:13-28) and was the northern limit of his journeys. (Mark 8:27) Cage The term so rendered in (Jeremiah 5:27) is more properly a trap in which decoy birds were placed. In (Revelation 18:2) the (Greek term means a prison. Caiaphas, Or Caiaphas (depression), in full [330]Joseph CAIAPHAS, high priest of the Jews under Tiberius. (Matthew 26:3,57; John 11:49; 18:13,14,24,28; Acts 4:6) The procurator Valerius Gratus appointed him to the dignity, He was son-in-law of Annas. [[331]Annas] Cain one of the cities in the low country of Judah, named with Zanoah and Gibeah. (Joshua 15:57) (possession). Gen. 4. He was the eldest son of Adam and Eve; he followed the business of agriculture. In a fit of jealousy, roused by the rejection of his own sacrifice and the acceptance of Abel's, he committed the crime of murder, for which he was expelled from Eden, and led the life of an exile. He settled in the land of Nod, and built a city, which he named after his son Enoch. His descendants are enumerated together with the inventions for which they were remarkable. (B.C. 4000.) Cainan (possessor) + Son of Enos, aged 70 years when he begat Mahalaleel his son. He lived 840 years afterwards, and died aged 910. (Genesis 6:9-14) + Son of Arphaxad, and father of Sala, according to (Luke 3:36,37) and usually called the second Cainan. The is nowhere named in the Hebrew MSS. It seems certain that his name was introduced into the genealogies of the Greek Old Testament in order to bring them into harmony with the genealogy of Christ in St. Luke's Gospel. Calah (completion, old age), one of the most ancient cities of Assyria. (Genesis 10:11) The site of Calah is probably market by the Nimrud ruins. If this be regarded as ascertained, Calah must be considered to have been at one time (about B.C. 930-720) the capital of the empire. Calamus [[332]Reed] Calcol (sustenance), a man of Judah, son or descendant of Zerah. (1 Chronicles 2:6) Probably identical with [333]Chalcol. Caldron a vessel for boiling flesh, for either ceremonial or domestic use. (1 Samuel 2:14; 2 Chronicles 35:13; Job 41:20; Micah 3:3) Caleb (capable). + According to (1 Chronicles 2:9,18,19,42,50) the son of Hezron the son of Pharez the son of Judah, and the father of Hur, and consequently grandfather of Caleb the spy. (B.C. about 1600.) + Son of Jephunneh, one of the twelve spies sent by Moses to Canaan. (Numbers 13:6) (B.C. 1490.) He and Oshea or Joshua the son of Nun were the only two of the whole number who encouraged the people to enter in boldly to the land and take possession of it. Fortyfive years afterwards Caleb came to Joshua and claimed possession of the land of the Anakim, Kirjath-arba or Hebron, and the neighboring hill country. Josh 14. This was immediately granted to him, and the following chapter relates how he took possession of Hebron, driving out the three sons of Anak; and how he offered Achsah his daughter in marriage to whoever would take Kirjath-sepher, i.e. Debir; and how when Othniel, his younger brother, had performed the feat, he not only gave him his daughter to wife, but with her the upper and nether springs of water which she asked for. It is probable that Caleb was a foreigner by birth,--a proselyte, incorporated into the tribe of Judah. Calf The calf was held in high esteem by the Jews as food. (1 Samuel 28:24; Luke 15:23) The molten calf prepared by Aaron for the people to worship, (Exodus 32:4) was probably a wooden figure laminated with gold, a process which is known to have existed in Egypt. [[334]Aaron] Calvary [See [335]Golgatha] Camel The species of camel which was in common use among the Jews and the heathen nations of Palestine was the Arabian or one-humped camel, Camelus arabicus . The dromedary is a swifter animal than the baggage-camel, and is used chiefly for riding purposes; it is merely a finer breed than the other. The Arabs call it the heirie . The speed, of the dromedary has been greatly exaggerated, the Arabs asserting that it is swifter than the horse. Eight or nine miles an hour is the utmost it is able to perform; this pace, however, it is able to keep up for hours together. The Arabian camel carries about 500 pounds. "The hump on the camel's back is chiefly a store of fat, from which the animal draws as the wants of his system require; and the Arab is careful to see that the hump is in good condition before a long journey. Another interesting adaptation is the thick sole which protects the foot of the camel from the burning sand. The nostrils may be closed by valves against blasts of sand. Most interesting is the provision for drought made by providing the second stomach with great cells in which water is long retained. Sight and smell is exceedingly acute in the camel."--Johnson's Encyc. It is clear from (Genesis 12:16) that camels were early known to the Egyptians. The importance of the camel is shown by (Genesis 24:64; 37:25; Judges 7:12; 1 Samuel 27:9; 1 Kings 19:2; 2 Chronicles 14:15; Job 1:3; Jeremiah 49:29,32) and many other texts. John the Baptist wore a garment made of camel hair, (Matthew 3:4; Mark 1:6) the coarser hairs of the camel; and some have supposed that Elijah was clad in a dress of the same stuff. Camon (full of grain), the place in which Jair the judge was buried. (Judges 10:5) Camp [[336]Encampment] Camphire There can be no doubt that "camphire" is the Lawsonia alba of botanists, the henna of Arabian naturalists. The henna plant grows in Egypt, Syria, Arabia and northern India. The flowers are white and grow in clusters, and are very fragrant. The whole shrub is from four to six feet high, (Song of Solomon 4:13) Cana (place of reeds) of Galilee, once Cana in Galilee, a village or town not far from Capernaum, memorable as the scene of Christ's first miracle, (John 2:1,11; 4:46) as well as of a subsequent one, (John 4:46,54) and also as the native place of the apostle Nathanael. (John 21:2) The traditional site is at Kefr-Kenna, a small village about 4 1/2 miles northwest of Nazareth. The rival site is a village situated farther north, about five miles north of Seffurieh (Sepphoris) and nine north of Nazareth. Canaan (Ca'nan) (low, flat). + The fourth son of Ham, (Genesis 10:6; 1 Chronicles 1:8) the progenitor of the Phoenicians [[337]Zidon, Or Sidon], and of the various nations who before the Israelite conquest people the seacoast of Palestine, and generally the while of the country westward of the Jordan. (Genesis 10:13; 1 Chronicles 1:13) (B.C. 2347.) + The name "Canaan" is sometimes employed for the country itself. Canaan, The Land Of (lit. lowland), a name denoting the country west of the Jordan and the Dead Sea, and between those waters and the Mediterranean; given by God to Abraham's posterity, the children of Israel. (Exodus 6:4; Leviticus 25:38) [[338]Palestina And Palestine] Canaanite, The the designation of the apostle Simon, otherwise known as "Simon Zelotes." It occurs in (Matthew 10:4; Mark 3:18) and is derived from a Chaldee or Syriac word by which the Jewish sect or faction of the "Zealots" was designated--a turbulent and seditious sect, especially conspicuous at the siege of Jerusalem. They taught that all foreign rule over Jews was unscriptural, and opposed that rule in every way. Canaanites, The a word used in two senses: + A tribe which inhabited a particular locality of the land west of the Jordan before the conquest; and + The people who inhabited generally the whole of that country. + In (Genesis 10:18-20) the seats of the Canaanite tribe are given as on the seashore and in the Jordan valley; comp. (Joshua 11:3) + Applied as a general name to the non-Israelite inhabitants of the land, as we have already seen was the case with "Canaan." Instances of this are, (Genesis 12:6; Numbers 21:3) The Canaanites were descendants of Canaan. Their language was very similar to the Hebrew. The Canaanites were probably given to commerce; and thus the name became probably in later times an occasional synonym for a merchant. Cananaean (Matthew 10:4) Used in the Revised Version in place of "Canaanite." [See [339]Canaanite, The] Candace, Or Candace (prince of servants), a queen of Ethiopia (Meroe), mentioned (Acts 8:27) (A.D. 38.) The name was not a proper name of an individual, but that of a dynasty of Ethiopian queens. Candlestick in (Matthew 5:15; Mark 4:21) is merely a lamp-stand, made in various forms, to hold up the simple Oriental hand-lamps. which Moses was commanded to make for the tabernacle, is described (Exodus 25:31-37; 37:17-24) It was not strictly a "candlestick," as it held seven richly-adorned lamps. With its various appurtenances it required a talent of "pure gold;" and it was not moulded, but "of beaten work," and has been estimated to have been worth in our money over,000. From the Arch of Titus, where the sculptured the spoils taken from Jerusalem, we learn that it consisted of a central stem, with six branches, three on each side. It was about five feet high. [See [340]Arch Of Titus OF TITUS] The candlestick was placed on the south side of the first apartment of the tabernacle, opposite the table of shewbread, (Exodus 25:37) and was lighted every evening and dressed every morning. (Exodus 27:20,21; 30:8) comp. 1Sam 3:2 Each lamp was supplied with cotton and about two wineglasses of the purest olive oil, which was sufficient to keep it burning during a long night. In Solomon's temple, instead of or in addition to this candlestick there were ten golden candlesticks similarly embossed, five in the right and five on the left. (1 Kings 7:49; 2 Chronicles 4:7) They were taken to Babylon. (Jeremiah 52:19) In the temple of Zerubbabel there was again a single candlestick. 1Macc 1:21: 4:49. Cane [[341]Reed] Cankerworm [[342]Locust] Canneh (Ezekiel 27:23) [SEE CALNEH] Canon Of Scripture, The may be generally described as the "collection of books which form the original and authoritative written rule of the faith and practice of the Christian Church," i.e. the Old and New Testaments. The word canon, in classical Greek, is properly a straight rod, "a rule" in the widest sense, and especially in the phrases "the rule of the Church," "the rule of faith," "the rule of truth," The first direct application of the term canon to the Scriptures seems to be in the verses of Amphilochius (cir. 380 A.D.), where the word indicates the rule by which the contents of the Bible must be determined, and thus secondarily an index of the constituent books. The uncanonical books were described simply as "those without" or "those uncanonized." The canonical books were also called "books of the testament," and Jerome styled the whole collection by the striking name of "the holy library," which happily expresses the unity and variety of the Bible. After the Maccabean persecution the history of the formation of the Canon is merged in the history of its contents. The Old Testament appears from that time as a whole. The complete Canon of the New Testament, as commonly received at present, was ratified at the third Council of Carthage (A.D. 397), and from that time was accepted throughout the Latin Church. Respecting the books of which the Canon is composed, see the article [343]Bible. (The books of Scripture were not made canonical by act of any council, but the council gave its sanction to the results of long and careful investigations as to what books were really of divine authority and expressed the universally-accepted decisions of the church. The Old Testament Canon is ratified by the fact that the present Old Testament books were those accepted in the time of Christ and endorsed by him, and that of 275 quotations of the Old Testament in the New, no book out of the Canon is quoted from except perhaps the word of Enoch in Jude.--ED.) Canopy Judith 10:21; 13:9; 16:19. The canopy of Holofernes is the only one mentioned. Canticles (Song of Songs), entitled in the Authorized Version THE SONG OF [344]Solomon. It was probably written by Solomon about B.C. 1012. It may be called a drama, as it contains the dramatic evolution of a simple love-story. Meaning.-- The schools of interpretation may be divided into three: the mystical or typical, the allegorical, and the literal . + The mystical interpretation owes its origin to the desire to find a literal basis of fact for the allegorical. This basis is either the marriage of Solomon with Pharoah's daughter or his marriage with an Israelitish woman, the Shulamite. + The allegorical. According to the Talmud the beloved is taken to be God; the loved one, or bride, is the congregation of Israel . In the Christian Church the Talmudical interpretation, imported by Origen, was all but universally received. + The literal interpretation. According to the most generally-received interpretation of the modern literalists, the Song is intended to display the victory of humble and constant love over the temptations of wealth and royalty. Canonicity.-- The book has been rejected from the Canon by some critics; but in no case has its rejection been defended on external grounds. It is found in the LXX. and in the translations of Aquila, Symmachus and Theodotion. It is contained in the catalog given in the Talmud,a nd in the catalogue of Melito; and in short we have the same evidence for its canonicity as that which is commonly adduced for the canonicity of any book of the Old Testament. Capernaum (village of Nahum) was on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee. (Matthew 4:13) comp. John 6:24 It was in the "land of Gennesaret," [ (Matthew 14:34) comp. John 6:17,21,24 ] It was of sufficient size to be always called a "city," (Matthew 9:1; Mark 1:33) had its own synagogue, in which our Lord frequently taught, (Mark 1:21; Luke 4:33,38; John 6:59) and there was also a customs station, where the dues were gathered both by stationary and by itinerant officers. (Matthew 9:9; 17:24; Mark 2:14; Luke 5:27) The only interest attaching to Capernaum is as the residence of our Lord and his apostles, the scene of so many miracles and "gracious words." It was when he returned thither that he is said to have been "in the house." (Mark 2:1) The spots which lay claim to its site are, + Kahn Minyeh, a mound of ruins which takes its name from an old khan hard by. This mound is situated close upon the seashore at the northwestern extremity of the plain (now El Ghuweir). + Three miles north of Khan Minyeh is the other claimant, Tell Hum,--ruins of walls and foundations covering a space of half a mile long by a quarter wide, on a point of the shore projecting into the lake and backed by a very gently-rising ground. It is impossible to locate it with certainty, but the probability is in favor of Tell Hum . Caphar one of the numerous words employed in the Bible to denote a village or collection of dwellings smaller than a city (Ir). Mr Stanley proposes to render it by "hamlet." In names of places it occurs in Chephar-he-Ammonai, Chephirah, Caphar-salama. To us its chief interest arises from its forming a part of the name of Capernaum, i.e. Capharnahum. Caphtor, Caphtorim (a crown), thrice mentioned as the primitive seat of the Philistines, (2:23; Jeremiah 47:4; Amos 9:7) who are once called Caphtorim . (2:23) Supposed to be in Egypt, or near to it in Africa. Cappadocia, Cappadocians (province of good horses), (Acts 2:3; 1 Peter 1:1) the largest province in ancient Asia Minor. Cappadocia is an elevated table-land intersected by mountain chains. It seems always to have been deficient in wood, but it was a good grain country, and particularly famous for grazing. Its Roman metropolis was Caesarea. The native Cappadocians seem to have originally belonged to the Syrian stock. Captain + As a purely military title, "captain" answers to sar in the Hebrew army and tribune in the Roman. The captain of the guard in (Acts 28:16) was probably the prefectus pratorio . + Katsin, occasionally rendered captain, applies Sometimes to a military, (Joshua 10:24; Judges 11:6,11; Isaiah 22:3; Daniel 11:18) sometimes to a civil command, e.g. (Isaiah 1:10; 3:6) + The captain of the temple, mentioned (Luke 22:4; Acts 4:1; 5:24) superintended the guard of priests and Levites who kept watch by night in the temple. Captive A prisoner of war. Such were usually treated with great cruelty by the heathen nations. They were kept for slaves, and often sold; but this was a modification of the ancient cruelty, and a substitute for putting them to death Although the treatment of captives by the Jews seems sometimes to be cruel, it was very much milder than that of the heathen, and was mitigated, as far as possible in the circumstances, by their civil code. Captivities Of The Jews The present article is confined to the forcible deportation of the Jew; from their native land, and their forcible detention, under the Assyrian or Babylonian kings. Captives of Israel.--The kingdom of Israel was invaded by three or four successive kings of Assyria. Pul or Surdanapalus, according to Rawlinson, imposed a tribute (B.C. 771 or 712), Rawl.) upon Menahem. (2 Kings 15:19) and 1Chr 5:26 Tiglath-pileser carried away (B.C. 740) the trans-Jordanic tribes, (1 Chronicles 5:26) and the inhabitants of Galilee, (2 Kings 15:29) comp. Isai 9:1 To Assyria. Shalmaneser twice invaded, (2 Kings 17:3,5) the kingdom which remained to Hoshea, took Samaria (B.C. 721) after a siege of three years, and carried Israel away into Assyria. This was the end of the kingdom of the ten tribes of Israel. Captivities of Judah .--Sennacherib (B.C. 713) is stated to have carried into Assyria 200,000 captives from the Jewish cities which he took. (2 Kings 18:13) Nebuchadnezzar, in the first half of his reign (B.C. 606-562), repeatedly invaded Judea, besieged Jerusalem, carried away the inhabitants to Babylon, and destroyed the temple. The 70 years of captivity predicted by Jeremiah, (Jeremiah 25:12) are dated by Prideaux from B.C. 606. The captivity of Ezekiel dates from B.C. 598, when that prophet, like Mordecai the uncle of Esther (Esther 2:6) accompanied Jehoiachin. The captives were treated not as slaves but as colonists. The Babylonian captivity was brought to a close by the decree, (Ezra 1:2) of Cyrus (B.C. 536), and the return of a portion of the nation under Sheshbazzar or Zerubbabel (B.C. 535), Ezra (B.C. 458) and Nehemiah (B.C. 445). Those who were left in Assyria, (Esther 8:9,11) and kept up their national distinctions, were known as The Dispersion. (John 7:35; 1:1; James 1:1) The lost tribes.--Many attempts have been made to discover the ten tribes existing as a distinct community; but though history bears no witness of the present distinct existence, it enables us to track the footsteps of the departing race in four directions after the time of the Captivity. + Some returned and mixed with the Jews. (Luke 2:36; Philemon 3:5) etc. + Some were left in Samaria, mingled with the Samaritans, (Ezra 6:21; John 4:12) and became bitter enemies of the Jews. + Many remained in Assyria, and were recognized as an integral part of the Dispersion; see (Acts 2:1; 26:7) + Most, probably, apostatized in Assyria, adopted the usages and idolatry of the nations among whom they were planted, and became wholly swallowed up in them. Carbuncle This word represents two Hebrew words. The first may he a general term to denote any bright,sparkling gem, (Isaiah 54:12) the second, (Exodus 28:17; 39:10; Ezekiel 28:13) is supposed to be and smaragdus or emerald. Carcas (severe), the seventh of the seven "chamberlains," i.e. eunuchs, of King Ahasuerus. (Esther 1:10) (B.C. 483.). Carchemish (fortress of Chemosh) occupied nearly the site of the later Mabug or Hierapolis. It seems to have commanded the ordinary passage of the Euphrates at Bir or Birekjik . Carchemish appears to have been taken by Pharoah Necho shortly after the battle of Megiddo (cir. B.C. 608), and retaken by Nebuchadnezzar after a battle three years later, B.C. 605. (Jeremiah 46:2) Careah (bald head), father of Johanan, (2 Kings 25:23) elsewhere spelt [345]Kareah. Caria the southern part of the region which int he New Testament is called [346]Asia, and the southwestern part of the peninsula of Asia Minor. (Acts 20:15; 27:7) Carmel (fruitful place or park). + A mountain which forms one of the most striking and characteristic features of the country of Palestine. It is a noble ridge, the only headland of lower and central Palestine, and forms its southern boundary, running out with a bold bluff promontory, nearly 600 feet high, almost into the very waves of the Mediterranean, then extending southeast for a little more than twelve miles, when it terminates suddenly in a bluff somewhat corresponding to its western end. In form Carmel is a tolerably continuous ridge, its highest point,a bout four miles from the eastern end, being 1740 feet above the sea. That which has made the name of Carmel most familiar to the modern world is its intimate connection with the history of the two great prophets of Israel, Elijah and Elisha. (2 Kings 2:25; 4:25; 1 Kings 18:20-42) It is now commonly called Mar Elyas; Kurmel being occasionally, but only seldom, hear. + A town in the mountainous country of Judah, (Joshua 15:55) familiar to us as the residence of Nabal. (1 Samuel 25:2,5,7,40) Carmi (vine dresser). + The fourth son of Reuben, the progenitor of the family of the Carmites. (Genesis 46:9; Exodus 6:14; Numbers 26:6; 1 Chronicles 5:3) + A man of the tribe of Judah, father of Achan, the "troubler of Israel." (Joshua 7:1,18; 1 Chronicles 2:7; 4:1) Carpenter [[347]Handicraft] Carpus a Christian at Troas. (2 Timothy 4:13) Carriage This word signifies what we now call "baggage." In the margin of (1 Samuel 17:20) and 1Sam 26:5-7 And there only, "carriage" is employed int he sense of a wagon or cart. Carshena (illustrious), one of the seven princes of Persia and Media. (Esther 1:14) Cart (Genesis 45:19,27; Numbers 7:3,7,8) a vehicle drawn by cattle, (2 Samuel 6:6) to be distinguished from the chariot drawn by horses. Carts and wagons were either open or covered, (Numbers 7:3) and were used for conveyance of person, (Genesis 45:19) burdens, (1 Samuel 6:7,8) or produce. (Amos 2:13) The only cart used in western Asia has two wheels of solid wood. Carving The arts of carving and engraving were much in request in the construction of both the tabernacle and the temple. (Exodus 31:5; 35:33; 1 Kings 6:18,35; Psalms 74:6) as well as in the ornamentation of the priestly dresses. (Exodus 28:9-36; 2 Chronicles 2:7,14; Zechariah 3:9) Casiphia (silvery, white), a place of uncertain site on the road between Babylon and Jerusalem. (Ezra 8:17) Casluhim (fortified), a Mizraite people or tribe. (Genesis 10:14; 1 Chronicles 1:12) Cassia (Exodus 30:24; Ezekiel 27:19) The cassia bark of commerce is yielded by various kinds of Cinnamomum, which grow in different parts of India. The Hebrew word in (Psalms 45:8) is generally supposed to be another term for cassia. Castle [[348]Fenced Cities CITIES] Castor And Pollux (Acts 28:11) the twin sons of Jupiter and Leda, were regarded as the tutelary divinities of sailors; hence their image was often used as a figure-head for ships. They appeared in heaven as the constellation Gemini . In art they were sometimes represented simply as stars hovering over a ship. Caterpillar The representative in the Authorized Version of the Hebrew word chasil and yelek . + Chasil occurs in (1 Kings 8:37; 2 Chronicles 6:28; Psalms 78:46; Isaiah 33:4; Joel 1:4) and seems to be applied to a locust, perhaps in its larva state. + Yelek. [[349]Locust]. Cattle [[350]Bull, Bullock]. Cauda (Acts 27:16) The form given in the Revised Version to Clauda, an island south of Crete. It bears a closer relation to the modern name Gaudonesi of the Greek, the Gauda of P. Mela. (Clauda .--ED.) Caul a sort of ornamental head-dress, (Isaiah 3:18) with a net for its base. The name is derived from the caul, the membranous bag which encloses the heart--the pericardium.--ED. Cave The most remarkable caves noticed in Scripture are, that in which Lot dwelt after the destruction of Sodom, (Genesis 19:30) the cave of Machpelah, (Genesis 23:17) cave of Makkedah, (Joshua 10:10) cave of Adullam, (1 Samuel 22:1) cave od Engedi, (1 Samuel 24:3) Obadiah's cave, (1 Kings 18:4) Elijah's cave in Horeb, (1 Kings 19:9) the rock sepulchres of Lazarus and of our Lord. (Matthew 27:60; John 11:38) Caves were used for temporary dwelling-places and for tombs. Cedar The Hebrew word erez, invariably rendered "cedar" by the Authorized Version, stands for that tree in most of the passages where the word occurs. While the word is sometimes used in a wider sense, (Leviticus 14:6) for evergreen cone-bearing trees, generally the cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus libani) is intended. (1 Kings 7:2; 10:27; Psalms 92:12; Song of Solomon 5:15; Isaiah 2:13; Ezekiel 31:3-6) The wood is of a reddish color, of bitter taste and aromatic odor, offensive to insects, and very durable. The cedar is a type of the Christian, being evergreen, beautiful, aromatic, wide spreading, slow growing, long lived, and having many uses. As far as is at present known, the cedar of Lebanon is confined in Syria to one valley of the Lebanon range, viz., that of the Kedisha river, which flows from near the highest point of the range westward to the Mediterranean, and enters the sea at the port of Tripoli. The grove is at the very upper part of the valley, about 15 miles from the sea, 6500 feet above that level, and its position is moreover above that of all other arboreous vegetation. ("Of the celebrated cedars on Mount Lebanon, eleven groves still remain. The famous B'Sherreh grove is three-quarters of a mile in circumference, and contains about 400 trees, young and old. Perhaps a dozen of these are very old; the largest, 63 feet in girth and 70 feet high, is thought by some to have attained the age of 2000 years."--Johnson's Encycl.) Cedron (John 18:1) [SEE [351]Kidron, Or Kedron] Ceiling The descriptions of Scripture, (1 Kings 6:9,15; 7:3; 2 Chronicles 3:5,9; Jeremiah 22:14; Haggai 1:4) and of Josephus, show that the ceilings of the temple and the palaces of the Jewish kings were formed of cedar planks applied to the beams or joists crossing from wall to wall. "Oriental houses seem to have been the reverse of ours, the ceiling being of wood, richly ornamented, and the floor of plaster or tiles." Celosyria [[352]Coelesyria] Cenchrea, Or Cenchrea (accurately Cenchre'ae) (millet), the eastern harbor of Corinth (i.e. its harbor on the Saronic Gulf) and the emporium of its trade with the Asiatic shores of the Mediterranean, as Lechaeum on the Crointhian Gulf connected it with Italy and the west. St. Paul sailed from Cenchrae, (Acts 18:18) on his return to Syria from his second missionary journey. An organized church seems to have been formed here. (Romans 16:1) Censer A small portable vessel of metal fitted to receive burning coals from the altar, and on which the incense for burning was sprinkled. (2 Chronicles 26:19; Luke 1:9) The only distinct precepts regarding the use of the censer are found in (Leviticus 16:12) and in (Numbers 4:14) Solomon prepared "censers of pure gold" as part of the temple furniture. (1 Kings 7:50; 2 Chronicles 4:22) The word rendered "censer" in (Hebrews 9:4) probably means the "altar of incense." Census [[353]Taxing] Centurion [[354]Army] Cephas [[355]Peter] Chaff the husk of corn or wheat which was separated from the grain by being thrown into the air, the wind blowing away the chaff, while the grain was saved. The carrying away of chaff by the wind is an ordinary scriptural image of the destruction of the wicked and of their powerlessness to resist God's judgments. (Psalms 1:4; Isaiah 17:13; Hosea 13:3; Zephaniah 2:2) Chain Chains were used, + As badges of office; + For ornament; + For confining prisoners. + the gold chain placed about Joseph's neck, (Genesis 41:42) and that promised to Daniel, (Daniel 5:7) are instances of the first use. In (Ezekiel 16:11) the chain is mentioned as the symbol of sovereignty. + Chains for ornamental purposes were worn by men as well as women. (Proverbs 1:9) Judith 10:4. The Midianites adorned the necks of their camels with chains. (Judges 8:21,26) Step-chains were attached to the ankle-rings. (Isaiah 3:16,18) + The means adopted for confining prisoners among the Jews were fetters similar to our handcuffs. (Judges 16:21; 2 Samuel 3:34; 2 Kings 25:7; Jeremiah 39:7) Among the Romans the prisoner was handcuffed to his guard, and occasionally to two guards. (Acts 12:6,7; 21:33) Chalcedony only in (Revelation 21:19) The name is applied in modern mineralogy to one of the varieties of agate. It is generally translucent and exhibits a great variety of colors. So named because it was found near the ancient Chalcedon, near Constantinople. Chalcol (1 Kings 4:31) [[356]Calcol] Chaldea more correctly Chaldae'a, the ancient name of a country of Asia bordering on the Persian Gulf. Chaldea proper was the southern part of Babylonia, and is used in Scripture to signify that vast alluvial plain which has been formed by the deposits of the Euphrates and the Tigris. This extraordinary flat, unbroken except by the works of man, extends a distance of 400 miles along the course of the rivers, and is on an average about 100 miles in width. In addition to natural advantages these plains were nourished by a complicated system of canals, and vegetation flourished bountifully. It is said to be the only country in the world where wheat grows wild. Herodotus declared (i. 193) that grain commonly returned two hundred fold to the sower, and occasionally three hundred fold. Cities.--Babylonia has long been celebrated for the number and antiquity of its cities. The most important of those which have been identified are Borsippa (Birs-Nimrun), Sippara or Sepharvaim (Mosaib), Cutha (Ibrahim), Calneh (Niffer), Erech (Warka), Ur (Mugheir), Chilmad (Kalwadha), Larancha (Senkereh), Is (Hit), Durabe (Akkerkuf); but besides these there were a multitude of others, the sites of which have not been determined. Present condition--This land, once so rich in corn and wine, is to-day but a mass of mounds, "an arid waste; the dense population of former times is vanished, and no man dwells there." The Hebrew prophets applied the term "land of the Chaldeans" to all Babylonia and "Chaldeans" to all the subjects of the Babylonian empire. Chaldeans, Or Chaldees It appears that the Chaldeans (Kaldai or Kaldi) were in the earliest times merely one out of many Cushite tribes inhabiting the great alluvial plain known afterwards as Chaldea or Babylonia. Their special seat was probably that southern portion of the country which is found to have so late retained the name of Chaldea. In process of time, as the Kaldi grew in power, their name gradually prevailed over those of the other tribes inhabiting the country; and by the era of the Jewish captivity it had begun to be used generally for all the inhabitants of Babylonia. It appears that while, both in Assyria and in later Babylonia, the Shemitic type of speech prevailed for civil purposes, the ancient Cushite dialect was retained, as a learned language for scientific and religious literature. This is no doubt the "learning" and the "tongue" to which reference it made in the book of Daniel, (Daniel 1:4) The Chaldeans were really the learned class; they were priests, magicians or astronomers, and in the last of the three capacities they probably effected discoveries of great importance. In later times they seem to have degenerated into mere fortune-tellers. Chaldees, Or Chaldees [[357]Chaldeans, Or Chaldees] Chalk Stones [[358]Lime] Chamber (Genesis 43:30; 2 Samuel 18:33; Psalms 19:5; Daniel 6:10) The word chamber in these passages has much the same significance as with us, meaning the private rooms of the house--the guest chamber, as with us, meaning a room set apart for the accommodation of the visiting friend. (Mark 14:14,15; Luke 22:12) The upper chamber was used more particularly for the lodgment of strangers. (Acts 9:37) Chamberlain an officer attached to the court of a king, who formerly had charge of the private apartments or chambers of the palace. He kept the accounts of the public revenues. The office held by Blastus, "the king's chamberlain," was entirely different from this. (Acts 12:20) It was a post of honor which involved great intimacy and influence with the king. For chamberlain as used in the Old Testament, see [[359]Eunuch] Chameleon a species of lizard. The reference in (Leviticus 11:30) is to some kind of an unclean animal, supposed to be the lizard, known by the name of the "monitor of the Nile," a large, strong reptile common in Egypt and other parts of Africa. Chamois (pronounced often shame), the translation of the Hebrew zemer in (14:5) But the translation is incorrect; for there is no evidence that the chamois have ever been seen in Palestine or the Lebanon. It is probable that some mountain sheep is intended. Chanaan [[360]Canaan, [361]Canaan, The Land Of] Chapiter the capital of a pillar; i.e. the upper part, as the term is used in modern architecture. Chapman (i.e. cheap man), merchant. Charashim, The Valley Of (ravine of craftsmen), a place near Lydda, a few miles east of Joppa. (1 Chronicles 4:14) Charchemish (2 Chronicles 35:20) [[362]Carchemish] Charger a shallow vessel for receiving water or blood, also for presenting offerings of fine flour with oil. (Numbers 7:79) The daughter of Herodias brought the head of St. John the Baptist in a charger, (Matthew 14:8) probably a trencher or platter. [[363]Basin] Chariot a vehicle used either for warlike or peaceful purposes, but most commonly the former. The Jewish chariots were patterned after the Egyptian, and consisted of a single pair of wheels on an axle, upon which was a car with high front and sides, but open at the back. The earliest mention of chariots in Scripture is in Egypt, where Joseph, as a mark of distinction, was placed in Pharaoh's second chariot. (Genesis 41:43) Later on we find mention of Egyptian chariots for a warlike purpose. (Exodus 14:7) In this point of view chariots among some nations of antiquity, as elephants among others, may be regarded as filling the place of heavy artillery in modern times, so that the military power of a nation might be estimated by the number of its chariots. Thus Pharaoh in pursuing Israel took with him 600 chariots. The Philistines in Saul's time had 30,000. (1 Samuel 13:5) David took from Hadadezer, king of Zobah, 1000 chariots, (2 Samuel 8:4) and from the Syrians a little later 700, (2 Samuel 10:18) who in order to recover their ground, collected 32,000 chariots. (1 Chronicles 19:7) Up to this time the Israelites possessed few or no chariots. They were first introduced by David, (2 Samuel 8:4) who raised and maintained a force of 1400 chariots, (1 Kings 10:25) by taxation on certain cities agreeably to eastern custom in such matters. (1 Kings 9:19; 10:25) From this time chariots were regarded as among the most important arms of war. (1 Kings 22:34; 2 Kings 9:16,21; 13:7,14; 18:24; 23:30; Isaiah 31:1) Most commonly two persons, and sometimes three, rode in the chariot, of whom the third was employed to carry the state umbrella. (1 Kings 22:34; 2 Kings 9:20,24; Acts 8:38) The prophets allude frequently to chariots as typical of power. (Psalms 20:7; 104:3; Jeremiah 51:21; Zechariah 6:1) Charran (Acts 7:2,4) [[364]Haran] Chase [[365]Hunting] Cheani (a contraction of Chenaniah), one of the Levites who assisted at the solemn purification of the people under Ezra. (Nehemiah 9:4) Chebar (length), a river in the "land of the Chaldeans." (Ezekiel 1:3; 3:15,23) etc. It is commonly regarded as identical with the Habor, (2 Kings 17:6) and perhaps the Royal Canal of Nebuchadnezzar,--the greatest of all the cuttings in Mesopotamia. Chebel (cord), one of the singular topographical terms in which the ancient Hebrew language abounded. We find it always attached to the region of Argob. (3:4,13,14; 1 Kings 4:13) Chedorlaomer, Or Chedorlaomer (handful of sheaves), a king of Elam, in the time of Abraham, who with three other chiefs made war upon the kings of Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboim and Zoar, and reduced them to servitude. (Genesis 14:17) Cheese is mentioned only three times in the Bible, and on each occasion under a different name in the Hebrew. (1 Samuel 17:18; 2 Samuel 17:29; Job 10:10) It is difficult to decide how far these terms correspond with our notion of cheese, for they simply express various degrees of coagulation. Cheese is not at the present day common among the Bedouin Arabs, butter being decidedly preferred; but there is a substance closely corresponding to those mentioned in 1Sam 17, 2Sam 17, consisting of coagulated buttermilk, which is dried until it become quite hard, and is then ground; the Arabs eat it mixed with butter. Chelal (perfection), (Ezra 10:30) one who had a strange wife. Chelluh (completed), (Ezra 10:35) another like the above. Chelub + A man among the descendants of Judah. + Ezri the son of Chelub, one of David's officers. (1 Chronicles 27:26) Chelubai (capable), the son of Hezron. Same as Caleb. (1 Chronicles 2:9,18,42) Chemarim, The (those who go about in black, i.e. ascetics). In the Hebrew applied to the priests of the worship of false gods. (2 Kings 23:5; Hosea 10:5) in margin; (Zephaniah 1:4) Chemosh (subduer), the national deity of the Moabites. (Numbers 21:29; Jeremiah 48:7,13,46) In (Judges 11:24) he also appears as the god of the Ammonites. Solomon introduced, and Josiah abolished, the worship of Chemosh at Jerusalem. (1 Kings 11:7; 2 Kings 23:13) Also identified with Baal-peor, Baalzebub, Mars and Saturn. Chenaanah (merchant). + Son of Bilhan, son of Jediael, son of Benjamin, head of a Benjamite house, (1 Chronicles 7:10) probably of the family of the Belaites. [[366]Bela] + Father or ancestor of Zedekiah the false prophet. (1 Kings 22:11,24; 2 Chronicles 18:10,23) Chenaniah (established by the Lord), chief of the Levites when David carried the ark to Jerusalem. (1 Chronicles 15:22; 26:29) Chepharhaammonai (hamlet of the Ammonites), a place mentioned among the town of Benjamin. (Joshua 18:24) Chephirah (the hamlet), one of the four cities of the Gibeonites, (Joshua 9:17) named afterwards among the towns of Benjamin. (Ezra 2:25; Nehemiah 7:29) Cheran (lyre), one of the sons of Dishon the Horite "duke." (Genesis 36:26; 1 Chronicles 1:41) Cherethim (axe-men), (Ezekiel 25:16) same as [367]Cherethites. Cherethites (executioners) and of King David. (2 Samuel 8:18; 15:18; 20:7,23; 1 Kings 1:38,44; 1 Chronicles 18:17) It is plain that these royal guards were employed as executioners., (2 Kings 11:4) and as couriers, (1 Kings 14:27) But it has been conjectured that they may have been foreign mercenaries, and therefore probably Philistines, of which name Pelethites may be only another form. Cherith, The Brook (cutting, ravine), the torrent-bed or wady in which Elijah hid himself during the early part of the three-years drought. (1 Kings 17:3,5) The position of the Cherith has been much disputed. The argument from probability is in favor of the Cherith being on the east of Jordan, and the name may possibly be discovered there. Cherub apparently a place in Babylonia from which some persons of doubtful extraction returned to Judea with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:59; Nehemiah 7:61) Cherub, Cherubim The symbolical figure so called was a composite creature-form which finds a parallel in the religious insignia of Assyria, Egypt and Persia, e.g. the sphinx, the winged bulls and lions of Nineveh, etc. A cherub guarded paradise. (Genesis 3:24) Figures of Cherubim were placed on the mercy-seat of the ark. (Exodus 25:18) A pair of colossal size overshadowed it in Solomon's temple with the canopy of their contiguously extended wings. (1 Kings 6:27) Those on the ark were to be placed with wings stretched forth, one at each end of the mercy-seat." Their wings were to be stretched upwards, and their faces "towards each other and towards the mercy-seat." It is remarkable that with such precise directions as to their position, attitude and material, nothing, save that they were winged, is said concerning their shape. On the whole it seems likely that the word "cherub" meant not only the composite creature-form, of which the man, lion, ox and eagle were the elements, but, further, some peculiar and mystical form. (Some suppose that the cherubim represented God's providence among men, the four faces expressing the characters of that providence: its wisdom and intelligence (man), its strength (ox), its kingly authority (lion), its swiftness, far-sighted (eagle). Others, combining all the other references with the description of the living creatures in Revelation, make the cherubim to represent God's redeemed people. The qualities of the four faces are those which belong to God's people. Their facing four ways, towards all quarters of the globe, represents their duty of extending the truth. The wings show swiftness of obedience; and only the redeemed can sing the song put in their mouths in (Revelation 5:8-14)--ED). Chesalon (hopes), a place named as one of the landmarks on the west part of the north boundary of Judah, (Joshua 15:10) probably Kesla, about six miles to the northeast of Ainshems, on the western mountains of Judah. Chesed (increase), fourth son of Nahor. (Genesis 22:22) Chesil (idolatrous), a town in the extreme south of Palestine, (Joshua 15:30) 15 Miles southwest of Beersheba. In (Joshua 19:4) the name is [368]Bethul. Chest By this word are translated in the Authorized Version two distinct Hebrew terms: + Aron ; this is invariably used for the ark of the covenant, and, with two exceptions, for that only. The two exceptions alluded to are (a) the "coffin" in which the bones of Joseph were carried from Egypt, (Genesis 50:26) and (b) the "chest" in which Jehoiada the priest collected the alms for the repairs of the temple. (2 Kings 12:9,10; 2 Chronicles 24:8-11) + Genazim, "chests." (Ezekiel 27:24) only. Chestnut Tree (Heb. 'armon .) (Genesis 30:37; Ezekiel 31:8) Probably the "palm tree" (Platanus orientalis) is intended. This tree thrives best in low and rather moist situations in the north of Palestine, and resembles our sycamore or buttonwood (Platanus occidentalis). Chesulloth (the loins), one of the towns of Issachar. (Joshua 19:18) From its position int he lists it appears to be between Jezreel and Shunem (Salam). Chezib (lying), a name which occurs but once, (Genesis 38:5) probably the same as [369]Achzib. Chidon (a javelin), the name which in (1 Chronicles 13:9) is given to the threshing-floor at which the accident to the ark took place. In the parallel account in 2Sam 6 the name is given as NACHON. Children The blessing of offspring, but especially of the male sex, is highly valued among all eastern nations, while a the absence is regarded as one of the severest punishments. (Genesis 16:2; 7:14; 1 Samuel 1:6; 2 Samuel 6:23; 2 Kings 4:14; Isaiah 47:9; Jeremiah 20:15; Psalms 127:3,5) As soon as the child was born it was washed in a bath, rubbed with salt and wrapped in swaddling clothes. (Ezekiel 16:4; Job 38:9; Luke 2:7) On the 8th day the rite of circumcision, in the case of a boy, was performed and a name given. At the end of a certain time (forty days if a son and twice as long if a daughter) the mother offered sacrifice for her cleansing. (Leviticus 12:1-8; Luke 2:22) The period of nursing appears to have been sometimes prolonged to three years. (Isaiah 49:15) 2 Macc. 7:27. The time of weaning was an occasion of rejoicing. (Genesis 21:8) Both boys and girls in their early years were under the care of the women. (Proverbs 31:1) Afterwards the boys were taken by the father under his charge. Daughters usually remained in the women's apartments till marriage. (Leviticus 21:9; Numbers 12:14; 1 Samuel 9:11) The authority of parents, especially of the father, over children was very great, as was also the reverence enjoined by the law to be paid to parents. The inheritance was divided equally between all the sons except the eldest, who received a double portion. (Genesis 25:31; 49:3; 21:17; Judges 11:2,7; 1 Chronicles 5:1,2) Daughters had by right no portion in the inheritance; but if a man had no son, his inheritance passed to his daughters, who were forbidden to marry out of the father's tribe. (Numbers 27:1,8; 36:2,8) Chileab (like his father), a son of David by Abigail. [[370]Abigail] Chillon (pining, sickly), the son of Naomi and husband of Ruth. (Ruth 1:2-5; 4:9) (B.C. 1250.) Chilmad (enclosure), a place or country mentioned in conjunction with Sheba and Asshur. (Ezekiel 27:23) Chimham (longing), a follower and probably a son, of Barzillai the Gileadite, who returned from beyond Jordan with David. (2 Samuel 19:37,38,40) (B C 1023.) David appears to have bestowed on him a possession at Bethlehem, on which, in later times, an inn or khan was standing. (Jeremiah 41:17) Chimhan [[371]Chimham] Chinnereth (circuit), accurately Cinnareth, a fortified city in the tribe of Naphtali, (Joshua 19:35) only, of which no trace is found in later writers, and no remains by travellers. Chinnereth, Sea Of (Numbers 34:11; Joshua 13:27) the inland sea, which is most similarly known to us as the "Lake of Gennesareth" or "Sea of Galilee." Chinneroth [[372]Chinnereth, [373]Chinnereth, Sea Of] Chios (snowy), an island of the Aegean Sea, 12 miles from Smyrna. It is separated from the mainland by a strait of only 5 miles. Its length is about 12 miles, and in breadth it varies from 8 to 18. Paul passed it on his return voyage from Troas to Caesarea. Acts 20:15 it is now called Scio. Chisleu [[374]Month] Chislon (confidence), father of Elidad, the prince of the tribe of Benjamin chosen to assist in the division of the land of Canaan among the tribes. (Numbers 34:21) (B.C. 1450.) Chislothtabor (loins of Tabor) a place to the border of which reached the border of Zebulun. (Joshua 19:12) It may be the village Iksal, which is now standing about 2 1/2 miles to the west of Mount Tabor. Chittim, Kittim (bruisers), a family or race descended from Javan. (Genesis 10:4; 1 Chronicles 1:7) Authorized Version [375]Kittim. Chittim is frequently noticed in Scripture. (Numbers 24:24; Isaiah 23:1,12; Jeremiah 2:10; Ezekiel 27:6; Daniel 11:30) In the above passages, the "isles of Chittim," the "ships of Chittim, the "coasts of Chittim," are supposed to refer to the island of Cyprus. Josephus considered Cyprus the original seat of the Chittim. The name Chittim, which in the first instance had implied to Phoenicians only, passed over to the islands which they had occupied, and thence to the people who succeeded the Phoenicians in the occupation of them. Chiun (a statue, perhaps of Saturn), an idol made by the Israelites in the wilderness. [[376]Remphan] Chloe (green herb), a woman mentioned in (1 Corinthians 1:11) Chorashan (1 Samuel 30:30) It may perhaps, be identified with [377]Ashan of Simeon. Chorazin one of the cities in which our Lord's mighty works were done, but named only in his denunciation. Matt. 11:21; Luke 10:13 St. Jerome describes it as on the shore of the lake, two miles from Capernaum, but its modern site is uncertain. Chozeba (1 Chronicles 4:22) Perhaps the same as [378]Achzib. Christ [Jesus] Christian The disciples, we are told, (Acts 11:26) were first called Christians at Antioch on the Orontes, somewhere about A.D. 43. They were known to each other as, and were among themselves called, brethren, (Acts 15:1,23; 1 Corinthians 7:12) disciples, (Acts 9:26; 11:29) believers, (Acts 5:14) saints, (Romans 8:27; 15:25) The name "Christian," which, in the only other cases where it appears in the New Testament, (Acts 26:28; 1 Peter 4:16) is used contemptuously, could not have been applied by the early disciples to themselves, but was imposed upon them by the Gentile world. There is no reason to suppose that the name "Christian" of itself was intended as a term of scurrility or abuse, though it would naturally be used with contempt. Chronicles, First And Second Books Of the name originally given to the record made by the appointed historiographers in the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. In the LXX. these books are called Paralipomena (i.e. things omitted), which is understood as meaning that they are supplementary to the books of Kings. The constant tradition of the Jews is that these books were for the most part compiled by Ezra. One of the greatest difficulties connected with the captivity and return must have been the maintenance of that genealogical distribution of the land which yet was a vital point of the Jewish economy. To supply this want and that each tribe might secure the inheritance of its fathers on its return was one object of the author of these books. Another difficulty intimately connected with the former was the maintenance of the temple services at Jerusalem. Zerubbabel, and after him Ezra and Nehemiah, labored most earnestly to restore the worship of God among the people, and to reinfuse something of national life and spirit into their hearts. Nothing could more effectually aid these designs than setting before the people a compendious history of the kingdom of David, its prosperity under God; the sins that led to its overthrow; the captivity and return. These considerations explain the plan and scope of that historical work which consists of the two books of Chronicles. The first book contains the sacred history by genealogies from the Creation to David, including an account of David's reign. In the second book he continues the story, giving the history of the kings of Judah, without those of Israel, down to the return from the captivity. As regards the materials used by Ezra, they are not difficult to discover. The genealogies are obviously transcribed from some register in which were preserved the genealogies of the tribes and families drawn up at different times; while the history is mainly drawn from the same document as those used in the books of King. [[379]Kings, First And Second Books Of, BOOKS OF] Chronology By this term we understand the technical and historical chronology of the Jews and their ancestors from the earliest time to the close of the New Testament Canon. + TECHNICAL CHRONOLOGY.--The technical part of Hebrew chronology presents great difficulties. + HISTORICAL CHRONOLOGY.--The historical part of Hebrew chronology is not less difficult than the technical. The information in the Bible is indeed direct rather than inferential although there is very important evidence of the latter kind, but the present state of the numbers make absolute certainty in many cases impossible. Three principal systems of biblical chronology have been founded, which may be termed (the Long System, the short, and the Rabbinical. There is a fourth, which although an off shoot in part of the last, can scarcely be termed biblical, in as much as it depends for the most part upon theories, not only independent of but repugnant to the Bible: this last is at present peculiar to Baron Bunsen. The principal advocates of the Long chronology are Jackson. Hales and Des-Vignoles. Of the Short chronology Ussher may be considered as the most able advocate The Rabbinical chronology accept the biblical numbers, but makes the most arbitrary corrections. For the date of the Exodus it has been virtually accepted by Bunsen, Lepsius and Lord A. Hervey. The numbers given by the LXX. for the antediluvian patriarchs would place the creation of Adam 2262 years before the end of the flood or B.C. cir. 5361 or 5421. Chryoprase occurs only in (Revelation 21:20) The true chrysoprase is sometimes found in antique Egyptian jewelry set alternately with bits of lapis-lazuli. It is problem therefore, that this is the stone named as the tenth in the walls of the heavenly Jerusalem. Chrysolite one of the precious stones in the foundation of the heavenly Jerusalem. (Revelation 21:20) It has been already stated [[380]Beryl] that the chrysolite of the ancients is identical with the modern oriental topaz the tarhish of the Hebrew Bible. Chrysprasus Latin form of CHRYSOPRAS. Chub the name of a people in alliance with Egypt in the time of Nebuchadnezzar, (Ezekiel 30:5) and probably of northern Africa. Chun (1 Chronicles 18:8) called Berothai in (2 Samuel 8:8) Church + The derivation of the word is generally said to be from the Greek kuriakon (kuriakon) "belonging to the Lord." But the derivation has been too hastily assumed. It is probably connected with kirk, the Latin circus, circulus, the Greek kuklos (kuklos) because the congregations were gathered in circles. + Ecclesia (ekklesia) the Greek word for church, originally meant an assembly called out by the magistrate, or by legitimate authority. It was in this last sense that the word was adapted and applied by the writers of the New Testament to the Christian congregation. In the one Gospel of St. Matthew the church is spoken of no less than thirty-six times as "the kingdom." Other descriptions or titles are hardly found in the evangelists. It is Christ's household, (Matthew 10:25) the salt and light of the world, (Matthew 5:13,15) Christ's flock, (Matthew 26:31; John 10:15) its members are the branches growing on Christ the Vine, John 15; but the general description of it, not metaphorical but direct, is that it is a kingdom, (Matthew 16:19) From the Gospel then we learn that Christ was about to establish his heavenly kingdom on earth, which was to be the substitute for the Jewish Church and kingdom, now doomed to destruction (Matthew 21:43) The day of Pentecost is the birthday of the Christian church. Before they had been individual followers Jesus; now they became his mystical body, animated by his spirit. On the evening of the day of Pentecost, the 3140 members of which the Church consisted were-- (1) Apostles; (2) previous Disciples; (3) Converts. In (Acts 2:41) we have indirectly exhibited the essential conditions of church communion. They are (1) Baptism, baptism implying on the part of the recipient repentance and faith; (2) Apostolic Doctrine; (3) Fellowship with the Apostles; (4) The Lord's Supper; (5) Public Worship. The real Church consists of all who belong to the Lord Jesus Christ as his disciples, and are one in love, in character, in hope, in Christ as the head of all, though as the body of Christ it consists of many parts. Chushanrishathaim (chief of two governments), the king of Mesopotamia who oppressed Israel during eight years in the generation immediately following Joshua. (Judges 3:8) (B.C. after 1420.) His yoke was broken from the neck of the people of Israel by Othniel, Caleb's nephew. (Judges 3:10) Chuza properly Chu'zas (the seer), the house-steward of Herod Antipas. (Luke 8:3) Ciccar [[381]Jordan] Cilicia (the land of Celix), a maritime province int he southeast of Asia Minor, bordering on Pamphylia in the west, Lycaonia and Cappadocia in the north, and Syria in the east. (Acts 6:9) Cilicia was from its geographical position the high road between Syria and the west; it was also the native country of St. Paul, hence it was visited by him, firstly, soon after his conversion, (Acts 9:30; Galatians 1:21) and again in his second apostolical journey. (Acts 15:41) Cinnamon a well-known aromatic substance, the rind of the Laurus cinnamomum, called Korunda-gauhah in Ceylon. It is mentioned in (Exodus 30:23) as one of the component parts of the holy anointing oil. In (Revelation 18:13) it is enumerated among the merchandise of the great Babylon. Cinneroth (1 Kings 15:20) This was possibly the small enclosed district north of Tiberias, and by the side of the lake, afterwards known as "the plain of Gennesareth." Circumcision was peculiarly, though not exclusively, a Jewish rite. It was enjoined upon Abraham, the father of the nation, by God, at the institution and as the token of the covenant, which assured to him and his descendants the promise of the Messiah. Gen. 17. It was thus made a necessary condition of Jewish nationality. Every male child was to be circumcised when eight days old, (Leviticus 12:3) on pain of death. The biblical notice of the rite describes it as distinctively Jewish; so that in the New Testament "the circumcision" and "the uncircumcision" are frequently used as synonyms for the Jews and the Gentiles. The rite has been found to prevail extensively in both ancient and modern times. Though Mohammed did not enjoin circumcision in the Koran, he was circumcised himself, according to the custom of his country; and circumcision is now as common among the Mohammedans as among the Jews. The process of restoring a circumcised person to his natural condition by a surgical operation was sometimes undergone. Some of the Jews in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, wishing to assimilate themselves to the heathen around them, "made themselves uncircumcised." Against having recourse to this practice, from an excessive anti-Judaistic tendency, St. Paul cautions the Corinthians. (1 Corinthians 7:18) Cis the father of Saul, (Acts 13:21) usually called [382]Kish. Cistern a receptacle for water, either conducted from an external spring or proceeding from rain-fall. The dryness of the summer months and the scarcity of springs in Judea made cisterns a necessity, and they are frequent throughout the whole of Syria and Palestine. On the long-forgotten way from Jericho to Bethel, "broken cisterns" of high antiquity are found at regular intervals. Jerusalem depends mainly for water upon its cisterns, of which almost every private house possesses one or more, excavated in the rock on which the city is built. The cisterns have usually a round opening at the top, sometimes built up with stonework above and furnished with a curb and a wheel for a bucket. (Ecclesiastes 12:6) Empty cisterns were sometimes used as prisons and places of confinement. Joseph was cast into a "pit," (Genesis 37:22) as was Jeremiah. (Jeremiah 38:6) Cities The earliest notice in Scripture of city-building is of Enoch by Cain, in the land of his exile. (Genesis 4:17) After the confusion of tongues the descendants of Nimrod founded Babel, Erech, Accad and Calneh, in the land of Shinar, and Asshur, a branch from the same stock, built Nineveh, Rehoboth-by-the-river, Calah and Resen, the last being "a great city." The earliest description of a city, properly so called, is that of Sodom, (Genesis 19:1-22) Even before the time of Abraham there were cities in Egypt, (Genesis 12:14,15; Numbers 13:22) and the Israelites, during their sojourn there, were employed in building or fortifying the "treasure cities" of Pithom and Raamses. (Exodus 1:11) Fenced cities, fortified with high walls, (3:5) were occupied and perhaps partly rebuilt after the conquest, by the settled inhabitants of Syria on both sides of the Jordan. Cities Of Refuge six Levitical cities specially chosen for refuge to the involuntary homicide until released from banishment by the death of the high priest. (Numbers 35:6,13,15; Joshua 20:2,7,9) There were three on each side of Jordan. + [383]Kedesh, in Naphtali. (1 Chronicles 6:76) + [384]Shechem, in Mount Ephraim. (Joshua 21:21; 1 Chronicles 6:67; 2 Chronicles 10:1) + [385]Hebron, in Judah. (Joshua 21:13; 2 Samuel 5:5; 1 Chronicles 6:55; 29:27; 2 Chronicles 11:10) + On the east side of Jordan - [386]Bezer In The Wilderness, in the tribe of Reuben, in the plains of Moab. (4:43; Joshua 20:8; 21:36) 1Macc. 5:26. + RAMOTH-GILEAD, in the tribe of Gad. (4:43; Joshua 21:38; 1 Kings 22:3) + [387]Golan, in Bashan, in the half-tribe of Manasseh. (4:43; Joshua 21:27; 1 Chronicles 6:71) Citims 1 Macc. 8:5. [[388]Chittim, Kittim] Citizenship The use of this term in Scripture has exclusive reference to the usages of the Roman empire. The privilege of Roman citizenship was originally acquired in various ways, as by purchase, (Acts 22:28) by military services, by favor or by manumission. The right once obtained descended to a man's children. (Acts 22:28) Among the privileges attached to citizenship we may note that a man could not be bound or imprisoned without a formal trial, (Acts 22:29) still less be scourged. (Acts 16:37) Cic. in Verr. v. 63,66. Another privilege attaching to citizenship was the appeal from a provincial tribunal to the emperor at Rome. (Acts 25:11) Citron [[389]Apple Tree, Apple TREE] Clauda (lame), (Acts 27:16) a small island nearly due west of Cape Matala on the south coast of Crete, and nearly due south of Phoenice; now Gozzo . Claudia (lame), a Christian woman mentioned in (2 Timothy 4:21) as saluting Timotheus. Claudius (lame), fourth Roman emperor, reigned from 41 to 54 A.D. He was nominated to the supreme power mainly through the influence of Herod Agrippa the First. In the reign of Claudius there were several famines, arising from unfavorable harvests, and one such occurred in Palestine and Syria. (Acts 11:28-30) Claudius was induced by a tumult of the Jews in Rome to expel them from the city. cf. (Acts 18:2) The date of this event is uncertain. After a weak and foolish reign he was poisoned by his fourth wife, Agrippina, the mother of Nero, October 13, A.D. 54. Claudius Lysias [[390]Lysias Claudius] Clay As the sediment of water remaining in pits or in streets, the word is used frequently in the Old Testament. (Psalms 18:42; Isaiah 57:20; Jeremiah 38:6) and in the New Testament, (John 9:6) a mixture of sand or dust with spittle. It is also found in the sense of potter's clay. (Isaiah 41:25) The great seat of the pottery of the present day in Palestine is Gaza, where are made the vessels in dark-blue clay so frequently met with. Another use of clay was for sealing. (Job 38:14) Our Lord's tomb may have been thus sealed, (Matthew 27:66) as also the earthen vessel containing the evidences of Jeremiah's purchase. (Jeremiah 32:14) The seal used for public documents was rolled on the moist clay, and the tablet was then placed in the fire and baked. Clement (mild, merciful), (Philippians 4:3) a fellow laborer of St. Paul when he was at Philippi. (A.D. 57.) It was generally believed in the ancient Church that this Clement was identical with the bishop of Rome who afterwards became so celebrated. Cleopas (of a renowned father), one of the two disciples who were going to Emmaus on the day of the resurrection. (Luke 24:18) Some think the same as Cleophas in (John 19:25) But they are probably two different persons. Cleopas is a Greek name, contracted from Cleopater, while Cleophas, or Clopas as in the Revised Version, is an Aramaic name, the same as Alphaeus. Cleophas Revised Version Clo'pas, the husband of Mary the sister of Virgin Mary. (John 19:25) He was probably dead before Jesus' ministry began, for his wife and children constantly appear with Joseph's family in the time of our Lord's ministry.--Englishman's Cyc. [[391]Cleopas; [392]Alphaeus] Clothing [[393]Dress] Cloud The shelter given, and refreshment of rain promised, by clouds give them their peculiar prominence in Oriental imagery. When a cloud appears rain is ordinarily apprehended, and thus the "cloud without rain" becomes a proverb for the man of promise without performance. (Proverbs 16:15; Isaiah 18:4; 25:5; Jude 1:12) comp. Prov 25:14 The cloud is a figure of transitoriness, (Job 30:15; Hosea 6:4) and of whatever intercepts divine favor or human supplication. (Lamentations 2:1; 3:44) A bright cloud at times visited and rested on the mercy-seat. (Exodus 29:42,43; 1 Kings 8:10,11; 2 Chronicles 5:14; Ezekiel 43:4) and was by later writers named Shechinah. Cloud, Pillar Of The pillar of cloud by day and of fire by night that God caused to pass before the camp of the children of Israel when in the wilderness. The cloud, which became a pillar when the host moved, seems to have rested at other times on the tabernacle, whence god is said to have "come down in the pillar." (Numbers 12:5; Exodus 33:9,10) It preceded the host, apparently resting on the ark which led the way. (Exodus 13:21; 40:36) etc.; Numb 9:15-23; 10:34 Clouted patched. (Joshua 9:5) Cnidus (nidus), a city of great consequence, situated at the extreme south west of the peninsula of Asia Minor, on a promontory now called Cape Crio, which projects between the islands of Cos and Rhodes. See (Acts 21:1) It is now in ruins. Coal The first and most frequent use of the word rendered coal is a live ember, burning fuel. (Proverbs 26:21) In (2 Samuel 22:9,13) "coals of fire" are put metaphorically for the lightnings proceeding from God. (Psalms 18:8,12,13; 140:10) In (Proverbs 26:21) fuel not yet lighted is clearly signified. The fuel meant in the above passage is probably charcoal, and not coal in our sense of the word. Coast border, with no more reference to lands bordering on the sea than to any other bordering lands. Coat [[394]Dress] Cock (Matthew 26:34; Mark 13:35; 14:30) etc. The domestic cock and hen were early known to the ancient Greeks and Romans, and as no mention is made in the Old Testament of these birds, and no figures of them occur on the Egyptian monuments, they probably came into Judea with the Romans, who, as is well known, prized these birds both as articles of food and for cock-fighting. Cockatrice [[395]Adder] Cockle probably signifies bad weeds or fruit. (Job 31:40) Coelesyria (hollow Syria), the remarkable valley or hollow which intervenes between Libanus and Anti-Libanus, stretching a distance of nearly a hundred miles. The only mention of the region as a separate tract of country which the Jewish Scriptures contain is probably that in (Amos 1:5) where "the inhabitants of the plain of Aven" are threatened in conjunction with those of Damascus. The word is given in the Authorized Version as CELO-SYRIA. Coffer (argaz), a movable box hanging from the side of a cart. (1 Samuel 6:8,11,15) The word is found nowhere else. Coffin [[396]Burial, Sepulchres] Colhozeh (all-seeing), a man of the tribe of Judah in the time of Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 3:15; 11:5) (B.C. 536.) Collar For the proper sense of this term, as it occurs in (Judges 8:26) see [397]Earrings. College, The In (2 Kings 22:14) it is probable that the word translated "college" represents here not an institution of learning, but that part of Jerusalem known as the "lower city" or suburb, built on the hill Akra, including the Bezetha or new city. Colony a designation of Philippi, in (Acts 16:12) After the battle of Actium, Augustus assigned to his veterans those parts of Italy which had espoused the cause of Antony, and transported many of the expelled inhabitants to Philippi, Dyrrhachium and other cities. In this way Philippi was made a Roman colony with the "Jus Italicum." At first the colonists were all Roman citizens, and entitled to vote at Rome. Colors The terms relative to color, occurring in the Bible, may be arranged in two classes, the first including those applied to the description of natural objects, the second those artificial mixtures which were employed in dyeing or painting. The purple and the blue were derived from a small shellfish found in the Mediterranean, and were very costly, and hence they were the royal colors. Red, both scarlet and crimson, was derived from an insect resembling the cochineal. The natural colors noticed in the Bible are white, black, red, yellow and green. The only fundamental color of which the Hebrews appear to have had a clear conception was red ; and even this is not very often noticed. Colosse more properly Colos'sae, was a city of Phrygia in Asia Minor, in the upper part of the basin of the Maeander, on the Lycus. Hierapolis and Laodicea were in its immediate neighborhood. (Colossians 1:2; 4:13,15,16) see Reve 1:11; 3:14 St. Paul is supposed by some to have visited Colosse and founded or confirmed the Colossian church on his third missionary journey. (Acts 18:23; 19:1) Colossians, The Epistle To The was written by the apostle St. Paul during his first captivity at Rome. (Acts 28:16) (A.D. 62.) The epistle was addressed to Christians of the city of Colosse, and was delivered to them by Tychicus, whom the apostle had sent both to them, (Colossians 4:7,8) and to the church of Ephesus, (Ephesians 6:21) to inquire into their state and to administer exhortation and comfort. The main object of the epistle is to warn the Colossians against the spirit of semi-Judaistic and semi-Oriental philosophy which was corrupting the simplicity of their belief, and was noticeably tending to obscure the eternal glory and dignity of Christ. The similarity between this epistle and that to the Ephesians is striking. The latter was probably written at a later date. Comforter (John 14:16) The name given by Christ to the Holy Spirit. The original word is Paraclete, and means first Advocate, a defender, helper, strengthener, as well as comforter. Commerce From the time that men began to live in cities, trade, in some shape, must have been carried on to supply the town-dwellers with necessaries from foreign as well as native sources, for we find that Abraham was rich, not only in cattle, but in silver, gold and gold and silver plate and ornaments. (Genesis 13:2; 24:22,53) Among trading nations mentioned in Scripture, Egypt holds in very early times a prominent position. The internal trade of the Jews, as well as the external, was much promoted by the festivals, which brought large numbers of persons to Jerusalem. (1 Kings 8:63) The places of public market were chiefly the open spaces near the gates, to which goods were brought for sale by those who came from the outside. (Nehemiah 13:15,16; Zephaniah 1:10) The traders in later times were allowed to intrude into the temple, in the outer courts of which victims were publicly sold for the sacrifice. (Zechariah 14:21; Matthew 21:12; John 2:14) Conaniah (made by Jehovah), one of the chiefs of the Levites in the time of Josiah. (2 Chronicles 35:9) (B.C. 628). Concubine The difference between wife and concubine was less marked among the Hebrews than among us, owing to the absence of moral stigma. The difference probably lay in the absence of the right of the bill of divorce, without which the wife could not be repudiated. With regard to the children of wife and of concubine, there was no such difference as our illegitimacy implies. The latter were a supplementary family to the former; their names occur in the patriarchal genealogies, (Genesis 22:24; 1 Chronicles 1:22) and their position and provision would depend on the father's will. (Genesis 25:6) The state of concubinage is assumed and provided for by the law of Moses. A concubine would generally be either (1) a Hebrew girl bought of her father; (2) a Gentile captive taken in war; (3) a foreign slave bought; or (4) a Canaanitish woman, bond or free. The rights of the first two were protected by the law, (Exodus 21:7; 21:10-14) but the third was unrecognized and the fourth prohibited. Free Hebrew women also might become concubines. To seize on royal concubines for his use was probably the intent of Abner's act, (2 Samuel 3:7) and similarly the request on behalf of Adonijah was construed. (1 Kings 2:21-24) Conduit meaning an aqueduct or trench through which water was carried. Tradition, both oral and as represented by Talmudical writers, ascribes to Solomon the formation of the original aqueduct by which water was brought to Jerusalem. Coney (shaphan), a gregarious animal of the class Pachydermata, which is found in Palestine, living in the caves and clefts of the rocks, and has been erroneously identified with the rabbit or coney. Its scientific name as Hyrax syriacus . The hyrax satisfies exactly the expressions in (Psalms 104:18; Proverbs 30:26) Its color is gray or brown on the back, white on the belly; it is like the alpine marmot, scarcely of the size of the domestic cat, having long hair, a very short tail and round ears. It is found on Lebanon and in the Jordan and Dead Sea valleys. Congregation This describes the Hebrew people in its collective capacity under its peculiar aspect as a holy community, held together by religious rather than political bonds. Sometimes it is used in a broad sense as inclusive of foreign settlers, (Exodus 12:19) but more properly as exclusively appropriate to the Hebrew element of the population. (Numbers 15:15) The congregation was governed by the father or head of each family and tribe. The number of these representatives being inconveniently large for ordinary business, a further selection was made by Moses of 70, who formed a species of standing committee. (Numbers 11:16) Occasionally indeed the whole body of people was assembled at the door of the tabernacle, hence usually called the tabernacle of the congregation. (Numbers 10:3) The people were strictly bound by the acts of their representatives, even in cases where they disapproved of them. (Joshua 9:18) Coniah [[398]Jeconiah] Cononiah (appointed by the Lord), a Levite, ruler of the offerings and tithes in the time of Hezekiah. (2 Chronicles 31:12,13) (B.C. 726.) Consecration [[399]Priest] Convocation This term (with one exception)-- (Isaiah 1:13) is applied invariably to meetings of a religious character, in contradistinction to congregation. Cooking As meet did not form an article of ordinary diet among the Jews, the art of cooking was not carried to any perfection. Few animals were slaughtered except for purposes of hospitality or festivity. The proceedings on such occasions appear to have been as follows:--On the arrival of a guest, the animal, either a kid, lamb or calf, was killed, (Genesis 18:7; Luke 15:23) its throat being cut so that the blood might be poured out, (Leviticus 7:26) it was then flayed, and was ready for either roasting or boiling. In the former case the animal was preserved entire, (Exodus 12:46) and roasted either over a fire, (Exodus 12:8) of wood, (Isaiah 44:16) or perhaps in an oven, consisting simply of a hole dug in the earth, well heated, and covered up. Boiling, however, was the more usual method of cooking. Coos (Acts 21:1) [[400]Cos, Or Coos] Copper Heb. nechosheth, in the Authorized Version always rendered "brass," except in (Ezra 8:27) and Jere 15:12 It was almost exclusively used by the ancients for common purposes, and for every kind of instrument, as chains, pillars, lavers and the other temple vessels. We read also of copper mirrors, (Exodus 38:8) and even of copper arms, as helmets, spears, etc. (1 Samuel 17:5,6,38; 2 Samuel 21:16) Coral (Ezekiel 27:16) A production of the sea, formed by minute animals called zoophytes. It is their shell or house. It takes various forms, as of trees, shrubs, hemispheres. The principal colors are red and white. It was used for beads and ornaments. With regard to the estimation in which coral was held by the Jews and other Orientals, it must be remembered that coral varies in price with us. Pliny says that the Indians valued coral as the Romans valued pearls. (Job 28:18) Corban an offering to God of any sort, bloody or bloodless, but particularly in fulfillment of a vow. The law laid down rules for vows, (1) affirmative; (2) negative. (Leviticus 27:1; Numbers 30:1) ... Upon these rules the traditionists enlarged, and laid down that a man might interdict himself by vow, not only from using for himself, bur from giving to another or receiving from him, some particular object, whether of food or any other kind whatsoever. The thing thus interdicted was considered as corban . A person might thus exempt himself from any inconvenient obligation under plea of corban. It was practices of this sort that our Lord reprehended, (Matthew 15:5; Mark 7:11) as annulling the spirit of the law. Cord The materials of which cord was made varied according to the strength required; the strongest rope was probably made of strips of camel hide, as still used by the Bedouins. The finer sorts were made of flax, (Isaiah 19:9) and probably of reeds and rushes. In the New Testament the term is applied to the whip which our Saviour made, (John 2:15) and to the ropes of a ship. (Acts 27:32) Core (Jude 1:11) [[401]Korah, 1] Coriander The plant called Coriandrum sativum is found in Egypt, Persia and India, and has a round tall stalk; it bears umbelliferous white or reddish flowers, from which arise globular, grayish, spicy seed-corns, marked with fine striae. It is mentioned twice in the Bible. (Exodus 16:31; Numbers 11:7) Corinth an ancient and celebrated city of Greece, on the Isthmus of Corinth, and about 40 miles west of Athens. In consequence of its geographical position it formed the most direct communication between the Ionian and AEgean seas. A remarkable feature was the AcroCorinthus, a vast citadel of rock, which rises abruptly to the height of 2000 feet above the level of the sea, and the summit of which is so extensive that it once contained a whole town. The situation of Corinth, and the possession of its eastern and western harbors, Cenchreae and Lechaeum, are the secrets of its history. Corinth was a place of great mental activity, as well as of commercial and manufacturing enterprise. Its wealth was so celebrated as to be proverbial; so were the vice and profligacy of its inhabitants. The worship of Venus where was attended with shameful licentiousness. Corinth is still an episcopal see. The city has now shrunk to a wretched village, ont he old site and bearing the old name, which, however, is corrupted into Gortho . St. Paul preached here, (Acts 18:11) and founded a church, to which his Epistles to the Corinthians are addressed. [EPISTLES TO THE [402]Corinthians, First Epistle To The, [403]Corinthians, Second Epistle To The] Corinthians, First Epistle To The was written by the apostle St. Paul toward the close of his nearly three-years stay at Ephesus, (Acts 19:10; 20:31) which, we learn from (1 Corinthians 16:8) probably terminated with the Pentecost of A.D. 57 or 58. The bearers were probably (according to the common subscription) Stephanas, Fortunatus and Achaicus. It appears to have been called forth by the information the apostles had received of dissension in the Corinthian church, which may be thus explained:--The Corinthian church was planted by the apostle himself, (1 Corinthians 3:6) in his second missionary journey. (Acts 18:1) seq. He abode in the city a year and a half. (Acts 18:11) A short time after the apostle had left the city the eloquent Jew of Alexandria, Apollos, went to Corinth, (Acts 19:1) and gained many followers, dividing the church into two parties, the followers of Paul and the followers of Apollos. Later on Judaizing teachers from Jerusalem preached the gospel in a spirit of direct antagonism to St. Paul personally. To this third party we may perhaps add a fourth, that, under the name of "the followers of Christ," (1 Corinthians 2:12) sought at first to separate themselves from the factious adherence to particular teachers, but eventually were driven by antagonism into positions equally sectarian and inimical to the unity of the church. At this momentous period, before parties had become consolidated and that distinctly withdrawn from communion with one another, the apostle writes; and in the outset of the epistle, 1Cor 1-4:21, we have this noble and impassioned protest against this fourfold rending of the robe of Christ. Corinthians, Second Epistle To The was written a few months subsequent to the first, in the same year--about the autumn of A.D. 57 or 58--at Macedonia. The epistle was occasioned by the information which the apostle had received form Titus, and also, as it would certainly seem probable, from Timothy, of the reception of the first epistle. This information, as it would seem from our present epistle, was mainly favorable; the better part of the church were returning to their spiritual allegiance to the founder, (2 Corinthians 1:13,14; 7:9,15,16) but there was still a faction who strenuously denied Paul's claim to apostleship. The contents of this epistle comprise, (1) the apostle's account of the character of his spiritual labors, chs. 1-7; (2) directions about the collections, chs. 8,9; (3) defence of his own apostolical character, chs. 10-13:10. The words in (1 Corinthians 5:9) seem to point to further epistles to the church by Paul, but we have no positive evidence of any. Cormorant the representative in the Authorized Version of the Hebrew words kaath and shalac . As to the former, see [404]Pelican. Shalac occurs only as the name of an unclean bird in (Leviticus 11:17; 14:17) The word has been variously rendered. The etymology points to some plunging bird. The common cormorant (phalacrocorax carbo), which some writers have identified with the shalac, is unknown in the eastern Mediterranean; another species is found south of the Red Sea, but none on the west coast of Palestine. Corn The most common kinds were wheat, barley, spelt, Authorized Version, (Exodus 9:32) and Isai 28:25 "Rye;" (Ezekiel 4:9) "fitches" and millet; oats are mentioned only by rabbinical writers. Our Indian corn was unknown in Bible times. Corn-crops are still reckoned at twentyfold what was sown, and were anciently much more. (Genesis 41:22) The Jewish law permitted any one in passing through a filed of standing corn to pluck and eat. (23:25) see also Matt 12:1 From Solomon's time, (2 Chronicles 2:10,15) as agriculture became developed under a settled government, Palestine was a corn-exporting country, and her grain was largely taken by her commercial neighbor Tyre. (Ezekiel 27:17) comp. Amos 8:5 Cornelius (of a horn), a Roman centurion of the Italian cohort stationed in Caesarea, (Acts 10:1) etc., a man full of good works and alms-deeds. With his household he was baptized by St. Peter, and thus Cornelius became the firstfruits of the Gentile world to Christ. Corner The "corner" of the field was not allowed, (Leviticus 19:9) to be wholly reaped. It formed a right of the poor to carry off what was so left, and this was a part of the maintenance from the soil to which that class were entitled. Under the scribes, minute legislation fixed one-sixtieth as the portion of a field which was to be left for the legal "corner." The proportion being thus fixed, all the grain might be reaped, and enough to satisfy the regulation subsequently separated from the whole crop. This "corner" was, like the gleaning, tithe-free. Cornerstone a quoin or cornerstone, of great importance in binding together the sides of a building. The phrase "corner-stone" is sometimes used to denote any principal person, as the princes of Egypt, (Isaiah 19:13) and is thus applied to our Lord. (Isaiah 28:16; Matthew 21:42; 1 Peter 2:6,7) Cornet (Heb. shophar), a loud-sounding instrument, made of the horn of a ram or a chamois (sometimes of an ox), and used by the ancient Hebrews for signals, (Leviticus 25:9) and much used by the priests. (1 Chronicles 15:28) Cos, Or Coos (now Stanchio or Stanko). This small island of the Grecian Archipelago has several interesting points of connection with the Jews. Herod the Great conferred many favors on the island. St. Paul, on the return from his third missionary journey, passed the night here, after sailing from Miletus. Probably referred to in (Acts 21:1) Cosam (a diviner), son of Elmodam, in the line of Joseph the husband of Mary. (Luke 3:28) Cotton Cotton is now both grown and manufactured in various parts of Syria and Palestine; but there is no proof that, till they came in contact with Persia, the Hebrews generally knew of it as a distinct fabric from linen. [[405]Linen] Couch [[406]Bed] Council + The great council of the Sanhedrin, which sat at Jerusalem. [[407]Sanhedrin] + The lesser courts, (Matthew 10:17; Mark 13:9) of which there were two at Jerusalem and one in each town of Palestine. The constitution of these courts is a doubtful point. The existence of local courts, however constituted, is clearly implied in the passages quoted from the New Testament; and perhaps the "judgment," (Matthew 5:21) applies to them. + A kind of jury or privy council, (Acts 25:12) consisting of a certain number of assessors, who assisted Roman governors in the administration of justice and in other public matters. Court (Heb. chatser), an open enclosure surrounded by buildings, applied in the Authorized Version most commonly to the enclosures of the tabernacle and the temple. (Exodus 27:9; 40:33; Leviticus 6:16; 1 Kings 6:36; 7:8; 2 Kings 23:12; 2 Chronicles 33:5) etc. Covenant The Heb. berith means primarily "a cutting," with reference to the custom of cutting or dividing animals in two and passing between the parts in ratifying a covenant. (Genesis 15; Jeremiah 34:18,19) In the New Testament the corresponding word is diathece (diatheke), which is frequently translated testament in the Authorized Version. In its biblical meaning two parties the word is used-- + Of a covenant between God and man; e.g. God covenanted with Noah, after the flood, that a like judgment should not be repeated. It is not precisely like a covenant between men, but was a promise or agreement by God. The principal covenants are the covenant of works--God promising to save and bless men on condition of perfect obedience--and the covenant of grace, or God's promise to save men on condition of their believing in Christ and receiving him as their Master and Saviour. The first is called the Old Covenant, from which we name the first part of the bible the Old Testament, the Latin rendering of the word covenant. The second is called the New Covenant, or New Testament. + Covenant between man and man, i.e. a solemn compact or agreement, either between tribes or nations, (Joshua 9:6,15; 1 Samuel 11:1) or between individuals, (Genesis 31:44) by which each party bound himself to fulfill certain conditions and was assured of receiving certain advantages. In making such a covenant God was solemnly invoked as witness, (Genesis 31:50) and an oath was sworn. (Genesis 21:31) A sign or witness of the covenant was sometimes framed, such a gift, (Genesis 21:30) or a pillar or heap of stones erected. (Genesis 31:52) Cow [[408]Bull, Bullock] Coz (thorn), a man among the descendants of Judah. (1 Chronicles 4:8) Cozbi (deceitful), daughter of Zur, a chief of the Midianites. (Numbers 25:15,18) Crane The crane (Grus cinerea) is a native of Europe and Asia. It stand about four feet high. Its color is ashen gray, with face and neck nearly black. It feeds on seeds, roots, insects and small quadrupeds. It retires in winter to the warmer climates. (Jeremiah 8:7) Create To create is to cause something to exist which did not exist before, as distinguished from make, to re-form something already in existence. Creation (The creation of all things is ascribed in the Bible to God, and is the only reasonable account of the origin of the world. The method of creation is not stated in Genesis, and as far as the account there is concerned, each part of it may be, after the first acts of creation, by evolution, or by direct act of God's will. The word create (bara) is used but three times in the first chapter of Genesis-- (1) as to the origin of matter; (2) as to the origin of life; (3) as to the origin of man's soul; and science has always failed to do any of these acts thus ascribed to God. All other things are said to be made . The order of creation as given in Genesis is in close harmony with the order as revealed by geology, and the account there given, so long before the records of the rocks were read or the truth discoverable by man, is one of the strongest proofs that the Bible was inspired by God.--Ed.) Creditor [[409]Loan] Crescens (growing), (2 Timothy 4:10) an assistant of St. Paul, said to have been one of the seventy disciples. Crete the modern Candia. This large island, which closes int he Greek Archipelago on the south, extends through a distance of 140 miles between its extreme points. Though exceedingly bold and mountainous, this island has very fruitful valleys, and in early times it was celebrated for its hundred cities. It seems likely that a very early acquaintances existed between the Cretans and the Jews. Cretans, (Acts 2:11) were among those who were at Jerusalem at the great Pentecost. In [Acts 27:7-12 We have an account of Paul's shipwreck near this island; and it is evident from (Titus 1:5) that the apostle himself was here at no long interval of time before he wrote the letter. The Cretans were proverbial liars. (Titus 1:12) Cretes (Acts 2:11) Cretans, inhabitants of Crete. Crisping Pins (Isaiah 3:22) The original word means some kind of female ornament, probably a reticule or richly ornamented purse, often made of silk inwrought with gold or silver. Crispus (curled), ruler of the Jewish synagogue at Corinth, (Acts 18:8) baptized with his family by St. Paul. (1 Corinthians 1:14) (A.D. 50.) Cross As the emblem of a slave's death and a murderer's punishment, the cross was naturally looked upon with the profoundest horror. But after the celebrated vision of Constantine, he ordered his friends to make a cross of gold and gems, such as he had seen, and "the towering eagles resigned the flags unto the cross," and "the tree of cursing and shame" "sat upon the sceptres and was engraved and signed on the foreheads of kings." (Jer. Taylor, "Life of Christ," iii., xv. 1.) The new standards were called by the name Labarum, and may be seen on the coins of Constantine the Great and his nearer successors. The Latin cross on which our Lord suffered, was int he form of the letter T, and had an upright above the cross-bar, on which the "title" was placed. There was a projection from the central stem, on which the body of the sufferer rested. This was to prevent the weight of the body from tearing away the hands. Whether there was also a support to the feet (as we see in pictures) is doubtful. An inscription was generally placed above the criminal's head, briefly expressing his guilt, and generally was carried before him. It was covered with white gypsum, and the letter were black. Crown This ornament, which is both ancient and universal, probably originated from the fillets used to prevent the hair from being dishevelled by the wind. Such fillets are still common; they gradually developed into turbans, which by the addition of ornamental or precious materials assumed the dignity of mitres or crowns. Both the ordinary priests and the high priest wore them. The crown was a symbol of royalty, and was worn by kings, (2 Chronicles 23:11) and also by queens. (Esther 2:17) The head-dress of bridegrooms, (Ezekiel 24:17; Isaiah 61:10) Bar. 5:2, and of women, (Isaiah 3:20) a head-dress of great splendor, (Isaiah 28:5) a wreath of flowers, (Proverbs 1:9; 4:9) denote crowns. In general we must attach to it the notion of a costly turban irradiated with pearls and gems of priceless value, which often form aigrettes for feathers, as in the crowns of modern Asiatics sovereigns. Such was probably the crown which weighed (or rather "was worth") a talent, mentioned in (2 Samuel 12:30) taken by David from the king of Ammon at Rabbah, and used as the state crown of Judah. (2 Samuel 12:30) In (Revelation 12:3; 19:12) allusion is made to "many crowns" worn in token of extended dominion. The laurel, pine or parsley crowns given to victors int he great games of Greece are finely alluded to by St. Paul. (1 Corinthians 9:25; 2 Timothy 2:5) etc. Crown Of Thorns (Matthew 27:29) Our Lord was crowned with thorns in mockery by the Roman soldiers. Obviously some small flexile thorny shrub is meant perhaps Capparis spinosa. "Hasselquist, a Swedish naturalist, supposes a very common plant naba or nubka of the Arabs, with many small and sharp sines; soft, round and pliant branches; leaves much resembling ivy, of a very deep green, as if in designed mockery of a victor's wreath."--Alford. Crucifixion was in used among the Egyptians, (Genesis 40:19) the Carthaginians, the Persians, (Esther 7:10) the Assyrians, Scythains, Indians, Germans, and from the earliest times among the Greeks and Romans. Whether this mode of execution was known to the ancient Jews is a matter of dispute. Probably the Jews borrowed it from the Romans. It was unanimously considered the most horrible form of death. Among the Romans the degradation was also a part of the infliction, and the punishment if applied to freemen was only used in the case of the vilest criminals. The one to be crucified was stripped naked of all his clothes, and then followed the most awful moment of all. He was laid down upon the implement of torture. His arms were stretched along the cross-beams, and at the centre of the open palms the point of a huge iron nail was placed, which, by the blow of a mallet, was driven home into the wood. Then through either foot separately, or possibly through both together, as they were placed one over the other, another huge nail tore its way through the quivering flesh. Whether the sufferer was also bound to the cross we do not know; but, to prevent the hands and feet being torn away by the weight of the body, which could not "rest upon nothing but four great wounds," there was, about the centre of the cross, a wooden projection strong enough to support, at least in part, a human body, which soon became a weight of agony. Then the "accursed tree" with its living human burden was slowly heaved up and the end fixed firmly in a hole in the ground. The feet were but a little raised above the earth. The victim was in full reach of every hand that might choose to strike. A death by crucifixion seems to include all that pain and death can have of the horrible and ghastly,--dizziness, cramp, thirst, starvation, sleeplessness, traumatic fever, tetanus, publicity of shame, long continuance of torment, horror of anticipation, mortification of untended wounds, all intensified just up to the point at which they can be endured at all, but all stopping just short of the point which would give to the sufferer the relief of unconsciousness. The unnatural position made every movement painful; the lacerated veins and crushed tendons throbbed with incessant anguish; the wounds, inflamed by exposure, gradually gangrened; the arteries, especially of the head and stomach, became swollen and oppressed with surcharged blood; and, while each variety of misery went on gradually increasing, there was added to them the intolerable pang of a burning and raging thirst. Such was the death to which Christ was doomed.--Farrar's "Life of Christ. " The crucified was watched, according to custom, by a party of four soldiers, (John 19:23) with their centurion, (Matthew 27:66) whose express office was to prevent the stealing of the body. This was necessary from the lingering character of the death, which sometimes did not supervene even for three days, and was at last the result of gradual benumbing and starvation. But for this guard, the persons might have been taken down and recovered, as was actually done in the case of a friend of Josephus. Fracture of the legs was especially adopted by the Jews to hasten death. (John 19:31) In most cases the body was suffered to rot on the cross by the action of sun and rain, or to be devoured by birds and beasts. Sepulture was generally therefore forbidden; but in consequence of (21:22,23) an express national exception was made in favor of the Jews. (Matthew 27:58) This accursed and awful mode of punishment was happily abolished by Constantine. Cruse a small vessel for holding water, such as was carried by Saul when on his night expedition after David, (1 Samuel 26:11,12,16) and by Elijah. (1 Kings 19:6) Crystal the representative in the Authorized Version of two Hebrew words. + Zecucith occurs only in (Job 28:17) where "glass" probably is intended. + kerach occurs in numerous passages in the Old Testament to denote "ice," "frost," etc.; but once only (Ezekiel 1:22) as is generally understood, to signify "crystal." The ancients supposed rock-crystal to be merely ice congealed by intense cold. The similarity of appearance between ice and crystal caused no doubt the identity of the terms to express these substances. The Greek word occurs in (Revelation 4:6; 21:1) It may mean either "ice" or "crystal." Cubit [[410]Weights And Measures AND [411]Measures] Cuckoo (Leviticus 11:16; 14:15) the name of some of the larger petrels which abound in the east of the Mediterranean. Cucumbers (Heb. kishshuim). This word occurs in (Numbers 11:5) as one of the good things of Egypt produces excellent cucumbers, melons, etc., the Cucumis chate being the best of its tribe yet known. Besides the Cucumis chate, the common cucumber (C. sativus), of which the Arabs distinguish a number of varieties, is common in Egypt. "Both Cucumis chate and C. sativus," says Mr. Tristram, "are now grown in great quantities in Palestine. On visiting the Arab school in Jerusalem (1858) I observed that the dinner which the children brought with them to school consisted, without exception, of a piece of barley cake and a raw cucumber, which they ate rind and all." The "lodge in a garden of cucumbers," (Isaiah 1:8) is a rude temporary shelter erected int eh open grounds where vines, cucumbers, gourds, etc., are grown, in which some lonely man or boy is set to watch, either to guard the plants from robbers or to scare away the foxes and jackals from the vines. Cummin one of the cultivated plants of Palestine. (Isaiah 28:25,27; Matthew 23:23) It is an umbelliferous plant something like fennel. The seeds have a bitterish warm taste and an aromatic flavor. The Maltese are said to grow it at the present day, and to thresh it in the manner described by Isaiah. Cup The cups of the Jews, whether of metal or earthenware, were possibly borrowed, in point of shape and design, from Egypt and from the Phoenicians, who were celebrated in that branch of workmanship. Egyptian cups were of various shapes, either with handles or without them. In Solomon's time all his drinking vessels were of gold, none of silver. (1 Kings 10:21) Babylon is compared to a golden cup. (Jeremiah 51:7) The great laver, or "sea," was made with a rim like the rim of a cup (cos), with flowers of lilies," (1 Kings 7:26) a form which the Persepolitan cups resemble. The cups of the New Testament were often no doubt formed on Greek and Roman models. They were sometimes of gold. (Revelation 17:4) Cupbearer an officer of high rank with Egyptian, Persian and Assyrian as well as Jewish monarchs. (1 Kings 10:5) It was his duty to fill the king's cup and present it to him personally. (Nehemiah 1:11) The chief cupbearer, or butler, to the king of Egypt was the means of raising Joseph to his high position. (Genesis 40:1,21; 41:9) Cush the name of a son of Ham, apparently the eldest, and of a territory or territories occupied by his descendants. The Cushites appear to have spread along tracts extending from the higher Nile to the Euphrates and Tigris. History affords many traces of this relation of Babylonia, Arabia and Ethiopia. (black), a Benjamite mentioned only in the title to (Psalms 7:1) He was probably a follower of Saul, the head of his tribe. (B.C. 1061). Cushan (blackness), (Habakkuk 3:7) possibly the same as Cushan-rishathaim (Authorized Version Chushan-) king of Mesopotamia. (Judges 3:8,10) Cushi Properly "the Cushite," "the Ethiopian," a man apparently attached to Joab's person. (2 Samuel 18:21-25,31,32) Cuth, Or Cuthah one of the countries whence Shalmaneser introduced colonists into Samaria. (2 Kings 17:24,30) Its position is undecided. Cuttings [in The Flesh] Cuttings in the flesh, or the laceration of one's body for the "propitiation of their gods," (1 Kings 18:28) constituted a prominent feature of idolatrous worship, especially among the Syrians. The Israelites were prohibited from indulging in such practices. (Leviticus 19:28; 21:5; 14:1; Jeremiah 16:6) Cymbal, Cymbals a pecussive musical instrument. Two kinds of cymbals are mentioned in (Psalms 150:5) "loud cymbals" or castagnettes, and "high-sounding cymbals." The former consisted of our small plates of brass or of some other hard metal; two plates were attached to each hand of the performer, and were struck together to produce a great noise. The latter consisted of two larger plates, on held in each hand and struck together as an accompaniment to other instruments. Cymbals were used not only in the temple but for military purposes, and also by Hebrew women as a musical accompaniment to their national dances. Both kinds of cymbals are still common in the East. Cypress (Heb. tirzah). The Hebrew word is found only in (Isaiah 44:14) We are quite unable to assign any definite rendering to it. The true cypress is a native of the Taurus. The Hebrew word points to some tree with a hard grain, and this is all that can be positively said of it. Cyprus an island of Asia in the Mediterranean. It is about 140 miles long and 50 miles wide at the widest part. Its two chief cities were Salamis, at the east end of the island, and Paphos, at the west end. "Cyprus occupies a distinguished place in both sacred and profane history. It early belonged to the Phoenicians of the neighboring coast; was afterwards colonized by Greeks' passed successively under the power of the Pharaohs, Persians, Ptolemies and Romans, excepting a short period of independence in the fourth century B.C. It was one of the chief seats of the worship of Venus, hence called Cypria. Recently the discoveries in Cyprus by Cesnola have excited new interest.--Appleton's Am. Encyc. It was the native place of Barnabas, (Acts 4:36) and was visited by Paul. (Acts 13:4-13; 15:39; 21:3) See also (Acts 27:4) Cyrene the principal city of that part of northern Africa which was sufficiently called