__________________________________________________________________ Title: The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Vol. II: Basilica - Chambers Creator(s): Schaff, Philip (1819-1893) Print Basis: Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1952 Rights: Public Domain CCEL Subjects: All; Reference LC Call no: BR95 LC Subjects: Christianity __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE Editor-in-Chief SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D. Editor-in-Chief of Supplementary Volumes LEFFERTS A. LOETSCHER, Ph.D., D.D. Associate Professor of Church History Princeton Theological Seminary BAKER BOOK HOUSE GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE EDITED BY SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D. (Editor-in-Chief) WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF CHARLES COLEBROOK SHERMAN AND GEORGE WILLIAM GILMORE, M.A. (Associate Editors) AND THE FOLLOWING DEPARTMENT EDITORS CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH, D.D. JAMES FREDERIC McCURDY, PH.D., LL.D. (Department of Systematic Theology) (Department of the Old Testament) HENRY KING CARROLL, LL.D. HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D.D. (Department of Minor Denominations) (Department of the New Testament) JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D. ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D. (Department of Liturgics and Religious Orders) (Department of Church History) FRANK HORACE VIZETELLY, F.S.A. (Department of Pronunciation and Typography) __________________________________________________________________ VOLUME II BASILICA ? CHAMBERS __________________________________________________________________ BAKER BOOK HOUSE GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN 1952 EXCLUSIVE AMERICAN PUBLICATION RIGHTS SECURED BY BAKER BOOK HOUSE FROM FUNK AND WAGNALLS LITHOPRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA BY CUSHING--MALLOY, INC., ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN, 1952 __________________________________________________________________ EDITORS __________________________________________________________________ SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D. (Editor-in-Chief.) Professor of Church History, New York University. ASSOCIATE EDITORS CHARLES COLEBROOK SHERMAN GEORGE WILLLAM GILMORE, M.A. Editor in Biblical Criticism and Theology on "The New International Encyclopedia," New York. New York, Formerly Professor of Biblical History and Lecturer on Comparative Religion, Bangor Theological Seminary. DEPARTMENT EDITORS, VOLUME II. CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH, D.D. JAMES FREDERICK McCURDY, Ph.D., LL.D. (Department of Systematic Theology.) Professor of Systematic Theology, Chicago Theological Seminary. (Department of the Old Testament.) Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Toronto. HENRY KING CARROLL, LL.D. HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D.D. (Department of Minor Denominations.) One of the Corresponding Secretaries of the Board of Foreign Missions of the Methodist Episcopal Church, New York. (Department of the New Testament.) Professor of the Literature and Interpretation of the New Testament, Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass. JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D. ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D. (Department of Liturgies and Religious Orders.) President of St. Joseph's Seminary, Yonkers, N. Y. (Department of Church History.) Professor of Church History, Baylor Theological Seminary (Baylor University), Waco, Tex. HUBERT EVANS, Ph.D. FRANK HORACE VIZETELLY, F.S.A (Office Editor.) Formerly of the Editorial Staff of the "Encyclopaedia Britannica" Company, New York City. (Department of Pronunciation and Typography.) Managing Editor of the Standard Dictionary, etc., New York City. __________________________________________________________________ CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME II. ERNST CHRISTIAN ACHELIS, Th.D., KARL BENRATH, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Practical Theology, University of Marburg. Professor of Church History, University of Koenigsberg. SAMUEL JAMES ANDREWS (), D.D., IMMANUEL GUSTAF ADOLF BENZINGER, Ph.D., Th.Lic., Late Pastor of the Catholic Apostolic Church, Hartford, Conn. Formerly Privat-docent in Old Testament Theology, University of Berlin, Member of the Executive Committee of the German Society for the Exploration of Palestine, Jerusalem. CARL FRANKLIN ARNOLD, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Church History, Evangelical Theological Faculty, University of Breslau. FERENCZ BALOGH, SAMUEL BERGER (), D.D., Professor of Church History, Reformed Theological Academy, Debreczin, Hungary. Late Librarian to the Faculty of Protestant Theology, Paris. EDUARD BARDE (), CARL ALBRECHT BERNOULLI, Th.Lic., Late Professor of New Testament Exegesis, School of Theology, Geneva. Professor in Berlin. HERMANN BARGE, Ph.D., CARL BERTHEAU, Th.D., Gymnasial Professor in Leipsic. President of the Society for Innere Mission, and Pastor of St. Michael's Church, Hamburg. SAMUEL JUNE BARROWS, D.D, WILLIBALD BEYSCHLAG (), Th.D., Corresponding Secretary of the Prison Association of New York. Late Professor of Theology, University of Halle. JOHANNES BELSHEIM, AMY GASTON BONET-MAURY, D.D., LL.D., Pastor Emeritus in Christiania, Norway. Professor of Church History, Independent School of Divinity, Paris. GOTTLIEB NATHANAEL BONWETSCH, Th.D., THEODOR GEROLD, Th.D., Professor of Church History, University of Goettingen. President of the Consistory, Strasburg. FRIEDRICH BOSSE, Ph.D., Th.Lic., GEORGE WILLIAM GILMORE, M.A., Extraordinary Professor of Theology, University of Greifswald. Formerly Lecturer on Comparative Religion, Bangor Theological Seminary, Associate Editor of the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia. GUSTAF BOSSERT, Ph.D., Th.D., WILHELM GLAMANN, Pastor Emeritus, Stuttgart. Pastor at Siebeneichen, near Loewenberg, Prussia. JOHANNES FRIEDRICH THEODOR BRIEGER, Ph.D., Th.D., WILHELM GOETZ, Ph.D., Professor of Church History, University of Leipsic. Honorary Professor of Geography, Technische Hochschule, and Professor, Military Academy, Munich. CHARLES AUGUSTUS BRIGGS, D.D., Litt.D., CASPAR RENE GREGORY, Ph.D., Dr.Jur., Th.D., D.D., LL.D., Professor of Theological Encyclopedia and Symbolics, Union Theological Seminary, New York. Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Leipsic. FRANTS PEDER WILLIAM BUHL, Ph.D., Th.D., PAUL GRUENBERG, Th.Lic., Professor of Oriental Languages, University of Copenhagen. Pastor in Strasburg. KARL BURGER (), Th.D., GEORG GRUETZMACHER, Ph.D., Th.Lic., Late Supreme Consistorial Councilor, Munich. Extraordinary Professor of Church History and of the New Testament, University of Heidelberg. WALTER CASPARI, Ph.D., Th.Lic., REINHOLD GRUNDEMANN, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Practical Theology, Pedagogics, and Didactics, and University Preacher, University of Erlangen. Pastor at Moerz, near Belzig, Prussia. JACQUES EUGENE CHOISY, Th.D., HERMANN GUTHE, Th.D., Pastor in Geneva, Switzerland. Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Leipsic. FERDINAND COHRS, Th.Lic., ADOLF HARNACK, M.D., Ph.D., Th.D., Consistorial Councilor, Ilfeld, Hanover. Professor of Church History, University of Berlin, and General Director of the Royal Library, Berlin. ALEXIS IRENEE DU PONT COLEMAN, M.A., ALBERT HAUCK, Ph.D., Dr.Jur., Th.D., Instructor in English, College of the City of New York. Professor of Church History, University of Leipsic, Editor-in-Chief of the Hauck-Herzog Realencyklopaedie. GUSTAF HERMAN DALMAN, Ph.D., Th.D., HERMAN HAUPT, Ph.D., Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Leipsic, and President of the German Evangelical Archeological Institute, Jerusalem. Professor and Director of the University Library, Giessen. SAMUEL MARTIN DEUTSCH, Th.D., JOHANNES HAUSSLEITER, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Church History, University of Berlin. Professor of the New Testament, University of Greifswald. FRANZ WILHELM DIBELIUS, Ph.D., Th.D., CARL FRIEDRICH GEORG HEINRICI, Ph.D., Th.D., Supreme Consistorial Councilor, City Superintendent and Pastor of the Kreuzkirche, Dresden. Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Leipsic. JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D., EDGAR HENNECKE, Th.Lic., President of St. Joseph's Seminary, Yonkers, N. Y. Pastor at Betheln, Hanover. HENRY OTIS DWIGHT, LL.D., HERMANN HERING, Th.D., Recording Secretary of the American Bible Society, Coeditor of the "Encyclopedia of Missions," New York. Professor of Practical Theology, University of Halle. EMIL EGLI, Th.D., MAX HEROLD, Th.D., Professor of Church History, University of Zurich. Dean, Neustadt-an-der-Aisch, Bavaria, Editor of Siona. DAVID ERDMANN (), Th.D., JOHANN JAKOB HERZOG (), Ph.D., Th.D., Late Professor of Church History, Evangelical Theological Faculty, University of Breslau. Late Professor of Reformed Theology, University of Erlangen, Founder of the Hauck-Herzog Realencyklopaedie. ALFRED ERICHSON (), Ph.D., Th.D., ALFRED HEGLER (), Ph.D., Th.D., Late Professor of Theology, University of Strasburg. Late Professor of Church History, University of Tuebingen. CARL FEY, Ph.D., JOHANNES HESSE, Pastor at Coesseln, near Halle. Former Editor of the Evangelisches Missions-Magazin and President of the Publishing Society at Calw, Wuerttemberg. JOHN FOX, D.D., PAUL HINSCHIUS (), LL.D., Corresponding Secretary of the American Bible Society, New York. Late Professor of Ecclesiastical Law, University of Berlin. EMIL ALBERT FRIEDBERG, Dr.Jur., HERMANN WILHELM HEINRICH HOELSCHER, Th.D., Professor of Ecclesiastical, Public and German Law, University of Leipsic. Pastor of the Nikolaikirche, Leipsic, Editor of the Allgemeine Evangelisch-Lutherische Kirchenzeitung and of the Theologisches Literaturblatt. KARL HOLL, Ph.D., Th.D. KARL JOHANNES NEUMANN, Ph.D., Professor of Church History, University of Berlin. Professor of the History of Art, University of Kiel. ALFRED JEREMIAS, Ph.D., Th.Lic., ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D., Pastor of the Lutherkirche, Leipsic. Professor of Church History, Baylor Theological Seminary (Baylor University), Waco, Tex. MARTIN KAEHLER, Th.D., JULIUS NEY, Th.D., Professor of Dogmatics and New Testament Exegesis, University of Halle. Supreme Consistorial Councilor in Speyer, Bavaria. ADOLF KAMPHAUSEN, Th.D., FRIEDRIK CHRISTIAN NIELSEN (), Th.D., Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Bonn. Late Bishop of Aalborg, Denmark. PETER GUSTAF KAWERAU, Th.D., FRIEDRICH AUGUST NITZSCH (), Ph.D., Consistorial Councilor, Professor of Practical Theology, and University Preacher, University of Breslau. Late Professor of Theology, University of Kiel. RUDOLF KITTEL, Ph.D., HANS CONRAD VON ORELLI, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Leipsic. Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and History of Religion, University of Basel. FRIEDRICH HERMANN THEODOR KOLDE, Ph.D., Th.D., MARGARET BLOODGOOD PEEKE Professor of Church History, University of Erlangen. Inspectress-General of the Martinist Order of America. HERMAN GUSTAF EDUARD KRUEGER, Ph.D., Th.D., CHARLES PFENDER, Professor of Church History, University of Giessen. Pastor of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, Paris. JOHANNES WILHELM KUNZE, Ph.D., BERNHARD PICK, Ph.D., D.D., Professor of Systematic and Practical Theology, University of Greifswald. Pastor of the First German Evangelical Lutheran Church, Newark, N. J. L. A. VAN LANGERAAD, Ph.D. FREDERICK DUNGLISON POWER, LL.D., Lekkerkerk, Holland Pastor of the Garfield Memorial Church, Washington, D. C. LUDWIG LEMME, Th.D. WILLIAM PRICE, Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Heidelberg. Formerly Instructor in French, Yale College and Sheffield Scientific School, New Haven, Conn. EDUARD LEMPP, Ph.D. FRANZ PRAETORIUS, Ph.D., Superintendent of the Royal Orphan Asylum, Stuttgart. Professor of Oriental Languages, University of Halle. AUGUST LESKIEN, Ph.D. GEORG CHRISTIAN RIETSCHEL, Th.D., Professor of Slavonic Languages, University of Leipsic. Professor of Practical Theology and University Preacher, University of Leipsic. FRIEDRICH ARMIN LOOFS, Ph.D., Th.D., SIEGFRIED RIETSCHEL, Dr.Jur., Professor of Church History, University of Halle. Professor of German Law, University of Tuebingen. ANDERS HERMAN LUNDSTROeM, Th.D., HENDRICK CORNELIUS ROGGE (), Th.D., Professor of Church History, Royal University of Upsala, Sweden. Late Professor of History, University of Amsterdam. JAMES FREDERICK McCURDY, Ph.D., LL.D., EUGEN SACHSSE, Th.D., Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Toronto. University Preacher and Professor of Practical Theology in the Evangelical Theological Faculty, University of Bonn. PHILIPP MEYER, Th.D., DAVID SCHLEY SCHAFF, D.D., Supreme Consistorial Councilor and Member of the Royal Consistory, Hanover. Professor of Church History, Western Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Pa. CARL THEODOR MIRBT, Th.D., PHILIP SCHAFF (), D.D., LL.D., Professor of Church History, University of Marburg. Late Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York, Founder of the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia. ERNST FRIEDRICH KARL MUELLER, Th.D., REINHOLD SCHMID, Th.Lic., Professor of Reformed Theology, University of Erlangen. Pastor at Oberholzheim, Wuerttemberg. GEORG MUELLER, Ph.D., Th.D., RICHARD KARL BERNHARD SCHMIDT, Dr.Jur., Councilor for Schools, Leipsic. Professor of Jurisprudence and Civil and Criminal Procedure, University of Freiburg. JOSEF MUELLER, Th.D., JOHANN SCHNEIDER, Pastor in Ebersdorf, Reuss. Pastor at Neckar-Steinach, Hesse. NIKOLAUS MUELLER, Ph.D., Th.D., THEODOR SCHOTT (), Ph.D., Th.D., Extraordinary Professor of Christian Archeology, University of Berlin. Late Librarian and Professor of Theology, University of Stuttgart. CHRISTOF EBERHARD NESTLE, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor in the Theological Seminary at Maulbronn, Wuerttemberg. JOHANN FRIEDRICH RITTER VON SCHULTE, Dr.Jur., PAUL TSCHACKERT, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of German Ecclesiastical Law and of the History of Law, University of Bonn. Professor of Church History, University of Goettingen. VICTOR SCHULTZE, Th.D., JOHANN GERHARD UHLHORN (), Th.D., Professor of Church History and Christian Archeology, University of Greifswald. Late Consistorial Councilor, Hanover. HANS SCHULZ, Ph.D., MARVIN RICHARDSON VINCENT, D.D., Gymnasial Professor at Steglitz, near Berlin. Professor of New Testament Exegesis and Criticism, Union Theological Seminary, New York. LUDWIG SCHULZE, Ph.D., Th.D., WILHELM VOGT (), Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Rostock. Late Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Rostock. OTTO SEEBASS, Ph.D., STACY REUBEN WARBURTON, Educator in Leipsic, Germany. Assistant Editor of The Baptist Missionary Magazine, Boston. REINHOLD SEEBERG, Th.D., BENJAMIN BRECKINRIDGE WARFIELD, D.D., LL.D., Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Berlin. Professor of Didactic and Polemical Theology, Princeton Theological Seminary. EMIL SEHLING, Dr.Jur., AUGUST WILHELM WERNER, Th.D., Professor of Ecclesiastical and Commercial Law, University of Erlangen. Pastor Primartus, Guben, Prussia. FRIEDRICH ANTON EMIL SIEFFERT, Ph.D., Th.D., FRANCIS METHERALL WHITLOCK, Professor of Dogmatics and New Testament Exegesis, University of Bonn. Pastor of the Bethlehem Congregational Church, Cleveland, O. EMIL ELIAS STEINMEYER, Ph.D., RICHARD PAUL WUELKER, Ph.D., Professor of German Language and Literature, University of Erlangen. Professor of English, University of Leipsic. GEORG EDUARD STEITZ (), Th.D., AUGUST WUENSCHE, Ph.D., Th.D., Late Pastor in Frankfort-on-the-Main. Titular Professor in Dresden. ALFRED STOECKIUS, Ph.D., THEODOR ZAHN, Th.D., Litt.D., Astor Library, New York. Professor of New Testament Exegesis and Introduction, University of Erlangen. HERMANN LEBERECHT STRACK, Ph.D., Th.D., HEINRICH ZIMMER, Ph.D., Extraordinary Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and Semitic Languages, University of Berlin. Professor of Celtic Philology, University of Berlin. OTTO ZOECKLER (), Ph.D., Th.D., Late Professor of Church History, University of Greifswald. __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX?VOLS. I AND II __________________________________________________________________ The following list of books is supplementary to the bibliographies given at the end of the articles contained in volumes I and II, and brings the literature down to November, 1908. In this list each title entry is printed in capital letters. __________________________________________________________________ Abraham: F. Wilke, War Abraham eine historische Persoenlichkeit? Leipsic, 1907. Abulfaraj: Bar Hebraeus, Buch der Strahlen. Die groessere Grammatik des Barhebraeus. Uebersetzung nach einem kritisch berichtigen Texte mit textkritischem Apparat und einem Anhang: Zur Terminologie, by A. Moberg. Einleitung and vol. ii., Leipsic, 1907 (the first part has not yet appeared). Africa: J. D. Mullens, The Wonderful Story of Uganda, London, 1908. A. H. Baynes, South Africa, London, 1908. R. H. Milligan, The Jungle Folk of Africa, New York, 1908. Agnosticism: H. C. Sheldon, Unbelief in the Nineteenth Century, New York, 1907. Agrapha: C. R. Gregory, Das Freer-Logion, Leipsic, 1908 (on the Logia-fragments possessed by C. L. Freer, of Detroit). B. Pick, Paralipomena: Remains of Gospels and Sayings of Christ, Chicago, 1908. Alexander IV.: F. Tenckhoff, Papst Alexander IV., Paderborn, 1907. Alexander of Hales: K. Heim, Das Wesen der Gnade und ihr Verhaeltnis zu den natuerlichen Funktionen des Menschen bei Alexander Halesius, Leipsic, 1907. Altar: R. Kittel, Studien zur hebraeischen Archaeologie, i. 118-158, Leipsic, 1908. Ambrose, Saint, of Milan: J. E. Niederhuber, Die Eschatologie des heiligen Ambrosius, Paderborn, 1907. P. de Labriolle, S. Ambroise, Paris, 1908. Angels: R. W. Britton, Angels, their Nature and Service, London, 1908. Apocrypha: L. Couard, Die religioesen und sittlichen Anschauungen der alttestamentlichen Apokryphen und Pseudepigraphen, Guetersloh, 1907. A. Fuchs, Textkritische Untersuchungen zum hebraeischen Ekklesiastikus, Freiburg, 1907. R. Smend, Griechisch-syrisch-hebraeischer Index zur Weisheit des Jesus Sirach, Berlin, 1907. F. Steinmetzer, Neue Untersuchungen ueber die Geschichtlichkeit der Juditherzaehlung, Leipsic, 1907. J. Mueller, Beitraege zur Erklaerung und Kritik des Buches Tobit, Giessen, 1908. Apologetics: W. H. Turton, The Truth of Christianity: a Manual of Christian Evidences, London, 1908. E. F. Scott, The Apologetic of the New Testament, New York, 1908. H. Egerton, The Liberal Theology and the Ground of Faith; being Essays towards a conservative Restatement of Apologetic, London, 1908. Apostolic Constitutions: F. X. Funk, Didascalia et constitutions apostolorum I-II., Paderborn, 1906. Arabia: R. Dussiaud, Les Arabes en Syrie avant l'Islam, Paris, 1907. Archeology, Biblical: I. Benzinger, Hebraeische Archaeologie, Tuebingen, 1907. Architecture: A. K. Porter, Medieval Architecture, New York, 1908. Arianism: S. Rogala, Die Anfaenge des arianischen Streites, Paderborn, 1907. Art: S. F. H. Robinson, Celtic Illuminative Art in the Gospel Books of Durrow, Lindisfarne and Kells, London, 1908. J. R. Allen, Celtic Art in Pagan and Christian Times, Philadelphia, 1908. Margaret E. Tabor, The Saints in Art, New York, 1908. Asceticism: Bibliotheca Franciscana ascetica medii aevi, vol. iv., Quarrachi, 1907. Asherah: F. Lundgreen, Die Benuetzung der Pflanzenwelt in der alttestamentlichen Religion, Giessen, 1908. Asia Minor: F. Staehelin, Geschichte der kleinasiatischen Galater, 2d ed., Leipsic, 1907. Assyria: A. T. Olmstead, Western Asia in the Days of Sargon of Assyria, B.C. 722-705, New York, 1908. Augsburg, Bishopric of: A. Steichele, Das Bisthum Augsburg, historisch und statistisch beschrieben, vol. vii., Augsburg, 1906 sqq. Augsburg Confession and its Apology: Acta comiciorum Augustae ex litteris Philippi Jonae et aliorum ad M. Luther, ed. G. Berbig, Leipsic, 1907. Augustine, Saint, of Hippo: B. Dombart, Zur Textgeschichte der Civitas Dei Augustins seit dem Entstehen der ersten Drucke, Leipsic, 1907. O. Blank, Die Lehre des heiligen Augustinus vom Sakramente der Eucharistie, Paderborn, 1906. F. X. Eggersdorfer, Der heilige Augustinus als Paedagoge und seine Bedeutung fuer die Geschichte der Bildung, Freiburg, 1907. P. Friedrich, Die Mariologie des heiligen Augustinus, Cologne, 1907. O. Zaenker, Der Primat des Willens vor dem Intellect bei Augustin. Guetersloh, 1907. Scripta contra Donatistas, part i., ed. Petschenig, Leipsic, 1908. Saint Augustine of Hippo, with Introduction by the Bishop of Southampton (The Library of the Soul), London, 1908. H. Becker, Augustin. Studien zu seiner geistigen Entwickelung, Leipsic, 1908. Augustinians: Codex diplomaticus Ord. E. S. Augustini, vol. iii., Papiae (Rome), 1907. Babylonia: M. Jastrow, Die Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens, Giessen, 1907. Early Sumerian Psalms; Texts in Transliteration with Transl., Critical Commentary and Introduction, Leipsic, 1908. O. A. Toffteen, Researches in Assyrian and Babylonian Geography, part 1, Chicago, 1908. H. Radau, Bel, the Christ of Ancient Times, Chicago, 1908. Bach, J. S.: H. Perry, Life of Johann Sebastian Bach, New York, 1908. Bamberg, Bishopric of: H. T. von Kohlhagen, Das Domkapitel des alten Bisthums Bamberg und seine Canoniker, Bamberg, 1907. J. Koerber, Lose Blaetter aus meines Bruders Leben und Skripten. Ein Stueck Bamberger Geschichte als Scherflein zum 9. Bisthumscentenar, Bamberg, 1907. J. Looshorn, Die Geschichte des Bisthums Bamberg. Nach den Quellen bearbeitet, vol. vii., Das Bisthum Bamberg 1729-1808, Bamberg, 1907 sqq. Banks, L. A.: Sermons which have Won Souls, New York, 1908. Baptism: J. T. Christian, The Form of Baptism in Sculpture and Art, Louisville, Ky., 1907. J. M. Lupton, De baptismo, Cambridge, 1908. Baptists: J. S. Flory, Literary Activity of the German Baptist Brethren in the Eighteenth Century, Elgin, Ill., 1908. E. Y. Mullens, The Axioms of Religion; a New Interpretation of the Baptist Faith, Philadelphia, 1908. Barlaam and Josophat: Gui von Cambrai und Josophas, nach dem Handschriften von Paris und Monte Cassino, ed. Carl Appel, Halle, 1907. Barnabas: "Epistle," ed. Jos. Vizzini, Rome, 1907. Beecher, H. W.: S. M. Griswold, Sixty Years with Plymouth Church, New York, 1907. Beecher, W. J.: The Dated Events of the Old Testament: being a Presentation of Old Testament Chronology, Philadelphia, 1908. Beet, J. A.: The Church, the Churches, and the Sacraments, London, 1907. A Shorter Manual of Theology, London, 1908. Behaism: Les Lec,ons de Saint-Jean-d'Acre d'Ad-Oul-Beha, recueillies par Laura Clifford Barney, traduit du persan par Hippolyte Dreyfus, Paris, 1908. Abdu'l Baha. Some answered Questions: Collected and Translated from the Persian by Laura Clifford, Philadelphia, 1908. Benedict of Nursia: L. Delisle, Le Livre de Jean de Stavelot sur S. Benoit, Paris, 1908. Studien und Mitteilungen aus dem Benedictinerund dem Cistercienser-Orden, 28 Jahrgang, Raigen, 1907. Die Regel des- heiligen Benedictus erklaert in ihrem geschichtlichen Zusammenhang und mit besonderer Ruecksicht auf das geistliche Leben, Freiburg, 1907. G. Meier, Der heilige Benedikt und sein Orden, Regensburg, 1907. Benediction: W. H. Dolbeer, The Benediction, Philadelphia, 1908. Bennett, W. H.: The Religion of the Post-Exilic Prophets, Edinburgh, 1907. The Life of Christ according to St. Mark, London, 1907. Bentley, Richard: A. T. Bartholomew, Richard Bentley, a Bibliography of his Works, London, 1908. Berkeley, G.: The Principle of Human Knowledge, new ed., London, 1907. The Querist; containing Several Queries proposed to the Consideration of the Public, parts 1-3, Dublin, 1735-37, reprinted Baltimore, 1908. Bernard, Saint, of Clairvaux: On Consideration, Translated by George Lewis, London, 1908. Besant, A.: London Lectures of 1907, London 1907. Beza, T.: A Tragedie of Abraham's Sacrifice, transl. By Arthur Golding, ed. M. W. Wallace, Toronto, 1906. Bible Societies: J. Fox, Round the World for the American Bible Society, New York, 1908. Bible Versions, A, III.: F. C. Burkitt, Early Eastern Christianity, lect. 2, New York, 1904. The Four Gospels from the Codex Corbeiensis London, 1908. Bible Versions, B, IV.: A. F. Gasquet, The Old English Bible, and Other Essays, New York, 1908. M. B. Riddle, The Story of the Revised New Testament, Philadelphia, 1908. J. I. Mombert, Handbook, 2d ed. London, 1907. M. W. Jacobus, ed., Roman Catholic and Protestant Bibles Compared: the Gould Prize Essays, 2d ed., New York, 1908. F. Vigouroux, Dictionnaire de la Bible, fasc. xxviii. Cols. 1549-51, Paris, 1906. Biblical Criticism: J. R. Cohn, The Old Testament in the Light of Modern Research, London, 1908. Biblical Introduction: A. Schulz, Biblische Studien, ed. O. Bardenhewer, vol. xii., part 1, Doppelberichte im Pentateuch. Ein Beitrag zur Einleitung in das Alte Testament, Freiburg, 1908. C. Roesch, Die heiligen Schriften des Alten Testaments; ausfuehrliche Inhaltsuebersicht mit kurzgefasster spezieller Einleitung, Muenster, 1908. F. Barth, Einleitung in das Neue Testament, Guetersloh, 1908. C. F. G. Heinrici, Der litterarische Charakter der neutestamentlichen Schriften, Leipsic, 1908. Biblical Theology: R. S. Franks, The New Testament Doctrines of Man, Sin, and Salvation, London, 1908. Black, H.: Christ's Service of Love [Communion sermons and meditations], New York, 1907. Blavatsky, H. V.: F. S. Hoffman, The Sphere of Religion, New York, 1908. Bliss, E. M.: The Missionary Enterprise, New York, 1908. Boehme, J.: The Supersensual Life, or the Life which is above Sense, Eng. Transl. By W. Law, new ed., London, 1907. Boethius: In Isagogen Porphyrii commenta, ed. S. Brandt, Vienna and Leipsic, 1906. Bonet-Maury, G.: France, christianisme et civilization, Paris, 1907. Booth, W.: The Seven Spirits: or, What I teach my Officers, London, 1907. Borromeo, C.: Die Nuntiatur von Giovanni Francesco Bonhomini 1579-1581. Documente vol. i., Die Nuntiaturberichte Bonhominis und seine Correspondenz mit Carlo Borromeo aus dem Jahre 1579, Solothurn, 1906. Boston, T.: A General Account of my Life, ed. G. D. Low, London, 1908. Bousset, W.: What is Religion? London, 1907. Boyd, A. K. H.: Sermons and Stray Papers. With Biographical Sketch by Rev. W. W. Tulloch, London, 1907. Brahmanism: J. C. Oman, The Brahmins, Theists, and Muslims of India, London, 1907. L. D. Barnett, Brahma-Knowledge, an Outline of the Philosophy of the Vedanta, set forth by the Upanishads and by Sankara, London, 1907. M. Bloomfield, The Religion of the Veda, the Ancient Religion of India, New York, 1908. Brent, C. H.: Leadership: The William Belden Noble Lectures . . . at . . . Harvard, New York, 1908. Breslau, Bishopric of: Geschichte des Breslauer Domes und Seine Wiederherstellung, Breslau, 1907. Veroeffentlichungen aus dem fuerstbischoflichen Dioezesan-Archiv zu Breslau, Breslau, 1905 sqq. Breviary: A. Schulte, Die Psalmen des Breviers nebst den Cantica zum praktischen Gebrauche, Paderborn, 1907. Bridget, Saint, of Kildare: J. A. Knowles, St. Brigid, Patroness of Ireland, London, 1907. Bridget, Saint, of Sweden: K. Krogh-Tonning, Die heilige Birgitta in Schweden, Kempten, 1907. Brooke, S. A.: The Sea Charm of Venice, London, 1907. Studies in Poetry, London, 1907. Brown, A. J.: The Foreign Missionary, An Incarnation of a World Movement, New York, 1907. Browne, R.: C. Burrage, The "Retractation" of Robert Browne, Father of Congregationalism, London, 1907. Browne, Sir Thomas: Works, ed. C. Sayle, 3 vols., Edinburgh, 1907. Buddhism: Jataka, by E. B. Cowell, vol. vi., New York, 1907. P. L. Narasu, The Essence of Buddhism, London, 1907. D. T. Suzuki, Outlines of Mahayana Buddhism, London, 1907 (Japanese). Soyen Shaku, Sermons of a Buddhist Abbot, London, 1907. Taba Kanai, The Praises of Amida. Seven Buddhist Sermons. Translated from the Japanese by Rev. A. Lloyd, London, 1907. H. F. Hall, The Inward Light, 2d impression, London, 1908 (Buddhism in Burmah). K. von Hase, New Testament Parallels in Buddhistic Literature, New York, 1908. Bullinger, H.: Bullingers Korrespondenz mit den Graubuendern, part iii., Oct., 1566-June, 1575, ed. T. Schiess, Basel, 1906. Burnet, G.: T. E. S. Clarke and (Miss) H. C. Foxcroft, Life of Gilbert Burnet, Bishop of Salisbury; with Bibliographical Appendixes; and an Introduction by C. H. Firth, London and New York, 1908. Cabala: Kabbala denudata. The Kabbalah Unveiled: containing the following books from the Zohar: the Book of Concealed Mystery, the Greater Holy Assembly, the Lesser Holy Assembly, translated into English, New York, 1908 (republication of edition of 1887). Cajetan, T.: P. Kalkoff, Cardinal Cajetan auf dem Augsburger Reichstage von 1518, Rome, 1907. Calvin, J.: A. Dide, Michel Servet et Calvin, Paris, 1907. Cambridge Platonists: E. A. George, The Seventeenth Century Men of Latitude; the Forerunners of the New Theology, London, 1908. Campbell, R. J.: Christianity and the Social Order, London, 1908. Thursday Mornings at the City Temple, London, 1908. Canon of Scripture: J. Leipoldt, Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanons, 2 parts, Leipsic, 1907-08. Canonesses: K. H. Schaefer, Die Kanonissenstifter im deutschen Mittelalter. Ihre Entwicklung und innere Einrichtung im Zusammenhang mit dem altchristl. Sanktimonialentum, Stuttgart, 1907. Capito, W.: P. Kalkoff, W. Capito im Dienste Erzbischof Albrechts von Mainz, Berlin, 1907. Capuchins: Veroeffentlichungen aus dem Archiv der rhein-westfaelischen Kapuzinerordensprovinz, Mainz, 1907. Carlstadt, A. R. B. von: K. Mueller, Luther und Karlstadt. Stuecke aus ihrem gegenseitigen Verhaeltnis untersucht, Tuebingen, 1907. Carmelites: Monumenta historica Carmelitana, vol. i., Lirin, 1905-07. Carthage, Synods of: A. Alcais, Figures et recits de Carthage chretienne, Paris, 1907. Catechisms: F. Cohrs, Die evangelischen Katechismusversuche vor Luthers Enchiridion, Berlin, 1907. Catharine of Sienna: The Dialogue, transl. by Algar Thorold, new and abridged ed., London, 1907. __________________________________________________________________ LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS __________________________________________________________________ [Abbreviations in common use or self-evident are not included here. For additional information concerning the works listed, see vol. i., pp. viii.-xx., and the appropriate articles in the body of the work.] ADB { Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, Leipsic, 1875 sqq., vol. 53, 1907 Adv. adversus, "against" AJP American Journal of Philology, Baltimore, 1880 sqq. AJT American Journal of Theology, Chicago, 1897 sqq. AKR { Archiv fuer katholisches Kirchenrecht, Innsbruck, 1857-61, Mainz, 1872 sqq. ALKG { Archiv fuer Litteratur-und Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters, Freiburg, 1885 sqq. Am. American AMA { Abhandlungen der Muenchener Akademie, Munich, 1763 sqq. ANF { Ante-Nicene Fathers, American edition by A. Cleveland Coxe, 8 vols., and index, Buffalo, 1887; vol. ix., ed. Allan Menzies, New York, 1897 Apoc. Apocrypha, apocryphal Apol. Apologia, Apology Arab. Arabic Aram. Aramaic art. article Art. Schmal. Schmalkald Articles ASB { Acta sanctorum, ed. J. Bolland and others, Antwerp, 1643 sqq. ASM { Acta sanctorum ordinis S. Benedicti, ed. J. Mabillon, 9 vols., Paris, 1668-1701 Assyr. Assyrian A. T. Altes Testament, "Old Testament" Augs. Con. Augsburg Confession A. V. Authorized Version (of the English Bible) AZ { Allgemeine Zeitung, Augsburg, Tuebingen, Stuttgart, and Tuebingen, 1798 sqq. Baldwin, Dictionary { J. M. Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 3 vols. in 4, New York, 1901-05 Benzinger, Archaeologie { I. Benzinger, Hebraeische Archaeologie, 2d ed., Freiburg, 1907 Bertholdt, Einleitung { L. Bertholdt, Historisch-Kritische Einleitung . . . des Alten und Neuen Testaments, 6 vols., Erlangen, 1812-19 BFBS British and Foreign Bible Society Bingham, Origines { J. Bingham, Origines ecclesiasticae, 10 vols., London, 1708-22; new ed., Oxford, 1855 Bouquet, Recueil { M. Bouquet, Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France, continued by various hands, 23 vols., Paris, 1738-76 Bower, Popes { Archibald Bower, History of the Popes . . . to 1758, continued by S. H. Cox, 3 vols., Philadelphia, 1845-47 BQR Baptist Quarterly Review, Philadelphia, 1867 sqq. BRG See Jaffe Cant. Canticles, Song of Solomon cap. caput, "chapter" Ceillier, Auteurs sacres { R. Ceillier, Histoire des auteurs sacres et ecclesiastiques, 16 vols. in 17, Paris, 1858-69 Chron. Chronicon, "Chronicle" I Chron. I Chronicles II Chron. II Chronicles CIG Corpus inscriptionum Graecarum, Berlin, 1825 sqq. CIL Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum, Berlin, 1863 sqq. CIS Corpus inscriptionum Semiticarum, Paris, 1881 sqq. cod. { codex cod. D. { codex Bezae cod. Theod. codex Theodosianus Col. Epistle to the Colossians col., cols. column, columns Conf. Confessiones, "Confessions" I Cor. First Epistle to the Corinthians II Cor. Second Epistle to the Corinthians COT See Schrader CQR The Church Quarterly Review, London, 1875 sqq. CR { Corpus reformatorum, begun at Halle, 1834, vol. lxxxix., Berlin and Leipsic, 1905 sqq. Creighton, Papacy { M. Creighton, A History of the Papacy from the Great Schism to the Sack of Rome, new ed., 6 vols., New York and London, 1897 CSEL { Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum Latinorum, Vienna, 1867 sqq. CSHB { Corpus scriptorum historiae Byzantinae, 49 vols., Bonn, 1828-78 Currier, Religious Orders { C. W. Currier, History of Religious Orders, New York, 1896 D. Deuteronomist DACL { F. Cabrol, Dictionnaire d'archeologie chretienne et de liturgie, Paris, 1903 sqq. Dan. Daniel DB { J. Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, 4 vols. and extra vol., Edinburgh and New York, 1898-1904 DCA { W. Smith and S. Cheetham, Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, 2 vols., London, 1875-80 DCB { W. Smith and H. Wace, Dictionary of Christian Biography, 4 vols., Boston, 1877-87 Deut. Deuteronomy De vir. ill. De viris illustribus De Wette-Schrader, Einleitung { W. M. L. de Wette, Lehrbuch der historisch-kritischen Einleitung in die Bibel, ed. E. Schrader, Berlin, 1869 DGQ See Wattenbach DNB { L. Stephen and S. Lee, Dictionary of National Biography, 63 vols. and supplement 3 vols., London, 1885-1901 Driver, Introduction { S. R. Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament, 5th ed., New York, 1894 E. Elohist EB { T. K. Cheyne and J. S. Black, Encyclopaedia Biblica, 4 vols., London and New York, 1899-1903 Eccl. Ecclesia, "Church"; ecclesiasticus, "ecclesiastical" Eccles. Ecclesiastes Ecclus. Ecclesiasticus ed. edition; edidit, "edited by" Eph. Epistle to the Ephesians Epist. Epistola, Epistolae, "Epistle," "Epistles" Ersch and Gruber, Encyklopaedie { J. S. Ersch and J. G. Gruber, Allgemeine Encyklopaedie der Wissenschaften und Kuenste, Leipsic, 1818 sqq. E. V. English versions (of the Bible) Ex. Exodus Ezek. Ezekiel fasc. fasciculus Friedrich, KD { J. Friedrich, Kirchengeshichte Deutschlands, 2 vols., Bamberg, 1867-69 Fritzsche, Exegetisches Handbuch { O. F. Fritzsche and C. L. W. Grimm, Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zu den Apocryphen des Alten Testaments, 6 parts, Zurich, 1851-60 Gal. Epistle to the Galatians Gee and Hardy, Documents { H. Gee and W. J. Hardy, Documents Illustrative of English Church History, London, 1896 Gen. Genesis Germ. German GGA Goettingische gelehrte Anzeigen, Goettingen, 1824 sqq. Gibbon, Decline and Fall { E. Gibbon, History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ed. J. B. Bury, 7 vols., London, 1896-1900 Gk. Greek, Grecized Gregory, Textkritik { C. R. Gregory, Textkritik des Neuen Testaments, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1901-02 Gross, Sources { C. Gross, The Sources and Literature of English History . . . to 1485, London, 1900 Hab. Habakkuk Haddan and Stubbs, Councils { A. W. Haddan and W. Stubbs, Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents Relating to Great Britain and Ireland, 3 vols., Oxford, 1869-78 Haer { Refers to patristic works on heresies or heretics, Tertullian's De praescriptione, the Pros haireseis of Irenaeus, the Panarion of Epiphanius, etc. Hag. Haggai Harduin, Concilia { J. Harduin, Conciliorum collectio regia maxima, 12 vols., Paris, 1715 Harnack, Dogma { A. Harnack, History of Dogma . . . from the 3d German edition, 7 vols., Boston, 1895-1900 Harnack, Litteratur { A. Harnack, Geschichte der altchristlichen Litteratur bis Eusebius; 2 vols. in 3, Leipsic, 1893-1904 Hauck, KD { A. Hauck, Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands, vol. i, Leipsic, 1904; vol. ii., 1900; vol. iii., 1906; vol. iv., 1903 Hauck-Herzog, RE { Realencyklopaedie fuer protestantische Theologie und Kirche, founded by J. J. Herzog, 3d ed. by A. Hauck, Leipsic, 1896 sqq. Heb. Epistle to the Hebrews Hebr. Hebrew Hefele, Conciliengeschichte { C. J. von Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, continued by J. Hergenroether, 9 vols., Freiburg, 1883-93 Heimbucher, Orden und Kongrehationen { M. Heimbucher, Die Orden und Kongregationen der katholischen Kirche, 2 vols., Paderborn, 1896-97 Helyot, Ordres monastiques { P. Helyot, Histoire des ordres monastiques, religieux et militaires, 8 vols., Paris, 1714-19; new ed., 1839-42 Henderson, Documents { E. F. Henderson, Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages, London, 1892 Hist. History, histoire, historia Hist. eccl. Historia ecclesiastica, ecclesiae, "Church History" Hom. Homilia, homiliai, "homily, homilies" Hos. Hosea Isa. Isaiah Ital. Italian J Jahvist (Yahwist) JA Journal Asiatique, Paris, 1822 sqq. Jaffe, BRG { P. Jaffe, Bibliotheca rerum Germanicarum, 6 vols., Berlin, 1864-73 Jaffe, Regesta { P. Jaffe, Regesta pontificum Romanorum . . . ad annum 1198, Berlin, 1851; 2d ed., Leipsic, 1881-88 JAOS { Journal of the American Oriental Society, New Haven, 1849 sqq. JBL { Journal of Biblical Literature and Exegesis, first appeared as Journal of the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis, Middletown, 1882-88, then Boston, 1890 sqq. JE The Jewish Encyclopedia, 12 vols., New York, 1901-06 JE The combined narrative of the Jahvist (Yahwist) and Elohist Jer. Jeremiah Josephus, Ant. Flavius Josephus, "Antiquities of the Jews" Joesphus, Apion Flavius Josephus, "Against Apion" Josephus, Life Life of Flavius Josephus Josephus, War Flavius Josephus, "The Jewish War" Josh. Joshua JPT { Jahrbuecher fuer protestantische Theologie, Leipsic, 1875 sqq. JQR { The Jewish Quarterly Review, London, 1888 sqq. JTS { Journal of Theological Studies, London, 1899 sqq. Julian, Hymnology { J. Julian, A Dictionary of Hymnology, revised edition, London, 1907 JWT { Jaarboeken voor Wetenschappelijke Theologie, Utrecht, 1845 sqq. KAT See Schrader KB See Schrader KD See Friedrich Hauck, Rettberg KL { Wetzer und Welte's Kirchenlexikon, 2d ed., by J. Hergenroether and F. Kaulen, 12 vols., Freiburg, 1882-1903 Krueger, History { G. Krueger, History of Early Christian Literature in the First Three Centuries, New York, 1897. Krumbacher, Geschicte { K. Krumbacher, Geschicte der byzantinischen Litteratur, 2d ed., Munich, 1897 Labbe, Concilia { P. Labbe, Sacrorum concliorum nova et amplissima collectio. 31 vols., Florence and Venice, 1759-98 Lam. Lamentations Lanigan, Eccl. Hist. { J. Lanigan, Ecclesiastical History of Ireland to the 13th Century, 4 vols., Dublin, 1829. Lat. Latin, Latinized Leg. Leges, Legum Lev. Leviticus Lichtenberger, ESR { F. Lichtenberger, Encyclopedie des sciences religieuses, 13 vols., Paris, 1877-1882 Lorenz, DGQ { O. Lorenz, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter, 3d. ed., Berlin, 1887 LXX. The Septuagint I Macc. I Maccabees II Macc. II Maccabees Mai, Nova collectio { A. Mai, Scriptorum veterum nova collectio, 10 vols., Rome, 1825-38 Mal. Malachi Mann, Popes { R. C. Mann, Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages, London, 1902 sqq. Mansi, Concilia { G. D. Mann, Sanctorum conciliorum collectio nova, 31 vols., Florence and Venice, 1728 Matt. Matthew McClintock and Strong, Cyclopae;dia { J. McClintock and J. Strong, Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature, 10 vols. and supplement 2 vols., New York, 1869-87 MGH { Monumenta Germaniae historica, ed. G. H. Pertz and others, Hanover and Berlin. 1826 sqq. The following abbreviations are used for the sections and subsections of this work: Ant., Antiquitates, "Antiquities"; Auct. ant., Auctores antiquissimi, "Oldest Writers"; Chron. min., Chronica minora, "Lesser Chronicles"; Dip., Diplomata, "Diplomas, Documents"; Epist., Epistolae, "Letters"; Gest. pont. Rom., Gesta pontificum Romanorum, "Deeds of the Popes of Rome"; Leg., Leges, "Laws"; Lib. de lite, Libelli de lite inter regnum et sacerdotium saeculorum xi et xii conscripti, "Books concerning the Strife between the Civil and Ecclesiaetical Authorities in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries"; Nec., Necrologia Germania, "Necrology of Germany"; Poet. Lat. aevi Car., Poetae Latini aevi Carolini, "Latin Poets of the Caroline Time"; Poet. Lat. med. aevi, Poetae Latini medii aevi, "Latin Poets of the Middle Ages"; Script., Scriptores, "Writers"; Script. rer. Germ., Scriptores rerum Germanicarum, "Writers on German Subjects"; Script. rer. Langob., Scriptores rerum Langobardicarum et Italicarum, "Writers on Lombard and Italian Subjects"; Script. rer. Merov., Scriptores rerum Merovingicarum, "Writers on Merovingian Subjects" Mic. Micah Milman, Latin Christianity { H. H. Milman, History of Latin Christianity, Including that of the Popes to . . . Nicholas V., 8 vols., London, 1860-61 Mirbt, Quellen { C. Mirbt, Quellen sur Geschicte des Papsttums und des roemischen Katholicismus, Tuebingen, 1901 Moeller, Christian Church { W. Moeller, History of the Christian Church, 3 vols., London, 1892-1900 MPG { J. P. Migne, Patrologiae cursus completus, series Graeca, 162 vols., Paris, 1857-66 MPL { J. P. Migne, Patrologiae cursus completus, series Latina, 221 vols., Paris, 1844-64 MS., MSS. Manuscript, Manuscripts Muratori, Scriptores { L. A. Muratori, Rerum Italicarum scriptores, 28 vols., 1723-51 NA { Neues Archiv der Gesellschaft fuer aeltere deutsche Geschichtskunde, Hanover, 1876 sqq. Nah. Nahum n.d. no date of publication Neander, Christian Church { A. Neander, General History of the Christian Religion and Church, 6 vols. and index, Boston, 1872-81 Neh. Nehemiah Niceron, Memoires { R. P. Niceron, Memoires pour servir `a l'histoire des hommes illustres . . ., 43 vols., Paris, 1729-45 NKZ { Neue kirchliche Zeitschrift, Leipsic, 1890 sqq. Nowack, Archaeologie { W. Nowack, Lehrbuch der hebraeischen Archaeologie, 2 vols., Freiburg, 1894 n.p. no place of publication NPNF The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, 1st series, 14 vols., New York, 1897-92; 2d series, 14 vols., New York, 1890-1900 N.T. { New Testament, Novum Testamentum, Nouveau Testament, Neues Testament Num. Numbers Ob. Obadiah OLBT { J. Wordsworth, H. J. White, and others, Old-Latin Biblical Texts, Oxford, 1883 sqq. O. S. B. { Ordo sancti Benedicti, "Order of St. Benedict" O. T. Old Testament OTJC See Smith P. Priestly document Pastor, Popes { L. Pastor, The History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages, 6 vols., London, 1891-1902 PEA { Patres ecclesiae Anglicanae, ed, J. A. Giles, 34 vols., London, 1838-46 PEF Palestine Exploration Fund I Pet. First Epistle of Peter II Pet. Second Epistle of Peter Pliny, Hist. nat. { Pliny, Historia naturalis Potthast, Wegweiser { A. Potthast, Bibliotheca historica medii aevi. Wegweiser durch die Geschichtewerke, Berlin, 1896 Prov. Proverbs Ps. Psalms PSBA { Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archeology, London, 1880 sqq. q.v., qq.v. quod (quae) vide, "which see" R. Redactor Ranke, Popes { L. von Ranke, History of the Popes, 3 vols., London, 1896 RDM Revue des deux mondes, Paris, 1831 sqq. RE See Hauck-Herzog Reich, Documents { E. Reich, Select Documents Illustrating Mediaeval and Modern History, London, 1905 REJ Revue des etudes Juives, Paris, 1880 sqq. Rettberg, KD { F. W. Rettberg, Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands, 2 vols., Goettingen, 1846-48 Rev. Book of Revelation RHR Revue de l'histoire des religions, Paris, 1880 sqq. Richter, Kirchenrecht { A. L. Richter, Lehrbuch des katholischen und evangelischen Kirchenrechts, 8th ed. by W. Kahl, Leipsic, 1886 Robinson, Researches, and Later Researches { E. Robinson, Biblical Researches in Palestine, Boston, 1841, and Later Biblical Researches in Palestine, 3d ed. of the whole, 3 vols., 1867 Robinson, European History { J. H. Robinson, Readings in European History, 2 vols., Boston, 1904-06 Rom. Epistle to the Romans RSE { Revue des sciences ecclesiastiques, Arras, 1860-74, Amiens, 1875 sqq. RTP Revue de theologie et de philosophie, Lausanne, 1873 R. V. Revised Version (of the English Bible) saec saeculum, "century" I Sam. I Samuel II Sam. II Samuel SBA { Sitzungsberichte der Berliner Akademie, Berlin, 1882 sqq. SBE { F. Max Mueller and others, The Sacred Books of the East, Oxford, 1879 sqq., vol. xlviii., 1904 SBOT { Sacred Books of the Old Testament ("Rainbow Bible"), Leipsic, London, and Baltimore, 1894 sqq. Schaff, Christian Church { P. Schaff, History of the Christian Church, vols. i-iv., vi., vii., New York, 1882-92, vol. v., part 1, by D. S. Schaff, 1907 Schaff, Creeds { P. Schaff, The Creeds of Christendom, 3 vols., New York, 1877-84 Schrader, COT { E. Schrader, Cuneiform Inscriptions and the Old Testament, 2 vols., London, 1885-88 Schrader, KAT { E. Schrader, Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, 2 vols., Berlin, 1902-03 Schrader, KB { E. Schrader, Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek, 6 vols., Berlin, 1889-1901 Schuerer, Geschichte { E. Schuerer, Geschichte des juedischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi, 3 vols., Leipsic, 1898-1901; Eng. transl., 5 vols., New York, 1891 Script Scriptores, "writers" Scrivener, Introduction { F. H. A. Scrivener, Introduction to New Testament Criticism, 4th ed., London, 1894 Sent. Sententiae, "Sentences" S. J. Societas Jesu, "Society of Jesus" SK Theologische Studien und Kritiken, Hamburg, 1826 sqq. SMA { Sitzungsberichte der Muenchener Akademie, Munich, 1860 sqq. Smith, Kinship { W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, London, 1903 Smith, OTJC { W. R. Smith, The Old Testament in the Jewish Church, London, 1892 Smith, Prophets { W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel . . . to the Eighth Century, London, 1895 Smith, Rel. of. Sem. W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, London, 1894 S. P. C. K. { Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge S. P. G. { Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts sq., sqq. and following Strom. Stromata, "Miscellanies" s.v. sub voce, or sub verbo Swete, Introduction { H. B. Swete, Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek, London, 1900 Syr. Syriac TBS Trinitarian Bible Society Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book { O. J. Thatcher and E. H. McNeal, A Source Book for Mediaeval History, New York, 1905 I Thess First Epistle to the Thessalonians II Thess Second Epistle to the Thessalonians ThT { Theologische Tijdschrift, Amsterdam and Leyden, 1867 sqq. Tillemont, Memoires { L. S. le Nain de Tillemont, Memoires . . . ecclesiastiques des six premiers siecles, 16 vols., Paris, 1693-1712 I Tim First Epistle to Timothy II Tim Second Epistle to Timothy TJB { Theologischer Jahresbericht, Leipsic, 1882-1887, Freiburg, 1888, Brunswick, 1889-1897, Berlin, 1898 sqq. TLB Theologisches Litteraturblatt, Bonn, 1866 sqq. TLZ { Theologische Litteraturzeitung, Leipsic, 1876 sqq. Tob. Tobit TQ Theologische Quartalschrift, Tuebingen, 1819 sqq. TS { J. A. Robinson, Texts and Studies, Cambridge, 1891 sqq. TSBA { Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, London, 1872 sqq. TSK Theologische Studien und Kritiken, Hamburg, 1826 sqq. TU { Texte und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der altchristlichen Litteratur, ed. O. von Gebhardt and A. Harnack, Leipsic 1882 sqq. TZT { Tuebinger Zeitschrift fuer Theologie, Tuebingen, 1838-40 Ugolini, Thesaurus { B. Ugolinus, Thesaurus antiquitatum sacrarum, 34 vols., Venice, 1744-69 V. T. Vetus Testamentum, Vieux Testament, "Old Testament" Wattenbach, DGQ { W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen, 5th ed., 2 vols., Berlin, 1885; 6th ed., 1893-94 Wellhausen, Heidentum { J. Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentums, Berlin, 1887 Wellhausen, Prolegomena { J. Wellhausen, Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels, 6th ed., Berlin, 1905, Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1885 ZA { Zeitschrift fuer Assyriologie, Leipsic, 1886-88, Berlin, 1889 sqq. Zahn, Einleitung { T. Zahn, Einleitung in das Neue Testament, 3d ed., Leipsic, 1907 Zahn, Kanon { T. Zahn, Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanons, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1888-92 ZATW { Zeitschrift fuer die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Giessen, 1881 sqq. ZDAL { Zeitschrift fuer deutsches Alterthum und deutsche Literatur, Berlin, 1876 sqq. ZDMG { Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlaendischen Gesellschaft, Leipsic, 1847 sqq. ZDP { Zeitschrift fuer deutsche Philologie, Halle, 1869 sqq. ZDPV Zeitschrift des deutschen Palaestina-Vereins, Leipsic, 1878 sqq. Zech. Zechariah Zeph. Zephaniah ZHT { Zeitschrift fuer die historische Theologie, published successively at Leipsic, Hamburg, and Gotha, 1832-75 ZKG { Zeitschrift fuer Kirchengeschichte, Gotha, 1876 sqq. ZKR { Zeitschrift fuer Kirchenrecht, Berlin, Tuebingen, Freiburg, 1861 sqq. ZKT { Zeitschrift fuer katholische Theologie, Innsbruck, 1877 sqq. ZKW { Zeitschrift fuer kirchliche Wissenschaft und kirchliches Leben, Leipsic, 1880-89 ZPK { Zeitschrift fuer Protestantismus und Kirche, Erlangen, 1838-76 ZWT { Zeitschrift fuer wissenschaftliche Theologie, Jena, 1858-60, Halle, 1861-67, Leipsic, 1868 sqq. __________________________________________________________________ SYSTEM OF TRANSLITERATION The following system of transliteration has been used for Hebrew: ' = ' or omitted at the z = z = beginning of a word. ch = ? p = p b = b t = ? ph = ph or p v = bh or b y = y ts = ? g = g k = k q = ? g = gh or g k = kh or k r = r d = d l = l s = s d = dh or d m = m s = sh h = h n = n t = t v = w s = s t = th or t The vowels are transcribed by a, e, i, o, u, without attempt to indicate quantity or quality. Arabic and other Semitic languages are transliterated according to the same system as Hebrew. Greek is written with Roman characters, the common equivalents being used. __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ KEY TO PRONUNCIATION When the pronunciation is self-evident the titles are not respelled; when by mere division and accentuation it can be shown sufficiently clearly the titles have been divided into syllables, and the accented syllables indicated. ?? as in sofa o? ? as in not iu? ?? as in? duration ?? ?"?"? arm O? "? "? nor c = k? "? "? cat a ?"?"? at u ??"?"? full [1] ch? ? ?"?"? church a ?"?"? fare u ??"?"? rule cw =? qu as in queen e ?"?"? pen [2] U ??"?"? but dh (th) ?"?"? the e ?"?"? fate U ??"?"? burn f ????"?"? fancy i ?"?"? tin ai ??"?"? pine g (hard) "?"? go i ?"?"? machine au ??"?"? out H ???"?"? loch (Scotch) o ?"?"? obey ei ??"?"? oil hw (wh) "?"? why O ?"?"? no iu ??"?"? few j ????"?"? jaw __________________________________________________________________ [1] In German and French names ue approximates the sound of u in dune. [2] In accented syllables only; in unaccented syllables it approximates the sound of e in over. The letter n, with a dot beneath it, indicates the sound of n as in ink. Nasal n (as in French words) is rendered n. __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE __________________________________________________________________ Basilica BASILICA: 1. Legal codes. Since the great codification of the Roman law by Justinian, the Corpus juris civilis, was written in Latin, it could not meet the needs of the East, and required Greek translations. To do away with the uncertainty which had arisen from such versions, in 878 the emperor Basil the Macedonian had a handbook put together, covering forty titles, and put out a revision in 885. A further revision and codification of the older laws, edited once more under Leo the Wise (886), bears the Greek name of ta basilika. It is in sixty books, based on Justinian's compilation from the older versions and commentaries, with extracts from his later constitutions known as the Novellae, and from Basil's handbook mentioned above. (E. Friedberg.) 2. Early form of Christian churches. See [1]Architecture, Ecclesiastical. Bibliography: C. E. Zacharia, Historiae juris Graeco-Romani delineatio, pp. 35-36. Heidelberg, 1839; Mortreuil, Histoire du droit Byzantin, part ii, pp. 1 sqq., part iii, pp. 230 sqq., Paris, 1843-46; Krumbacher, Geschichte, pp. 171, 257-258, 606, 607, 609, 610, 977. Basilides and the Basilidians BASILIDES, bas-i-l?i'diz, AND THE BASILIDIANS. Basilides. Basilides, a famous Gnostic, was a pupil of an alleged interpreter of St. Peter, Glaucias by name, and taught at Alexandria during the reign of Hadrian (117-138). He may have been previously a disciple of Menander at Antioch, together with Saturnilus. The Acta Archelai state that for a time he taught among the Persians. He composed twenty-four books on the Gospel, which, according to Clement of Alexandria (Stromata, iv, 12), were entitled "Exegetics." Fragments of xiii and xxiii, preserved by Clement and in the Acta Archelai, supplement the knowledge of Basilides furnished by his opponents. Origen is certainly wrong in ascribing to him a Gospel. The oldest refutation of the teachings of Basilides, by Agrippa Castor, is lost, and we are dependent upon the later accounts of Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, and Hippolytus. The latter, in his Philosophumena, gives a presentation entirely different from the other sources. It either rests on corrupt accounts, or, more probably, on those of a later, post-Basilidian phase of the system. Hippolytus describes a monistic system, in which Hellenic, or rather Stoic, conceptions stand in the foreground, whereas the genuine Basilides is an Oriental through and through, who stands in closer relationship to Zoroaster than to Aristotle. His System. The fundamental theme of the Basilidian speculation is the question concerning the origin of evil and how to overcome it. The answer is given entirely in the forms of Oriental gnosis, evidently influenced by Parseeism. There are two principles, untreated and self-existent, light and darkness, originally separated and without knowledge of each other. At the head of the "kingdom of light" stands "the uncreated, unnamable God." From him divine life unfolds in successive steps. Seven such revelations form the first ogdoad, from which issued the rest of the spirit-world, till three hundred and sixty-five spirit-realms had originated. These are comprised under the mystic name Abrasax, whose numerical value answers to the number of the heavens and days. Being seized with a longing for light, darkness now interferes. A struggle of the principles commences, in which originated our system of the world as copy of the last stage of the spirit-world, having an archon and angel at its head. The earthly life is only a moment of the general purification-process which now takes place to deliver the world of light from darkness. Hence everything which is bad and evil in this system of the world becomes intelligible when regarded in its proper relations. Gradually the rays of light find their way through the mineral kingdom, vegetable kingdom, and animal kingdom. Man has two souls in his breast, of which the rational soul tries to master the material or animal. For the consummation of the process an intervention from above is necessary, however. The Christian idea of the manifestation of God in Jesus Christ is the historical fact which Basilides subjects to his general thoughts. God's "mind" (Gk. nous) descended upon Jesus as dove at the Jordan, and he proclaimed salvation to the Jews, the chosen people of the archon. The suffering of Jesus, Basilides admitted as a historical fact, but he did not understand how to utilize it religiously. The Spirit of God is the redeemer, not the crucified one. Jesus suffered as man, whose light-nature was also contaminated through the matter of evil. But the belief in the redemption which came from above lifts man beyond himself to a higher degree of existence. How far the individual can attain it depends on the degree of pure entanglement in former degrees of the spirit-world. In the perfected spirit-world the place will be assigned to each which belongs to him according to the degree of his faith. The Basilidians. Among the Basilidians, Basilides' son, Isidore, occupies a prominent place. Of his writings ("On the Excrescent Soul," "Exegetics," "Ethics") some fragments are extant. The sect does not seem to have spread beyond Lower Egypt. In opposition to the rigid ethics of their master, the Basilidians seem often to have advocated libertinism. According to Clement of Alexandria they celebrated the sixth or the tenth of January as the day of the baptism of Jesus. On the importance of this fact for the origin of the ecclesiastical festival of the Epiphany, cf. H. Usener, Religionsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen, i (Bonn, 1889). G. Krueger. Bibliography: The fragments of Basilides are collected in J. E. Grabe, Spicilegium SS. Patrum, ii, 35-43, Oxford, 1699; in A. Stieren's edition of Irenaeus, i, 901-903, 907-909, Leipsic, 1853; and in A. Hilgenfeld, Ketzergeschichte des Urchristentums, pp. 207-217, Leipsic, 1884. The sources are Irenaeus (Haer., I, xxiv, 1; cf. ii, 16 et passim), Clement of Alexandria (Strom., ii, 8; iii, 1; iv, 12, 24, 26; v, 1), Origen (Hom. i on Luke; com. on Romans, v), Eusebius (Chron., an. 133; Hist. ecc1., IV, vii, 7), the Acta Archelai (lv), Epiphanius (Haer., xxiii, 1; xxiv; xxxii, 3), and Hippolytus (Philosophumena, vii, 2-15). Consult A. Neander, Genetische Entwicklung der vornehmsten gnostischen Systems, Berlin, 1818 (the most exhaustive treatment); F. C. Baur, Die christliche Gnosis, Tuebingen, 1835; J. L. Jacobi, Basilidis philosophi gnostici sententias ex Hippolyti libri, Berlin, 1852 (valuable); G. Uhlhorn, Das basilidianische System, Goettingen, 1855: H. L. Mansel, Gnostic Heresies, London, 1875 (has able lecture on Basilides); Hort, in DCB, i, 268-281 (very thorough); A. Hilgenfeld, in ZWT, xxi (1878), 228-250; idem, Die Ketzergeschichte des Urchristentums, pp. 207-218, Leipsic, 1884; G. Salmon, The Cross-references in the Philosophoumena, in Hermathena, xi (1885), 389-402; H. Staehelin, Die gnostischan Quellen Hippolyts, in TU, vi, 3, Leipsic, 1890; Schaff, Christian Church, ii, 466-472; Harnack, Litteratur, i, 157-161; ii, 1, 289-297 Krueger, History, pp. 70-71; Moeller, Christian Church, i, 141-144; J. Kennedy, in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1902, pp. 377-415. Basnage BASNAGE, b??''n?zh': The name of a family of Normandy which has produced several men prominent in the history of French Protestantism. 1. Benjamin Basnage was for fifty-one years pastor at Sainte-Mere-Eglise, near Carentan (27 m. s.e. of Cherbourg), where he was born in 1580 and died in 1652. During the religious wars he was repeatedly chosen by his coreligionists, on account of the constancy of his character and his great learning, to represent them in political and ecclesiastical assemblies. He was president of the general synod at Alenc,on in 1637 and as deputy at Charenton in 1644 he did much to defend the rights of the Protestants and to reconcile the theologians. In the year of his death he was ennobled by the government of Louis XIV. Of the many polemical tractates which he wrote, the best known is De l'etat visible et invisible de l'Eglise et de la parfaite satisfaction de Jesus Christ, contre la fable du purgatoire (La Rochelle, 1612). 2. Henri Basnage, younger son of Benjamin, was born at Sainte-Mere-Eglise Oct. 16, 1615; d. at Rouen Oct. 20, 1695. He was one of the most eloquent advocates in the parliament of Rouen and one of the most famous jurists of his time. He defended the cause of the Reformed Church courageously, and his reputation was such that after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes he was almost the only Protestant who could follow the profession of law in Rouen. 3. Samuel Basnage, son of Antoine, younger son of Benjamin, was born at Bayeux 1638; d. at Zuetphen 1721. He was first pastor at Vauxcelles, then at Bayeux till 1685. He went with his father to the Netherlands and became pastor there of the Walloon congregation at Zuetphen. Of his theological writings the most important are: Morale theologique et politique sur les vertus et les vices des hommes (2 vols., Amsterdam, 1703); and Annales politico-ecclesiastici (3 vols., Rotterdam, 1706). 4. Jacques Basnage (de Beauval), son of Henri, was born at Rouen Aug. 8, 1653; d. at The Hague Dec. 22, 1723. He first studied the classical languages at Saumur under Tanneguy, father of the famous Mme. Dacier; afterward theology at Geneva under Turretin and Tronchin, finally at Sedan under Jurieu. In 1676 he was chosen pastor at Rouen; after the suppression of the church at Rouen in 1685, Louis XIV granted him permission to retire to Holland. In 1691 he was made pastor of the Walloon congregation at Rotterdam, and in 1709 of the French congregation at The Hague. The prime minister Heinsius respected him highly and employed him in different diplomatic missions. The fame of his diplomatic ability reached the court at Versailles, and when, in 1716, the Abbe Dubois was sent to The Hague by the Duke of Orleans, then regent, in behalf of the triple alliance, he was instructed to associate with Basnage. When an insurrection of the Camisards in the Cevennes was feared, the regent applied to Basnage. He supported energetically the zealous Antoine Court, then twenty years old, in restoring the Protestant Church in Southern France, but, partial to the principles of passive obedience, as preached by Calvin, he severely condemned the insurrection of the Camisards and even blamed the first preachers in the Desert. About this time the States General of the Netherlands appointed him historiographer. His numerous works are partly dogmatic or polemic, partly historical. The former include especially his writings against Bossuet: Examen des methodes proposees par Messieurs de l'assemblee du clerge de France, en 1682, pour la reunion des Protestants `a l'Eglise romaine (Cologne, 1682); Reponse `a M. l'eveque de Meaux sur la lettre pastorale (1686). His historical works are: Histoire de la religion des Eglises reformees (2 vols., Rotterdam, 1690; 1725); Histoire de l'Eglise depuis Jesus Christ jusqu'`a present (1699); Histoires du Vieux et du Nouveau Testament, representees par des figures gravees en taille-douce par R. de Hooge (Amsterdam, 1704); Histoire des Juifs depuis Jesus Christ jusqu'`a present (1706). G. Bonet-Maury. Bibliography: J. Aymon, Tous les synodes nationaux des eglises reformees, The Hague, 1710; P. Bayle, Dictionnaire historique et critique, Amsterdam, 1740; D. Houard, Dictionnaire de la coutume de Normandie, Rouen, 1780; Lamory, Eloge de Basnage, in Bulletin d'histoire du protestantisme franc,ais, vol. x, p. 42; xiii, pp. 41-48; E. and E. Haag, La France protestante, 2d ed. by M. Bordier, 5 vols., Paris, 1877-86; F. Puaux, Les Precurseurs franc,ais de la tolerance, ib. 1881; J. Bianquis, La Revocation de l'edit de Nantes, Rouen, 1885. Bassermann, Heinrich Gustav BASSERMANN, HEINRICH GUSTAV: German Lutheran; b. at Frankfort-on-the-Main July 12, 1849. He was educated at the universities of Jena, Zurich, and Heidelberg in 1868-73, but served in the campaign of 1870-71 in the First Baden Dragoons. He was assistant pastor at Arolsen, Waldeck, from 1873 to 1876, when he became privat-docent of New Testament exegesis at the University of Jena. In the same year he was appointed associate professor of practical theology at Heidelberg, and full professor and university preacher in 1880. He wrote: Dreissig christliche Predigten (Leipsic, 1875); De loco Matthaei v, 17-20 (Jena, 1876); Handbuch der geistlichen Beredsamkeit (Stuttgart, 1885); Akademische Predigten (1886); System der Liturgik (1888); Geschichte der badischen Gottesdienstordnung (1891); Sine ira et studio (Tuebingen, 1894); Der badische Katechismus erklaert (1896-97); Richard Rothe als praktischer Theolog (1899); Zur Frage des Unionskatechismus (1901); Ueber Reform des Abendmahls (1904); Wie studiert man evangelische Theologie? (Stuttgart, 1905); and Gott: Fuenf Predigten (Goettingen, 1905). From 1879 he edited the Zeitschrift fuer praktische Theologie in collaboration with Rudolf Ehlers. Died in Samaden (70 m. s.s.e. of St. Gall), Switzerland, Aug. 30, 1909. Bastholm, Christian BASTHOLM, CHRISTIAN: Danish court preacher, and an influential representative of the prevalent rationalism of his time; b. at Copenhagen Nov. 2, 1740; d. there Jan. 25, 1819. He had a varied education, and was specially attracted to philosophy and natural science, but was persuaded by his father to embrace a clerical career without any real love for Christian doctrine or the Church. He was preacher to the German congregation at Smyrna from 1768 to 1771. His renown as a great orator won him in 1778 the position of court preacher, to which other court offices were subsequently added. Full of the ideas of the "Enlightenment," he felt called upon to be a missionary in their cause to his countrymen, and published a number of works in popular religious philosophy and history which have long since fallen into oblivion. His greatest success was his text-book of sacred oratory (1775), which so impressed Joseph II that he introduced it into all the higher educational institutions of the empire, though its recommendations seem laughable today. He published a history of the Jews (1777-82), attempting to "rationalize" it after Michaelis, and a translation of the New Testament with notes (1780). A small treatise on improvements in the liturgy (1785) aroused a storm of controversy; his idea was to make the service "interesting and diversified," after the model of balls and concerts; to exclude from hymnody not only everything dogmatic but all that was not joyous; and to eliminate from the sacramental rites whatever was contrary to sound reason. In the days of the French Revolution, he offered so many concessions to the antireligious spirit that he made himself ridiculous even in the eyes of freethinkers; and his book on "Wisdom and Happiness" (1794) taught a Stoicism only colored by Christianity. In 1795 he lost his library by fire, and with the new century withdrew from public life and authorship to live quietly with his son, a pastor at Slagelse, absorbed in the study of philosophy and science. (F. Nielsen.) Bates, William BATES, WILLIAM: English Presbyterian; b. at London Nov., 1625; d. at Hackney July 14, 1699. He was graduated at Cambridge 1647, and was vicar of St. Dunstan's-in-the-West, London, until 1662, when he lost the benefice for non-conformity; he was one of the commissioners to the [2]Savoy Conference (q.v.) in 1661 and represented the nonconformists on other occasions in negotiations with the Churchmen; was chaplain to Charles II and had influence in high places both under Charles and his successors. He is said to have been a polished preacher and a sound scholar. Perhaps the best known of his works is The Harmony of the Divine Attributes in the Contrivance and Accomplishment of Man's Redemption (2d ed., London, 1675). A collected edition of his works, with memoir by W. Farmer, was published in four volumes at London in 1815. Bathing BATHING: The bath in the East, because of the heat and the dust, is constantly necessary for the preservation of health, and to prevent skin-diseases. The bathing of the newly born is mentioned in Ezek. xvi, 4; bathing as part of the toilet in Ruth iii, 3; II Sam. xii, 20; Ezek. xxiii, 40, and elsewhere. As the Law attached great religious value to the purity of the body, it prescribed bathing and ablutions for cases in which it was apparently impaired (see [3]Defilement and Purification, Ceremonial). Ablution was required when one approached the deity (cf. Gen. xxxv, 2; Exod. xix, 10; Lev. xvi, 4, for the high priest on the Day of .Atonement). Bathing in "living" (i.e., running) water was regarded as most effective in every respect (Exod. ii, 5; II Kings v, 10; Lev. xv, 13). More accessible and convenient were the baths arranged in the houses. To a well-furnished house belonged a courtyard, in which was a bath--according to II Sam. xi, 2, an open basin. Susannah (verses 15 sqq.) bathes in a hedged garden and uses oil and some kind of soap; the Hebrew women used bran in the bath, or to dry themselves, (Mishnah Pesahim ii, 7). The feet, being protected by sandals only, were exposed to dust and dirt, and no attentive host omitted to give to his guests water for their feet before he entertained them (Gen. xviii, 4; xix, 2; I Sam. xxv, 41; cf. Luke vii, 44; John xiii, 1-10). The washing of hands before meals was customary for obvious reasons; but it is not expressly attested before New Testament time, and then as a religious enactment which the Pharisees rigidly observed (Matt. xv, 2; Luke xi, 38); so in general with reference to washings and bathings the punctilious were at that time more exacting. The efficacy of warm springs was recognized at a very early period (cf. Gen. xxxvi, 24, R. V., and the name Hammath, Josh. xix, 35; xxi, 32). They were found near Tiberias (Josephus, War, II, xxi, 6; Ant., XVIII, ii, 3; Life, xvi; Pliny, v, 15), Gadara, the capital of Peraea, and Callirrhoe, east of the Dead Sea (Josephus, War, I, xxxiii, 5; Pliny, v, 16). Public baths are mentioned in Josephus, Ant., XIX, vii, 5, but their existence in Palestine can not be proved before the Greco-Roman time. C. von Orelli. Abuses connected with the public baths in early Christian times called forth protests from many of the heathen and led some of the emperors to attempt restrictive precautions. The Church Fathers also raised their voices, but it is noteworthy that though there was public censure (e.g., of women, particularly of virgins who were immodest in the bath), there was no formal, ecclesiastical prohibition of the public baths. The use of the bath was remitted during public calamities, penance, Lent, and for the first week after baptism. From the time of Constantine it was usual to build baths near the basilicas, partly for the use of the clergy, and partly for other ecclesiastical purposes. Bibliography: For Hebr. custom consult DB, i, 257-258. On the Christian, DCA, i, 182-183; the article "Baden" in KL, i, 1843-46, covers both subjects. Bath Kol BATH KOL: Literally "daughter of the voice," an expression which signifies in itself nothing more than a call or echo, for which it is also used. When the term is applied to a divine manifestation, it implies that it was audible to the human hearing without a personal theophany. In the Old Testament the notion is found in Dan. iv, 28 (A. V. 31), "a voice fell from heaven." In the New Testament similar ideas are the heavenly voice at the baptism of Jesus (Matt. iii, 17; Mark i, 11; Luke iii, 22), at his transfiguration (Matt. xvii, 5; Mark ix, 7; Luke ix, 35), before his passion (John xii, 28), and the voices from heaven heard by Paul and Peter (Acts ix, 4; cf. xxii, 7 and xxvi, 14; x, 13, 15). A voice from the sanctuary is mentioned by Josephus (Ant., XIII, x, 3; cf. Bab. So?ah 33a; Jerus. So?ah 24b), and was called bath kol by the rabbis, who were of opinion that such heavenly voices were heard during all the time of Israel's history, even in their own time. According to Bab. So?ah 48b; Yomah 9a, this "voice" was the only divine means of revelation after the extinction of prophecy. They narrate legendary stories of such divine voices which settled religious difficulties. Different from the bath kol proper is the idea that natural sounds or words heard by accident are significant heavenly voices. This superstition was not uncommon, as Jerus. Shabbat 8c shows. Rabbi Joshua was of the opinion that such things must not influence any legal decision (Bab. Baba Me?ia 59b; Berakot 51b). Rabbi Johanan lays down as general rule that that which was heard in the city must be the voice of a man, in the desert that of a woman, and that either a twofold "Yea" or twofold "Nay" is heard (Bab. Megillah 32a). G. Dalman. Bibliography: F. Weber. System der altsynagogalen palaestinischen Theologie, pp. 187, 194, Leipsic 1880: W. Bacher, Agada der Tannaiten, i, 88. note 3, Strasburg,1884; idem, Agada der palaestinischen Amoraeer, i, 351, note 3, ii, 26, ib. 1892-96; S. Louis, Ancient Traditions of Supernatural Voices: Bath Kol, in TSBA, ix, 18; JE, ii, 588-592. Batiffol, Pierre Henri BATIFFOL, PIERRE HENRI: French Roman Catholic; b. at Toulouse Jan. 27, 1861. He was educated at the Seminary of St. Sulpice, Paris (1878-82), and the University of Paris (1882-86; Docteur es lettres, 1892), and since 1898 has been rector of the Institut Catholique at Toulouse. He was created a domestic prelate to the Pope in 1899, and in theology is an orthodox Roman Catholic, inclining toward the critical school in matters of history. Since 1896 he has been the editor of the Bibliotheque de l'enseignement de l'histoire ecclesiastique, founded by him in that year, and since 1899 has also edited the monthly Bulletin de litterature ecclesiastique. He has written L'Abbaye de Rossano, contribution `a l'histoire de la Vaticane (Paris, 1892); Histoire du breviere romain (1893); Six lec,ons sur les Evanegiles (1897); Tractatus Origenis in libros sanctarum scripturarum (1900); Etudes d'histoire et de theologie positive (1902); and L'Enseignement de Jesus (1905). Batten, Loring Woart BATTEN, LORING WOART: Protestant Episcopalian; b. in Gloucester County N. J., Nov. 12, 1859. He was educated at Harvard University, the Philadelphia Divinity School, and the University of Pennsylvania. He was ordered deacon in 1886 and ordained priest in the following year, and was instructor and professor of the Old Testament in the Philadelphia Divinity School from 1888 to 1899, when he became rector of St. Mark's, New York City. He is also lecturer on the Old Testament in the General Theological Seminary, New York City. In addition to numerous briefer studies, he has written The Old Testament from the Modern Point of View (New York, 1889) and The Hebrew Prophet (London, 1905). Batterson, Hermon Griswold BATTERSON, HERMON GRISWOLD: Protestant Episcopalian; b. at Marbledale, Conn., May 27, 1827; d. in New York City Mar. 9, 1903. He was educated privately, was rector at San Antonio, Texas, 1860-61, and at Wabasha, Minn.,1862-66. In 1866 he removed to Philadelphia and was rector of St. Clement's Church there 1869-1872, of the Church of the Annunciation 1880-89; became rector of the Church of the Redeemer, New York, 1891, but soon retired. He published The Missionary Tune Book (Philadelphia, 1867); The Churchman's Hymn Book (1870); A Sketch Book of the American Episcopate (1878; 3d ed., enlarged, 1891); Christmas Carols and Other Verses (1877); Gregorian Music, a manual of plain, song for the offices of the American Church (New York, 1884; 7th ed., 1890); Vesper Bells and Other Verses (1895). Baudissin, Wolf Wilhelm, Graf von BAUDISSIN, WOLF WILHELM, GRAF VON: German Protestant; b. at Sophienhof, near Kiel, Germany, Sept. 26, 1847. He was educated at the universities of Erlangen, Berlin, Leipsic (Ph.D., 1870), and Kiel from 1866 to 1872, and was privat-docent at Leipsic in 1874-76, when he accepted a call to the University of Strasburg as associate professor of theology. Four years later he was promoted to full professor, but in the following year went to Marburg as professor of Old Testament exegesis. He remained at Marburg, where he was rector in 1893-94, until 1900, when he went to Berlin as professor of Old Testament exegesis, a chair which he still holds. In theology he is an adherent of the historical school of investigation, and seeks to elucidate the religion of the Old Testament by other Semitic faiths. He has written: Translationis antiquae arabicae libri Jobi quae supersunt nunc primum edita (Leipsic, 1870); Eulogius und Alvar, ein Abschnitt spanischer Kirchengeschichte aus der Zeit der Maurenherrschaft (1872); Jahve et Moloch, sive de ratione inter deum Israelitarum et Molochum intercedente (1874); Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte (2 vols., 1876-1878); Die Geschichte des alttestamentlichen Priesterthums untersucht (1889); August Dillmann (1895); Einleitung in die Buecher des Alten Testaments (1901); and Esmun-Asklepios (Giessen, 1906). Bauer, Bruno BAU'ER, BRUNO: A modern Biblical critic, of the most extreme radicalism; b. at Eisenberg (35 m. s. of Halle), in the duchy of Altenburg, Sept. 6, 1809; d. at Rixdorf, near Berlin, Apr. 15, 1882. He was educated in Berlin precisely in Hegel's most brilliant period. He took his place at first in the conservative wing of the Hegelian school, of which his teacher Marheineke was the leader, and reviewed the Leben Jesu of David Friedrich Strauss, who had been his fellow student, unfavorably, accusing Strauss of "entire ignorance of what criticism means." He undertook also to defend Marheineke's position by issuing (1836-38) the Zeitschrift fuer spekulative Theologie. In 1838 he published the Kritik der Geschichte der Offenbarung (2 vols., Berlin). A year later Altenstein, minister of public worship and instruction, appointed him to a position is the University of Bonn, and his prospects seemed promising. But he was already in a fair way to break with his past, as shortly appeared in his Kritik der evangelischen Geschichte des Johannes (Bremen, 1840) and Kritik der evangelischen Geschichte der Synoptiker (3 vols., Leipsic,1841), which went beyond Strauss, and, adopting the theory of Wilke that Mark is the original gospel, derived the whole story, not, with Strauss, from the imagination of the primitive Christian community, but from that of a single mind. This extreme carrying out of Hegelian principles naturally aroused wide-spread excitement. Eichhorn, who had succeeded Altenstein as minister, put the question to the Prussian universities whether the holder of such views could be allowed to teach. The answers were not unanimous; but Bauer injured his own cause by a still more amazing and reckless onslaught on traditional theology (Theologische Schamlosigkeiten, in the Hallische Jahrbuecher fuer deutsche Wissenschaft, Nov., 1841), and was deprived of his academic post in March, 1842. His literary activity continued incessant. Living on his small estate at Rixdorf, he poured forth a succession of volumes on the history of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries between 1843 and 1849. In 1850 he came back to his old field, and in the next three years had renewed his attack on the gospels and included the Acts and the Pauline epistles, considering even the four admitted by the Tuebingen school as second-century Western products. In the place of Christ and Paul, to him Philo, Seneca, and the Gnostics appeared the real creative forces in the evolution of Christian conceptions. He continued his attempts to prove the connection between Greco-Roman philosophy and Christianity in Christus und die Caesaren (Berlin, 1877). Here he places the genesis of the Christian religion practically as late as the reign of Marcus Aurelius, and the original gospel in that of Hadrian, after which "clever men" were busy for some forty years in the composition of the Pauline epistles. Only the framework of the new religion was Jewish; its spirit came from further west; Christianity is really "Stoicism becoming dominant in a Jewish metamorphosis." Bauer left practically no followers in Germany for such remarkable theories. His fantastic hypercriticism found a home for a time in Holland with Allard Pierson, Naber, and Loman; and still later it made some attempts to gain a foothold in Switzerland with Steck's assault upon Galatians. (J. Haussleiter). Bibliography: Holtzmann, in Protestantische Kirchenzeitung, 1882, pp. 540-545; F. C. Baur, Kirchengeschichte des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts, Leipsic, 1862; O. Pfleiderer, Die Entwicklung der protestantischen Theologie in Deutschland seit Kant, pp. 295-297, Freiburg, 1891. On the teaching of Bauer and the opposition it aroused consult E. Bauer, Bruno Bauer and seine Gegner, Berlin, 1842; O. F. Gruppe, Bruno Bauer und die akademische Lehrfreiheit, ib. 1842. Bauer, Walter Felix BAUER, WALTER FELIX: German Protestant; b. at Koenigsberg Aug. 8, 1877. From 1895 to 1900 he studied at the universities of Marburg, Berlin, and Strasburg, and since 1903 has been privat-docent for church history at the University of Marburg. He has written Muendige und Unmuendige bei dem Apostel Paulus (Marburg, 1902) and Der Apostolos der Syrer in der Zeit von der Mitte des vierten Jahrhunderts bis zur Spaltung der syrischen Kirche (Giessen, 1903). Baum, Henry Mason BAUM, baum, HENRY MASON: Protestant Episcopalian; b. at East Schuyler, N. Y., Feb. 24, 1848. He was educated at the Hudson River Institute, Claverack, N. Y., but did not attend a college. He received his theological training at De Lancey Divinity School, Geneva, N. Y., and was ordained to the priesthood in 1870. He was successively rector of St. Peter's Church, East Bloomfield, N. Y. (1870-71), missionary to Allen's Hill, Victor, Lima, and Honeoye Falls, N. Y. (1871-1872), rector of St. Matthew's Church, Laramie City, Wyo. (1872-73), in charge of St. James's Church, Paulsborough, N. J. (1873-74), rector of St. Matthew's Church, Lambertville, N. J. (1875-76), and rector of Trinity Church, Easton, Pa. (1876-80). From 1880 to 1892 he was editor of The Church Review, and in 1901 founded the Records of the Past, which he edited until 1905. He has taken a keen interest in the preservation of the antiquities of the United States, and was the author of the act passed by the Senate in 1904 for the protection of these archeological remains. In that year he also founded the Institute of Historical Research at Washington, and has since been its president. In theology he is a firm believer in the historical accuracy of the Bible. He has written Rights and Duties of Rectors, Church Wardens, and Vestrymen in the American Church (Philadelphia, 1879) and The Law of the Church in the United States (New York, 1886). Baum, Johann Wilhelm BAUM, JOHANN WILHELM: Protestant German theologian; b. at Flonheim (17 m. s.s.w. of Mainz) Dec. 7, 1809; d. at Strasburg Nov. 28, 1878. When he was thirteen years of age, he was sent to Strasburg to the house of his uncle, where he prepared himself for the ministry. Having completed his studies, he was made teacher at, the theological seminary at Strasburg in 1835. This position he resigned in 1844 and accepted the position of vicar of St. Thomas's in that city, whose first preacher he became in 1847. At the close of the Franco-Prussian war, the German government appointed him professor in the University of Strasburg. He belonged to the liberal Protestant party of his country, and made himself known by his writings on the history of the Reformation, as well as that of his own time, including Franz Lambert von Avignon (Strasburg and Paris, 1840); Theodor Beza nach handschriftlichen Quellen dargestellt (2 vols., Leipsic, 1843-45); Johann Georg Stuber, der Vorg?nger Oberlins im Steinthale and Vorkaempfer einer neuen Zeit in Strassburg (Strasburg, 1846); Die Memoiren d'Aubigne's des Hugenotten von altem Schrott und Korn (Leipsic, 1854); Capito und Butzer, Strassburgs Reformatoren (Elberfeld, 1860), being the third part of Leben und ausgewaehlte Schriften der Vaeter und Begruender der reformirten Kirche. Besides these works written in German, he published in French Les Eglises reformee s de France sous la croix (Strasburg, 1869); Les Memoires de P. Carriere dit Corteis (Strasburg, 1871); Le Proces de Baudichon de la Maisori-Neuve (Geneva, 1873). For a number of years Baum assisted his colleagues Reuss and Cunitz in the edition of Calvin's works published in the Corpus reformatorum. Bibliography: Zur Erinnerung an J. W. Baum, Reden, Strasburg, 1878; M. Baum, J. W. Baum, ein protestantisches Charakterbild aus dem Elsass, Bremen, 1880. Baumgarten, Michael BAUMGARTEN, MICHAEL: German theologian and active promoter of free church life; b. at Haseldorf, near Hamburg, Mar. 25, 1812; d. at Rostock July 21, 1889. He was educated at Altona, Kiel, and Berlin, becoming in the last-named place an outspoken adherent of Hengstenberg. But the study of Dorner during a period of seven years (1839-46) spent at Kiel as a teacher convinced him that the traditional orthodox view of the person of Christ was inadequate to explain the mystery of redemption; he passed from Hengstenberg to Schleiermacher, with his principle that Christianity is not a doctrine but a life, and then to Hofmann, in whose Weissagung und Erfuellung he saw a theology that could lead him further on his road. In his treatise Liturgie und Predigt (Kiel, 1843) he lays down his programme, to which as an old man he was still proud of having adhered. Here he classes as stumbling blocks in the Church's way a variety of ancient institutions, laws, and customs, viz.: the misleading notion of a "Christian State"; the use of compulsion in the Church (as in the case of baptism); the power of civil rulers within the Church, in allowing which the Reformers had brought back a Byzantine system; the diversity of teaching among Protestants; and the failure to recognize the menace of the Roman errors. About the same time (1843-44) appeared his commentary on the Pentateuch, to which Delitzsch appealed when in 1850 he recommended his friend to succeed him in the Rostock professorship, but which none the less he sharply criticized in some points. In the eventful years 1846-50 he was pastor of St. Michael's church at Sleswick, and was one of the leaders of the clergy of Sleswick Holstein in their struggle for the German right to the duchies. After the battle of Idstedt, he was obliged to escape from Sleswick with his family to Holstein, where his call to Rostock found him. Here he was expected to take part in the upbuilding of the Church of the duchy, which was under Kliefoth's leadership; but two men more diametrically opposed in their whole way of looking at things could scarcely have been found. Baumgarten frankly expressed his own view of the earliest history of the Church in his Apostelgeschichte (2 vols., Halle, 1852), and of its modern needs in his Nachtgesichte Sacharjas (Brunswick, 1854). It was not difficult to make a collection of heretical propositions from the writings of a man who cared so little to express himself in time-honored formulas, and who was wrestling with such modern problems; and the attempt was soon made. The Grand Duke dismissed him from the theological commission in 1856; the consistory examined his works, it must be admitted without strict adherence to constitutional rules or to the principles of fairness, found a whole series of departures from the received doctrine, and deprived him of his position. He declined an invitation to go to India as a missionary, preferring to remain and carry on the struggle for a complete reconstruction of the Evangelical Church in Germany. With this aim he was for thirteen years a zealous member of the Protestant Union from 1863 to 1876, but left it when it showed intolerance in the Heidelberg case. His life grew more and more lonely, though he could always count on a few faithful friends, like Studt, Ziegler, and Pestalozzi. He was a member of the Reichstag from 1874 to 1881, in which he showed himself a determined opponent of Stoecker and of the Jesuits, and stood for his principles of religious liberty and complete separation of Church and State. He was a man of great natural endowment, fitted for useful constructive work in theology, if the unfortunate circumstances in his career had not forced him to expend his energy in the combat to which most of his numerous later writings have reference. (J. Haussleiter.) Bibliography: His autobiography was edited and published posthumously by K. H. Studt, 2 vols., Kiel, 1891. Baumgarten, Otto BAUMGARTEN, OTTO: German Protestant; b. at Munich Jan. 29, 1858. He was educated at the universities of Strasburg, Goettingen, Zurich, and Heidelberg, and from 1882 to 1887 was pastor at Baden-Baden and Waldkirch, while from 1888 to 1890 he was chaplain to the orphan asylum at Berlin-Rummelsburg. In 1890 he became privat-docent at the University of Berlin, and in the same year was called to Jena as associate professor of practical theology, where he remained until 1894, when he went to Kiel as full professor of the same subject. He is also university preacher and chaplain of the academic sanitarium at the same institution of learning. He has written: Volksschule und Kirche (Leipsic, 1890); Der Seelsorger unserer Tage (1891); Predigten aus der Gegenwart Tuebingen (1902); Neue Bahnen: Der Religions-Unterricht vom Standpunkte der modernen Theologie aus (1903); Predigt-Probleme, Hauptfragen der modernen Evangeliums-Verkuendigungen (1903); and Die Voraussetzungslosigkeit der protestantischen Theologie (Kiel, 1903). Baumgarten, Siegmund Jakob BAUMGARTEN, SIEGMUND JAKOB: German theologian; b. at Wollmirstaedt (8 m. n. of Magdeburg), Saxony, Mar. 14, 1706; d. at Halle July 4, 1757. He studied at the Halle Orphan Asylum, of which his father had been first inspector, and at the University of Halle. He became inspector of the Halle Latin School in 1726, assistant preacher to the younger G. A. Franks in 1728, associate on the theological faculty in 1730, and ordinary professor in 1743. He was a good teacher and his lectures were usually attended by from 300 to 400 hearers. His learning was vast and he was an industrious writer, publishing voluminous works on exegesis, hermeneutics, morals, dogmatics, and history, such as Auszug der Kirchengeschichte (4 vols., Halle, 1743-62); Evangelische Glaubenslehre (3 vols., 1759-60); Geschichte der Religionsparteien (1760); Nachricht von merkwuerdigen Buechern (12 vols., 1752-57); and the first sixteen volumes in the Allgemeine Welthistorie (1744 sqq.). By adopting the formal scheme of the philosophy of Wolff and applying it to the theological ideas in which he was educated, Baumgarten came to form a transition from the Pietism of Spener and Francke to the modern rationalism. His enthusiastic disciple, J. S. Semler, who was called from Altdorf to Halle on his recommendation, edited many of his works and wrote his biography (Halle, 1758). (F. Bosse.) Baumgarten-Crusius, Ludwig Friedrich Otto BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS, LUDWIG FRIEDRICH OTTO: German theologian; b. at Merseburg (56 m. s.s.e. of Magdeburg), Prussian Saxony, July 31, 1788; d. at Jena May 31, 1843. He studied theology and philology at Leipsic and became university preacher there in 1810; in 1812 extraordinary professor of theology at Jena, ordinary professor, 1817. He gave lectures on all branches of so-called theoretic theology except church history, especially New Testament exegesis, Biblical theology, dogmatics, ethics, and history of doctrine. Gentle and sympathetic, and shrinking from theological strife, he was misunderstood in his time. His exegesis was painstaking, free from prejudice, and acute; as historian of dogma he understood the origin and development of religious ideas and doctrines as few others have done; and as systematic theologian he was profound and truly evangelical. His principal works were: Einleitung in das Studium der Dogmatik (Leipsic, 1820); Lehrbuch der christlichen Dogmengeschichte (Jena, 1832); Compendium der christlichen Dogmengeschichte (Leipsic, 1840), completed by K. A. Hase (1846); Theologische Auslegung der johanneischen Schriften (2 vols., Jena, 1843-45). (F. Bosse.) Bibliography: H. C. A. Eichstaedt, Memoria L. F. O. Baumgartenii-Crussii, Jena, 1843; K. A. Hase's preface to his completion of the Kompendium der Dogmengeschichte, Leipsic, 1846; ADB, ii, 161 sqq. Baur, Ferdinand Christian, and the Later Tuebingen School BAUR, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN, AND THE LATER TUeBINGEN SCHOOL. I. The Period of the History of Dogma. Baur's Early Life and Activity (S: 1). Baur's Relation to Schleiermacher and Hegel (S: 2). II. The Period of Biblical Criticism. Historico-Critical Study of the New Testament (S: 1). Applied to the Writings of Paul (S: 2). The Fundamental Assumption of the School (S: 3). Applied to the Gospels (S: 4). Developed by Schwegler (S: 5). III. The Period of Church History. Political Complications (S: 1). Baur's Works on Church History (S: 2). His Theories and Conclusions (S: 3). Their Weakness and Decline (S: 4). The treatment of both Ferdinand Christian Baur and the Later Tuebingen School in the same article is justified by the fact that the period of distinctive theological and philosophical views which characterized the school in its palmy days really ceased with the death of its founder, or at least lost the former local identification. Considering the Tuebingen School in this strictly limited sense, its history, together with that of Baur himself, may be divided into three periods--that of preparation, or of the history of dogma, before 1835; that of prosperity, or of Biblical criticism, 1835-1848; and that of disintegration, or of church history, after the latter date. I. The Period of the History of Dogma. 1. Baur's Early Life and Activity. Baur was born at Schmiden, near Cannstatt (4 m. n.e. of Stuttgart), June 21, 1792; he died at Tuebingen Dec. 2, 1860. He was the son of a Wuerttemberg pastor and was educated first at Blaubeuren and then (1809-14) at Tuebingen. Here, besides following the usual thorough course in philology, he was strongly attracted by the study of philosophy. Fichte and Schelling were then at the height of their influence; but that it did not draw the young student away from the standpoint of the older [4]Tuebingen School, in which he had been brought up, may be seen from his first published writing, a review of Kaiser's Biblische Theologie in 1817, which condemned rationalistic caprice in the treatment of the Old Testament. After a short employment as tutor in the Tuebingen seminary during the same year, he was named professor in the lower seminary which had grown out of his old school at Blaubeuren. The nine years of his stay here were active and happy ones. Though his work was mainly philological and historical, he showed his interest in the philosophical and theological movements of the time. The doctrines of Schleiermacher received his attention, and found an echo in his three-volume work Symbolik und Mythologie (Stuttgart, 1824-25). In this book, remarkable for its time, he indicated his future course in the phrase, "Without philosophy, history seems to me dumb and dead." The attention it attracted won Baur a place in the theological faculty of Tuebingen on its reorganization (1826) after the death of his old teacher Bengel. His impressive and inspiring personality at once drew the young men to him, and his influence in the faculty was contested only by Dr. Steudel, the sole survivor of the old school body. 2. Baur's Relation to Schleiermacher and Hegel. The fact that in the course of his further intellectual development Baur gradually came into conflict with the theology of Schleiermacher may be partly explained by the difference in the mental constitutions of the two men. There was no trace in Baur's method of the fusion of sentiment and reason which characterized the other; only the intellectual side was allowed to be heard. His strong point was his faculty of conceiving historical phenomena objectively, amid the surroundings and from the standpoint of their age. His relation to the philosophy of Hegel is somewhat difficult to determine exactly; but it may be safely asserted that his fundamental views on the essence of religion and the course of history were taken from the Hegelian system. The transition from Schleiermacher to Hegel was a gradual process which took place between 1826 and 1835, in the nine years which have been called the period of preparation. It is probable that at first Baur was unconscious of its extent, and it was not until he applied the Hegelian principles to the canon that they brought him into sharp conflict with traditional orthodoxy. His Symbolik was logically followed by his works on Manicheanism and Gnosticism (Tuebingen, 1831 and 1832)--phenomena lying on the border between theology and philosophy, between Christianity and paganism. In his tractate on the opposition between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism, in answer to Moehler (Tuebingen, 1834), Hegelian terminology begins to appear distinctly, though the foundation still rests on Schleiermacher. The influence of the Hegelian system on Baur was a very fructifying one. No department of history had suffered more from the leveling tendency of rationalism than the history of dogma. Since Hegel had taught the application of the iron rule of development to the phenomena of the intellectual life as well as to other phenomena, he pointed the way to a profounder understanding of the beliefs which appeared frequently so haphazard and so arbitrary, to a knowledge of laws which prevailed over individual will. Thus, when Baur went on from the philosophy of religion to Christian dogma, and in that to the most important parts (the Atonement, Tuebingen, 1838, the Trinity and the Incarnation, 1841-43), he became a pioneer of the history of dogma in the modern sense. Even though the Hegelian categories proved a bed of Procrustes for Christian dogmas, and though the understanding of these suffered from the defects of the Hegelian conception of religion, the impulse had none the less been given to a profounder study. More recent historians of dogma have felt themselves entitled to correct Baur's views, as set forth in the above-mentioned works, in almost every point; but these views had won him, by the end of this first period, a prominent place in the ranks of those who were trying to strike out new lines in the study of Christian history; and when Schleiermacher's chair at Berlin was vacant in 1834, the Prussian minister Altenstein thought for a time of appointing Baur to it. II. The Period of Biblical Criticism The second period, however, is the one which comes to mind when the Tuebingen School is mentioned. Though certain books already named are of later date, the period may be properly begun with 1835, in which year Strauss's Leben Jesu drew general attention to the questions to which Baur was already inclined to turn. The application to the canon of Scripture of the Hegelian laws of historical development was peculiarly appropriate to the place in which Baur carried on his work, since the distinguishing mark of the older Tuebingen School had been a Biblical supernaturalism, for which dogma was nothing more than the teachings of Scripture, arrived at by means of exegesis. He felt himself driven to a consideration of this question by the need of a settlement with the school from which he had sprung and with his own past; by his studies in the history of dogma, since the source of dogma, in the last resort, unless it is a mere collection of irresponsible opinions, is the Bible; and by his investigation of Gnosticism, which could not fail to raise the question of the canon. 1. Historico-Critical Study of the New Testament. In 1835 appeared (at Stuttgart and Tuebingen) Baur's work on the Pastoral Epistles. According to his own account of this and of his article on the Corinthian parties (TZT, 1831), it was his lectures on the Epistle to the Corinthians which first opened up the vista of more far-reaching historico-critical investigation into the controversies of the apostolic age, and led him to follow out, by means of New Testament and patristic studies, his independent conception of the clash of heterogeneous elements in the apostolic and subapostolic days, their parties and tendencies, their conflicts and compromises--to demonstrate the growth of a catholic Church as nothing but the result of a previous historical process. Dealing with Schleiermacher's treatment of I Timothy, he considered the three pastoral epistles from the same historical standpoint, and defined the task of New Testament criticism by asserting that the origin of such writings (as to the authenticity of which more evidence was needed than the accepted name of an author on their face and a vague, uncertain, and late tradition) could only be explained by a complete view of the whole range of historical circumstances in which, according to definite data, they were to be placed. With this character of historic objectivity, the new criticism, which naturally could not but seem merely negative and destructive in contrast with the unfounded assumptions that it controverted, intended to meet the arbitrary subjectivity of the hypotheses which had, up to that time, played so large a part in New Testament criticism. The above statement, substantially in Baur's own words, expresses fully the guiding principle of the Tuebingen School. In the name of fidelity to fact, Baur was conducting a regular siege of the fortifications which had been thrown up by his own predecessors around the Christian doctrines, when Strauss's assault upon the central bastion attracted general attention. It was not without value to him as a diversion, under cover of which he was able to pursue undisturbed for a while longer his critical work. During the next decade the Tuebingen School acquired an importance which seemed to threaten the foundations of dogma from a new quarter, relentlessly contrasting the accepted image of Christ, as drawn according to the subjective Christian mind by Schleiermacher, with the results of objective historical criticism. The main part of the task seemed to be left to Baur himself; he was not so fortunate as the leaders of the old Tuebingen School, who had their allies in the other theological chairs. On the other hand, he had with him a large number of young and enthusiastic disciples, such as the talented Eduard Zeller, later his son-in-law, the still bolder and braver Schwegler, Koestlin and Planck, Ritschl and Hilgenfeld, the last two the most prominent allies who came from outside of Wuerttemberg. 2. Applied to the Writings of Paul. Baur had begun his critical work with Paul, and the same apostle engaged the attention of the school in its later publications. Searching investigations of the Epistle to the Romans appeared in the TZT in 1836, and aroused alarm and opposition. These, together with considerable material which he had published in the Theologische Jahrbuecher, begun in 1842 by Zeller and edited from 1847 to 1857 by himself and Zeller jointly, which became the organ of the new school, he put together in 1845 (Stuttgart) into a monograph on Paul. The result reached by this part of his work was the denial of the authenticity of all the letters passing under the apostle's name, except Galatians, I and II Corinthians, and Romans, of which last also the two concluding chapters were questioned. Finally, in agreement with Schneckenburger but still more radically, the postapostolic origin of the Acts was asserted. It was not difficult to conjecture what would happen to the Gospels when they were thrown into the same crucible. 3. The Fundamental Assumption of the School. The theory of the "objective criticism," as it developed, was that the older apostles, with their original body of disciples, were differentiated from the other Jews only by their belief that the crucified Jesus was the Messiah. All the elements of a new religion contained in his life and teaching were forgotten, or lay undeveloped in the apostles' memory, though a Stephen attempted to enforce them and sealed his testimony by his death. When Paul, by a wonderful divination, by a train of reasoning from the cross and the resurrection, rediscovered these elements of universality and freedom, the Church stood suspiciously aloof. The older apostles, indeed, with a liberality difficult to understand in the premises, accepted Paul as an equal fellow laborer and admitted his right to the mission to the Gentiles. But a section of the Church remained obstinately hostile. Paul appears, therefore, constantly prepared for combat, and when an epistle presents him in any other mood, it is ipso facto unauthentic. In view of these facts, it became all the more necessary for the next age to emphasize the unity of the Church; when, accordingly, there is perceived a conciliatory tone in an epistle, when it speaks much of the Church and its unity of belief, no further mark of a postapostolic origin is needed. The school believed itself able to prove from the Apocalypse, considered as a product not merely of Judaic narrowness but of positive opposition to Paulinism, and still more from the pseudo-Clementine homilies, that no accommodation took place in the apostles' lifetime. 4. Applied to the Gospels. These views, for all their possible usefulness as against an exaggerated notion in the opposite direction, still left one question unanswered?what really was the Christianity of Christ? This led inevitably to the question, burning since Strauss, of the status of the Gospels; but it was nearly ten years before Baur brought his disciples to that. In the Jahrbuch for 1844 he attempted to use his critical principles to disprove the authenticity of the Gospel of John. This treatment he supplemented by further investigations on the canonical gospels, and published the whole result in substantive form in 1847 (Tuebingen). In a certain sense it was favorable to the traditional view. The order of the canon was approximately that of their composition. Matthew, in whom the Judaic tendency is strongest, would then be nearest to the source; Mark would show a tendency to accommodation and minimizing of differences; and this would show all the more clearly the Pauline tendency of Luke. The fourth Gospel, finally, was supposed to display in every feature the tendency to sink these differences in a higher unity, and to take a stand for the conflicts of the second century, Gnosticism, Montanism, and the nascent Trinitarian controversy. This work of Baur's marks the close of the great period of the school. His disciples were now ready to come to his aid. Schwegler's book on Montanism (Tuebingen, 1841), Ritschl's on Luke and the Gospel of Marcion (Tuebingen, 1846) and on the origin of the primitive catholic Church (Bonn, 1850), Koestlin's on the Johannine system (Berlin, 1843), were all important; but the most significant was Schwegler's on the subapostolic age (Tuebingen, 1846), which attempted constructive reasoning, using the writings which had been declared unauthentic as memorials of the development of Judaism and Paulinism into what came later. 5. Developed by Schwegler. According to Schwegler, Judaism had no need of further development; the impulse came from Paulinism, in such a way that the Judaic party decided, in order to preserve the unity of the Church (Gk. monarchia), to make some concessions, requiring things of similar import with those demanded by the pseudadelphoi of the New Testament, but more easily fulfilled by the Gentiles. If circumcision had to be abandoned, so much the more weight was laid upon baptism as the Christian equivalent; if the works of the Law were dropped, works were still required; Israel's primacy vanished, but a general aristocratic tendency could be maintained in the episcopate; Paul could not be cast out, but he could be subordinated to Peter. Schwegler then watches this development and compromise in two places, Rome and Asia Minor. In Rome he traces the succession of writings of Judaistic origin thus: first the Shepherd of Hermas and Hegesippus; then Justin, the Clementine Homilies, and the Apostolic Constitutions; then James, the Second Epistle of Clement, Mark, the Clementine Recognitions, and II Peter. On the Pauline side he finds the conciliatory writings to begin under Trajan with I Peter; then follow Luke and Acts; then the Pastoral Epistles and the letters of Ignatius. Montanism being in his view only an offshoot of Judaism, the Pauline victory falls in the pontificate of Victor (189-199), under whom Montanism was condemned at Rome. The Pauline party, indeed, had already made no slight concessions, in order to ward off Gnosticism?though the Gnostics and especially the Marcionites ultimately were of great service to Paulinism in securing the universality of Christianity. He sees the process as somewhat different in Asia Minor, where the opponents of Paul rallied, not as in Rome around Peter, but around John; here the solution was the formation of a body of Christian dogma, while in Rome it had been a unity of organization with a Roman primacy. While at Rome the supposed Ebionite works are more numerous than the Pauline, it is the contrary in Asia Minor; the Apocalypse is here the single Ebionite memorial, while on the other side Galatians, Colossians, Ephesians, and the Johannine Gospel form an imposing series of steps in the development. Bold, however, and fascinating as are the combinations set forth in this work, and brilliant as is its execution, it may be pointed out (though space does not permit of illustration) that there is scarcely a theologian today who is disposed to accept this train of reasoning as even an approximately satisfactory solution of the problems suggested. And even in those days, the starting-point of the whole process of development still remained to be discussed. It was already obvious that without tracing it back to the person and teaching of Christ, the question of how the primitive catholic Church came into existence was insoluble. Attempts in the direction of establishing the entire critical position by showing a genetic development of the earliest organization and dogma out of the gospel of Christ himself marked a third period in the history of the Tuebingen School. III. The Period of Church History 1. Political Complications. The political upheaval of 1848 had its influence on the future of the school. The attempts made here and there to introduce its conclusions, under cover of the political movements of the time, into the general life of the Church could not fail to bring up the question whether ecclesiastical activity was possible for adherents of the school. It was answered in the negative not only by opponents; some of Baur's own disciples felt that they must either modify the scientific conclusions they had learned from him, or seek a secular calling, as Maerklin, whose life was written by Strauss, had done in 1840. It was not surprising, then, that the German governments thought twice before appointing to academic positions men whose influence was so disturbing, and that the younger generation hesitated to follow Baur further, after his most important disciple, Zeller, was obliged in 1849 to exchange a theological chair for that of philosophy at Marburg. Baur felt the isolation in which he thus began to find himself; but his temperament allowed him to hold fast longer than others to the illusion of the identity of church teaching and Hegelian speculation. He relaxed nothing of his zeal for the solution of the important problem which still remained, the establishment on a critical foundation of a positive story of the development of Christianity from its origin down through the centuries. 2. Baur's Works on Church History. In 1852 Baur published a book (Leipsic) on the epochs of church history as a preliminary, containing brilliant and frequently sharp criticism of earlier historians. His own efforts in this direction began with the work Das Christenthum und die christliche Kirche der drei ersten Jahrhunderte (Leipsic, 1853), and was continued in Die christliche Kirche vom Anfang des 4. bis Ausgang des 6. Jahrhunderts (Leipsic, 1859). After his death appeared (Leipsic, 1861) the third part, completed by himself, Die christliche Kirche des Mittelalters in den Hauptmomenten ihrer Entwicklung; and two further volumes were published from his carefully prepared lecturenotes?Kirchengeschichte des 19. Jahrhunderts, edited by Zeller (Leipsic, 1862), and Kirchengeschichte der neueren Zeit von der Reformation bis zum Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts, edited by his son Ferdinand (Leipsic, 1863), thus completing the entire survey. 3. His Theories and Conclusions. If there is sought in these books an answer to the question as to the real primitive Christianity which lay back of Paul and back of Ebionitism, as to the person of Christ himself, it may be put, once more substantially in Baur's own words (from the important controversial pamphlet against Uhlhorn, Die Tuebinger Schule und ihre Stellung zur Gegenwart, Leipsic, 1859), as follows: The real inwardness of Christianity, its essential center point, may be found in what belongs to the strictly ethical content of the teaching of Jesus, in the Sermon on the Mount, the parables, and similar utterances; in his doctrine of the Kingdom of God and the conditions of membership in it, designed to place men in the right ethical relation to God. This is the really divine, the universally human element in it, the part of its content which is eternal and absolute. What raises Christianity above all other religions is nothing but the purely ethical character of its acts, teachings, and requirements. If this is the essential content of the consciousness of Jesus, it is one of the two factors which compose his personality; it must have a corresponding form, in order to enter, in the way of historical development, into the general consciousness of humanity; and this form is the Jewish conception of the Messiah, the point of contact between the mind of Jesus and the world that was to believe in him, the basis on which alone a religious community destined to broaden into a Church could be built. We can, therefore, have no clear and definite conception of the personality of Jesus if we do not distinguish these two sides of it and consider them, so to speak, under the aspect of an antinomy, of a process which develops itself gradually. 4. Their Weakness and Decline. If we try to get at the heart of Baur's whole view of the subject, stripping his presentation of its somewhat pathetic enthusiasm, it will appear not so very different from Kant's expression, that the faith of pure reason came in with Christ, indeed, but was so overlaid in the subsequent history that if the question were asked which was the best period in the entire course of church history, it might be unhesitatingly answered by the choice of the present, in which a nearer approach than ever before is made to pure religious doctrine. As long as Baur had gone no further into the really primitive essential import of Christianity than to consider the Pauline dogmatics as representing it, the development of the Church could perfectly well seem to him to have proceeded in a wholly rational manner. The dogmatic and ecclesiastical decisions of the early ages could, in their context, appear "reasonable," and Baur himself, in contrast with a writer like Gottfried Arnold or with the unhistoric rationalism, almost an orthodox historian, always in harmony with the course of events as it proceeded. Not only Athanasius and Augustine, but Gregory VII and Innocent III had full justice at his hands. But this involved an equally tolerant acknowledgment of the claims of the nineteenth century. If the humanitarianism of Goethe and Schiller seemed better adapted to the needs of educated men in this age than the Church in its older form, here also the living must take precedence; and suddenly the place of the old Church was taken by a broad "communion" in which all the heroes of the intellect, even the most modern, took their place as saints. But when the question came to be asked what this prevalent humanism had in common with ancient Christianity, it became apparent that the whole long process of development was really a totally unnecessary detour, whose purpose it was difficult to discover. It could scarcely be denied that a historical method which saw the essence of Christianity in ethics exclusively, which knew nothing of the need of redemption, and which was unable to give any positive account of the person of Christ, was one in which the Hegelian conception of development practically disappeared. Yet the distinguishing mark of the school of Baur had been the application of this very conception to Christian history, especially that of the primitive age--the attempt to show the course of history as rational and necessary; and thus, in the person of its head, the Tuebingen School deserted the fundamental principle which in its palmy days it had sought to enforce. It was, then, not surprising that uncertainty showed itself among the members of the school on the question of the Gospels. The less a definite tendency could be proved in the synoptics, the more they were shown to offer at least a substratum of purely historical matter, so much the more pressing became the question how the school's view of history could be reconciled with the actual course of events. When the attempt to construct the latter a priori, failed, an advantage was given to the "literary-historical" method with which Hilgenfeld undertook to replace the criticism of tendency. In his Historisch-kritische Einleitung in das neue Testament (Leipsic, 1875) the Tuebingen views were modified in a large number of points. Thus the results supposed to have been attained by the "objective criticism" of Baur were called in question by his own fellow workers; and when he died, it is hardly too much to say that his school, at least in the narrower sense, died with him. (J. Haussleiter.) Bibliography: Two of Ferdinand Christian Baur's books are accessible in English translation: Paul, the Apostle of Jesus Christ, 2 vols., London, 1873-75; The Church History of the First Three Centuries, 2 vols., ib. 1878-79. Consult: A. B. Bruce, F. C. Baur and his Theory of the Origin of Christianity, New York, 1886; Worte der Erinnerung an Ferdinand Christian Baur, Tuebingen, 1861; H. Beckh, Die Tuebinger historische Schule, kritisch beleuchtet, in ZPK, xlviii (1864), 1-57, 69-95; C. Weizsaecker, Ferdinand Christian von Baur. Rede zur akademischen Feier seines 100. Geburtstages, Stuttgart, 1892; O. Pfleiderer, Zu F. C. Baur's Gedaechtniss, in Protestantische Kirchenzeitung, 1892, No. 25; R. W. Mackay, The Tuebingen School, and its Antecedents, London, 1863; S. Berger, F. C. Baur, Les Origines de l'ecole de Tubingue et ses principes, Strasburg, 1867: C. H. Toy, The Tuebingen Historical School, in BQR, iii (1869), 210 sqq. Works on N. T. Introduction usually discuss the Tuebingen School, as do those on the church history of the nineteenth century. Baur, Gustav Adolf Ludwig BAUR, GUSTAV ADOLF LUDWIG: Lutheran; b. at Hammelbach (17 m. n.e. of Heidelberg), in the Odenwald, June 14, 1816; d. at Leipsic May 22, 1889. He studied at Giessen, where he became docent in 1841, professor extraordinary, 1847, ordinary, 1849; he became pastor at Hamburg, 1861, and professor of practical theology at Leipsic, 1870. He was a member of the commission for revising Luther's translation of the Bible. Besides numerous sermons he issued Erklaerung des Propheten Amos (Giessen, 1847); Grundzuege der Homiletik (1848); Geschichte der alttestamentlichen Weissagung (first part, 1861); Boetius und Dante (Leipsic, 1874); Grundzuege der Erziehungslehre (4th ed., Giessen, 1887); he wrote the greater part of the first volume of Schmid's Geschichte der Erziehung (Stuttgart, 1884), and Die christliche Erziehung in ihrem Verhaeltnisse zum Judenthum und zur antiken Welt (2 vols., 1892). Bibliography: G. A. Baur, Trauerfeier bei dem Begraebniss G. A. L. Baurs, Leipsic, 1889. Bauslin, David Henry BAUSLIN, DAVID HENRY: Lutheran; b. at Winchester, Va., Jan. 21, 1854. He studied at Wittenberg College (B.A., 1876) and Theological Seminary, Springfield, O. (1878), and held pastorates at Tippecanoe City, O. (1878-81), Bucyrus, O. (1881-88), Second Lutheran Church, Springfield, O. (1888-93), and Trinity Church, Canton, O. (1893-96). In 1896 he was appointed professor of historical and practical theology is the Wittenberg Theological Seminary. He has been for several years a member of the "common service" committee for the General Synod of the Lutheran Church, and was president of the General Synod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the United States 1905-07. He has written Is the Ministry an Attractive Vocation? (Philadelphia, 1901), and has been editor of The Lutheran World since 1901. Bausman, Benjamin BAUSMAN, BENJAMIN: Reformed (German); b. at Lancaster, Pa., Jan. 28, 1824. He was educated at Marshall College (B.A., 1851) and the Theological Seminary, Mercersburg, Pa. (1852). He was ordained to the Reformed ministry in 1853, and held successive pastorates at Lewisburg, Pa. (1853-61), Chambersburg, Pa. (1861-63), First Reformed Church, Reading, Pa, (1863-73), and St. Paul's Reformed Church, Reading, which he founded in 1873. He was president of the General Synod of the Reformed Church at Baltimore in 1884. He was editor of The Reformed Messenger in 1858 and of The Guardian from 1867 to 1882. In the year 1867 he founded Der reformierte Hausfreund, of which he is still the editor. He has written Sinai and Zion (Philadelphia, 1860); Wayside Gleanings in Europe (Reading, 1878); Bible Characters (1893); and Precept and Practice (Philadelphia, 1901); in addition to editing Harbaugh's Harfe, a collection of poems in Pennsylvania Dutch (Reading, 1870). Bausset, Louis Francois de BAUSSET, bO''se', LOUIS FRANC,OIS DE: Cardinal; b. at Pondicherry Dec. 14, 1748; d. at Paris June 21, 1824. He studied in the Seminary of St. Sulpice; was appointed Bishop of Alais, 1784; emigrated in 1791, but returned in 1792 to Paris, and supported himself, after a short imprisonment, by literary labor. In 1806 he was made canon of St. Denys, and in 1815, after the second return of Louis XVIII, director of the council of the University of Paris, peer of France, and cardinal 1817. He wrote the Histoire de Fenelon (3 vols., Paris, 1808) and Histoire de Bossuet (4 vols., Versailles,. 1814). Bautain, Louis Eugene Marie BAUTAIN, bO''tan', LOUIS EUGENE MARIE: French philosopher; b. at Paris Feb. 17, 1796; d. at Viroflay, near Versailles, Oct. 15, 1867. He became professor of philosophy at Strasburg in 1819. He was a pupil of Cousin and a student of German philosophy, and, his teaching not being acceptable to the church authorities, he was suspended in 1822. He modified his views and took holy orders in 1828, and resumed teaching. In 1834 he again fell into difficulty with the Bishop of Strasburg because of his teachings concerning the relation of reason and faith; is 1838 he went to Rome and sought in vain to have his views approved there. In 1840 he submitted, became vicar-general of Paris in 1849, and professor at the Sorbonne in 1853. He held that the human reason can not prove such facts as the existence of God and the immortality of the soul, and that the truths of religion are communicated purely by divine revelation. His most important works were: Philosophie du Christianisme (2 vols., Strasburg, 1835); Psychologie experimentale (2 vols., 1839; new ed., with title Esprit humain et ses facultes, Paris, 1859); Philosophie morale (2 vols., Paris, 1842); La morale de l'Evangile comparee aux divers systemes de morale (1855). He had much repute as an orator and published an Etude sur l'art de parler en public (1856; Eng. transl., The Art of Extempore Speaking, London, 1858). Bibliography: E. de Regny, L'Abbe Bautain, Paris, 1884. Bautz, Josef BAUTZ, JOSEF: Roman Catholic; b. at Keeken (near Cleves) Nov. 11, 1843. He was educated at Muenster, where he became privat-docent of apologetics and dogmatics in 1877, being promoted to the rank of associate professor in 1892. He has written Die Lehre vom Auferstehungsleibe (Paderborn, 1877); Der Himmel, spekulativ dargestellt (Mainz, 1881); Die Hoelle, im Anschluss an die Scholastik (I882); Das Fegfeuer. Im Anschluss an die Scholastik (1883); Weltgericht und Weltende. Im Anschluss an die Scholastik (1886); Grundzuege der christlichen Apologetik (1887); and Grundzuege der katholischen Dogmatik (4 vols., 1888-93). Bavaria BAVARIA: A kingdom in the southern part of the German Empire, and, next to Prussia, the largest of the states of the Empire; area, 29,282 square miles; population (1900), 6,176,057, of whom 4,357,133 (70.5 per cent.) are Roman Catholics; 1,749,206 (28.3 per cent.) Protestants; 5,430 Old Catholics; 3,170 Mennonites; 54,928 (.9 per cent.) Jews; and 4,142 of various faiths. Protestantism in Bavaria. The division of the chief confessions is based in great part on the historic conditions prevailing in 1624 and 1648, although the development of the cities has been the cause of many changes, the proportion of Protestants having increased in Munich and that of the Roman Catholics in Nuremberg. The old Bavarian circles of Upper and Lower Bavaria, as well as the Upper Palatinate, have always been essentially Roman Catholic. Upper Bavaria received its first Protestant citizens in the early part of the nineteenth century, but in consequence of the rapid growth of Munich in recent years the Protestants of that city alone numbered 78,000 in 1900. Six pastorates and six immovable vicariates are also contained in the district, and seven small churches have been built in market-towns and villages. Since the sixteenth century Lower Bavaria has posed the Protestant enclave of Ortenburg with certain neighboring places, while more recently communities have been established in the larger cities, especially Passau. The Upper Palatinate was not completely converted to Roman Catholicism in 1622-28, since the duchy of Sulzbach and the imperial city of Regensburg retained congregations of both confessions who used the same churches; but with the increase in population the proportion of Protestants steadily declined. The district now has four deaneries with forty-eight pastorates. In the three old Bavarian districts provision is made for the Protestant Diaspora by itinerant preachers, four of whom work in Upper Bavaria and two in Lower Bavaria and the Upper Palatinate combined. Since 1805 Swabia has belonged in great part to Bavaria. It consisted originally of a group of territories belonging to free cities, the clergy, and knights of the empire. Only the first category was predominantly Protestant, and even here Roman Catholicism has gained steadily. Swabia contains the following Protestant deaneries: Augsburg, Ebermergen, Kempten (including Lindau and Kaufbeuren), Leipheim, Memmingen, Noerdlingen, and Oettingen. Frankish North Bavaria is composed, on the one hand, of the episcopal territories of the bishoprics of Eichstaett, Bamberg, Wuerzburg, and a portion of the electorate of Mainz, and, on the other, of the Protestant principalities of Ansbach and Baireuth, Nuremberg, Rothenburg, and other free cities, and enclaves of the orders. This entire region is strongly Roman Catholic, although Lower Franconia has a considerable number of Protestant communities (116 pastorates, exclusive of Wuerzburg, Schweinfurt, and Aschaffenburg). In the larger section of Bavaria the historical divisions between Protestant and Roman Catholic, at least in the smaller towns, are still maintained, but in the minor portion, the Rhine Palatinate, there are few political communities which do not have a considerable minority of adherents of one or the other creed. In Speyer the proportions are almost equal, Roman Catholics numbering about 9,000 and the Protestants 8,000. The legal position of the Protestant Church in Bavaria is regulated by an edict of Sept. 8, 1809, while its foreign relations are governed by the constitution of 1818. Both Protestantism and Roman Catholicism are officially recognized, and controversies seldom arise between the two, except in regard to the creed in which children shall be brought up, methods of conversion, particularly in the Evangelical Diaspora, and the use of burial-grounds in Roman Catholic communities. In 1824 the official designation of the Protestants was declared to be "Protestant Church." The Reformed Church in the Palatinate first regained official recognition together with the Lutherans at the general consistory at Worms in 1815, and the Bavarian government created a consistory at Speyer on Dec. 15, 1818, for the "Protestant Churches of the Palatinate," a presbyterial and synodical constitution being introduced at the same time. In 1848 the Protestant Church of the Palatinate and the consistory of Speyer were placed directly under the jurisdiction of the ministry of state. The attempt to create a more definite confessional status led, in the sixth decade of the last century, to a victorious agitation on the part of the liberal element. Since 1879 the presbyteries have had the right to propose candidates for vacant pastorates. In Bavaria proper diocesan synods are held annually, and general synods every four years. There are few Protestants in Bavaria, except those who belong to the Evangelical Lutheran Church, nor are the professed adherents of sects numerous. A distinct organization was granted the Reformed in Bavaria proper in 1853, although they are still under the control of the Supreme Consistory. The Greek Church was recognized in 1826, but the Anglican Church is officially ignored like the Mennonites. The last-named have six communities in the Palatinate and four in Bavaria proper. Until 1887 the Old Catholics were reckoned as Roman Catholics, but are now declared to be a separate body, though full recognition has not been granted them. Roman Catholicism in Bavaria. The Roman Catholic Church in Bavaria is highly organized and extremely active, while its wealth and political influence are constantly increasing. The kingdom is divided into two archdioceses with eight dioceses. The archdiocese of Munich-Freising comprises the suffragan dioceses of Augsburg, Passau, and Regensburg; and the archdiocese of Bamberg includes the dioceses of Eichstaett, Wuerzburg, and Speyer. The education of the clergy, in agreement with the concordat of 1817, is entrusted to the bishops. The development of orders has been very rapid, especially in the sisterhoods for the education and the care of the sick. The number of cloisters has also increased rapidly, with a corresponding gain in real estate, and this development is aided by the generous gifts and foundations of the Roman Catholic population, the property of the 8,600 institutions being valued at more than 150,000,000 marks; while that of the 1,800 Protestant institutions is worth only 19,600,000 marks. The Roman Catholic clergy in Bavaria number some 4,900, or a proportion of one to 816 of the laity, while the Protestants have but about 1,300 clergymen, or one to 1,200 laymen. Wilhelm Goetz. Bibliography: V. A. Winter, Geschichte der Schicksale der evangelischen Lehre in und durch Bayern, 2 vols., Munich, 1809-10; E. F. H. Medicus, Geschicte der evangelischen Kirche im Koenigreich Bayern, Erlangen, 1863; J. M. Mayer, Geschichte Bayerns, Ratisbon, 1874; J. Hergenroether, Handbuch der Kirchengeschichte, 3 vols., Freiburg, 1876-80 (literature of the subject is given, iii, 183); S. Riezler, Geschichte Bayerns, 4 vols., Gotha, 1878-99; Wand, Handbuch der Verfassung und Verwaltung der protestantisch-ev.-christlichen Kirche der Pfalz, 1880; Beitraege zur Statistik des Koenigreichs Bayern, Munich, 1892; Statistische Mitteilungen aus den deutschen evangelischen Landeskirchen, Stuttgart, 1880-96. Bavarians, Conversion of the BAVARIANS, CONVERSION OF THE. The origin of the race later known as the Bavarians is uncertain. The older hypothesis that they came of Celtic stock is now generally abandoned. For a time it was thought that they were a conglomerate of the remains of several tribes belonging to the Gothic family; but the view put forward by Zeuss (Die Herkunft der Bayern, Munich, 1857) that they are to be identified with the Marcomanni is now almost universally accepted, and has strong support in the facts. First Acquaintance with Christianity. The Marcomanni are first mentioned by Caesar (Bel. Gal., i, 51). In his time they lived on the upper Main. Tacitus knows of them as inhabiting what is now Bohemia (Germ., xlii; cf. Annal., ii, 26 sqq.). Here they maintained their position for centuries, and here they took the name of Baiowarii or Baioarii. During this period, Christianity found an entrance among them. Paulinus, in his life of Ambrose (xxxvi), tells of a queen of the Marcomanni named Fritigil who was converted by a wandering Italian Christian, and asked Ambrose for written instructions in the faith, which he gave in modum catechismi. The account goes on to say that she thereupon came to Milan, but found the bishop dead. As Ambrose died Apr. 4, 397, she must have crossed the Alps in the summer of that year. If the queen was a Christian, it is hardly likely that her religion would have been unknown to her people. That Arianism also reached the Marcomanni through Gothic influences is not improbable. However that may be, the bulk of the people were pagan when they settled in 488 on the strip of territory granted them by the Romans between the Lech and the Enns. Labors of Missionaries. The name of Bavarians is first applied in the Frankish list of tribes belonging to the first quarter of the sixth century. The territory which they occupied was no desolate wilderness. In the valleys and around the lakes there was a thin agricultural population which held to the Latin tongue and doubtless also to the Christian faith. Not all the cities were destroyed; Juvavum and Lauriacum lay in ruins; but neither Castra Batava nor Castra Regina was without inhabitants, and here also Christianity undoubtedly held its own with the Romanic population. Christians and heathens thus living as neighbors, a starting-point was afforded for missionary efforts. The ecclesiastical organization had, it is true, been broken up; only in southern Bavaria a bishopric founded in Roman times maintained its existence at Seben, and the diocese of Augsburg stretched over a part of the Bavarian territory. Under these circumstances the fact was of decisive importance that the Bavarians no sooner occupied their new home than they came into a position of dependence on the Frankish kingdom. The first ducal family, that of the Agilulfings, was of Frankish origin and professed Christianity, and the first outsiders who labored for the spread of the faith in Bavaria came from the Frankish kingdom. [5]Eustasius of Luxeuil (q.v.) the successor of Columban, worked there, and left missionaries trained by him when he returned to Burgundy. Later, Rupert, bishop of Worms, found a wide field here for his activity; [6]Emmeram and [7]Corbinian (qq.v.) were Franks. Side by side with them there seem to have been at a very early period some Scoto-Irish monks, but there is no record of their labors. The result of the combined operation of these imperfectly known factors was the acceptance of Christianity by the Bavarian race as a whole, which was completed in the course of the seventh century. It is a remarkable fact that it was not accompanied by the organization of a local episcopate; as far as can be told the direction of ecclesiastical affairs was in the hands of the dukes; it is Theodo who invites Rupert thither, and who treats with the pope in regard to church institutions. From this fact it would appear that the Christian profession of the dukes played a decisive part in the conversion of the people at large. The existence of the Church without diocesan bishops was made possible by the fact that the wandering monks and missionaries were frequently in episcopal orders, and could thus perform the strictly episcopal functions. Organization of Bishoprics. The above-mentioned Duke Theodo, acting in concert with the pope, endeavored to introduce a more regular organization. With this end in view, he visited Rome in 716, and had an agreement with Pope Gregory II as to the measures to be taken. At least four dioceses were to be founded corresponding to the divisions of the secular jurisdiction. The bishop of the most important place was to be set as metropolitan at the head of the Bavarian Church, the pope reserving the right to consecrate him, and if necessary to name an Italian. Order was to be brought into the ecclesiastical affairs by a general visitation; the Roman use was to be taken as the model in liturgical matters. But these plans were never carried into execution, apparently by reason of the death of Theodo. The organization of the Bavarian bishoprics, involving the termination of the missionary period, was only accomplished by [8]Boniface, (q.v.) who paid a short visit to the country in 719, and returned in 735 or 736 to make a formal visitation by virtue of what was practically a metropolitan jurisdiction over the whole of Germany, for the purpose of acquiring full information as to the prevailing conditions. His definite organizing work is introduced by a brief (738 or 739) from Gregory III to the bishops of Bavaria and Alemannia, enjoining them to receive Boniface with fitting honors as his representative, and to attend a synod to be held by him. In 739 Boniface undertook the settlement of diocesan boundaries and institutions, and provided three of the four bishoprics of Bavaria with bishops consecrated by himself--Erembrecht, brother of Corbinian, at Freising, Gavibald at Regensburg, and John, a newcomer from England, at Salzburg--while Vivilo, who had been consecrated by the pope, remained at Passau. Gregory III confirmed these arrangements on Oct. 29, and the subordinate divisions of archdeaconries and parishes were soon organized. The decisions of the Synod of Reisbach (799) show the parochial system in full operation. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Hauck, KD, vol. i; S. Riezler, Geschichte Bayerns, vol. i, Gotha, 1873; Rettberg, KD, 2 vols.; Friedrich, KD, 2 vols. Bavinck, Herman BAVINCK, HERMAN: Dutch Reformed; b. at Hoogeveen (35 m. s. of Groningen), Holland, Dec. 13, 1854. He was educated at the gymnasium of Zwolle, the theological seminary of the Reformed Church at Kampen, and the University of Leyden (D.D., 1880); he was then pastor at Franeker, Friesland (1881-82), and professor of dogmatic theology in the theological seminary at Kampen (1882-1903). Since 1903 he has been professor of dogmatics and apologetics at the Free University, Amsterdam. In theology he adheres to the principles of the Heidelberg Confession and the canons of the Synod of Dort. He has written De Ethiek van H. Zwingli (Kampen, 1880); De Wetenschap der heilige Godgeleerdheid (1883); De Theologie van Prof. Dr. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye (Leyden, 1884); De Katholiciteit van Christendom en Kerk (Kampen, 1888); De algemeene Genade (1894); Gereformeerde Dogmatiek (4 vols., 1895-1901); Beginselen der Psychologie (1897); De Offerande des Lofs (The Hague, 1901); De Lebenheid des Geloofs (Kampen, 1901); Hedendaagsche Moraal (1902); Roeping en Wedergeboorte (1902); Godsdienst en Godgeleerdheid (Wageningen, 1902); Christelijke Wetenschap (Kampen, 1904); Christelijke Wereldbeschouwing (1904); Paedagogische Beginselen (1904); and Bilderdijk als Denker en Dichter (1906). Baxter, Richard BAXTER, RICHARD: One of the greatest of English theologians; b. at Rowton (42 m. n.e. of Shrewsbury), Shropshire, Nov. 12, 1615; d. in London Dec. 8, 1691. Though without a university education, and always sickly, he acquired great learning. Ministry at Kidderminster. In 1633 he had a brief experience of court life at Whitehall (London), but turned from the court in disgust and studied theology. In 1638 he was ordained by the bishop of Worcester and preached in various places till 1641, when he began his ministry at Kidderminster (18 m. s.w. of Birmingham), as "teacher." There he labored with wonderful success so that the place was utterly transformed. When the Civil War broke out (1642) he retired temporarily to Gloucester and then to Coventry because he sided with the parliament, while all in and about Kidderminster sided with the king. He was, however, no blind partizan and boldly spoke out for moderation and fairness. After acting as an army chaplain he separated from the army, partly on account of illness, and returned to Kidderminster. In London. In the spring of 1660 he left Kidderminster and went to London. He preached before the House of Commons at St. Margaret's, Westminster, Apr. 30, 1660, and before the lord mayor and aldermen at St. Paul's, May 10, and was among those to give Charles II welcome to his kingdom. Charles made him one of his chaplains and offered him the bishopric of Hereford, which he declined. He was a leader on the Non-conformist side in the Savoy Conference (1661) and presented a revision of the Prayer-book which could be used by the Non-conformists. He also preached frequently in different pulpits. Seeing how things were going, he desired permission to return to Kidderminster as curate, but was refused. On May 16, 1662, three days before the Act of Uniformity was passed, he took formal farewell of the Church of England and retired to Acton, a west suburb of London. From this time on he had no regular charge and until the accession of William and Mary in 1688 he suffered, like other Non-conformist preachers, from repressive laws often rigorously and harshly enforced. On Sept. 10, 1662, he married Margaret, daughter of Francis Charlton, of Shropshire, twenty-four years his junior, who possessed wealth and social position, and made him a devoted helpmeet, cheerfully going with him into exile and prison and spending her money lavishly in the relief of their less fortunate fellow sufferers. She died June 14, 1681, and Baxter has perpetuated her memory in a singularly artless but engaging memoir (London, 1681). Imprisonment. During all these years on the verge of trouble because he persisted in preaching, he was actually imprisoned only twice, once for a short period, and again from Feb. 28, 1685, to Nov. 24, 1686. The judge who condemned him the second time was George Jeffreys, who treated him with characteristic brutality. The charge was that in his Paraphrase of the New Testament (1685) Baxter had libeled the Church of England. But insult, heavy and indeed ruinous fines, enforced wanderings, anxiety as to personal safety, and imprisonment had no power to daunt Baxter's spirit. He preached constantly to great multitudes, and addressed through his writings a still vaster throng. The Toleration Act of 1688 ended his sufferings and he died in peace. Writings. Baxter was one of the most voluminous of English authors, and one of the best. But there is no complete edition of his 108 treatises, only of his practical works. A few of his works are in verse (Poetical Fragments, reprinted, London, 1821), though he has small claim to be called a poet, and one familiar hymn ("Lord, it belongs not to my care") has been manufactured out of a longer one of his. The after-world knows him by reputation as the author of The Reformed Pastor (1656), a treatise on pastoral theology still usable; A Call to the Unconverted to turn and live and accept of mercy while mercy may be had, as even they would find mercy in the day of their extremity; from the Living God (1657), uttered as a dying man to dying men and impressive to-day; but chiefly because of The Saints' Everlasting Rest: or a treatise of the blessed state of the Saints in their enjoyment of God in glory. Wherein is shewed its excellency and certainty; the misery of those that lose it, the way to attain it, and assurance of it; and how to live in the continual delightful foretaste of it, by the help of meditation. Written by the author for his own use, in the time of his languishing, when God took him off from all publike imployment; and afterwards preached in his weekly lecture (1650). The "Saints' Rest" gained a reputation it has never lost, but the 648 pages of the original edition have proved too many for posterity and the work is read nowadays, if at all, only in an abridgment of an abridgment. The best brief characterization of this faithful, fearless, and gifted religious teacher is on his monument at Kidderminster, erected by Churchmen and Non-conformists, and unveiled July 28, 1875: "Between the years 1641 and 1660 this town was the scene of the labours of Richard Baxter, renowned equally for his Christian learning and his pastoral fidelity. In a stormy and divided age he advocated unity and comprehension, pointing the way to everlasting rest." In many respects Baxter was a modern man. His Theology. Baxter's theology was set forth most elaborately in his Latin Methodus theologiae Chriatianae (London, 1681); the Christian Directory (1673) contains the practical part of his system; and Catholic Theology (1675) is an English exposition. His theology made Baxter very unpopular among his contemporaries and caused a split among the Dissenters of the eighteenth century. As summarized by Thomas W. Jenkyn, it differed from the Calvinism of Baxter's day on four points: (1) The atonement of Christ did not consist in his suffering the identical but the equivalent punishment (i.e., one which would have the same effect in moral government) as that deserved by mankind because of offended law. Christ died for sins, not persons. While the benefits of substitutionary atonement are accessible and available to all men for their salvation; they have in the divine appointment a special reference to the subjects of personal elation. (2) The elect were a certain fixed number determined by the decree without any reference to their faith as the ground of their election; which decree contemplates no reprobation but rather the redemption of all who will accept Christ as their Savior. (3) What is imputed to the sinner in the work of justification is not the righteousness of Christ but the faith of the sinner himself in the righteousness of Christ. (4) Every sinner has a distinct agency of his own to exert in the process of his conversion. The Baxterian theory, with modifications, was adopted by many later Presbyterians and Congregationalists in England, Scotland, and America (Isaac Watts, Philip Doddridge, and many others). Bibliography: Baxter's Practical Works were collected by W. Orme and published is 23 vols., London, 1830; vol. i contains Orme's Life and Times of Richard Baxter, published separately in 2 vols., the same year; a table of the contents of this edition of Baxter's works is found in Darling's Cyclopaedia Bibliopraphica, pp. 205-208, London, 1854; the Practical Works appeared also in 4 vols., ib. 1847; and Select Practical Writings, ed. L. Bacon, 2 vols., New Haven, 1844. An Annotated List of the Writings of R. Baxter is appended to the ed. of What Must we do to be Saved? by A. B. Grosart, London, 1868. The chief source for a life is the autobiographical material left to M. Sylvester, who published it as Reliquiae Baxterianae, London, 1696, abridged by E. Calamy, 1702, this enlarged and republished in 2 vols., 1713. A notable paper on Baxter by Sir James Stephen, originally published in the Edinburgh Review, is to be found in his Essays, vol. ii, London, 1860. Among the biographies may be mentioned A. B. Grosart, Representative Nonconformists, II, Richard Baxter, ib. 1879; G. D. Boyle, Men Worth Remembering, Richard Baxter, ib. 1883; J. Stalker, Richard Baxter, Edinburgh, 1883; DNB, iii, 429-437; J. H. Davies, Life of Richard Baxter, London, 1887. The account of his trial is given by Macaulay in his History of England, vol. ii. Consult also Baxter's Making Light of Christ, with an Essay on his Life, Ministry and Theology, by T. W. Jenkyn, London, 1848. Bayle, Pierre BAYLE, bel, PIERRE: French Protestant; b. at Carla (11 m. w. of Pamiers), department of Ariege, Nov. 18, 1647; d. at Rotterdam Dec. 28, 1706. He was the son of a Calvinist clergyman, and, in 1666, began his studies at the Protestant Academy at Puylaurens, whence he went to the University of Toulouse in 1669. Not satisfied with the objections of the Reformed against the dogma of a divinely appointed judge in matters of faith, he became a Roman Catholic. He spent eighteen months at the Jesuits' College in Toulouse, and then returned to Protestantism and went to Geneva (1670), where, living as a tutor in private families, he studied theology as well as the Cartesian philosophy. His friendship with Jacques Basnage and Minutoli began there. Later he accompanied pupils to Rouen and in 1675 to Paris. Then he spent several years as a lecturer on philosophy at Sedan; when that academy was closed by order of the king (1681), he accepted an appointment as lecturer on philosophy at the "Ecole illustre" of Rotterdam. In this refuge of liberty, Bayle wrote most of his works. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes raised his indignation, and several of the best Protestant works called forth by that disgraceful piece of policy proceeded from the pen of Bayle. The conclusion at which he arrives by his close reasoning is: that matters of belief should be outside the sphere of the State as such--a dangerous principle for Catholicism, and the book was at once put on the Index. Even among Protestants Bayle had adversaries. Jurieu, his jealous and violent opponent at Rotterdam, considered toleration equal to indifference, and reproached Bayle with dangerous skepticism, which made his position very difficult. He tried for an appointment in Berlin. But the realization of this wish was prevented by the death of the great Elector Frederick William. Jurieu continued his attacks and even went so far as to represent Bayle as the head of a party working into the hands of Louis XIV by aiming at a split between the princes allied against France. William III gave credence to this and influenced the magistrate of Rotterdam to remove Bayle from his position (1693). From that time he lived for his literary work, chiefly bearing on philosophy and the history of literature. His Dictionnaire historique et critique [(2 vols. in three parts Rotterdam, 1697; 2d ed., 3 vols., 1702; 11th ed., 16 vols., Paris, 1820-24; Eng. transl., 5 vols., London, 1734-38)] was mast favorably received by all the learned men of Europe, though it brought on him a revival of the reproach of skepticism, of want of respect for the Holy Scriptures, even of Manicheism. Called to justify himself before a commission appointed by the presbytery of Rotterdam, he was treated with great moderation, and consented to change some of the offensive articles, which appeared in their new form in the second edition of his Dictionnaire. Accusations against him came up again from time to time, and he tried to refute them in minor philosophical works. Besides the Dictionnaire his works include: Lettres `a M. L. D. A. C., docteur en Sorbonne, ou il est prouve que les cometes ne sont point le presage d'aucun malheur (Cologne, 1682); Critique generale de l'Histoire du Calvinisme de M. Maimbourg (Amsterdam, 1682); Recueil de quelques pieces concernant la philosophie de M. Descartes (Amsterdam, 1684); Nouvelles de la Republique des lettres (1684-1687); Ce que c'est que la France toute catholique sous le regne de Louis-le-Grand (St. Omer, 1685); Commentaire philosophique sur ces paroles de J. C.: "Contrains-les d'entrer" (Amsterdam,1686); Response de l'auteur des Nouvelles de la Republique des lettres en faveur du P. Malebranche sur les plaisirs des sens ( Rotterdam, 1686); Avis important aux refugies sur leur Prochain retour en France (Amsterdam, 1690; 1709); Lettres choisies avec des remarques (Rotterdam, 1714); Nouvelles lettres (The Hague, 1739). G. Bonet-Maury. Bibliography: B. de la Monnoye (pseudonym for Du Revest), Histoire du Mr. Bayle et ses ouvrages, Amsterdam, 1716; P. des Maizeaux, Vie de P. Bayle, The Hague, 1730, reprinted from the 3d ed. of the Dictionnaire, Amsterdam, 1730, reproduced in the Eng. transl. of the "Dictionary," ut sup.; E. and E. Haag, La France protestante, ii, 60-63, 9 vols., Paris, 1846-59; L. Feuerbach, P. Bayle, ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Philosophie und der Menschheit, Leipsic, 1848; J. P. Damiron, Memoire sur Bayle et ses doctrines, Paris, 1850; C. A. St. Beuve, in Lundis, vol. ix, ib. 1852; F. Bouillier, Histoire de la philosophie cartesienne, ii, 476, ib. 1854; C. Lenient, Etude sur Bayle, ib. 1855; E. Jeanmaire, Essai sur la critique religieuse de Bayle, Strasburg, 1862; Voltaire, Siecle ae Louis XIV, chap. 36; A. Deschamps, La Genese du scepticisme erudit chez Bayle, Brussels, 1879; J. Denis, Bayle et Jurieu, Caen, 1886; P. Janet, Histoire de la science politique dans ses rapports avec la morale, Paris, 1887. Bayley, James Roosevelt BAYLEY, JAMES ROOSEVELT: Roman Catholic archbishop of Baltimore; b. at Rye, N. Y., Aug. 23, 1814; d. in Newark, N. J., Oct. 3, 1877. He was a nephew of Elizabeth (Bayley) Seton ("Mother Seton"), founder of the order of Sisters of Charity in America; was graduated at Washington (Trinity) College, Hartford, Conn., 1835; rector of St. Peter's church, Harlem, New York, 1840-41; received into the Roman Catholic Church at Rome, 1842; studied in Paris and Rome, and was ordained priest in New York, 1843; was professor in St. John's College, Fordham, New York, and its acting president, 1845-46; became secretary to Bishop Hughes of New York, 1846, bishop of Newark, 1853, archbishop of Baltimore and primate of America, 1872. He published a volume of pastoral letters; Sketch of the History of the Catholic Church on the Island of New York (New York, 1853); Memoirs of Simon Gabriel Brute, First Bishop of Vincennes (1861). Bayly, Lewis BAYLY, LEWIS: Anglican bishop; b. perhaps at Carmarthen, Wales, perhaps at Lamington (6 m. s.w. of Bigger), Scotland, year unknown; d, at Bangor, Wales, Oct. 26, 1631. He was educated at Oxford; became vicar of Evesham, Worcestershire, and in 1604, probably, rector of St. Matthew's, Friday street, London; was then chaplain to Henry Prince of Wales (d. 1612), later chaplain to King James I, who, in 1616, appointed him bishop of Bangor. He was an ardent Puritan. His fame rests on The Practice of Piety, directing a Christian how to walk that he may please God (date of first ed. unknown; 3d ed., London, 1613). It reached its 74th edition in 1821 and has been translated into French, German, Italian, Polish, Romansch, Welsh, and into the language of the Massachusetts Indians. It was one of the two books which John Bunyan's wife brought with her--the other one being Arthur Dent's Plain Man's Pathway to Heaven--and it was by reading it that Bunyan was first spiritually awakened. Bibliography: A biographical preface by Grace Webster is prefixed to the Practice of Piety, London, 1842; consult also A. `a Wood, Athenae Oxonienses, ed. P. Bliss, ii, 525-531, 4 vols., ib. 1813-20. Bay Psalm Book BAY PSALM BOOK: A metrical translation of the Psalms, published by Stephen Daye at Cambridge, Mass., in 1640 and the first book printed in America. The work of translation was begun in 1636, the principal collaborators being Thomas Welde, Richard Mather, and John Eliot, the missionary to the Indians. The rendering, as the translators themselves recognized in their quaint preface to the book, was a crude specimen of English, and carrying to the extreme their belief in the inspiration of the Bible, they tortured their version into what they conceived to be fidelity to the original. The meter, moreover, is irregular, and the rimes are frequently ludicrous. The general spirit and form of the translation may be represented by the following rendering of Ps. xviii, 6-9: 6. "I in my streights, cal'd on the Lord, and to my God cry'd: he did heare from his temple my voyce, my crye, before him came, unto his eare. 7. "Then th' earth shooke, do quak't, do moutaines roots mov'd, & were stird at his ire, 8. "Vp from his nostrils went a smoak, and from his mouth devouring fire; By it the coales inkindled were. 9. "Likewise the heavens he downe-bow'd, And he descended, & there was under his feet a gloomy cloud." Of the first edition of the Bay Psalm Book only eleven copies are known to exist. In 1647 a second edition, better printed and with the spelling and punctuation corrected, was published either by Stephen Daye or possibly by Matthew Daye or even in England, and this edition long remained in general use among the Puritans of New England. A reprint of the first edition (71 copies) was issued privately at Cambridge in 1862. Bibliography: R. F. Roden, The Cambridge Press, New York, 1906. Bdellium BDELLIUM, del'i-Um (Hebr. bedhola?): One of the products of the land of Havilah, mentioned with gold and the shoham-stone (E. V. "onyx") in Gen. ii, 11-12. In Num. xi, 7, manna is said to have resembled it. It was, therefore, something well known to the Hebrews, but the exact meaning is uncertain. Some have thought that it was a precious stone, perhaps the pearl; others identify it with myrrh or with musk. The most probable and generally accepted explanation is that it was the gum of a tree, much prized in antiquity and used in religious ceremonies. Pliny (Hist. nat., xii, 35) describes it as transparent, waxy, fragrant, oily to the touch, and bitter; the tree was black, of the size of the olive; with leaves like the ilex, and fruit like the wild fig; he designates Bactria as its home, but states that it grew also in Arabia, India, Media, and Babylonia. It probably belonged to the balsamodendra and was allied to the myrrh. I. Benzinger. Beach, Harlan Page BEACH, HARLAN PAGE: Congregationalist; b. at South Orange, N. J., Apr. 4, 1854. He was educated at Yale College (B.A., 1878) and Andover Theological Seminary (1883). He was instructor in Phillips Andover Academy 1878-80, and was ordained in 1883. He was missionary in China for seven years, and from 1892 to 1895 was instructor and later superintendent of the School for Christian Workers, Springfield, Mass. He was appointed educational secretary of the Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions in 1895, and held this position until 1906, when he was chosen professor of the theory and practise of missions in the Yale Divinity School. He has been a corporate member of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions since 1895 and of the cooperating committee of the same organization since 1906, as well as chairman of the exhibit committee and executive committee of the Ecumenical Conference in 1900, member of the Bureau of Missions Trustees since 1901, member of the executive committee of the Yale Foreign Missionary Society since 1903, member of the advisory board of Canton Christian College and trustee of the Hartford School of Religious Pedagogy since 1905. In theology he is a moderate conservative. He has written The Cross in the Land of the Trident (New York, 1895); Knights of the Labarum (1896); New Testament Studies in Missions (1898); Dawn on the Hills of T'ang: or, Missions in China (1898); Protestant Missions in South America (1900); Geography and Atlas of Protestant Missions (2 vols., 1901-03); Two Hundred Years of Christian Activity in Yale (New Haven, 1902); Princely Men of the Heavenly Kingdom (New York, 1903); and India and Christian Opportunity (1904). Beard, Charles BEARD, CHARLES: English Unitarian; b. at Higher Broughton, Manchester, July 27, 1827, son of John Relly Beard, also a well-known Unitarian minister and educator (b. 1800; d. 1876); d. at Liverpool Apr. 9, 1888. He studied at Manchester New College 1843-48, was graduated B.A. at London University 1847, and continued his studies at Berlin 1848-49; became assistant minister at Hyde Chapel, Gee Cross, Cheshire, 1850, minister 1854, minister at Renshaw Street Chapel, Liverpool, 1867. From 1864 to 1879 he edited The Theological Review. Besides sermons, addresses, etc., he published Port Royal, a Contribution to the History of Religion and Literature in France (2 vols., London, 1861); The Reformation in its Relation to Modern Thought (Hibbert lectures for 1883); and Martin Luther and the Reformation in Germany until the Close of the Diet of Worms (ed. J. F. Smith, 1889). Beard, Richard BEARD, RICHARD: Cumberland Presbyterian; b. in Sumner County, Tenn., Nov. 27, 1799; d. at Lebanon, Tenn., Nov. 6, 1880. He was licensed in 1820; graduated at Cumberland College, Princeton, Ky., 1832, and was professor of Greek and Latin there 1832-38, and in Sharon College, Sharon, Miss., 1838-43; president of Cumberland College 1843-54; professor of systematic theology in Cumberland University, Lebanon, Tenn., after 1854. He published the following books. Why am I a Cumberland Presbyterian? (Nashville, 1872); Lectures on Theology (3 vols., 1873-75); Brief Biographical Sketches of Some of the Early Ministers of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church (1874). Beardslee, Clark Smith BEARDSLEE, CLARK SMITH: Congregationalist; b. at Coventry, N. Y., Feb. 1, 1850. He was educated at Amherst College (B.A., 1876), Hartford Theological Seminary (1879), and the University of Berlin. He was instructor in Hebrew at Hartford Theological Seminary from 1878 to 1881, and then held successive pastorates at Le Mars, Ia. (1882-85), Prescott, Ariz. (1885-86), and West Springfield, Mass. (1886-88). In 1888 he was appointed associate professor of systematic theology at Hartford Theological Seminary, and four years later was made professor of Biblical dogmatics and ethics, a position which he still holds. In theology he is a Biblical Evangelical. He is the author of Christ's Estimate of Himself (Hartford, 1899); Teacher-Training with the Master Teacher (Philadelphia, 1903); and Jesus the King of Truth (Hartford, 1905). Beatification BEATIFICATION: An intermediate stage in the process of canonization. It is in modern usage itself the result of a lengthy course of inquiry into the life of the person under consideration, and is solemnly declared in St. Peter's at Rome. By it the title of "Blessed" is attributed to the subject, and a limited and partial cultus of him permitted, as in a certain country or order. See [9]Canonization. Beatific Vision BEATIFIC VISION: The direct and unhindered vision of God, which is part of the reserved blessedness of the redeemed (I Cor. xiii, 12; I John iii, 2; Rev. xxii, 3, 4). The conception of its nature must necessarily be very vague, but belief in its existence is said to be founded upon Scripture and reason. The only question concerns its time. This has been much disputed. The Greek Church and many Protestants, especially Lutherans and Calvinists, put the vision after the judgment day (so Dr. Hodge, Systematic Theology, iii, 860). According to the view prevalent among Roman Catholic theologians, the vision, though essentially complete before the resurrection, is not integrally so until the soul is reunited to the glorified body (consult H. Hurter, Theologiae dogmaticae compendium, vol. iii, De Deo consummatore, chap. v, 10th ed., Innsbruck, 1900). Beaton (Bethune), David BEATON, bi'ten (BETHUNE), be-thun' or be-tuen', DAVID: Cardinal-archbishop of St. Andrews; b. 1494; assassinated at St. Andrews May 29,1546. He was the third son of John Beacon of Auchmuty, Fifeshire; studied at the universities of St. Andrews and Glasgow, and at the age of fifteen went to Paris and studied law; became abbot of Arbroath in 1523; bishop of Mirepoix in Languedoc 1537; cardinal Dec., 1538. He was made lord privy seal in 1528; succeeded his uncle, James Beaton, as archbishop of St. Andrews in 1539; was consecrated archbishop of Glasgow at Rome in 1552; became chancellor and prothonotary apostolic and legate a latere in 1543. He served his country in many important diplomatic missions. In the bitter political contests of the time between the French and English parties he sided with the former, and fought with energy and courage for the independence of Scotland against the plans of Henry VIII. In the religious contests between Romanists and Reformers he took as decidedly the part of the hierarchy and did not scruple to use intrigue and force when argument and persuasion failed. His memory has been darkened by his severity against heretics and his immoral life. The case of [10]George Wishart is adduced as a particularly flagrant piece of religious persecution; but it must be remembered that he lived in a rude country in turbulent times, and the Reformers were implicated in political intrigues and treasonable plots. The execution of Wishart was the immediate cause of a conspiracy to put Beaton out of the way, and certain members of the Reform party murdered him in his bedchamber. Bibliography: R. Chambers, Lives of Illustrious Scotchmen, ed. T. Thomson, 5 vols., Edinburgh, 1835; C. R. Rogers, Life of George Wishart, ib. 1876; DNB, iv, 17-18; J. Herkless, Cardinal Beaton, Priest and Politician, London, 1891. Beattie, Francis Robert BEATTIE, FRANCIS ROBERT: Presbyterian; b. at Guelph, Ont., Mar. 31, 1848; d. at Louisville, Ky., Sept. 4, 1906. He was educated at the University of Toronto (B.A., 1875), Knox Theological College, Toronto (1878), Illinois Wesleyan University (Ph.D., 1884), and Presbyterian Theological College, Montreal (D.D., 1887). He was tutor in Knox College in 1876-78, and held Canadian pastorates at Baltimore and Coldsprings (1878-82) and Brantford (1882-88), in addition to being examiner to Toronto University in 1884-1888. In the latter year he entered the Presbyterian Church, South, and was appointed professor of apologetics in Columbia Seminary, Columbia, S. C., remaining there until 1893, when he became professor of apologetics and systematic theology in the Presbyterian Theological Seminary of Kentucky at Louisville. He published Utilitarian Theory of Morals (Brantford, Ont., 1884); Methods of Theism (1887); Radical Criticism (Chicago, 1894); Presbyterian Standards (Richmond, Va., 1896); and Apologetics (vol. i, 1903). He also edited the Memorial Volume of the Westminster Assembly Celebration at Charlotte, N. C. (Richmond, Va., 1897), and was associate editor of the Christian Observer from 1893 and of The Presbyterian Quarterly from 1895. Beattie, James BEATTIE, JAMES: Scotch poet; b. at Laurencekirk (70 m. n.n.e. of Edinburgh), Kincardineshire, Oct. 25, 1735; d. at Aberdeen Aug. 18, 1803. He studied at the Marischal College, Aberdeen (M.A., 1753), and, after seven years as a school-teacher, became professor of moral philosophy and logic at that institution in 1760. In reply to Hume he wrote An Essay on the Nature and Immutability of Truth (London, 1770), which was popular and successful, but has little value as a philosophical work. Other works of his were: Dissertations, Moral and Critical (1783); Evidences of the Christian Religion (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1786); and Elements of Moral Science (2 vols., 1790-93). His poems, of which the chief is The Minstrel (books i-ii, 1771-1774), are much better than his philosophical writings; and it is for them that he is remembered. Bibliography: Sir William Forbes, An Account of the Life and Writings of James Beattie, Edinburgh, 1806; DNB, iv, 22-25. Beausobre, Isaac de BEAUSOBRE, bO''sO'br, ISAAC DE: One of the most distinguished preachers of the French Protestant Church; b. at Niort (220 m. s.w. of Paris), in the present department of Deux-Sevres, Mar. 8, 1659; d. in Berlin June 5, 1738. He was descended from a Protestant family of Gascogne, whose head took refuge in Geneva in 1578. He began his theological studies at the celebrated academy of Saumur, was ordained at the last synod of Loudun, and was called to be minister of the church at Chatillon, department of Indre, 1683. During the religious persecution, he fled in Nov., 1685, to Rotterdam, where he was welcomed at the house of the princess of Orange and, through her, was appointed chaplain to her daughter, princess of Anhalt-Dessau. In 1694 he was appointed chaplain to the elector of Brandenburg, Frederick III, and was called to Berlin as minister of the French Church. He stayed there for thirty-six years, preaching with much success, and was loaded with favors by King Frederick II. Among other honorable missions, he was sent in 1704 to the Duke of Marlborough, and, in 1713, to the commissioners of the Treaty of Utrecht, to ask for the exchange of Huguenot galley-slaves for French prisoners. He was privy councilor of the king of Prussia, director of the French House and of the French schools, and superintendent of all the French churches in Berlin. His works are: Defense de la doctrine des Reformes sur la Providence, la predestination, la grace, et l'Eucharistie (Magdeburg, 1693); Les Psaumes de David mis en rime franc,aise (Berlin, 1701); Le Nouveau-Testament de J. C. traduit en franc,ais sur l'original grec, avec des notes litterales (Amsterdam, 1718); Histoire critique de Manichee et du Manicheisme (1739); Sermons (4 vols., Lausanne, 1755); Histoire de la Reformation ou origine et progres du Lutheranisme dans l'Empire de 1517 `a 1536 (4 vols., Berlin, 1785-86). G. Bonet-Maury. Bibliography: A life is prefixed by A. B. de la Chapelle to Beausobre's Remarques . . . sur le Nouveau Testament, 2 vols., The Hague, 1742. Consult J. H. S. Formey, Eloge des academiciens de Berlin, 2 vols., Berlin, 1757; E. and E. Haag, La France protestante, ed. H. L. Bordier, ii, 127, Paris, 1877; C. J. G. Bartholmess, Le Grand Beausobre, in Bulletin de la societe d'histoire du protestantisme franc,ais, ib. 1876. Bebb, Llewellyn John Montfort BEBB, LLEWELLYN JOHN MONTFORT: Church of England; b. at Cape Town Feb. 16, 1862. He was educated at New College, Oxford (B.A., 1885), and was fellow (1885-98), tutor (1889-98), and librarian (1892-98) of Brasenose College. He was examining chaplain to the bishop of Salisbury from 1893 to 1898, and to the bishop of St. Asaph from 1898 to 1902, and was also curator of the botanical garden, Oxford, in 1896-98 and Grinfeld lecturer on the Septuagint in the University of Oxford in 1897-1901. From 1892 to 1896 he was vice-principal of Brasenose College, Oxford, and since 1898 has been principal of St. David's College, Lampeter, Wales. He was select preacher at Cambridge in 1904, and has written Evidence of the Early Versions and Patristic Quotations on the Text of the New Testament, in Studia Biblica, ii (Oxford, 1890), and has edited Sermons Preached before the University of Oxford (1901) and U. Z. Rule's Graduated Lessons from the Old Testament (1902). Bebenburg, Lupold Von BEBENBURG, LUPOLD VON: Bishop of Bamberg, best known for his writings on ecclesiastico-political subjects; d. 1363. He came of a knightly Frankish family, and studied canon law at Bologna. From 1338 to 1352 he was a member of the chapters of W?rzburg and Mainz and dean of St. Severus at Erfurt. In 1353 he was made bishop of Bamberg, and remained there till his death. In the struggle between Louis the Bavarian and Popes John XXII, Benedict XII, and Clement VI, he was among the jurists who took the emperor's side. His treatise De juribus regni et imperii Romanorum (ed. J. Wimpfeling, Strasburg, 1508; S. Schard, in De jurisdictione, auctoritate, et praeeminentia imperiali ac potestate ecclesiastica variis auctoribus scripta, Basel, 1566, and often), dedicated to Louis' supporter, the elector Baldwin of Treves, deals less with abstract ideas and Aristotelian politics than with historical considerations. Two minor works of his have also been preserved, one in praise of the devotion of the old German princes to the Church (in Schard, ut sup.), the other a lament over the condition of the Holy Roman Empire (ed. Peter, Wuerzburg, 1842). (E. Friedberg.) Bibliography: J. Looshorn, Die Geschichte des Bisthums Bamberg, iii, 246-306, Bischof Lupold III von Bebenburg, Munich, 1891; A. Ussermann, Episcopatus Bambergensis, pp. 178-180, San Blas, 1802; S. Riezler, Die literarischen Widersacher der Paepste, pp. 107-114, 180-192, Leipsic, 1874; F. Joel, Lupold III von Bebenburg, vol. i, Sein Leben, Halle, 1891 (the result of diligent research). Bec, Abbey of BEC, ABBEY OF: Benedictine abbey of Normandy, situated at the present village of Le BecHellouin (7 m. s.w. of Rouen). It was founded about 1034 by Herluin, a noble Norman, who was first abbot. Mainly because of its great teachers, Lanfranc (who came to the abbey about 1042 and was prior 1045 or 1046-66) and Anselm (entered the abbey 1060; prior 1063-78; abbot 1078-93; see [11]Anselm, Saint, of Canterbury), it became a famous center of learning for Normandy and, after the Conquest, for England. Among those who studied there were: Anselm of Lucca, afterward Pope Alexander II; Anselm of Laon; Gilbert Crispin, abbot of Westminster, author of the life of Herluin; Milo Crispin, biographer of Lanfranc and certain of the early abbots; Arnulf and Gundulf, bishops of Rochester; Ivo of Chartres; Gutmund, archbishop of Aversa; and William, archbishop of Rouen. Its fifth abbot, Theobald, became archbishop of Canterbury (1139); and the seventh abbot was Vacarius, who about the middle of the twelfth century introduced the study of the Roman law into England. The abbey was destroyed during the French Revolution. Bibliography: The Chronicon Beccensis abbatiae, with the lives by the Crispins above referred to, are in d'Achery's edition of the works of Lanfranc, Paris, 1648; reprinted in MPL, cl; and the Gesta of seven Abbots of Bec, by Peter the Monk, written 1150, are in MPL, clxxxi. Becan, Martin BECAN (VERBEECK, VAN DER BEECK), MARTIN: Jesuit; b. at Hilvarenbeeck (35 m. n.e. of Antwerp), in Brabant, Jan. 6, 1563; d. in Vienna Jan. 24, 1624. He joined the Jesuits in 1583; taught philosophy and theology at schools of the order in Cologne, Wuerzburg, Mainz, and Vienna; and became confessor to the emperor Ferdinand II in 1620. He engaged in controversy with Lutherans, Calvinists and Anabaptists, and in particular attacked the Church of England. In his Controversia Anglicana de Potestate pontificis et regis (Mainz, 1613) he defended the morality of assassinating a heretic king; and in Quaestiones de fide haereticis servanda (1609) he declared that no promise or oath given to a heretic was binding. The former work was condemned at Rome. His collected works were published in two volumes at Mainz, 1630-31. Beck, Johann Tobias BECK, JOHANN TOBIAS: German theologian; b. at Balingen (40 m. s.s.w. of Stuttgart), Wuerttemberg, Feb. 22, 1804; d. at Tuebingen Dec. 28, 1878. He studied at Tuebingen 1822-26, was pastor at Waldthann and Mergentheim, went to Basel as extraordinary professor in 1838, and in 1843 to Tuebingen, where he remained as professor and morning preacher till his death. He has been characterized as the most important representative of the strictly Biblical school of theology in the nineteenth century. He aimed to base all doctrine on the Bible, and allowed value to Church teachings only as interpretations of the Bible. He held an extreme view of revelation and inspiration, and hardly entered into critico-historical questions. His life was plain and simple, and his kind heart won general affection. He published, besides several collections of sermons, the following works: Einleitung in das System der christlichen Lehre (Stuttgart, 1838, 2d ed., 1870); Die Geburt des christlichen Lebens, sein Wesen und sein Gesetz (Basel, 1839); Die christliche Lehrwissenschaft nach den biblischen Urkunden, i, Logik (Stuttgart, 1841, 2d ed., 1875); Die christliche Menschenliebe, das Wort und die Gemeinde Christi (Basel, 1842); Umriss der biblischen Seelenlehre (Stuttgart, 1843, 3d ed., 1873; Eng. transl., Biblical Psychology, Edinburgh, 1877 ); Leitfaden der christlichen Glaubenslehre fuer Kirche, Schule und Haus (Stuttgart, 1862, 2d ed., 1869); Gedanken aus und nach der Schrift fuer christliches Leben und geistliches Amt (Frankfort, 1859; 2d ed., 1878). After his death were published commentaries on the epistles to Timothy (Guetersloh, 1879) and the Romans (2 vols., 1884), and on Rev. i-xii (1883); Pastorallehren des Neuen Testaments (1880; Eng. transl., Pastoral Theology, Edinburgh, 1882); Vorlesungen ueber christliche Ethik (3 vols., 1882-83); Briefe und Kernworte (1885); Vorlesungen ueber christliche Glaubenslehre (2 vols., 1886-87); Vollendung des Reiches Gottes (1887). (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: For his life consult: Worte der Erinnerung, Tuebingen, 1879 (the part by Weizsaecker is especially valuable); B. J. Riggenbach, T. Beck, ein Schriftgelehrter zum Himmelreieh, Basel, 1888. On his theology consult: F. Liebetrut, J. T. Beck und seine Stellung zur Kirche, Berlin, 1858; C. Sturhahn, Die Rechtfertigungslehre nach Beck mit Beruecksichtigung von Ebrard's Sola, Leipsic, 1890. On his work as a preacher: A. Broemel, Homiletische Charakterbilder, 2 vols., ib. 1874; A. Nebe, Geschichte der Predigt, vol. iii, Wiesbaden, 1879. Becket, Thomas BECKET, THOMAS (commonly called Thomas `a Becket): Archbishop of Canterbury 1162-70, the most determined English champion of the rights and liberties of the Church in his day; b. in London between 1110 and 1120; assassinated at Canterbury Dec. 29, 1170. Life before his Consecration. His parents were of the middle class. He received an excellent education, which he completed at the University of Paris. Returning to England, he attracted the notice of Theobald, archbishop of Canterbury, who entrusted him with several important missions to Rome, and finally made him archdeacon of Canterbury and provost of Beverley. He so distinguished himself by his zeal and efficiency that Theobald commended him to King Henry II when the important office of chancellor was vacant. Henry, like all the Norman kings, desired to be absolute master of his dominions, in both Church and State, and could well appeal to the traditions of his house when he planned to do away with the special privileges of the English clergy, which he regarded as so many fetters on his authority. Becket struck him as an instrument well adapted for the accomplishment of his designs; the young man showed himself an accomplished courtier, a cheerful companion in the king's pleasures, and devoted to his master's interests with such a firm and yet diplomatic thoroughness that scarcely any one, unless perhaps it was John of Salisbury, could have doubted that he had gone over completely to the royal side. Archbishop Theobald died Apr. 18, 1161, and the chapter learned with some indignation that the king expected them to choose Thomas his successor. The election was, however, consummated in May, and Thomas was consecrated on June 3, 1162. Archbishop, 1162. At once there took place before the eyes of the astonished king and country an unexpected transformation in the character of the new primate. Instead of a gay, pleasure-loving courtier, he stood forth an ascetic prelate in simple monastic garb, ready to contend to the uttermost for the cruse of the hierarchy. In the schism which at that time divided the Church, he declared for [12]Alexander III, a man whose devotion to the same strict hierarchical principles appealed to him; and from Alexander he received the pallium at the Council of Tours. On his return to England, he proceeded at once to put into execution the project he had formed for the liberation of the Church of England from the very limitations which he had formerly helped to enforce. His aim was twofold: the complete exemption of the Church from all civil jurisdiction, with undivided control of the clergy, freedom of appeal, etc., and the acquisition and security of as independent fund of church property. The king was not slow to perceive the inevitable outcome of the archbishop's attitude, and called a meeting of the clergy at Westminster (Oct. 1, 1163) at which he demanded that they should renounce all claim to exemption from civil jurisdiction and acknowledge the equality of all subjects before the law. The others were inclined to yield, but the archbishop stood firm. Henry was not ready for an open breach, and offered to be content with a more general acknowledgment and recognition of the "customs of his ancestors." Thomas was willing to agree to this, with the significant reservation "saving the rights of the Church." But this involved the whole question at issue, and Henry left London in anger. The Constitutions of Clarendon. Henry called another assembly at Clarendon for Jan. 30, 1164, at which he presented his demands in sixteen constitutions. What he asked involved the abandonment of the clergy's independence and of their direct connection with Rome; he employed all his arts to induce their consent, and was apparently successful with all but the primate. Finally even Becket expressed his willingness to agree to the constitutions; but when it came to the actual signature he definitely refused. This meant war between the two powers. Henry endeavored to rid himself of his antagonist by judicial process and summoned him to appear before a great council at Northampton on Oct. 8, 1164, to answer charges of contempt of royal authority and maladministration of the chancellor's office. Becket Leaves England. Becket denied the right of the assembly to judge him, appealed to the pope, and, feeling that his life was too valuable to the Church to be risked, went into voluntary exile on Nov. 2, embarking in a fishing-boat which landed him in France. He went to Sens, where Pope Alexander was, while envoys from the king hastened to work against him, requesting that a legate should be sent to England with plenary authority to settle the dispute. Alexander declined, and when, the next day, Becket arrived and gave him a full account of the proceedings, he was still more confirmed in his aversion to the king. Henry pursued the fugitive archbishop with a series of edicts, aimed at all his friends and supporters as well as himself; but Louis VII of France received him with respect and offered him protection. He spent newly two years in the Cistercian abbey of Pontigny, until Henry's threats against the order obliged him to move to Sens again. He regarded himself as in full possession of all his prerogatives, and desired to see his position enforced by the weapons of excommunication and interdict. But Alexander, though sympathizing with him in theory, was for a milder and more diplomatic way of reaching his ends. Differences thus arose between pope and archbishop, which were all the more embittered when legates were sent in 1167 with authority to act as arbitrators. Disregarding this limitation of his jurisdiction, and steadfast in his principles, Thomas treated with the legates at great length, still conditioning his obedience to the king by the rights of his order. His firmness seemed about to meet with its reward when at last (1170) the pope was on the point of fulfilling his threats and excommunicating the king, and Henry, alarmed by the prospect, held out hopes of an agreement which should allow Thomas to return to England and resume his place. But both parties were really still holding to their former ground, and the desire for a reconciliation was only apparent. Both, however, seem for the moment to have believed in its possibility; and the contrast was all the sharper when it became evident that the old irreconcilable opposition was still there. Henry, incited by his partizans, refused to restore the ecclesiastical property which he had seized, and Thomas prepared to issue the pope's sentence against the despoilers of the Church and the bishops who had abetted them. It had been already sent to England for promulgation when he himself landed at Sandwich on Dec. 3, 1170, and two days later entered Canterbury. Becket Assassinated. The tension was now too great to be endured, and the catastrophe which relieved it was not long in coming. A passionate word of the angry king was taken as authority by four knights, who immediately plotted the murder of the archbishop, and accomplished it in his own cathedral on Dec. 29. The crime brought its own revenge. Becket was revered by the faithful throughout Europe as a martyr, and canonized by Alexander in 1173; while on July 12 of the following year Henry humbled himself to do public penance at the tomb of his enemy, which remained one of the most popular places of pilgrimage in England until it was destroyed at the Reformation (see [13]Canterbury). (Carl Mirbt.) Bibliography: The sources for a life were collected by J. C. Robertson in Materials for the Hist. of Thomas Becket, 8 vols., in Rolls Series, London, 1875-85 (contains all the known contemporary lives, others of later date, the Epistles, and other material); cf. the Vita, epistole et reliquie, ed. J. A. Giles in PEA, 8 vols., Oxford, 1845-46, and J. A. Giles, Life and Letters of Thomas `a Becket, 2 vols., London, 1846. For later discussions and lives consult: M. Cournier, L'Archevequa de Cantorbery, 2 vols., Paris, 1845; J. C. Robertson, Becket, London, 1859; W. F. Hook, Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury, ii, 354-507, ib. 1862; E. A. Freeman, in Historical Essays, series 2, ib. 1880; idem, in Contemporary Review, Mar.-Apr., 1878; J. A. Froude, Life and Times of Becket, in Short Studies, vol. iv, ib. 1883; idem, in Nineteenth Century, ii (1877) 15-27, 217-229, 389-410, 669-691; C. P. Stanley, Historical Memorials of Canterbury, pp. 59-125,189-302, London, 1883; W. H. Hutton, St. Thomas of Canterbury, ib. 1889 (from contemporary lives); J. Morris, Life and Martyrdom of St. Thomas Becket, ib. 1891 (Roman Catholic, deals with monasteries and churches associated with Becket); M. Schmitz, Die politischen Ideen des Thomas Becket, Crefeld, 1893; E. A. Abbott, St. Thomas of Canterbury: his Death and Miracles, 2 vols., London, 1898 (traverses the earlier accounts in a critical examination); DNB, lvi, 165-173. Beckwith, Charles Minnigerode BECKWITH, CHARLES MINNIGERODE: Protestant Episcopal bishop of Alabama; b. in Prince George Co., Va., June 3, 1851. He studied at the University of Georgia (B.A., 1873), was master of the Sewanee Grammar School, University of the South (Sewanee, Tenn.), 1873-79, and was graduated from Berkeley Divinity School, Middletown, Conn., in 1881. He was ordered deacon and advanced to the priesthood in the same year, and was rector of St. Luke's, Atlanta, Ga. (1881-86), Christ Church, Houston, Tex. (1886-92), and Trinity, Galveston, Tex. (1892-1902). In 1902 he was consecrated fourth bishop of Alabama. He has written The Trinity Course of Church Instruction (New York, 1898) and The Teacher's Companion to the Trinity Course (1901). Beckwith, Clarence Augustine BECKWITH, CLARENCE AUGUSTINE: Congregationalist; b. at Charlemont, Mass., July 21, 1849. He studied at Olivet College, Olivet, Mich. (B.A., 1874), Yale Divinity School (1874-76), and Bangor Theological Seminary, from which he was graduated in 1877. He became pastor of the First Congregational Church, Brewer, Me., in 1877, of the South Evangelical Congregational Church, West Roxbury, Mass., in 1882, professor of Christian theology at Bangor Theological Seminary in 1892, and professor of systematic theology at Chicago Theological Seminary in 1905. He holds that "the realities of the Christian religion and the facts of Christian experience which we share with Christians of all ages are to be interpreted by us in terms of modern thought." He has written Realities of Christian Theology (New York, 1906). Beckx, Pierre Jean BECKX, PIERRE JEAN: General of the Jesuits; b. at Sichem (33 m. s.e. of Antwerp) Feb. 8, 1795; d. at Rome Mar. 4, 1887. He entered the Society of Jesus at Hildesheim in 1819, and was professed in 1830. He was active as a pastor at Hamburg, Hildesheim, and Brunswick, and in 1826 was stationed at Koethen as the confessor of the newly converted duke and duchess of Anhalt-Koethen. From 1830 to 1848 he was in Vienna, where he exercised much influence, especially over Metternich, and was made procurator of the Society of Jesus in that country in 1847; when his Order was expelled from Austria in 1848, he was appointed rector of the University of Louvain. Four years later, however, the Jesuits were readmitted to Austria, largely through his unceasing activity, and in 1852 he returned to Vienna as provincial of the Society. In the following year he was elected general, and held this office until 1883, when, on account of his advancing years, the vicar-general Antoine M. Anderledy was appointed to assist him. In the following year Beckx resigned the generalship in favor of Anderledy. The successful fortunes of the Jesuits during the attacks upon them both in Austria and Germany were due in great part to his ability and tact, and in his administration the numbers of the Society were almost doubled. He was the founder and editor of the famous Civilt`a Cattolica, and also wrote the anonymous Der Monat Mariae (Vienna, 1838; Eng. transl. by Mrs. Edward Hazeland, London, 1884). Bibliography: A. M. Verstraeten, Leven van den hoogeerwaarden Pater Petrus Beckx, Antwerp, 1889. Bede BEDE or BAEDA (called "the Venerable"): The first great English scholar; b. in Northumbria (according to tradition, at Monkton, Durham, 5 m. e. of Newcastle) 672 or 673; d. at the monastery of Jarrow (6 m. e. of Newcastle) May 25, 735. Almost all that is known of his life is contained in a notice added by himself to his Historia ecclesiastica (v, 24), which states that he was placed in the monastery at Wearmouth at the age of seven, that he became deacon in his nineteenth year, and priest in his thirtieth. He was trained by the abbots [14]Benedict Biscop and [15]Ceolfrid, and probably accompanied the latter to Jarrow in 682. There he spent his life, finding his chief pleasure in being always occupied in learning, teaching, or writing, and zealous in the performance of monastic duties. His works show that he had at his command all the learning of his time. He was proficient in patristic literature, and quotes from Puny the Younger, Vergil, Lucretius, Ovid, Horace, and other classical writers, but with some disapproval. He knew Greek and a little Hebrew. His Latin is clear and without affectation, and he is a skilful story-teller. Like all men of his time he was devoted to the allegorical method of interpretation, and was credulous concerning the miraculous; but in most things his good sense is conspicuous, and his kindly and broad sympathies, his love of truth and fairness, his unfeigned piety, and his devotion to the service of others combine to make him an exceedingly attractive character. His works were so widely spread throughout Europe and so much esteemed that he won the name of "the teacher of the Middle Ages." Bede's writings are classed as scientific, historical, and theological. The scientific include treatises on grammar (written for his pupils), a work on natural phenomena (De rerum natura), and two on chronology (De temporibus and De temporum ratione). The most important and best known of his works is the Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum, giving in five books the history of England, ecclesiastical and political, from the time of Caesar to the date of completion (731). The first twenty-one chapters, treating of the period before the mission of Augustine, are compiled from earlier writers such as Orosius, Gildas, Prosper of Aquitaine, and others, with the insertion of legend and tradition. After 596, documentary sources, which Bede took pains to obtain, are used, and oral testimony, which he employed not without critical consideration of its value. His other historical works were lives of the abbots of Wearmouth and Jarrow, and lives in verse and prose of St. Cuthbert. The most numerous of his writings are theological, and consist of commentaries on the books of the Old and New Testaments, homilies, and treatises on detached portions of Scripture. His last work, completed on his death-bed, was a translation into Anglo-Saxon of the Gospel of John. Bibliography: The collected editions of Bede's works (such as by J. A. Giles, with Eng. transl. of the historical works and life, Patres ecclesiae Anglicanae, 12 vols., London, 1843-44; in MPL, xc-xcv) leave much to be desired. Good editions of the historical works, particularly of the Historia ecclesiastica, have been issued by J. Smith, Cambridge, 1722; J. Stevenson, Hist. eccl., London, 1838, Opera historica minora, 1841; G. H. Moberly, Oxford, 1869; J. E. B. Mayor and J. R. Lumby, Hist. eccl., books iii and iv, Cambridge, 1881; A. Holder, Freiburg, 1890; C. Plummer, 2 vols., Oxford, 1896; Eccl. Hist., transl., introduction, life, and notes, by A. M. Sellar, London, 1907. The two works on chronology have been edited by T. Mommsen in MGH, Chron. min., iii (1898). There are English versions of the Ecclesiastical History by Stevens, 1723, revised by J. A. Giles, London, 1840; J. Stevenson, ib. 1853; and L. Gridley, Oxford, 1870. The old Eng. version of the Hist. eccl., with transl. and introduction, was ed. by T. Miller, in 4 parts, ib. 1870. For Bede's life consult the introductions and notes to the editions mentioned, particularly those of Stevenson and Plummer; G. F. Browne, The Venerable Bede, in The Fathers for English Readers, London, 1879, New York 1891; K. Werner, Beda der Ehrwuerdige und seine Zeit, Vienna, 1881; J. B. Lightfoot, in Leaders of the Northern Church, London, 1890 (biographical sermons); F. Phillips, in Fathers of the English Church, vol. i, London, 1891 (simple, scholarly, fair); W. Bright, Early English Church History, pp. 367-371 et passim, Oxford, 1897. Bedell, William BEDELL, WILLIAM: Irish bishop; b. at Black Notley, near Braintree (50 m. n.e. of London), Essex, England, on or near Christmas day, 1571; d. at Drum Corr, near Kilmore, County Cavan, Ireland, Feb. 7, 1642. He studied at Emmanuel College, Cambridge (B.A., 1588; M.A., 1592; B.D., 1599), was ordained priest Jan. 10,1597, and settled at Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk, in 1602. In 1607 he went to Venice as chaplain to Sir Henry Wotton, British ambassador at that city, and there he made the acquaintance of a number of noteworthy men, including Marco Antonio de Dominis and Father Paolo Sarpi, author of the History of the Council of Trent, the last two books of which, as well as Sarpi's History of the Venetian Interdict, he afterward translated into Latin. He returned to Bury St. Edmunds in 1610, and removed to Horningsheath, a neighboring parish, in 1616. In 1627 he was appointed provost of Trinity College, Dublin; in 1629 he became bishop of the united dioceses of Kilmore and Ardagh (County Longford); in 1633 he resigned the latter see owing to conscientious objections to pluralities, and the belief that the proper administration of the diocese required a separate bishop. His position was difficult; the dioceses were in wretched condition, and his earnest efforts to effect improvement stirred up opposition. Nevertheless he reformed many abuses and enjoyed great esteem among the people. He wrote a short summary of Christian doctrine in English and Irish (published, Dublin, 1631), and a translation of the Old Testament into Irish was made under his supervision (published, London, 1685). When the rebellion of 1641 broke out, he refused to leave his diocese, and, after suffering many hardships, died of fever brought on by the privations which he had undergone. His Life with the Letters between Waddesworth and Bedell was published by Bishop Burnet (London, 1685), and has been rewritten several times. The best biography is one by his son (ed. for the Camden Society T. W. Jones, London, 1872). Beecher, Charles BEECHER, CHARLES: Congregationalist, fifth son of Lyman Beecher; b. at Litchfield, Conn., Oct. 7, 1815; d. at Georgetown, Mass., Apr. 21, 1900. He was graduated at Bowdoin College 1834 and at Lane Theological Seminary 1836; became pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church, Fort Wayne, Ind., 1844; of the First Congregational Church, Newark, N. J., 1851; of the First Church, Georgetown, Mass., 1857. He lived in Florida 1870-1877, and for two years was State superintendent of schools. He published: The Incarnation (New York, 1849); A Review of the Spiritual Manifestations (1853); David and his Throne (1855); Redeemer and Redeemed (Boston, 1864); and Spiritual Manifestations (1879). With John Zundel he edited the music for The Plymouth Collection of Hymns and Tunes (New York, 1855), and, alone, the Autobiography, Correspondence, etc. of his father (2 vols., 1865). Beecher, Edward BEECHER, EDWARD: Congregationalist, second son of Lyman Beecher; b. at East Hampton, L. I., Aug. 27, 1803; d. in Brooklyn July 28, 1895. He was graduated at Yale 1822; began his theological studies at Andover and continued them while acting as tutor at Yale 1825-26; was pastor of the Park Street Church, Boston, 1826-30; president of Illinois College, Jacksonville, Ill., 1830-44; pastor of the Salem Street Church, Boston, 1844-55, and editor of The Congregationalist 1849-1853; pastor at Galesburg, Ill., 1855-71; after 1871 resided in Brooklyn. He was lecturer on church institutions at the Chicago Theological Seminary (Congregational) 1859-66. In 1837 he defended the freedom of the press in the case of Elijah P. Lovejoy, an antislavery agitator at Alton, Ill. When Lovejoy's presses were destroyed by the mob, Beecher helped to obtain and secrete a new one, and was with Lovejoy and his brother, Owen, the night before the former was killed (Nov. 7, 1837). To resist the mob spirit he aided in founding the Illinois State Antislavery Society, drew up its constitution, and issued a Statement of Antislavery Principles, and Address to the People of Illinois. He published a Narrative of Riots at Alton (Cincinnati, 1838). His views as to the nature and cause of sin and on the atonement were set forth in two works, The Conflict of Ages, or the Great Debate on the Moral Relations of God and Man (Boston, 1853) and The Concord of Ages, or the Individual and Organic Harmony of God and Man (New York, 1860), in which he expressed the belief that the present life is a continuation of a preceding existence as well as a preparation for a future one; that the material system is adapted to regenerate men, who have made themselves sinful in the previous state; and that ultimately the conflict between good and evil will disappear, and harmony be established. The doctrine of divine suffering he held to present the character of God in its most affecting and powerful aspects, and to be essential to a true view of the atonement. He also published On the Kingdom of God (Boston, 1827); Baptism with Reference to its Import and Modes (New York, 1849); The Papal Conspiracy Exposed and Protestantism Defended in the Light of Reason, History, and Scripture (New York, 1855); History of Opinions on the Scriptural Doctrine of Retribution (1878). Beecher, Henry Ward BEECHER, HENRY WARD: Congregationalist, fourth son of Lyman Beecher; b. at Litchfield, Conn., June 24, 1813; d. in Brooklyn Mar. 8, 1887. He was graduated at Amherst 1834, and at Lane Theological Seminary 1837; became pastor of the Presbyterian Church at Lawrenceburg, Ind., 1837, at Indianapolis 1839, and of Plymouth Church (Congregational), Brooklyn, 1847. The congregation was newly formed at that time, but soon became famed for its numbers and its influence, while Beecher attained to the position of the most popular and widely known preacher in America. As a public lecturer he was no less successful. In his sermons he disregarded conventionalities both in subject and manner. His wit and humor appeared in his preaching, which, nevertheless, was earnest and edifying, and revealed a great character, sincere and reverent; his public prayers in particular were truly devotional (cf. Prayers from Plymouth Pulpit, New York, 1867). No slight dramatic power, robust health and physical strength, and a striking personal appearance added to the effect of his eloquence. Personally he was a most estimable and attractive man, of generous instincts, of rare humanity, and catholic sympathies. He was active in the antislavery contest, but deprecated revolutionary measures. In 1863 he publicly advocated the Union cause in a series of addresses in the cities of England at a time when the sympathies of the people of England were strongly with the Southern Confederacy, and his success at this time before bitterly hostile audiences is one of the greatest feats of intellectual and oratorical achievement (these addresses were published as The American Rebellion: Report of the Speeches delivered in Manchester, etc., Manchester, 1864, and are reprinted in Patriotic Addresses from 1850 to 1885 by Henry Ward Beecher, edited, with a review of Mr. Beecher's personality and influence in public affairs, by John R. Howard, New York, 1889). In later life the development of Beecher's mind led him to desire a freedom which he thought could not be attained within strictly denominational lines, and, actuated also by the wish not to compromise his brethren by alleged heresies, in 1882, with his church, he withdrew from the Congregational Association to which he belonged. The chief points of his divergence from the orthodox position of the time related to the person of Christ, whom he considered to be the Divine Spirit under the limitations of time, space, and flesh; to miracles, which he considered divine uses of natural laws; and to future punishment, the endlessness of which he denied, inclining to a modification of the annihilation theory. Beecher was regular contributor to The Independent from its foundation in 1848 to 1870, and its editor for not quite two years (1861-63). He was editor of The Christian Union (since 1893 known as The Outlook), 1870-81, and made it the pioneer non-denominational religious paper. He also wrote much for The New York Ledger. His sermons were published weekly after 1859 (under the title The Plymouth Pulpit), and have appeared in book-form in numerous volumes. Sermons . . . selected from published and unpublished discourses and revised by their author, edited by Lyman Abbott (2 vols., New York, 1868), is a representative collection. His addresses, lectures, and articles were also gathered into many books, such as Lectures to Young Men (Indianapolis, 1844; rev. eds., New York, Boston, 1850 and 1873); the Star Papers, or experiences of art and nature (selections from The Independent, so called from his signature, *; 2 vols., New York, 1855-58); Eyes and Ears (reprinted from The New York Ledger, Boston, 1862); Lecture-Room Talks (New York, 1870); A Summer Parish (1875); Evolution and Religion (1885). His books of most permanent value were The Life of Jesus the Christ (i, New York, 1871; ii, left incomplete at his death and supplemented by extracts from his sermons, 1891), and the Yale Lectures on Preaching (Lyman Beecher lectures before the Yale Divinity School, 1872-74; 3 vols., also collected edition in one volume, New York, 1881). He compiled The Plymouth Collection of Hymns and Tunes (1855); and wrote Norwood, or Village Life in New England, a novel (1867). Bibliography: Lyman Abbott and S. B. Halliday, Henry Ward Beecher, Hartford, 1887; the Biography by his son William C. Beecher and Samuel Scoville, assisted by his wife, 1888; John Henry Barrows, Henry Ward Beecher, the Shakespeare of the Pulpit, New York, 1893; the Autobiographical Reminiscences edited by T. J. Ellinwood, his private stenographer for thirty years, 1898; Lyman Abbott, Henry Ward Beecher, Boston, 1903; N. L. Thompson, The History of Plymouth Church, New York, 1873. Beecher, Lyman BEECHER, LYMAN: Presbyterian; b. at New Haven, Conn., Oct. 12, 1775; d. at Brooklyn Jan. 10, 1863. He was graduated at Yale 1797; studied theology under President Dwight the following year, and, after preaching on probation for a year at East Hampton, L. I., was ordained as pastor there, 1799; in 1810 he removed to Litchfield, Conn., and in 1826 to Boston, as pastor of the Hanover Street Church (Congregational). In 1832 he became president and professor of theology at the newly formed Lane Theological Seminary, Cincinnati, where for the first ten years he also served as pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church. In 1851 he returned to Boston, and after 1856 lived in Brooklyn. He was a profound student of theology, but eminently practical in his preaching, which was marked by an uncommon union of imagination, fervor, and logic. His convictions were strong, his courage great, and he acted with an impulsive energy which generally succeeded in accomplishing what he thought should be done. The death of Alexander Hamilton called forth a sermon on dueling (preached before the Presbytery of Long Island, Apr. 16, 1806; published in several editions) which did much to awaken the popular conscience on the subject. At Litchfield he took a decided stand in favor of a general reformation of public morals, and in particular against the convivial habits of the time. During his Boston pastorate he was a leader on the conservative side in the Unitarian controversy. In Cincinnati hard feelings evoked by the antislavery contest, and certain problems inevitable during the formative period of the seminary and in a new society, made his career a stormy one, but he worked with characteristic energy and retired with honor. During the earlier stages of the differences which led to the disruption of the Presbyterian Church in 1837 he was charged with holding heretical views on the atonement, and was tried and acquitted by both presbytery and synod in 1835; throughout the entire contest he was one of the New School leaders. His seven sons all became clergymen and his daughters, Catherine Esther Beecher, Harriet Beecher Stowe, and Isabella Beecher Hooker, became well known for literary and philanthropic work. During his second residence in Boston Lyman Beecher prepared a collected edition of his Works (i, Lectures on Political Atheism and Kindred Subjects; Six Lectures on Intemperance, Boston, 1852; ii, Sermons, 1852; iii, Views of Theology as Developed in Three Sermons and on his Trials, 1853). Bibliography: His Autobiography, Correspondence, etc. was edited by his son Charles Beecher, rev. ed., 2 vols., New York, 1865; consult also D. H. Allen, The Life and Services of Lyman Beecher, a Commemorative Discourse, Cincinnati, 1863; J. C. White, Personal Reminiscences of Lyman Beecher, New York, 1882; E. F. Haywood, Lyman Beecher, Boston, 1904. Beecher, Thomas Kinnicutt BEECHER, THOMAS KINNICUTT: Congregationalist, sixth son of Lyman Beecher; b. at Litchfield, Conn., Feb. 10, 1824; d. at Elmira, N. Y., Mar. 14, 1900. He was graduated at Illinois College, Jacksonville, Ill., 1843; became school principal at Philadelphia, 1846, at Hartford, Conn., 1848; pastor at Williamsburg (Brooklyn), L. I., 1852, of the Independent Church (afterward called the Park Church), Elmira, 1854, where he served a long pastorate and became widely known for his eccentricities, but still more esteemed for his charities and respected for the practical good sense of many of his plans and ideas. He developed one of the first "institutional" churches, and his Sunday-school was a model one. His chief publication was Our Seven Churches (New York, 1870), a volume of discourses upon the different denominations in Elmira. In Time with the Stars, a book of children's stories, appeared posthumously (1902). Beecher, Willis Judson BEECHER, WILLIS JUDSON: Presbyterian; b. at Hampden, O., Apr. 29, 1838. He studied at Hamilton College (B.A., 1858) and Auburn Theological Seminary (1864), and was ordained to the ministry in 1864. After a pastorate at Ovid, N. Y., 1864-65, he was appointed professor of moral science and belles-lettres in Knox College, Galesburg, Ill. In 1869 he became pastor of the First Church of Christ in the same city. Two years later he was appointed professor of the Hebrew language and literature in Auburn Theological Seminary. In 1902 he delivered the Stone Lectures at Princeton Theological Seminary. He was a member of the Assembly's Committee on the Revision of the Confession of Faith (1890-92), and in theology is a progressive conservative. Besides preparing the Old Testament Sunday-school lessons for the Sunday School Times since 1893, he has written Farmer Tompkins and his Bibles (Philadelphia, 1874); General Catalogue of Auburn Theological Seminary (Auburn, 1883); Drill Lessons in Hebrew (1883); Index of Presbyterian Ministers, 1706-1881 (Philadelphia, 1883; in collaboration with his sister Mary A. Beecher); The Prophets and the Promise (New York, 1905); and The Teaching of Jesus concerning the Future Life (1906). Beelzebub BEELZEBUB, be-el'ze-bUb (properly, in all the New Testament passages--Matt. x. 25; xii, 24, 27; Mark iii, 22; Luke xi, 15, 18, 19--Beelzeboul); The name of the prince of the demons; i.e., of Satan. The reading Beelzeboul has also this in its favor that the Greek oikodespotes, "master of the house" (Matt. x, 25), seems to play upon bee1 zebul (beel being the Aramaic form for the Hebrew baal). Nothing more than a play upon the word is to be sought in oikodespotes, which is not a translation of the Aramaic; "master of the (Satanic) kingdom" would be a meaningless designation of the prince of hell. In spite of the correctness of the reading Beelzeboul, it is justifiable to trace this name to the much older name Baal-zebub, which is found in the Old Testament as that of an idol. Baal-zebub was honored in Ekron, where he had a temple and an oracle, which was consulted by Ahaziah, king of Israel (II Kings i, 2, 3, 16). The name as it stands means "lord of flies"; the Septuagint calls the god directly "fly"; so also Josephus (Ant., IX, ii, 1). In classical mythology, there was a god who protected from flies. It is related that Hercules banished the flies from Olympia by erecting a shrine to Zeus Apomuios ("averter of flies"); and the Romans called Hercules Apomuios. A similar deity is mentioned as acting and honored in different places, the excuse for such worship being the plague which flies cause in those warm countries. Both the sending of flies and the driving them away were referred to the same divinity. As may be inferred from the name Baal, the Baalzebub of the Philistines was essentially identical with the principal god or gods of the Phenicians. He may have been lord of flies as sun-god, because flies are most numerous in midsummer, when the sun is hottest. And that he had an oracle is to be explained by a substitution of effect for cause. Flies come obedient to certain atmospheric conditions; hence the god was considered to have caused these conditions, and so at length his control was extended to other events, and accordingly he was consulted (see [16]Baal). Beelzebul was early identified with Baal-zebub, and, as was so often the case, was turned into a bad demon, in accordance with later Jewish ideas. Since Lightfoot (Horae Heb., s.v.), it has been common to say that the name of the demon Beelzebul was purposely made out of Beel-zebub, in order to express contempt and horror; i.e., "lord of dung," instead of "lord of flies." But, inasmuch as such a name for Satan does not occur outside of the New Testament, it is better to seek its derivation in the old Ekronic worship, which might, in New Testament times, have still existed. Beelzebul may therefore be looked upon as the same name as Beel-zebub, and therefore as having the same meaning. Bibliography: E. C. A. Riehm, Handwoerterbuch des biblischen Alterthums, s.v., Bielefeld, 1893-94 (revives the theory that the Syriac form may have meant simply "an enemy," cf. KAT, p. 461); J. Selden, De die Syris, London, 1617; J. Lightfoot, Horae hebraicae on Matt. xii, 24, and Luke xi, 15, ib. 1675; F. C. Movers, Die Phoenizier i, 260-261, Bonn, 1841; idem, in JA, 1878, pp. 220-225; P. Scholz, Goetzendienst und Zauberwesen bei den alten Hebraeern, pp. 170-173, Regensburg, 1877; Nowack, Archaeologie, ii, 304-305; EB, i, 514-515; JE, ii, 629-630. Beer, Georg BEER, ber, GEORG: German Lutheran; b. at Schweidnitz (31 m. s.w. of Breslau) Nov. 12, 1865. He studied in Berlin and Leipsic (Ph.D., 1887), taught in Erbach 1889-91, and became privat-docent at Breslau in 1892. Two years later he went in the same capacity to Halle, and in 1900 to Strasburg as associate professor of the Old Testament. Became ordinary professor of Old Testament at Heidelberg, 1909. He has written Al-G?azzali's Mak?asid al-falasifat, i, die Logik (Leyden, 1888); Individual- und Gemeinde-psalmen (Marburg, 1894); and Der Text des Buches Hiob untersucht (1897); besides preparing the translation of the Martyrdom of Isaiah and of the Book of Enoch for E. Kautzsch's Apokryphen und Pseudepigraphen des Alten Testaments (Tuebingen, 1900). Beer, Rudolf BEER, RUDOLF: German Protestant; b. at Bielitz (40 m. w.s.w. of Cracow) Dec. 5, 1863. He was educated at the universities of Vienna and Bonn, and since 1893 has been reader in Spanish at the latter university, as well as a custodian at the Imperial and Royal Library at Vienna since 1888. He is a collaborator on the Vienna Corpus patrum ecclesiasticorum latinorum. In theology he advocates "the scientific investigation of Christian revelation." Among his works special mention may be made of his Die Anecdota Borderiana Augustineischer Sermonen (Vienna, 1887); Heilige Hoehen der Griechen und Roemer (1891); Die Quellen fuer den liber diurnus concilii Basiliensis des Petrus Bruneti (1891); and Urkundliche Beitraege zu Johannes de Segovia (1896); in addition to editions of Wyclif's De compositione hominis (London, 1887); and De ente praedicamentali quaestiones tredecim (1891), and of the Monumenta conciliorum generalium (3 vols., Vienna, 1892-96). Beet, Joseph Agar BEET, bit, JOSEPH AGAR: English Wesleyan; b. at Sheffield Sept. 27, 1840. He attended Wesley College, Sheffield (1851-56), and took up mining engineering, but afterward studied theology at the Wesleyan College, Richmond (1862-64). He was pastor 1864-85 and professor of systematic theology in Wesleyan College, Richmond, 1885-1905. He was also a member of the faculty of theology in the University of London 1901-05. He delivered the Fernley Lecture on The Credentials of the Gospels in 1889, and lectured in America in 1896. Though long recognized as one of the ablest theologians and exegetes of his denomination, his sympathy with the modern critical school of interpretation and particularly his views on eschatology have occasioned much criticism. In The Last Things (London, 1897; 2d ed., 1905) he opposed the belief that the essential and endless permanence of the soul is taught in the Bible and denied that eternal punishment necessarily means endless torment, holding that the sinner may suffer a relative annihilation of his mental and moral faculties and sink into a dehumanized state. He reiterated these views in The Immortality of the soul (1901). Charges of heresy were brought against him at the Conference of 1902, but he was reelected to his professorship on condition that he refrain from expressing his opinions on immortality and future punishment. To regain liberty of speech in 1904 he gave notice that he would retire from his chair in twelve months. His other works are: Commentary on Romans (London, 1877); Holiness as Understood by the Critics of the Bible (1880); Commentary on Corinthians (1881); Commentary on Galatians (1883); Commentary on Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon (1890); Through Christ to God (1892); The Firm Foundation of the Christian Faith (1892); The New Life in Christ (1895); Nature and Christ (New York, 1896); Key to Unlock the Bible (1901); Transfiguration of Jesus (1905); and Manual of Theology (1906). Beets, Henry BEETS, betz, HENRY: Christian Reformed; b. at Koedijk (a village near Alkmaar, 20 m. n.w. of Amsterdam), Holland, Jan. 5, 1869. He came to the United States at an early age, and studied at John Calvin College and Theological Seminary of the Christian Reformed Church, Grand Rapids, Mich. After graduation in 1895, he was pastor at Sioux Center, Ia., until 1899, and since the latter year has been pastor of the Lagrave Street Christian Reformed Church, Grand Rapids. He has been secretary of the Board of Heathen Missions of his Church since 1900, stated clerk of its synod since 1902, and a member of the joint committee of American and Canadian Churches for the revision of the Psalms in meter since 1902. In theology he is a firm Calvinist, adhering strictly to the creeds of the Synod of Dort and the Westminster Standards. He has been associate editor of De Gereformeerde Amerikaan, a monthly, since 1898 and editor-in-chief of The Banner, a weekly, since 1904. He has written Het Leven van Pres. McKinley (Holland, Mich., 1901); Sacred History for Juniors (Grand Rapids, Mich., 1901); Sacred History for Seniors (1902); Compendium of the Christian Religion (1903); Primer of Bible Truths (1903; in collaboration with M. J. Bosma); and Kerkenorde der Christelijke Gereformeerde Kerk (1905; in collaboration with W. Heyns and G. K. Hemkes). Begg, James BEGG, JAMES: Minister of the Free Church of Scotland; b. at New Monkland, near Airdrie (10 m. e. of Glasgow), Lanarkshire, Oct. 31, 1808; d. in Edinburgh Sept. 29, 1883. He studied at Glasgow and Edinburgh; was ordained minister at Maxwelltown, Dumfries, May, 1830; became colleague at Lady Glenorchy's Chapel, Edinburgh. Dec., 1830, minister in Paisley 1831, at Liberton, near Edinburgh, 1835, and, after the Disruption in 1843, at Newington, a suburb of Edinburgh. In 1865 he was moderator of the General Assembly of the Free Church. He began his career as an ardent supporter of evangelical views and a decided opponent of the "moderate" party in the Church. He was strongly opposed to lay patronage and to voluntaryism. He strenuously resisted the aggressions of the civil courts on the jurisdiction of the Church and was disposed to continue the fight within the Establishment; but in May, 1843, he left with his brethren. (See the section on the Free Church of Scotland in the article [17]Presbyterians.) In the Free Church he became the leader of a minority opposed to all change and when he was charged with standing in the way of progress he gloried in his steadfast adherence to the ideas of his youth; his followers were most numerous in the Highlands. He was an advocate and supporter of popular education and was interested in a movement to secure better homes for the working classes. He wrote much for periodicals and edited several journals at different times (The Bulwark, for the maintenance of Protestantism; The Watchword, against the union with the United Presbyterians; The Signal, against instrumental music in worship). Among his larger publications were A Handbook of Popery (Edinburgh, 1852); Happy Homes for Workingmen and How to Get Them (London, 1866); Free Church Principles (Edinburgh, 1869), and The Principles, Position, and Prospects of the Free Church of Scotland (1875). Bibliography: T. Smith, Memoirs of James Begg, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1885-88; DNB, iv, 127-128. Beghards, Beguines BEGHARDS, BEGUINES. Origin (S: 1). The Early Communities (S: 2). Extension during the Twelfth Century (S: 3). Relation to the Mendicant Orders (S: 4). The Male Communities (S: 5). Persecution as Heretics (S: 6). Surviving Beguinages in the Netherlands (S: 7). 1. Origin. Beghards and Beguines are the names applied to certain religious communities which flourished especially in the Middle Ages. The Beguines were women and earlier in origin than the male associations, the Beghards (also called in France Beguins). As early as the thirteenth century the authentic tradition as to the origin of the Beguines had been lost, so that it was possible in the fifteenth for the belief to gain acceptance that they had been founded by Begga, the canonized daughter of Pepin of Landen and mother of Pepin of Heristal. This belief was supported by several scholars in the early seventeenth century, and approved at Mechlin and at Rome. In 1630 Puteanus (van Putte), a Louvain professor, produced three documents supposed to date from 1065, 1129, and 1151, relating to a convent of Beguines at Vilvorde, near Brussels. The view as to the date of their origin which these documents supported was prevalent for two centuries, and is presupposed in the modern works of Mosheim and of Lea; but the researches of Hallmann proved finally in 1843 that Puteanus's documents were forgeries, probably belonging to the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The origin of these communities is now, accordingly, almost universally placed in the twelfth century, and attributed to a priest of Liege, [18]Lambert le Begue. 2. The Early Communities. The scarcity of information about the earliest period has caused the significance of the movement to be underestimated or misconceived. As a matter of fact, the career of Lambert has many points of affinity with those of his younger contemporaries Peter Waldo and Francis of Assisi. Like them, he renounced his property, to endow with it the hospital of St. Christopher at Liege and the new convent of Beguines there. He felt his special mission to be the preaching of repentance, which brought him into conflict with the ecclesiastical authorities when he attacked the vices of the clergy, but had an enduring influence especially on the women of Liege. By 1210 there is contemporary testimony to the existence there of "whole troops of holy maidens"; the ascetic spirit took hold also of the married women, who frequently made vows of continence. Religious excitement did not fail to produce pathological phenomena; stories are told of visions, prophecies, convulsions, incessant tears, loss of speech, and the like. Probably between 1170 and 1180 some of Lambert's followers, to whom his opponents gave the name of Beguines in mockery, had formed a sort of conventual association on a suburban estate belonging to him. By the analogy of the later Beguinages, they probably inhabited a number of small houses grouped about the church and hospital of St. Christopher, and shut off by a wall from the outer world. The first inmates were mostly women of position, who renounced their property and supported themselves by their own labors. 3. Extension during the Twelfth Century. The religious impulse given by Lambert continued active after his death (probably 1187), and familiarized the people of the Netherlands with the idea of ascetic following of Christ long before the advent of the mendicant orders. Throughout the next century, the need of founding similar institutions for the large numbers of Beguines was felt, first in Flanders and then in the neighboring French and German districts. In France St. Louis showed them special favor, and erected a large Beguinage in Paris, modeled after the Flemish, in 1264; others sprang up, large or small, in all parts of France during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The extension of the system in the other Latin countries was probably considerable, but exact data are wanting. In Germany only a few towns on the lower Rhine, such as Aix-la-Chapelle and Wesel, had Beguinages in the strict sense. Here the usual rule was for women who wished to renounce the world at first to live separately in their own houses or in solitary places; as time went on, they came together in larger or smaller houses put at their disposal by pious gifts, and formed communities of a monastic type. The growth of these convents was remarkable, and continued from the first third of the thirteenth century to the beginning of the fifteenth, by which time the majority of German towns had their convents of Beguines. The statutes varied much in the different houses; the number of inmates was between ten and twenty on an average. There was no uniform dress, but most of the members wore hoods and scapulars resembling a religious habit. Sometimes those who had property retained full control of it; in other cases a portion fell to the convent when they died or left. Celibacy was required as long as they stayed, but they were always free to leave and marry. 4. Relation to the Mendicant Orders. The name of "voluntary poor," which many convents bore, and the regulations of such houses, show the continuance of Lambert's influence in favor of desertion of the world and penitential asceticism; but the Franciscan ideas, very similar in their tendency, which were widely spread not long after, found here a fruitful soil. As early as the thirteenth century a large proportion of the Beghards or Beguines of France, Germany, and northern Italy were under the direction of Franciscans or Dominicans, and so closely related with the penitential confraternities attached to both these orders that the members of these (tertiaries) were commonly known in the Latin countries as beguini and beguinae--a fact which has caused much confusion in the study of the history of the real Beguines. The disapproval of these latter by the papal authorities brought about, when it came, a still closer identification with the tertiaries; many joined these for protection, and in the fifteenth century numerous Beguinages were transferred to the Augustinian order. While the original Beguines abstained from begging, it became more common among them in France and Germany by the beginning of the thirteenth century. As in the Latin countries the Beguines are found among the extreme defenders of the Franciscan ideal of poverty, so we find frequently among those of Germany the belief that their strict poverty designated them as the true followers of Christ. In accordance with this view, they were apt to withdraw themselves from the teaching of the clergy and listen rather to the exciting exhortations of their "mistresses" or of wandering preachers in sympathy with their beliefs. They developed a system of extreme corporal austerity, and lost themselves in mystic speculations which increased their tendency to see visions and to condemn the ordinary means of grace; even the moral law seems at times to have been regarded as not binding upon them. The impulse of apocalyptic enthusiasm, given by [19]Joachim of Fiore and spread by the "spiritual" Franciscans among the laity, as well as the quietistic mysticism of the [20]Brethren of the Free Spirit, found an entrance into their houses before the end of the thirteenth century. Early in the next century, the influx of women of high social position declined more and more, and the new foundations took on more of the modern character of benevolent institutions. By the end of the fifteenth century, in Germany at least, they had almost completely lost their first religious fervor and had forfeited much of the popular respect they had formerly enjoyed. 5. The Male Communities. As to the Beghards or male communities, the question whether the first associations known by this name can be directly connected with Lambert le Begue, or sprang up after his death in imitation of the Flemish Beguinages, can not be decided with our present knowledge. They are first met with in Louvain (c. 1220) and Antwerp (1228). The names beguin and begard (Flemish usually bogard; Middle High German begehart and biegger) were given in mockery and are of Walloon origin; other names are Lollards (probably from the Middle Dutch loellen, to murmur; see [21]Lollards), "voluntary poor," boni pueri, boni valeti, etc. In the course of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries they spread throughout Germany, into Poland and the Alpine districts, and even into the Latin countries; but their numbers were much smaller than those of the Beguines. As early as the thirteenth century a number of their houses, too, connected themselves with the tertiaries of the two great mendicant orders. Like the Beguines, many of them were partizans of the views of the "spiritual" Franciscans and Fraticelli. They practised begging ostentatiously, frequently had no fixed abode, and wandered about in small groups, begging and winning adherents for their cause. They did not abandon this mode of life even after papal prohibitions were directed against them, but strengthened themselves by the adhesion of sympathizers who were expelled from the convents, and remained in close relations with the Beguines, by whom they were regarded as martyrs to the Franciscan ideal of poverty and channels of mystical revelations. In the Netherlands the fifteenth-century Beghards appear for the most part as regular Franciscan tertiaries, organized from 1443 as a separate Congregatio Zepperensis beghardorum tertiae regulae S. Francisci, with the convent of Zepperen, near Hasselt, as their mother house. Internal dissensions later split them into two branches. In the seventeenth century they were united with the Lombard congregation of regular tertiaries, and did not survive the Revolution. The internal organization of their houses corresponded generally to that of the Beguines. The earliest Dutch Beghards were mostly weavers, who continued to follow their trade; later they frequently copied and sold manuscripts. The German Beghards followed a variety of occupations; but at the end of the Middle Ages begging was their main source of revenue. A special inner group was that of the "Voluntary Poor" (also called Poor Brothers, Cellites, Alexians; in the Netherlands Lollards, Matemans, Cellebroeders; see [22]Alexians), who required the entire abandonment of property by their members and bound them by permanent vows. Their strict organization, their enthusiasm for poverty, their zealous devotion to charitable duties, all point to a tradition reaching back to the beginning of the Beghard system. They are further contrasted with the ordinary Beghards by the fact that they held aloof for the most part from the Franciscan affiliations which have been seen to be so common. In the fifteenth century they associated themselves with the Augustinians. Public opinion, by the end of the Middle Ages, was even more unfavorable to the Beghards than to the Beguines; popular satirists and preachers alike speak of them as hypocritical beggars with a tendency to deceit and immorality; and the Reformation swept away the last remnants of them, in Germany at least. 6. Persecution as Heretics. The persecution of Beghards and Beguines as a heretical sect began in the second half of the thirteenth century, probably as a consequence of their relation to the "spiritual" Franciscans (see [23]Francis, Saint, of Assisi, and the Franciscan Order). By 1300 the name beguinus was commonly used in the Latin countries as the accepted designation for the heretical "spiritual" party and Fraticelli, which naturally prejudiced the general opinion of the orthodox convents of Beghards and Beguines. Still more damaging was the fact that the German bishops, about the same time, assumed that the pantheistic heresy of the [24]Brethren of the Free Spirit found its chief support in their houses. Though, as a matter of fact, this was probably true only of a small section, the name of Beghards was commonly adopted in Germany for the adherents of that heresy. During the fourteenth century the belief spread that in some convents of Beghards and Beguines there existed an inner circle of "the perfect" who were alien from the doctrines of the Church and the laws of morality, to which the younger members were admitted only after years of probation. Whether or not these accusations were true, which it is now next to impossible to determine, the bitter hostility shown against the Beghards and Beguines probably finds its simplest explanation in the conflicts which arose at the end of the thirteenth century between the episcopate and the secular clergy, on the one hand, and the mendicant orders, especially the Franciscans, on the other, since these latter gained their lay following largely through the numerous houses of Beghards and Beguines. Several German provincial councils (Cologne 1306, Mainz 1310, Treves 1310) passed strong measures against them, and the Council of Vienne (1311) struck at them even harder, undertaking to suppress them entirely on the charge of spreading heretical doctrines under a cloak of piety. The execution of these decrees of suppression, which took place under John XXII, caused great confusion in the Church of Germany, the mendicants and sometimes the magistrates attempting to defend the Beguines. Since their total suppression appeared impracticable, John XXII compromised by making a distinction and granting toleration to the orthodox Beguines. Persecution did not, however, cease; and with the powerful support of the Emperor Charles IV, it was taken up once more by Urban V and Gregory XI. Without regard to the varying senses of the names, all Beghards and Beguines alike were condemned as heretics, excommunicated, and outlawed. Their property was to serve for pious purposes, for the support of the inquisitors, or for repairing city walls and roads. Between 1366 and 1378 remorseless persecution raged against them throughout Germany; but even then they found advocates, especially among the secular magistrates, and Gregory XI was finally prevailed upon to repeat the distinction between orthodox and heretical Beguines and Beghards, and to tolerate the former. About 1400 another storm broke out, aroused by the attacks which the clergy of Basel, especially the Dominican Johannes Muelberg made upon the Beguines of that city. By 1410 the Beguines in the dioceses of Constants, Basel, and Strasburg were driven from their convents. At the time of the Council of Constants (1414-18), which showed itself well disposed toward them, they won a victory of some importance when they secured the condemnation as heretical of a treatise directed both against them and against the Brethren of the Common Life by the Dominican Matthaeus Grabo. Attacks were still made upon them, none the less, and that a general feeling inspired such attacks is shown by the fact that the name "Beghard" continued through the fifteenth century to be applied to the most various heretics, until it adhered permanently to the Bohemian Brethren or Picards. 7. Surviving Beguinages in the Netherlands. In what is now Belgium and Holland, the example of Lambert's first followers was widely followed, as has been seen; here the Beguines flourished most, and here they have maintained their existence to the present day. A long series of accounts of mystical visions, hysterico-ecstatic phenomena, and extreme austerities shows that the strong religious impulse of the beginning remained operative until after the Reformation. Heretical mysticism was not without its adherents: in 1310 Margareta Porete, a Beguine of Hainault and the author of a book of apparently pantheistic libertinism, was executed in Paris, and the mystic [25]Hadewich Blommaerdine of Brussels (d.1336) found adherents among the Beguines of Brabant and Zeeland. The bishops and princes, however, protected the communities in times of persecution. In the fourteenth century the contemplative life was largely given up in favor of diligent work for the sick and poor, and later for the education of girls. The French Revolution deprived these institutions of their religious character, which they regained in 1814. At present there are fifteen Beguinages in Belgium, only two of which are of any size, both at Ghent, numbering 869 inmates in 1896. The larger one, transferred in 1874 to St. Amandsberg just outside the city, is a complete model of a small town, with walls, gates, streets, and gardens. The total number of Beguines in Belgium was 1,790 in 1825, 1,480 in 1866, and about 1,230 in 1896. In Holland two houses have survived, one at Amsterdam with thirteen inmates and one at Breda with forty-nix. (Herman Haupt.) Bibliography: E. Hallmann, Die Geschichte des Ursprungs der belgischen Beghinen, Berlin, 1843 (perhaps the best book on the subject); J. L. von Mosheim, De Beghardis et Beguinabus, Leipsic, 1790; F. von Biedenfeld, Ursprung . . . saemtlicher Moenchs- und Klosterfrauen-Orden, Weimar, 1837; G. Uhlhorn, Die christliche Liebesthaetigkeit im Mittelalter, Stuttgart, 1884; H. Haupt, Beitraege zur Geschichte der Sekte von freiem Geiste und des Beghardentums, in Zeitschrift fuer Kirchengeschichte, vii (1884), 503 sqq.; H. C. Lea, History of the Inquisition, ii, 350-517, Philadelphia, 1888; P. Fredericq, Les Documents de Glasgow concernant Lambent de Begue, in Bulletins de l'academie de Belgique, third series, xxix (1895), 148-165, 990-1006; Heimbucher, Orden und Kongregationen, i, 501, ii, 422-425; A. Neander, Christian Church, iv, passim, v, passim; W. Moeller, Christian Church, ii, 475-478. Begin, Louis Nazaire BEGIN, be''gan', LOUIS NAZAIRE: Roman Catholic archbishop of Quebec; b. at Levis, Quebec, Jan. 10, 1840. He was educated at the Seminary of Quebec (1857-62) and Laval University (B.A., 1863). He then began the study of theology at the Grand Seminary of Quebec, but was chosen to fill a chair in the newly established faculty of theology in the University of Laval, and was sent to Rome to study. He was ordained to the priesthood in 1865, and returned to Quebec in 1868, where he taught dogmatic theology and ecclesiastical history at Laval University until 1884, in addition to being prefect of the Little Seminary and having charge of the pupils of the University during the last few years of this period. In 1884 he accompanied the archbishop of Quebec to Rome to defend the rights of Laval University, and on his return was appointed principal of the Normal School, remaining there until 1888. In the latter year he was consecrated bishop of Chicoutimi, and three years later was appointed coadjutor, with the title of archbishop of Cyrene, to Cardinal Taschereau. On the death of the Cardinal in 1898, he became archbishop of Quebec. He has written La Primaute et l'infaillibilite des souverains pontifes (Quebec, 1873); La Sainte Ecriture et la regle de la foi (1874; English translation by G. M. Ward, London, 1875); Le Culte catholique (1875); Aide-memoire, ou chronologie de l'histoire du Canada (1886); and Catechisme de controverse (1902). Behaism BEHAISM: A development of [26]Babism. The Bab had taught that the greatest and last of all manifestations of divinity was to appear and, through his teachings, wipe out all distinctions of sects. In 1862, twelve years after the Bab's execution, Beha Ullah, a high-born Persian and Babite leader, claimed to be the fulfilment of this teaching. He was imprisoned and exiled and died in Acre, Syria, in 1892. His son, Abdul Beha Abbas, then became the leader and "Center of the Covenant." From his residence in Acre, where he lives under government surveillance, a far-reaching propaganda has gone forth and pilgrims find their way thither even from distant America. Behaist missionaries are not allowed to accept money, though they may be entertained by converts or others interested. Their message consists in a recital of the history of their religion and the lives of the Bab and Beha Ullah. The Old and New Testament prophecies and the sacred books of ethnic religions are studied in the belief that they establish the Behaist doctrines. Their sacred writings are the works of Beha Ullah, of which the most remarkable is the Book of Ighan. They are mostly short sentences called "communes," consisting of prayers or truths for the guidance of life. The explanation of the Book of Ighan and the "Hidden Words" in Arabic and Persian is a part of the regular preaching. The beauty of service to the poor and suffering is a cardinal precept. Simplicity in food and dress is another, and herein Abdul Beha is an example to his followers. Polygamy is not allowed and all goods are held in common. It is believed that God has manifested himself at different times according to the needs of the race, the chief manifestations having been three in number; viz., Jesus--whose life and teachings are commended,--the Bab, and Beha Ullah, who is the greatest and last; after him there will be no other manifestation, and whosoever does not believe on him after having heard his words will not have another chance to enter the kingdom. Certain feasts are observed commemorating events in the life of Beha Ullah, and one which was instituted by the Bab consists in a simple repast such as fruits, nuts, and cool water, held at the home of a believer every nineteen days; a vacant seat is left at the head of the table for the absent master, and passages from the "Hidden Words" are read as the food is passed. Behaist congregations are known as "assemblies." The first in America was established in Chicago by a Syrian, Ibrahim Kheirallah, in 1894. There are now thirty-five in America, each independent of the others and owning no authority but that of Abdul Beha. It is claimed that the mission of Behaism is to unify the world and bring all religions into one. [3] Margaret B. Peeke. Bibliography: Consult the literature given under Babism; E. D. Ross, Babism, in Great Religions of the World, London, 1901; Mirza Husain Ali, Le Livre de la certitude . . . traduit . . . par H. Dreyfus, Paris, 1904; Le Beyan arabe, le livre sacre du Babysme, transl. by A. Nicolas, Paris, 1905; Beha Ullah, Les Preceptes du Behaisme: les ornements--les paroles du paradis, les splendeurs, les revelations, transl. by H. Dreyfus and U. Chirazi, Paris, 1906. Behmen, Jacob BEHMEN, JACOB. See [27]Boehme. Beirut BEIRUT. See [28]Phenicia, I, S: 6. Beissel, John Conrad BEISSEL, JOHN CONRAD. See [29]Communism, II, 5; [30]Dunkers, I, 2. Beissel, Stephan BEISSEL, STEPHAN: German Jesuit; b. at Aachen Apr. 21, 1841. He was educated at the universities of Bonn and Muenster and at the seminary at Cologne. He was ordained to the priesthood in 1871 and lived two years in France, three in England, fifteen in Holland, and four in Luxemburg, passing the remainder of his time at Aachen and Cologne. He has written Baugeschichte der Kirche des heiligen Viktor zu Xanten (Freiburg, 1883); Geldwert und Arbeitslohn im Mittelalter (1884); Verehrung der Heiligen in Deutschland bis zum Beginn des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts (1885); Bilder der Handschrift des Kaisers Otto im Muenster zu Aachen (Aachen, 1886); Geschichte der Ausstattung der Kirche des heiligen Viktor zu Xanten (Freiburg, 1887); Geschichte der trierschen Kirchen und ihrer Reliquien (2 parts, Treves, 1889); Evangelienbuch des heiligen Bernward von Hildesheim (Hildesheim, 1891); Verehrung der Heiligen und ihrer Reliquien in Deutschland waehrend der zweiten Haelfte des Mittelalters (Freiburg, 1893); Vatikanische Miniaturen (1893); Der heilige Bernward von Hildesheim als Kuenstler (Hildesheim, 1895); Fra Giovanni Angelico da Fiesole, sein Leben und seine Werke (Freiburg, 1895); Die Verehrung Unserer Lieben Frau in Deutschland waehrend des Mittelalters (1895); Bilder aus der Geschichte der altchristlichen Kunst und Liturgie in Italien (1899); Das Leben Jesu Christi, geschildert auf den Fluegeln des Hochaltars zu Kalkar (in collaboration with J. Joest, Gladbach, 1900); Das Evangelienbuch Heinrichs III und die Dome zu Goslar in der Bibliothek zu Upsala (Duesseldorf, 1900); Die Aachenfahrt (1902); Betrachtungspunkte fuer alle Tage des Kirchenjahres (10 vols., 1904-05); and Geschichte der Evangelienbuecher in der ersten Haelfte des Mittelalters (Freiburg, 1906); in addition to two volumes of the Zur Kenntnis und Wuerdigung der mittelalterlichen Altaere Deutschlands (Frankfort, 1895-1905) begun by E. F. A. Muenzenberger. Bekker, Balthasar BEKKER, BALTHASAR: Dutch precursor of rationalism; b. at Metslawier (4 m. n.e. of Dokkum) Mar. 30, 1634; d. in Friesland June 11, 1698. He studied at Groningen under J. Alting and in Franeker, where he was rector of the Latin school, was made doctor of theology, and preacher in 1666. Being an enthusiastic follower of the Cartesian philosophy, he published at Wesel in 1668 an Admonitio sincere et candida de philosophia Cartesiana, and gave greater offense by his catechisms in 1668 and 1670. He was accused of Socinianism, although Alting and other theologians pronounced him to be orthodox. After many controversies, he accepted a call as preacher to Weesp, and, in 1679, to Amsterdam. The appearance of a large comet in 1680 induced him to issue a work against, popular superstition, which stirred up more commotion; and, in 1691, in De betoverde Wereld, published at Leeuwarden, he denied the existence of sorcery, magic, possessions by the devil, and of the devil himself. The consistory of Amsterdam instituted a formal process against him, and he was deposed July 30, 1692. He went to Friesland, where he edited the last two books of his work. H. C. Rogge. Bibliography: A complete list of Bekker's writings and of the opposing works called out is given in A. van der Linden, B. Bekker, Bibliographie, The Hague, 1869. For his life consult J. G. Walch, Einleitung in die Religionsstreitigkeiten ausserhalb der lutherischen Kirche, vol. iii, part 3, 499 sqq., Jena, 1734; M. Schwager, Beitrag zur Geschichte der Intoleranz, oder Leben, . . . B. Bekkers, mit einer Vorrode Semlers, Leipsic, 1780; J. M. Schroeckh, Kirchengeschichte seit der Reformation, viii, 713-722, ib. 1808; D. Lorgion, B. Bekker in Franeker, The Hague, 1848; idem, B. Bekker in Amsterdam, 2 vols., Groningen, 1850; W. P. C. Knuttel, Balthasar Bekker, The Hague, 1906. Bekkos, Johannes BEKKOS, JOHANNES. See [31]Johannes (John) Bekkos. Bel BEL: A great Babylonian god, whose name, like the equivalent Hebrew Baal, originally and all through the history of the language was also used in the sense of "lord" or "owner" (see [32]Baal). The usage of the two words as names of deities also ran through parallel courses; for Bel at one time in Babylonia was a local deity like each of the Baals of the Canaanites. He was the patron deity of the city of Nippur in central Babylonia (the modern Nuffar), where his temple, of great antiquity, has been unearthed by the Pennsylvania expedition. The reason why there were not many Bels in Babylonia was that political union on a large scale was very early effected in that country, while it was always impossible among the Canaanites; and Nippur was the center of an extensive community in very remote times. When, under priestly influence, Babylonian theology was systematized, to this great god Bel was assigned sovereignty of the earth, while Anu ruled in the highest heaven, and Ea over the deep. These formed the chief trinity with primary and universal dominion. But it is not the Bel of Nippur whose name appears in the Bible and Apocrypha. On account of the rise and supremacy of the city of Babylon under Hammurabi (2250 B.C.), Marduk (Merodach), the god of that city, was invested with the prerogatives and even with the name of Bel, so that in the comparatively modern Old Testament times "Bel" stands for "Merodach" and for him only (so in Isa. xlvi, 1; Jer. li, 44; in Jer. l, 2 both names occur together, meaning practically "Bel-Merodach"). The Babylonian Bel was not only adopted by the Assyrians as one of their chief gods (of course lower than Asshur), but like Ishtar (see [33]Ashtoreth), Sin, and Nebo, he seems to have obtained worshipers in the West-land. Such, at least, is an inference which has been drawn from the proper names Bildad ("Bel loves"), Ashbel ("man of Bel"), and Balaam. Moreover, "Bel" is found as an element in several Phenician and Palmyrene names. See [34]Babylonia, VII. J. F. McCurdy. Bibliography: A. H. Sayce, Religion of the Ancient Babylonians, London, 1887; idem, Religion of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia, Edinburgh, 1902; M. Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia, Boston 1898; idem, in DB, extra vol., pp. 538-539, 545; Schrader, KAT, pp. 354-358. Bel and the Dragon BEL AND THE DRAGON. See [35]Apocrypha, A, IV, 3. Belgic Confession BELGIC CONFESSION: A statement of belief written in French in 1561 by [36]Guy de Bres aided by H. Saravia (professor of theology in Leyden, afterward in Cambridge, where he died 1613), H. Modetus (for some time chaplain of William of Orange), and G. Wingen. It was revised by Francis Junius of Bourges (1545-1602), a student of Calvin, pastor of a Walloon congregation at Antwerp, and afterward professor of theology at Leyden, who abridged the sixteenth article and sent a copy to Geneva and other churches for approval. It was probably printed in 1562, or at all events in 1566, and afterward translated into Dutch, German, and Latin. It was presented to Philip II in 1562, with the vain hope of securing toleration. It was formally adopted by synods at Antwerp (1566), Wesel (1568), Emden (1571), Dort (1574), Middleburg (1581), and again by the great Synod of Dort, April 29, 1619. Inasmuch as the Arminians had demanded partial changes, and the text had become corrupt, the Synod of Dort submitted the French, Latin, and Dutch texts to a careful revision. Since that time the Belgic Confession, together with the Heidelberg Catechism, has been the recognized symbol of the Reformed Churches in Holland and Belgium, and of the Reformed (Dutch) Church in America. The Confession contains thirty-seven articles, and follows the order of the Gallican Confession, but is less polemical, full, and elaborate, especially on the Trinity, the Incarnation, the Church, and the Sacraments. It is, upon the whole, the best symbolical statement of the Calvinistic system of doctrine, with the exception of the Westminster Confession. The French text must be considered as the original. Of the first edition of 1561 or 1562 no copies are known. The Synod of Antwerp, in September, 1580, ordered a precise parchment copy of the revised text of Junius to be made for its archives, which copy had to be signed by every new minister. This manuscript has always been regarded in the Belgic churches as the authentic document. The first Latin translation was made from Junius's text by Beza, or under his direction, for the Harmonia Confessionum (Geneva, 1581). The same passed into the first edition of the Corpus et Syntagma Confessionum (Geneva, 1612). A second Latin translation was prepared by Festus Hommius for the Synod of Dort, 1618, revised and approved 1619; and from it was made the English translation in use in the Reformed (Dutch) Church in America. It appeared in Greek 1623, 1653, and 1660, at Utrecht. Bibliography: An excellent description and short history is given by Schaff in Creeds, i, 502-508, with the text in iii, 383-438, where the literature is given. Belgium BELGIUM: A kingdom of northwestern Europe; area, 11,373 square miles; population, 6,800,000. After a revolt from Holland in 1830, Belgium was recognized with its present boundaries by the Powers in 1839, when it was declared to be neutral territory. The population belongs to two nationalities, the northern portion, which is the larger, being Flemish (Low German), and the southern Walloon (French); the vernacular of forty-one per cent is French. The boundary between these two components may be defined as running from Maestricht west to the French department Nord. Protestants. The prevailing religion is Roman Catholic, since the Dutch Protestants, who were numerous from 1815 to 1830 have, for the most part, emigrated. (The Protestants constitute less than one-half of one per cent of the entire population.) The Evangelical confessions are represented in many cities, however, by immigrants from Germany in recent decades, as well as by Anglicans and Methodists and converts to Protestantism. The most numerous of these Protestant communions is the Union des Eglises Evangeliques Protestantes de la Belgique, which was founded in 1839 and consists of French, Dutch, and German congregations, being represented in Liege, Verviers, Seraing, Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, La Bouverie, Dour, Paturages, Jolimont, and Tournai. The permanent bond of the Union is a board of directors, chosen at the annual synod of the congregations interested. Recognition by the State as a legal ecclesiastical body assures state aid to its clergy, the usual salary being 2,220 francs, although it occasionally runs as high as 4,000 and 6,000. An "evangelization committee" of the Union cares for scattered members, and especially for the religious education of children by "evangelists" where Protestant schools do not exist. The Union has between 16,000 and 18,000 members. The Societe Evangelique or Eglise Chretienne Missionnaire Belge is a free church consisting of converts from Roman Catholicism or their children. It is strongest in the Walloon districts and has numerous places of worship, united into three districts, whose representatives (Conseils Sectionnaires) meet four times annually. Over these three councils, to which each congregation sends a pastor and a layman, is the synod, of which the permanent executive body is the Comite Administrateur. The clergy are trained chiefly in Switzerland and are subordinate to the synod. This Church possesses few schools of its own, but in public schools of one class with twenty Protestant children and in those of several classes with forty children it is entitled to give religious instruction through its own clergy. It has now about 11,000 members. There are English churches at Antwerp, Bruges, Brussels, and Ostend, and at Antwerp and Brussels there are Presbyterian congregations; in the first-named city an agent of the American Seamen's Friend Society is also active. The Dutch Reformed and the Swedish Lutherans have small congregations in Brussels and Antwerp respectively. Roman Catholic Church. The Roman Catholic Church of Belgium was organized in 1561, when the authority of the foreign bishops was abrogated, and in 1839 the system was readjusted to harmonize with the new boundaries. The most of the clergy receive their training at the episcopal seminaries and a small proportion at the University of Louvain. The State has no control over the appointment of priests, who are subject only to their bishops. The Roman Catholic Church, however, receives from the State an annual stipend of more than 4,800,000 francs, although it does not enjoy any ecclesiastical prerogative. Its influence on the life of the people is exerted chiefly through the monasteries, of which there are more than 220 for monks, with some 5,000 members, and about 1,500 nunneries, with over 27,000 sisters. The members are employed in large numbers in the public schools, the right being given the communities by the law of 1884 to "adopt" private schools, or schools conducted by the religious organizations. A number of intermediate schools are also under ecclesiastical control, as well as the University of Louvain. Academic training is also provided for by the state universities of Ghent and Liege, and by the free university of Brussels. Diocesan Organization. In its hierarchic organization, Belgium constitutes the province of Mechlin, and its dioceses are divided according to the political boundaries of the country. The archdiocese of Mechlin on the Dyle was created by a papal enactment of 1559, which first came into full operation in 1561. It contains fifty-five parishes and over 600 chapels of ease in the provinces of Brabant and Antwerp. The suffragan bishoprics are those of Bruges, Ghent, Liege, Namur, and Tournai (Doornik). Bruges, founded in 1559, has forty parishes and 245 chapels of ease; Ghent, established in the same year, also has forty parishes and 310 chapels of ease; Liege, dating from the fourth century, has an equal number of parishes and 570 chapels of ease; Namur, created in 1559 (1561), has the same number of parishes and 700 chapels of ease; and Doornik, the seat of a bishop since 1146, controls thirty-three parishes and 445 chapels of ease, its see comprising the Hennegau, with the exception of five parishes belonging to the French diocese of Cambrai. The Jews of Belgium, who number about 5,000, are divided into twelve rabbinical districts. Wilhelm Goetz. Bibliography: Balan, Histoire contemporaine de la Belgique, Lyons, 1891; Archives Belges, revue critique d'historiographie nationale, Luettich, 1899 sqq.; La Belgique et le Vatican, Documents et travaux legislatifs, 3 vols., Brussels, 1880-81; G. Verspeyen, Le Parti catholique belge, Ghent, 1893; J. Hoyois, La Politique catholique en Belgique depuis 1814, Louvain, 1895; O. Coppin, L'Union sacerdotale, son histoire, son esprit et ses constitutions, Namur, 1896; U. Berliere, Monasticon belge, vol. i, Paris, 1897; La Belge ecclesiastique (an annual). Belial BELIAL, bi'li-al ("worthlessness"): A word which occurs once in the New Testament (II Cor. vi, 15; better reading Beliar) as the name of Satan, hardly as that of Antichrist; the Peshito has "Satan." In the Old Testament beliyyaal is not used as a designation of Satan, or of a bad angel; it is an appellation, "worthlessness" or "wickedness" in an ethical sense, and is almost always found in connection with a word denoting the person or thing whose worthlessness or wickedness is spoken of; as, "man of Belial," "son of Belial," "daughter of Belial," "thoughts of Belial," etc. In a few instances beliyyaal denotes physical destruction; so probably Ps. xviii, 4 (II Sam. xxii, 5), "floods of destruction" (A. V. "ungodly men"; R. V. "ungodliness"). To understand this passage to refer to the prince of hell is against Old Testament usage. Occasionally the adjunct is omitted, as in II Sam. xxiii, 6; Job xxxiv, 18; Nahum i, 15, where the word means the "bad," the "destroyer," the "wicked." Although thus originally not a proper name, but an appellation, in the later Jewish and Christian literature it passed over into a name for Satan, not as the "worthless," but as the "destroyer." It is so used in II Cor. vi, 15, where Paul asks: "What harmony is there between Christ and Belial?" "Belial' stands for "Satan" also in Jewish epigraphs and apocalyptic writings, such as the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, the Book of Jubilees, and the Jewish interpolations in the Sibylline Oracles. Bibliography: J. Hamburger, s.v., in Real-Encyklopaedie fuer Bibel und Talmud, vol. i., Leipsic, 1891; W. Bousset, Der Antichrist, pp. 86-87, 99-101, Goettingen, 1895; T. K. Cheyne, in Expositor, 1895, pp. 435-439; F. Hommel, in Expository Times, viii, 472; EB, i, 525-527. Bell, William M'Ilvin BELL, WILLIAM M'ILVIN: United Brethren; b. in Whitley Co., Ind., Nov. 12, 1860; entered the ministry 1879; elected bishop 1905. Bellamy, Joseph BELLAMY, JOSEPH: Congregationalist; b. at New Cheshire, Conn., Feb. 20, 1719; d. at Bethlehem, Conn., Mar. 6, 1790. He was graduated at Yale, 1735, and was licensed to preach at the age of eighteen; was ordained pastor of the church at Bethlehem Apr. 2, 1740. During the Great Awakening he preached as an itinerating evangelist; later he established a divinity school in his house, where many prominent New England clergymen were trained. He was a disciple and personal friend of Jonathan Edwards, and the most gifted preacher among his followers, being thought by some to be equal to Whitefield. In his True Religion Delineated (Boston, 1750) he sets forth in spirited style the plan of salvation and of the Christian life after the Edwardean conception, and he explicitly advocates the doctrine of a general atonement. In the Wisdom of God in the Permission of Sin (1758) he argues that, while sin is a terrible evil, God permits it as a necessary means of the best good, and the universe is "more holy and happy than if sin and misery had never entered." God could have prevented sin without violating free will. On the whole his work was more general than specific, modifying the prevalent conceptions in the direction of greater simplicity and reasonableness. He sometimes approaches quite near subsequent forms of expression. A collected edition of his works appeared at New York (3 vols., 1811), and another (and better) at Boston, with memoir by Tryon Edwards (2 vols., 1850). Bellarmine BELLARMINE, bel''l?r-min'. In Louvain (S: 1).? In Rome. The Disputationes (S: 2). New Duties after 1589. Controversial Writings (S: 3). Roberto Francesco Romolo Bellarmino, the famous Roman Catholic controversialist, was born at Montepulciano (26 m. s.w. of Arezzo), in Tuscany, Oct. 4, 1542; d. in Rome Sept. 17, 1621. He was a nephew of Pope Marcellus II, and came of a noble though impoverished family. His abilities showed themselves early; as a boy he knew Vergil by heart, and composed a number of poems in Italian and Latin; one of his hymns, on Mary Magdalene, is included in the Roman breviary. His father destined him for a political career, hoping that he might restore the fallen glories of the house; but his mother wished him to enter the Jesuit order, and her influence prevailed. He entered the Roman novitiate in 1560, remained in Rome three years, and then went to a Jesuit house at Mondovi in Piedmont. Here he learned Greek, and taught it as fast as he learned it. His systematic study of theology began at Padua in 1567 and 1568, where his teachers were Thomists, the Jesuits not yet having had time to develop a theology of their own. 1. In Louvain. After a visit to Venice, where he increased his renown as a public speaker, Bellarmine was sent by the general, Francis Borgia, in 1569, to Louvain, then the most famous Roman Catholic university. He was ordained priest at Ghent on Palm Sunday, 1570, by the elder Jansenius. A strict Augustinian theology prevailed among the teachers at Louvain, represented by Bajus, the precursor of Jansenism (see [37]Bajus, Michel). Bellarmine had not enough deep knowledge of his own nature or Christian experience to be able to appreciate the Augustinian doctrines of the corruption of man and the necessity of divine grace to any good movement of the will. He contended accordingly against the propositions of Bajus, though his own views and expressions in the great controversy on grace were always a little uncertain. He was the first Jesuit to teach at the university, where the subject of his course was the Summa of St. Thomas; he also made extensive studies in the Fathers and medieval theologians, which gave him the material for his book De scriptoribus ecclesiasticis (Rome, 1613), which was later revised and enlarged by Sirmond, Labbeus, and Oudin. In the Netherlands he gained a knowledge of the great controversy with the Protestants which he could hardly have got in Italy, though he seems never to have come into personal contact with the evangelical leaders. Finally he learned Hebrew, and wrote his often reprinted grammar. His genius for teaching, clearness of thought, and adroitness in controversy were indisputable. 2. In Rome. The "Disputationes." Bellarmine's residence in Louvain lasted seven years. His health was undermined by study and asceticism, and in 1576 he made a journey to Italy to restore it. Here he was detained by the commission given him by Gregory XIII to lecture on polemical theology in the new Roman College. He devoted eleven years to this work, out of whose activities grew his celebrated Disputationes de controversiis christianae fidei, first published at Ingolstadt, 4 vols., 1581-93. It occupies in the field of dogmatics the same place as the Annales of Baronius in the field of history. Both were the fruits of the great revival in religion and learning which the Roman Catholic Church had witnessed since 1540. Both bear the stamp of their period; the effort for literary elegance, which was considered the principal thing at the beginning of the sixteenth century, had given place to a desire to pile up as much material as possible, to embrace the whole field of human knowledge, and incorporate it into theology. Bellarmine's exposition of the views and arguments of the Protestants is surprisingly full and accurate, so much so that the circulation of the book in Italy was for a time not encouraged. He fails, like most of his contemporaries, in understanding the principle of historical development, and his belief in authority, pressed to an extreme, injured his sense of truth and allowed him to handle both the Bible and history in an arbitrary manner. The first volume treats of the Word of God, of Christ, and of the pope; the second of the authority of councils, and of the Church, whether militant, expectant, or triumphant; the third of the sacraments; and the fourth of grace, free will, justification, and good works. The most important part of the work is contained in the five books on the Roman pontiff. In these, after a speculative introduction on forms of government in general, holding monarchy to be relatively the best, he says that a monarchical government is necessary for the Church, to preserve unity and order in it. Such power he considers to have been established by the commission of Christ to Peter. He then proceeds to demonstrate that this power has been transmitted to the successors of Peter, admitting that a heretical pope may be freely judged and deposed by the Church since by the very fact of his heresy he would cease to be pope, or even a member of the Church; this is almost like an echo of the great councils of the fifteenth century. The third section discusses Antichrist; Bellarmine gives in full the theory set forth by the Greek and Latin Fathers, of a personal Antichrist to come just before the end of the world and to be accepted by the Jews and enthroned in the temple at Jerusalem--thus endeavoring to dispose of the Protestant exposition which saw Antichrist in the pope. The fourth section sets forth the pope as the supreme judge in matters of faith and morale, though making the concessions (confirmed indeed by the Vatican Council) that the pope may err in questions of fact which may be known by ordinary human knowledge, and also when he speaks as a mere unofficial theologian, doctor privatus. His assertions are much more unbounded in the last part, which treats of the pope's power in secular matters. While he says that the pope has no direct jurisdiction in such things, he yet stoutly contends for the power of deposing kings, absolving subjects from their allegiance, and altering civil laws, when these actions are necessary for the good of the souls committed to the charge of the chief pastor. 3. New Duties after 1589. Controversial Writings. Until 1589 Bellarmine was occupied altogether as professor of theology, but that date marked the beginning of a new epoch in his life and of new dignities. After the murder of Henry III of France Sixtus V sent Gaetano as legate to Paris to negotiate with the League, and chose Bellarmine to accompany him as theologian; he was in the city during its siege by Henry of Navarre. The next pope, Clement VIII (1591-1605), set great store by him. He wrote the preface to the new edition of the Vulgate, and was made rector of the Roman College in 1592, examiner of bishops in 1598, cardinal in 1599, and in 1602 archbishop of Capua. He had written strongly against pluralism and non-residence, and he set a good example himself by leaving within four days for his diocese, where he devoted himself zealously to his episcopal duties, and firmly executed the reforming decrees of the Council of Trent. Under Paul V (1605-21) arose the great conflict, between Venice and the papacy, in which Fra Paolo Sarpi was the spokesman of the Republic, protesting against the papal interdict, reasserting the principles of Constance and Basel, and denying the pope's authority in matters secular. Bellarmine wrote three rejoinders to the Venetian theologians, and at the same time possibly saved Sarpi's life by giving him warning of an impending murderous attack. He soon had occasion to cross swords with a more prominent antagonist, James I of England, who prided himself on his theological attainments. Bellarmine had written a letter to the English archpriest Blackwell, reproaching him for having taken the oath of allegiance in apparent disregard of his duty to the pope. James attacked him in 1608 in a Latin treatise, which the scholarly cardinal answered at once, making merry with delicate humor over the defects of the royal Latinity. James replied with a second attack in more careful style, dedicated to the Emperor Rudolph II and all the monarchs of Christendom, in which he posed as the defender of primitive and truly Catholic Christianity. Bellarmine's answer to this covers more or less the whole controversy. In reply to a posthumous treatise of William Barclay, the celebrated Scottish jurist, he wrote another Tractatus de potestate summi pontificis in rebus temporalibus, which reiterated his strong assertions on the subject, and was therefore prohibited in France, where it agreed with the sentiments of neither the king nor the bishops. He was among the theologians consulted on the teaching of Galileo when it first made a stir at Rome. In his old age he was allowed to return to his old home, Montepulciano, as its bishop for four years, after which he retired to the Jesuit college of St. Andrew in Rome. He received some votes in the conclaves which elected Leo XI, Paul V, and Gregory XV, but only in the second case had he any prospect of election. Since his death the members of his order have more than once attempted to procure his canonization, but without success. The best of the older editions of his works is that in seven vols., Cologne, 1617; recent ones are those of Paris, 1870-74, and Naples, 1872. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: A list of the works of Bellarmine is given in H. Hurter, Nomanclator literarius, i, 273 sqq., Innsbruck, 1892. His autobiography, written in 1613, was issued in Lat. at Rome, 1675, at Louvain, 1753, and in Lat. and Germ., ed. J. J. I. von Doellinger and F. H. Reusch, Bonn, 1887; it was used in MS. by J. Fuligatti, Vita del Cardinale R. Bellarmino, Rome, 1624. The lives by D. Bartoli, Rome, 1677, N. Frizon, Nantes, 1708, and F. Hense, Paderborn, 1868, are mere eulogies and add nothing of value; indeed it is said that the autobiography and the works founded upon it have done much to prevent Bellarmine's canonization. Consult Niceron, Memoires, xxxi, 1 sqq.; J. B. Couderc, Le Venerable Cardinal Bellarmin, 2 vols., Paris, 1893. Bellows, Henry Whitney BELLOWS, HENRY WHITNEY: American Unitarian; b. in Boston June 11, 1814; d. in New York Jan. 30, 1882. He was graduated at Harvard 1832, and at the Cambridge Divinity School 1837; was ordained pastor of the First Congregational Society (Unitarian), Chambers Street, New York, Jan. 2, 1838, and remained there till death; during his pastorate the church was twice moved, to Broadway between Spring and Prince Streets and the name changed to the Church of the Divine Unity, and again to 4th Avenue and 20th Street, where it took the name of All Souls' Church. Dr. Bellows was the organizer, president, and chief administrator of the United States Sanitary Commission (1862-78), and during the Civil War he superintended with rare efficiency the distribution of supplies valued at $15,000,000 and $5,000,000 in money; at a later period he was president of the first civil service reform association organized in the country. He was president of the National Unitarian Conference 1865-79. He wrote much for the periodicals of his denomination and was the chief originator of The Christian Inquirer (New York, 1846) and for five years its principal contributor. He also published a number of books, of merely personal and transient interest. Bells BELLS. Early Use. The use of bells as adjuncts to Christian worship was not without precedent in pre-Christian times. Among the Jews the vestment of the high priest was adorned with little bells (Ex. xxviii, 33); and among the pagans the priests of Proserpine announced the beginning of the sacrifice by ringing bells. There is no evidence of early Christian use of them to summon people to prayer; this seems to have been done by word of mouth, even as late as Tertullian and Jerome. In the Egyptian monasteries the Old Testament use of trumpets still survived, and the sound made by knocking pieces of wood together served the same purpose; this custom is still sometimes used in the Roman Catholic Church on the last three days of Holy Week, when the ringing of bells is forbidden [and survives in some places in the East]. The first positive evidence of the use of bells in connection with Christian worship is found in Gregory of Tours (d. 595), who speaks of them as being rung at the beginning of the liturgy and the canonical hours. From the seventh century on, bells are often mentioned in the inventories of Western churches, and by 800 they were so common as to be found even in village churches. A capitulary of Charlemagne (801) prescribes that priests shall ring their bells at the accustomed hours of the day and night. In the ninth century some Eastern instances occur; thus Orso I, Doge of Venice, presented twelve bells to the Byzantine emperor, who placed them in a tower near St. Sophia. But outside of Russia they never attained the same importance as in the West. The Mohammedans usually removed them in the countries they conquered; and Zwingli attempted to abolish their use in Switzerland, though most of the Reformers only protested against superstition in the use of them, especially their consecration. Material and Form. Walafrid Strabo distinguishes two classes of bells in his time, vasa productilia and fusilia, wrought and cast. Of the now rare examples of the former class the best known is the "Saufang" at Cologne, so called because the legend ran that it had been dug up by pigs about 613; it is made of three plates of iron fastened together with copper nails. Similar and perhaps older examples are in the Edinburgh Museum. For the casting of bells a mixture of copper and tin was employed in the Middle Ages; afterward lead, zinc, iron, and antimony were used with copper. At present the best bell-metal is supposed to be a mixture of 77 to 80 per cent of good copper with 20 to 23 per cent of pure tin. The earliest cast bells resemble cow-bells in form, though there are some shaped more like a beehive or a pear. Their dimensions are small. Inscriptions. As far as can be judged from the extant examples, the custom of putting inscriptions on bells does not go further back than the twelfth century, and is by no means general even then. On cast bells the inscriptions are rarely incised; where this occurs, it is a sign of antiquity. Later they are more commonly raised, and in either Roman or Gothic capitals down to the end of the fourteenth century; then small letters were used until about 1550, and since then more modern types of letters have been usual, except in recent deliberate imitations of the old style. Until well into the fourteenth century Latin was the regular language; then the vernacular came into use. The earliest inscriptions were short; from the end of the sixteenth century much longer ones became usual, frequently almost filling the surface of the bell. They are mostly pious dedications or prayers, or declarations of the purpose of the bell, such as Funera plango, fulgura frango, sabbata pango; excito lentos, dissipo ventos, paco cruentos. Besides inscriptions, the sides of bells were adorned with pictures, coats of arms, seals, and various symbols, among the oldest being, besides the cross, the dove with the olive-branch, and the Agnus Dei. Benediction. As early as the Frankish sacramentaries and the Pontifical of Egbert special formulas for the benediction of bells are mentioned. This practise was connected in those days with superstitious notions, so that Charlemagne was obliged to regulate it in 789. But the formulas of benediction themselves attributed a quasimagical effect to the bells thus consecrated. According to present Roman Catholic usage, the blessing of bells is an episcopal prerogative, though priests may exercise it in case of necessity with the pope's permission. The ceremonies somewhat resemble those of baptism, which has given rise to the practise of naming bells, and in the Middle Ages of appointing sponsors for them, from whom rich christening gifts were expected. The Schmalkald Articles declared bitterly against these practises as "popish jugglery" and "a mockery of holy baptism." Present Use. The main use of bells has always been to announce the time of public worship. It is also a common Roman Catholic practise to ring the church bell at the consecration in the mass, as in some Protestant localities at the Lord's Prayer after the sermon, that those who are absent may unite themselves in spirit with the congregation. During the mass, moreover, a small bell (called the "Sanctus" or "sacring" bell) is rung at the specially solemn parts--the Sanctus, the beginning of the canon, the consecration, and the Domine, non sum dignus. Bells have been rung also at certain regular times to call to mind some mystery, as the passion and death or the incarnation of Christ (see [38]Angelus), or to bid to prayer for sinners, for the faithful departed, or for peace. The ringing of joyous peals at marriages, and the announcement of a death by solemn tolling (originally intended to move the hearers to prayer for the soul, either before or after death) are ancient practises; the latter existed, at least in the monasteries, in the time of Bede. In some parts of England a special bell was tolled with a similar intention before the execution of a criminal. (Nikolaus Mueller.) Bibliography: Literature on the subject is given in H. T. Ellacombe, Practical Remarks on Belfries and Ringers, with an Appendix on Chiming, London, 1859-60; H. Otte, Glockenkunde, pp. 1-6, Leipsic, 1884; and F. W. Schubart, Die Glocken im Herzogthum Anhalt, pp. xiv-xvii, Dessau, 1896. H. T. Ellacombe has a series of works treating of English bells, among which are: Sundry Words About Bells, Exeter, 1864; Church Bells of Devon, ib. 1872; Church Bells of Somerset, 1875; Church Bells of Gloucestershire, 1881. Consult also: Joseph Anderson, Scotland in Early Times, 1st series, pp. 167-215, Edinburgh, 1881; F. W. Warren, Liturgy and Ritual of the Celtic Church, p. 92, Oxford, 1881; Margaret Stokes, Early Christian Art in Ireland, pp. 50 sqq., London, 1887; J. T. Fowler; Adamnani Vita S. Columbae, pp xliii-xliv, Oxford, 1894; K. H. Bergner, Zur Glockenkunde Thueringens, Jena, 1896; Encyclopaedia Britannica, s.v., contains interesting material not easily found elsewhere; DCA, i, 184-186. Belsham, Thomas BELSHAM, THOMAS: English Unitarian; b. at Bedford Apr. 26, 1750; d. at Hampstead Nov. 11, 1829. He finished his studies at the Dissenting Academy of Daventry and in 1770 became teacher there; in 1778 he became minister of an independent chapel at Worcester, but returned to Daventry as teacher and preacher in 1781. Having adopted Unitarian views he resigned in 1789, and was professor of divinity at the college of Hackney until it ceased to exist in 1796. In 1794 he succeeded Dr. Priestley as minister of the Gravel Pit Unitarian Chapel at Hackney, and in 1805 became minister of the Essex Street Chapel, London. He published much, sermons, controversial writings, and general theological works, including Elements of the Philosophy of the Mind and of Moral Philosophy (London, 1801); Letters to the Bishop of London in Vindication of Unitarians (1815); The Epistles of St. Paul Translated, with an Exposition and Notes (2 vols., 1822); he was principal editor of The New Testament in an Improved Version upon the Basis of Archbishop Newcome's New Translation; with a critical text and notes critical and explanatory (1808). American Unitarianism (4th ed., Boston, 1815) is extracted from his Memoirs of the Revd. T. Lindsey (London, 1812). Bibliography: J. Williams, Memoirs of Thomas Belsham, London, 1833; DNB, iv, 202-203. Belshazzar BELSHAZZAR. See [39]Babylonia, VI, 7, S: 3; [40]Persia. Belsheim, Johannes BELSHEIM, JOHANNES: Norwegian Protestant; b. at Valders (about 100 m. n.w. of Christiania) Jan. 21, 1829. He received only an elementary education in his early years, and from 1851 was a teacher in village schools until 1858, when he was enabled to enter the University of Christiania, and graduated three years later. He was tutor at a teachers' seminary in 1863-64, and was then appointed pastor of a small parish in Finmarken near the Russian frontier. Six years later he was called to a parish in Bjelland, in the extreme south of Norway, but resigned in 1875 and settled at Christiania, where he was enabled to continue his studies by his pension and a small additional stipend, while a government subvention later rendered it possible for him to visit foreign libraries. Died at Christiania July 15, 1909. His writings are Om Bibelen, dens Opbevaring, Over saettelse, og Udbredelse (3d ed., Christiania, 1884); Til Forsvar for nogle omtvistede Steder i det Nye Testamente (1876); Veiledning i Bibelens Historie, med udfoerligere Oplysninger om det Nye Testamentes Boeger (Christiania, 1880); Den evangeliske Histories Trovaerdighed og de Nytestamentlige Skrifters Oprindelse (1891); De Gammeltestamentlige Skrifters Trovaerdighed og Oprindelse (1892); Om Moseboegerne og nogle andre Gammeltestamentlige Skrifter: Et Indlaeg imod den moderne Kritik (1896). He likewise edited Codex aureus, sive quatuor Evangelia ex codice purpureo aureoque in Bibliotheca Regia Halmensi asservata (Christiania, 1879); Die Apostelgeschichte und die Offenbarung Johannes aus dem Gigas Librorum auf der koeniglichen Bibliothek zu Stockholm (1879); Das Evangelium des Matthaeus aus dem lateinischen Cod. ? 1 Corbiensis auf der kaiserlichen Bibliothek zu St. Petersburg, nebst dem Briefe Jacobi (1881); Der Brief des Jacobus in alter lateinischer Uebersetzung nach dem Cod. ? 1 Corbiensis in St. Petersburg (1884); Palimpsestus Vindobonensis: Antiquissima Veteris Testamenti fragmenta (1885); Epistulae Paulinae e Cod. Sangermaniense Petropolitano (1885); Evangelium des Marcus nach dem griechischen Codex Theodorae purpureus Petropolitanus (1885); Codex Vindobonensis purpureus antiquiasimus: Evangeliorum Lucae et Marci translationis Latinae fragmenta (Leipsic, 1885); Fragmenta Vindobonensia: Bruchstuecke der Apostelgeschichte, des Briefes Jacobi und ersten Briefes Petri nach einem Palimpsest auf der kaiserlichen Hofbibliothek zu Wien (Christiania, 1886); Codex ? 2 Corbiensis, sive quatuor Evangelia . . . Latina translatio a codice in Bibliotheca Nationali Parisiensi asservata (1887); Appendix epistularum Paulinarum e codice Germanensi (1887); Codex Colbertinus Parisiensis: Quatuor Evangelia . . . Latina translatio post editionem Petri Sabatarii cum isto codice collata (1888); Evangelium secundum Matthaeum . . . Latina translatio a codice olim Claramontano, nunc Vaticano (1892); Libri Tobit, Judit, Ester . . . Latina translatione codice olim Freisingensi, nunc Monachensi (Trondhjem, 1893); Acta Apostolorum . . . Latina translatio e codice Latino-Graeco Laudiano Oxoniensi (Christiania, 1893); Codex Vercellensis: Quatuor Evangelia ex reliquiis codicis Vercellensis . . . et ex editione Juliana principi (1894); Evangelium Palatinum: Reliquiae quatuor Evangeliorum cum Latina translatione e codice purpureo Vindobonensi et ex editione Tischendorfiana (1896); Fragmenta Novi Testamenti in translatione Latina ex libro qui vocatur Speculum (1899); and Codex Veronensis: Quatuor Evangelia e codice in bibliotheca episcopali Veronensi asservato et ex editions Blanchini (Prague, 1904). Of these the first, second, fifth, sixth, seventh, ninth, tenth, eleventh, and fourteenth are editiones principes. Of his numerous translations, special mention may be made of versions of the catechism of Cyril (Christiania, 1882) and the De Imitatione Christi of Thomas `a Kempis (1890). Bema BEMA: In classical literature a semicircular platform at the end of a basilica, which supported the official seat of the judge. When the basilican style was adapted to Christian use (see [41]Architecture, Ecclesiastical), the apse, or similar semicircular termination of the building, was reserved for the seats of the bishop and clergy, and the same name was sometimes applied to it. In a more restricted sense it signifies any elevated place in the church, such as that from which the gospel was read, and is thus synonymous with [42]ambo. Bembo, Pietro BEMBO, PIETRO: Cardinal and humanist; b. in Venice May 20, 1470; d. in Rome Jan. 18, 1547. He was the son of a senator, and studied at Padua and Ferrara, in the latter place attracting the attention of Alfonso d'Este and his wife, Lucrezia Borgia. He spent six years at the court of Urbino, where he became acquainted with Raffael. He then went to Rome, where Leo X recognized his ability as a Latinist by making him his secretary. As he held this office to the death of the pope (1521), the sixteen books of Latin letters of Leo X are practically, as to their form, of Bembo's composition. Returning to Padua, Bembo made his house the meeting-place of humanist circles. In 1530 he was commissioned by the Venetian senate to complete the history of the republic begun by Marcantonio Sabellico. His part of the work, covering the years 1487-1513, has been justly criticized as to historic accuracy by Justus Lipsius (Politica, i, Leyden, 1589, 9, note). On the other hand, not only in the Rime, but also in his letters, there is a regrettable tendency to a loose frivolity strongly bordering on pagan morals. This tendency, shown also in his manner of life--he was the father of several illegitimate children--was no obstacle to his being made a cardinal (1539). From that time on (he was now sixty-nine), he is said to have changed his life. He held two bishoprics, Gubbio and Bergamo, but he lived in Rome till his death. His Opera were published in three vols. at Basel, 1567; Strasburg, 1611-52; four vols., Venice, 1729. His Rime (Venice, 1530) have often been re-printed; as has his Gli Asolani (1505), a dialogue on the nature of love. K. Benrath. Bibliography: The first Vita was issued by Giovanni della Casa at Florence, 1567, a second is found in the Venice edition of his works, ut sup., while a third was published by L. Beccadelli in Monumenti di varia letteratura, vol. i, Bologna, 1799, and also by W. P. Greswell, Memoirs of . . . Petrus Bembus, Manchester, 1801. Consult also V. Cian, Un Decennio della vita di M. P. Bembo, 1521-31, Turin, 1885; J. P. Niceron, Memoires, xi, 358, xx, 32, 43 vols., Paris, 1729-45; W. W. Westcott, Tabula Bembina; The Isiac Tablet of Cardinal Bembo, its History and Significance, Bath, 1887. Benaiah BENAIAH ("whom Yahweh built"): The name of several Israelites. The most important of them is the valorous son of Jehoiada of Kabzeel, a city in the south of Judah (Josh. xv, 21). He is honorably mentioned (II Sam. xxiii, 20 ff.; cf. I Chron. xi, 22 ff.) among the mighty men of David, to whom he always faithfully adhered. Three heroic exploits of his are mentioned in justification of his rank: he slew the two sons of Ariel (according to the LXX), either a distinguished Moabite (so Josephus, Ant., VII, xii, 4) or the king of Moab, in the war with that people (II Sam. viii, 2); he killed a lion which had fallen into a pit in time of snow; and, finally, he overcame an Egyptian giant, who carried a spear so large that it seemed like a tree thrown across a ravine (according to an addition of the LXX), or like a weaver's beam (according to I Chron. xi, 23); Benaiah disarmed his opponent and killed him with his own weapon. Being prominent among David's "thirty heroes," Benaiah was set over the Cherethites and Pelethites, David's bodyguard (II Sam. viii, 18; xx, 23). In the beginning of Solomon's reign, to whom he became devoted at once (I Kings i, 8), Benaiah still held this office and executed the judgment of the king upon Adonijah and Joab (I Kings ii, 25, 30, 34), and became Joab's successor as commander-in-chief (I Kings ii, 35). When, under David, the army was organized, besides his regular office he had command over one of the twelve divisions of 24,000 men (I Chron. xxvii, 5, 6, where his father, Jehoiada, strange to say, is called "the priest," which is no doubt a mistaken gloss founded upon I Chron. xii, 27). C. von Orelli. Bender, Wilhelm (Friedrich) BENDER, WILHELM (FRIEDRICH): German Protestant; b. at Muenzenberg (10 m. s.e. of Giessen), Hesse, Jan. 15, 1845; d. at Bonn Apr. 8, 1901. He studied at Goettingen and Giessen, 1863-66, and at the theological seminary at Friedberg, 1866-67; became teacher of religion and assistant preacher at Worms, 1868; ordinary professor of theology at Bonn, 1876; was transferred to the philosophical faculty, 1888. He belonged to the extreme Ritschlian school, and published Der Wunderbegriff des Neuen Testaments (Frankfort, 1871); Schleiermachers Theologie mit ihren philosophischen Grundlagen (2 vols., Noerdlingen, 1876-78); Friedrich Schleiermacher und die Frage nach dem Wesen der Religion (Bonn, 1877); Johann Konrad Dippel. Der Freigeist aus dem Pietismus (1882); Reformation und Kirchenthum, eine akademische Festrede zur Feier des vierhundertjaehrigen Geburtstags Martin Luthers (1883), which caused a great stir and many protests against Bender; Das Wesen der Religion und die Grundgesetze der Kirchenbildung (1886); Der Kampf um die Seligkeit (1888); Mythologie und Metaphysik, Grundlinien einer Geschichte der Weltanschauungen (Stuttgart, 1899). Benedicite BENEDICITE: The name given, from its first word in the Latin, to the canticle which stands in the Anglican Prayer-book as an alternative to the Te Deum, commonly used in Advent and Lent, and in the Roman breviary as a part of the priest's thanksgiving after celebrating mass. It is taken from the apocryphal fragment of the Song of the Three Holy Children (verses 35-65), which supplements the narrative of Dan. iii, and seems to have been used in public worship in the postexilic Jewish Church, and in the Christian at least from the fourth century. Benedict BENEDICT: The name of fourteen popes and one antipope. Benedict I: Pope 574-578. He was a Roman by birth, the son of Boniface, and succeeded John III, who died July 13, 573, but was unable to be consecrated before June 3, 574, because the Lombards had cut off communication with Constantinople and the imperial confirmation could not be obtained. Owing to the troubles of the barbarian invasion and a great famine, which occupied his mind, the Liber pontificalis (ed. Duchesne, i, Paris, 1886, 308) finds scarcely anything to say of his acts. He died July 30 or 31, 578, during the siege of Rome by the first Lombard Duke of Spoleto. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Paulus Disconus, Historia Langobardorum, ii, 10, iii, 11 in MGH Script, rer. Langob., pp. 12-187, ed. Waitz, Hanover, 1878; Jaffe, Regesta, i, 137; Bower, Popes, i, 380-382; F. Gregorovius, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, ii, 19-20, Stuttgart, 1876, Eng. transl., London, 1895; L. M. Hartmann, Geschichte Italiens, ii, 48, 165, Gotha, 1903. Benedict II: Pope 683-685. He was elected after the death of Leo II, which took place on July 3, 683, though the imperial confirmation was delayed for almost a year. The Liber pontificalis (ed. Duchesne, i, Paris, 1886, 363) asserts that the emperor Constantine Pogonatus conceded the right to proceed at once to consecration for the future; but this is very doubtful, as it would amount to a total renunciation of the right of confirmation, and it is certain that several successors of Benedict waited to obtain it either from the emperor himself or his representative, the Exarch of Ravenna. During the interval intervening before his consecration, Benedict signed himself with the designation presbyter et in Dei nomine electus sancte sedis apostolice. Like his predecessor, he had at heart the complete recognition by the Western Church of the sixth ecumenical council (Third Constantinople, 680). With this end in view, Leo II had sent the notary Peter to Spain, and immediately after his election Benedict wrote to Peter to carry out his commission. His wish was gratified by the condemnation of monothelitism in the fourteenth Council of Toledo (Nov., 684). Even before his consecration, which finally took place June 26, 684, he espoused the cause of [43]Wilfrid of York and wrote in recognition of his innocence and his rights. Benedict died May 8, 685. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: The Vita is in ASB, 7th May, ii, 197-198. Consult Vita Wilfridi, chap. xlii sqq., in T. Gale, Historiae Anglicanae scriptores quinque, i, 74 sqq., Oxford, 1691; Mann, Popes, vol. i, part 2, pp. 54-63, Lond., 1902; Jaffe, Regesta, i, 241; J. Langen, Geschichte der roemischen Kirche von Leo I bis Nikolaus I, p 579, Bonn, 1885; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, iii, 322, Eng. transl., v, 215; Bower, Popes, i, 487-489; L. M. Hartmann, Geschichte Italiens, ii, 262-263, Gotha, 1903. Benedict III: Pope 855-858. He was chosen immediately after the death of Leo IV by the clergy and people of Rome, but owing to the setting up of an antipope, Anastasius, by the emperor Lothair and his son Louis II, was not consecrated for more than two months (Sept. 29). Soon afterward the Saxon king, Ethelwulf, and his eon Alfred, visited Rome and made liberal gifts to the Church. In his relations with secular powers and important prelates, Benedict displayed the same unbending principle which was carried out by his famous successor [44]Nicholas I, already a person of much influence. He confirmed the powerful Hincmar, archbishop of Reims, in his primacy, only on condition that the rights of the apostolic see should be safeguarded. In England he protested against the deposition of bishops by tyrannous lay nobles. The struggle with the Eastern Church in which Nicholas was involved had its origin in Benedict's pontificate, arising out of the case of the archbishop of Syracuse, who was deposed by the patriarch of Constantinople, [45]Ignatius, and appealed to Leo IV and after his death to Benedict. Before Ignatius was expelled by a faction and replaced by the famous Photius, Benedict died (Apr. 7, 858). (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Liber pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, ii, 140, Paris, 1892; Epistole Nicolai I, in Mansi, Concilia, vol. xv; Jaffe, Regesta, i, 339-340; J. Hergenroether, Photius, i, 358 sqq., Regensburg, 1867; R. Baxmann, Die Politik der Paepste von Gregor I bis auf Gregor VII, i, 355 sqq., Elberfeld, 1868; J. Langen, Geschichte der roemischen Kirche von Leo I bis Nikolaus I, p. 884, Bonn, 1885; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, iv, 201; Bower, Popes, ii, 227-229. Benedict IV: Pope 900-903. Owing to the scantiness of the sources for the history of the papacy at this period, the chronology is very uncertain; the exact date of Benedict's elevation can not be determined, though it is probably May, not later than June, 900. Like his predecessor, John IX, he recognized [46]Formosus, by whom he was himself ordained priest, as a lawful pope at a Roman synod in August. When Louis of Burgundy (Louis III) made his victorious descent into Italy and wrested it from Berengar, Benedict crowned him as emperor in Feb., 901. He died in July or Aug., 903. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Liber pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, ii, 233, Paris, 1892; Jaffe, Regesta, i, 443; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, iv, 570-571; Bower, Popes, ii, 304-305. Benedict V (called Grammaticus): Pope 964. At the end of 963, the emperor Otto I deposed the dissolute John XII in a synod at Rome and caused a prominent Roman layman to be put in his place as Leo VIII, taking an oath of the people that they would thenceforth choose no pope without his consent and that of his son. He had scarcely left the city when John XII returned and drove out and anathematized Leo. The emperor came back to chastise this rebellion, but before he arrived John XII died (May 14, 964). A deputation met Otto and begged him not to replace Leo, but to permit a new election. In spite of his refusal, the Romans chose the cardinal deacon Benedict, a man of blameless life and great learning who had been one of the opponents of John's unworthy rule. He had pledged fidelity both to Otto and to Leo, but the fear of imperial domination of the Church had brought him to support John on the latter's return. The people were firm in their intention to defend Benedict against the emperor; but the pressure of famine forced them to give him up (June 23, 964). He was brought to trial before a synod. After asking the pardon of Otto and of Leo, and surrendering the insignia of his office to the latter, he was deprived of his episcopal and priestly functions, though allowed to retain those of deacon. To avoid any possibility of his changing his mind, he was sent to Germany, where he remained practically a prisoner, in the charge of the archbishop of Hamburg, until his death, which occurred not earlier than July 4, 966. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Liber pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, ii, 151, Paris, 1892; Jaffe, Regesta, i, 469; J. M. Watterich, Romanorum pontificum . . . vitae, i, 45, Leipsic, 1862; A. von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, ii, 289, Berlin, 1868; W. von Giesebrecht Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit, i, 468, Brunswick, 1873; F. Gregorovius, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, iii, 364, Stuttgart, 1876; Bower, Popes, ii, 320-321; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, iv, 619, 626; Hauck, KD, iii, 235-238. Benedict VI: Pope 972-974. He was elected immediately after the death of John XIII (Sept. 6, 972), but was not consecrated until the 19th of the following January, apparently waiting for the emperor Otto's confirmation. After the death of Otto I, the affairs of the empire fell into disorder. Crescentius, the son of Theodore, conspired with the deacon Boniface to overthrow Benedict, who was imprisoned and, after Boniface had assumed the papal authority, was strangled in July, 974. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Liber pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, ii. 255, Paris, 1892; Jaffe, Regesta, i, 477; J. M. Watterich, Pontificum Romanorum . . . vitae, i, 65-68, Leipsic, 1862; Neander, Christian Church, iii, 330-331 (reference to a letter of Benedict, given Mansi, Concilia, xix, 53); Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, iv, 632; Bower, Popes, ii, 324. Benedict VII: Pope 974-983. He was a Roman by birth, said to have been a kinsman of the powerful Roman prince and senator Alberic. He was bishop of Sutri when, on the flight of Boniface VII, he was called to the papal throne, and confirmed by the emperor Otto II. As far as we know, his first act was to condemn Boniface in a synod at Rome. He displayed a great desire to maintain friendly relations with the German prelates; Archbishop Willigis of Mainz was appointed papal legate for Germany and Gaul, with the right of crowning the German kings. Benedict showed his subserviency to the emperor by agreeing to the suppression of the bishopric of Merseburg in a synod at Rome (Sept. 10, 981), without regard to the arguments brought against such a proceeding. He was a devoted friend of monasticism, as is shown not only by the numerous privileges bestowed upon monasteries, but by the restoration of that of Saints Boniface and Alexius on the Aventine and the building of the monastic church of Subiaco. He supported the reforming movement, condemning simony at a synod in March, 981. That he upheld the claim of the papacy to universal jurisdiction may be inferred from the fact that he sought to establish relations with places as distant as Carthage and Damascus, giving an archbishop once more to the North African Church, and appointing the metropolitan of Damascus, who had been driven out by the Arabs, abbot of St. Boniface. He died in Oct., 983. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Liber pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, ii, 258, Paris, 1892: Jaffe, Regesta, i, 479; J. M. Watterich, Romanorum pontificum . . . vitae, i, 66, 686, Leipsic, 1862; A. von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, ii, 294, Berlin, 1868; F. Gregorovius, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, iii, 372, Stuttgart, 1876; Bower, Popes, ii, 325; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, iv, 633; Hauck, KD, iii, passim. Benedict VIII (Theophylact): Pope 1012-24. He was the son of Count Gregory of Tusculum, chosen by his brothers' influence, after they had defeated, by force of arms, the Crescentian party, who set up another Gregory as antipope (see [47]Gregory VI, antipope). Benedict was consecrated Apr. 20, 1012, and Gregory fled to the court of Henry II, who, however, recognized Benedict, and was rewarded by a promise of coronation in St. Peter's. He descended into Italy toward the end of 1013, and was crowned, with his wife Cunigunde, in the following February. Soon afterward a synod was held in his presence, at which, it is said at his suggestion, the Constantinopolitan Creed was made a part of the Roman liturgy; after this he left Pope Benedict to contend with his numerous enemies--the Crescentian faction, the Arabs, and the Greeks. The first he suppressed; the Mohammedan invaders, who threatened Italy from Sardinia, were defeated and driven out of the island in June, 1016, by the aid of the Pisans and Genoese; he supported those who were attempting to free southern Italy from the Byzantine rule, and gained them the help of a body of Norman knights, who conquered the Greeks, though only temporarily. He accepted Henry's invitation to meet him in 1020 at Bamberg, where the emperor renewed the "Ottonian privilege" to the Church, and gave up Bamberg to ecclesiastical rule. In the following year Henry crossed the Alps for the third time; Benedict met him at Benevento in 1022, and was present when he conquered the Greek fortress of Troja and broke the power of Pandulf IV of Capua, an ally of the Byzantines. These successes, again temporary, are less important than the synod held by the pope and emperor jointly at Pavia Aug. 1, 1022. Here Henry's reforming plans were extended to Italy. After a strong exhortation from the pope, the synod renewed the condemnation of clerical marriage and took measures to prevent the alienation of church property. Henry wished to carry his reforms into France also, and with this purpose met King Robert at Ivois in Aug., 1023. Another synod at Pavia was projected, but before it could be held both Benedict and Henry had died, the former Apr. 9, 1024. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Liber pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, ii, 268, Paris, 1892; Jaffe, Regesta, i, 506; J. M. Watterich, Romanorum pontificum . . . vitae, i, 69, 700, Leipsic, 1862; A. von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, ii, 329, Berlin, 1868; W. von Giesebrecht, Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit, ii, 122 sqq., Brunswick, 1875; P. F. Sadee, Die Stellung Heinrichs II zur Kirche, Jena, 1877; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, iv, 670; Bower, Popes, ii, 335-337; Hartmann, in Mittheilungen des Instituts fuer oesterreichische Geschichte, xv (1894), 482 sqq.; Hauck, KD, iii, 518 sqq.; P. G. Wappler, Papst Benedikt VIII, Leipsic, 1897. Benedict IX (Theophylact): Pope 1033-48. He was the son of Count Alberic of Tusculum, and nephew of Benedict VIII and John XIX, the latter of whom he succeeded by his father's intrigues and violence, though he was only ten years old. His life was incredibly scandalous, and the strife of factions continued. A murderous assault upon him and his expulsion from Rome followed (the date can not be determined). He owed his restoration to the emperor Conrad II, who came into Italy in the winter of 1036. Benedict met him obsequiously at Cremona in the following June, taking no notice of the fact that he had broken the Church's laws by imprisoning Aribert, archbishop of Milan, and expelling the bishops of Piacenza, Cremona, and Vercelli from their sees; in fact, in Mar., 1038, he went so far as to excommunicate Aribert. By similar complaisances he won the favor of Conrad's successor, Henry III, for whom, in 1041, he obligingly excommunicated the Hungarian nobles, who had driven out their king, Peter. The Romans bore with these conditions until the end of 1044, when they rose and drove Benedict out, afterward electing John, bishop of Sabina, in his stead, under the title of Sylvester III. Benedict succeeded in leading John back to Sabina inside of two months; but, doubting his own ability to maintain his position, he decided to abdicate, adding one more shameless act of simony by selling the papacy (May 1,1045) to the archpriest John Gratian (who called himself [48]Gregory VI) for the sum of a thousand pounds of silver and the continued enjoyment of the Peter's pence from England. Henry III came to Italy in the autumn of 1046, and decided to remove Gregory. He convened a synod at Sutri, which deposed Sylvester even from the priesthood and induced Gregory to resign his claims (Dec. 20, 1046); a few days later, another synod in Rome deposed Benedict also, and Suidger of Bamberg succeeded to an undisputed papacy as Clement II. When he died, however, nine months later, Benedict made an attempt to recover his see. He was soon put down by the imperial authority, and retired to Tusculum. When and where he died is not known. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Jaffe, Regesta, i, 519; J. M. Watterich, Romanorum Pontificum . . . vitae, i, 71, 711, Leipsic, 1862; A. von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, ii, 338, Berlin, 1868; O. Lorenz, Papstwahl und Kaisertum, p. 69, Berlin, 1874; F. Gregorovius, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, iv, 39, Stuttgart, 1877; Bower, Popes, ii, 340-343; Neander, Christian Church, iii, 375-377, 409, 445, 448; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, iv, 706-707, 714; Hauck, KD, iii, 559, 569-571. Benedict X (Johannes Mincius): Pope 1058-59. He was bishop of Velletri before, unwillingly, he was elected and enthroned in the night between Apr. 3 and 4, 1058, by the noble factions which had so long dominated the papacy and were soon to lose their power. Peter Damian and the other reforming cardinals fled; but before they left Rome they pronounced an anathema upon the new pope. Meantime Hildebrand was on his way back from Germany. At Florence he heard the news, and after conferring with the empress Agnes, regent for her son Henry IV, arranged for the election of a pope acceptable to the strict churchmen. At Sienna in December Gerard, bishop of Florence, was chosen and took the title of Nicholas II. In January he held a synod at Sutri which pronounced the deposition and excommunication of Benedict X. The latter was driven from Rome by the forces set in motion by Hildebrand, and finally found it expedient to abdicate, which he did formally at a synod in the Lateran, Apr., 1060. He is said to have lived twenty years longer as a prisoner in the monastery of St. Agnes. Gregory VII, in whose reign he died, permitted him to be buried with the obsequies of a rightful pope, as which, indeed, he was reckoned until the fourteenth century. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Liber pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, ii, 279, Paris, 1892; Jaffe, Regesta, i, 556; J. M. Watterich, Romanorum pontificum . . . vitae, i, 203, 738, Leipsic, 1862; W. von Giesebrecht, Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserseit, iii, 24, Brunswick, 1875; F. Gregorovius, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, iv, 107, Stuttgart, 1877; J. Langen, Geschichte der roemischen Kirche von Nikolaus I bis Gregor VII, p. 500, Bonn, 1892; Bower, Popes, ii, 340-343; Neander, Christian Church, iii, 387; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, iv, 798, 828; Hauck, KD, iii, 679-681. Benedict XI (Niccolo Bocasini): Pope 1303-1304. He was born in 1240 at Treviso, entered the Dominican order in 1254, and spent fourteen years in diligent study, which enabled him to write several Biblical commentaries. He became prior of his house, provincial of Lombardy, and in 1296 general of the order. Boniface VIII made him a cardinal priest in 1298, and soon after cardinal bishop of Ostia and Velletri. In 1302 he went to Hungary as papal legate. He remained true to Boniface VIII, and on his death was elected (Oct. 22, 1303) to succeed him. He found himself at once in difficulties as the heir to the policy and the enemies of Boniface (see [49]Boniface VIII), but by a conciliatory prudence he found his way out of them. First he won back the powerful Colonna family, restoring to them their dignities and possessions under certain limitations which marked his sense of their misconduct. Frederick of Sicily was brought to a sense of his feudal obligations toward the papacy, which he had thought to escape. To Tuscany, Benedict sent Nicholas of Prato, his successor as cardinal bishop of Ostia, to make peace between the Bianchi and Neri factions in Florence. This mission was not very successful, but Benedict had better fortune with the most difficult task left to him by his predecessor, the effecting of a reconciliation with France. Philip the Fair was ready for peace, but apparently made the condition that a general council should be called to pass a post-mortem condemnation on Boniface. Benedict met him half way, and on Mar. 25, 1304, released him from his excommunication; then he annulled a number of other measures of his predecessor which had been specially felt as grievances in France, and on May 13 withdrew the sentences passed against Philip and his counselors, even those who had taken part in the outrage of Anagni, with the exception of the ringleader William of Nogaret. He, together with all the Italians who had taken part in the violence offered to Boniface, was excommunicated on June 7, and summoned to appear before Benedict to receive sentence. A few weeks later, however (July 7), Benedict died in Perugia, whither he had retired on account of turbulence in Rome. The rumor immediately spread that he had been poisoned, at the instigation, it was variously asserted, of Philip the Fair, of the Colonna, of the Franciscans (who were jealous of the favor shown to the Dominicans), of the opposition cardinals, or of William of Nogaret, who had most to gain by a change, and who, in fact, received his absolution from Benedict's successor. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Ptolemaeus of Lucca, Vitae pontificum Romanorum, in Muratori, Scriptores, xi, 1224; B. Guidonis, Vitae pontificum Romanorum, ib. iii, 672; W. Drumann, Geschichte Bonifacius VIII, ii, 147, Koenigsberg, 1852; L. Gautier, Benoit XI, etude sur la papaute au commencement du xiv. siecle, Paris, 1863; C. Grandjean, Benoit XI, Paris, 1863; idem, Le Registre de Benoit XI, recueil de bulles, Paris, 1884-85; P. Funke, Papst Benedikt XI, Muenster, 1891; Bower, Popes, iii, 56-58; Neander, Christian Church, v, 19; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, vi, 375-390. Benedict XII (Jacques Fournier): Pope 1334-1342. He was a native of Languedoc, of humble origin, and as a boy entered the Cistercian monastery of Bolbonne in the diocese of Mirepoix, migrating later to that of Fontfroide in the diocese of Narbonne, of which his uncle was abbot. The latter sent him to the University of Paris. Pope John XXII gave him the bishopric of Pamiers and later of Mirepoix, and made him cardinal in 1327. He was rather unexpectedly elected pope Dec. 20, 1334, and began his reign with reforming measures. The bishops and abbots who lingered at the court of Avignon were sent home, the system of petitions was regulated, and care was taken to select worthy men for vacant benefices. Benedict planned to restore the strict discipline of the Benedictines and Cistercians, as well as of the mendicant orders, and entirely avoided the reproach of nepotism. Soon after his elevation, the Romans begged him to return to them, and he promised to do so, but was prevented by the French majority in the Sacred College. Later he thought of removing to Bologna, but finally settled down in Avignon and began the building of a magnificent palace. His attitude toward theological and ecclesiastical controversies was a pacific one. He condemned the opinion so strongly held by his predecessor, that the souls of the just do not enjoy the Beatific Vision until after the last judgment. Negotiations took place with the Eastern Church looking toward reunion; in 1339 the emperor Andronicus sent ambassadors to Avignon, really with a view to gaining military aid against the Turks, but holding out prospects of ecclesiastical accommodation, which, however, came to little. He won a moral triumph in Spain by inducing Alfonso XI of Castile to break off his adulterous connection with Eleonora de Gusman, and rendered no slight service to the Christian cause in the peninsula by making peace between Castile and Portugal, and thus enabling the Christian forces to unite against the Mussulmans and to defeat them completely at Tarifa. The most difficult problem was the treatment of Louis of Bavaria. Benedict showed himself conciliatory, and Louis sent an embassy to Avignon (1335); but Philip VI, against whose interests this reconciliation would have been, prevented it then, and a second time in the autumn of the following year. This gave the alliance of Louis to Edward III of England against France. The electoral princes finally asserted their rights; on July 15,1338, they swore to defend the customs and liberties of the empire and to prevent any infringement of their electoral prerogative; the next day they declared that the king of the Romans chosen by them stood in no need of papal confirmation, and notified Benedict of their attitude. At the diet held in Frankfort (Aug. 8, 1338), Louis went even further, denying any connection between the coronation by the pope and the right to bear the title of emperor, at the same time asserting the invalidity of all the censures pronounced against himself and the empire by John XXII. None the less, in the following year he reopened negotiations with Benedict; and when he had an opportunity of concluding peace with Philip VI, he deserted his English ally, hoping to gain Philip's support with the pope. He spoiled his own case, however, by his encroachments on the Church's law of marriage and its power in such matters. In order to marry his son, Louis, margrave of Brandenburg, to Margaret, heiress of the Tyrol, he declared her previous marriage with Prince John of Bohemia null and void (following an opinion of Occam's), and on Feb. 10, 1342, in spite of the impediment of consanguinity in the third degree between the couple, had the marriage performed. Benedict had no opportunity to pass judgment upon these acts, as he died on Apr. 25 of the same year. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Liber pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, ii, 488, 527, Paris, 1892; eight accounts of his life are collected in E. Baluse, Vitae paparum Avenonensium, i, 197-244, Paris, 1693; Muratori, Scriptores, iii, 527 sqq.; J. M. Watterich, Romanorum pontificum vitae, i, 203-204, Leipsic, 1862; A. Pichler, Geschichte der kirchlichen Trennung zwischen dem Orient und Occident, i, 358, Munich, 1864; C. Mueller, Der Kampf Ludwigs . . . mit der roemischen Curie, vol. ii, Tuebingen, 1880; A. Rohrmann, Die Procuratorien Ludwigs des Baiern, Goettingen, 1882; Bower, Popes, iii, 88-92; Pastor, Popes, i, 84-88; Benoit XII, Lettres closes, patentes et curiales se rapportant `a la France, ed. G. Daumet, Paris, 1899; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, vi, 636-653. Benedict XIII: 1. The title was first borne by Pedro de Luna from 1394 to 1417, in the Great Western Schism. He came of a noble family in Aragon, studied in France, taught canon law at the University of Montpellier, and was made cardinal by Gregory XI. Sides with Clement VII in the Great Schism. When the schism broke out between the partizans of Urban VI and Clement VII, he took the latter's side, and went to Spain and Portugal as Clement's representative in 1379. In 1393, again, he appeared at a meeting of English and French dignitaries, in the hope of winning England away from the party of Boniface IX, the pope elected in Rome to succeed Urban VI. When the University of Paris in 1394 suggested three ways to end the schism--the resignation of both claimants, the submission of both to the decision of a tribunal agreed upon between them, or the calling of a general council--Clement sent him to Paris to prevent the choice of the first; but in fact he declared in favor of it, possibly with an eye to his own chances. Clement died the same autumn, and the cardinals of his party nearly all agreed that whichever of them might be chosen pope should do all in his power to end the schism, even by abdicating if necessary; and no voice was louder in this agreement than Pedro de Luna's. He was unanimously chosen on Sept. 28, consecrated and crowned Oct. 11. He reiterated his willingness to do anything for peace; but when the next year an embassy representing the king of France, a national synod, and the University of Paris approached him to urge the abdication of both popes, he declined, recommending rather a personal meeting of both to discuss the question. To this he adhered in spite of the opposite view of all his cardinals but one and of the personal entreaties of the dukes of Berry, Burgundy, and Orleans. Charles VI held a second national council at Paris (end of Aug., 1398), and tried to gain the support of the European sovereigns for his plan. In June, 1397, the ambassadors of France, England, and Castile pressed the necessity of abdication upon Benedict, who declined for himself while recommending it to Boniface IX. No more success attended a joint embassy (1398) from Charles and Wenceslaus, king of the Romans, headed by Pierre d'Ailly, bishop of Cambrai. Course of Events in France. Charles held a third council in May, 1398, which decided that France should withdraw from Benedict's obedience. When this decision received the royal assent and was promulgated (July 27), all the cardinals but three forsook Benedict, and open warfare broke out. Benedict, practically a prisoner in his palace, yielded so far (Apr., 1399) as to sign a solemn undertaking to abdicate whenever his rival would do the same or should die or be expelled from Rome; but he secretly protested that his promise was null and void, as having been given under compulsion. France was now practically without a pope; and the longer this anomalous condition continued, the more uneasiness it caused. Leading churchmen, such as Gerson and Nicholas de Clemanges, began to write in favor of a return to Benedict XIII. Finally Charles called a meeting of bishops and nobles (May, 1403), to reconsider the question. Before they met Benedict had contrived to escape from Avignon, and the city had declared for him, once he was free. It is not surprising, therefore, that the assembled magnates declared for a restoration of France to his obedience, though on condition that he should renew his promise in regard to abdication, and undertake to submit the question how to end the schism to a general council within a year. This left things much as they had been in 1394 and 1395. Boniface IX died soon after (Oct. 1, 1404); but his successor, Innocent VII, showed just as little inclination to abandon his claims. Benedict, still attached to his own plan of a personal conference, undertook a journey to Genoa, without any result except to produce fresh irritation in France, whose clergy were taxed to pay the expenses of the experiment. Another national council (1406) declared in favor of withdrawing his right to present the bishoprics and benefices; but the Duke of Orleans stood out for complete obedience and hindered the execution of this decision. New hopes were aroused, on the death of Innocent VII, by the choice (Nov. 30, 1406) of Gregory XII, who at once declared himself willing to take any measures, even that of abdication, to end the schism. A meeting was planned between the rivals for the autumn of 1407, but it fell through. In November Benedict lost a powerful friend by the murder of the Duke of Orleans, and was so unwise in 1408 as to attempt to enforce the observance of the French obedience by threats of excommunication. In May Charles proclaimed France absolutely neutral in the contest. Benedict, fearing for his safety, fled to his native Aragon. The Councils of Pisa and Constance. The cardinals of both factions deserted their respective popes and in June took counsel together with a view to calling a general council. This met in 1409 at Pisa, summoned both claimants before it, proceeded to hear testimony when they did not appear, and on June 5 declared both, as heretics, schismatics, and perjurers, not only deposed but excommunicated. Benedict still asserted his claims, and Spain, Portugal, and Scotland adhered to him. New negotiations with him were undertaken by the Council of Constance in 1414, but he stubbornly refused to yield, even to the persuasions of the emperor Sigismund. Finally the patience of his own supporters in Spain and Scotland was worn out, and they renounced him in the Concordat of Narbonne (Dec., 1415). He entrenched himself in the mountain fastness of Peniscola, near Valencia, which belonged to his family, and proudly told the envoys of the council that the true Church was there only. On July 28, 1417, the Council of Constance once more deposed and excommunicated him; and he remained in his castle, with a court of but four cardinals, until his death at the age of nearly ninety in Nov., 1424. (A. Hauck.) 2. Benedict XIII was also the name borne by Pietro Francesco d'Orsini-Gravina, pope 1724-30. He was born Feb. 2, 1649, at Gravina in the kingdom of Naples, and in 1867, renouncing his rights of succession to the ducal estates, entered the Dominican order at Venice, taking the name of Vincenzo Maria. He studied theology at Venice and Bologna, philosophy at Naples. In 1672 be was made a cardinal by Clement X, and archbishop of Benevento in 1686. After administering his diocese admirably for thirty-eight years, and spending his leisure in the composition of theological works, he was almost unanimously elected pope (May 29, 1724), after the death of Innocent XIII. At first he took the name of Benedict XIV, but changed it to Benedict XIII in the conviction that Pedro de Luna was a schismatic and not a legitimate pope. His pontificate began with an attempt to restrain the pomp and luxury of the cardinals, which was as vain as his similar attempts to reform the rest of the clergy. Though the prescriptions of the Lateran council of 1725 in this direction were not much heeded, it is memorable because in it Benedict confirmed the constitution Unigenitus, and thus aided the Jesuits. He had the satisfaction of receiving in 1728 the unconditional submission of De Noailles, archbishop of Paris, the head of the Gallican opposition. Weakness was the principal characteristic of his dealings with the secular powers of Europe. He left such matters almost entirely in the hands of his favorite Cardinal Coscia, whose interest it was to keep on good terms with the powers. Thus the emperor Charles VI obtained the privileges which he claimed in Sicily as the successor of the older rulers, who had been legati nati of the Holy See. Thus also the king of Sardinia got the best of a long contest with Rome; and only one state found the curia stubborn. The king of Portugal, John V, requested the red hat for Bichi, the papal nuncio at Lisbon, and when it was refused showed great hostility to the pope, even threatening in 1728 to break off all relations between the Church of Portugal and Rome, Benedict was unpopular in Rome, owing to the misgovernment of Coscia, who, when the pope died (Feb. 21, 1730), was obliged to flee in disguise, and later was imprisoned for ten years by Clement XII. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: 1. Pedro de Luna: A Vita is found in E. Baluze, Vitae paparum Avenoniensium, i, 561-568, Paris, 1693; the Eng. transl. of several original documents which are pertinent is given in Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book, pp. 325-329; Theodoric of Nieheim, De Schismate, ed. G. Erler, ii. 33 sqq., Leipsic, 1890; Chartularium Universitatis Paris, ed. H. Denifle, iii, 552 sqq., Paris, 1894; Kehrmann, Frankreichs innere Kirchenpolitik, Jena, 1890; Bower, Popes, iii, 145-149, 152, 162-163, 205; Neander, Christian Church, v, 56, 62-77, 84, 105-107; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, vi, 827-1031; Pastor, Popes, i, 165-201; N. Valois, La France et le grand schisme d'occident, 2 vols., Paris, 1896; Creighton, Papacy, i, 148-315, 374. 2. Pietro Francesco: His works were issued in 3 vols., Ravenna, 1728, and the bulls are in the Bullarium Romanum, vol. xxii, Turin, 1871. For his life consult A. Borgia, Benedicti XIII vita, Rome, 1752; A. von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, iii, 652-853, Berlin, 1888; Bower, Popes, iii, 339; J. Chantrel, Le Pape Benoit XIII, 1724-30, Paris, 1874; M. Brosch, Geschichte des Kirchenstaats, ii, 61 sqq., Gotha, 1882; Ranke, Popes, vol. iii, No. 158. Benedict XIV (Prospero Lorenzo Lambertini): Pope 1740-58. He was born [Mar. 31] 1675 at Bologna; at thirteen he entered the Collegium Clementinum at Rome, and after studies in theology and philosophy, took up the law, practising as advocate of the consistory, and as promotor fidei, in which office he laid the foundations of his famous work on beatification and canonization. Clement XI and Innocent XIII gave him several Roman dignities; Benedict XIII made him archbishop of Ancona (1727) and cardinal (1728); in 1731 Clement XII transferred him to the more important see of Bologna, where he found time to write his works on the mass, on the festivals, and Quaestiones canonicae. After the death of Clement XII the conclave was at a deadlock for six months between the French, Austrian, and Spanish factions, and finally agreed on Lambertini as a compromise candidate (Aug. 17, 1740). Friendly Relations with Other Rulers. Benedict was a man of great learning and piety, and did much for the welfare of the Pontifical States, by the promotion of agriculture, commerce, and manufactures and by a decrease in taxation. His expressed principle that in him "the pope must take precedence of the temporal ruler" was carried out both in the strenuous efforts which he made to raise the tone of the clergy and in his efforts to remove all the misunderstandings which had existed between the curia and the European powers, even at the cost of considerable concessions. He was not able entirely to remove the antagonism between the eighteenth-century spirit and religion, but he composed more than one difference temporarily. Thus he appeased John V of Portugal by the privilege of enjoying the revenues of vacant bishoprics and abbeys in his kingdom, as well as by the title of Rex fidelissimus. In a concordat with Naples (1741) he went even beyond the concessions which Benedict XIII had made, and concluded another with the king of Sardinia which was still less favorable to the extreme claims of the Church. Still another was made with Spain in 1753, which went so far as to allow King Ferdinand VI the right of nomination to all the ecclesiastical benefices in his kingdom except fifty-two. Friendly relations were also maintained with the empire, and strict neutrality observed in the war of the Austrian Succession, although the contending armies not seldom crossed the boundaries of the Papal States. When Albert of Bavaria was elected emperor as Charles VII and applied to Benedict for confirmation, he gave him his hearty good wishes, but refused at first to recognize his successor, Francis I, who had neglected to observe this formality. He abandoned his opposition, however, and became an active ally of Austria in the contest with Venice over Aquileia. As a compromise measure, he finally divided the patriarchate into two dioceses, that of Goerz, which was to be Austrian, and that of Udine, Venetian. Though he refused to confirm the guaranties which the landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, on becoming a Roman Catholic, was obliged to give for the preservation of the rights of his evangelical subjects, Benedict showed none of the temper of a persecutor, and had friendly personal relations with many Protestants. He was the first pope to concede the title of king of Prussia to the ruler whom the curia had previously styled margrave of Brandenburg; and he yielded to Frederick the Great's wishes so far as to allow the bishop of Brealau to decide all Catholic causes in Prussia, appeals to the pope being forbidden. In the Gallican controversy he took a wise and tolerant part, reversing a decision of De Beaumont, the archbishop of Paris, which made formal assent to the constitution Unigenitus a condition for receiving the sacraments; in an encyclical of Oct. 16, 1756, he laid down the rule that the ministrations of the Church should be refused only to those who had publicly contemned the bull. The Jesuits. Benedict's conciliatory temper made him little likely to sympathize with the Jesuits, with whom he dealt at the very beginning of his reign in a way that did not please them, deciding against them, in the controversy over the "Chinese rites," the question how far the principles of Christianity might be accommodated for the purpose of making more speedy conversions among the heathen, in two bulls--the Ex quo singulari of 1742, and the Omnium sollicitudinum of 1744 (see [50]Accomodation, S: 9). Though he was no partizan of the Jesuits, it was not until shortly before his death that he undertook (1758) the long-planned reform of the order, at least in Portugal, entrusting its execution to Saldanha, the patriarch of Lisbon. In 1750 Benedict celebrated a jubilee with great pomp, and invited the Protestants also to attend--naturally with no other result than to call out a number of polemical replies. To the end of his life he found his chief diversion in the company of learned men, of whom a circle assembled round him once a week. During his pontificate he composed his most important work, De synodo diaecesana. He had a catalogue of the Vatican library drawn up by the learned Assemani, founded societies for the study of Roman and Christian antiquities and of church history, and cooperated in the foundation of the archeological academy with Winckelmann, who came to Rome in 1755. He died as he had lived, with cheerful, goodhumored words upon his lips, May 3, 1758. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: His works were collected by Azevedo in 12 vols., Rome, 1747-51, more completely, 15 vols., Venice, 1767, and in 17 vols., Prato, 1839-46; vols. 15-17 of the Prato ed. contain the bulls; Briefe Benedicts XIV an Pier Francesco Peggi `a Bologna, 1729-53, ed. F. X. Kraus, Freiburg, 1888; Opera inedita, ed. F. Heiner, St. Louis, 1904. Consult: R. de Martinis, Acta Benedicti XIV, 2 vols., Naples, 1884-85; A. Borgia, Vie de Benoit XIV, Paris, 1783; H. Formby, Life and Miracles of Benedict XIV, London, 1858; A. von Arneth, Geschichte Maria Theresias, ii, 178, iv, 54 sqq., Vienna, 1864, 1870; M. Brosch, Geschichte des Kirchenstaats, ii, 68, Gotha, 1882; Ranke, Popes, ii, 433-443, iii, No. 164. Benedict of Aniane BENEDICT OF ANIANE: The reformer of the Benedictine order in the Frankish empire. He was born about 750 in his father's county of Maguelone in Languedoc; d. at Inden (13 m. n.e. of Aix-la-Chapelle) Feb. 11, 821. His youth was spent at the court of Pepin and of Charlemagne, where, as a page, he had opportunity to distinguish himself in feats of arms. During Charles's first Lombard campaign, Benedict rescued his brother from drowning at the risk of his own life, and the shock brought to a head the resolve which had been slowly forming in him, to renounce the world and give himself to the service of God in the monastic life. This he entered in 773 at Saint-Seine in the diocese of Langres. Returning home in 779, he built a small monastery on his own land near the little river Aniane (where the town of Aniane, 16 m. w.n.w. of Montpellier, later grew up), which was replaced by a larger one lower down when the number of his disciples increased, and by a third still larger about 792. This became the center of Benedict's efforts for the reformation of the monastic life in the south and southwest of France. King Louis of Aquitaine, who had favored him from the outset, entrusted him with the oversight of all the monasteries within his territory, and the greatest churchmen, such as Alcuin and Leidrad of Lyons, sought his counsel. He had a wide knowledge of patristic literature, and forwarded the cause of education with zeal. He stood out as a champion of the orthodox faith against [51]Adoptionism, and wrote two treatises against it, the first of which is specially interesting as showing how close was the practical connection between Adoptionism and Arianism. His influence became still wider with the accession of Louis the Pious, who first brought him up to the Alsatian abbey of Maurmuenster, and then, to have him nearer at hand, founded another for him at Inden, giving him the general oversight of all the monasteries in the empire. He could now hope to accomplish his great purpose of restoring the primitive strictness of the monastic observance wherever it had been relaxed or exchanged for the less exacting canonical life. This purpose was clearly seen in the capitularies drawn up by an assembly of abbots and monks at Aix-la-Chapelle in 817, and enforced by Louis's order throughout the empire. Benedict's chief works are compilations of the older ascetic literature. The first of them is called by his biographer, Ardo, Liber ex regulis diversorum patrum collectus; an enlarged edition of this was prepared by Lucas Holsten (published at Rome only after Holsten's death, in 1661, with the title Codex regularum). The other work, called Concordia regularum by Benedict himself, is based on the first; in it the sections of the Benedictine rule (except ix-xvi) are given in their order, with parallel passages from the other rules included in the Liber regularum, so as to show the agreement of principles and thus to enhance the respect due to the Benedictine. The Concordia was first published in 1638 by H. Menard of the Congregation of St. Maur, with valuable notes (reprinted in MPL, ciii). A third collection of homilies, to be read daily in the monasteries, has not been definitely identified. Benedict's place is in the second rank of the men who made the reigns of Charles and Louis glorious. He had not the breadth of view possessed by Charlemagne himself or by Adalhard nor the lofty endeavor for a fusion of secular and spiritual learning of Paulus Diaconus and Alcuin. He was primarily an ecclesiastic, who zealously placed his not inconsiderable theological learning at the service of orthodoxy, but gave the best thing he had, the loving fervor of an upright Christian soul, to the cause of Benedictine monasticism. (Otto Seebass.) Bibliography: The Vita by Ardo Smaragdus, his successor as abbot, with preface by Henschen, is in ASB, 12 Feb., ii, 608-620, in MPL, ciii, and is edited by Waitz in MGH, Script., xv, 198-220, Hanover, 1887. There is a Fr. transl., Montpellier, 1876. P. A. J. Paulinier, St. Benoit d'Aniane et la fondation du monastere de ce nom, Montpellier, 1871; P. J. Nicolai, Der heilige Benedict, Gruender von Aniane, Cologne, 1865; R. Foss, Benadikt von Aniane, Berlin, 1884; O. Seebass, in ZKG, xv (1895), 244-260; Hauck, KD, ii. 528-545. Benedict Biscop BENEDICT BISCOP: First abbot of Wearmouth and Jarrow; b. of noble family about 628; d. at Wearmouth (on the north side of the Wear, opposite Sunderland, Durhamshire) Jan. 12, 689 or 690. Biscop was his Saxon name, his ecclesiastical name was Benedict, and he was also called Baducing as a patronymic. He was a thane and favorite of [52]Oswy, king of Nothumbria, but in 653 decided to abandon the world and went to Rome. He became a monk at the monastery of Lerins about 665, and was appointed by Pope Vitalian to conduct [53]Theodore of Tarsus to Canterbury in 668. In 674 be began to build the monastery of St. Peter at Wearmouth on land given by Egfrid, king of Northumbria. In 681 or 682 he founded the sister house, dedicated to St. Paul, at Jarrow (5 m. farther north, on the south bank of the Tyne). He made six visits to Rome, learned the Roman ecclesiastical usages and the rules of monastic life, and strove faithfully to introduce them in England; he also brought back a rich store of books, vestments, pictures, and the like. He induced John, the archchanter of St. Peter's at Rome, to accompany him to England and instruct his monks; and he brought skilled workmen from Gaul to build his monasteries, including the first glass-makers in England. Bibliography: The source for a biography is the life by his great scholar Bede, Vita beatorum abbatum, chaps. 1-14, best and most accessible in the ed. of C. Plummer, i, 364-379, with notes, ii, 355-365, Oxford, 1896, Eng. transl, by P. Witcock, Sunderland, 1818; cf. also Bede, Hist. eccl., iv, 18, v, 19; Hom., xxv. Consult also C. F. Montalembert, Les Moines de l'occident, iv, 456-487, Paris, 1868; DNB, iv, 214-216. Benedict of Nursia and the Benedictine Order BENEDICT OF NURSIA AND THE BENEDICTINE ORDER. I. The Life of Benedict. The Life of Benedict by Gregory the Great (S: 1). Early Life (S: 2). Monte Cassino (S: 3). II. The Rule of Benedict. General Characteristics (S: 1). Moderation (S: 2). Organization and Direction of the Monastic Life (S: 3). III. The Earlier History of the Benedictine Order. Period of Growth to the Time of Charlemagne (S: 1). Period of Decline (S: 2). IV. The History of the Order since the Ninth Century. 821-1200. Ecumenical Activity. New Congregations (S: 1). 1200-1563. Decay and Attempts at Reform (S: 2). 1563-1800. Tridentine Reform. New Congregations (S: 3). The Nineteenth Century (S: 4). I. The Life of Benedict. 1. The Life of Benedict by Gregory the Great. The only early authority on the life of Benedict, since the Vita Placidi has been admitted to be untrustworthy ever since Mabillon, and the worthlessness of the Vita sancti Maori has been recently demonstrated by Malnory, is practically the single biography written by Gregory the Great. But the expectations aroused by a life written only fifty years after Benedict's death by so distinguished an author are disappointed when he is found, in the spirit of his time, exalting the greatness of his hero by the number and importance of his miracles. This tendency has gone so far that Gruetzmacher is inclined to see nothing actually historical in all this mass of legendary details except the names of the places where Benedict lived and worked, and the names of his disciples. But this is going somewhat too far; Gregory expressly names four abbots, themselves among these disciples and one of them (Honoratus) still living at Subiaco, as witnesses to the truth of his story; and the tradition must have been still full and clear among the monks who had migrated from Monte Cassino to the Lateran when he wrote. 2. Early Life. According, then, to what is left of Gregory's account after removal of the legendary halo around the saint's head, Benedict came of a considerable family in the "province of Nursia," in the Umbrian Apennines, and was born toward the end of the fifth century. He received at Rome the education of his day, which, however, did not mean much acquaintance with the Roman classical authors, and seems to have included no Greek. Shocked by the immorality around him, he left both the school and his father's house for a life of solitary mortification. His first permanent abode was a cave by the Anio, not far from Subiaco, where a monk, Romanus, provided him with the rough monastic garb and with scanty nourishment. Here Benedict spent three years of stubborn conflict with his lower nature, until the spreading of his fame by shepherds brought his solitude to an end. The monks of a neighboring monastery (perhaps at Vicovaro), whose head had just died, begged him to come and rule them. He accepted with reluctance, probably foreseeing what actually happened when he attempted strictly to enforce their rule. When their insubordination went as far as an attempt to poison him, he discovered the plot and gently rebuked them, then retired to his beloved cave. Here, as new disciples came around him, he established twelve small communities, each with twelve inmates and a "father" at their head. 3. Monte Cassino. Gregory does not say how long Benedict remained in the neighborhood of Subiaco as director of these pious groups; but the tradition of Monte Cassino ascribes his migration thither to the opposition of a jealous cleric named Florentius, and places it in 529. The new place was about halfway between Rome and Naples, the Castrum Casinum of the Romans, who had had a military colony there. On the summit of the mountain (now Monte San Germano), which had been dedicated to the worship of Apollo by a population still largely pagan, Benedict built two chapels, under the invocation of St. John Baptist and St. Martin, and then laid the foundations of the monastery which was to have such a long and renowned history. Though Gregory does not say so definitely, the traditional view may be accepted that he soon drew up his rule, the mature outcome of his experience in guiding and governing aspirants to the monastic life of perfection. The disturbances of the time, the ware between the Goths and the Byzantine empire from 534, probably helped to increase the numbers of those who sought a peaceful shelter at Monte Cassino; and a daughter house was established at Terracina. In the summer of 542; Totila, king of the Goths, on his way through Campania, desired to see the famous abbot. Gregory relates that, to test his prophetic powers, the king sent one of his officers in royal array to Benedict, who perceived the deception instantly, and, when the young king knelt before him, told him that he should enter Rome, cross the seas, and reign nine years--which came to pass. Gregory mentions Benedict's sister, Scholastica, in connection with the last meeting between the two in a house near the monastery; she had been dedicated to the service of God from her earliest youth. The date of Benedict's death can not be determined from any of the authorities. His body was buried near Scholastica's in the chapel of St. John Baptist, and, according to Paulus Diaconus, was translated about a century later to the monastery of Fleury on the Loire. II. The Rule of Benedict: 1. General Characteristics. Especially since the celebration of the fourteen-hundredth anniversary of Benedict's birth in 1880, his rule has been made the subject of thoroughgoing studies, and it is everywhere recognized as a code which corresponded admirably to its purpose of regulating the common life of the western monks. In the concluding passage of the prologue, probably added later by Benedict, occur the words "Constituenda est ergo a nobis dominici schola servitii." Under the later empire, the word shola was commonly employed to designate the body of guards in the imperial palace under the magister officii; thence the name passed to the garrisons of provincial towns, and was used sometimes for other bodies or associations existing in them. As these military organizations would have a definite code of regulations, so it was natural for Benedict (called "magister" in the first line of the prologue) to lay down a rule that should serve for all who were enlisted in the spiritual army ("servitium dominicum")--priests or laymen, rich or poor. It separated the monks more absolutely from the world than Basil or Cassian had done. Besides the requirements of poverty, silence, and chastity, others appear for the first time; that of "stability" or a permanent residence in one monastery as opposed to the wandering life of the earlier monks, and a specially designated habit. The aim of this life is complete surrender to the will of God, accomplished through entire obedience to the abbot and the rule. The abbot thus appears as an absolute ruler, responsible to God alone. It is true that in weighty matters he is to seek the counsel of the brethren, but the ultimate decision rests with him. Benedict seems to have hesitated in placing a praepositus or prior next to him as assistant and, if need were, representative. 2. Moderation. In laying down the system of daily prayer, Benedict departed somewhat from the earlier practise by instituting the office of compline as the seventh of the canonical hours. The longest and fullest of all the offices was the nocturna vigilia (matins), recited at two o'clock. The day hours were much shorter--lauds at daybreak, not long after matins; prime; terce, with which at least on Sundays and festivals the Eucharist was connected; sext; none; vespers; and compline. One of the principles on which the system of devotion was laid out was the weekly recitation of the entire Psalter. When this is compared with the requirement by Columban of the recitation of the whole 150 Psalms in the night office of Saturday and Sunday, a second principle is perceived which governed Benedict not merely in the arrangement of the devotional exercises but in all his rule--a wise moderation and gentleness. It appears especially in the regulations for meals, of which he allows two daily, except at times of fasting; it comes out in the rules for labor, which show consideration for the weaker brethren, and also in the system of punishment. Small offenses, as unpunctuality at meals or office, are to be punished without harshness; more serious ones call for two private warnings and one in public, after which the offender is cut off from the society of the brethren at meals and prayers. If he is still obstinate, corporal punishment is the next step, and finally, if the prayers of the brethren have no effect, he is to be expelled from the monastery. Penitents may be twice taken back, but on a third lapse there is no further possibility of restoration. 3. Organization and Direction of the Monastic Life. The fact that, in his provision for the clothing of the monks, Benedict took account of the conditions of more than one province has been made a ground for disputing the authenticity of the rule; but the climatic difference between the hill-country of his first settlement and the Campanian plain on the banks of the Liris is sufficiently notable to find some reflection in the rule. Benedict had lived as an anchorite and as a cenobite, in convents of varying size and in different parts of Italy, at the head of a single small house and of a whole group of houses. When, therefore, with this manifold experience of what suited the monastic life of his time, he drew up a rule for every part of it, in such a definite legislative shape as none of his predecessors--Basil, Cassian, Pachomius, Jerome, Augustine--had given their prescriptions, we may well believe that he was acting to a certain extent with the consciousness that he was giving to Italian monasticism a new form, stronger and more consistent than had been known before. This is the special importance of Benedict's work, both for the Church and for the world at large. About the time when the Roman See, vindicating and even increasing its independence of Arian kings and Byzantine emperors, was preparing to erect its universal empire on the ruins of the old, the monk appeared who knew how to apply the old Roman talents of legislation and organization to the growing but as yet incoherent monasticism. Thus he became the founder of the great Benedictine Order which for centuries concentrated in itself the extraordinary spiritual force of the technically "religious" life, and contributed in so marked a degree to the extension of the Western Church. The striking influence of the order would, however, be inexplicable if it had not early become the guardian of learning and literature. The rule required the brothers, in addition to their manual labor, to devote one or two hours daily to reading; it provided for a convent library from which the monks were to take certain books for study at appointed times; each brother was to have his tablet and stylus; Benedict himself undertook the education of the children of prominent Romans; and in at least one passage of the rule those who can not read are spoken of as an inferior class. All these things speak of learned and literary interests as belonging to the original foundation. Cassiodorus even goes further than Benedict, in whose lifetime probably he founded the double convent of Squillace, providing expressly for the study of classical literature--though it is impossible to determine how far this influenced the Benedictine Order after the infusion with it of Cassiodorus's monasteries. III. The Earlier History of the Benedictine Order: 1. Period of Growth to the Time of Charlemagne. The history of the early extension of Benedict's society is only scantily told. According to the traditions of Monte Cassino, the third abbot, Simplicius, achieved great success in this work. Under the fifth, Bonitus, the mother house was destroyed in 589 by the Lombards, the monks fleeing to Rome (the universal refuge of those days), carrying with them the copy of the rule written by Benedict's own hand. There was probably already a monastery there which followed this rule--that of St. Andrew, founded by the future Pope Gregory the Great in 575; but Gregory's attachment to the order was presumably increased by the coming of the fugitives, who settled in a place given them at the Lateran by Pope Pelagius. The mission of Augustine to the Anglo-Saxons from the monastery of St. Andrew in 598 (see [54]Anglo-Saxons, Conversion of the) opened a new field to the order. The Latin rules of the Spanish bishops Isidore of Seville (d. 636) and Fructuosus of Bragara show distinct traces of an acquaintance with that of Benedict. But more important was its introduction into the Frankish kingdom in the first half of the seventh century, since the attempt was there made to submit to it the entire monastic body. However it was introduced, it soon become predominant, and took the place of the rules of Columban and Caesarius. At a Burgundian synod of 670 it was designated, with the canons, as the only standard for monasteries; and similarly in the synods held under the auspices of Carloman and Boniface in 742 and 743 it is called the norm for convents both of monks and of nuns. The language of the capitularies of 811, implying that only obscure traces of the prior existence of other rules remained, shows how completely it had occupied the field by the time of Charlemagne. 2. Period of Decline. In spite, however, of this supremacy, and of the glory reflected on the order by such men as Aldhelm and Bede, Alcuin and Paulus Diaconus, an acute observer could already perceive traces of decay. In some places the abbots abused the power given them by the rule; in others laxity had begun to creep in. There was thus room for the reforming activity of [55]Benedict of Aniane, who attempted not only to restore the pristine strictness, but to supplement the rule by special ordinances for the purpose of securing uniformity in the daily life of the Frankish monasteries. His success, powerfully seconded as he was by the emperor Louis the Pious, was not lasting. The ninth century saw a considerable number of new foundations, especially in Saxony, and the literary activity promoted by Charlemagne continued; but there were many complaints not only of the giving of monasteries to laymen but of decay in morality and strict monastic discipline. In addition to these things, grievous havoc was wrought in many different quarters by the irruptions of the barbarians--in England by the Danes, in northern Germany and France by the Normans, in the south of Germany and the north of Italy by the Huns, and on the Mediterranean coast by the Saracens. (Otto Seebass.) IV. The History of the Order Since the Ninth Century: 1. 821-1200. Ecumenical Activity. New Congregations. The palmy days of the order, from Benedict of Aniane to Innocent III (821-1200) may be designated as the time of ecumenical activity. The family of monks which proceeded from Monte Cassino controlled with its influence the civilization of the entire Christian West. The Basilian monasteries of South Italy and Sicily, as well as the monks and hermits of the Celtic Church in the British isles, were able only for a time to maintain the independence of their institutions. Patronized and at the same time monopolized by Rome, the Benedictine monastic character made itself the standard of monasticism throughout Latin Christendom. True, from the ninth century on there were marked departures from the founder's ideal, in consequence of which, even after the reform by [56]Benedict of Aniane, a number of similar efforts at reform became necessary; but the call to return to the original vigor of the rule ever proved its purifying power, and the total influence of the order was rather enhanced than decreased by the growing number of these reform congregations. The most important of them after the tenth century was the reform of Cluny (from 910), with which were gradually blended more or less the smaller reforms of a like tendency originating almost simultaneously in Flanders under Gerard of Brogne (d. 959), in Lorraine under John of Gorze (d. 974), in England under Dunstan of Glastonbury (d. 988), from the monastery of St. Benignus at Dijon (c. 990) under William of Volpiano (d. 1031) and in southern Italy by Alferius of Cava (d. 1050) (See [57]Cluny, Abbey and Congregation of; [58]John of Gorze; [59]Gerard, Saint, 1; [60]Dunstan). More independent of the Benedictine institutions, though proceeding from the order, were some reforming movements of the eleventh century. Among these were the famous congregation of [61]Hirschau, c. 1060, which was distinguished by the rigor of its discipline; that of Vallombrosa (see [62]Gualberto, Giovanni), 1038, which, like Hirschau, developed with especial care the institution of lay brothers (fratres conversi), thus setting an, important example for later orders (see [63]Monasticism); those of Camaldoli, 1000; Grammont, 1076; Fontevraud, c. 1100; (see [64]Camaldolites; [65]Grammont, Order of; [66]Fontevraud, Order of); and finally that of Citeaux,1098. The last of these reforms, the ripest and noblest fruit of the older Benedictine ideal, grew so rapidly, and, especially under the influence of St. Bernard, showed such power in the field of missionary and civilizing effort that it was obliged to leave the Benedictine family and form, not a new congregation but a new order, in spite of its adherence to the fundamental form of monastic discipline as delineated in the Regula Benedicti (see [67]Cistercians). By this separation of the youngest daughter from the mother, the latter ceased to be regarded as the only normal type for western monasticism. The ecumenical period of Benedictine history ends with the last decades of the twelfth century. It must thenceforth be traced as the history of one order among several in the life of western civilization. 2. 1200-1563. Decay and Attempts at Reform. The period from Innocent III to the Council of Trent (1200-1563) is a time of increasing inner decay and of futile efforts at reform. The first attempt to restore discipline in the monasteries of the order, which had become very worldly, was made in 1215 by the Fourth Lateran Council under Innocent III. It ordered that every three years a general chapter should be held, and that the visitations prescribed by this chapter should be made by Cistercian abbots. Under this regulation the archbishops of Canterbury and York introduced the triennial visitations into the Benedictine monasteries of England, and enforced them in repeated provincial councils. For the monasteries of the Continent, special importance attached to the edict of Benedict XII, himself a Cistercian, who, after introducing a stricter discipline into his own order (1335), issued in the following year an edict concerning the Benedictines. This constitution, known as Summa Magistri or Constitutio Benedictina, decrees that in each monastery a general chapter is to be held annually. For each of the thirty-six provinces into which the order is divided by it, triennial provincial chapters are prescribed. But in spite of this measure, which had a temporarily beneficial effect, spirituality constantly declined. The reforms introduced afterward by the Council of Constance (1415), by a provincial chapter of the Mainz province of the order held at Petershausen (1417), by the congregation of [68]Bursfelde organized for the North-German territories of the order, as well as by many Spanish congregations (e.g., the Observance of Valladolid under Ferdinand the Catholic, 1493), brought about merely a temporary improvement in the conditions. 3. 1563-1800. Tridentine Reform. New Congregations. The Tridentine reforming period (1563-1800) was introduced by the decree De regularibus et monialibus passed in the twenty-fifth session of the [69]Council of Trent (Dec. 3, 1563), which opposes the mischievous excess of exemptions, puts the female members of the order without exception and the male members for the most part under the supervision of the bishops, and insists upon strict observance of the older regulations concerning the holding of general chapters, visitations, etc. Several new Benedictine congregations sprang up under the influence of the Tridentine decrees; in South Germany one for Swabia (1564), one at Strasburg (1601), one at Salzburg (1641), one for Bavaria (1684); in Flanders the congregation of St. Vedast near Arras, founded about 1590; in Lorraine that of St. Vanne and St. Hydulph, which Abbot Didier de la Cour founded in 1600 and Pope Clement VIII confirmed in 1604. An outgrowth of the latter was the congregation of St. Maur, founded in 1618 under the direction of the same Abbot Didier, which spread all over France, attaining the number of 180 monasteries, and raised the work of the order in the direction of learning to a prosperity which it never had before (see [70]St. Maur, Congregation of). But after about 1780, first the forcible secularization under Joseph II, and then the storm of the Revolution in France and the neighboring countries to the south brought about the ruin of the order. 4. The Nineteenth Century. The epoch of restoration, which coincides with the nineteenth century, has been able to save only about 500 houses (with about 4,300 monks), out of the 37,000 houses (abbeys or priories) which the order numbered before the catastrophes of the eighteenth century. Yet in some of the congregations there is at present a healthy and vigorous life as far as the morals and discipline are concerned and also as to achievements in theological learning and Christian art (painting, sculpture, etc.). In the latter respect the South German congregation of Beuron is especially distinguished. The two other South-German congregations (the Bavarian and the Swabian) and those of northern France and Belgium (especially in the monasteries of Solesmes and Maredsous) have recently produced some able scholars and theologians. The Benedictines of the mother house of the order at [71]Monte Cassino and the American congregations connected with it have also rendered considerable services in the same lines. O. Zoeckler. Bibliography: The somewhat voluminous early literature on Benedict in the shape of poems and lives may be found in part in MGH, Poet. Lat. med. aevi, i, 36-42, Berlin, 1881 (the Carmina of Paul the Deacon); MGH, Script., vol. xv, part 1, pp. 480-482, 574, Hanover, 1887 (Ex adventu corporis S. Benedicti in agrum Floriacensem); four works on the Miracles are published in MGH, Script., vol. xv, part 1, pp. 474-500, part 2 (1888), 863, 866, ix (1851), 374-376. The Vitae by Gregory and other writers as well as the poems and relations of miracles may be found in ASM, saec. i, pp. 28, 29-35, and saec. ii, pp. 80, 353-358, 369-394; in ASB, Mar., iii, 276, 288-297, 302-357; and in MPL, lxxx, xcv, cxxiv, cxxvi, cxxxiii, cxxxiv, clx. Consult: P. K. Brandes, Leben des heiligen Benedikt, Einsiedeln, 1858; P. Lechner, Leben des heiligen Benedict, Regensburg, 1859; C. de Montalembert, Les Moines d'Occident, ii, 3-92 (on St. Benedict), 7 vols., Paris, 1860-77, Eng, transl., 7 vols., London, 1861-79, new ed., with introduction by Dom Gasquet on the Rule, 6 vols., 1896; P. Huegli, Der heilige Benedikt, in Studies und Mittheilungen aus dem Benedict-Orden, year VI, Vol. i (1885), 141-162; J. H. Newman, Mission of St. Benedict, in Historical Sketches, vol. ii, London, 1885; F. C. Doyle, Teaching of St. Benedict, London, 1887; G. Gruetsmacher, Die Bedeutung Benedikts . . . und seiner Regel, Berlin, 1892; L. Tosti, St. Benedict; Historical Discourse on his Life, transl. from the Ital., London, 1898 cf. St. Benedict and Grottaferra, Essays on Tosti's Life of St. Benedict, ib. 1895. On the order: Bibliographie des Benedictins de France, Solesmes, 1889; the fundamental work is J. Mabillon, Annales ordinis S. Benedicti, 6 vols., Paris, 1703-39; Montalembert, ut sup.; Sir Jas. Stephens, The French Benedictines, in Essays in Ecclesiastical Biography, London, 1867; S. Branner, Ein Benediktinerbuch, Wuerzburg, 1880; Scriptores ordinis S, Benedicti in imperio Austriaco-Hungarico, Vienna, 1881; B. Weldon, Chronicle of English Benedictine Monks, London, 1882 (covers the period from Mary to James II); H. C. Lea, History of Sacerdotal Celibacy, Philadelphia, 1884, and cf. his History of the Inquisition, new ed., New York, 1906; J. H. Newman, Benedictine Schools, in Historical Sketches, ut sup.; F. AE. Ranbek, Saints of the Order of St. Benedict, London, 1890; E. L. Taunton, English Black Monks of St. Benedict, 2 vols., ib. 1897; Heimbucher, Orden und Kongregationen, i, 92-283. Of the Rule among old editions the best is by L. Holstenius, Codex regularum monasticarum, i, 111-135, Augsburg, 1759; another is by E. Martene in his Commentarius in regulam S. Benedicti, Paris, 1690. The best edition is by E. Woelfflin, Benedicti regula monachorum, Leipsic, 1895; serviceable are E. Schmidt, Die Regel des heiligen Benedicts, Regensburg, 1891, and P. K. Brandes, Leben und Regel des . . . Benedikt, Vols. ii, iii, Einsiedeln, 1858-63. The Latin and Anglo-Saxon Intelinear Translation was edited by H. Logeman, London, 1888. The Rule was published in Eng transl., London, 1886, ib. 1896, in Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book, pp. 432-485, in Henderson, Documents, pp. 274-313; and by D. O. H. Blair, London, 1906. A bibliography of commentaries is in KL, ii, 324-325. Benedictines BENEDICTINES. See [72]Benedict of Nursia. Benediction BENEDICTION: In the Roman Catholic Church a part of every liturgical act, belonging to the class of [73]sacramentals--i.e., things which were instituted, not by Christ but by the hierarchic Church with divine authority, and which are supposed, is their application to persons and things, to communicate quasi ex opera operato through ordained priests the grace of God insisting in purification, supernatural revivification, and sanctification. The higher the hierarchical position of him who bestows the blessing, the more powerful it is. Benediction and exorcism are always connected; the latter breaks demoniac influences and drives away the demons, while the former communicates divine powers, not only positively, but also negatively in the way of purification, by blotting out sins of omission and the temporal punishment of sins, and removing satanic influences, thus having itself a sort of exorcism though not explicit. Where exorcism alone takes place, it is in an imperative manner, whereas the benediction is precative, yet with an effective divine power quasi ex opere operato by means of the sign of the cross. The personal benediction effects either a lasting habitus (e.g., anointing at baptism), or a forma gratiae actualis for a passing object and condition (e.g., benediction for travelers, and the sick); both kinds work either in the main negatively by the removal of satanic influences or positively in illumination and bestowal of supernatural strength in body and soul. Benedictions of things are always primarily negative, and positive only in the second place, that the use and enjoyment of the objects may conduce to the welfare of man's body and soul. The supernatural powers are attached to the things by means of the benediction, and in their effect they are independent of the conduct of man; either they make the things permanently res sacrae, affecting men in a purifying and sanctifying manner (baptismal water, holy water, rosaries, etc.), or they are of transient effect as conveying God's grace and protection. Some times they are also connected with indulgences. If anointing is applied, the benediction becomes a consecration, whereby the thing is dedicated to the service of God (e.g., monstrances, crosses, pictures, flags, organs, etc.). As to the Evangelical conception of the benedictions, the words of Johann Gerhard give the proper point of view: "The priests [in the Old Testament] blessed by praying for good things; God blessed by bestowing the good things. Their blessing was votive, his effective. God promises to confirm this sacerdotal blessing on condition that it is given according to his word and will." Thus it is only God who effectively blesses; that is, communicates divine powers of his grace and his spirit; all human blessing is only intercession with God for his blessing. [According to the Roman Catholic view, the objective difference between liturgical and extraliturgical, ecclesiastical and private benediction is that in the former the efficacy emanates from the Church as a body by whose authority the rite was instituted and in whom name it is conferred and, in consequence, is supposed to be greater than in the latter where the effect depends on the intercession of an individual.] According to the Evangelical idea, there exists no objective difference between liturgical and extraliturgical, ecclesiastical and private benediction; it is only in a psychological way that the former may be more efficacious for the fulfilment of the subjective conditions of the hearing of prayer. Again, only persons, not things, can be blessed with God's spirit and grace. If things are nevertheless blessed, it means that they are set apart for ritual use; and so long as they are thus employed, they will be sacred, while they are desecrated when used lightly apart from ritual purposes. The benediction of things takes place only by metonymy; the things are mentioned, but the persona are meant who use them. Thus, e.g., a cemetery is dedicated to its special use and handed over to the reverential protection of the living; a church edifice is dedicated by its being used and offered to the living congregation as a valuable religious possession because of its use. But the Roman Catholic traditions still in many ways influence the ideas held even among Protestants on the subject of benediction. E. C. Achelis. Bibliography: J. Gretser, De benedictionibus, Ingolstadt, 1615; J. Gerhard, De benedictione ecclesiactica, pp. 1252-1290, Jena, 1655; E. Martene. De antiquis ecclesiae ritibus, vol. iii, Rouen, 1700; J. C. W. Augusti, Denkwuerdigkeiten aus der christlichen Archaeologie, iii, 392-393, x, 165 sqq., 12 vols., Leipsic, 1817-31; A. J. Binterim, Segen und Fluch, in Denkwuerdigkeiten, vol. vii, part 2, Mainz, 1841; L. Coleman, Apostolical and Primitive Church, chap xiv, London, 1844; V. Thalhofer, Handbuch der katholischen Liturgik, ii, 523-524, Freiburg, 1890; Bingham, Origines, XIV, iv, 16, XV, iii, 29; DCA, i, 193-200 (elaborate). Benefice BENEFICE. Meaning of the Term (S: 1). Remuneration of Clergy (S: 2). Provisions Affecting Benefices (S: 3). Appointment to a Benefice (S: 4). Rights of a Benefice (S: 5). Tenure (S: 6). 1. Meaning of the Term. Benefice (beneficium ecclesiasticum) is a term which includes two meanings: the spiritual, relating to the ecclesiastical duties attached to it; and the temporal, relating to the income and other worldly advantages of the office. The latter is more strictly the meaning of the word, though the connection of the two was early recognized in the phrase beneficium datur propter officium. Indeed, the term beneficium is not generally used where there is only the temporal side, with no corresponding duties. Such a case may be a commenda, whose holder has a right to the revenues of a church without any responsibilities; or a praestimonium, which is a charge for support on the revenues of the church; or a pensio, the use of a part of the revenues. These relations, however, when they are permanent fall under the general rules applicable to benefices. The benefice proper is ordinarily permanent, though sometimes founded for a specified time. 2. Remuneration of Clergy. Historically in the primitive Church all the property of a diocese formed one whole, administered by the bishop; its purpose was primarily the support of the poor--bishop and clergy lived as belonging to that class, and were supposed, if they had no private means, to support themselves by their own labors. Those who had no other means of support received a monthly stipend from the general fund. With the recognition of the Church under Constantine, and the consequent accession of considerable property and state subventions, the system changed. But in law the episcopal church was still the unit in any consideration of diocesan property, and the bishop still its exclusive custodian. This remained the case when church property was divided into three or into four parts (see [74]Church Building, Taxation for) and one part destined for the support of the clergy. While, however, it was long before the theory changed, in practise there was a tendency to decentralization, and the individual parishes began to be recognized as separate units. This arose largely from donations and endowments destined by the donor for a particular church, whose clergy were to be supported out of their returns. After the fifth century it became customary for the bishops, instead of paying their clergy out of a central fund, to assign pieces of land for their support and that of the poor and of public worship. These assignments became gradually irrevocable, and thus finally the diocesan unity was dissolved, and the separate churches came into permanent possession of these properties. 3. Provisions Affecting Benefices. The intimate connection between officium and beneficium is shown by a review of the provisions affecting benefices. They are divided into regular and secular, according as they are served by monastic or secular clergy; into beneficia curata, those to which the cure of souls is attached, and non curata, such as those of chaplains, canons of cathedrals, and the like. The Council of Trent forbade changing a beneficium curatum into a non curatum or simplex. The erection or constitution of a benefice, the permanent attachment of certain revenues to the performance of certain duties, was held to be reserved to the ecclesiastical authorities. The foundation of bishoprics was originally a function of provincial synods, but later came to the pope, who also had power alone to found collegiate churches. The bishop has power to found other benefices within his diocese, and his officials decide whether the endowment is sufficient and whether the proposed foundation will be useful and not injure any other party. The founder has certain rights of imposing conditions for the tenure of his benefice, which, once confirmed, are perpetual. 4. Appointment to a Benefice. The appointment to a benefice (provisio, institutio canonica) includes the choice of the person (designatio) and the conferring of the benefice (collatio, concessio, institutio in the narrower sense). The designation to the greater benefices (bishoprics and the like) is sometimes by election, sometimes by nomination of the sovereign; to the lesser, by the choice of the bishop, frequently on the nomination of a patron. The collation is the act of ecclesiastical superiors--of the pope to bishoprics (confirmatio), of the bishop to the lesser benefices. The conditions of a proper canonical appointment to a benefice are several: (1) A vacancy must exist, and that a real one, not such as would be caused by the forcible expulsion of the incumbent. Thus [75]expectancies are forbidden; but the election of a coadjutor-bishop cum jure successionis is allowed. (2) The person appointed must be a persona regularis and idonea, i.e., properly qualified to hold the benefice. Under this head comes the possession of the qualifications necessary for [76]ordination, though, where it is required, a delay of a year or other specified time may be granted. Intellectual qualifications are included, to be determined, according to the Council of Trent, by examination; and the law has sometimes required native birth also, other things being equal. (3) The appointment must be made within the legal time, the rule being that no benefice shall remain vacant more than six months; otherwise the right of presentation is lost (see [77]Devolution, Law of). (4) There must be no simony involved. (5) What are called subreption and obreption are also forbidden; this affects especially cases where a person obtains a benefice without letting it be known that he already holds another. The church law forbids plurality of benefices, except, for example, in cases where a beneficium simplex is held concurrently with a beneficium curatum, these being held to be compatible. This rule was often violated by papal dispensation, which caused great dissatisfaction. (6) The proper forms, both in the designation and in the collation, must be observed (see [78]Bishop; [79]Investiture; etc.). 5. Rights of a Benefice. The rights and duties connected with a benefice are partly matters of universal law, partly special to the particular case. The incumbent has a right to the usufruct of any property belonging to the benefice, tithes, fees, oblations, etc. All this is his absolutely; but the view that he ought only to use so much of it as will suffice for his support, devoting the rest to ecclesiastical purposes and especially to the poor, influenced legislation very early, so that what came from the Church was supposed to revert to the Church, if it had not been used, at the cleric's death. This rule, which at one time was positive, has been very much relaxed, within certain limits. Of course the incumbent's power over church property is limited by the rights of his successor, arid no arrangements can be made lasting beyond his lifetime, unless by the concurrence of the proper authorities. 6. Tenure. A benefice is supposed to be conferred for life, and is normally vacated only by the death of the incumbent, but it may be vacated earlier by resignation, either express or tacit. Resignation can not be arbitrary with the incumbent, as he has by his acceptance of it incurred certain obligations from which he must be released--bishops by the pope, the lower clergy by their bishops. There must also be a valid ground for it. Tacit resignation may come about through any act which ipso facto dissolves the relationship: the taking monastic vows by the holder of a beneficium saeculare, the acceptance of a secular office, marriage (see [80]Celibacy), the acceptance of another incompatible benefice, change of faith, etc. Vacation as a penalty may occur through deprivation or remotion; this includes the transfer of a priest, as a disciplinary measure, to a smaller charge. The technical use of the word benefice in Protestant Churches is largely confined to the Church of England where a great part of the prescriptions given above is still in force. In the statute law of England the term is practically restricted to a benefice with cure of souls, as distinct from cathedral preferment. In the State Churches of Germany also the distinction between beneficium and officium is still maintained, and the erection and alteration of benefices is a matter concerning jointly the ecclesiastical and secular authorities. Here the ordinary collator to a benefice is the consistory. The tendency of the most modern legislation is toward giving the congregation a voice in the selection of the pastor. (E. Friedberg.) Bibliography: Bingham, Origines, book v; L. Thomassin, Vetus et nova ecclesiae disciplina, II, iii, 13, S: 5, Paris, 1698; C. Gross, Das Recht an der Pfruende, Graz, 1887; Galante, Il beneficio ecclesiastico, Milan, 1895; U. Stutz, Geschichte des kirchlichen Benefizialwesens von seinen Anfaengen bis auf die Zeit Alexanders III, Berlin, 1895. Beneficium Competentiae BENEFICIUM COMPETENTIAE: The privilege by which a condemned debtor is allowed to retain so much of his income as is absolutely necessary to his maintenance. Such a privilege exists in many places, in the interest of the public service, for officials and also for clerics. For the latter the custom is usually referred to the decree of Gregory IX (1271-76) De solutionibus (iii, 23). This passage, however, only establishes the principle that an unbeneficed clerical debtor can not be forced to pay by spiritual penalties, and that the creditors are to be content with sufficient security for payment when the debtor's circumstances improve. The glosses, and common practice following them, base the privilege upon the decree, and statute law has confirmed it, restricting any levy upon the salary or other income of such a cleric so that a certain sum is left to him as congrua (sustentatio). This privilege can not be pleaded in the case of debts arising from unlawful transactions or of public taxes. (E. Friedberg.) Benefit of Clergy BENEFIT OF CLERGY: A privilege claimed by the medieval Church; as part of its general plea of immunity from secular interference. It allowed members of the clergy to have their trial for offenses with which they were charged, not before any secular tribunal, but in the bishop's court. In England this covered practically all cases of felony except treason against the king, and by the reign of Henry II it had given rise to great abusers. In many cases grossly criminal acts of clerics escaped unpunished, and other criminals eluded the penalty of their acts by declaring themselves clerics. The question was one of those on which the quarrel between the king and Becket reached its acute stage; and by the Constitutions of Clarendon (1164; see [81]Becket, Thomas) Henry attempted to deal with it by decreeing that clerics accused of crime were to be first arraigned in the king's court, which might at its discretion send them to an ecclesiastical court. If convicted here and degraded (see [82]Degradation), the clerk was to lose his benefit of clergy and be amenable to lay justice. Edward III extended the privilege in 1330 to include all persons who could read (see [83]Clerk); and it was not until the fifteenth century that any very definite regulation of this dangerous latitude was arrived at. Later statutes guarded against the evasion of their provisions by expressly declaring that their operation was "without benefit of clergy," and the privilege was finally abolished in 1827. There are a few early cases of its use in the American colonies, especially the Carolinas and Virginia; but an Act of Congress put an end to it here in 1790. Benezet, Anthony BENEZET, ben''e-zet', ANTHONY: Quaker philanthropist; b. at St. Quentin, France, Jan. 31, 1714; d. at Philadelphia May 3, 1784. He belonged to a Huguenot family which settled in England in 1715, joined the Quakers there, and came to Philadelphia in 1731. He was a cooper by trade, but gave his life after coming to America to teaching and to philanthropic efforts, against slavery and war, in behalf of the American Indians, and the total abstinence cause. In 1742 he became English master in the Friends' School at Philadelphia and in 1755 established a girls' school there. In 1750 he undertook an evening school for slaves. He wrote many tracts against the slave trade and printed and distributed them at his own expense; he also published A Short Account of the People Called Quakers (Philadelphia, 1780); The Plainness and Innocent Simplicity of the Christian Religion (1782); Some Observations on the Situation, Disposition, and Character of the Indian Natives of this Continent (1784). Bibliography: R. Vaux, Memoir of Anthony Beneset, Philadelphia, 1817, revised by W. Armistead, London, 1859. Bengel, Johann Albrecht BENGEL, JOHANN ALBRECHT: German Lutheran; b. at Winnenden (12 m. n.e. of Stuttgart), Wuerttemberg, June 24, 1687; d. at Stuttgart Nov. 2, 1752. He studied at Tuebingen, and devoted himself especially to the sacred text; he was also intent upon philosophy, paying particular attention to Spinoza. After a year in the ministry as vicar at Metzingen, he became theological repetent at Tuebingen in 1708; and in 1713 was appointed professor at the cloister-school at Denkendorf, a seminary for the early training of candidates for the ministry. During this year he traveled through Germany, visiting the schools, including those of the Jesuits, to learn their methods. At Denkendorf he published in 1719 his first work, an edition of the Epistolae Ciceronis ad familiares, with notes; then Gregorii panegyricus graece et latine (1722), and Chrysostomi libri vi de sacerdotio (1725), to which he added Prodromus Novi Testamenti recte cauteque ordinandi. His chief work, however, was upon the New Testament. While a student, he was much perplexed by the various readings in the text, and with characteristic energy and perseverance he immediately began to investigate the subject. He procured all the editions, manuscripts, and translations possible, and in 1734 published his text and an Apparatus criticus, which became the starting-point for modern text-criticism of the New Testament. His famous canon was: "The more difficult reading is to be preferred." This critical work was followed by an exegetical one, Gnomon Novi Testamenti (Tuebingen, 1742), which has often been reprinted in Latin, and was translated into German by C. F. Werner (1853, 3d ed., 1876) and into English in Clark's Library (5 vols., Edinburgh, 1857-58) and in an improved edition by Lewis and Vincent (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1860-1861). As a brief and suggestive commentary on the New Testament, the Gnomon is still of use. Bengel's chief principle of interpretation, briefly stated, is to read nothing into the Scriptures, but draw everything from them, and suffer nothing to remain hidden that is really in them. His Gnomon exerted considerable influence on exegesis in Germany, and John Wesley translated most of its notes and incorporated them into his Annotatory Notes upon the New Testament (London, 1755). In 1740 appeared Bengel's Erklaerte Offenbarung Johannis, often reprinted (Eng. transl. by John Robertson, London, 1757); in 1741 his Ordo temporum, and in 1745 his Cyclus sive de anno magno consideratio. In these chronological works he endeavored to fix the "number of the beast" and the date of the "millennium," which he placed in the year 1836. In 1741 he was made prelate of Herbrechtingen; in 1749 member of consistory and prelate of Alpirspach, with residence at Stuttgart; and two years later Tuebingen honored him with the doctorate. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: The best life is by O. Waechter, J. A. Bengel. Lebensabriss, Stuttgart, 1885; cf. idem, Bengel und Otinger, Guetersloh, 1883; a life was written by his son and included in the Introduction to the Gnomon, where it is usually found; in more complete form by his great-grandson J. C. F. Burk, J. A. Bengels Leben und Wirken, Stuttgart, 1831, Eng. transl. by Walker, London, 1837; E. Nestle, Bengel als Gelehrter, Tuebingen, 1893. Benham, William BENHAM, WILLIAM: Church of England; b. at Westmeon (16 m. n.e. of Southampton), Hants, Jan. 15, 1831. He was educated at St. Mark's College, Chelsea, and King's College, London (Theological Associate, 1857), and was a village schoolmaster from 1849 to 1852, and a private tutor from 1853 to 1858. He was ordered deacon in 1857 and ordained priest in the following year, and after acting as tutor in St. Mark's College from 1857 to 1864, was editorial secretary of the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge from 1864 to 1867, and professor of modern history in Queen's College, London, from 1864 to 1871. He was successively curate of St. Lawrence, Jewry, London (1865-67), vicar of Addington (1867-73), St. John the Baptist, Margate (1873-80), and Marden, Kent (1880-82), as well as Six-Preacher of Canterbury Cathedral from 1872 to 1888, and Boyle Lecturer in 1897. From 1882 he was rector of St. Edmund's, Lombard Street, and was honorary canon of Canterbury from 1885. He was also rural dean of East City from 1903. In theology he was a Broad-church disciple of F. D. Maurice. Died at London July 30, 1910. His works are: The Gospel of St. Matthew, with Notes and a Commentary (London, 1862); English Ballads, with Introduction and Notes (1863); The Epistles for the Christian Year, with Notes and Commentary (1864); The Church of the Patriarchs (1867); Companion to the Lectionary (1872); A New Translation of Thomas a Kempis' "Imitatio Christi" (1874); Readings on the Life of our Lord and His Apostles (1880); How to Teach the Old Testament (1881); Annals of the Diocese of Winchester (1884); A Short History of the Episcopal Church in America (1884); The Dictionary of Religion (1887); and Old St. Paul's Cathedral (1902). He collaborated with R. P. Davidson and with C. Welsh in Mediaeval London (1901); and edited the Life of Archbishop Tait (London, 1891); The Writings of St. John, in the Temple Bible (1902), and the Ancient and Modern Library of Theological Literature. Benjamin of Tudela BENJAMIN OF TUDELA (a town of Navarre, on the Ebro, 160 miles n.e. of Madrid): Properly Benjamin ben Jonah, a Spanish rabbi, who in 1160 (or 1165; cf. Graetz, Geschichte der Juden, vi, note 10) left home and traveled through Catalonia, southern France, Italy, Greece, the islands of the Levant, Syria, Palestine, and Mesopotamia to Bagdad; thence he proceeded to Egypt by way of Khuzistan, the Indian Ocean, and Yemen; and finally returned to Spain in 1173. The information which he gathered with great diligence not only concerning the places visited, but also of adjoining lands, was written down in a Hebrew work (Massa'oth shel rabbi Binyamin, "Itinerary of the Rabbi Benjamin"), which is one of the most famous of early books of travel. Benjamin was credulous, perhaps deficient in general information, and interested primarily in things Jewish; his book abounds in errors and absurdities, but it does not, justify the charge of deliberate falsification, and it contains much that is true and valuable not only concerning the numbers, status, and dispersion of the Jews of the twelfth century, but also concerning general history, political conditions, trade, descriptions of places, and the like. Bibliography: The "Itinerary" was first published at Constantinople in 1543; then Ferrara, 1558; Freiburg, 1583; and many times subsequently. Arias Montanus end C. l'Empereur issued the text with a Latin translation, the former at Antwerp, 1575; the latter at Leyden, 1633. An English translation (from the Latin of Arias Montanus) was published in Purchas's Pilgrims, London, 1625, and is given in Bohn's Early Travels in Palestine, London, 1848. Others (with text) are by A. Asher, 2 vols., London, 1840-41, and M. N. Adler, London, 1907, the latter based on a British Museum MS. which differs considerably from other copies. A Germ. transl., with text, notes, etc., by L. Gruenhut and M. N. Adler, was published at Frankfort, 2 vols., 1903-04. Consult also M. N. Adler, in the Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement, Oct., 1894. Bennett, James BENNET, JAMES: Congregationalist; b. in London May 22, 1774; d. there Dec. 4, 1862. He studied for the ministry at Gosport under the Rev. David Bogue; was ordained at Romsey, Hamshire, 1797, and was minister there till 1813, when he became theological tutor of the Rotherham Independent College, and minister of the church there; pastor of the church in Silver Street (afterward removed to Falcon Square), London, 1828-60. He was an associate of the Haldanes in some of their tours, was a secretary of the London Missionary Society, was chairman of the Congregational Union 1840, and attracted much attention by his defense of Christianity against the unbelief of his time. His publications include The History of Dissenters from the Revolution to 1808, in collaboration with Dr. Bogue (4 vols., London, 1808-12; 2d ed., 2 vols., 1833), continued in The History of Dissenters during the Last Thirty Years (1839); The Star of the West, being memoirs of R. Darracott (1813); Lectures on the History of Jesus Christ (3 vols., 1825; 2d ed., 2 vols., 1828), supplemented by Lectures on the Preaching of Christ (1836); Memoirs of the Life of David Bogue (1827); An Antidote to Infidelity, lectures delivered in 1831, and A Second Antidote to Infidelity (1831); Justification as Revealed in Scripture in Opposition to the Council of Trent and Mr. Newman's Lectures (1840); The Theology of the Early Christian Church Exhibited in Quotations from the Writers of the First Three Centuries, Congregational lecture, 1841; Lectures on the Acts of the Apostles (1846). Bibliography: Memorials of the Late James Bennett, D.D., including Sermons Preached on the Occasion of his Death, London, 1883; DNB, iv, 242-243. Bennett, William Henry BENNETT, WILLIAM HENRY: English Congregationalist; b. at London May 22, 1855. He was educated at Lancashire Independent College (1873-82) and Owens College, Manchester, London University (B.A., 1875), and St. John's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1882), and was professor in Rotherham College from 1884 to 1888 and lecturer in Hebrew in Firth College, Sheffield, in 1887-88. He has been professor of Old Testament exegesis in Hackney College, London, since 1888 and in New College, London, since 1891. He was also first secretary to the Board of Theology in the University of London in 1901-03, and has been examiner in the Old Testament to the University of Wales since 1904, as well as a recognized teacher in the same institution since 1901. He has edited Chronicles and Jeremiah in The Expositor's Bible (London, 1894-95); Joshua in The Sacred Books of the Old Testament (1895) and in The Polychrome Bible (New York, 1899); General Epistles and Genesis in The Century Bible (London, 1901, 1903); and Joshua in The Temple Bible (1904). He has also written Theology of the Old Testament (London, 1896); Primer of the Bible (1897); and Biblical Introduction (1899; in collaboration with W. F. Adeney). Benno BENNO: Bishop of Meissen; b. at Hildesheim or Goslar 1010; d. at Meissen June 18, 1108, according to the traditional accounts. The first certain fact in his life is that he was a canon of Goslar. He was made bishop of Meissen in 1066, and appears as a supporter of the Saxon insurrection of 1073, though Lambert of Hersfeld and other contemporary authorities attribute little weight to his share in it. Henry IV imprisoned him, however, but released him in 1078 on his taking an oath of fidelity, which he did not keep. He appeared again in the ranks of the king's enemies, and was accordingly deprived of his bishopric by the Synod of Mainz in 1085. Benno betook himself to Guibert, the antipope supported by Henry as Clement III, and by a penitent acknowledgment of his offenses obtained from him both absolution and a letter of commendation to Henry, on the basis of which he was restored to his see. He promised, apparently, to use his influence for peace with the Saxons, but again failed to keep his promise, returning in 1097 to the papal party and recognizing Urban II as the rightful pope. With this he disappears from authentic history; there is no evidence to support the later stories of his missionary activity and zeal for church-building and for ecclesiastical music. His elevation to the fame of sainthood seems to have been due partly to the need of funds to complete the cathedral of Meissen, and partly to the wish to have a local or diocesan saint. He was officially canonized by Adrian VI in 1523, as a demonstration against the Lutheran movement, which Luther acknowledged by a fierce polemical treatise. His relics were solemnly dug up and venerated in 1524; but as the Reformation progressed they were no longer appreciated in Meissen, and Albert V of Bavaria obtained permission to remove them in 1578 to Munich, of which city Benno is considered the patron saint. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Several early accounts in prose and verse of Benno's life and miracles were collected in ASB, June, iii, 148-231. Consult: O. Langer, Bischof Benno von Meissen, in Mittheilungen des Vereins fuer Geschichte der Stadt Meissen, i, 3 (1884), pp. 70-95, i, 5 (1886), pp. 1-38, ii, 2 (1888), pp. 99-144; E. Machatschek, Geschichte der Bischofe des Hochstiftes Meissen, pp. 65-94, Dresden, 1884; R. Doebuer, Aktenstuecke zur Geschichte der Vita Bennonis, in Neues Archiv fuer saechsische Geschichte, vii, 131-144, Dresden, 1886; K. P. Will, Sanct Benno, Bischof von Meissen, Dresden, 1887. Benoist (Benoit), Elie BENOIST (BENOIT), be-nwae', ELIE: French Protestant; b. at Paris Jan. 20,1840; d. at Delft Nov. 15, 1728. His parents were servants of the Protestant family La Tremoille. He early displayed fondness for the classics, studied at Montaigu College and at La Marche (Paris), and taught privately in divinity at Montauban. In 1664 he was ordained, and the following year was called to Alenc,on, where he served for twenty years as Protestant minister, with as much prudence as capacity. He met with much opposition from the Roman Catholics, especially from the Jesuit De la Rue, who attacked him and even incited a riot against him. After the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, Benoist went to Holland, and was called as minister to the church of Delft, near The Hague, where he stayed thirty years. He wrote Lettre d'un pasteur banni de son pays `a une Eglise qui n'a pas fait son devoir dans la derniere persecution (Cologne, 1666); Histoire et apologie de la retraite des pasteurs `a cause de la persecution de France (Frankfort, 1687); Histoire de l'Edit de Nantes (5 parts, Delft, 1693-95; Eng. transl., London, 1694). G. Bonet-Maury. Bibliography: P. Pascal, Elie Benoist et l'epliss reformee d'Alenc,on, Paris, 1892; E. and E. Haag, La France protestante, ii, 269 sqq., 2d ed. by Bordier, Paris, 1877 sqq.; Bulletin de la societe d'histoire du protestantisms franc,ais, 1876, p. 259, 1884, pp. 112, 162. Benoist (Benoit), Rene BENOIST (BENOIT), RENE: Roman Catholic theologian; b. at Savenieres, near Angers, in 1521; d. at Paris Mar. 7, 1608. He accompanied Mary Stuart to Scotland as her confessor in 1561; after his return to France was appointed pastor of the church of St. Eustache in Paris in 1569, and played a conspicuous part in the controversies of the Ligue as one of the leaders of the opposition to the Guises and the Ultramontanes. In 1566 he published a translation of the Bible, which, however, was little more than a reprint of the Geneva translation; it has been said that he knew little of either Hebrew or Greek. The translation was condemned by the theological faculty of the University of Paris in 1567 and by Pope Gregory XIII in 1575, and Benoist was expelled from the Sorbonne in 1572. He was reinstated by Henry IV and, to reenter the faculty, subscribed his own condemnation. He exasperated the Ultramontanes still more by maintaining that the king did not forfeit his right to the throne by professing the Protestant faith. He had influence in bringing about Henry's change of faith, and the latter made him his confessor and appointed him bishop of Troyes, but the pope refused confirmation, and in 1604 he had to renounce the office. He was a voluminous writer. Bibliography: J. C. F. Hoefer, Biographie generale, v, 395, 46 vols., Paris, 1852-66; C. du Plessis d'Argentre; Collectio judiciorum, II, i, 392-393, 533-534, 3 vols., Paris, 1728-36. Benrath, Karl BENRATH, KARL: German Protestant theologian; b. at Dueren (22 m. s.w. of Cologne) Aug. 16, 1845. He was educated at the universities of Bonn, Berlin, and Heidelberg (1864-67), and taught in his native city until 1871. From 1871 to 1875 he studied in Italy, chiefly in Rome. In 1876 he became privat-docent at Bonn and associate professor in 1879. In 1890 he was called to Koenigsberg as professor of church history. He has written Bernardino Ochino von Siena (Leipsic, 1875); Die Quellen der italienischen Reformationsgeschichte (Bonn, 1876); Geschichte der Reformation in Venedig (Halle, 1887); and Julia Gonzaga (1900). He has also edited Die Summa der heiligen Schrift, ein Zeugniss aus dem Zeitalter der Reformation (Leipsic, 1880); Luther's Schrift an den christlichen Adel deutscher Nation (Halle, 1884); and K. R. Hagenbach's Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte (6th ed., Leipsic, 1889). Bensly, Robert Lubbock BENSLY, ROBERT LUBBOCK: Orientalist; b. at Eaton (2 m. s.w. of Norwich), Norfolk, England, Aug. 24,1831; d. at Cambridge Apr. 23, 1893. He was educated at King's College, London, and Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge; studied in Germany; was appointed reader in Hebrew at Gonville and Caius College 1863; elected fellow 1876; became lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac in his college; was made professor of Arabic 1887; examiner is the Hebrew text of the Old Testament in the University of London; was a member of the Old Testament Revision Company; accompanied Mrs. Lewis and Mrs. Gibson on the trip to Sinai on which the palimpsest of the Syriac Gospels was discovered (see [84]Bible Versions, A, III, 1, S: 2). He has edited The Missing Fragment of the Latin Translation o f the Fourth Book of Ezra, discovered and edited with an Introduction and Notes (Cambridge, 1875); contributed The Harklean Version of Heb. xi, 28-xiii, 25 to the Proceedings of the Congress of Orientalists of 1889; assisted in the editing of the Sinaitic palimpsest; edited IV Maccabees (to which he devoted twenty-seven years of labor), published posthumously (Cambridge, 1895); wrote Our Journey to Sinai, Visit to the Convent of St. Catarina, with a chapter on the Sinai Palimpsest (London, 1896); edited St. Clement's Epistles to the Corinthians in Syriac (London, 1899). Bibliography: H. T. Francis, In Memoriam R. L. Bensly, Cambridge, 1893; DNB; Supplement, vol. i, 171. Benson, Edward White BENSON, EDWARD WHITE: Archbishop of Canterbury; b. at Birmingham July 14, 1820; d. at Hawarden (6 m. e. of Chester) Oct. 11, 1896. He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge (B.A., 1852); became master at Rugby 1852; was ordained priest 1857; in 1859 was appointed first head master of Wellington College (on the border of Windsor forest, near Wokingham, Berkshire); was appointed examining chaplain by the bishop of Lincoln (Christopher Wordsworth) in 1868, prebendary of Lincoln 1869, and chancellor and residentiary canon 1872, when he resigned his mastership and took up his residence at Lincoln. In 1877 he was consecrated first bishop of Truro (Cornwall); and was translated to Canterbury in 1883. He was a man of great energy, determined, and self-reliant. His industry was unremitting, and he found time for reading and study, the fruits of which appeared in the posthumous publications Cyprian, his Life, his Times, his Work (London, 1897) and The Apocalypse (1899). His administrative ability was shown in the development of Wellington College, which was practically his creation, and the thorough and efficient organization of the new diocese of Truro, where he formed a divinity school to train candidates for holy orders, began the erection of a cathedral, and founded and strengthened schools. He was the first bishop to appoint a canon missioner. As archbishop he strove for legislation effecting reforms in church patronage and discipline; opposed and prevented the disestablishment of the Church of Wales; created, in 1886, a body of laymen to act in an advisory capacity with the convocation of his province; cultivated cordial relations with the Nestorians and other Eastern Christians, but repelled what may have been intended as an advance to his own Church from Rome. He sat as judge in the trial of Bishop King of Lincoln, charged with certain ritual offenses (1889-90), and in the judgment which he delivered produced a masterly exposition of the law of the prayer-book, based upon the entire history of the English Church. Besides the works already mentioned, a volume of Prayers, Public and Private appeared posthumously (1899), and he published during his lifetime several volumes of sermons and addresses. Bibliography: A. C. Benson, Life of E. W. Benson, 2 vols., London, 1899, abridged ed., 1901 (by his eldest son); J. H. Bernard, Archbishop Benson in Ireland, London, 1898; DNB, Supplement, vol. i, 17l-179. Bentley, Richard BENTLEY, RICHARD: English theologian and scholar; b. at Oulton, near Wakefield (25 m. s.w. of York), Yorkshire, Jan. 27, 1662; d. at Cambridge July 14, 1742. He was the son of a blacksmith, was grounded in Latin by his mother, studied at the grammar-school at Wakefield, and was admitted at the age of fourteen (the usual age of matriculation was seventeen or eighteen) to St. John's College, Cambridge. He took his first degree in 1680 with honor in logic, ethics, natural science, and mathematics, and became schoolmaster at Spalding in Lincolnshire. But Stillingfleet, the wealthy and learned dean of St. Paul's, soon called him to London to superintend his son's studies. He took his pupil in later years to Oxford and reveled there among the manuscripts in pursuance of his researches in profane and especially Biblical literature, entering on his life's work of treating and publishing texts. He had taken his M.A. at Cambridge in 1684 and received the same degree from Oxford probably in 1689. Before his twenty-fourth year he had started for himself a hexapla dictionary; in the first column stood every Hebrew word in the Bible and in the other five all the different translations of these words in Chaldee, Syriac, Latin, and Greek (both the Septuagint and Aquila). His Latin letter of ninety-eight pages to John Mill appeared in 1691 as an appendix to an edition of the chronicle of Malalas and presented a mass of critical research, including much drawn from manuscripts; he moved over the field of classical literature as if it were his library of which he knew every inch, and showed himself a master in criticizing the origin of books, in following up etymological rules, in explaining their use, and in dealing with meter. In this, his virgin effort, he gave explanations and corrections for some sixty Greek and Latin authors. He wrote like an authority, and in the happiest manner. He published Callimachus (1693), Phalaris (1699; the debate is still interesting), Menander arid Philemon (1710), Horace (1711), Terence (1726), and Manilius (1739); his edition of Milton's Paradise Lost appeared in 1732. Ordained 1690, probably at once Stillingfleet's house-chaplain, he became canon of Worcester in 1692, librarian to the king in 1694, chaplain in ordinary to the king in 1695, D.D. from Cambridge and Master of Trinity in 1699, vice-chancellor of the University 1700, archdeacon of Ely 1701. His intrigues secured his election as regius professor of theology in 1717. His apparent love of power led the academic senate, Oct. 17, 1718, to deprive him, illegally, of his academic degrees, which a decree of court restored to him in 1724. He was almost always in hot water either in literature, in his college, or in politics. Legally deprived of his mastership in 1734, he kept it, simply because the man who should oust him did not choose to move. He delivered the first Boyle lectures (see [85]Boyle, Robert) in 1692, his intimate friend Isaac Newton helping him. He wrote against the freethinker Collins in 1713. Sterne quoted in Tristram Shandy his sermon on papistry, 1715. In 1691 he wrote to John Mill about the text of the New Testament, in 1713 he discussed the readings, and in 1720 he published his proposals for a new edition. At least from 1716 on, and apparently as late as 1732, he caused collations to be made in the libraries from London to Rome. But he did not publish an edition, probably because he found it impossible to give what he wished to give. His collations are in the library of Trinity College. Caspar Rene Gregory. Bibliography: The best life is by R. C. Jebb, in English Men of Letters, London, 1887. Consult also J. H. Monk, Life of Richard Bentley . . . with an Account of his Writings, 2d corrected ed., ib. 1833; A. A. Ellis, Bentleii critica sacra, Cambridge, 1862; DNB, iv, 306-314. Benton, Angelo Ames BENTON, ANGELO AMES: Protestant Episcopalian; b. at Canea (Khania), on the island of Crete, July 3, 1837. He studied at Trinity College, Hartford, Conn. (B.A., 1856) and the General Theological Seminary, New York city (1860). He held various parishes in North Carolina from 1860 to 1883, when he was appointed professor of mathematics and modern languages at Delaware College, Newark, Delaware, being transferred to the chair of Greek and Latin two years later. In 1887 he accepted a call to the University of the South as professor of dogmatic theology, where he remained until 1894, being likewise rector of the Otey Memorial Church, Sewanee, from 1893 to 1895. He was then rector at Albion, Ill., in 1895-1904, this being interrupted by a temporary charge at Tarentum, Pa. Since 1905 he has held a temporary charge at Foxburg, Pa. His chief literary work has been the editing of the Church Encyclopedia (Philadelphia, 1884). Benzinger, Immanuel BENZINGER, EMMANUEL (GUSTAV ADOLF): German Orientalist; b. at Stuttgart Feb. 21, 1865. He was educated at the University of Tuebingen (Ph.D., 1888; licentiate of theology, 1894), and after a pastorate at Neuenstadt, Wuerttemberg, from 1894 to 1898, was privat-docent for Old Testament theology at the University of Berlin until 1901, when he retired, and has since resided in Palestine. In theology he belongs to the historicocritical school. He has been a member of the Deutscher Palaestinaverein since 1888, editing its journal in 1897-1902, and has also been on the executive committee of the Deutscher Verein zur Erforschung Palaestinas since 1897. He has written hebraeische Archaeologie (Freiburg, 1894, 2d ed.1907); Commentar zu den Koenigsbuechern (1899) and Commentar zu den Chronik (1901), both in the Kurzer Hand-Kommentar zum Alten Testament; and Geschichte des Volkes Israels (Leipsic, 1904). He likewise collaborated with R. J. Hartmann in Palaestina (Stuttgart, 1899), and with Frohnmeyer in Bilderatlas zur Bibelkunde (1905), and has edited Baedeker's Palaestina und Syrien since the third edition (1889). Benzo BENZO: Bishop of Alba, a zealous partizan of Henry IV; b. about the beginning of the eleventh century; d. not earlier than 1085 or 1086. Little that is definitely attested can be related of his life; but it may be reasonably conjectured that he came originally from southern Italy, that he gained some sort of a position at the German Court, possibly as one of the chaplains of Henry III, and that before 1059 he was raised to the bishopric of Alba by Henry's influence. He was one of the most devoted upholders of the Italian claims of the German kings, and a bitter opponent of the Hildebrandine party. His most prosperous days fell in the period of the schism between Honorius II and Alexander II, when he went to Rome (at the end of 1061) charged by the empress Agnes with the mission of supporting the former, the imperial candidate for the papacy, to whom he remained faithful even after Alexander's supremacy was assured. Later, he was a victim of the Patarene movement (see [86]Patarenes), when in 1076 or 1077 popular disturbances drove him from his see. Ill luck followed him during the rest of his life. Though he may have taken part in Henry IV's first expedition to Rome, we never again find him in an important political position; and the latest indications to be gathered from his writings leave the picture of a man broken by poverty and illness, and still waiting for the emperor to reward him for long and faithful services. His Libri vii ad Henricum IV do not make up a single work, but are a collection of separate writings in both prose and verse which he put together into a sort of mosaic shortly before his death. Their special interest lies in the fact that they give an admirable insight into the views of the extreme imperialists, who were carried away by boundless hatred of Gregory VII. Benzo puts forth original views on the constitution of the State and on ecclesiastical politics from the standpoint of a convinced supporter of the empire. His Panegyricus, since the time and manner of the composition of its several books have been definitely determined, is now more highly regarded as an authority on the period of the schism. Carl Mirbt. Bibliography: Benzo's Ad Henricum IV imperatorem Libri septem, ed. K. Pertz, is in MGH, Script., xi, 591-681, Hanover, 1854. On his life and work consult: W. von Giesebrecht, Annales Altahenses, pp. 123, 213-227, Berlin, 1841; idem, Geschichte der Kaiserzeit, ii, 535, Brunswick, 1875 (in opposition to the work of K. J. Will, next mentioned); K. J. Will, Benzos Panegyrikus, Marburg, 1857; H. Lehmgruebner, Benzo von Alba, . . . sein Leben und . . . "Panegyricus", Berlin, 1887; idem, Benzo von Alba, . . . eine Quellenuntersuchung, ib. 1886; T. Lindner, Benzos Panegyricus auf Heinrich IV, pp. 497-526, Goettingen, 1866; O. Delarc, in Revue des questions historiques, xliii (1888), 5-60; E. Steindorff, in Goettinger Gelehrte Anzeiger, No. 16, 1888, pp. 593 sqq.; Wattenbach, DGQ, ii (1886), 202, ii (1894), 328-329; C. Mirbt, Die Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregors VII., Leipsic, 1894; Hauck, KD, vol. iii. Berengar of Poitiers BERENGAR OF POITIERS: A younger contemporary and zealous adherent of [87]Abelard. Practically nothing is known of his life except what may be learned from his few brief writings. These, however, are not without interest, partly because (in spite of their being by no means completely trustworthy) they are among the authorities for the history of the Council of Sens in 1141, and partly for the light which they throw on the mental attitude and literary tone which prevailed among the disciples of Abelard and opponents of Bernard about the middle of the twelfth century. There are three of them extant: an Apologeticus against Bernard, an Epistola contra Carthusienses, and an Epistola ad episcopum Mimatensem, the bishop of Mende. The first was written not long after the Council of Sens, but not until the sentence of Innocent II against Abelard was known. Toward the end of it Berengar points out that other teachers, such as Jerome and Hilary of Poitiers, had made mistakes without being deposed; but a large part of the tractate is a personal attack on Bernard, accusing him of having made frivolous songs in his youth, taught the preexistence of the soul, and made up his commentary on the Canticles of a lot of heterogeneous material, partly borrowed from Ambrose. Especially bitter are his accusations of duplicity and unfairness in connection with the Council of Sens. The shorter but equally malicious letter against the. Carthusians, who had taken a stand against Abelard, accuses them of breaking their vow of silence to speak calumny, and, while abstaining from the flesh of beasts, devouring their fellow men. The third letter is written in a different tone. Berengar's boldness had apparently stirred up so much hostility that he feared for his safety, left home, and sought an asylum in the Cevennes, whence he wrote to beg the bishop's protection, not exactly as a penitent, though he implies that he has approached more nearly to Bernard's standpoint. Whether he succeeded in setting himself right cannot be told, as nothing is known of his later life. (F. Nitzsch.) Bibliography: Berengar's works are usually printed among Abelard's, e.g., in Cousin's ed., ii, 771 sqq., 2 vols., Paris, 1849-59; also in MPL, clxxviii. Consult also Histoire litteraire de la France, xii, 254 sqq., Paris, 1763; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, v, 427-428; S. M. Deutsch, Die Synods von Sens, 1141, und die Verurteilung Abaelards, pp. 37-40, Berlin, 1880. Berengar of Tours BERENGAR OF TOURS. Early Life (S: 1). Controversy over the Eucharist (S: 2). Berengar Submits at Rome (S: 3). Reasserts his Views in France (S: 4). Berengar's Significance (S: 5). 1. Early Life. Berengar of Tours was born perhaps at Tours, probably in the early years of the eleventh century; d. in the neighboring island of St. Cosme Jan. 6, 1088. He laid the foundations of his education in the school of Bishop Fulbert of Chartres, who represented the traditional theology of the early Middle Ages, but did not succeed in imposing it upon his pupil. He was less attracted by pure theology than by secular learning, and brought away a knowledge of the Latin classics, dialectical cleverness, freedom of method, and a general culture surprising for his age. Later he paid more attention to the Bible and the Fathers, especially Gregory and Augustine; and it is significant that he came to formal theology after such preparation. Returning to Tours, he became a canon of the cathedral and about 1040 head of its school, which he soon raised to a high point of efficiency, bringing students from far and near. The fame which he acquired sprang as much from his blameless and ascetic life as from the success of his teaching. So great was his reputation that a number of monks requested him to write a book that should kindle their zeal; and his letter to Joscelin, later archbishop of Bordeaux, who had asked him to decide a dispute between Bishop Isembert of Poitiers and his chapter, is evidence of the authority attributed to his judgment. He became archdeacon of Angers, and enjoyed the confidence of not a few bishops and of the powerful Count Geoffrey of Anjou. 2. Controversy over the Eucharist. Amid this chorus of laudation, however, a discordant voice began to be heard; it was asserted that Berengar held heretical views on the Eucharist. In fact, he was disposed to reject the teaching of Paschasius Radbertus, which dominated his contemporaries. The first to take formal notice of this was his former fellow student [88]Adelmann, then a teacher at Liege, who wrote to question him, and, receiving no answer, wrote again to beseech him to abandon his opposition to the Church's teaching. Probably in the early part of 1050, Berengar addressed a letter to Lanfranc, then prior of Bec, in which he expressed his regret that Lanfranc adhered to the eucharistic teaching of Paschasius and considered the treatise of [89]Ratramnus on the subject (which Berengar supposed to have been written by Scotus Erigena) to be heretical. He declared his own agreement with the supposed Scotus, and believed himself to be supported by Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, and other authorities. This letter found Lanfranc in Rome, after it had been read by several other people; and as Berengar was not well thought of there, Lanfranc feared his association with him might be prejudicial to his own interests, and laid the matter before the pope. The latter excommunicated Berengar at a synod after Easter, 1050, and summoned him to appear personally at another to be held at Vercelli in September. Though disputing the legality of his condemnation, he proposed to go, first passing through Paris to obtain permission from King Henry I, as nominal abbot of St. Martin at Tours. Instead of granting it, however, the king threw him into prison, where Berengar occupied himself with the study of the Gospel of John, with a view to confirming his views. The synod was held at Vercelli without him; two of his friends, who attempted to defend him, were shouted down and barely escaped personal violence; Ratramnus's book was destroyed; and Berengar was again condemned. He obtained his release from prison, probably by the influence of Geoffrey of Anjou; but the king still pursued him, and called a synod to meet in Paris Oct., 1051. Berengar, fearing that its purpose was his destruction, avoided appearing, and the king's threats after its session had no effect, since Berengar was sheltered by Geoffrey and by Bishop Eusebius Bruno of Angers, and found numerous partisans among less prominent people. 3. Berengar Submits at Rome. In 1054 Hildebrand came to France as papal legate. At first he showed himself friendly to Berengar, and talked of taking him back to Rome to get Pope Leo's authority with which to silence his foes. But when he found that the latter could do more to disturb the peace of the Church than Berengar's friends, he drew back. Under these circumstances Berengar decided to concede as much as he could, and the French bishops showed that they wished a speedy settlement of the controversy, when the Synod of Tours declared itself satisfied by Berengar's written declaration that the bread and wine after consecration were the Body and Blood of Christ. The same desire for peace and the death of Pope Leo were reasons why Hildebrand did not press for Berengar's going to Rome at once; later he did so, confident of the power of his influence there, and accordingly Berengar presented himself in Rome in 1059, fortified by a letter of commendation from Count Geoffrey to Hildebrand. At a council held in the Lateran, he could get no hearing, and a formula representing what seemed to him the most carnal view of the sacrament was offered for his acceptance. Overwhelmed by the forces against him, he took this document in his hand and threw himself on the ground in the silence of apparent submission. 4. Reasserts his Views in France. Berengar returned to France full of remorse for this desertion of his faith and of bitterness against the pope and his opponents; his friends were growing fewer--Geoffrey was dead and his successor hostile. Eusebius Bruno was gradually withdrawing from him. Rome, however, was disposed to give him a chance; Alexander II wrote him an encouraging letter, at the same time warning him to give no further offense. He was still firm is his convictions, and about 1069 published a treatise in which he gave vent to his resentment against Nicholas II and his antagonists in the Roman council. Lanfranc answered it, and Berengar rejoined. Bishop Raynard Hugo of Langres also wrote a treatise De corpore et sanguine Christi against Berengar. But the feeling against him in France was growing so hostile that it almost came to open violence at the Synod of Poitiers in 1076. Hildebrand as pope tried yet to save him; he summoned him once more to Rome (1078), and undertook to silence his enemies by getting him to assent to a vague formula, something like the one which he had signed at Tours. But his enemies were not satisfied, and three months later at another synod they forced on him a formula which could mean nothing but transubstantiation except by utterly indefensible sophistry. He was indiscreet enough to claim the sympathy of Gregory VII, who commanded him to acknowledge his errors and to pursue them no further. Berengar's courage failed him; he confessed that he had erred, and was sent home with a protecting letter from the pope, but with rage in his heart. Once back in France, he recovered his boldness and published his own account of the proceedings in Rome, retracting his recantation. The consequence was another trial before a synod at Bordeaux (1080), and another forced submission. After this he kept silence, retiring to the island of Saint-Cosme near Tours to live in ascetic solitude. Apparently his convictions were unchanged at his death, and he trusted in the mercy of God under what he considered the unjust persecutions to which he had been subjected. 5. Berengar's Significance. Berengar's real significance for the development of medieval theology lies in the fact that he asserted the rights of dialectic in theology more definitely than most of his contemporaries. There are propositions in his writings which can be understood in a purely rationalistic sense. But it would be going quite too far to see in rationalism Berengar's main standpoint, to attribute to him the deliberate design of subverting all religious authority--Scripture, the Fathers, popes, and councils. This would be to ascribe to a man of the eleventh century views of which his age knew nothing, which it even had no terms to express. The contrast which he sets forth is not between reason and revelation, but between rational and irrational ways of understanding revelation. He did not recognize the right of the prevailing theology to claim his assent, because it made irrational assertions; the authorities to which he refused to submit were, in his judgment, only human authorities. He spoke bitterly and unjustly of popes and councils, unable to forgive them for making him untrue to himself; but this meant no rejection of the Catholic conception of the Church. His opposition was limited to the eucharistic doctrine of his time, and he controverted the theory of Paschasius not least because he believed it was contrary to Scripture and the Fathers, and destructive of the very nature of a sacrament. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: An edition of Berengar's works was begun by A. F. and F. T. Vischer, vol. i only was published containing his De sacra coena, Berlin, 1834; cf. Mansi, Collectio, xix, 761 sqq.; the works are also in Bouquet, Recueil, xiv, 294-300. A collection of letters relating to him (one of his own) was published by E. Bishop in Historisches Jahrbuch der Goerres-Gesellschaft, i, 272-280, Muenster, 1880. For his life consult H. E. Lehmann, Berengarii Turonensis vitae ex fontibus haustae, part i, Rostock, 1870 (no more published); J. Schmitzer, Berengar von Tours, sein Leben und seine Lehre, Munich, 1890. Consult the works of Bernold of San Blas, in Labbe, Concilia, ix, 1050, in Bouquet, Recueil, xiv, 34-37, and in MPL, cxlviii; B. Haureau, Histoire de la philosophie scolastique, i, 225 sqq., Paris, 1872; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, vols. iv, v; KL, ii, 391-404; Neander, Christian Church, iii, 502-521, iv, 84, 86, 92, 335, 337, 355. Berengoz BERENGOZ: Abbot of St. Maximin's at Treves in the twelfth century; d. about 1125. In the records of the abbey he is first mentioned as abbot in 1107, and for the last time in 1125. The register of deaths contains his name against the date of Sept. 24, without naming the year; but as his successor, Gerhard, was installed in 1127, he must have died either in 1125 or 1126. He rendered considerable services to the monastery by procuring from Henry V the restitution of a number of alienated fiefs, and, besides five sermons for saints' days, wrote two larger works: three books De laude et inventione sanctae crucis, and a series of discourses De mysterio ligni dominici et de luce visibili et invisibili per quam antiqui patres olim meruerunt illustrari. In the former he treats of the legend of the discovery of the cross of Christ by Helena, the mother of Constantine the Great, adducing a large number of Old Testament types of the cross. The latter deals with Christ under the aspect of the light of the world, shining from the beginning of its history. Whether the commentary on the Apocalypse which the Benedictines of St. Maur printed as an appendix to the second volume of their edition of St. Ambrose, ascribing it to a certain Berengaudus, is his or not must remain uncertain. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Berengoz's works were edited by Christophorus, Cologne, 1555, and appear in M. de la Bigne, Magna bibliotheca, vol. vii, ib. 1618, also in MPL, clx. Consult J. Marx, Geschichte des Erzstifts Trier, ii, 95, Trier, 1860: H. V. Sauerland, Trierer Geschichtsquellen, Trier, 1889; Hauck, KD, iii, 971-972. Bergen Formula BERGEN FORMULA (Das bergische Buch). See [90]Formula of Concord. Berger, Daniel BERGER, DANIEL: One of the United Brethren in Christ; b. near Reading, Pa., Feb. 14, 1832. He studied privately at Springfield, O., taught school 1852-58, and served as pastor 1858-64. From 1864 till 1897 he was editor in the publishing house of the United Brethren in Christ at Dayton, O., having charge of the denominational Sunday school literature 1869-93, and was a member of the International Sunday-School Lesson Committee from 1884 to 1896. In theology he is an Arminian. He wrote the History of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ for the American Church History Series (New York, 1894), and a larger work with the same title (Dayton, 1897), which is the official history of the denomination. Berger, Samuel BERGER, bar''zhe', SAMUEL: French Lutheran; b. at Beaucourt (10 m. s.s.e. of Belfort), France, May 2, 1843; d. in Sevres July 13, 1900. He studied at Strasburg and Tuebingen; in 1867 became assistant preacher in the Lutheran Church in Paris; in 1877, librarian to the Paris faculty of Protestant theology. He was the author of F. C. Baur, les origines de l'ecole de Tubingue et ses principes (Paris, 1867); La Bible au seizieme siecle, etude sur les origines de la critique (1879); De glossariis et compendiis biblicis quibusdam medii aevi (1879); Du role de la dogmatique dans la predication (1881); la Bible franc,aise au moyen age (1884); De l'histoire de la Vulgate en France (1887); Le Palimpseste de Fleury (1889); Quam notitiam linguae Hebraicae habuerint Christiani medii aevi temporibus in Gallia (1893); L'Histoire de la Vulgate pendant les premiers siecles du moyen age (1893); Notice sur quelques textes latins inedits de l'Ancien Testament (1893); Un Ancien Texte latin des Actes des Apotres (1895); Une Bible copiee `a Porrentruy (Etudes de Theologie et d'Histoire, 1901, 213-219); and Les Prefaces jointes aux livres de la Bible dans les manuscrits de la Vulgate, memoire posthume (1902). Bergier, Nicolas Sylvestre BERGIER, bar''zhye', NICOLAS SYLVESTRE: French Roman Catholic; b. at Darnay (18 m. s.e. of Mirecourt), Lorraine, Dec. 31, 1718; d. at Paris Apr. 19, 1790. He gained repute while a teacher at the college at Besanc,on by essays in philology and mythology; abandoned this line of study to devote himself to Christian apologetics, and polemics against the Encyclopedists. In 1765-68 he published at Paris Le Deisme refute par lui-meme (2 vols.) and in 1768 the Certitude des preuves du christianisme (2 vols.), which achieved a great success and called forth replies from Voltaire and Anacharsis Cloots. In 1769 followed Apologie de la religion chretienne (2 vols.) against Holbach, in 1771 Examen du materialisme (2 vols.), and in 1780 Traite historique et dogmatique de la vraie religion avec la refutation des erreurs qui lui ont ete opposees dans les differens siecles (12 vols.). He also wrote a Dictionnaire theologique (3 vols., 1789), which formed part of the Encyclopedie, but has several times been separately edited (latest by Le Noir, 12 vols., 1876). As a reward for his services he was made canon of Notre Dame in Paris and confessor to the aunts of the king, with a pension of 2,000 livres. Bibliography: Biographie nouvelle des contemporains, ii, 378, Paris, 1821; Biographie generale, v, 14. Bergius, Johannes BERGIUS, JOHANNES: Reformed theologian; b. at Stettin Feb. 24, 1587; d. at Berlin Dec. 19, 1658. He studied at Heidelberg and Strasburg; in 1615 became professor at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, where the theological faculty represented the Reformed faith; 1623 court preacher at Berlin. He was present at the Colloquy of Leipsic (1631) and the Thorn Conference (1645), but declined to attend the Synod of Dort (1618), as he wished for union rather than the establishment of Calvinism. He was emphatically a mediator, and showed himself temperate and dignified in controversy. He published many sermons. Bibliography: D. H. Hering, Beitraege zur Geschichte der evangelisch-reformirten Kirche in den preussisch-brandenburgischen Laendern, i, 16 sqq., ii, 82, Breslau, 1784-85; H. Landwehr, Die Kirchenpolitik Friedrich Wilhelms des Grossen Kurfuersten, pp. 150 sqq., Berlin, 1894. Berkeley, George BERKELEY, GEORGE. Bishop of Cloyne (in County Cork, about 15 m. e.s.e. of the city of Cork); b. probably at Dysert Castle, near Thomastown (90 m. s.w. of Dublin), County Kilkenny, Ireland, Mar. 12, 1685; d. at Oxford Jan. 14, 1753. Berkeley's Philosophy. He studied at Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1704; M.A. and fellow, 1707; B.D. and D.D., 1721), and filled various college offices from tutor (1707) to junior dean (1710) and junior Greek lecturer (1712). He lived there in an atmosphere "charged with the elements of reaction against traditional scholasticism in physics and metaphysics." His Commonplace Book (first printed in the Oxford ed. of his works, 1871, iv, 419-502) shows how the stimulus worked upon a mind naturally inclined to independent investigation. Very early he adopted the idea that no existence is conceivable, and therefore none is possible, which is not either conscious spirit or the ideas (i.e., objects) of which such spirit is conscious. Locke had affirmed secondary and primary qualities of the material world; the secondary qualities, such as color and taste, do not exist apart from sensations; primary qualities exist irrespective of our knowledge. Berkeley denied this distinction, and held that external objects exist only as they are perceived by a subject. Thus the mind produces ideas, and these ideas are things. There are, however, two classes of ideas: the less regular and coherent, arising in the imagination; the more vivid and permanent, learned by experience, "imprinted on the senses by the Author of nature" which are the real things--a proof for the existence of God. According to Berkeley matter is not an objective reality but a composition of sensible qualities existing in the mind. "No object exists apart from the mind; mind is therefore the deepest reality; it is the prius, both in thought and existence, if for a moment we assume the popular distinction between the two." Berkeley appeared as an author with this theory already developed, and from it he never wavered. In 1709 he published an Essay toward a New Theory of Vision, an examination of visual consciousness to prove that it affords no ground for belief in the reality of the objects apparently seen. In 1710 appeared a Treatise concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, in which his theory received complete exposition. Meanwhile Berkeley had taken orders, and, in 1713, he left Dublin, went to London, formed many desirable acquaintances, and gained an enviable reputation for learning, humility, and piety. The same year he published Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous (ed. in Religion of Science Library, No. 29, Chicago, 1901), "the finest specimen in our language of the conduct of argument by dialogue." He visited the Continent in 1713-14 and again in 1716-20. In 1721 he returned to Ireland, again filled college offices at Dublin (divinity lecturer and senior lecturer, 1721; Hebrew lecturer, 1722; proctor, 1722), and was appointed dean of Dromore (1722) and dean of Derry, "the best preferment in Ireland" (1724). Berkeley's American Scheme. Berkeley now became devoted to a plan of establishing a college in the Bermuda Islands, went to London to further the project in 1724, and in 1725 published A Proposal for the Better Supplying of Churches in our Foreign Plantations, and for converting the savage Americans to Christianity by a college to be erected in the Summer Islands, otherwise called the Isles of Bermuda. By his enthusiasm and persuasive powers he won many expressions of sympathy, and came to believe that the government would support the plan. In Sept., 1728, he sailed for America and landed at Newport, R. I., Jan., 1729. Three years of waiting convinced him that his hopes were futile, and in Feb., 1732, he returned to London. He published immediately Alciphron or the Minute Philosopher, the result of his studies in America and probably the most famous of his works. It is a powerful refutation of the freethinking then popular and fashionable. In 1734 he was made bishop of Cloyne, and there he lived, happy in his family and beloved for his goodness and benevolence, till 1752, when he went to Oxford to end his days with his son, a senior student at Christ Church. He kept up his studies after his appointment as bishop and published a number of books, including the curious Philosophical Reflections, and Inquiries concerning the Virtues of Tar-water (1744; three eds. the same year, the second called Siris, a Chain of Philosophical Reflections, etc.), in which he set forth a revision of his philosophy, and expressed his faith in tar-water as a universal medicine, good for man and beast; it was the most popular of his works. On first coming to America Berkeley bought a farm near Newport and built there a house, still standing, which he called "Whitehall" after the English palace. The shore is about a mile from the house, and a cleft in the rocks is still pointed out as a retreat whither he was wont to go and where he wrote much of Alciphron. This book is indeed a permanent record of his life at Newport, and not a little of its charm is due to this fact. He helped found a philosophical society at Newport and preached there in Trinity Church, a fine old wooden structure, which is still standing. He made at least one convert, the [91]Rev. Samuel Johnson, episcopal missionary at Stratford, Conn., and afterward first president of Columbia College, New York. Attempts to show that he directly influenced the early idealistic thought of Jonathan Edwards have not proved successful. His American plans and dreams inspired the poem, written at uncertain date, which ends with the stanza: Westward the course of empire takes its way; The four first acts already past, A fifth shall close the drama with the day; Time's noblest offspring is the last. Bibliography: The standard edition of Berkeley's complete works is by A. C. Fraser, 4 vols., Oxford, 1871, reissued 1901, of which vol. iv includes his Life and Letters and An Account of his Philosophy. Prof. Fraser has also edited a volume of Selections from Berkeley, 5th ed., London, 1899, and contributed Berkeley to the Philosophical Classics series, Edinburgh, 1881. There is an edition of The Works of George Berkeley, by G. Sampson, with biographical introduction by A. J. Balfour, in Bohn's Philosophical Library, 3 vols., London, 1897-98. An American edition of the Principles, by C. P. Krauth, Philadelphia, 1874, presents a valuable epitome of opinions concerning Berkeley. The sources for a biography are a Life by Bishop Stock first published 1778, reprinted in the Biographia Britannica, vol. ii, 1780, and prefixed to the first edition of Berkeley's Collected Works, 1784, the details being obtained from Bishop Berkeley's brother, Dr. Robert Berkeley; S. A. Allibone gives interesting details of Berkeley's residence at Newport in Critical Dictionary of English Literature, i, 174-177, Philadelphia, 1891; DNB, iv, 348-358 adds a list of the works chronologically arranged. Consult further D. Stewart, Philosophical Essays, Edinburgh, 1810; vol. v of his Collected Works, 11 vols., ib. 1854-60 (on the idealism of Berkeley); S. Bailey, A Review of Berkeley's Theory of Vision, London, 1842 (adverse in its pronouncement); J. S. Mill, Dissertations and Discussions, ii, 162-197 and cf. vol. iv, Boston, 1865; F. Frederichs, Der phenomenale Idealismus Berkeley's und Kant's, Berlin, 1871; W. Graham, Idealism, an Essay, London, 1872 (connects Berkeley and Hegel); G. Spicker, Kant, Hume und Berkeley, Berlin, 1875; A. Penjon, Etude sur la vie et sur les oeuvres philosophiques de George Berkeley, Paris, 1878; J. Janitsch, Kant's Urtheile ueber Berkeley, Strasburg, 1879; T. Loewy, Der Idealismus Berkeley's, in den Grundlagen untersucht, Vienna, 1891; T. H. Huxley, Collected Essays, vi, 241-319, New York, 1894; M. C. Tyler, George Berkeley and his American Visit, in Three Men of Letters, ib. 1895. Berleburg Bible BERLEBURG BIBLE. See [92]Bibles, Annotated, I, S: 3. Bern, Disputation of BERN, DISPUTATION OF: The decisive point in the contest which definitely established the Reformation at Bern. At first the movement made slow progress there, as both the character of the people and their manner of life rendered them little susceptible to new ideas; even after a reforming party arose, for several years things continued in an undecided and vacillating condition. The somewhat violent and domineering manner in which the Roman Catholic authorities attempted to use their victory at the Conference of Baden (1526; See [93]Baden, Conference of) brought on a crisis which, after the fashion of the time, it was attempted to meet by means of a disputation. Some of the Reformers invited to participate declined, having in mind the result at Baden, and the Roman Catholic dignitaries and celebrities generally refused to attend. But a great number of delegates and clergy appeared from Switzerland and the South German states, including Zwingli, (Ecolampadius, Butzer, Capito, Ambrose Blaurer, and others. The opening session was held on Jan. 6, 1528, and the discussions lasted from the following day till Jan. 26. They were based on ten theses carefully prepared by Berthold Haller and Franz Kolb and revised by Zwingli. The outcome was that the ten theses were subscribed to by most of the clergy of Bern, the mass was done away with, the images were quietly removed from the churches, and on Feb. 7 the Reformation edict was issued, which gave the theses force of law, annulled the power of the bishops, and made the necessary regulations concerning the clergy, public worship, church property, etc. The majority of the country congregations soon gave in their adherence. The influence of the disputation was felt even in France, the Netherlands, and England. Bibliography: The acts of the disputation were published at Zurich, 1528, and again in 1608 and 1701; the Ten Theses are given in English in Schaff, Creeds, i, 364-366, and Christian Church, vii, 104-105, in German and Latin, Creeds, iii, 208-210. Consult S. Fischer, Geschichte der Disputation und Reformation in Bern, Bern, 1828; S. M. Jackson, Huldreich Zwingli, pp. 280-283, New York, 1903. Bern, Synod of BERN, SYNOD OF: The name given to the first Reformed synod at Bern (1532). The Reformation was established at Bern by the Disputation and the edict of Feb. 7, 1528 (see [94]Bern, Disputation of), but much remained to be done in the way of consolidation and to finish the building of the new Church. This task was entrusted to a general synod, to which all the clergy of the land, 220 in number, were invited. It met on Jan. 9-14; Capito from Strasburg was the principal figure, and he collected the results of the discussion with much care and labor. They form a church directory and pastor's manual which is noteworthy, even among the monuments of the Reformation time, for its apostolic force and unction, its warmth and sincerity, its homely simplicity and practical wisdom. Bibliography: The acts of the synod were officially printed at Basel, 1532, again in 1728 sad 1778. Both the original and a modernized text were issued by Lauener, Basel, 1830. Consult M. Kirchhofer, Berthold Haller, pp. 169 sqq., Zurich, 1828; Billeter, in the Berner Beitraege, ed. F. Nippold, Bern, 1884 (especially useful); E. Bloesch, Geschichte der schweizerisch-reformierten Kirchen, i, 74-81, Bern, 1898. Bernard of Botone BERNARD OF BOTONE: Canonist of the thirteenth century; b. in Parma c. 1200; d. at Bologna May, 1263. He studied law at Bologna, where he became professor and canon; then spent some time in Rome in an important official position at the papal court, but toward the end of his life returned to Bologna to lecture, especially on the decretals. He is best known as the author or compiler of the Glossa ordinaria (see [95]Glosses and Glossators of Canon Law) on the decretals of Gregory IX., but wrote also Casus longi and a Summa super titulis decretalium (cf. J. F. von Schulte, Die Geschichte der Quellen des kanonischen Rechts, ii, Stuttgart, 1877, pp. 114 sqq. (C. Friedberg.) Bernard of Clairvaux BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX I. Life and Far-reaching Activity. Bernard's Importance (S: 1). Early Career. Abbot of Clairvaux (S: 2). Activity for Innocent II and against Anacletus II (S: 3). The Second Crusade (S: 4). II. Ecclesiastical and Theological Significance. Asceticism (S: 1). Study of the Bible (S: 2). Grace and Works (S: 3). Bernard's Mysticism (S: 4). Doctrine of the Church (S: 5). Monasticism (S: 6). III. Writings. IV.Hymns. I. Life and Far-reaching Activity: 1. Bernard's Importance. St. Bernard of Clairvaux (Bernardus Claraevallis) is one of the most prominent personalities of the twelfth century, of the entire Middle Ages, and of church history in general. He gave a new impulse to monastic life, influenced ecclesiastical affairs outside of monasticism in the most effective manner, and contributed not a little toward awakening an inner piety in large circles. As he knew how to inspire the masses by his powerful preaching, so also he understood how to lead individual souls by his quiet conversation, to ease the mind, and to dominate the will. It was said in his time that the Church had had no preacher like him since Gregory the Great; and that this was no exaggeration is proved by Bernard's orations, which in copiousness of thought and beauty of exposition have few equals. Revered by his contemporaries as saint and prophet, his writings, which belong to the noblest productions of ecclesiastical literature, have secured him also a far-reaching influence upon posterity. Praised by Luther and Calvin, Bernard's name has retained a good repute among Protestants, though he represented many things which the Reformation had to oppose. 2. Early Career. Abbot of Clairvaux. Bernard was born at Fontaines (20 m. n.e. of Dijon), France, 1090; d. at Clairvaux (in the valley of the Aube, 120 m. s.e. of Paris) Aug. 20, 1153. He was the third son of the knight Tecelin and Aleth, a very pious lady, whose influence decided his future. While yet a boy he lost his mother, and, not being qualified for military service, he was destined for a learned career. He was educated at Chatillon and for a time seemed to be influenced by the world (cf. MPL, clxxviii, 1857; Vita, I, iii, 6). But this period can not have been of long duration; the memory of his mother and the impressions of a solitary journey called him back, and he resolved quickly and firmly to break entirely with the world. He induced some of his brothers, relatives, and friends to follow him, and, after spending half a year together at Chatillon, they entered the "new monastery" at Citeaux (see [96]Cistercians). In 1115 a daughter monastery was founded at Clairvaux and Bernard became abbot. He gave all his energies to the foundation of the monastery, and spent himself in ascetic practises, which the famous William of Champeaux, then bishop of Chalons, checked from time to time (Vita, I, vii, 31-32). Bernard soon became the spiritual adviser not only of his monks but of many who sought his advice and always left Clairvaux impressed by the spirit of solemnity and peace which seemed to be spread over the place (Vita, I, vii, 33-34). His sermons also began to exercise a powerful influence, which was increased by his reputation as prophet and worker of miracles (Vita, I, x, 46). According to the constitution which the new order adopted, Clairvaux became the mother monastery of one of the five principal divisions into which the Cistercian community was organized, and Bernard soon became the most influential and famous personality of the entire order. As early as the pontificate of Honorius II (1124-1130) he was one of the most prominent men of the Church in France; he enjoyed the favor of the papal chancellor Haimeric (Epist., xv), communicated with papal legates (Epist., xvi-xix, xxi), and was consulted on important ecclesiastical matters. At the Synod of Troyes (1128), to which he was called by Cardinal Matthew of Albano, he spoke in favor of the Templars, secured their recognition, and is said to have outlined the first rule of the order (M. Bouquet, Historiens des Gaules et de la France, xiv, Paris, 1806, 232). In the controversy which originated in the same year with King Louis VI, who was not antagonistic to the Church but jealously guarded his own rights, Bernard and his friars defended the bishop before the king (Epist., xiv), afterward also before the pope (Epist., xlvi, cf. xlvii), though at first unsuccessfully. 3. Activity for Innocent II and against Anacletus II. With the schism of 1130 Bernard enters into the first rank of the influential men of his time by espousing from the very beginning the cause of Innocent II against Anacletus II. This partizanship of Bernard and others was no doubt induced by the fear that Anacletus would allow himself to be influenced by family interests. On this account they overlooked the illegal procedure in the election of Innocent, regarding it as a mere violation of formalities, defending it with reasons of doubtful value, and emphasizing the personal worth of that pope. At the conference which the king held at Etampes with spiritual and secular grandees concerning the affair, Bernard seems to have taken the part of reporter. He also worked for the pope by personal negotiations and by writing (Epist., cxxiv, cxxv). When Innocent was unable to maintain his ground at Rome and went to France, Bernard was usually at his side. Later, probably in the beginning of 1132, he was in Aquitaine, endeavoring to counteract the influence of Gerhard of Angouleme upon Count William of Poitou, who sided with Anacletus (Vita, II, vi, 36). His success here was only temporary (Epist., cxxvii, cxxviii), and not until 1135 did Bernard succeed, by resorting to stratagem, in changing the mind of the count (Vita, II, vi, 37-38). When in 1133 Lothair undertook his first campaign against Rome, Bernard accompanied the pope from his temporary residence in Pisa to Rome, and prevented the reopening of the proceedings concerning the rights of the opposing popes (Epist., cxxvi, 8 sqq.). He had previously visited Genoa, animated the people by his addresses, and inclined them to an agreement with the Pisans, as the pope needed the support of both cities (cf. Epist., cxxix, cxxx). It was also Bernard who in the spring of 1135 induced Frederick of Staufen to submit to the emperor (Vita, IV, iii, 14; Otto of Freising, Chron., vii, 19). He then went to Italy, where in the beginning of June the Council of Pisa was held; according to the Vita (II, ii, 8), everybody surrounded him here, so that it looked as if he were not in parte sollicitudinis, but in plenitudine potestatis. Nevertheless, resolutions were passed at that time regarding appeals to the papal see, which could hardly have been to the liking of Bernard. After the council he succeeded in inducing Milan and other cities of Upper Italy to submit to the pope and emperor (Epist., cxxix-cxxxiii, cxxxvii, cxl). In Milan they, attempted to elevate him almost with force to the see of St. Ambrose (Vita, II, ii-v). During the last campaign of Lothair against Rome, Bernard went to Italy for the third time, in 1137; he worked there successfully against Anacletus, and after the Pentecost of 1138 he finally brought about the submission of his successor to Innocent and thus ended the schism (Epist., cccxvii). After this he left Rome. How great Bernard's influence in Rome was at this time may be seen from his successful opposition to [97]Abelard. The ecclesiastico-political affairs of France soon made a new claim upon Bernard's attention. The young king, Louis VII, by making reckless use of his royal prerogatives, caused friction, as when he refused to invest Peter of Lachatre, whom the chapter of Bourges had elected archbishop. The pope consecrated him, nevertheless, and thus provoked a conflict which was enhanced by the partizanship of Count Theobald of Champagne. After a while Bernard was asked to mediate; he faithfully performed this difficult task and enjoyed the confidence of the king to the end of his life (cf. Epist., ccciv), whereas his relations to the pope appear to have been troubled toward the end (Epist., ccxviii; ccxxxi, 3). 4. The Second Crusade. A very unexpected event was the election of Bernard, abbot of Aquae Silviae near Rome, formerly a monk in Clairvaux, as Pope Eugenius III (1145-53). Bernard writes a little later (Epist., ccxxxix) that all who had a cause now came to him; they said that he, not Eugenius, was pope. And it is true that he exercised a remarkable influence in Rome especially at first, but Eugenius did not always follow his counsels and views; he had to consider the cardinals who were envious of Bernard. About this time Bernard, at the request of Cardinal Alberic of Ostia, undertook a journey to Languedoc, where heresy had advanced greatly and [98]Henry of Lausanne had a large following. Bernard's presence there, especially at Toulouse, was not without effect, but to win permanent success continual preaching was required. A more important commission was given to him in the following year by the pope himself, to preach the crusade. At Vezelay, where the king and queen of France took the cross, Mar. 21, 1146, Bernard's address was most effective. He then traversed the north of France and Flanders, and the officious doings of the monk Radulf induced him to go into the regions of the Rhine; he succeeded in checking the persecutions of the Jews at Mainz, which Radulf had occasioned. His journey along the Rhine was accompanied by numerous cures, of which the Vita (vi) contains notices in the form of a diary. But he regarded it as the wonder of wonders that he succeeded on Christmas day, 1146, in influencing King Conrad in favor of the crusade, in the face of all political considerations. During the crusade Eugenius sought a refuge in France. Bernard accompanied him, and was present at the great council in Reims, 1148; in the debates against Gilbert of Poitiers (see [99]Gilbert de la Porree) following the council, Bernard appeared as his main opponent; but the jealousy of the cardinals brought it about that Gilbert escaped unhurt (Vita, III, v, 15; Otto of Freising, De gestis Frid., i, 55-57; Hist. pont., viii, MGH, Scrip., xx, 522 sqq.). About this time the first unfavorable news of the crusade became known, and tidings of its complete failure followed. No one felt the blow more keenly than Bernard, who with prophetical authority to speak had predicted a favorable issue (De consid., ii, 1). In the last years of his life he had to experience many things which caused him sadness. Men with whom he had had a lifelong connection died; his relations with Eugenius III were sometimes troubled (Epist., cccvi); the frailty and the pains of his body increased. But his mental vitality remained active; his last work, De consideratione, betrays freshness and unimpaired force of mind. II. Ecclesiastical and Theological Significance: 1. Asceticism. Bernard's entire life was dominated by the resolution he made while a youth. To work out the salvation of his soul, and--which meant the same thing to him--to dedicate himself to the service of God, was thenceforth the sum of his life. To serve God demanded above all a struggle against nature, and in this struggle Bernard was in earnest. Sensual temptations he seems to have overcome early and completely (Vita, I, iii, 6) and an almost virginal purity distinguished him. To suppress sensuality in the wider sense of the word, he underwent the hardest castigations, but their excess, which undermined his health, he afterward checked in others (cf. Vita, I, xii, 60). He always remained devoted to a very strict asceticism (Epist., cccxlv; Cant., xxx, 10-12; Vita, I, xii, 60), but castigation was to him only a means of godliness not godliness itself, which demands of man still other things. The new life comes only from the grace of God, but it requires the most serious work of one's own nature. How much importance Bernard attached to this work, whose preliminary condition is a quiet collection of the mind, may be learned from the admonitions which he gives on that point to Eugenius. That he prefers the contemplative life to the active is nothing peculiar in him; and he doubtless had the desire to devote himself entirely to it. He may have believed that only duty and love impelled him to act. And yet, as he was eminently fitted for action, such work was probably also is harmony with his inclinations. From his own experience he received the strength to work, the thorough education of the personality, by which he exercised an almost fascinating power over others; on the other hand, his practical activity excited in him a stronger desire for contemplation and made it the more fruitful for him (De diversis, sermo iii, 3-5). 2. Study of the Bible. Of Bernard's quiet hours, in spite of the many pressing claims on him, one part was devoted to study, and his favorite study was the Holy Scripture. His knowledge of the Bible was remarkable; not only does he often quote Bible-passages, but all his orations are impregnated with Biblical references, allusions, and phrases, to pay regard to which is often essential for the correct understanding. It is true that his exegesis did not go beyond the average of his time, yet he allows the great fundamental thoughts and vital forms of the Holy Scripture to influence him the more. As he was nourished by them he also knew in a masterly manner how to bring them near to others. All qualities of the great preacher were united in him; besides being vitally seized by the grace of God, he had a hearty desire to serve his hearers, an impressive knowledge of the human heart, and a wealth of thoughts and fascinating exposition, which was indeed not free from mannerism. What is missing in his sermons is reference to the variety of the relations of life, and this is intelligible, because he had monks as his hearers. 3. Grace and Works. Religious geniality is the most distinguishing quality in the whole disposition of Bernard; his other rich gifts serve it, to it is due the impression which he made upon his time, and the importance which he obtained in the history of the Church. At the same time, Bernard is also a child of his time; above all, of the Church of his time, in which his religious life could develop without conflict. In this respect Bernard is related not to Luther, but to Augustine, and between Augustine and him stand Leo I, Nicholas I, and Gregory VII. Thus elements are found in Bernard which point to future developments combined with those which belong only to the ecclesiastical consciousness of the time. Bernard is most deeply permeated by the feeling of owing everything to the grace of God, that on the working of God rests the beginning and end of the state of salvation, and that we are to trust only in his grace, not in our works and merits. From the forgiveness of sin proceeds the Christian life (De diversis, sermo iii, 1). Faith is the means by which we lay hold of the grace of God (In vigil. nativ. domini, v, 5; In Cant., sermo xxii, 8; cf. also In Cant., lxvii, 10; In vigil. nat. dom., sermo ii, 4). Man can never be sure of salvation by resting his hope upon his own righteousness, for all our works always remain imperfect. On the other hand, Bernard does not deny that man can and should have merits, but they are only possible through the preceding and continually working grace of God; they are gifts of God, which again have rewards in the world to come as their fruit, but without becoming a cause of self-glory. Before God there is no legal claim, but an acquisition for eternity through the work of the pious, made possible and directed by God's grace. A characteristic contrast to these thoughts, which lead man again and again to humility, is the excessive glorification which Bernard devotes to the saints, above all to the Virgin Mary. Though he opposes (Epist., clxxiv) the new doctrine of her immaculate conception, he nevertheless uses expressions concerning the mother of Jesus which go very far (e.g., In nativ. Beat. Virg. Mariae, v, 7; In assumpt. Beat. Virg. Mariae, i, 4; In adv. dom., ii, 5). The same concerns also other saints (e.g., In vigil. Petri et Pauli, S:S: 2, 4, and at the end of the second oration In transitu B. Malachiae). But the importance of such expression which a Protestant consciousness will never be able to adopt is restricted by this, that they are only used on special occasions, such as a feast of the saints. Otherwise the saints stand in the background, Christ alone stands in the foreground. 4. Bernard's Mysticism. Bernard has always been regarded as a main representative of Christian mysticism, and his writings have been much used by later mystics and were the main source for the Imitatio Christi. But just here becomes evident how different the phenomena are which are comprised under the name of mysticism. With the Neoplatonic-Dionysian mysticism that of Bernard has some points of contact, but it differs from it as to its religious character. It is known how depreciatingly Luther speaks of the Areopagite, but this animadversion does not concern Bernard's mysticism. It is not man who soars to divine height, but the grace of God in Christ, which first pardons the sin and then lifts up to itself the pardoned sinner. On this account the whole mysticism of Bernard centers about Christ, the humbled and exalted one; it likes to dwell upon his earthly appearance, his suffering and death, for it is the "work of redemption" which more than anything else is fit to excite love in the redeemed (In Cant., xx, 2; De grad. hum. in its first chapters). At the same time Bernard perceives that a sensual devotion, as it were, to the suffering of Christ is not the goal with which one must be satisfied; the thing necessary is rather to be filled with the spirit of Christ and through it to become like Christ. By Christ's work of redemption the Church has become his bride. To it, i.e., to the totality of the redeemed, belongs this name first and in a proper sense, to the individual soul only in so far as it is a part of the Church (In Cant., xxvii, 6, 7; lxvii; lxviii, 4, 11). What it receives from him is in the first place mercy and forgiveness of sins, then grace and blessing. The climax of grace is the perfect union, but in the earthly life this is experienced by the pious at the utmost in single moments (De consid., V, ii, 1; De grad. hum., viii; De dilig. Deo, x). When Bernard speaks of becoming one with Christ and with God, his thought is clothed with Biblical expressions; but that Bernard in point of fact does not intend to go beyond the meaning of these words can be seen by reading the explanations (In Cant., lxxi, 7 sqq.), where the union with God, to which the pious soul attains, is most keenly distinguished from a consubstantiality, as it exists between Father and Son in the Trinity. Bernard is entirely free from pantheistic thoughts, and that mysticism does not bring him in opposition to the Church his entire ecclesiastical attitude shows. 5. Doctrine of the Church. The Church as organized, with its hierarchy, at whose head stands the Roman bishop, as successor of Peter and vicar of Christ, is to Bernard the exhibition of the kingdom of Christ on earth. On this account it must enjoy perfect autonomy, having a right of supervision over everything in Christendom, even over princes and states. It even has a right over the worldly sword (De consid., IV, 7; cf. Epist., cclvi, 1). Nevertheless Bernard is no blind adherent of the views of Gregory VII. In the first place Bernard demands a perfect separation between secular and spiritual affairs; the secular as such is to be left to the secular government, and only for spiritual purposes and in a spiritual sense is the pope to have supervision (De consid., i, 6). But Bernard is also an opponent of the absolute papal power in the Church. As certainly as he recognizes the papal authority as the highest in the Church, so decidedly does he reprove the effort to make it the only one. Even the middle and lower ranks of the Church have their right before God. To withdraw the bishops from the authority of the archbishops, the abbots from the authority of the bishops, that all may become dependent on the curia, means to make the Church a monster (De consid., iii, 8). 6. Monasticism. Notwithstanding Bernard's many-sided activity, he was and remained above all things a monk, and would not exchange his monachism either for the chair of St. Ambrose or for the primacy of Reims. Monachism is to him the ideal of Christianity. He acknowledges indeed that true Christianity is also possible while living in the world (Apol., iii, 6; In Cant., lxvi, 3; De div., ix, 3), but such a life compared with monastic life seems to him a lower, and in spiritual relation, a dangerous position (De div., xxvii, 2), a partition of the soul between the earthly and heavenly. Monasticism itself he regards in an ideal manner; it appeals to him also not so much from the point of view of merit as from that of the safest way to salvation. To this the whole order of the monastery is subservient, aside from this it is of no value. Besides, Bernard had relations with the different monasteries and monkish associations and was interested in them (cf. with regard to the Premonstratensians Epist., viii, 4; lvi; and especially ccliii; concerning other regular canons, Epist., iii; xxxix, 1; lxxxvii-xc; and elsewhere). In his many relations with the Cluniacensians, frictions were not wanting (cf. Epist., i; clxiv; cclxxxiii; etc., and especially the Apologia ad Guilelmum), for the rise of the new order took place partly at the expense of the old. Nevertheless Bernard was highly esteemed by the Cluniacensians, and close friendship associated him with their head, the noble Peter the Venerable. That it was not interrupted is mainly due to Peter, who knew how to bear occasional lack of consideration by his great friend (cf. Epist., clxvi, 1; clxviii, 1) without resentment (Epist., ccxxix, 5). There existed a mutual true affection and admiration; the letters which they exchanged with each other are an honorable monument for both men, and without regard to differences of times and confessions modern readers can appreciate them. III. Writings. The works of Bernard include a large collection of letters; a number of treatises, dogmatic and polemic, ascetic and mystical, on monasticism, and on church government; a biography of St. Malachy, the Irish archbishop; and sermons. Hymns are also ascribed to him (see below). The most important are the letters, which constitute one of the most valuable collections of church history; and the sermons, of which those on the Song of Songs furnish the chief source of knowledge of Bernard's mysticism. The first and fifth books of his De consideratione are also of a mystic character, whereas ii, iii, and iv contain a critique of church affairs of his time from Bernard's point of view and lay down a programme for papal conduct which a contemporary pope would have found it difficult to follow. S. M. Deutsch. IV. Hymns. Five hymns are ascribed to Bernard, viz.: (1) the so-called Rhythmus de contemptu mundi, "O miranda vanitas! O divitiarum!" (2) the Rhythmica oratio ad unum quodlibet membrorum Christi patientis, a series of salves addressed to the feet, knees, etc. of the Crucified; (3) the Oratio devota ad Dominum Jesum et Beatam Mariam matrem ejus, "Summe summi tu patris unice"; (4) a Christmas hymn, "Laetabundus exultet fidelis chorus"; (5) the Jubilus rhythmicus de nomine Jesu, "Jesu dulcis memoria," on the blessedness of the soul united with Christ. All these poetical productions, besides being beautiful in form and composition, are distinguished by a tender and living feeling and a mystic fervor and holy love. If they are really Bernard's, he deserves the title of Doctor mellifluus devotusque. An addition to the Salve regina, closing with the words, "O clemens, O pia, O dulcis virgo, Maria," is also ascribed to him. Mabillon denies Bernard's authorship of all these hymns in spite of the ancient and prevalent tradition. But one is inclined to accept the tradition, especially since the scholastic Berengar, in his Apologia Abelardi contra S. Bernardum, states that Bernard was devoted to poetry from his youth. German adaptations of the last section of (2) by Paul Gerhard (1659), "O Haupt voll Blut and Wunden," and of (5), "O Jesu suess, wer dein gedenkt", are in common use; there are several English versions--as by J. W. Alexander, "O Sacred Head, now wounded" and "Jesus, how sweet thy memory is," and Ray Palmer's "Jesus, the very thought of thee." M. Herold. Bibliography: A very accurate list of the literature (2,761 entries, arranged chronologically) is given by L. Janauschek, in Bibliographia Bernardina, Vienna, 1891. The best edition of the works of Bernard is by J. M. Horstius, revised and enlarged by J. Mabillon, Paris, 1687, corrected and enlarged 1690 and 1719, reprinted in MPL, clxxxii-clxxxv, of which the last vol. contains the old Vitae, and some valuable additions not found in Mabillon. A new critical ed. of the Sermones de tempore, de sanctis, and de diversis has been published by B. Gsell and L. Janauschek in vol. i of Xenia Bernardina, Vienna, 1891. An Eng. transl. by S. J. Eales of the Life and Works of St. Bernard Clairvaux from the ed. of Mabillon, 4 vols. only completed, London, 1888-97, contains the preface of Mabillon to his second edition of the Opera, a Bernardine Chronology, List and Order of the Letters, and transl. of the Letters, Sermons, and Cantica Canticorum. Of the early biographies the most important is the Vita prima, MPL, clxxxv, 225-466, the first book of which, by William of Thierry, was written during Bernard's lifetime, the second, by Ernald, abbot of Bona Vallis, the other books by Gaufrid of Clairvaux, cf. G. Hueffer Vorstudien zu . . . Bernhard von Clairvaux, Muenster, 1886. Of later literature note J. Pinio, Commentarius de S. Bernardo, in ASB, Aug., iv, 101 sqq., and in MPL, clxxxv, 643-944 (still very useful); and Mabillon's Praefatio (translated in Eales, ut sup.). Of modern lives the following deserve mention: A. Neander, Der heilige Bernhard und sein Zeitalter, Berlin, 1813, ed. S. M. Deutsch, in Bibliothek theologischer Klassiker, vols. xxii-xxiii, Gotha, 1889, Eng. transl. of 1st ed., Life of St. Bernard, London, 1843; J. C. Morrison, Life and Times of St. Bernard, London, 1877; F. Boehringer, Bernhard von Cairvaux, No. xiii, in Die Kirche Christi und ihre Zeugen, Leipsic, 1878; S. J. Eales, St. Bernard, in The Fathers for English Readers, London, 1890 (Roman Catholic); A. C. Benson and H. F. W. Tatham, in Men of Might, ib. 1892; R. S. Storrs, Bernard of Clairvaux, the Times, the Man, and his Work, New York, 1892; W. J. Sparrow-Simpson, Lectures on St. Bernard of Clairvaux, London, 1895 (Roman Catholic); E. Vacandard, Vie de Saint Bernard, Paris, 1895 (displays knowledge of the subject and good taste and judgment so far as the ultramontane point of view of the author allows). Consult further: W. von Giesebrecht, Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit, vol. iv, Brunswick, 1874; W. Bernhardi, Jahrbuecher des deutschen Reichs unter Lothair von Supplinberg, Leipsic, 1879, and unter Konrad III, ib. 1883; B. Kugler, Analekten zur Geschichte des zweiten Kreuzzuges, Tuebingen, 1879; idem, Neue Analekten, ib. 1883; K. F. Neumann, Bernhard von Clairvaux und die Anfaenge des zweiten Kreuzzuges, Heildelberg, 1882; G. Hueffer, Die Anfaenge des zweiten Kreuzzuges, in Historiesches Jarhbuch der Goerres-Gesellschaft, vol. viii, Bonn, 1887. On Bernard's relation to Abelard: S. M. Deutsch, Die Synode zu Sens 1114 und die Verurteilung Abaelards, Berlin, 1880; E. Vacandard, Abelard, sa lutte avec S. Bernard, Paris, 1881. On Bernard as a preacher: A. Broemel, Homiletische Charakterbilder, pp. 53-96, Berlin, 1869; E. Vacandard, S. Bernard, orateur, Rouen, 1877; R. Rothe, Geschichte der Predigt, pp. 216 sqq. Bremen, 1881; A. Nebe, Zur Geschichte der Predigt, i, 250 sqq., Wiesbaden 1879; E. C. Dargan, Hist. of Preaching, pp. 208 sqq., New York, 1905. On Bernard's teaching: A. Ritschl, Die Christliche Lehre von der Rechfertigung und Versoehnung, i, S: 17, Bonn, 1870; idem, Lesefruechte aus dem heligen Bernhard, in TSK, 1879, pp. 317-335; H. Reuter, in ZKG, vol. i, 1876; G. Thomasius, Dogmengeschichte, ed. Seeberg, ii, 129 sqq., Leipsic, 1889; A. Harnack, Dogmengeschichte, vol. iii, Freiburg, 1898. On Bernard as a hymnist: R. C. Trench, Sacred Latin Poetry, pp. 138-141, London, 1864; S. W. Duffield, English Hymns, pp. 299, 300, 317 430, 600, New York, 1886; idem, Latin Hymn Writers, passim, especially pp. 186-193, ib. 1889; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 136-137; P. Schaff, Literature and Poetry, ib. 1890. Discussions of St. Bernard from various points of view will be found in the Church Histories dealing with his period and also in works on the History of Philosophy. For Bernard's hymns: H. A. Daniel, Thesaurus hymnologicus, 5 vols., Halle, 1841-56; C. J. Simrock, Lauda Sion, Cologne, 1850; J. F. H. Schlosser, Die Kirche in ihren Liedern durch alle Jahrhunderte, Freiburg, 1863; P. Schaff, Christ in Song, New York, 1888; J. Pauly, Hymni breviarii Romani, 3 vols., Aachen, 1868-70; F. A. March, Latin Hymns with English Notes, pp 114-125, 276-279, New York, 1874; W. A. Merrill, Latin Hymns Selected and Annotated, Boston, 1904. Bernard of Cluny BERNARD OF CLUNY (Bernardus Morlanensis, often called Bernard of Morlaix, Morlanensis being improperly rendered Morlaix instead of Morlas): Monk of Cluny; b. probably at Morlas (5 m. n.e. of Pau, and then the capital of the province of Bearn); d. at Cluny probably about the middle of the twelfth century. Nothing more is known of him, except that he wrote a satirical poem of 2,991 lines, divided into three books, and entitled De contemptu mundi, dedicating it to Peter the Venerable. The theme is a monastic and ascetic commonplace, but its handling reveals vigor and satirical power. The meter is a medieval adaptation of the dactylic hexameter, so difficult that Bernard believed he had divine assistance in keeping it up for so many lines; each pair of lines rimes and the first third of each line rimes with the second, thus (lines 1-2): "Hora novissima, tempora pessima sunt, vigilemus. Ecce minaciter imminet arbiter ille supremus." As to contents the poem is a satirical arraignment of the twelfth century for its vices in Church and society, sparing not even monks and nuns, but so exaggerated that it can not be accepted as history. The opening of the first book and the concluding part of the third are on spiritual themes of uncommon beauty. The poem exists in at least nine contemporary manuscripts and so must have been popular in its day. But it was forgotten until Matthias Flacius Illyricus discovered it and, with a view of showing that the evils of medieval Romanism of which the Protestants complained were already pilloried by Rome's faithful sons, printed a few lines from its third book in his Catalogus testium veritatis qui ante nostram aetatem reclamarunt papae (Basel, 1556), and the next year the entire poem in the collection of similar poems which he entitled Varia doctorum piorumque virorum de corrupto Ecclesiae statu poemata ante nostram aetatem conscripta. This collection was reprinted in 1754, probably at Frankfort. The first to bring Bernard's poem out separately was Nathan Chytraeus (Bremen, 1597), and he was followed by Eilhard Lubin (Rostock, 1610), Petrus Lucius (Rinteln, 1626), and Johann and Heinrich Stern (Luneburg, 1640). Finally Thomas Wright reprinted it in his Anglo-Latin Satirical Poets of the Twelfth Century (London, 1872, Rolls Series, No. 59). The first complete translation, in prose, was published by Henry Preble (AJT, Jan.-July, 1906). In 1849 Trench published in his Sacred Latin Poetry (London) ninety-six lines from its first book, and these attracted the delighted attention of John Mason Neale, who translated them in his Mediaeval Hymns and Sequences (London, 1851). His translation from Bernard leaped into wonderful popularity and was separately printed along with other lines not in Trench, as The Rhythm of Bernard de Morlaix, Monk of Cluny, on the Celestial Country (London, 1859; often reprinted). One of the hymns made by division out of this translation, "Jerusalem the golden," is found in all hymnbooks. Other pieces in prose and poetry are also attributed to Bernard. Bibliography: S. M. Jackson, The Source of "Jerusalem the Golden" and Other Pieces Attributed to Bernard of Cluny, Chicago, 1909 (contains Preble's translation of the De contemptu mundi, and an elaborate introduction and bibliography). Bernard of Constance BERNARD OF CONSTANCE: German teacher and author of the eleventh century; d. at Corvey 1088. He was a Saxon by birth, and about the middle of the century presided with notable success over the school at Constance, which he left to teach at Hildesheim. During his residence here he was asked by his teacher Adalbert and his pupil [100]Bernold to write on the questions raised by the Roman synod of 1078, and answered in a lengthy treatise against the opponents of Gregory VII. His standpoint comes out even more clearly in his Liber canonum contra Henricum IV, which on its first publication (M. Sdralek, Die Streitschriften, Altmanns von Passau und Wezilos von Mainz, Paderborn, 1890) was erroneously ascribed to Bishop Altmann of Passau. It was written after the Synod of Quedlinburg at Easter, 1085, when the Gregorian party was in great difficulties, and is an uncompromising declaration of fidelity to the papal cause. Bernard was, in short, as his pupil Bernold describes him, not only "a most learned man" but also "most fervent in the cause of St. Peter." Carl Mirbt. Bibliography: The two works mentioned above have been edited by F. Thaner in MGH, Lib. de lite, ii (1892), 29-47, and i (1891), 472-516 respectively. Consult C. Mirbt, Die Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregora VII, Leipsic, 1894; F. Thaner, Zu zwei Streitschriften des 11. Jahrhunderts, in Neues Archiv fuer aelteredeutsche Geschichte, xvi (1889), 529-540; Hauck, KD, vol. iii. Bernard of Menthon BERNARD OF MENTHON: Founder of the hospices on the Great and Little St. Bernard. Little is known of his life, as modern criticism has hardly touched it, and the older biographies are untrustworthy and legendary. According to them he was born at Menthon, near Annecy (25 m. s. of Geneva), Savoy, in 923, and studied the liberal arts, law, and theology. To avoid a marriage planned by his parents, he fled to Aosta, where he was ordained and later became archdeacon. In addition to the most faithful performance of his priestly duties, he founded the two hospices and placed them in charge of canons regular, finally dying at Novara in 1007. A sequence preserved in the Acta Sanctorum, and dating probably from the end of the eleventh or beginning of the twelfth century, speaks of a meeting between him and Henry IV, which may possibly have occurred. It is known that in the ninth century there was a hospice under clerical auspices on the Mons Jovis, the present Great St. Bernard, which may later have fallen unto decay. First in 1125, and often after that date, we find mention of the church of St. Nicholas on the Mons Jovis; in 1145 of the hospitale, which in 1177 is called domus hospitalis SS. Nicolai et Bernardi Montis Jovis. It is thus not improbable that Bernard restored the older foundation; but it is more likely that this took place at the beginning of the twelfth than at the end of the eleventh century. The date of 1081 for Bernard's death is no better attested than that of 1007. Innocent XI canonized him in 1881. The larger hospice, on which till 1752 the smaller depended, was reformed during the Council of Basel, receiving a very original constitution in 1438. Napoleon, pleased by his reception there, placed the hospice founded by him on the Simplon pass under the care of the same community, and endowed the foundation, which had lost a great part of the rich possessions formerly held by it in fourteen dioceses. It is now supported by voluntary offerings from all the Swiss cantons. A statue of Bernard was erected near the hospice in 1905. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: The old lives are in ASB, 15 June, ii, 1071-1089; Alban Butler, Lives of the Fathers, June 15, 2 vols., London, 1857-60; an old text Le Mystere de St. Bernard de Menthon was published by A. L. de la Marche, Paris, 1889. Consult L. Burgener, Der heilige Bernhard von Menthon, Lucerne, 1870; Memoires et documents publies par la societe d'histoire de la Suisse, vol. xxix, Lausanne, 1875; A. Luetolf, Ueber das wahre Zeitalter des heiligen Bernard von Menthon (996-1081), is TQ, lxi (1879), 179-207; J. A. Due, in Miscellanea di storia Italiana, xxxi, 343-388, Turin, 1894; Wattenbach, DGQ, ii (1886), 214, ii (1894), 241. Bernard of Morlaix BERNARD OF MORLAIX. See [101]Bernard of Cluny. Bernard of Toledo BERNARD OF TOLEDO: Archbishop of Toledo 1086-1125; b. at Agen (73 m. s.e. of Bordeaux), France, c. 1050; d. in Spain 1125. His significance in the history of Spain lies in the fact that from him dates the emergence of the Spanish Church from its isolation and its dependence on Rome. He became a monk in the monastery of Cluny, whence he was sent to Spain with others to assist the cause of the reforms of Gregory VII. Here he was made (1080) abbot of St. Facundus at Sahagun in the diocese of Leon, and finally named by Alfonso VI for the archbishopric of Toledo. Gregory's plans for Spain included (besides a general crusade against clerical marriage, simony, and lay investiture) the substitution of the Roman liturgy for the Mozarabic and the recognition of the obligations of tribute from the Spanish Church. The former point had been practically gained before his death, in spite of strenuous opposition. Urban II, by raising Bernard's see to primatial dignity, gave him the power necessary to prosecute the work of Romanizing. His cooperation made possible Urban's intervention at the Synod of Leon (1091) and ignoring of the royal right of investiture when Alfonso attempted to appoint a Spaniard to the see of St. Jago, apparently in order to counterbalance the influence of the French Benedictines with whom the primate was filling the episcopal sees. His career was throughout that of a devoted adherent of the papacy. Some reminiscences of his youthful days as a knight appear in his forcible seizure of the Mohammedan mosque at Toledo in his first year as archbishop and in his plans for a crusade against the Saracens of the East, which both Urban II and Paschal II forbade, in view of the tasks which Spanish Christian chivalry had at home. Four of his sermons, on the Salve Regina, are included among those of the great Bernard. Carl Mirbt. Bibliography: J. Aschbach, Geschichte Spaniens und Portugals zur Zeit der Herrschaft der Almoraviden und Almohaden, i, 129 sqq., 339, 358 sqq., Frankfort, 1833; Historia Compostellana: Espana sagrada, ed. H. Florez, xx, 1-598, 615, Madrid, 1791; A. F. Gfroerer, Papst Gregorius VII und sein Zeitalter, iv, 484, 500-501, Schaffhausen, 1854; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, v, 200, 251, 328-327; idem, Der Kardinal Ximenes, pp. 150 sqq., Arnheim, 1853. Bernard, Claude BERNARD, CLAUDE: Called the "poor priest" and "Father Bernard"; b. in Dijon Dec. 23, 1588; d. at Paris Mar. 23, 1641. He was the son of a jurist, studied law himself, and for a time led a life of pleasure, but was converted by what he believed was a vision of his departed father. He became a priest and made Paris his residence, where he spent his time preaching and visiting the poor and sick, not shrinking from the most disgusting diseases. He gave away all that he had, including an inheritance of 400,000 francs. Bernard, John Henry BERNARD, JOHN HENRY: Church of Ireland, dean of St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin; b. at Raniganj, Bardwan (126 m. n.w. of Calcutta), India, July 27, 1860. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1880), where he was elected fellow and tutor in 1884, retaining his fellowship until 1902. In 1886 he was ordained to the priesthood, and was chaplain to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland from 1887 to 1902. Since 1888 he has been Archbishop King's lecturer in divinity in the University of Ireland, and has been dean of St. Patrick's since 1902, where he had already been treasurer from 1897 to 1902. He was examining chaplain to the bishop of Down in 1889, and was select preacher to the University of Oxford in 1893-1895 and to the University of Cambridge in 1898, 1901, and 1904. He has repeatedly been examiner in mental and moral philosophy for the India Civil Service, and has been a member of the Council of the University of Dublin since 1892, as well as a commissioner of national education for Ireland from 1697 to 1903. He was likewise a member of the General Synod of the Church of Ireland in 1894, and of the Representative Church Body in 1897, while in 1902 he became a warden of Alexandra College, Dublin, a commissioner of charitable donations and bequests for Ireland in 1904, and a visitor of Queen's College, Galway, in 1905. He has written or edited the following works: Kant's Critical Philosophy for English Readers (2 vols., London, 1889; in collaboration with J. P. Mahaffy); Kant's Criticism of Judgment (1892); From Faith to Faith (university sermons, 1895); Archbishop Benson in Ireland (1896); Via Domini (cathedral sermons, 1898); The Irish Liber Hymnorum (1898; in collaboration with R. Atkinson); The Pastoral Epistles, in The Cambridge Bible, (Cambridge, 1899); The Works of Bishop Butler (2 vols., London, 1900); The Second Epistle to the Corinthians, in The Expositor's Bible (1903); St. Patrick's Cathedral (1904); The Prayer of the Kingdom (1904); and has translated and edited The Pilgrimage of St. Silvia (1896) and other publications of The Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society. Bernard, Thomas Dehany BERNARD, THOMAS DEHANY: Church of England; b. at Clifton (a suburb of Bristol), Gloucestershire, Nov. 11, 1815; d. at Wimborne (21 m. n.e. of Dorchester), Dorsetshire, Dec. 7, 1904. He was educated at Exeter College, Oxford (B.A., 1838), was ordered deacon in 1840 and priest in the following year, and was successively curate and vicar of Great Baddow, Essex (1840-46), vicar of Terling, Essex (1848), and rector of Walcot, Somerset (1863-86). He was prebendary of Haselbere and canon resident of Wells Cathedral from 1868 to 1901, and chancellor of the same cathedral after 1879, while from 1880 to 1895 he was proctor for the dean and chapter of Wells. He was also select preacher at Oxford in 1855, 1862, and 1882, and was Bampton Lecturer in 1864. He wrote The Witness of God (university sermons, London, 1862); Progress of Doctrine in the New Testament (Bampton lectures, 1864, 4th ed., 1878); The Central Teaching of Jesus Christ (1892); and The Songs of the Holy Nativity (1895). Bernardin of Sienna BERNARDIN OF SIENNA: Franciscan; b. of noble parents at Massa (33 m. s.w. of Sienna) Sept. 8, 1350; d. at Aquila (58 m. n.e. of Rome) May 20, 1444. He entered the Franciscan order 1402; became its vicar-general 1437, and effected many reforms in discipline and government. He was the most famous preacher of his time and spoke to great crowds in all parts of Italy with wonderful effect. Three times he refused the offer of a bishopric. He was canonized by Nicholas V in 1450 and his day is May 20. His writings were first printed at Lyons (1501), afterward at Paris (4 vols., 1636; 5 vols., 1650) and at Venice (4 vols., 1745). The first volume contains his life by his scholar, St. John of Capistrano. Bernardin's writings are for the most part tractatus seu sermones, which are not so much sermons according to the modern view as formal treatises upon morals, asceticism, and mysticism. Bibliography: The older accounts of his life are collected in ASB, 20 May, vi, 262-318. Consult: P. Thureau-Dangin, Un Predicateur populaire . . . St. Bernardin de Sienne (1380-1444), Paris, 1896, Eng. transl., London, 1906; Berthaumier, Histoire de S. Bernardin de Sienne, Paris, 1862; J. P. Toussaint, Leben des heiligen Bernardin, Regensburg, 1873; F. Apollinaire, La vie et les oeurres de S. Bernardin, Poitiers, 1882; E. C. Dargan, Hist. of Preaching, pp. 317 sqq., New York, 1905. Bernardines BERNARDINES. See [102]Cistercians. Bernice (Berenice) BERNICE, ber-nai'se or ber'nis (for BERENICE): Eldest daughter of Herod Aprippa I. See [103]Herod and his Family. Berno (Bern, Bernard) of Reichenau BERNO (BERN, BERNARD) OF REICHENAU: Abbot of Reichenau (Benedictine abbey on as island in the Untersee of Lake Constance, 4 m. w.n.w. of Constance) 1008 till his death, June 7, 1048. He was monk in a monastery at Pruem near Treves when appointed abbot; under his rule Reichenau regained its prosperity, which had been lost under his predecessor, the abbot Immo; the library was enriched, scholars were attracted to the school, and the church of St. Mark was rebuilt. He was renowned personally as scholar, as poet, and, above all, as musician; he accompanied the emperor, Henry II, to Rome in 1014 for his coronation and after his return introduced reforms in German church music. Besides lives of saints and theological and liturgical treatises he left a number of letters and works upon music, which are published in Gerbert, Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra, ii (St. Blaise, 1784). His writings are in MPL, cxliii. (A. Hauck.) Bernold BERNOLD: German ecclesiastical author; b. probably in southern Swabia c. 1054; d. at Schaffhausen Sep. 16, 1100. He was educated at Constance under [104]Bernard, with whom he continued in close relations. He began writing early, and was present in Rome at the great synod of 1079 when Berengar was condemned. The next certain date is his ordination by the cardinal-legate Otto of Ostia at Constance in 1084. From 1086 to 1091 he was certainly an inmate of the monastery of St. Blaise in the Black Fort; in the latter year he migrated to Schaffhausen, where he remained (though not without interruption, as his presence at the battle of Pleichfeld shows) until his death. He was a versatile author. His Chronicon (ed. G. Waitz, in MGH, Script., v, 1844, 385-467) is a valuable source for his own lifetime, though colored by his partizan support of Gregory VII. His treatise De Berengarii haeresiarchae damnatione multiplici is interesting for the light which it throws on the attitude of German theology before the beginning of the strictly scholastic period. Most of his extant works, however, are of a practical nature, dealing with the vexed questions of the church life of his time. Though a zealous upholder of the reforming papacy, he was not a fanatic. Carl Mirbt. Bibliography: C. Mirbt, Die Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregors VII, Leipsic, 1894; A. Ussermann, Germaniae sacrae prodromus, ii, 432-437, Freiburg, 1792; E. Strelau, Leben und Werks des Moenches Bernold von St. Blasien, Jena, 1889; G. Meyer von Knonau, Jahrbuecher des deutschen Reichs unter Heinrich IV und Heinrich V, Leipsic, 1890-1904. Bernward BERNWARD: Bishop of Hildesheim 993-1022. He came of a noble Saxon family, being the grandson of the count palatine Adalbero and the nephew of Bishop Folkmar of Utrecht. He was educated at the cathedral school of Hildesheim by Thangmar, later his biographer, and ordained by Willigis of Mainz. In 987 he became chaplain at the imperial court and tutor to the young Otto III. On Jan. 15, 993, he was consecrated bishop of Hildesheim. He protected his diocese vigorously from the attacks of the Normans, and only once took a wrong step as a temporal magnate--when, at the accession of Henry II, he took the side of Margrave Ekkehart, whose death, however, saved him from the consequences of his mistake. He rendered great services to literature and art. He died Nov. 20, 1022, a few weeks after the consecration of the magnificent church of St. Michael which he had built. Celestine III canonized him in 1193. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: The Vita by Thangmar is in MGH, Script., iv, 754-782, the Miracula, ib. pp. 782-786, Hanover, 1841; the continuation of the Vita by Wolfherius, ib. xi, 165-167, 1854. Consult: A. Schultz, Der heilige Bernward . . . und seine Verdienste, Leipsic, 1879; W. A. Neumann, Bernward von Hildesheim und seine Zeit, in Mittheilungen des kaiserlichen oesterreichischen Museums fuer Kunst, v, 73-80, 97-104, 124-130, 141-152, 168-173, Vienna, 1890; B. Sievers, Der heilige Bernward, in Studien und Mittheilungen aus dem Benedict- und dem Cisterz.-0rden, xiv (1893), 398-420; Wattenbach, DGQ, i (1893), 318, 346-350, ii, 25, 360, 511; S. Beissel, Der heilige Bernward von Hildesheim, Hildesheim, 1895. Beroeans or Barclayites BEROEANS OR BARCLAYITES. See [105]Barclay, John. Berquin, Louis de BERQUIN, bar''kan', LOUIS DE: French Reformer; b. at Passy-Paris June, 1490; d. at Paris Apr. 17, 1529. He belonged to a noble family of Artois and was lord of the estate of Berquin, near Abbeville. In 1512 he came to Paris to finish his studies, became acquainted with Lefevre d'Etaples and the publisher Josse Badius, and was introduced to Marguerite of Valois, sister of Francis I, through whom he gained the king's favor. He belonged to that group of godly humanists who wished a reformation of the Church, but without a rupture with Rome. He hated equally the ignorance of the monks and the coarseness of Luther. Erasmus seemed to him the true Reformer; with him therefore he opened correspondence and translated several of his tracts, as well as Luther's De votis monasticis. The doctors of the Sorbonne denounced him as a heretic and on May 13, 1523, the trial was held before the Parliament. Seven of Berquin's writings and one of his translations from Luther and Melanchthon were condemned by the theological faculty and by the Parliament. On Aug. 1, he was made prisoner, but was set free by order of the king, Aug. 8. The Parliament had already burned his papers and books. The siege of Pavia and the captivity of the king (Feb., 1525) increased the Parliament's power, and the queen regent, Louise de Savoie, established (May 20) an extraordinary court to judge the heretics. On the same day three of Erasmus's treatises were censured. Berquin would have been permitted to retire and live on his estates if he had consented to keep silence. But he could not help speaking the truth and (Jan. 8, 1526), being denounced by the bishop of Amiens, he was again imprisoned. His books were again judged and forty of his propositions were declared heretical. He defended himself by saying that his propositions were taken from Erasmus and nobody adjudged the latter a heretic. His books were nevertheless condemned and he would have been burned with them if Marguerite of Valois had not invoked the clemency of her brother. Aug. 17 Francis sent a letter to the Parliament commanding them to take no definite steps without his advice. Although Erasmus advised silence, Berquin, confident of the king's favor, tamed the struggle and quoted from Noel Beda's writings against Erasmus, against the Sorbonne, and Lefevre d'Etaples, twelve propositions as false and heretical, and asked the king to allow the Parliament to give judgment. From July, 1528, until March, 1529, Berquin lived in security. He was then again imprisoned and Parliament condemned him "to have his tongue branded with a red-hot iron and to remain a prisoner for the rest of his life." Apr. 16 Berquin appealed to the king, and the next day Parliament, taking advantage of the king's absence at Blois, ordered Berquin to be burned at the Place de Greve. He was the first Protestant martyr of France. Theodore Beza said of him: "If Francis had upheld him to the last, he would have been the Luther of France." Berquin's original works are all lost, only a few of his translations being left: Enchiridion du chevalier chrestien (Antwerp, 1529); Le vray moyen de bien et catholiquement se confesser, par Erasme (Lyons, 1542); Paraphrases sur le Nouveau Testament, and Le symbole des apotres (both from Erasmus, n.p., n.d.). G. Bonet- Maury. Bibliography: Sources for a biography are in T. Beza, Histoire ecclesiastique des eglises reformee s de France, i, 7, Paris, 1882; A. L. Herminjard, Correspondance des Reformateurs, vol. ii and viii, especially vol. ii, containing letters by Erasmus to Berquin, ii, 155-157, 159-160, and the letter of Erasmus to C. Utenhovius, ii, 1893, 193, ib. 1878, 1893; a brief but lucid account of Berquin's life is contained in A. Chevillier, L'Origins de l'imprimerie de Paris, ib. 1694. Consult: Histoire du protestantisme franc,ais, xi, 129, ib. 1846; Journal d'un bourgeois de Paris, ed. L. Lalanne, ib. 1894; Haureau, in Revue des deux mondes, Jan. 15, 1869; H. M. Baird, Rise of the Huguenots, i, 128-158, London, 1880. Berruyer, Joseph Isaac BERRUYER, bar''rue''ye', JOSEPH ISAAC: French Jesuit; b. at Rouen Nov. 7, 1681; d. at Paris Feb. 18, 1758. He served as teacher of his order for many years and won notoriety from an attempt to rewrite the Bible in French in the form of a romance fitted to the taste of his time; in carrying out the idea, however, he introduced much that was unfitting, heretical, and even blasphemous and obscene. He published the first part, Histoire du peuple de Dieu depuis son origine jusqu'`a la venue du Messie, in seven volumes at Paris, 1728. It was put on the Index in 1734, but reissued in expurgated shape in 8 vols. 1733-34. The second part included the Gospels, 4 vols. 1753, also put on the Index in 1755. The third part included the Epistles, in 2 vols. 1757, but was condemned by the pope in 1758. The whole work has appeared in Italian, Spanish, Polish, and German transls., and was reissued (expurgated) in 1851 in 10 volumes. Bibliography: E. H. Landon, Ecclesiastical Dictionary, ii, 204, London, 1853; A. de Backer, Bibliotheque des ecrivains de la compagnie de Jesus, iv, 340, 7 vols., Paris, 1853-1881; F. H. Reusch, Der Index der verbotenen Buecher, ii, 804, Bonn, 1885. Berry, Joseph F. BERRY, JOSEPH F.: Methodist Episcopal bishop; b. at Aylmer, Can., Map 13, 1856; received his education at Milton Academy, Ontario; entered the ministry of his denomination, 1874; was associate editor of the Michigan Christian Advocate, 1884-90; editor of Hepworth Herald, 1890-1904; and was elected bishop 1904. Bersier, Eugene Artur Francois BERSIER, bar''sye', EUGENE ARTUR FRANC,OIS: French Reformed; b. at Morges (7 m. w. of Lausanne), Switzerland, Feb. 5, 1831; d. at Paris Nov. 19, 1889. He came of Huguenot parentage, took elementary studies at Geneva and Paris; visited America, 1848-50; studied theology at Geneva, Goettingen, and Halle; became pastor in Paris 1855--in the Free Church until 1877 (until 1861 over the Faubourg St. Antoine Church; until 1874, assistant of Pressense in the Taitbout Church; until 1877, over the Etoile Church), when he and his congregation joined the Reformed (established) Church of France. He was the author of several popular volumes of sermons, some of which have been translated into English: in the Protestant Pulpit series (2 vols., London, 1869); Oneness of the Race in its Fall and its Future (translated by Annie Harwood, London, 1871); Sermons, with Sketch of the Author (London, 1881; 2d series, 1885); St. Paul's Vision (translated by Marie Stewart, New York, 1881; new ed. 1890); The Gospel in Paris; Sermons, with personal Sketch of the Author by Rev. Frederick Hastings (London, 1884). There are translations also into German, Danish, Swedish, and Russian. He wrote also Solidarite (Paris, 1869); Histoire du Synode de 1872 (2 vols., 1872); Liturgie (now used in the Reformed Church of France, 1874); Mes actes et mes principes (1878); L'Immutabilite de Jesus Christ (1880); Royaute de Jesus Christ (1881); Coligny avant les guerres de religion (1884; 3d ed., 1885; Eng. transl., Coligny: the Earlier Life of the Great Huguenot, London, 1885); La Revocation, discours . . . sur l'edit de revocation (1886); Les Refugies franc,ais et leur industries (1886); Projet de revision de la liturgie des Eglises reformees en France (1888); Quelques pages d'histoire des Huguenots (1890). Bibliography: E. Stapfer, La Predication d'Eugene Bersier, Paris, 1893; J. F. B. Tinling, Bersier's Pulpit: Analysis of Public Sermons of . . . Eugene Bersier, London, 1900; W. C. Wilkinson, Modern Masters of Pulpit Discourse, pp. 251-281, New York, 1905 (highly laudatory). Bertheau, Carl BERTHEAU, bar''tO', CARL: German Lutheran; b. at Hamburg July 8, 1836. He was educated at the universities of Goettingen (1855-57, 1858-59) and Halle (1857-58), and after teaching in the schools of his native city became pastor of St. Michael's Church there in 1867. Since 1897 he has been president of the Hamburg Verein fuer innere Mission. In theology he belongs to the positive evangelical school. He prepared the third volume of K. Hirsche's Prolegomena zu Thomas `a Kempis (Berlin, 1894) and edited Luther's catechisms (Hamburg, 1896). Bertheau, Ernst BERTHEAU, ERNST: German Lutheran; b. at Hamburg Nov. 23, 1812; d. at Goettingen May 17, 1888. He studied in Berlin and Goettingen (Ph.D., 1836) and became repetent at Goettingen 1836 extraordinary professor of Oriental languages and Old Testament exegesis 1842, ordinary professor 1843. From 1870 he was a member of the commission to revise Luther's Bible. His publications include: Carminis Ephraemi Syri textus Syriacus secundum codicem bibliothecae Angelicae denuo editus ac versione et brevi annotatione instructus (Goettingen, 1837); Die sieben Gruppen mosaischer Gesetze in den drei mittleren Buechern des Pentateuchs (1840); Zur Geschichte der Israeliten, zwei Abhandlungen (1842); an edition of the Syriac grammar of Bar Hebraeus (1843); and commentaries upon Judges and Ruth (1845; 2d ed., 1883), Chronicles (1854; 2d ed., 1873), Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther (1862), and Proverbs (1847; 2d ed., 1883), in the Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament. (Carl Bertheau.) Berthier, Guillaume Franc,ois BERTHIER, bar''tye', GUILLAUME FRANC,OIS: French Jesuit; b. at Issoudun (130 m. s. of Paris), department of Indre, Apr. 7, 1704; d. at Bourges Dec. 15, 1782. He joined the Jesuits in 1722. He added six volumes (Paris, 1749) to the twelve already completed by Longueval, Fontenay, and Brumoy of the Histoire de l'eglise gallicane, bringing the narrative down to 1529; from 1745 to 1762 he edited the Memoires de Trevoux and displayed much moderation as well as learning under attacks from the Encyclopedists and Voltaire. After the expulsion of his order from France in 1762 he was appointed tutor to the princes afterward Louis XVI and Louis XVIII, but had to leave the country in 1764; after an absence of ten years he returned to Bourges. He translated the Psalms (8 vols., 1785) and the Book of Isaiah (5 vols., 1788-89) into French with notes. His OEuvres spirituelles were published at Paris in five volumes in 1811. Bibliography: A. de Backer, Bibliotheque des ecrivains de la compagnie de Jesus, s.v., 7 vols., Paris, 1853-61. Berthold of Chiemsee BERTHOLD OF CHIEMSEE. See [106]Puerstinger, Berthold. Berthold of Livonia BERTHOLD OF LIVONIA: Early missionary and second bishop among the Livonians. He was abbot of the Cistercian monastery in Lokkum, and was consecrated bishop to succeed Meinhard about 1196 by Hartwig II, bishop of Bremen. After he had failed to win the heathen by mild means with peril of his life, he went to Saxony and returned with a body-guard in 1198. The Livonians gathered and were defeated in battle, but the bishop was slain July 24, 1198. His successor was [107]Albert of Riga. Berthold of Regensburg BERTHOLD OF REGENSBURG: Franciscan friar, the greatest popular preacher of the Middle Ages in Germany; b. at Regensburg probably earlier than the traditional date of 1220; d. there Dec. 14, 1272. He was a member of the Franciscan community founded at Regensburg in 1226. His novitiate was passed under the guidance of David of Augsburg; and by 1246 he is found in a position of responsibility. By 1250 at the latest, he had begun his career as an itinerant preacher, first in Bavaria, where he endeavored to bring Duke Otto II back to obedience to the Church; then he appears farther westward, at Speyer in 1254 and 1255, then passing through Alsace into Switzerland. In the following years the cantons of Aargau, Thurgau, Constance, and Grisons, with the upper Rhine country, were the principal scenes of his activity. In 1260 he went farther afield, traversing after that date Austria, Moravia, Hungary, Silesia, Thuringia, and possibly Bohemia, reaching his Slavonic audiences through an interpreter. Some of his journeys in the East were probably in the interest of the crusade, the preaching of which was specially entrusted to him by Pope Urban IV in 1263. The German historians, from Berthold's contemporary, Abbot Hermann of Niedernaltaich, down to the middle of the sixteenth century, speak in the most glowing terms of the force of his personality and the effect of his preaching, which is said to have attracted almost incredible numbers, so that the churches could not hold them; and he was forced to speak from a platform or a tree in the open air. The gifts of prophecy and miracles were soon attributed to him, and his fame spread from Italy to England. He must have been a preacher of great talents and success. Although the manuscript reports of his sermons, which began to circulate very early, are by no means to be trusted as literal productions, we can still form from them a tolerably accurate idea of the matter and manner of his preaching. It was always of a missionary character, based formally on the Scriptures for the day, but soon departing from them to apply the special theme which Berthold wished to enforce. This generally finds its point in the insistent call to true sorrow for sin, sincere confession, and perfect penance; penance without contrition has no value in God's sight, and neither a crusade nor a pilgrimage has any good result unless there is a firm purpose to renounce sin. From this standpoint Berthold criticizes the new preachers of indulgences. The extremely mixed character of his audiences led him to make his appeal as wide and general as possible. He avoids subtle theological questions, and advises the laity not to pry into the divine mysteries, but to leave them to the clergy, and content themselves with the credo. The weighty political occurrences of the time are also left untouched. But everything that affects the average man--his joys and his sorrows, his superstitions and his prejudices--is handled with intimate knowledge and with a careful clearness of arrangement easy for the most ignorant to follow. While exhorting all to be content with their station in life, he denounces oppressive taxes, unjust judges, usury, and dishonest trade. Jews and heretics are to be abhorred, and players who draw people's minds away to worldly pleasure; dances and tournaments are also condemned, and he has a word of blame for the women's vanity and proneness to gossip. He is never dry, always vivid and graphic, mingling with his exhortations a variety of anecdotes, jests, and the wild etymologies of the Middle Ages, making extensive use of the allegorical interpretation of the Old Testament and of his strong feeling for nature. (E. Steinmeyer.) Bibliography: The sermons in Germen of Berthold were edited or given in abstract by C. F. Kling, Berlin, 1824, on which cf. J. Grimm in Wiener Jahrbuecher der Literatur, xxxii (1825), 194-257, and the Kleinere Schriften by J. Grimm, Vienna, 1869. A complete edition of his Predigten, ed. F. Pfeiffer, appeared vol. i, Vienna, 1862 (cf. K. Schmidt in TSK, xxxvii, 1864, pp. 7-82), vol. ii, ed. J. Strobl, Vienna, 1880 (cf. A. Schoenbach, in Anzeiger fuer deutsches Altertum, vii [1881], 337-385). On the Latin sermons consult H. Leyser, Deutsche Predigten des 13. und 14. Jahrhunderts, Leipsic, 1838; G. Jacob, Die lateinischen Reden des seligen Berthold von Regensburg, Regensburg, 1880; Sermones ad religiosos viginti, ed. P. de a. Hoetzel, Munich, 1882. On his life and work consult: K. Hoffmann, Sitzungsberichte der Muenchener Akademie, ii (1867), 374 sqq., ii (1868), 101; L. Rockinger, Berthold von Regensburg und Raimund von Peniafort, in Abhandlungen der Muenchener Akademie, historische Classe, xiii, 3 (1877), 165 sqq.; K. Unkel, Berthold von Regensburg, Cologne, 1882. For his preaching consult: W. Wackernagel, Altdeutsche Predigten, Basel, 1876; R. Cruel, Geschichte der deutschen Predigt im Mittelalter, pp. 306-322, Detmold, 1879; A. Linsenmayer, Geschichte der Predigt in Deutschland, pp. 333-354, Munich, 1886; E. C. Dargan, A History of Preaching, New York, 1905. Berthold of Rorbach BERTHOLD OF RORBACH: Heretical mystic; d. 1356. He appears first in Wuerzburg, where he was tried on a charge of teaching heresy, but saved himself by recantation of the doctrines attributed to him. He was again brought to trial at Speyer in 1356, but this time refused to recant and was burned. The accounts of his teaching show him as an adherent of the quietistic mysticism of the Brothers of the Free Spirit, sharing their disbelief in the meritoriousness of prayer and asceticism; those who are "enlightened by God," laymen as well as priests, may preach the Gospel and change bread and wine into the divine substance. The strange and shocking views attributed to him on the passion of Christ can scarcely be reconciled with his other teachings, and have probably come down in a distorted form. (Herman Haupt.) Bibliography: A. Jundt, Histoire du pantheisme populaire du moyen age, p. 105, Paris, 1875; H. Haupt, Die religioesen Sekten in Franken, p. 8, Wuerzburg, 1882. Berthold the Carmelite BERTHOLD THE CARMELITE. See [108]Carmelites. Bertholdt, Leonhard BERTHOLDT, LEONHARD: Professor at Erlangen; b. at Emskirchen (14 m. w.n.w. of Nuremberg), Bavaria, May 8, 1774; d. at Erlangen Mar. 22, 1822. He studied at Erlangen and became professor extraordinary on the philosophical faculty 1805; full professor of theology 1810, in recognition of his work upon Daniel (2 vols., Erlangen, 1806-08). His principal work was the Historischkritische Einleitung in die saemmtlichern kanonischen und apokryphischen Schriften des Alten und Neuen Testaments (6 vols., 1812). Of less interest is his Einleitung in die theologischen Wissenschaften (2 vols., 1821-22); and of still less, his Handbuch der Dogmengeschichte (2 vols., 1822-23). As a teacher, however, and as editor of the Kritisches Journal der neuesten theologischen Litteratur, one of the principal organs of the rationalistic party, his activity was stimulating in many ways. Bertholet, Alfred BERTHOLET, bar''tO''le', ALFRED: Swiss Protestant; b. at Basel Nov. 9, 1868. He was educated at the universities of his native city, Strasburg, and Berlin, and, after being Franco-German pastor at Leghorn, in 1892-93, became privet-docent for Old Testament exegesis in the university of his native city in 1896. In 1899 he was appointed associate professor of the same subject, and in 1905 was promoted to his present position of full professor. He was general secretary of the Second International Congress for the History of Religion held at Basel in 1904, and has prepared the commentaries on Leviticus, Deuteronomy, Ruth, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Ezekiel in K. Marti's Kurzer Handkommentar zum Alten Testament (5 vols., Freiburg and Tuebingen, 1897-1902), and has written Der Verfassungsgesetzentwurf des Hesekiel in seiner religionsgeschichtlichen Bedeutung (Freiburg, 1896); Die Stellung der Israeliten und der Juden zu den Fremden (1896); Zu Jesaja 53 (1899); Die israelitischen Vorstellungen vom Zustand nach dem Tode (Tuebingen, 1899); Buddhismus und Christentum (1902); Die Gefilde der Seligen (1903); Seelenwanderung (Halle, 1904); Der Buddhismus und seine Bedeutung fuer unser Geistesleben (Tuebingen, 1904); and the section on the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha in K. Budde's Geschichte der althebraeischen Literatur (Leipsice,1906). Bertram BERTRAM: The name by which [109]Ratramnus was formerly sometimes quoted. Bertram, Robert Aitkin BERTRAM, ROBERT AITKIN: English Congregationalist; b. at Henley (147 m. n.w. of London), Staffordshire, Nov. 8, 1836; d. in London Nov. 14, 1886. He ended his studies at Owens College (Victoria University), Manchester, 1858; was pastor at Lymm, Cheshire, at Openshaw (Manchester), and at Barnstaple, Devonshire; edited The Christian Age, 1880-83. He compiled The Cavendish Hymnal (Manchester, 1864), and published Parable or Divine Poesy, Illustrations in Theology and Morals Selected from Great Divines and Systematically Arranged (London, 1866); A Dictionary of Poetical Illustrations (1877); A Homiletical Encyclopedia of Illustrations in Theology and Morals, a Handbook of Practical Divinity and a Commentary on Holy Scripture (1878); A Homiletical Commentary on the Prophecies of Isaiah (i, 1884; ii, jointly, with Alfred Tucker, 1888). Berulle, Pierre de BERULLE, PIERRE DE. See [110]Neri, Philip. Beryllus of Bostra BERYLLUS OF BOSTRA. See [111]Monarchianism. Besant, Annie (Wood) BESANT, bes'ant, ANNIE (WOOD): Theosophist; b. at London Oct. 1, 1847. She was educated by private tutors at Clearmouth, Dorsetshire, London, Bonn, and Paris, and later passed B.Sc. and M.B. at London University. Originally a member of the Church of England, she married Rev. Frank Besant, vicar of Sibsey, Lincolnshire, in 1867, but was divorced from him six years later and renounced Christianity altogether. She then joined the National Secular Society, and as a scientific materialist worked with Charles Bradlaugh, with whom she edited the National Reformer. She was also prominent in socialistic and labor movements, and was a member of the Fabian Society and the Social Democratic Federation. In 1887-90 she was a member of the London School Board for Tower Hamlets, but declined reelection. Meanwhile, her views had undergone further change as a result of psychological study, and in 1889 she joined the Theosophical Society, of which she has since been a distinguished member, and its president in 1907. She has made extensive journeys to all parts of the world in the interests of theosophy, but has of late years resided chiefly in India. In 1898 she founded the Central Hindu College, Benares, and is still the president of its council, while in 1904 she established the Central Hindu Girls' School in the same city. In addition to a large number of briefer articles and pamphlets, she has written Natural Religion Versus Revealed Religion (London, 1874); History of the Great French Revolution (1876); The Law of Population: Its Consequences and its Bearing upon Human Conduct and Morals (1877); The Gospel of Christianity and the Gospel of Free Thought (1877); Heat, Light, and Sound (1881); Legends and Tales (1885); The Sins of the Church (1886); Reincarnation (1892); Seven Principles of Man (1892); Autobiography (1893); Death and After (1893); Building of the Cosmos (1894); In the Outer Court (1895); Karma (1895); The Self and its Sheaths (1895); The Path of Discipleship (1896); Man and his Bodies (1896); Four Great Religions (1897); The Ancient Wisdom (1897); Evolution of Life and Form (1899); Dharma (1899); Story of the Great War: Lessons from the Mahabharata (1899); Avataras (1900); Ancient Ideals in Modern Life (1901); Esoteric Christianity (1901); Thought Power: Its Control and Cultivation (1901); The Religious Problem in India (Madras, 1902); The Pedigree of Man (Benares, 1903); Study in Consciousness (London, 1904); and Theosophy and New Psychology (1904). She has also translated a number of free-thought works as well as the Bhagavadgita (London, 1895), and has edited Our Corner (London, 1883-88), and, in collaboration with G. R. S. Mead, The Theosophical Review. Bess, Bernhard BESS, BERNHARD: German librarian and historian; b. at Nentershausen (near Cassel) May 19, 1863. He was educated at the universities of Marburg and Goettingen, and, after being privat-docent at the former university for several years, was appointed to his present position of librarian of the University of Halle in 1896. In 1902-1903 he was also entrusted with the organization of the library of the Prussian Historical Institute at Rome. He has written Frankreichs Kirchenpolitik und der Prozess des Jean Petit (Marburg, 1891), and Luther und das landesherrliche Kirchenregiment (1894). Since 1891 he has been the editor of the Zeitschrift fuer Kirchengeschichte. Bessarion, Johannes or Basilius BESSARION, bes-se'ri-on, JOHANNES or BASILIUS: Cardinal; b. at Trebizond 1395; d. at Ravenna Nov. 19, 1472. He studied at Constantinople and at Misithra in the Peloponnesus under Gemistos Plethon; entered the Basilian order; became archbishop of Nicaea in 1437. As such he labored at Ferrara and Florence, 1438-39, for the union of the Greek and Roman Churches (see [112]Ferrara-Florence, Council of). Having been made a cardinal, he remained in Italy, by voice and pen working for the union. His house at Rome became the center not only for his fugitive countrymen, but also for the cultivation of Greek literature in the West; and during his activity as legate in Bologna, 1451-55, he worked in the same interest at that ancient gymnasium illustre. At the papal election in 1455 he lacked only a few votes of being chosen pope, and his influence in the curia may be seen from the numerous diplomatic missions with which he was entrusted. While returning from a missionary tour to France, which he had undertaken for the sake of reconciling Louis XI and the duke of Burgundy, he died at Ravenna. K. Benrath. Bibliography: On the works of Bessarion consult: Fabricius-Harles, Bibliotheca Graeca, x, 491, xi, 480, Hamburg, 1807-08; MPG, clxi. On his life and activities consult: Pastor, Popes, vol. iv, passim (well worth using); Creighton, Papacy, vols. ii-v, passim (gives an excellent treatment of the subject); G. Voigt, Die Wiederbelebung des classischen Alterthums, Berlin, 1859; J. Burckhardt, Kultur der Renaissance in Italien, Basel, 1860, Eng. transl., 2 vols., London, 1878; H. Vast, Le Cardinal Bessarion, Paris, 1878; R. Rocholl, Bessarion, Leipsic, 1904. Bessel, Gottfried BESSEL, GOTTFRIED: Abbot of Goettweig, near Vienna; b. at Buchhain, near Mainz, Sept. 5, 1672; d. at Goettweig Jan. 20, 1749. He studied at Salzburg, entered the Benedictine order in 1693, was ordained priest 1696, and was employed in various diplomatic negotiations by the elector of Mainz. In 1707 he converted the princess Elizabeth Christine of Brunswick to the Roman Catholic faith, and, in 1710, her grandfather, the duke Anton Ulrich, at which time he published Quinquaginta Romanocatholicam fidem omnibus aliis praeferendi motiva (Mainz, 1708). In 1714 he became abbot of Goettweig. He prepared a chronicle of the monastery, of which only the first part, Prodromus, has been published (2 vols., Tegernsee, 1732). Besser, Wilhelm Friedrich BESSER, WILHELM FRIEDRICH: German preacher and theological writer; b. at Warnstedt, in the Harz, Sept. 27, 1816; d. near Dresden Sept. 26, 1884. He studied at Halle under Gesenius and Tholuck (1837), then went to Berlin, where he was influenced by Neander and Twesten, but still more by Hengstenberg, Otto von Gerlach, and others. He returned to Halle in 1838 as secretary to Tholuck, but a year later went as private tutor to the house of Major von Schenkendorf at Wulkow near Puppin. This had a decisive influence on his life, through his intercourse there with a persecuted Lutheran pastor, a guest in the house, who had such an effect on him that, at his ordination in 1841 as pastor at Wulkow, he refused to sign the Union formula except with the reservation that the Union related to common ecclesiastical organization without prejudice to the authority of the Augsburg Confession. In 1845 he withdrew his subscription, and after long negotiations was deprived of his office in 1847. Connecting himself with the Lutheran Church of Prussia, he became pastor of Seefeld in Pomerania, and zealously supported the movement to obtain equal rights for the Lutherans with the Union. In 1853 he was called to assist Graul in the direction of the Evangelical Lutheran mission-house; but the strain of continuous teaching was not suited to his vivacious and impulsive nature, and sharp controversies broke out over the then burning question of the Indian castes, so that he returned willingly to pastoral life in 1857, becoming minister of Waldenburg in Silesia and also (1864) a member of the Lutheran superior council of Breslau. Failing health compelled him to resign his offices at Easter, 1884. His Bibelstunden, which he began to write in 1843 and continued at intervals till he had covered most of the New Testament, have had a salutary influence far beyond Germany. The list of his minor writings is a long one, and includes a number of controversial tractates against what he thought a hollow and deceiving compromise, popular biographies, devotional works, and sermons. (H. Hoelscher.) Bibliography: A sketch of Besser's life appears in his Predigten und Predigtauszuege, Breslau, 1885. His autobiography (uncompleted) was continued to the year 1850 by Greve, Aus Bessers Leben, in Gotthold, year 20, 1894-1895, and completion is promised; cf. ALKG, 1884, pp. 1036-39. Bestmann, Hugo Johannes BESTMANN, best''man', HUGO JOHANNES: German Lutheran; b. at Delve, Holstein, Feb. 21, 1854. He studied in Leipsic, Tuebingen, Kiel, Berlin, and Erlangen (lic. theol., 1877), and was privat-docent in theology at Erlangen 1877-83. He was then instructor in the gymnasium of the orphan asylum at Halle 1883-84 and at the Missionary Seminary in Leipsic 1884-86. Since the latter years he has been pastor in Moelln (Lauenburg). He has been a member of the committee of the Moelln conference for theological studies since 1896, and has written Qua ratione Augustinus notiones philosophiae graecae ad dogmata anthropologica describenda adhibuerit (Erlangen, 1877); Geschichte der christlichen Sitte (2 vols., Noerdlingen, 1880-85); Die theologische Wissenschaft und die Ritschl'sche Schule (1881); Die Anfaenge des katholischen Christentums und des Islams (1884); Der Protestantismus und die theologischen Fakultaeten (Kiel, 1891); and Geschichte des Reichs Gottes im Alten und Neuen Bunde (2 vols., Leipsic;1896-1900). He edited also J. C. K. von Hofmann's Theologische Encyclopaedie (Noerdlingen, 1879) and Der christliche Herold (Hamburg and Moelln, 1898-1899). Beth, Karl BETH, KARL: German Protestant; b. at Foerderstaedt (15 m. s. of Magdeburg) Feb. 12, 1872. He studied in Tuebingen and Berlin (Ph.D., 1898), and was privat-docent in Berlin 1901-06. Since 1906 he has been professor of systematic and symbolic theology at the University of Vienna. He has written Die Grundanschauungen Schleiermachers in seinem ersten Entwurf der philosophischen Sittenlehre (Berlin, 1898); Die orientalische Kirche der Mittelmeerlaender, Reisestudien zur Statistik und Symbolik der griechischen, armenischen und koptischen Kirche (1902); Das Wesen des Christentums und die moderne historische Denkweise (1904); and Die Wunder Jesu (1905). Bethlehem BETHLEHEM: A town in southern Palestine, in the territory of Judah, often called Bethlehem Judah (e.g., Judges xvii, 7, 8; cf. Matt. ii, 1, 5). Old Testament History. Its significance for the Judah of Davidic times or earlier is as the home of Jesse (I Sam. xvi, 1), of Joab, Abishai, and Asahel (II Sam. ii, 32), of Elhanan (II Sam. xxi, 19), and as a place of sacrifice (I Sam. xvi, 3, 5). It was occupied by the Philistines in their war with David (II Sam. xxiii, 14). Rehoboam made of it a city of defense (II Chron. xi, 6), as it commanded the roads south and west. Though in early times it was a place of importance because of its situation on caravan routes, it became overshadowed by the growth of the capital. After the exile it was reckoned to the Jewish community (Ezra ii, 21), and was inhabited by Calebites who were driven north by the Edomites pressing up from the south. This possession is explained by the Chronicler on genealogical grounds, regarding the town as founded by Salma, a son of Caleb. The district of Ephratah, which extended from Kirjath-jearim to Bethlehem, became a possession of the Calebites and gave occasion for the name Bethlehem Ephratah, used Micah v, 2. The inhabitants were engaged in agriculture, viticulture, and cattle-raising. Present Condition. For the Hebrews its fame rests upon its being the home of David (Luke ii, 4, 11); to Christians everywhere its name is familiar as the birthplace of Jesus, according to the accounts in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke. It has retained its name unchanged to the present. Bait-lah?m lies five and a half miles south of Jerusalem, a little east of the central watershed, at a level above the sea of about 2,500 feet. The slopes above it have been terraced from early times, and their fertility rewards richly the labor of the inhabitants in producing olives, almonds, figs, and grapes. The numerous trees of the terraces give the place a refreshing appearance, especially to the traveler from the bare heights of Jerusalem. There is a spring some fifteen minutes eastward from the town, and water is taken from the aqueduct on the south leading into Jerusalem. For the rest of the water-supply, dependence is had upon cisterns. The population is about 8,000; 3,827 are Roman Catholics, 3,662 Greeks, 260 Mohammedans, 185 Armenians; the rest are Copts, Syrians, and Protestants. Two-thirds are engaged in various handicrafts, the rest in husbandry, and all are oppressed by burdensome taxes. Attempts have been made at various times to connect particular parts of the town with David, naming for him a house, a tower, and a well, but the traditions are insecurely founded. The "Well of David" is the name given since the fifteenth century to three large cisterns in the northeast. The Church of St. Mary. More secure is the tradition about the birthplace of Jesus, covered by the celebrated Church of St. Mary, a basilica mentioned as early as 334 as built by Constantine's order. Eusebius ("Life of Constantine") confirms this report; Socrates and Sozomen ascribe its erection to the empress Helena; and Eutychius to Justinian. De Voguee supports the first hypothesis on the ground of the unity of plan, conformity of extent of choir and grotto, and absence of architectural marks of the Justinian period. In this opinion he is supported by the architect T. Sandel, who made a new examination in 1880. This may well be the oldest church in the world. It was thoroughly restored by the emperor Manuel Comnenus, who adorned it with mosaics, of which work but little remains, though a description by F. Quaresmio (1616-26) with what is left suffices to give a good idea of the whole. In 1478 (or 1482) the roof was repaired by Philip of Burgundy and Edward IV of England, and renewed in 1672 by the Greek patriarch Dositheos. In the latter year the Greeks obtained possession, which the Latins had had since the crusades. In 1852 Napoleon brought it about that the Latin, were given a share in holding it. The church, now in decay, can not be restored for fear of renewing outbreaks among Latins, Greeks, and Armenians. From the southeast the church rises prominently like a fortress; the north, east, and south sides are less pleasing to one approaching from those directions because of the cells of the monks of the different communions. It has a nave and double aisles, and its floor space is about ninety-eight feet by eighty-seven between the cross aisles. The transept and apes are unfortunately concealed by a wall built by the Greeks in the seventeenth or eighteenth century. The entire length of the present church, including the entrance hall, is about 230 feet. Two flights of steps to the north and south lead from the choir to the chapel of the nativity, the walls of which are marble-lined and hung with tapestries. The place of birth is marked by a silver star in the floor of a niche. Opposite is the place, a marbled hollow, of the old "genuine" manger. A passage westward leads to the tomb and chapel of Jerome. The Traditional Place of Jesus's Birth. This subterranean room, according to tradition continuous since Constantine, is accepted as the place of Jesus's birth. A tradition can be traced back to Justin Martyr that Jesus was born in a cave, since Joseph could find no accommodation in the village. But it has been disproved that the present chapel is a [natural] cave, while it must be noted that as early as 728 it was reported that the form of the cave was changed and an oblong room hewn out. The use of caves as adjuncts to inns or "shelters" is in Palestine a peculiarity of the country. Five minutes southeast from the church of St. Mary is the so-called "Milk Grotto" of the Latins, in which Joseph, Mary, and the child are said to have concealed themselves from Herod's fury before the flight into Egypt. The white of the limestone is attributed to the fall of a drop of milk from Mary's breast. Ten minutes northeast from Beth Sahur (itself fifteen minutes east from Bethlehem) is shown the "Grotto of the Shepherds," in which the angels are said to have announced to the shepherds the birth of the Holy Child. The underground chapel is reached by a passage between two ancient olive-trees. One of the fruits of modern missions is the honoring of Jesus in his birthplace, not by sanctuaries in stone, but by provision for the education of the young. Since 1860 there have been a number of Protestant and Roman Catholic schools and establishments, the founding of which has spurred the Greeks and Armenians to accomplish something for the instruction of children belonging to their communities. (H. Guthe.) Bibliography: Robinson, Researches, vol. ii; T. Tobler, Bethlehem in Palaestina, Bern, 1849; V. Guerin, Description de la Palestine, Judee, i, 120 sqq., Paris, 1869; Survey of Western Palestine, Memoirs, vol. iii, sheet xvii, London, 1883; P. Palmer, Das jetzige Bethlehem, in ZDPV, xvii (1894), 89 sqq.; Baedeker, Palestine and Syria, pp. 119-127, New York, 1898; DB, i, 281; EB, i, 560-562. On the church consult M. de Voguee, Les Eglises de la terre sainte, Paris, 1860; Quaresmius, Elucidatio terrae sanctae, ii, 643 sqq., Antwerp, 1639, reissued Venice, 1880-82; G. Ebers and H. Guthe, Palaestina in Bild und Wort, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1883-84. Bethlehemites BETHLEHEMITES: The name of three religious orders. (1) An association of Bethleemitae, known only from Matthew Paris (Hist. maj., 839), who states that they existed at Cambridge, England, about 1257 and wore the Dominican habit, with a red star, referring to Matt. ii, 9-10. (2) The Knights and Hospitalers of the Blessed Mary of Bethlehem (Religio militaris ac hospitalis beatae Mariae Bethlemitanae), founded by Pius II in 1459 to fight against the Turks. They wore a white habit with a red cross, were given the island of Lemnos as their seat, and did not survive the capture of the island by the Turks in the year of their foundation. (3) More important are the Bethlehem Brothers (Fratres Bethlemitae; Spanish, Orden de Belemitas) of Guatemala (Central America), founded there about 1650 by Pierre de Bethencourt and after his death (1687) under the leadership of the brothers Rodrigo and Antonio de la Cruz. Originally entrusted only with the care of the hospital of Mary of Bethlehem in Guatemala, the order was confirmed by Innocent XI in 1687 and given a constitution and dress like that of the Capuchins. Clement XI in 1707 granted them the privileges of the mendicant orders. A society of Sisters of Bethlehem was founded in Guatemala by Anna Maria del Galdo in 1668, and both the male and female branches spread in Mexico, Peru, and elsewhere. A secularization-decree of the Spanish Cortes in 1820 suppressed both branches. (O. ZoeCKLER.) Bibliography: Heimbucher, Orden und Kongregationen, i, 497-498; G. Voigt, Enea Silvio . . . als Papst Pius, ii, 652, Berlin, 1863; Karl vom heiligen Aloys, Die katholische Kirche in ihrer gegenwaertigen Ausbreitung, pp. 510-511, Regensburg, 1885; Helyot, Ordres monastiques, iii, 347-357, viii, 365 sqq.; KL, ii, 540-544 (contains list of literature in Spanish). Bethphany BETHPHANY: A name sometimes given to the festival more commonly known as the Epiphany. It is a barbarous invention of the schoolmen, from the Hebrew beth, "house," and the Greek -phaneia, "manifestation," which forms the latter part of the word Epiphany; and was intended to emphasize the miracle (in the house) at Cana in Galilee, which is the third event commemorated by the festival of the [113]Epiphany. Bethsaida BETHSAIDA. See [114]Gaulanitis. Bethune, George Washington BETHUNE, be-thun', GEORGE WASHINGTON: Reformed (Dutch) clergyman; b. in Greenwich, now a part of New York City, Mar. 18, 1805; d. at Florence, Italy, Apr. 27, 1862. He was graduated at Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa., 1823; studied at Princeton Seminary 1823-25; served for a year as missionary among the negroes and sailors at Savannah, Ga.; was ordained Nov., 1827, and was pastor of Reformed (Dutch) churches at Rhinebeck (1827-30) and Utica (1830-34), N. Y., Philadelphia (First Church, 1834-37; Third Church, 1837-49), and Brooklyn (1851-59); was associate minister at the Twenty-first Street Church, New York, 1859-61. He was famed as a preacher and orator, as a poet, and as a wit. Of his numerous publications, perhaps that of most permanent value was his edition of Walton's Complete Angler (New York, 1847; new ed., 2 vols., 1880). Bibliography: A. R. Van Nest, Memoirs of Rev. George W. Bethune, 2 vols.; New York, 1880. Bethune-Baker, James Franklin BETHUNE-BAKER, JAMES FRANKLIN: Church of England; b. at Birmingham Aug. 23, 1861. He was educated at Pembroke College, Cambridge (B.A., 1884), and was head master's assistant at King Edward's School, Birmingham, and assistant curate of St. George's, Edgbaston, from 1888 to 1890. In the following year he was elected fellow and dean of Pembroke College, and since 1905 has also been examining chaplain to the bishop of Rochester. He has been the editor of the Journal of Theological Studies since 1903, and has written The Influence of Christianity on War (Cambridge, 1888); The Sternness of Christ's Teaching (1889); The Meaning of Homoousios in the Constantinopolitan Creed (1901); An Introduction to the Early History of Christian Doctrine (London, 1903); and Christian Doctrines and their Ethical Significance (1905). Betkius (Betke), Joachim BETKIUS, bet'ki-Us (BETKE), JOACHIM: Lutheran preacher and forerunner of the Pietistic movement; b. at Berlin Oct. 8, 1601; d. at Linum, near Fehrbellin (33 m. n.w. of Berlin), Dec. 12, 1663. After finishing his course at Wittenberg, he became associate rector at Ruppin, then was for more than thirty years pastor at Linum. He wrote several theological and devotional works, by the reading of which Spener said he had profited. They contain edifying exhortations against forgetting the need of sanctification in addition to justification, but are marred by intemperate fanaticism; Betkius holds the clergy responsible for all the anti-Christian phenomena of his time, and for the divine judgments of the Thirty Years' war. (F. W. Dibelius.) Betrayal of Pilate BETRAYAL OF PILATE. See [115]Apocrypha, New Testament, B, I, 7. Beurlin, Jakob BEURLIN, boi''er-lin, JAKOB: German Lutheran theologian; b. at Dornstetten (35 m. s.w. of Stuttgart) 1520; d. at Paris Oct. 28, 1561. In Nov., 1533, he entered the university of Tuebingen. When the Reformation was introduced in 1534, he remained faithful to Catholicism, but diligently studied philosophy and the writings of the Church Fathers, so that his transition to the new doctrine took place quietly. In 1541 he was made governor of the Martinianum, and at the same time lectured on philosophy. In 1549 he accepted the pastorate of Derendingen near Tuebingen, and in 1551 he was called as professor to Tuebingen. On June 2, 1557, he examined and signed, together with other theologians, the Confessio Wirtembergica, which had been prepared for the Council of Trent, and in the month of August, together with Brenz's friend [116]Johann Isenmann, he went to Langensalza and afterward to Saxony to come to an understanding with the theologians and councilors of the elector Maurice concerning the Wuerttemberg Confession as compared with the Saxon, which bad also been prepared for the Council of Trent. In Nov., 1551, in company with Luther's former steward, Jodocus Neuheller, pastor at Entringen, he was sent as theological adviser of the Wuerttemberg delegates to Trent, where they took notes of the disputations. On Jan. 13, 1552, both returned home, but on Mar. 7, Beurlin, Brenz, Heerbrand, and Vannius again started for Trent to oppose the erroneous decisions of the council, and to defend the Confessio Wirtembergica before it; but the council would not hear them in a public session, and they returned home. Beurlin now devoted all his time to his academic duties. He lectured on Melanchthon's Loci, the Gospel and First Epistle of John, and the Epistles to the Romans sad Hebrews, and drilled the young theologians in admirably conducted disputations. In May, 1554, the duke sent him to Prussia to pacify those who had been stirred up by Osiander's teaching. He was unsuccessful, however, and, disgusted with the behavior of the factions, he declined the bishopric offered to him by Duke Albert, and returned home. In the interest of his academic office he now retired in favor of Jakob Andreae, who was a more willing interpreter of the theology and ecclesiastical policy of [117]Brenz. In Oct., 1557, Beurlin and his father-in-law, Matthaeus Alber, went to the religious conference at Worms in place of the Thuringian theologians. At the Stuttgart synod Beurlin also remained in the background, but he assisted Brenz in the defense of the Confessio Wirtembergica against Peter a Soto, and his attack upon the central point of the Roman system is still worthy of consideration. Vice-chancellor of the university after 1557, Beurlin was the leader of the Swabians at the Erfurt Conference, Apr., 1561, and was still more prominent on his last journey made in the service of the Evangelical Church. King Antony of Navarre sought both at Stuttgart and Heidelberg for a theologian to advise him in the controversy which arose in Sept., 1557, at the religious conference in Poissy between the cardinal of Guise and Beza concerning the relation of the French Protestants to the Augsburg Confession. Duke Christopher sent three theologians, Jakob Beurlin, Jakob Andreae, and Balthazar Bidembach. Before leaving, Beurlin was made chancellor of the university and provost of the Collegiate Church (Sept. 29). The theologians left Oct. 3, and arrived at Paris Oct. 19. Meanwhile the conference at Poissy had been broken off, and the theologians had to wait till the king called them. On Oct. 24 Beurlin fell ill with the plague and died in Paris. G. Bossert. Bibliography: The sources are: T. Schnepffius, J. Beurlinus redivivus et immortalis, Tuebingen, 1613; J. V. Andreae, Fama Andreana, Strasburg, 1530. Consult G. C. F. Fischlin, Memoria theologorum Vittebergensium resuscitata, i, 82-87, Ulm, 1710; C. F. Sattler, Geschichte von Wuerttemberg unter der Regierung der Herzoge, Ulm, 1771; H. F. Eisenbach, Beschreibung und Geschichte der Stadt und Universitaet Tuebingen, pp. 108-112, Tuebingen, 1822; H. L. J. Heppe, Geschichte des deutschen Protestantismus, Vol. i, Marburg, 1852-59; C. von Weizsaecker, Lehrer und Unterricht an der evangelisch-theologischen Fakultaet . . . Tuebingen, Tuebingen, 1877; C. A. Hase, Herzog Albrecht von Preussen und sein Hofprediger, Leipsic, 1879; G. Bossert, Die Reise der wuerttembergischen Theologen nach Paris 1561, in Wuerttembergische Vierteljahrshefte, 1899, pp. 387-412. Bevan, Anthony Ashley BEVAN, bev'an, ANTHONY ASHLEY: Church of England layman; b. at Trent Park, Barnet (11 m. n.n.w. of London), Herts, May 19, 1859. He was educated at the Gymnase litteraire, Lausanne (1877-79) and the University of Strasburg (1881-1883), and in 1884 became a member of Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was elected fellow in 1890. Since 1893 he has been Lord Almoner's reader in Arabic in the University of Cambridge. In addition to minor studies, he has written A Short Commentary on the Book of Daniel (Cambridge, 1892) and the Hymn of the Soul Contained in the Syriac Acts of St. Thomas, Reedited with an English Translation, in Cambridge Texts and Studies, v (1897). Bevan, Llewelyn David BEVAN, LLEWELYN DAVID: Congregationalist; b. at Llanelly (15 m. s.e. of Carmarthen), Carmarthenshire, Wales, Sept. 11, 1842. He studied at New College, London (B. A., University of London, 1881; LL.B., 1866), and after being assistant minister to [118]Thomas Binney at the King's Weigh-House Chapel, London (1865-69), held pastorates at Tottenham-Court Road Chapel, London (1869-76), the Brick Presbyterian Church, New York City (1876-82), and Highbury Quadrant Church, London (1882-86). Since 1886 he has been pastor of the Collins Street Congregational Church, Melbourne, Victoria. While in England, he was associated with [119]F. D. Maurice in the Workingmen's College, London, and was for several years a professor in New College. Beveridge, William BEVERIDGE, WILLIAM: Bishop of St. Asaph; b. at Barrow (8 m. n. of Leicester), and baptized there Feb. 21, 1637; d. in London Mar. 5, 1708. He was educated at Cambridge; was rector of Ealing, a west suburb of London, 1661-72; of St. Peter's, Cornhill, London, 1672-1704, when he became bishop. In his day he was styled "the great reviver and restorer of primitive piety" because in his much admired sermons and other writings he dwelt so affectionately upon the Church of the early centuries. His collected works (incomplete) are in the Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology in 12 vols. (Oxford, 1842-48) and embrace six volumes of sermons; The Doctrine of the Church of England Consonant to Scripture, Reason, and the Fathers: A Complete System of Divinity (2 vols.); Codex canonum ecclesiae primitivae vindicatus ac illustratus, with the appendices, I. Prolegomena in Sunodikon, sive pandectas canonum; and II. Praefatio ad annotationes in canones apostolicos (2 vols.); and the still read Private Thoughts on Religion, and Church Catechism Explained. His Institutionum chronotogicarum libri duo, una cum totidem arithmetices chronologicae libellis (London, 1669) was once an admired treatise on chronology. Bibliography: T. H. Horne, Memoir of the Life and Writings of W. Beveridge, London, 1824, also prefixed to his works in the Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology, ut sup.; DNB, iv, 447-448. Beyer, Hartmann BEYER, bai'er, HARTMANN: Reformation preacher of Frankfort, where he was born Sept. 30, 1516, and died Aug. 11, 1577. In 1534 he went to Wittenberg as student of philosophy and theology, and received the master's degree there in 1539 and became private teacher of mathematics. He returned to his native city as preacher in 1546. The Reformation, introduced in Frankfort in 1522 by Hartmann Ibach, had been carried on in the earlier years by compulsion and rash zeal on the part of its adherents, and in later time was marked by doctrinal controversies between the Lutheran and Reformed tendencies. Beyer came with the determination to win the victory for Lutheranism, and to his activity was it due that by 1554 a compact Lutheran congregation stood opposed to all insinuations of Calvinism, while the earlier democratic and radical tendencies had been suppressed. In the year named, three congregations of Protestants from the Netherlands, who had first taken refuge in England but fled that country after the accession of Mary, came to Frankfort under the lead of [120]Velerandus Polanus and [121]Johannes a Lasco, bringing with them a Reformed creed and Reformed practises. Beyer was the soul of an opposition which induced the city council to deprive them of the church they had used for worship in 1561. In 1596 even the right of holding services privately was forbidden. The success of the emperor in the Schmalkald war and the promulgation of the Augsburg Interim (May, 1548) brought the Frankfort Reformers face to face with dangers which for the time quieted doctrinal disputes. The council accepted the interim cautiously, but its attempts to forbid preaching against the new law and against Roman teachings and practises, to reestablish church festivals, to prohibit the eating of meat on fast-days, and like measures met with determined and courageous resistance from Beyer and his colleagues. The former repeatedly expressed his conviction that church ordinances could be established only with the consent of the congregation. The struggle went on till 1577, but the preachers gained the victory. Beyer issued two pseudonymous writings against the Roman Catholics in 1551 and while in Wittenberg prepared a treatise on mathematics. His sermons are preserved in forty-nine volumes in manuscript in Frankfort. They are marked by a beauty and force of language which make them powerful even today. (G. E. Steitz.) Bibliography: G. E. Steitz, Der lutherische Praedikant, Hartmann Beyer, Frankfort, 1852. Beyschlag, Willibald BEYSCHLAG, bai'shlaH, WILLIBALD: German Protestant; b. at Frankfort Sept. 5, 1823; d. at Halle Nov. 26, 1900. He studied at Bonn and Berlin 1840-44; became vicar at Coblenz 1849; assistant pastor and religious teacher at Treves 1850; court preacher at Carlsruhe 1856; ordinary professor of theology at Halle 1860; and after 1876 editor of the Deutsche Evangelische Blaetter, an organ of the so-called Mittelpartei, whose leader he was till the end of his life. To oppose the ultramontane aggressions in Germany, he founded in 1886 the Evangelischer Bund (see [122]Bund, Evangelischer). Of his very numerous writings, besides sermons, the following are worthy of mention: Die Christologie des Neuen Testaments (Berlin, 1866); Die paulinische Theodicee Roem. ix-xi (Berlin, 1868, 2d ed., 1895); Die christliche Gemeindeverfassung im Zeitalter des Neuen Testaments (Haarlem, 1874); Zur Johanneischen Frage (Gotha, 1876); the biographies of his brother, F. W. T. Beyschlag (Aus dem Leben eines Fruehvollendeten, 2 parts, Berlin, 1858-59, 6th ed., 1889), of Carl Ullmann (Gotha, 1867), of Carl Immanuel Nitzsch (Halle, 1872, 2d ed., 1882), and of Albrecht Wolters (1880); Zur deutschchristlichen Bildung (1880, 2d ed., 1899); Das Leben Jesu (2 vols., Halle, 1885-86, 4th ed., 1902); Der Friedensschluss zwischen Deutschland and Rom (Halle, 1887); Reden in der Erfurter VorConferenz des evangelischen Bundes (1888); Godofred, ein Maerchen fuers deutsche Haus (1888); Luther's Hausstand in seiner reformatorischen Bedeutung (Barmen, 1888); Die Reformation in Italien (1888); Die roemisch-katholischen Ansprueche an die preussische Volksschule (1889); Zur Verstaendigung ueber den christlichen Vorsehungsglauben (Halle, 1889); Erkenntnisspfade zu Christo (1889); Die evangelische Kirche als Bundesgenossin wider die Socialdemokratie (Berlin, 1890); Neutestamentliche Theologie (2 vols., 1891-92, 2d ed., 1896; Eng. transl., New Testament Theology, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1895, 2d ed., 1896); Christenlehre (Halle, 3d ed., 1903). Bibliography: Consult his autobiography, Aus meinem Leben, 2 vols., Halle, 1896-98; K. H. Pahncke, Willibald Beyschlag, ein Gedenkblatt, Tuebingen, 1905. Beza, Theodore BEZA, bi'z?, THEODORE. Early Life (S: 1). Teacher at Lausanne (S: 2). Journeys in behalf of the Protestants (S: 3). Settles in Geneva (S: 4). Events of 1560-63 (S: 5). Calvin's Successor (S: 6). Course of Events after 1564 (S: 7). The Colloquy of Muempelgart (S: 8). Last Days (S: 9). Humanistic and Historical writings (S: 10). Theological works (S: 11). Beza's Greek New Testament (S: 12). 1. Early Life. Theodore Beza (Theodore de Beze or de Besze), Genevan Reformer, was born at Vezelay (8 m. w.s.w. of Avallon), in Burgundy, June 24, 1519; d. at Geneva Oct.13, 1605. His father, Pierre de Beze, royal governor of Vezelay, descended from a Burgundian family of distinction; his mother, Marie Bourdelot, was known for her generosity. Theodore's father had two brothers; one, Nicholas, was member of Parliament at Paris; the other, Claude, was abbot of the Cistercian monastery Froimont in the diocese of Beauvais. Nicholas, who was unmarried, on a visit to Vezelay was so pleased with Theodore that, with the permission of the parents, he took him to Paris to educate him there. From Paris Theodore was sent to Orleans (Dec., 1528) to enjoy the instruction of the famous German teacher Melchior Wolmar. He was received into Wolmar's house, and the day on which this took place was afterward celebrated as a second birthday. Young Beza soon followed his teacher to Bourges, whither the latter was called by the duchess Margaret of Angouleme, sister of Francis I. Bourges was one of the places in France in which the heart of the Reformation beat the strongest. When, in 1534, Francis I issued his edict against ecclesiastical innovations, Wolmar returned to Germany, and, in accordance with the wish of his father, Beza went back to Orleans to study law, and spent four years there (1535-39). This pursuit had little attraction for him; he enjoyed more the reading of the ancient classics, especially Ovid, Catullus, and Tibullus. He received the degree of licentiate in law Aug. 11, 1539, and, as his father desired, went to Paris, where he began practise. His relatives had obtained for him two benefices, the proceeds of which amounted to 700 golden crowns a year; and his uncle had promised to make him his successor. Beza spent two happy years at Paris and soon gained a prominent position in literary circles. To escape the many temptations to which he was exposed, with the knowledge of two friends, he became engaged in the year 1544 to a young girl of humble descent, Claudine Denosse, promising to make this engagement public as soon as his circumstances would allow it. He published a collection of Latin poems, Juvenilia, which made him famous, and he was everywhere considered one of the best Latin poets of his time. But he fell ill and his distress of body revealed to him his spiritual needs. Gradually he came to the knowledge of salvation in Christ, which he apprehended with a joyous faith. He then resolved to sever his connections of the time, and went to Geneva, the French city of refuge for the Evangelicals, where he arrived with Claudine Oct. 23, 1548. 2. Teacher at Lausanne. He was heartily received by Calvin, who had met him already in Wolmar's house, and was at once publicly and solemnly married in the church. Beza was at a loss for immediate occupation, so he went to Tuebingen to see his former teacher Wolmar. On his way home he visited Viret at Lausanne, who at once detained him and brought about his appointment as professor of Greek at the academy there (Nov., 1549). In spite of the arduous work which fell to his lot, Beza found time to write a Biblical drama, Abraham Sacrifiant (published at Geneva, 1550; Eng. transl. by Arthur Golding, London, 1577, ed., with introduction, notes, and the French text of the original, M. W. Wallace, Toronto, 1906), in which he contrasted Catholicism with Protestantism, and the work was well received. In June, 1551, he added a few psalms to the French version of the Psalms begun by Marot, which was also very successful. About the same time he published his Passavantius, a satire directed against Pierre Lizet of ill repute, formerly president of the Parliament of Paris, and principal originator of the "fiery chamber" (chambre ardente), who, being at the time (1551) abbot of St. Victor near Paris, was eager to acquire the fame of a subduer of heresy by publishing a number of polemical writings. Of a more serious character were two controversies in which Beza was involved at this time. The first concerned the doctrine of predestination and the controversy of Calvin with Bolsec (see [123]Calvin, John; [124]Bolsec, Jerome Hermes). The second referred to the burning of [125]Michael Servetus at Geneva Oct. 27, 1553. In defense of Calvin and the Genevan magistrates, Beza published in 1554 the work De haereticis a civili magistratu puniendis (translated into French in 1560). 3. Journeys in behalf of the Protestants. In 1557 Beza took a special interest in the Waldensians of Piedmont, who were harassed by the French government, and in their behalf went with Farel to Bern, Zurich, Basel, Schaffhausen, thence to Strasburg, Muempelgart, Baden, and Goeppingen. In Baden and Goeppingen, Beza and Farel had to declare themselves concerning their own and the Waldensians' views on the sacrament, and on May 14, 1557, they presented a written declaration in which they clearly stated their position. This declaration was well received by the Lutheran theologians, but was strongly disapproved in Bern and Zurich. In the autumn of 1557 Beza undertook a second journey with Farel to Worms by way of Strasburg to bring about an intercession of the Evangelical princes of the empire in favor of the persecuted brethren at Paris. With Melanchthon and other theologians then assembled at Worms, Beza considered a union of all Protestant Christians, but this proposal was decidedly negatived by Zurich and Bern. False reports having reached the German princes that the hostilities against the Huguenots in France had ceased, no embassy was sent to the court of France, and Beza undertook another journey in the interest of the Huguenots, going with Farel, Johannes Buddaeus, and Gaspard Carmel to Strasburg and Frankfort, where the sending of an embassy to Paris was resolved upon. 4. Settles in Geneva. Upon his return to Lausanne, Beza was greatly disturbed. In union with many ministers and professors in city and country, Viret at last thought of establishing a consistory and of introducing a church discipline which should inflict excommunication especially at the celebration of the communion. But the Bernese would have no Calvinistic church government. This caused many difficulties, and Beza thought it best (1558) to settle at Geneva. Here he occupied at first the chair of Greek in the newly established academy, and after Calvin's death also that of theology; besides this he was obliged to preach. He completed the revision of Olivetan's translation of the New Testament, begun some years before. In 1559 he undertook another journey in the interest of the Huguenots, this time to Heidelberg; about the same time he had to defend Calvin against [126]Joachim Westphal in Hamburg and [127]Tileman Hesshusen. More important than this polemical activity was Beza's statement of his own confession. It was originally prepared for his father in justification of his course and published in revised form to promote Evangelical knowledge among Beza's countrymen. It was printed in Latin in 1560 with a dedication to Wolmar. An English translation was published at London 1563, 1572, and 1585. Translations into German, Dutch, and Italian were also issued. 5. Events of 1560-63. In the mean time things took such shape in France that the happiest future for Protestantism seemed possible. King Antony of Navarre, yielding to the urgent requests of Evangelical noblemen, declared his willingness to listen to a prominent teacher of the Church. Beza, a French nobleman and head of the academy in the metropolis of French Protestantism, was invited to Castle Nerac, but he could not plant the seed of Evangelical faith in the heart of the king. In the year following (1561) Beza represented the Evangelicals at the [128]Colloquy of Poissy, and in an eloquent manner defended the principles of the Evangelical faith. The colloquy was without result, but Beza as the head and advocate of all Reformed congregations of France was revered and hated at the same time. The queen insisted upon another colloquy, which was opened at St. Germain Jan. 28, 1562, eleven days after the proclamation of the famous January edict which granted important privileges to those of the Reformed faith. But the colloquy was broken off when it became evident that the Catholic party was preparing (after the massacre of Vassy, Mar. 1) to overthrow Protestantism. Beza hastily issued a circular letter (Mar. 25) to all Reformed congregations of the empire, and with Conde and his troops went to Orleans. It was necessary to proceed quickly and energetically. But there were neither soldiers nor money. At the request of Conde, Beza visited all Huguenot cities to obtain both. He also wrote a manifesto in which he showed the justice of the Reformed cause. As one of the messengers to collect soldiers and money among his coreligionists, Beza was appointed to visit England, Germany, and Switzerland. He went to Strasburg and Basel, but met with failure. He then returned to Geneva, which he reached Sept. 4. He had hardly been there fourteen days when he was called once more to Orleans by d'Andelot. The campaign was becoming more successful; but the publication of the unfortunate edict of pacification which Conde accepted (Mar. 12, 1563) filled Beza and all Protestant France with horror. 6. Calvin's Successor. For twenty-two months Beza had been absent from Geneva, and the interests of school and Church there and especially the condition of Calvin made it necessary for him to return. For there was no one to take the place of Calvin, who was sick and unable longer to bear the burden resting on him. Calvin and Beza arranged to perform their duties jointly in alternate weeks, but the death of Calvin occurred soon afterward (May 27, 1564). As a matter of course Beza was his successor. Until 1580 Beza was not only moderateur de la compagnie des pasteurs, but also the real soul of the great institution of learning at Geneva which Calvin had founded in 1559, consisting of a gymnasium and an academy. As long as be lived, Beza was interested in higher education. The Protestant youth for nearly forty years thronged his lecture-room to hear his theological lectures, in which he expounded the purest Calvinistic orthodoxy. As a counselor he was listened to by both magistrates and pastors. Geneva is indebted to him for the founding of a law school in which Franc,ois Hotman, Jules Pacius, and Denys Godefroy, the most eminent jurists of the century, lectured in turn (cf. Charles Borgeaud, L'Academie de Calvin, Geneva, 1900). 7. Course of Events after 1564. As Calvin's successor, Beza was very successful, not only in carrying on his work but also in giving peace to the Church at Geneva. The magistrates had fully appropriated the ideas of Calvin, and the direction of spiritual affairs, the organs of which were the "ministers of the word" and "the consistory," was founded on a solid basis. No doctrinal controversy arose after 1564. The discussions concerned questions of a practical, social, or ecclesiastical nature, such as the supremacy of the magistrates over the pastors, freedom in preaching, and the obligation of the pastors to submit to the majority of the campagnie des pasteurs. Beza obtruded his will in no way upon his associates, and took no harsh measures against injudicious or hot-headed colleagues, though sometimes he took their cases in hand and acted as mediator; and yet he often experienced an opposition so extreme that he threatened to resign. Although he was inclined to take the part of the magistrates, he knew how to defend the rights and independence of the spiritual power when occasion arose, without, however, conceding to it such a preponderating influence as did Calvin. His activity was great. He mediated between the compagnie and the magistracy; the latter continually asked his advice even in political questions. He corresponded with all the leaders of the Reformed party in Europe. After the massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572), he used his influence to give to the refugees a hospitable reception at Geneva. About this time he wrote his De jure magistratuum, in which he emphatically protested against tyranny in religious matters, and affirmed that it is legitimate for a people to oppose an unworthy magistracy in a practical manner and if necessary to use weapons and depose them. To sum up: Without being a great dogmatician like his master, nor a creative genius in the ecclesiastical realm, Beza had qualities which made him famous as humanist, exegete, orator, and leader in religious and political affairs, and qualified him to be the guide of the Calvinists in all Europe. In the various controversies into which he was drawn, Beza often showed an excess of irritation and intolerance, from which Bernardino Ochino, pastor of the Italian congregation at Zurich (on account of a treatise which contained some objectionable points on polygamy), and Sebastian Castellio at Basel (on account of his Latin and French translations of the Bible) had especially to suffer. With Reformed France Beza continued to maintain the closest relations. He was the moderator of the general synod which met in April, 1571, at La Rochelle and decided not to abolish church discipline or to acknowledge the civil government as head of the Church, as the Paris minister Jean Morel and the philosopher Pierre Ramus demanded; it also decided to confirm anew the Calvinistic doctrine of the Lord's Supper (by the expression: "substance of the body of Christ") against Zwinglianism, which caused a very unpleasant discussion between Beza and Ramus and Bullinger. In the following year (May, 1572) he took an important part in the national synod at Nimes. He was also interested in the controversies which concerned the Augsburg Confession in Germany, especially after 1564, on the doctrine of the person of Christ and the sacrament, and published several works against Westphal, Hesshusen, Selnecker, Johann Brenz, and Jakob Andrea. This made him, especially after 1571, hated by all those who adhered to Lutheranism in opposition to Melanchthon. 8. The Colloquy of Muempelgart. The last polemical conflict of importance Beza encountered from the exclusive Lutherans was at the [129]Colloquy of Muempelgart, Mar. 14-27, 1586, to which he had been invited by the Lutheran Count Frederick of Wuerttemberg at the wish of the French noblemen who had fled to Muempelgart. As a matter of course the intended union which was the purpose of the colloquy was not brought about; nevertheless it called forth serious developments within the Reformed Church. When the edition of the acts of the colloquy, as prepared by J. Andreae, was published, Samuel Huber, of Burg near Bern, who belonged to the Lutheranizing faction of the Swiss clergy, took so great offense at the supralapsarian doctrine of predestination propounded at Muempelgart by Beza and Musculus that he felt it to be his duty to denounce Musculus to the magistrates of Bern as an innovator in doctrine. To adjust the matter, the magistrates arranged a colloquy between Huber and Musculus (Sept. 2, 1587), in which the former represented the universalism, the latter the particularism, of grace. As the colloquy was resultless, a debate was arranged at Bern, Apr. 15-18, 1588, at which the defense of the accepted system of doctrine was at the start put into Beza's hands. The three delegates of the Helvetic cantons who presided at the debate declared in the end that Beza had substantiated the teaching propounded at Muempelgart as the orthodox one, and Huber was dismissed from his office. 9. Last Days. After that time Beza's activity was confined more and more to the affairs of his home. His faithful wife Claudine had died childless in 1588, a few days before he went to the Bern Disputation. Forty years they had lived happily together. He contracted, on the advice of his friends, a second marriage with Catharina del Piano, a Genoese widow, in order to have a helpmate in his declining years. Up to his sixty-fifth year he enjoyed excellent health, but after that a gradual sinking of his vitality became perceptible. He was active in teaching till Jan., 1597. The saddest experience in his old days was the conversion of King Henry IV to Roman Catholicism, in spite of his most earnest exhortations (1593). Strange to say, in 1596 the report was spread by the Jesuits in Germany, France, England, and Italy that Beza and the Church of Geneva had returned into the bosom of Rome, and Beza replied in a satire that revealed the possession still of his old fire of thought and vigor of expression. He was not buried, like Calvin, in the general cemetery, Plain-Palais (for the Savoyards had threatened to abduct his body to Rome), but at the direction of the magistrates, in the monastery of St. Pierre. 10. Humanistic and Historical Writings. In Beza's literary activity as well as in his life, distinction must be made between the period of the humanist (which ended with the publication of his Juvenilia) and that of the ecclesiastic. But later productions like the humanistic, biting, satirical Passavantius and his Complainte de Messire Pierre Lizet . . . prove that in later years he occasionally went back to his first love. In his old age he published his Cato censorius (1591), and revised his Poemata, from which he purged juvenile eccentricities. Of his historiographical works, aside from his Icones (1580), which have only an iconographical value, mention may be made of the famous Histoire ecclesiastique des Eglises reformee s au Royaume de France (1580), and his biography of Calvin, with which must be named his edition of Calvin's Epistolae et responsa (1575). 11. Theological Works. But all these humanistic and historical studies are surpassed by his theological productions (contained in Tractationes theologicae). In these Beza appears the perfect pupil or the alter ego of Calvin. His view of life is deterministic and the basis of his religious thinking is the predestinate recognition of the necessity of all temporal existence as an effect of the absolute, eternal, and immutable will of God, so that even the fall of the human race appears to him essential to the divine plan of the world. In most lucid manner Beza shows in tabular form the connection of the religious views which emanated from thin fundamental supralapsarian mode of thought. This he added to his highly instructive treatise Summa totius Christianismi. 12. Beza's Greek New Testament. Of no less importance are the contributions of Beza to Biblical science. In 1565 he issued an edition of the Greek New Testament, accompanied in parallel columns by the text of the Vulgate and a translation of his own (already published as early as 1556). Annotations were added, also previously published, but now he greatly enriched and enlarged them. In the preparation of this edition of the Greek text, but much more in the preparation of the second edition which he brought out in 1582, Beza may have availed himself of the help of two very valuable manuscripts. One is known as the Codex Bezae or Cantabrigensis, and was later presented by Beza to the University of Cambridge; the second is the Codex Claromontanus, which Beza had found in Clermont (now in the National Library at Paris). It was not, however, to these sources that Beza was chiefly indebted, but rather to the previous edition of the eminent Robert Stephens (1550), itself based in great measure upon one of the later editions of Erasmus. Beza's labors in this direction were exceedingly helpful to those who came after. The same thing may be asserted with equal truth of his Latin version and of the copious notes with which it was accompanied. The former is said to have been published over a hundred times. It is to be regretted that the author's view of the doctrine of predestination exercised upon the interpretation of Scripture too preponderating an influence. However, there is no question that Beza added much to a clear understanding of the New Testament. Eugene Choisy. Bibliography: J. W. Baum, T. Beza nach handschriftlichen und anderen gleichzeitigen Quellen, Leipsic, 1843-52 (masterly, but extends only to 1563); his life by Heppe is in vol. vi of Leben und ausgewaehlte Schriften der Vaeter der reformierten Kirche, Elberfeld, 1861 (complete and excellent, inferior only to Baum); A. de la Faye, De vita et obitu T. Besae, Geneva, 1606 (by a favorite pupil of Beza); Jerome Bolsec, Histoire de la vie, maurs, doctrine et debordements de T. de Beze, Paris, 1582, republished Geneva, 1835 (Roman Catholic, a scurrilous and malignant libel); F. C. Schlosser, Leben des Theodor Beza und des Peter Martyr Vermigli, Heidelberg, 1809; E. and E. Haag, La France protestante, 2d ed. by Bordier, ii. 520-540, Paris, 1879; H. M. McCracken, Lives of the Leaders of Our Church Universal, from the Germ. of F. Piper, pp. 352-362, Philadelphia, 1879; Schaff, Christian Church, vol. vii, passim, especially chap six; Moeller, Christian Church, vol. iii, passim; C. v. Proosdij, T. Beza medearbeiter en opvolger van Calvijn, Leyden, 1895; H. M. Baird, Theodore Beza, the Counsellar of the French Reformation, New York, 1899 (the one book in English, and a worthy treatment of the subject), cf. his Rise of the Huguenots, passim, ib. 1879; A. Bernus, T. de Beze `a Lausanne, Lausanne, 1900; E. Choisy, L'Etat chretien calvinists `a Geneve au tempe de T. de Beze, Geneva, 1902; Cambridge Modern History, vol. ii, The Reformation, passim, vol. iii, London, 1904; A Theodore de Beze (1605-1905), Geneva, 1906. Bezold, Carl Ernst Christian BEZOLD, be''zOld', CARL ERNST CHRISTIAN: German Orientalist; b. at Donauwoerth (25 m. n.n.w. of Augsburg), Bavaria, May 18, 1859. He was educated at the universities of Munich (1876-79), Leipsic (1879-80; Ph.D., 1881), and Strasburg (1881), and became privat-docent at Munich in 1883. He continued his studies at Rome in the spring of 1884 and at London in the summer of 1882 and 1887, while from 1888 to 1894 he was employed in the British Museum. Since the latter year he has been professor of Oriental philology and director of the Oriental seminar at the University of Heidelberg. In 1884 he founded, at Leipsic, the Zeitschrift fuer Keilschriftforschung, which was continued in the following year as the Zeitschrift fuer Assyriologie, and which he has edited to the present time. He likewise edited the second edition of C. F. A. Dillmann's Grammatik der aethiopischen Sprache (Leipsic, 1899) and the Orientalische Studien in honor of the seventieth birthday of T. Noeldeke (2 vols., Giessen, 1906), and was the founder and editor of the Semitistische Studien (Berlin, 1894 sqq.). In 1904 he became one of the editors of the Archiv fuer Religionswissenschaft. He has also written Die grosse Dariusinschrift am Felsen van Behistun (Leipsic, 1881); Die Achaemenideninschriften (1882); Die Schatzhoehle, syrisch und deutsch (2 vols., 1883-88); The Ordinary Canon of the Mass according to the Use of the Coptic Church, in C. A. Swainson's Greek Liturgies (London, 1884); Kurzgefasster Ueberblick ueber die babylonisch-as-syrische Literatur (Leipsic, 1886); Catalogue of the Cuneiform Tablets in the Kouyunjik Collection of the British Museum (5 vols., London, 1889-99); The Tell-el-Amarna Tablets in the British Museum (1892); Oriental Diplomacy (1893); Ninive und Babylon (Bielefeld, 1903); Die babylonisch-assyrischen Keilinschriften und ihre Bedeutung fuer das Alte Testament (Tuebingen, 1904); Babylonisch-Assyrische Texte uebersetzt: i. Die Schoepfungslegende (Bonn, 1904); and Kebra Nagast, die Herrlichkeit der Koenige (Ethiopic text and German translation, Munich, 1905). Bianchini (Blanchinus), Giuseppe BIANCHINI, bi''an-ki'ni (BLANCHINUS), GIUSEPPE: Italian Biblical scholar; b. at Verona Sept. 9, 1704; d. after 1760. He was a member of the Congregation of the Oratory, and the author of two works bearing on the history of the Itala: Psalterium duplex juxta antiquam italicam versionem (Rome, 1740) and Evangeliarium quadruplex Latinae versionis antiquae seu veteris Italicae (2 vols., 1749). The detailed statements in the first volume are valuable, but the text is inferior to Sabatier's Bibliorum sacrorum Latinae versionis antiquae (Reims, 1739 sqq.). The second, containing some older codices, supplements Sabatier. K. Benrath. Bible BIBLE The Bible in the Early Church (S: 1). In the Middle Ages and Reformation Period (S: 2). Modern Views and Criticism (S: 3). Wherein the Bible is Unique (S: 4). The word "Bible" (from Gk. biblia, "books") or "Holy Scripture" is the customary term in Church and theology for the ecclesiastically acknowledged collection of the Old and the New Testament writings. As the writings of the Old Testament canon are indicated in the New Testament by the term "The Scriptures" or "The Scripture," so in the Middle Ages the whole was designated by "The Books." By a misunderstanding of the Greek form, the word was received into the modern languages as a singular of feminine gender. 1. The Bible in the Early Church. The separation of these writings from all other literature as "the Book of Books" is derived from the practise of Jesus, who, with his contemporaries, acknowledged the authority of the Old Testament literature (M. Kaehler, Jesus und das Alte Testament, Leipsic, 1895). The Old Testament was conveyed, in the Greek translation of the Septuagint, as the Word of God, to the Gentile Christians by the followers of Jesus. At the latest in the beginning of the third century, the New Testament canon was added to the Old Testament, as is witnessed by the Syriac version (see [130]Canon of Scripture). And from that time the bipartite collection was always treated as a whole, although the uncertainty about some books (the so-called Antilegomena) was not forgotten during the Middle Ages, was recognized by Luther and other Reformers, and was treated from a dogmatic standpoint by Martin Chemnitz (Examen concilii Tridentini, Frankfort, 1596). The controversy about the Old Testament Apocrypha has never been settled. What esteem the Bible enjoyed in the ancient catholic Church is seen from its controlling position in divine service, in the reading of Scripture, and in the delivery of sermons founded on it, but especially from the labor spent in translating it (see [131]Bible Versions, A). 2. In the Middle Ages and Reformation Period. It must not be imagined that the Middle Ages did not rightly appreciate the Bible. It is necessary to take into account the great difficulties which confronted the Church at that time in forming an ecclesiastical language, and even a literary language, for the Germanic and Slavic nations. In the absence of modern philology the efforts made are worthy of acknowledgment. The hierarchical development of the Church tended to paralyze it by enforcing uniformity in use of the church-language at the expense of intelligibility, and in the interest of an easier management put the "heretical book" into the keeping of the ecclesiastical magistracy. But the Reformation introduced a new epoch of wide propagation and appreciation of the Bible. The efforts of the Reformers to make this book accessible to all Christians were taken up by Pietism under Spener; the founding of the Canstein Bible Institute (see [132]Bible Societies, II, 1; [133]Canstein, Karl Hildebrand, Baron on) and the sending out of the first missionaries opened the double way by which the Bible, especially in the nineteenth century, has obtained its commanding position in the world; knowledge of the Bible has been spread by the [134]Bible Societies through hundreds of new translations (a work in which Englishmen and Scotchmen, well read in the Scriptures, have distinguished themselves). The Bible has become in the fullest sense the people's book in all Protestant countries of the Old World, and the same process is being repeated among the non-Christian nations, to which missionary cooperation gives the Bible and with it often also an alphabet and a literary language. 3. Modern Views and Criticism. This zeal for the propagation of the Bible has its root in the unique importance which the theology of the Reformation ascribes to it. In opposition to the ecclesiastical position of Rome, the Evangelicals developed their doctrine of the "normative or decisive authority of Scripture" on the basis of the uncontroverted character of the Scripture as revelation. This high regard has as its foundation the doctrine of "verbal inspiration" (see [135]Inspiration), which ascribes to the Bible all requisite qualities, such as "perfection" in communicating the "knowledge necessary for salvation," " transparency," and the "power of interpreting itself by itself." Unobserved, the body of pure doctrine, by the help of which the renewal of evangelical activity had been accomplished, became transformed into a set of doctrines which were mechanically combined, regardless of their historical origin. In opposition to the adulterated tradition of Rome, Protestantism could happily refer to the bulwark of Scripture, in which Roman Catholics also acknowledged divine revelation. But evangelical theology first succumbed to the attack which the "Enlightenment" (Aufklaerung), about the middle of the eighteenth century, made upon all history and tradition and especially upon historical revelation. In vain the effort was made to prove dogmatically the immediate divine origin of the Bible-letter, while proof was also given in an ever-cogent manner that the Bible is a production of human authorship and tradition. This crisis was gradually overcome by the victory gained for the "historico-critical" method of treating the Bible, but the right of historical revelation was established over against "natural morality and religion." As in earlier times historical development within the Bible was now and then perceived (e.g., by Cocceius and Bengel), so now students see in its writings documents of divine revelation which entered into the human world as historical facts (so the Erlangen School). Only one group of theologians of the nineteenth century (e.g., Hengstenberg and Rudelbach) went back again to the old doctrine of verbal inspiration; most investigators assumed a new attitude toward Scripture. Documents to have value must be shown to be ancient and to be derived from a time near the events they relate; there must be testimony to their genuineness and credibility. But such merely historical consideration of the Bible proved insufficient and dangerous in the next period. "Liberal theology, endowed with technical skill," showed error in Biblical tradition from a critical point of view, and in place of the Biblical evidences it substituted conjecturally the details of a natural history of religion, which it composed after the Hegelian formula to the effect that in the "historical revelation" there is to be seen the development of a religious idea, an act in the drama of the natural development of humanity (so F. C. Baur, E. Reuss, and Wellhausen). The results of this modern criticism were propagated among the people through the press and by pamphlets in a wild confusion along with the older, would-be enlightening defamations of the Bible (so by Reimarus, Venturini, and Bahrdt). Over against this sprang up a comprehensive literature which sought to gain those who were estranged from the Bible and to reassure disquieted readers. It was based on an acknowledgment of the part the revelation of God has played in the education of the race, and in a scientific manner discarded the unjustified conclusions of the so-called constructive criticism, at least as far as the New Testament is concerned. In this intellectual battle it became evident that the estimate of the Bible stands in an indissolubly reciprocal relation to the position taken toward positive Christianity in general. 4. Wherein the Bible is Unique. It is therefore absolutely necessary (especially for the ministry and for ecclesiastical instruction) to have a clear insight into that which makes our Bible the unique "Book of Books." This is obtained by observing what it is that has given the Bible its historical position. Throughout the whole course of its working in the human race the Bible appears only in close connection with the Church, the essential activity of which, according to the Augsburg Confession (vii), is the preaching of "the Word." The common object of both is to convey the revelation of the living God. Whoever has become a believer in the Gospel and recalls his experience perceives also that the service of the Church by which he was led to it was inspired by the Bible, and further observation of life and history teaches that the efficacy of the work of the Church is dependent on the use it makes of the Bible. For only in the Scripture is found the unchangeable and therefore authoritative form of preaching which first induced faith in Christ and continues so to do. On the other hand, the Christian also recognizes that his personal relation to the Bible is due to the "living voice of the Gospel" and that through the Church he comes into personal relation with the Bible. He understands also that the Bible is the book of the Church (so Luther), but not a text-book or devotional book which in all its parts is immediately useful to the individual Christian. In it are found productions which are far remote from one another in date, which originally were intended for entirely different circles with quite peculiar wants. On this account only the cooperation of different gifts and the diligence of generations working on a scientific basis can bring out its full content. Under the assumption of this service of the Church each living Christian has the possibility of coming thus through his Bible into immediate touch with the historical revelation of his God from the promise of the covenant to the beginning of the mission to the Gentiles. While historical inquiry establishes the historical continuation, and divides the whole Bible into single historical accounts and documents, the view of most Bible-readers is directed only to the Bible as a whole, and seeks in every fragment a word of God applicable to immediate questions and wants. These divergent interests must be united by observing that the individual parts, by being comprehended as "the Bible," receive a new worth, and that in this very form they obtain an imperishable, effective continuity, instead of being merely individual monuments of past times. The collection is not an accidental one, but transcribes in characteristic features the life of the human race as it developed under the influence of the history of revelation. To him therefore who sees in reliance on God the stay of human life, the Bible will also be the book of the human race. For Christian belief the Bible appears thus as the great fact in which God has inseparably interwoven the faith-awakening knowledge of his revelation with the history of the human race, and in it is discerned the clear testimony to the goal of the human race and the conquering offer of God's grace. M. Kaehler. Bibliography: M. Arnold, Literature and Dogma, latest ed., Now York, 1902 (a rich book, but on rationalistic basis; it called forth many replies which were answered in God and the Bible, 1884); J. H. Crocker, The New Bible and its New Uses (Unitarian, ultrarationalistic); G. J. Metzger, Der alts Bibelglaube und der moderne Vernunftglaube, Stuttgart, 1893 (evangelical); J. T. Sunderland, The Bible . . . its Place among the Sacred Books of the World, New York, 1893 (Unitarian); J. Denney, Studies in Theology, London, 1895 (by a leader in English evangelical thought); A. M. Fairbairn, Place of Christ in Modern Theology, London, 1895 (moderate in its theological position); P. Mueller, Freisinn und Bibelglaube, Hamburg 1896; W. Sanday, Inspiration, London, 1896 (advanced in the O. T. part, conservative in treating the N. T.); R. L. Ottley, Aspects of the Old Testament, London, 1898; T. Zahn, Die bleibende Bedeutung des neutestamentlichen Kanons fuer die Kirche, Leipsic, 1898; S. Bernfeld, Das Buch der Buecher, Berlin, 1899; C. A. Briggs, General Introduction to the Study of Holy Scripture, New York, 1899 (comprehensive and scholarly); R. B. MacArthur, Bible Difficulties and their Alleviative Interpretations, Boston, 1898; idem, The Old Book and the Old Faith, ib. 1899 (decidedly conservative); L. W. Batten, The Old Testament from the Modern Point of View, New York, 1901; R. G. Moulton, Short Introduction to the Literature of the Bible, Boston, 1901; P. Gardner, Historic View of the New Testament, London, 1904 (from a scientific standpoint); F. Bettex, Die Bibel Gottes Wort, 3d ed., Stuttgart, 1903, Eng. transl., Cincinnati, 1904; J. E. Carpenter, The Bible in the Nineteenth Century, London, 1903 (scholarly and reverent, but on scientific basis); J. Haussleiter, Die Autoritaet der Bibel, Munich [1904], 1905; M. Dods, The Bible, its Origin and Nature, New York, 1905 (Dr. Dods is well known as a conservative critic); J. M. McMullen, The Supremacy of the Bible, ib. 1905; W. Barry, The Tradition of Scripture, its Origin, Authority, and Interpretation, London. 1906; C. F. Kant, Origin and Permanent Value of the O. T., New York, 1906; A. T. Pierson, The Bible and Spiritual Criticism, ib. 1906; G. F. Wright, Scientific Confirmations of O. T. History, ib. 1906; W. C. Selleck, New Appreciation of the Bible, Chicago, 1907; H. F. Waring, Christianity and its Bible, ib. 1907. Bible Christians BIBLE CHRISTIANS. See [136]Methodists, I., 8. Bible Christians (Bryanites) BIBLE CHRISTIANS (BRYANITES). William O'Bryan (S: 1). Early Organization and Growth (S: 2). Dissension (S: 3). Extension to America and Australia (S: 4). Union with the Methodists in Canada (S: 5). Union in Australia and England (S: 6). Bible Christians or Bryanites are popular names of a body of Christians officially known as the Bible Christian Connection. The designation "Bryanites" is from their founder, William O'Bryan; that of "Bible Christians" was due to the persistent use of the Bible in private devotions and public services by a peasantry in general but scantily provided with the book, and to the consistent practise of its precepts by their early ministry. The sect has usually been classed with the Methodists and is now united with them. 1. William O'Bryan. William O'Bryan, the founder, was born in Gunwen (near Lostwithiel, 23 m. w. of Plymouth), Cornwall, England, Feb. 6, 1778. He was the son of a yeoman, was possessed of a vigorous mind and retentive memory, and, having a good elementary education, was, intellectually, considerably above his class. His home influences were devoutly religious and resulted in his conversion at eighteen, when he began at once to exhort. He was licensed shortly after as a "local preacher" with the hope of entering the Wesleyan itinerancy; meanwhile he engaged in business. Serious illness (1804) reawakened in him a profound conviction of his call, which delay and opposition had weakened for a time. For five years more he was content to work on the Bodmin circuit as a local preacher of the Wesleyans, while still in business. His fine presence, courteous manner, great magnetism, and above all his fervent godliness gave him much popularity as a preacher. In his keen hunting for souls, he grew restive under restraint, overstepped the boundary of the circuit and plunged into the "wild wastes of Cornwall and North Devon," where the voice of Methodism had never been heard. This in the mind of the Wesleyan authorities was a "dangerous irregularity" of method, against which Mr. O'Bryan had been cautioned, and, when he appeared at the district meeting as a candidate for the itinerancy, caused his "first" rejection; the financial responsibility which would be incurred by accepting a married man, as he now was, was named as the "second" cause for his "final" rejection. He at once entered unoccupied fields in a new campaign. His unquestioned moral uprightness, indefatigable labors, and unsparing self-sacrifice made his evangelical message remarkably successful; and the generosity which prompted him to urge all his converts to enter the Church that had rejected him from its highest office of ministry compels admiration. A tendency to despotic rule, to which by nature and force of circumstances he was inclined (see below, [137]S: 3), led to a separation in 1829 from the Connection which he had founded, and in 1835 to his emigration to the United States with residence in New York City. He revisited his spiritual children more than once and was heartily welcomed. A generous pension was provided for his support by the body. He died in Brooklyn, Jan. 8, 1868, and was buried in Greenwood Cemetery. 2. Early Organization and Growth. The germ of the Bible Christian denomination consisted of twenty-two persons, converts of Mr. O'Bryan, who were organized into a society on Oct. 9, 1815, in the house of John Thorne, Shebbear, Devonshire, England. Within a year this number became eighteen ministers and 1,500 members; and at the sixth year seventy-eight ministers and 6,200 members. To carry forward a work extending so rapidly, Mr. O'Bryan adopted John Wesley's plan and "chose and appointed" both men and women as itinerants. The proportion of women was large in the early history of the Church, and their work was eminently successful; yet their number steadily declined and ultimately none remained in the itinerancy. With this working force evangelism was extended into Devonshire and Cornwall, the Scilly and Channel Islands, and later by emigration (1820-30) to America. 3. Dissension. Organization into societies and circuits required meeting-places and chapels--at first preaching was mostly in the field, the village green, in hired halls, and in houses--and all property acquired for such purpose was held in Mr. O'Bryan's name. He also presided over the conference, the first being held at Launceston (1819), and composed of ministers only. To all this absolutism, there was serious objection, and an effort to secure an amended deed by which all property should be held in trust for the Connection was begun in 1826. A crisis was reached at the eleventh conference (1829), when opposition to Mr. O'Bryan's expressed intention "that if all the conference were opposed to his views, his single vote was to determine every case," resulted in his adjourning the conference, and withdrawing with comparatively few sympathizers. The conference refused to recognize his authority, elected Andrew Cory president in his stead, and proceeded with business. It was resolved "that the conference be the organ of government; its membership, ministers and laymen; and its next place of meeting annually fixed." The conference thus declared against an episcopacy, as it also decided against ecclesiasticism by admitting laymen to church government in equal numbers with clerical members. Eight years later these separatists negotiated terms of reunion, but Mr. O'Bryan never again united. 4. Extension to America and Australia. Many members of the infant Church emigrated to the colonies and the United States. In 1831 the Missionary Society of the Bible Christians in England sent John Glass and Francis Metherall as missionaries to Canada West and Prince Edward Island respectively. They also organized missions (1846) in the States of Wisconsin, Ohio, and Michigan. In 1850 James Way and James Rowe were sent out to Australia, and later work was begun in New Zealand. For the next quarter of a century the Church enjoyed undisturbed prosperity, establishing three publishing houses, and a denominational college at Shebbear, Devonshire, England. In 1882, 300 ministers and 34,000 members were reported. This was the high-water mark numerically. 5. Union with the Methodists in Canada. These years of extension had awakened, in a much divided Methodism, a sense of the advisability of "union," in both England and the colonies. The center of discussion was Canada, where five Methodist sects wasted their energy in vigorous, if not unseemly, rivalry. As early as 1866 the Bible Christians and Methodist New Connection approached the Methodist Protestants of the United States upon the question of union, but the overture ended in friendly expressions only. In 1870 the Methodist New Connection made overtures to the Bible Christians, and in 1874 the former were absorbed by the Wesleyan Methodists of Canada. The Bible Christians announced as their policy--a policy consistently held since organization--"That any basis of union to be acceptable to this Conference must secure to the laity their full share of privileges in the government of the Church." In 1882 a committee was appointed by the Bible Christians to meet with three other committees, representing the Wesleyan Methodists, the Primitive Methodists, and the Methodist Episcopal Church of Canada. This committee was explicitly instructed to reaffirm "That no union would be possible for their Church that did not provide for a representation of the laity in all church courts." A basis of union was provided acceptable to all parties, voted upon by every society, and in 1884 union was fully and legally perfected. The uniting churches chose as a name "The Methodist Church of Canada." The parent body graciously consented to the separation, which affected the work in Canada and the United States only. 6. Union in Australia and England. The energy and resources of the English and Australian conferences were now devoted to an enlargement of home missions and in the establishment of a foreign mission in China, which has been successful. A union of the Australian conference with other Methodist sects in that colony left but the parent body bearing the name; and in Aug., 1906, this Church voted unanimously to unite with the Methodist New Connection and the United Methodists, the union to be formally and legally consummated in 1907. The name of "United Methodist Church" was chosen for the new organization. At the time of approving the union the Bible Christians had 638 chapels, 202 ministers, and 30,000 members. Francis Metherall Whitlock. Bibliography: J. Thorns, A Jubilee Memorial of the Rise and Progress of the Bible Christian Connexion, London, 1888; J. G. Hayman, A Hist. of the Methodist Revival of the Last Century in Relation to North Devon, ib. 1885; [John Thorne], James Thorne of Shebbear, a Memoir . . . from his Diary and Letters, by his Son, ib 1873; F. W. Bourne, The Centenary Life of James Thorne, ib. 1895; Brief Biographical Sketches of Bible Christians, Jersey, 1905; The Book of Discipline for the People Known as Bible Christians, London, the Bible Christian Book Room. Bible Reading by the Laity, Restrictions on BIBLE READING BY THE LAITY, RESTRICTIONS ON. I. The Ancient Church. II. The Middle Ages. III. The Roman Catholic Church since the Reformation. Action by the Council of Trent (S: 1). Rules of Various Popes (S: 2). Rules and Practice in Different Countries (S: 3). IV. The Greek Church. V. The Evangelical Churches. I. The Ancient Church. It is indisputable that in Apostolic times the Old Testament was commonly read (John v, 47; Acts viii, 28; xvii, 11; II Tim. iii, 15). Roman Catholics admit that this reading was not restricted in the first centuries, in spite of its abuse by Gnostics and other heretics. On the contrary, the reading of Scripture was urged (Justin Martyr, xliv, ANF, i, 177-178; Jerome, Adv. libros Rufini, i, 9, NPNF, 2d ser., iii, 487); and Pamphilus, the friend of Eusebius, kept copies of Scripture to furnish to those who desired them. Chrysostom attached considerable importance to the reading of Scripture on the part of the laity and denounced the error that it was to be permitted only to monks and priests (De Lazaro concio, iii, MPG, xlviii, 992; Hom. ii in Matt., MPG, lvii, 30, NPNF, 2d ser., x, 13). He insisted upon access being given to the entire Bible, or at least to the New Testament (Hom. ix in Col., MPG, lxii, 361, NPNF, xiii, 301). The women also, who were always at home, were diligently to read the Bible (Hom. xxxv on Gen. xii, MPG, liii, 323). Jerome recommended the reading and studying of Scripture on the part of the women (Epist., cxxviii, 3, MPL, xxii, 1098, NPNF, 2d ser., vi, 259; Epist., lxxix, 9, MPG, xxii, 730-731, NPNF, 2d ser., vi, 167). The translations of the Bible, Augustine considered a blessed means of propagating the Word of God among the nations (De doctr. christ., ii, 5, NPNF, 1st ser., ii, 536); Gregory I recommended the reading of the Bible without placing any limitations on it (Hom. iii in Ezek., MPL, lxxvi, 968). II. The Middle Ages. Owing to lack of culture among the Germanic and Romanic peoples, there was for a long time no thought of restricting access to the Bible there. Translations of Biblical books into German began only in the Carolingian period and were not originally intended for the laity. Nevertheless the people were anxious to have the divine service and the Scripture lessons read in the vernacular. John VIII in 880 permitted, after the reading of the Latin gospel, a translation into Slavonic; but Gregory VII, in a letter to Duke Vratislav of Bohemia in 1080 characterized the custom as unwise, bold, and forbidden (Epist., vii, 11; P. Jaffe, BRG, ii, 392 sqq.). This was a formal prohibition, not of Bible reading in general, but of divine service in the vernacular. With the appearance, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, of the Albigenses and Waldenses, who appealed to the Bible in all their disputes with the Church, the hierarchy was furnished with a reason for shutting up the Word of God. The Synod of Toulouse in 1229 forbade the laity to have in their possession any copy of the books of the Old and the New Testament except the Psalter and such other portions as are contained in the Breviary or the Hours of the Blessed Mary. "We most strictly forbid these works in the vulgar tongue" (Harduin, Concilia, xii, 178; Mansi, Concilia, xxiii, 194). The Synod of Tarragona (1234) ordered all vernacular versions to be brought to the bishop to be burned. James I renewed thin decision of the Tarragona synod in 1276. The synod held there in 1317 under Archbishop Ximenes prohibited to Beghards, Beguines, and tertiaries of the Franciscans the possession of theological books in the vernacular (Mansi, Concilia, xxv, 627). The order of James I was renewed by later kings and confirmed by Paul II (1464-71). Ferdinand and Isabella (1474-1516) prohibited the translation of the Bible into the vernacular or the possession of such translations (F. H. Reusch, Index der verbotenen Buecher, i, Bonn, 1883, 44). In England Wyclif's Bible-translation caused the resolution passed by the third Synod of Oxford (1408): "No one shall henceforth of his own authority translate any text of Scripture into English; and no part of any such book or treatise composed in the time of John Wycliffe or later shall be read in public or private, under pain of excommunication" (Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, vi, 984). But Sir Thomas More states that he had himself seen old Bibles which were examined by the bishop and left in the hands of good Catholic laymen (Blunt, Reformation of the Church of England, 4th ed., London, 1878, i, 505). In Germany, Charles IV issued in 1369 an edict to four inquisitors against the translating and the reading of Scripture in the German language. This edict was caused by the operations of Beghards and Beguines. In 1485 and 1486, Berthold, archbishop of Mainz, issued an edict against the printing of religious books in German, giving among other reasons the singular one that the German language was unadapted to convey correctly religious ideas, and therefore they would be profaned. Berthold's edict had some influence, but could not prevent the dissemination and publication of new editions of the Bible. Leaders in the Church sometimes recommended to the laity the reading of the Bible, and the Church kept silence officially as long as these efforts were not abused. III. The Roman Catholic Church since the Reformation. Luther's translation of the Bible and its propagation could not but influence the Roman Catholic Church. Humanism, through such men as Erasmus, advocated the reading of the Bible and the necessity of making it accessible by translations; but it was felt that Luther's translation must be offset by one prepared in the interest of the Church. Such editions were Emser's of 1527, and the Dietenberg Bible of 1534. The Church of Rome silently tolerated these translations. 1. Action by the Council of Trent. At last the Council of Trent took the matter in hand, and in its fourth session (Apr. 18, 1546) adopted the Decretum de editione et usu librorum sacrorum, which enacted the following: "This synod ordains and decrees that henceforth sacred Scripture, and especially the aforesaid old and vulgate edition, be printed in the most correct manner possible; and that it shall not be lawful for any one to print, or cause to be printed, any books whatever on sacred matters without the name of the author; or in future to sell them, or even to possess them, unless they shall have been first examined and approved of by the ordinary." When the question of the translation of the Bible into the vernacular came up, Bishop Acqui of Piedmont and Cardinal Pacheco advocated its prohibition. This was strongly opposed by Cardinal Madruzzi, who claimed that "not the translations but the professors of Hebrew and Greek are the cause of the confusion in Germany; a prohibition would produce the worst impression in Germany." As no agreement could be had, the council appointed an index-commission to report to the pope, who was to give an authoritative decision. 2. Rules of Various Popes. The first index published by a pope (Paul IV), in 1559, prohibited under the title of Biblia prohibita a number of Latin editions as well as the publication and possession of translations of the Bible in German, French, Spanish, Italian, English, or Dutch, without the permission of the sacred office of the Roman Inquisition (Reusch, ut sup., i, 264). In 1584 Pius IV published the index prepared by the commission mentioned above. Herein ten rules are laid down, of which the fourth reads thus: "Inasmuch as it is manifest from experience that if the Holy Bible, translated into the vulgar tongue, be indiscriminately allowed to every one, the rashness of men will cause more evil than good to arise from it, it is, on this point, referred to the judgment of the bishops or inquisitors, who may, by the advice of the priest or confessor, permit the reading of the Bible translated into the vulgar tongue by Catholic authors, to those persons whose faith and piety they apprehend will be augmented and not injured by it; and this permission must be had in writing. But if any shall have the presumption to read or possess it without such permission, he shall not receive absolution until he have first delivered up such Bible to the ordinary." Regulations for booksellers follow, and then: "Regulars shall neither read nor purchase such Bibles without special license from their superiors." Sixtus V substituted in 1590 twenty-two new rules for the ten of Pius IV. Clement VIII abolished in 1596 the rules of Sixtus, but added a "remark" to the fourth rule given above, which particularly restores the enactment of Paul IV. The right of the bishops, which the fourth rule implies, is abolished by the "remark," and the bishop may grant a dispensation only when especially authorized by the pope and the Inquisition (Reusch, ut sup., i, 333). Benedict XIV enlarged, in 1757, the fourth rule thus: "If such Bible-versions in the vernacular are approved by the apostolic see or are edited with annotations derived from the holy fathers of the Church or from learned and Catholic men, they are permitted." This modification of the fourth rule was abolished by Gregory XVI in pursuance of an admonition of the index-congregation, Jan. 7, 1836, "which calls attention to the fact that according to the decree of 1757 only such versions in the vernacular are to be permitted as have been approved by the apostolic see or are edited with annotations," but insistence is placed on all those particulars enjoined by the fourth rule of the index and afterward by Clement VIII (Reusch, ut sup., ii, 852). 3. Rules and Practice in Different Countries. In England the reading of the Bible was made by Henry VIII (1530) to depend upon the permission of the superiors. Tyndale's version, printed before 1535, was prohibited. In 1534 the Canterbury convocation passed a resolution asking the king to have the Bible translated and to permit its reading. A folio copy of Coverdale's translation was put into every church for the benefit of the faithful, and fastened with a chain. In Spain the Inquisitor-General de Valdes published in 1551 the index of Louvain of 1550, which prohibits "Bibles (New and Old Testaments) in the Spanish or other vernacular" (Reusch, ut sup., i, 133). This prohibition was abolished in 1778. The Lisbon index of 1824 in Portugal prohibited quoting in the vernacular in any book passages from the Bible. In Italy the members of the order of the Jesuits were in 1596 permitted to use a Catholic Italian translation of the Gospel-lessons. In France the Sorbonne declared, Aug. 26,1525, that a French translation of the Bible or of single books must be regarded as dangerous under conditions then present; extant versions were better suppressed than tolerated. In the following year, 1526, it prohibited the translation of the entire Bible, but permitted the translation of single books with proper annotations. The indexes of the Sorbonne, which by royal edict were binding, after 1544 contained the statement: "How dangerous it is to allow the reading of the Bible in the vernacular to unlearned people and those not piously or humbly disposed (of whom there are many in our times) may be seen from the Waldensians, Albigenses, and Poor Men of Lyons, who have thereby lapsed into error and have led many into the same condition. Considering the nature of men, the translation of the Bible into the vernacular must in the present be regarded therefore as dangerous and pernicious" (Reusch, ut sup., i, 151). The rise of Jansenism in the seventeenth century, and especially the appearance, under its encouragement, of Quesnel's New Testament with moral reflections under each verse (Le Nouveau Testament en franc,ois avec des reflexions moroles sur chaque vers, Paris, 1699), which was expressly intended to popularize the reading of the Bible, caused the renewal, with increased stringency, of the rules already quoted. The Jesuits prevailed upon Clement XI to publish the famous bull Unigenitus, Sept. 8, 1713, in which he condemned seven propositions in Quesnel's work which advocated the reading of the Bible by the laity (cf. H. J. D. Denzinger, Enchiridion, Wuerzburg, 1854, 287). In the Netherlands, Neercassel, bishop of Emmerich, published in 1677 (in Latin) and 1680 (in French) a treatise in which he dealt with the fourth rule of the Tridentine index as obsolete, and urged the diligent reading of the Bible. In Belgium in 1570 the unlicensed sale of the Bible in the vernacular was strictly prohibited; but the use of the Antwerp Bible continued. In Poland the Bible was translated and often published. In Germany papal decrees could not very well be carried out and the reading of the Bible was not only not prohibited, but was approved and praised. Billuart about 1750, as quoted by Van Ess, states, "In France, Germany, and Holland the Bible is read by all without distinction." In the nineteenth century the clergy took great interest in the work of Bible Societies. Thus [138]Leander van Ess acted as agent of the British and Foreign Bible Society for Catholic Germany, and the society published the New Testament of Van Ess, which was placed on the Index in 1821. The princes-bishop of Breslau, Sedlnitzki, who afterward joined the Evangelical Church, was also interested in circulating the Bible. As the Bible Societies generally circulated the translations of heretics, the pope--Leo XII (May 5, 1824); Pius VIII (May 25, 1829); Gregory XVI (Aug. 15, 1840; May 8, 1844); Pius IX (Nov. 9, 1846; Dec. 8, 1849)--issued encyclicals against the Bible Societies. In the syllabus of 1864 "socialism, communism, secret societies, . . . and Bible Societies" are placed in the same category. As to the effect of the papal decrees there is a difference of opinion within the Catholic Church. In theory the admonition of Gregory XVI no doubt exists, but practise often ignores it. IV. The Greek Church. The Greek Church knows of no such restriction of use of the Bible as that of the Roman Church. Nevertheless the Synod of Jerusalem of 1672 answered the first of the four questions: "Whether the Holy Scripture can be read by all Christians," in the negative. Nicholas I of Russia abolished in 1826 the Bible Society founded by Alexander I for the propagation of the Bible in the Russian vernacular. V. The Evangelical Churches. Luther strove to open the Bible to all, and his version served that purpose. The principle that every Evangelical Christian is at liberty to read the Bible remained uncontroverted, though Semler (De antiquo ecclesiae statu commentatio, 37, 60, 68) makes the assertion that the sacred writings, especially the apostolic epistles, were not intended for the use of the people and the congregations; that in the ancient Church no universal use of the Bible existed, and that the catechumens especially were prohibited from using the Bible. Bible-compendiums for special purposes and separate circles also came into use in the Evangelical Church. Veit Dietrich published in 1541 his Summarium of the Old and the New Testament; Cromwell's soldiers had The Soldier's Pocket Bible of 1643 (facsimile edition, Cromwell's Soldier's Bible, London, 1895). The restriction upon Bible-reading in the Evangelical Church became of practical importance only in the schools. For didactic purposes Amos Comenius recommended compendiums and special manuals of Scripture, which the scholar was to use till he could read the Gospel in the original. The didactic needs were gradually satisfied by the introduction of text-books of "Biblical history," the Catechism, and collections of Bible sentences. From time to time the question has been agitated whether the whole Bible or so-called school Bibles should be used in the schools. The principal reason adduced in favor of the latter is that certain passages are objectionable because they deal with sexual relations. But these reasons are not well founded, since reading of the Bible has never been a cause of demoralization. The moral earnestness which without veiling calls things by their right names is to be preferred to a careful paraphrasing and veiling of the sense which only the more excite impure desires. (Georg Rietschel.) Bibliography: T. G. Hegelmaier, Geschichte des Bibelverbots, Ulm, 1783; N. Le Maire, Sanctuarium profanis occlusum sive de sanctorum bibliorum in lingua vulgari seu vernacula tractatus, Wuersburg, 1662 (from the Fr. of 1651), this was reproduced in substance in Die Bibel kein Lesebuch fuer Jedermann, Muenster, 1845; A. Arnauld, De la lecture de l'ecriture sainte, Paris (c. 1690); C. W. F. Walch, Kritische Untersuchungen vom Gebrauch der heiligen Schrift unter den alten Christen in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten, Leipsic, 1779; F. von Ess, Der heilige Chrysostomus oder die Stimme der katholischen Kirche ueber das nuetzliche, heilsame und erbauliche Bibellesen, Darmstadt, 1824; J. B. Malon, La Lecture de la sainte Bible an langue vulgaire, 2 vols., Louvain, 1846; Vom Lesen der heiligen Schrift, Mains, 1846; F. H. Reusch, Die Indices librorum prohibitorum des sechszehnten Jahrhundarts, Tuebingen, 1886; W. Walther, Die deutsche Bibeluebersetzung des Mittelalters, Braunschweig, 1889; J. H. Kurtz, Church History, S:S: 105, 3; 185, 1, New York, 1890; the text of the bull Unigenitus may be found in Reich, Documents, pp. 386-389, and the authoritative statement of the Greco-Russian Church in Schaff, Creeds, iii, 433-434. Bible Societies BIBLE SOCIETIES. I. British Bible Societies. 1.Precursors of the British and Foreign Bible Society. 2. The British and Foreign Bible Society. Origin and Constitution (S: 1). Present Organization (S: 2). Foreign Work (S: 3). Dissensions. Seceding Societies (S: 4). 3. The National Bible Society of Scotland. 4. The Hibernian Bible Society. 5. The Trinitarian Bible Society. 6. The Bible Translation Society. II. Bible Societies on the Continent of Europe. 1. Germany. 2. France. 3. The Netherlands. 4. Scandinavia. 5. Russia. 6. Switzerland. III. Bible Societies in America. 1. The American Bible Society. Organization (S: 1). Constitution and Management (S: 2). Summary of Work (S: 3). Foreign Work (S: 4). Controversies (S: 5). 2. The American and Foreign Bible Society and the American Bible Union. 3. The Bible Association of Friends in America. Bible societies are benevolent associations formed to increase the circulation of the Bible and making special efforts to supply the Scriptures to those who from poverty or other causes are destitute of them. Printing the Bible or New Testament in suitable styles, translation into all important languages and even into the less important dialects, and some effective system of distribution in all accessible places are commonly regarded as essential features of the work of such societies. In some cases the books are given without price; but it is not usual to give away a large proportion. The test of manufacture and of distribution, however, has to be provided by voluntary contributions. The [139]Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge, founded in London in 1698, was the first to undertake to provide the common people with the Bible. It continues this beneficent work as one branch of its publication enterprise, and has been the means of providing fairly good translations of the Scriptures in many obscure languages of Asia, Africa, and the Pacific Islands. The [140]Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, founded in 1701, has also done and is still doing a good work in circulating the Scriptures in connection with its extensive missions. The Scottish Society for Propagating Christian Knowledge, founded in 1709, added the work of circulating the Bible to its missionary enterprises in Scotland and in America. The first society formed for the exclusive purpose of publishing the Bible at a low price seems to have been the Canstein Bible Institute, established in 1710 at Halle in Germany by Baron Canstein (see below, [141]II, 1). I. British Bible Societies. 1. Precursors of the British and Foreign Bible Society. In the last half of the eighteenth century several societies sprang up in Great Britain which had Bible distribution as part of their programme; such as the Book Society for Promoting Religious Knowledge among the Poor (1750), the Bible Society, later known as the Naval and Military Bible Society (1780), the Society for the Support and Encouragement of Sunday Schools (1785), the Association for Discountenancing Vice and Promoting the Knowledge and Practise of the Christian Religion (established in Dublin, 1792), the French Bible Society (established in London for printing the Bible in France, 1792), and the Religious Tract Society (London, 1799; see [142]Tract Societies). 2. The British and Foreign Bible Society. 1. Origin and Constitution. These enterprises, however, did not supply the need. The [143]Rev. Thomas Charles of Bala in Wales became much impressed with the need of the common folk about him, who could not obtain the Bible except by persevering effort and much self-denial; the Bible was not only scarce but costly. Mr. Charles finally devoted himself to finding some effective means of supplying his people with the Scriptures. At a meeting of the Religious Tract Society in London in 1802, he aroused great interest by his vigorous presentation of the need of the people of Wales. The Rev. Joseph Hughes, secretary of the Religious Tract Society, exclaimed, "Surely a society might be formed to provide Bibles for Wales; and if for Wales, why not for the world?" This remark contained the germ from which grew the British and Foreign Bible Society. The idea of a Bible Society for the world led to discussion and to study of the destitution of the people. The Rev. C. F. A. Steinkopf, pastor of the German Lutheran Church in London, gave effective information of the situation in European countries. Members of the Religious Tract Society, although they did not publicly appear, had much to do with the preparatory work. On Mar. 7, 1804, a public meeting was held at the London Tavern, on the call of Mr. Hughes. Three hundred persons attended the meeting. It was quickly evident that a society for increasing the circulation of the Bible presented common ground, upon which all sects and parties could stand. Dissenters met churchmen, and in their interest in the needs of the masses, they forgot for a time their divergent interpretations of the same book. The sole condition necessary to union of action was that a text accepted by all should be issued without note or comment. At this meeting a hastily drawn up set of by-laws was adopted. An executive committee of thirty-six laymen was chosen, fifteen from the Church of England, fifteen from the Dissenting bodies, and six foreigners residing in London. The Rev. Joseph Hughes (Baptist) and the Rev. Josiah Pratt (Church of England) were elected secretaries. Seven hundred pounds were subscribed for the work of the society, and the Bishop of London, Dr. Porteus, was elected President. The constitution of the society was soon afterward prepared; the Rev. John Owen, of the Church of England, was added to the staff of the society as a third secretary, and on nomination of Lord Teignmouth, a former governor-general in India, the Rev. C. F. A. Steinkopf was appointed secretary for foreign lands. Besides the Bishop of London, the Bishops of Durham, Exeter, and St. Davids, and many other influential persons, among whom were William Wilberforce and Granville Sharp, long known as antislavery leaders, joined this movement. 2. Present Organization. As at present organized, the business of the society is directed by a committee made up as indicated above. Every subscriber of five guineas annually is a governor, and every subscriber of one guinea annually is a member of the society. Every governor, and every minister who is a member, has the privilege of attending and voting at all meetings of the committee. The president, the vice-presidents (numbering more than a hundred), and the treasurer are considered ex officio members of the committee. There are two secretaries and three superintendents charged with different departments of the work besides several assistant secretaries. To excite wider interest and to facilitate the distribution of the Bible, auxiliary and branch societies are formed, which pay their collections into a common fund and receive back a certain proportion of the sum collected in Bibles for distribution. There were in 1906 more than 5,800 of the auxiliary and branch societies and associations in England and Wales alone. The society began its career by first meeting the wants of Wales. Twenty thousand Welsh Bibles and five thousand Testaments were printed. Providentially but a short time before this, the art of stereotyping had been invented. When in 1806 the first wagon-load of Bibles came into Wales, it was received like the ark of the covenant; and the people with shouts of joy dragged it into the city. The society also distributed the Bible in an improved Gaelic translation in the Highlands of Scotland, and turned its attention to the Irish; in short, it undertook to supply Great Britain and Ireland with Bibles. 3. Foreign Work. But the society did not forget that it is a foreign as well as a British Bible Society. When it began operations Europe was convulsed with war and not so much was done as would otherwise have been accomplished in the way of supplying the destitute in European countries. Mr. Steinkopf and Robert Pinkerton made extensive tours through Germany, Switzerland, and Russia, and everywhere local Bible societies sprang into existence in their wake. Many of these societies, formed in 1812 and later, have done good work, being aided with funds and with grants of Bibles by the British Society. About the time of the formation of the British Society two Scotchmen, John Paterson and Ebenezer Henderson, went to Copenhagen, intending to go out as missionaries to India under the Danish-Halle mission at Tranquebar. Their plan fell through, but they met an Icelander, Thorkelin, in Copenhagen, who told them of the destitution of his countrymen. There were said to be only fifty Bibles in Iceland for a population of fifty thousand. The two Scotchmen laid the matter before the British and Foreign Bible Society, which promised to pay half of the expense of printing five thousand Testaments in Icelandic. The printing was stopped by the outbreak of war. But in 1812 Mr. Henderson received permission to remain in Copenhagen to complete the printing of the whole Bible in Icelandic, and, notwithstanding the war, to correspond with the Bible society in England regarding this work. The confidence thus shown in the motives of the society was certainly remarkable at that epoch; and it had much to do with the founding of the Danish Bible Society in 1814. The British Society extended its work gradually to the British colonies, where it works through auxiliary societies. In Canada, the Canadian Bible Society, which has united a large number of local auxiliaries in one, is a society auxiliary to the British Society, and has a secretary appointed by the parent society in London. In Australia the society has fifty-two auxiliaries with nearly 500 branches. In India, with the exception of Burma, the society carries on its work through six strong auxiliary societies. In Cape Colony the South-African auxiliary has for its field the whole territory south of the Orange River. The whole number of auxiliaries and branch societies affiliated with the British Society outside of the United Kingdom exceeds 2,200. The whole number of these local societies, in Great Britain and abroad, which the British and Foreign Society aids and from which it receives donations, is over 8,160. Besides these auxiliary societies the parent society makes use of agencies, each in charge of a special agent, devoted to the increase of the circulation of the Bible in his own field. These agencies cover the continent of Europe, and Turkey, Siberia, China, Korea, and Japan in Asia. In the three last-named countries special arrangements with the American Bible Society and the National Bible Society of Scotland prevent clashing and secure combination for the translation of the Scriptures. Agencies of the British society also promote the distribution of the Bible in Egypt and North Africa and in nearly all of the colonies of East and West Africa. Where neither auxiliary nor agency has been established the society works through the missions which are in occupation of the ground in any part of the world. 4. Dissensions. Seceding Societies. This wide-spread work has not been brought to its present extension without hindrances and difficulties. The High-church party in the Church of England has at times opposed the Bible Society, preferring to work through the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge, which takes care to have the Bible supplemented by the Book of Common Prayer. Others have insisted that the Bible is a dangerous book to put in the hands of ignorant men without note or comment, and for this reason have opposed the Bible Society. In 1825 dissension arose within the Bible Society, which continued during two years, over the question of the Apocrypha. It was formally resolved in 1827 that the fundamental law of the society forbids its circulating the Apocrypha, and that therefore no persons or societies that circulate the Apocrypha can receive aid from the society. This decision led to the separation of a considerable number of European societies from the British society which had founded them. The discussion also resulted in the secession of the Scottish societies which originated the agitation against the publication of the Apocrypha (see below, [144]3). In 1831 another agitation was raised against the presence of Unitarians on the Board of Managers. The society having refused to alter its constitution so as to exclude non-Trinitarians, a separate society called the Trinitarian Bible Society was formed (see below, [145]5). With the growth of foreign missions, a question as to translation of the words relating to baptism became acute; and the controversy finally led to the formation of the Bible Translation Society, which was supported by Baptists who preferred to translate "immerse" rather than to transfer the Greek word baptizein (see below, [146]6). But there has been a continuous and remarkable growth of the society in spite of all obstacles and opposition. In 1904 the centenary of the society was celebrated in almost all countries of the Christian and non-Christian world. "Bible Day" in Mar., 1904, will long be remembered not only as a day of an immense popular declaration of faith in the Bible as the revelation of God's will to men, but as a time for expressing the warmest love and sympathy, and gratitude withal, to the society which then completed a hundred years of self-sacrificing service of the nations. Not only were special gifts sent into the treasury for the general work of the society, but a special centenary fund of $1,256,000 was raised in that and the following year to be used as a reserve for more firmly planting the outposts of the society. The total issues of the British and Foreign Bible Society, in the year ending Mar. 31, 1908, amounted to 5,416,569 copies of the Bible or its parts. The total issues of the society from its organization to Mar. 31, 1907, amount to 203,931,768 copies, of which more than 80,000,000 copies were in the English language. The president of the British and Foreign Bible Society is the Marquis of Northampton. Its headquarters are at 146 Queen Victoria St., London, E. C.; its periodicals are The Bible in the World and The Bible Society Gleanings. 3. The National Bible Society of Scotland. In 1809 the Edinburgh Bible Society was formed, in 1812 the Glasgow Bible Society, and in 1821 the Glasgow Auxiliary Bible Society. As mentioned above, these societies seceded from the British and Foreign Bible Society in consequence of the controversy about circulating editions of the Bible containing the Apocrypha. In 1859 the National Bible Society was formed, and in 1861 all these Scottish societies combined to form a new organization which was incorporated as the National Bible Society of Scotland. The fields of this society are in Europe and Asia. One-fifth of its issues in 1906-1907 were in Roman Catholic countries and about one-half in China. Its issues in the year ending Mar., 1907, amounted to 1,671,900 copies. 4. The Hibernian Bible Society. This society was organized in 1806 as an auxiliary to the British and Foreign Bible Society. It is now independent, and devotes its attention mainly to the needs of Ireland. In the year ending Mar., 1907, it circulated 37,258 copies, which were purchased by the society. The headquarters are in Dublin. 5. The Trinitarian Bible Society. Formed in 1831 as a protest against Unitarianism, this society issued in the year ending Dec. 31, 1907, 89,214 copies of the Bible or its parts. The headquarters of the society are at 7 Bury St., London, W. C. 6. The Bible Translation Society. This society was organized in 1843 to serve the special interests of the British Baptist missions. It is now a part of the Baptist Missionary Society, making no separate publication of its issues, and having its headquarters at the Mission House, 19 Furnival St., London. II. Bible Societies on the Continent of Europe. 1. Germany. The first German Bible Society was the Canstein Bible Institute, founded in Halle in 1710 by Karl Hildebrand, [147]Baron Canstein, with the definite purpose of placing the Bible within reach of the poor. The Institute has issued up to the beginning of 1907, over 7,000,000 copies of the Bible and its parts. The issues for 1907 were 38,696 copies. The (first) Nuremberg Bible Society was formed in 1804, and received aid from the British and Foreign Bible Society. In 1806 it was removed to Basel in Switzerland and took the name of the Basel Bible Society. Its issues during the year 1906 amounted to 32,708 copies. The Berlin Bible Society was formed in 1806 as a result of the energy of Father Jaenicke, a Moravian pastor, and was aided by the British and Foreign Bible Society in its early years. In 1814 it was converted into the Prussian Bible Society. It now has many branches and devotes its attention mainly to the circulation of the Bible in Germany. In the year 1906 its issues amounted to 212,911 Bibles and Testaments. The headquarters of the society are Klosterstrasse 71, Berlin C. The Wuerttemberg Bible Institute was formed in 1813 under the influence of Messrs. Steinkopf and Pinkerton, of the British and Foreign Bible Society. Its issues reported in 1906 were 334,953 copies. The headquarters are at Christophstrasse 6, Stuttgart. The Berg Bible Society was formed at Elberfeld in the old Duchy of Berg in 1814. It furnishes Scriptures for use abroad in some small quantities. The total of its issues in 1906 was 151,558 copies, and the total of its issues in the 93 years of its existence are 2,228,353 copies. The headquarters of the society are at Marienstrasse 28, Elberfeld. The Saxon Bible Society was formed in the year 1814. It has forty-two branches, and besides its publications in German, it has published an edition of the New Testament in the Chagga language, spoken in the northern part of German East Africa. Its total issues in 1906 amounted to 48,065 copies. The headquarters are at Zinzendorfstrasse 17, Dresden. The Bavarian Protestant Bible Society was formed in 1823. It is also called the Central Bible Society. Its issues in 1906 were 12,930 copies. The headquarters of the society are at Nuremberg. There are also many local and state societies, of which those of Hamburg, Sleswick, and Strasburg print as well as distribute Bibles. A Roman Catholic Bible Society, the Regensburg Bible Institute, was organized in 1805 by G. M. Wittmann, head of the seminary at Regensburg, with the assistance of some bishops and many laymen. A translation of the New Testament was prepared and 60,000 copies were distributed in ten years, but in 1817 the Institute was suppressed by Pope Pius VII. In 1815 another Roman Catholic Bible Society was founded at Heiligenstadt, which connected itself with the Prussian society and organized auxiliaries. [148]Leander van Ess at Marburg was especially interested and his translation of the New Testament was widely disseminated. He also founded the Christian Brotherhood for Disseminating the Holy Scriptures with the support of the British and Foreign Bible Society. The Heiligenstadt society flourished till 1830 and maintained an existence till 1864, but received its support chiefly from Protestants after the former date. The translation of the New Testament made by [149]J. E. Gossner was also circulated by the English society. 2. France. The French Bible Society (London) referred to above began the Bible movement in France, but the outbreak of the Revolution prevented the circulation of French Bibles printed with English money. The Protestant Bible Society of Paris was formed in 1818, and received aid from the British and Foreign Bible Society for a time. The subsidy was withdrawn after a few years because the Paris Society included the Apocrypha in its Bibles. The issues of this society in 1906 were 8,061 copies. A sharp controversy among the French Protestants respecting the French version led in 1864 to the formation of the Bible Society of France. This society excluded the Apocrypha from its Bibles and held to the version of [150]J. F. Osterwald of which it is now publishing a new revision. It has received aid from the American Bible Society, and it circulates the Bible in the French colonies in Asia and Africa. Its issues in 1906 were 34,556 copies. 3. The Netherlands. The Netherlands Bible Society was formed in 1814. Its issues in the year 1904 amounted to 93,977 copies, of which 57,573 copies were sent abroad to the Dutch East Indies, Dutch Guiana, and South Africa. The headquarters of the society are at Heerengracht 366, Amsterdam. 4. Scandinavia. The Danish Bible Society was organized in 1814. Its circulation in 1906 amounted to 45,289 copies. The Norwegian Bible Society was formed in 1816 under the influence of the British and Foreign Bible Society. Its issues in 1904 were 63,300 copies, of which 751 copies were sent to Denmark, and 11,041 copies to the United States of America. Its total issues in eighty-eight years ending Dec. 31, 1904, were 1,153,260 copies. The headquarters of the society are at Christiania. The Swedish Bible Society was organized in 1814. Its circulation in 1906 was 12,414 copies and its total circulation from the beginning, 1,242,515 copies, of which 666 were in the Lapp language. 5. Russia. The Russian Bible Society with Imperial Sanction was formed in 1863. It circulates the Bible in Russian and other languages under the supervision of the Holy Synod. Its reports show the contributions of the czar and czarina and the grand dukes, but do not specify clearly the circulation. It makes use of colporteurs and seems to do serious work. A Russian Bible Society formed in 1812 did an important work in Bible translation, but was suppressed by imperial ukase in 1826. The Russian Evangelical Bible Society was organized in 1831 for the purpose of circulating the Bible among Lutherans and in the German language. Its circulation in 1904 was 22,219 copies. The Finnish Bible Society was formed in 1812 and its issues in 1903 were about 30,000 copies. 6. Switzerland. The Basel Bible Society, transferred to Basel from Nuremberg, has been mentioned above ([151]II, 1). Local Bible societies exist in many of the cantons of Switzerland. They seem, however, to be merely agents of distribution receiving Bibles from other societies, notably from the British and Foreign Bible Society. Their circulation is therefore included in that of the other societies. Henry Otis Dwight. III. Bible Societies in America. 1. The American Bible Society. The Revolutionary War produced a great scarcity of Bibles in the United States. One year after the Declaration of Independence Congress was memorialized to authorize the printing of an edition of the Bible. This memorial was referred to a committee, who found the difficulties, especially, of procuring proper material, type, and paper, to be so great that Congress ordered the importation at its own expense of 20,000 English Bibles from Holland, England, or elsewhere. The scarcity still continuing, in 1782 Congress recommended to the people of the United States an edition of the Bible printed by Thomas Aitken, of Philadelphia, "being satisfied of the care and accuracy of the execution of the work." It was not until 1808 that the first Bible Society was organized in Philadelphia. In 1809 societies were organized in Connecticut, Massachusetts, New York, and New Jersey in the order named and by 1816 there were 128 such societies. 1. Organization. The idea of uniting these societies is one organization was a natural one and was much discussed. The missionary travels of the [152]Rev. Samuel J. Mills in the West and South, reported in religious periodicals, increased the desire for a national organization, which he strongly advocated. On Jan. 1, 1816, [153]Elias Boudinot, the president of the New Jersey Bible Society, made a public communication on the subject, and on Jan. 17 he issued a circular letter appointing Wednesday, May 8, 1816, as the time for holding a convention for, this purpose in New York. Sixty delegates representing twenty-eight Bible societies (besides several other persons admitted to seats in the convention) met on the day named in the Garden Street Collegiate Reformed Dutch Church, representing the Presbyterian, Congregational, Methodist, Episcopal, Dutch Reformed, and Baptist Churches, and the Society of Friends. The convention was in session for two days, adopted a constitution and in accordance therewith elected managers, who met in the City Hall, May 11, and elected officers, Elias Boudinot being made president. 2. Constitution and Management. Under this constitution "the sole object shall be to encourage a wider circulation of the Holy Scriptures without note or comment" (art. i). The board of managers is composed of thirty-six laymen, one-fourth of whom go out of office every year, but are eligible for re-election. Every clergyman who is a life member may meet and vote with the board of managers, provided he receives no salary or compensation for services from the society. The managers meet regularly every month, consider and act on all matters presented by ten standing committees besides other matters originating in the board itself and report all their proceedings to the annual meeting of the members of the society held on the second Thursday of May and usually in New York. The society was incorporated in 1841. The societies which already existed became for the most part auxiliary to the national organization and in addition many other auxiliary societies were organized under its direction, the number at one time reaching 2,200. Many of these, however, have ceased to exist, the number now being 541. The "Bible House," Astor Place, N. Y., the society's headquarters, was erected in 1852 and was paid for by funds contributed for the special purpose and not from current receipts for benevolent work. 3. Summary of Work. The ninety-first annual report of the board of managers was presented May 9, 1907. The total cash receipts were $575,820.94. The total issues of that year were 1,910,853, of which 1,010,777 were issued from the Bible House in New York, and 900,076 from the society's agencies abroad, being printed on mission presses in China, Japan, Siam, Syria, and Turkey. The total issues of the society in Bibles, Testaments, and portions amount to 80,420,382 copies, distributed se follows: Bibles 20,293,636 Testaments and portions 58,215,889. 4. Foreign Work. The efforts of the society were at first directed mainly to meeting the needs of the people of the United States, but from the very first it was in spirit and intention a foreign as well as a home mission society. Bibles at the very beginning were supplied to the North-American Indians. The third annual report shows that steps were already taken for sending Spanish Bibles to Buenos Ayres and the next year the society was reaching out to West Africa. In 1836 the first foreign agency was instituted in Constantinople, and in 1864 the agency for the La Plata region in South America. During the past thirty years this work has largely increased and regular agencies have been established in Japan, China, Brazil, Mexico, Korea, Cuba, Siam and Laos, Central America, Porto Rico and the Philippines, besides Venezuela and Colombia, where the agencies have been temporarily discontinued. These agencies have distributed a total of 9,453,918 Bibles, Testaments, and portions in China alone. Besides this the society has continually cooperated with missions and missionaries in countries in all quarters of the globe. It has stimulated Bible translation, initiating it in some cases, cooperating with others more frequently and securing needed revisions under its patronage and partly or wholly at its expense. It has been thus interested in about 100 translations and revisions in all. 5. Controversies. The labors of the society have been broken twice by serious differences among its friends and supporters. In 1835 missionaries in Burma published at the expense of the society a translation of the New Testament which rendered the Greek word baptizein and its cognate terms by the English "immerse" or an equivalent. After much discussion the managers resolved that they felt at liberty "to encourage only such versions as conform in the principle of their translation to the common English Version--at least so far as that all the religious denominations represented in this society can consistently use and circulate such versions in their several schools and communities," and missionary boards were requested in asking aid to state that the versions they proposed to circulate were in accordance with this resolution. The Baptists took offense and a controversy ensued, the consequence of which was the formation of the American and Foreign Bible Society (see below, [154]2). In 1847 the committee on versions was instructed to undertake a careful collation of different editions of the English Bible with a view to perfecting its text in minutiae. Their final report, made May 1, 1851, stated that in collating five standard copies of English and American imprint with the original edition of 1611 nearly 24,000 variations were found solely in the text and punctuation, not one of which marred the integrity of the text or affected any doctrine or precept of the Bible. A standard then determined upon with the unanimous approval of the board of managers was accepted generally by the public and for several years Bibles printed accordingly circulated without the slightest objection. But in 1856, and more decidedly in 1857, the right of the society to circulate such an edition was sharply challenged. Considerable public excitement followed; the matter was debated in religious and even secular journals as well as in ecclesiastical bodies, and the board of managers after long consideration, and debate finally took action, Jan. 28, 1858, as follows: Resolved, that this society's present standard English Bible be referred to the standing committee on versions for examination; and in all cases where the same differs in the text or its accessories from the Bibles previously published by the society, the committee are directed to correct the same by conforming it to previous editions printed by this society, or by the authorized British presses, reference being also had to the original edition of the translators printed in 1611; and to report such corrections to this board, to the end that a new edition, thus perfected, may be adopted as the standard edition of the society. The committee reported in 1859 and 1860; and from this "standard edition" all the society's English Bibles are now printed. The constitution of the society originally restricted it to circulating only "the version now in common use," in the English language. In 1904 at the annual meeting of the society on the recommendation of the board of managers the constitution was amended so as to permit the publication of the Revised Version of the English Bible, either in its British or American form, and under this permission some editions of the American Standard Revised Version are now published by the society under an arrangement with the publishers. John Fox. 2. The American and Foreign Bible Society and the American Bible Union. The American and Foreign Bible Society was organized at Philadelphia in April, 1836, by Baptists who felt aggrieved at the action of the American Bible Society concerning the translation of the Greek baptizein, referred to above (see [155]III, 1, S: 5). Rev. S. H. Cone was made president. The society was declared to be "founded upon the principle that the originals in the Hebrew and Greek are the only authentic standards of the Sacred Scriptures, and that aid for the translating, printing, or distributing of them in foreign languages should be afforded to such versions only as are conformed as nearly as possible to the original text; it being understood that no words are to be transferred which are susceptible of being literally translated." The constitution adopted declared (art. ii) "that in the distribution of the Scriptures in the English language, the commonly received version shall be used until otherwise directed by the society." Dissatisfaction with this policy led to the secession of certain members and the formation in 1850 of the American Bible Union, which demanded that the principle of circulating "such versions only as are conformed as nearly as possible to the original text" should be applied to the English version, and avowed as its object "to procure and circulate the most faithful versions of the Sacred Scriptures in all languages throughout the world." The Union secured the services of a number of Baptist and other Biblical scholars, especially the Rev. Drs. H. B. Hackett, A. C. Kendrick, and T. J. Conant. The entire New Testament and portions of the Old were revised and published. Italian, Spanish, Chinese (Ningpo colloquial), Siamese, and Sgau-Karen New Testaments were also prepared. The Union ultimately reunited with the American and Foreign Bible Society, and in 1882 the latter passed over its work and good-will to the American Baptist Publication Society (Philadelphia), which since then has performed the duties of the Bible Society, and is carrying on the work of revision inaugurated by the earlier societies. The revision has now (1907) reached the Book of Ezra, and will be completed, it is hoped, by the end of 1908. 3. The Bible Association of Friends in America. The Bible Association of Friends in America was organized in 1830. It has been, in the main, a distributing agency, circulating the Scriptures printed by others, but in 1905-06 printed an edition of 2,925 Testaments and Psalms. In 1906 it reported total receipts of $3,930.59 and payments of $2,412.06. Its distribution in that year was 6,534 volumes, of which 2,030 were Bibles. The headquarters are at 207 Walnut Place, Philadelphia, Pa. Bibliography: On the general question consult: Abriss der Geschichte des Ursprungs und Wachsthums der Bibelgesellschaften, Barmen, 1870; Summary Notice concerning Bible Societies in General and Those of France in Particular, from the Fr., Northampton, 1827; W. H. Wyckoff, A Sketch of the Origin, History . . . of Bible Societies, New York 1848. On the BFBS consult: W. Canton, Hist. of the BFBS, 2 vols., London, 1904; idem, Story of the Bible Society, ib. 1904; J. Owen, Hist. of the Origin and First Ten Years of the BFBS, 2 vols., ib. 1816; Papers Occasioned by the Attempts to Form Auxiliary Bible Societies in Various Parts of the Kingdom, ib. 1812; Jubilee Memorial of the BFBS, ib. 1854; G. Browne, Hist. of the BFBS, 2 vols., ib. 1859; La Societe biblique britannique et etrangere, 1804-89. Notice au point de vue historique, philosophique, et religieux, Nantes, 1889; H. Morris, Founders and Presidents of the Bible Society, London, 1895; Bible House Papers, ib. 1899 sqq. (in progress); Behold a Sower. Popular . . . Report of BFBS for 1900-01, ib. 1902; T. H. Darlow and H. F. Moule, Catalogue of the Printed Editions of Holy Scripture in the Library of the BFBS, 2 vols., ib. 1904; T. H. Darlow, There is a River, ib. 1906; Bible Association Reports. By Helen Plumptre, Worksop, 1843. The organs of the society are the Monthly Reporter of the BFBS, London, 1858-88, succeeded by the Bible Society Monthly Reporter, 1889 sqq. The other British Societies issue various publications, such as Annual Reports, Quarterly Records, and Occasional Papers, in which their history may be traced. For the foreign societies there are also available their reports, besides which the following may be consulted: C. F. Hezekiel, Geschichte der Cansteinschen Bibel Anstalt, ed. A. H. Niemeyer, Halle, 1827; O. Bertram, Geschichte der Cansteinschen Bibelanstalt, ib. 1863; W. Thilo, Geschichte der preussischen Haupt-Bibelgesellschaft, 1814-64, Berlin 1864; E. Brecst, Die Entwickelung der preussischen Haupt-Bibelgesellschaft, 1864-91, ib. 1891. For the American Bible Society consult: The American Bible Society's Manual, containing a Brief Sketch of the Society, New York 1865, revised ed., 1887; W. P, Strickland, Hist. of the American Bible Society, ib. 1849; American Bible Society's Reports, 1816-71, 4 vols., ib. n.d. (a reprint); American Bible Society. Report of the Transference of the Library of the Society to the New York Public Library, ib. 1897. The organ is the Bible Society Record (a monthly). Bible Text BIBLE TEXT. I. The Old Testament. 1. The Premasoretic Period. The Masoretic Text (S: 1). The Earlier Text (S: 2). Change in Style of Writing (S: 3). Attempts to Fix the Text (S: 4). The Pronunciation Fixed, but the Text Still Unvocalized (S: 5). Word-Division (S: 6). Division into Verses (S: 7). Division into Sections (S: 8). 2. The Masoretic Period. The Masoretes (S: 1). Their Work (S: 2). Codices (S: 3). 3. The Postmasoretic Period. The Chapter-Division (S: 1). Old Testament Manuscripts (S: 2). The Printed Text (S: 3). Critical Works and Commentaries (S: 4). II. The New Testament. 1. History of the Written Text. The Autographs of the New Testament Books (S: 1). The Manuscripts (S: 2). Their Material and Form (S: 3). The Ammonian Sections (S: 4). Early Divisions of the Text (S: 5). Divisions for Liturgical Reading (S: 6). Early Corruption of the Text (S: 7). Varieties of Text Produced by Early Criticism (S: 8). The Uncial Manuscripts (S: 9). The Cursive Manuscripts, Evangelistaries, etc. (S: 10). 2. History of the Printed Text. Complutensian and Erasmian Editions (S: 1). Editions of Stephens and Beza (S: 2). Editions between 1657 and 1830 (S: 3). Griesbach and his Followers (S: 4). Lachmann (S: 5). Tischendorf (S: 6). Tregelles (S: 7). Westcott and Hort (S: 8). Other Critics of the Text (S: 9). More Recent Tendencies (S: 10). 3. Principles of Textual Criticism. The Basal Rule (S: 1). Other Canons (S: 2). 4. Results of the Textual Criticism of the New Testament. III. Chapter and Verse Divisions. Chapter Divisions (S: 1). Verse Divisions, Old Testament (S: 2). Verse Divisions, New Testament (S: 3). I. The Old Testament. 1. The Premasoretic Period: 1. The Masoretic Text. The extant Hebrew text of the Old Testament text is commonly called the Masoretic, to distinguish it from the text of the ancient versions as well as from the Hebrew text of former ages. This Masoretic text does not present the original form but a text which within a certain period was fixed by Jewish scholars as the correct and only authoritative one. When and how this official Masoretic text was fixed was formerly a matter of controversy, especially during the seventeenth century. One party headed by the Buxtorfs (father and son), in the interest of the view of inspiration then prevalent, held to the absolute completeness and infallibility, and hence the exclusive value, of the Masoretic text. They attributed it to Ezra and the men of the Great Synagogue, who, under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, were supposed to have purified the text from all accumulated error; added the vowel-points, the accents, and other punctuation-marks (thus settling the reading and pronunciation); fixed the canon; made the right division into verses, paragraphs, and books; and, finally, by the providence of God and the care of the Jews, the text thus made was believed to have been kept from all error, and to present the veritable Word of God. This view of the text prevailed especially when Protestant scholasticism was at its height, and may be designated as the orthodox Protestant position. It was opposed by another party headed by Jean Morin and Louis Cappel, who, in the interest of pure historicity or in Antiprotestant polemics, combated these opinions, maintained the later age of the Masoretic text, and sought to vindicate value and usefulness for the old versions and other critical helps. They fell into many errors in respect to the details of the history of the text and overrated the value of Extramasoretic critical helps; but their general view was supported by irresistible arguments and is now universally adopted. This view, instead of deriving the existing text from a gathering of inspired men in Ezra's time, assigns it to a much later date and quite different men, and, instead of absolute completeness, claims for it only a relative one with a higher value than other forms of the text. A glance at the history of the text will show how this agreement has been brought about. 2. The Earlier Text. Concerning the oldest history of the text of the Old Testament writings there exists almost no positive information. The books were written probably upon skins, perhaps also on linen; as paper was used from very early times in Egypt, it is possible that it was employed; parchment appears to have been used later. The roll seems to have been the usual form (Ps. xl, 8; Jer. xxxvi, 14 sqq.; Ezek, ii, 9; Zech. v, 1); the pen was a pointed reed (Jer. viii, 8; Ps. xiv, 1); the character was the Old Hebrew, which was almost identical with the Phenician and Moabitic (on the [156]Moabite Stone). Specimens of this writing are also preserved in the Siloam inscription (c. 700 B.C.), on gems (of the eighth or seventh century), on coins of the Hasmoneans and those belonging to the time of the Jewish-Roman war, and, in somewhat different form, in Samaritan writings. Like the Phenicians and Moabites, the Hebrews separated the words by a point or stroke, but these signs do not seem to have been used regularly, since the Septuagint often makes word-divisions different from those of the Masoretic text. Jewish tradition mentions several passages in which the separation of words was regarded as doubtful. The difference between ancient and modern texts consisted in this, that the former were written without vowels and accents. The Hebrew writing, like Semitic writing in general, was essentially consonantal; vowels were not written. While the language lived, this occasioned no difficulty to the speakers or readers. No details are at hand concerning the way in which the text was multiplied and preserved; but inasmuch as the writings did not then have in popular estimation the character they came later to possess, it is likely that they were less carefully handled, and that the same amount of pains was not taken in copying them. This statement rests upon the fact that those parts of the Old Testament which we possess in double forms vary in ways that indicate a corruption of the text reaching back to precanonical times when copies were neither made nor corrected so laboriously. 3. Change in Style of Writing. A new epoch commenced after the Exile, when the holy writings were raised to canonical dignity and as holy writings were venerated and handled with ever-increasing care and conscientiousness. This veneration was not accorded to all Biblical writing at once, but only to that part of the canon called the law. The epoch begins with Ezra, and extends to the close of the Talmud, c. 500 A.D. During this period not only were the form of writing and the text fixed, but also the pronunciation and division; in short, the major part of the present Masorah was collected in verbal form. A change of an external kind was the development of a sacred writing, under the influence of the Aramaic character, the so-called "square" or "Assyrian" character. Jewish tradition ascribes the introduction of the square character to Ezra, and calls it expressly an Aramaic writing that the Jews adopted in place of their Hebrew, which they left to the Samaritans. A study of Assyrian, Persian, and Cilician seals and coins, of the Aramaic monuments from the third to the first century B.C., and of the Palmyrene inscriptions from the first to the third century A.D. has permitted the tracing of the development of the present Hebrew alphabet through a thousand years, back to the eighth century. Ezra, therefore, may have influenced the use of the Aramaic alphabet, but the square character was not developed in his day, nor for centuries afterward; nor was the Aramaic alphabet then used outside of the narrow circle of the scribes. For not only did the Samaritans retain the ancient script for their Pentateuch, but among the Jews also it must have been used for a long time, since it is found on coins down to the time of Bar Kokba. Matt. v, 18 proves that the Aramaic writing had become popular by the time that Gospel was written, since in the ancient Hebrew the letter "yodh" was by no means the smallest. Taking all in all, it may be assumed with certainty that the use of the new alphabet in Bible-manuscripts of the last Prechristian centuries was general, a result which is also confirmed by a careful examination of the Septuagint with reference to the manuscripts used by the translators (especially must this have been the case with the Tetragrammaton retained in many copies of the Greek translation, which was no doubt written in the Aramaic script, since it was read erroneously by the Christians). Considering this development it may be assumed that the latest Old Testament writings were written, not in the ancient Hebrew but in Aramaic, by the authors themselves. After the Aramaic writing was once in use among the Jews, it soon took the form in which we now have it. The descriptions which Jerome and the Talmud give of the different letters fully harmonize with the form which is still found in manuscripts. The minute rules laid down by the Talmud as to calligraphy and orthography made further development of the square writing impossible, and therefore the writing of the manuscripts varies scarcely at all through centuries (excepting perhaps that the German and Polish Jews have the so-called Tam script, which is somewhat angular, whereas the Spanish Jews have the Welsh or more rounded script). 4. Attempts to Fix the Texts. The veneration shown for the canonical writings during this period naturally led to a greater care in treatment of them and above all to perception of the necessity of critically fixing the text. As soon as the ancient writings obtained canonical authority, were used in divine service, and became the standard of doctrine and life, the necessity of having one standard text naturally asserted itself. The preparation of such a text began with the law; the other two divisions (the prophets and the hagiographa) became authoritative only in the course of centuries (see [157]Canon of Scripture, I), and naturally their text did not receive attention in the earlier period. However, criticism during that period was of little value. There is no doubt that faithful and correct copies existed, especially of such books as were publicly read, but this could not prevent errors and mistakes from creeping into copies which were generally circulated. When Josephus (Contra Apion, I, viii) and Philo (cf. Eusebius, Praeparatio evangelica, VIII, vi, 7) speak of the great care bestowed by the Jews upon their sacred writings, this can not be referred to earlier centuries, and concerns more the contents than the linguistic minutiae of the text. In the oldest critical documents--the Samaritan Pentateuch and the Septuagint--there is evidence (about 500-100 B.C.) to show that the manuscripts most approved and most widely diffused contained many verbal differences. And these variations are not to be charged, as was formerly done, to carelessness or wilfulness on the part of the Hellenistic Jews and Samaritans, but are explained by the lesser importance attached to exact uniformity of text and to the existence of mistakes in the current copies. And when the Septuagint and the Samaritan Pentateuch agree in good readings, and still oftener in bad ones, against the Masoretic text, it may be concluded that these readings were spread by many copies current among the Palestinian Jews, and are therefore not to be regarded as offensive. But after the destruction of Jerusalem, when Judaism was subject to the authority of the rabbis, it became possible to prepare a uniform standard text, although this idea was not realized until many generations had worked upon it. The Greek versions of the second century had already fewer variations from the Masoretic text. Still nearer the latter text is the Hebrew text of Origen and Jerome. The Talmud itself bears witness, by the agreement of its Biblical quotations with the Masoretic text, that the consonantal text was practically finished before the Talmudic era closed. It is not possible to say upon what principles the text was treated; but the way in which the custodians presented the individuality of the several authors, books, and periods is remarkable, and proves that intentional and arbitrary changes of the text were not made by these critics. That they changed passages for dogmatic, especially for Antichristian, reasons, as has sometimes been asserted, has long ago been acknowledged to be a baseless accusation. Where they mention changes, they make clear than they followed the testimony of manuscripts, the number of which was probably not very great. The fact that in the first centuries after Christ the text approximates our present Masoretic reading shows that a certain recension became authoritative which was possible only after a certain manuscript had been taken as the norm. Of such a standard codex, copies could easily be made, or one could correct his own copies in accordance with it. Scholars like Olshausen and Lagarde speak therefore of some such archetype, which was slavishly followed in every respect. The critical apparatus of the time is concealed in dissociated fragments in the later Masorah, but can not be separated from the other matter. The Talmud and the older midrashim allow a little insight into the critical efforts of the time. Thus mention is made of the "corrections of the scribes," of the "removals of the scribes" (meaning that in five passages a falsely introduced "and" was removed), and of the points in the Hebrew text over certain words to show that these words were critically suspected, such as the inverted "nun," Num. x, 35, and the three kinds of reading (k?eri; see [158]Keri and Kethibh), viz., "read but not written," "written but not read," and "read [one way] but written [another]." The three kinds of reading have, it is true, for the most part only exegetical value; e.g., they give the usual instead of the unusual grammatical forms, show where one must understand or omit a word, or where the reader should use a euphemistic expression for the coarse one in the text; they are therefore scholia upon the text. It is possible that these "readings" are also fragments of the critical apparatus. However this may be, it is evident that at that period the text was fixed and that the matter in question concerned only subordinate details of the text. 5. The Pronunciation Fixed, but the Text Still Unvocalized. The development of the pronunciation or of the vocalization and the division of words, verses, and sections kept pace with the settlement of the text. That the ancient writing had no vowel-points has already been stated; but even during this entire period to the close of the Talmud the sacred text was without vowels and other points. The old versions, particularly the Greek, and Josephus depart so widely from the Masoretic text that they could not possibly have used the present pointed text. The expedient which charges the translators with these differences is of no avail, since it is not any one version which alone shows such differences; they all differ. Origen, too, published a Hebrew text in the Hexapla which differed from the Masoretic. Jerome knew nothing about vowel-points, not even the diacritical point making the difference between "s" and "sh." The Talmud and the modern ecclesiastical or ritual manuscripts of the Jews present an unpointed text. There is no doubt that, as Elias Levita stated, the Masoretic system of punctuation is of later origin, and that during this entire period the sacred text was without points. But this does not mean that during the same period the reading of the unvoweled text was still unsettled among the Jews; it must rather be assumed that with the official fixing of the text there was developed also a certain mode of understanding and reading it. Of course time was required to bring it into vogue; but before the end of the period it was so firmly established that Jerome's pronunciation differed very little from the Masoretic, and he was so sure of its correctness that he appeals to it against the text of the versions; and the Talmud gives it throughout correctly. Before the Masoretes the pronunciation was fixed, not yet written, but handed down by word of mouth, although some scholars may have used signs in their books to assist their memory. 6. Word Division. Closely connected and mutually dependent were pronunciation and the division of words. The latter must have been finally settled at this period. The sign of division was the small space between words. The final letters, being limited in number, can not be regarded as word-separating signs. Jerome used a text with a division of words and knew the final letters; in the Talmud, Menahot 30a states how large must be the space between the words; the synagogue-scrolls, though still without vowels, have nevertheless the division by spaces, following the custom of the ancient manuscripts from Talmudic time; and the fact that a number of "readings" correct the traditional division of words speaks again in favor of the high antiquity of the division of words in the present texts. 7. Division into Verses. The division into verses is by no means contemporary in origin with the vocalization, but much earlier. The verse division depends in poetry upon the parallelism, in prose upon the division of sentences and clauses. That the latter were not marked in oldest times is certain; in poetical texts the members may have been distinguished either by space or by breaks of the line. This mode of writing poetical texts was formerly general, and is found in the older Hebrew manuscripts; for the poetical texts, Ex. xv; Deut. xxxii; Judges v; and II Sam. xxii, it is even prescribed (Shabbat 103b; Sopherim xii), and is therefore still customary. With the introduction of the Masoretic accents, poetry was written close, like prose. This verse-division was taught in the schools; but no rules are given for its writing, nor did any punctuation-marks indicate it in this period. 8. Division into Sections. Earlier than the division into verses is that into larger or smaller sections; these were more necessary for the understanding of the Scriptures and for their reading in divine worship. Perhaps some of them were in the original text. The sections of the law were at least Pretalmudic; for they are mentioned in the Mishnah and frequently in the Gemara; in the latter they are traced to Mosaic origin; in Shabbat 103b, Menahot 30 care is enjoined as to the sections in copying the law, and therefore they occur also in synagogue-rolls. They are indicated by spacing; the larger sections by leaving the remainder of the line at their close unfilled, the next great section beginning with a new line, on which account they were called "open"; the smaller sections were separated from each other by only a small space, and were therefore called "closed" or "connected." Thus not only the law but also the other two parts of the canon were divided. For the division of the whole canon, and the arrangement of the books, see [159]Canon of Scripture, I. From what has been said, it follows that the reading of the text, the vocalization, the division into words, verses, and sections depend upon the gradual settlement by the scribes; their reading can claim neither infallibility nor any absolutely binding power; and though their labor betrays a thorough and correct understanding of the text, the necessity may yet arise when the exegete must deviate from tradition. Extraordinary pains were taken to perpetuate in its purity the text thus divided and vocalized. Signs of this care, such as the rules for calligraphy and for writing the extraordinary points, have already been mentioned. The Posttalmudic treatises Masseket sopherim and Masseket sepher torah contain full details for copying. Nevertheless fluctuations are met with in the Masoretic period, and it must therefore be assumed that learned labor had not yet covered all details or made final settlement. 2. The Masoretic Period: 1. The Masoretes. The third period of the textual history is usually reckoned as extending from the sixth until the eleventh Christian century (when Jewish learning was transferred from the East to North Africa and Spain); it embraces the age of the Masoretes proper, and has for the Bible text in general the same importance as the Talmudic period had for the law. The efforts of the scholars to fix the reading and understanding of the sacred text were overshadowed somewhat by the study of the Talmud. After the close of the Talmud the work was resumed and cultivated in Babylonia and Palestine (at Tiberias). In both schools the work of former generations was continued; but the Palestinians, who acted more independently than the more Talmudically inclined Babylonians, finally got the victory over the Babylonian school. In both schools they were no longer satisfied with a mere oral transmission of rules and regulations, but committed them to writing. There is no continuous history of the men of the Masorah and of the progress of their work preserved; but the marginal notes in ancient Biblemanuscripts and the fragments of other works show that the oldest Masoretes can be traced back to the eighth century. The main effort of this period (as the name Masorah, "tradition," indicates; see [160]Masorah) was to collect and to write down the exegetico-critical material of the former period; and this makes sufficiently clear the one part of their work. But the Masoretes also added some new matter. Anxiously following the footsteps of the older critics in their effort to fix and to guard the traditional text, they laid down more minute rules of a linguistic and grammatical character, and in this respect a great part of the contents of the Masorah is indeed new. 2. Their Work. They took the consonantal textus receptus just as it stood, and finally settled it in the minutest details, as is seen from the variants which became a matter of controversy between the East and the West, the Babylonians and the Palestinians, which to the number of 216 Jacob ben Hayyim published for the first time in the second edition of the Bomberg Rabbinic Bible; these have reference mostly to the vowel-points. This list of variants, as is now known, is by no means complete. They also appended critical notes to the text, in part derived from the Talmudic period, in part new (especially the "grammatical conjectures"), showing that where, according to the grammar and the genius of the language, one should expect another reading, nevertheless the text must stand. Finally the great majority of the alternative "readings" date from the Masoretes. The Masoretes fixed the reading of the text by the introduction of the vowel-signs, the accents, and the signs which affect the reading of the consonants (daghesh, mappik?, raphe, and the diacritical point to distinguish between the letters "sin" and "shin"). The pronunciation they thus brought about was no invention, but embodied the current tradition. Nevertheless, one can not accept every Masoretic reading as infallible and unchangeable, especially when one considers that the tradition no doubt often fluctuated and that with such fluctuation the less correct reading may often have come into the text. Besides the system found in the majority of manuscripts, there exists another which has only recently become known called the "superlinear" system, because the vowel-signs are placed above the letters; this is found in some Babylonian and South Arabian manuscripts. The same is also the case with the accents. The division of the text into verses, introduced by the Masoretes, was neither Babylonian nor Palestinian, but one which the Masoretes themselves seem to have established. At the beginning of this period the end of the verses was marked by soph pasuk?, and, when the accents mere introduced, by silluk?, besides. The old sections were retained, though not recognized as entirely correct, and the old traditional sign for the section, the smaller spacing (the little s in printed texts), was respected. The closed sections were marked in manuscripts and prints by a s, the open ones by a ph in the empty space before the initial word. In addition there were introduced the Babylonian division into sections or parashiyoth (in the law) and haphtaroth (in the prophets), for Sabbath public reading. As these sections generally agree with the beginning and the end of an open or closed section, they were marked by a threefold ph [i.e., phphph] or s? [sss] in the empty space before the beginning. 3. Codices. But even these efforts could not entirely remove variations. Hence, before the end of this period, the learned either attempted to find out by an elaborate comparison the correct punctuation and to fix it, or marked the important variations in the punctuation, or added a caution to each apparently strange and yet correct punctuation. The greater mass of notes which the Masoretes added to the text relate to these matters. Besides some other Masoretic manuscripts of the Bible which are quoted in the Masoretic notes of the codices or in the writings of the rabbis as authoritative, such as the codex Hilleli, the Jericho-Pentateuch, and others, two codices were especially famous as model codices of the Old Testament, the codex of Naphtali (Moses ben David ben Naphtali) and the codex of Asher (Aaron ben Moses ben Asher), both from the first half of the tenth century. (Aaron lived at Tiberias, Moses in Babylon; but the latter can not be regarded as a representative of the "Babylonian" text-tradition.) They were once much examined by scholars; many of their variants are noted in the Masoretic Bible-manuscripts; a list of 864 (better 867) variants, which refer almost exclusively to vowels and accents, has been published after Jacob ben Hayyim in Bomberg's and the other Rabbinic Bibles, as well as in the sixth volume of the London Polyglot; but these variants are neither correct nor complete. On the codex of Asher finally rests the whole Masoretic text of the Occidentals; of the variant readings comparatively few were received into it. As the older scribes had already shown extraordinary solicitude for the preservation of the text and its correct reading by counting its sections, verses, words, letters, and by noting where and how often and when certain words, letters, or anomalies occur in the Bible, which verse is the longest and which the shortest, and like minutiae, the Masoretes of course continued this work, wrote it down, and preserved it in manuscripts. The punctuation of the text as developed by the Masoretes proved itself so useful and met so well an essential need of those later times that it soon went over into manuscripts and, with the exception of synagogue-manuscripts, almost none were written which did not contain either the pointed text alone or the pointed beside the unpointed. The other Masoretic material was written either beside and below the text of the Biblical books on the margins and at the close of the same, or in separate masorah-collections (see [161]Masorah). 3. The Postmasoretic Period. 1. The Chapter Division. After the completion of the Masoretic textual work and the collection of the notes having reference to it, no essential change was made in the text; consequently this period is the time of the faithful preservation, multiplication, and circulation of the Masoretic text. An essential innovation was the introduction of the now customary division into chapters, which was invented by Stephen Langton at the beginning of the thirteenth century, and applied to the Vulgate. Isaac ben Nathan adopted it for his Hebrew concordance (1437-38, published 1523), on which occasion the verses of the chapters were also numbered. The chapter-division was first applied to the Hebrew in the second edition of Bomberg's Bible, 1521; the numbering of verses was first adopted for the Sabionetta Pentateuch, 1557, and that of the whole Bible in Athias's edition of 1661 (see below, [162]III, S:S: 1-2). 2. Old Testament Manuscripts. Another feature of this period is that a sufficient number of manuscripts is preserved to give an immediate knowledge of the text. The Hebrew Bible-manuscripts may be divided into two classes, the public or sacred and the private or common. The first were synagogue-rolls, and have been prepared so carefully and watched so closely that the intrusion of variants and mistakes was hardly possible. But they contain only the Pentateuch or the Pentateuch with the five Megilloth or "Rolls" (i.e., Song of Solomon, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther), and the haphtaroth (see above, [163]2, S: 1) in the text of the Masoretes without their additions. These manuscripts are, for the most part, of recent origin, although antique in form, being written on leather or parchment. The private manuscripts are written on the same material, and also upon paper in book form, with the Masoretic additions more or less complete. It is often difficult, indeed impossible, to determine the date and country of these manuscripts. But none of those now known are really very old. The oldest authentic date is 916 A.D. for the codex containing the prophets with Babylonian punctuation, and 1009 A.D. for an entire Hebrew Bible, both of which belong to the Firkowitsch collection in the Imperial Library at St. Petersburg. According to the most recent investigation the MS. orient. 4445 in the British Museum (containing Gen. xxv, 20-Deut. i, 33) may be a little older. As a rule the oldest manuscripts are the more accurate. The number of errors that crept in, especially in private manuscripts, which were prepared without any official oversight, awakened solicitude and led to well-directed efforts to get a pure text by means of collating good Masorah-manuscripts (cf. B. Kennicott, Dissertatio generalis, Oxford, 1780, l-lvi; J. G. Eichhorn, Einleitung, Leipsic, 1803, 136b). In this line the labors of Meir ha-Levi of Toledo (d. 1244) in his work on the Pentateuch called "The Masorah, the Hedge of the Law" (Florence, 1750; Berlin, 1761) are celebrated. 3. The Printed Text. The art of printing opened a way of escape from copyists' errors, and it was taken very early. The Psalter was printed first, at Bologna in 1477 [on the earlier prints, cf. B. Pick, History of the Printed Editions of the Old Testament, in Hebraica, ix (1892-1893), 47-116], the first complete Bible at Soncino in 1488; Gerson's edition (the edition which Luther used for his translation) followed (Brescia, 1494). Substantially the same text is contained in the first edition of Bomberg's Rabbinic Bible (1517; see [164]Bibles, Rabbinic), also in the editions of Robert Stephens (1539 sqq.) and of Sebastian Muenster. The second independent edition derived from manuscripts is that in the Complutensian Polyglot (1514-17; see [165]Bibles, Polyglot, I). The text has vowels but no accents. The third important recension is contained in the Biblia Rabbinica Bombergiana, ed. II., cura R. Jacob ben Chajim (Venice, 1525-26); it is edited according to the Masorah, which the editor first revised, and contains the entire Masoretic and Rabbinic apparatus. It is more or less reproduced in prints published during the sixteenth and in the beginning of the seventeenth centuries. Besides these original recensions, editions were published having a mixed text; the Hebrew text of the Antwerp Polyglot (1569-72), which is followed by the small editions of Plantin, the Paris and London Polyglots, and the editions of Reineccius, is based upon that of the Complutensian and Bomberg. Another recension is represented in the editions of Elias Hutter (1587), Buxtorf, and Joseph Athias with preface by J. Leusden (1661 sqq.), for which some very ancient manuscripts were collated. Athias's edition became also the basis of later editions like that of Jablonski (1699), Van der Hooght (1705), Opits (1709), J. H. Michaelis (1720), Hahn (1832), and Theile (1849). 4. Critical Works and Commentaries. None of these editions presents the Masoretic text in its original form. The large collections of variants by B. Kennicott, Vetus Testamentum Hebraicum cum variis lectionibus (2 vols., Oxford, 1776-80), more especially by De Rossi, Variae lectiones Veteris Testamenti (4 vols., Parma, 1784-88) and Supplementa ad varias sacri textus lectiones (1798), are valuable for some Extramasoretic readings which they offer, but they are less valuable for critical purposes. More important for textcritical purposes are (besides the work of Meir ha-Levi, ut sup.) the "Light of the Law" of Menahem de Lonzano (Venice, 1618) and particularly the critical commentary on the Old Testament by Solomon Minorzi (Mantua, 1742-44; Vienna, 1813), the works of Wolf ben Samson Heidenheim, and especially the thorough work on the Masorah by S. Frensdorff (Massora magna, part I, Hanover, 1878, and Oklah we-Oklah, 1864). Of great service were the publication of the works of the oldest Jewish grammarians and lexicographers and the discovery of fragments and publication of codices like that on the prophets of the year 916 (published by Strack, Prophetarum posteriorum codex Babylonicus Petropolitanus, St. Petersburg, 1876). The fruits of these preliminary works are contained in the correct editions of the Masoretic text by Baer and Ginsburg. Baer, who was assisted by Delitzsch, published the Old Testament with the exception of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy [both editors died without completing their work]. Ginsburg's edition is entitled The New Massoretico-Critical Text of the Hebrew Bible [2 vols., London, 1894. It should be studied with the same author's indispensable Introduction to the Massoretico-critical Edition of the Hebrew Bible (London, 1897)]. Valuable as such correct editions of the Masoretic text are, they represent only a single recension, whose source is the textus receptus mentioned above, which was fixed in the first Christian centuries. With this recession the text-critical and exegetical treatment of the Old Testament can not be satisfied. Before the received text was made canonical there existed different forms of the text, which in many cases stood nearer to the original than that sanctioned by the Jews. The main witness here is the Septuagint, a correct edition of which is an absolutely necessary though extremely difficult task. But Old Testament textual criticism can not be satisfied with a comparison even with this older form of the text. In many cases the corruption of the text is so old that only a criticism both cautious and bold can approximate to the genuine text. In modern times some very important contributions have been made, such as J. Olshausen, Emendationen zum Alten Testament (Kiel, 1826); idem, Beitraege zur Kritik des ueberlieferten Textes im Buche Genesis (1870); J. Wellhausen, Text der Buecher Samuelis (Goettingen, 1871); F. Baethgen, Zu den Psalmen, in JPT (1882); C. H. Cornill, Das Buch des Propheten Ezechiel (Leipsic, 1886); S. R. Driver, Notes on the Hebrew Text of the Books of Samuel (London, 1890); A. Klostermann, Die Buecher Samuelis und der Koenige (Munich, 1887), idem, Deutero-Jesaia (Munich, 1893); G. Beer, Der Text des Buches Hiob (part i, Marburg, 1895); the Sacred Books of the Old Testament (the so-called Polychrome or Rainbow Bible), ed. P. Haupt (Baltimore, London, and Leipsic, 1894 sqq.); and Kettel's edition, Leipsic, 1905-06. (F. Buhl.) Bibliography: Besides the introductions to the Old Testament (especially of J. G. Eichhorn, 4th ed., Goettingen, 1823-25; W. M. L. de Wette, 8th ed. by E. Schrader, pp. 111-156, Berlin, 1869; C. H. Cornill, S:S: 49-53, Freiburg, 1905; F. E. Kaenig, S:S: 3-30, 92, Bonn, 1893; C. H. H. Wright, London, 1891, and W. H. Bennett, ib. 1900) and the works mentioned in the text consult: J. Morinus, Exercitationum biblicarum de Hebraei Graecique textus sinceritate Libri duo, Paris, 1669; L. Capellus, Critica sacra, Paris, 1860, new edition with notes by Vogel and Scharfenberg, Halle, 1775-86; H. Hody, De bibliorum textibus originalibus, Oxford, 1705; H. Hupfeld, in TSK, 1830, 1837; A. Geiger, Urschrift und Uebersetzungen der Bibel, Breslau, 1857; L. Loew, Beitraege zur juedischen Alterthumskunde, Leipsic, 1870 (deals with materials and products of writing); H. L. Strack, Prolegomena critica in Vetus Testamentum Hebraicum, Leipsic, 1873 (very full upon extant and lost MSS., and on the testimony of the Talmud to the text); A. Kuenen, Les Origines du texte masoretique (from the Dutch), Paris, 1875; Palaeographical Society, Oriental Series, Facsimiles of MSS. and Inscriptions, London, 1875-83 (deals with many important codices of the O. T.); A. Harkavy, Neuaufgefundene hebraeische Bibelhandschriften, St. Petersburg, 1884 (characterizes fifty-one Hebrew MSS. and fragments); V. Ryssel, Untersuchungen ueber die Textgestalt und die Echtheit des Buches Micha, Leipsic, 1887 (198 pages concern the text); G. C. Workmen, The Text of Jeremiah, a Critical Investigation of the Greek and Hebrew, Edinburgh, 1889; T. K. Abbott, Essays chiefly on the Original Texts of the Old and New Testaments, London 1891 (on Masoretic and Premasoretic text); F. Buhl, Kanon und Text des Alten Testaments, Leipsic, 1891, Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1892 (useful for beginners); A. Loisy, Histoire critique du texte et des versions de la Bible, 2 Vols., Paris, 1892-95; F. G. Kenyon, Our Bible and the Ancient MSS., Being a History of the Text and its Translations, London, 1896; W. A. Copinger, The Bible and its Transmission, . . . View of the Hebrew and Greek Texts, London, 1897; E. Kautzsch, Abriss der Geschichte des alttestamentlichen Schrifttums, in appendix to his edition of Die heilige Schrift, Freiburg, 1896, Eng transl. as a separate work, New York, 1899; T. H. Weir, A Short History of the Hebrew Text of the Old Testament, London, 1899; R. Kittel, Ueber die Notwendigkeit und Moeglichkeit einer neuen Ausgabe der hebraeischen Bibel, Leipsic, 1902; P. Kahle, Der masoretische Text des alten Testaments nach der Ueberlisferung der babylonischen Juden, Leipsic, 1902; T. K. Cheyne, Critica biblica, parts 1-5, London 1903-1905; F. W. Mosley, Psalter of the Church; Septuagint Psalms Compared with the Hebrew, ib. 1905. On the ancient Hebrew and square writing consult: D. von Muralt, Beitraege zur hebraeischen Palaeographie und zur Geschichte der Punktuation, in TSK, 1874; S. R. Driver, Notes on the Hebrew Text of the Books of Samuel, pp. xi-xxxv, London, 1890; Vollers, in ZATW, 1883, pp. 229 sqq.; L. Blau, Zur Einleitung in die heilige Schrift, pp. 48-80, Strasburg, 1894; R. Butin, The Ten Nequdoth of the Torah; or the Meaning and Purpose of the Extraordinary Points of the Pentateuch, Baltimore, 1906 (an important and scientific discussion of textual critical value). On the Mesoretic material in the Talmud and Midrash consult: H. L. Strack, Prolegomena critica in Vetus Testamentum, ut sup.; L, Blau, Masoretische Untersuchungen, Strasburg, 1891; idem, Zur Einleitung in die heilige Schrift, 100 sqq., ut sup. On the vowels and accents (especially on the superlinear system) cf. Strack's edition of the Babylonian codex of the prophets, p vii, ut sup.; idem, Zeitschrift fuer die gesammte lutherische Theologie und Kirche, 1877, pp. 17-52; idem, in Wissenschaftliche Jahresberichte ueber die morgenlaendischen Studien, 1879, p. 124; J. Derenbourg, in Revue critique, 1879, pp, 453 sqq.; W. Wickes, A Treatise on the Accentuation of the Three Poetical Books, 1881; A Treatise on the Accentuation of the twenty-one so-called Prose-Books, pp. 142 sqq., London, 1887; G. F. Moore, in Proceedings of the American Oriental Society, 1888; D. S. Margoliouth, The Superlinear Punctuation, in PSBA, 1893, pp. 164-205; A. Buchler, Untersuchungen zur Entstchung und Entwickelung der hebraeischen Accente, Vienna, 1892. On the division into sections, chapters, etc., cf. REJ, iii, 282 sqq., vi, 122 sqq., 250 sqq., vii, 146 sqq.; Theodor, in Monatsschrift fuer Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums, 1885, 1886, 1887; O. Schmid, Ueber verschiedene Einteilungen der heiligen Schrift, Graz, 1891. The catalogues of Hebrew MSS. are mentioned in H. L. Strack, Prolegomena, pp. 29-33, 119-121, ut sup.; idem, in Einleitung in das A. T., p. 182, Munich, 1898; and with special fulness in Ginsburg, Introduction, ut sup. II. The New Testament. 1. History of the Written Text: 1. The Autographs of the New Testament Books. The autographs of the New Testament very early disappeared, owing to the constant use of the perishable papyrus; for this appears to have been the material (II John 12). If they were really not in the handwriting of the apostles, but in that of their amanuenses, as Paul's Epistles generally were (Rom. xvi, 22; II Thess. iii, 17), it is easier to account for the phenomenon. The papyrus rolls preserved to the present day were never much used; indeed, the most of them have been found in sarcophagi, and so, of course, were never used at all. The ink was lampblack mixed with gum dissolved in water, copperas (sulphate of iron) being sometimes added. The pen was of reed (calamus). The writing was entirely in uncials (capitals), with no separation of the words (except rarely to indicate the beginning of a new paragraph), no breathings, accents, or distinction of initial letters, and few, if any, marks of punctuation. The evangelists may have denominated their compositions "Gospels," although Justin regularly speaks of the "Memoirs of the Apostles"; but all addition to the name is later, and presupposes a collection of the Gospels. In the case of the Epistles the brief address, e.g., "To the Romans," was probably added by the original sender, and other marks of genuineness given (cf. II Thess. iii, 17). The Muratorian Canon (second half of the second century; see [166]Muratorian Canon) calls Acts and the Apocalypse by these names, and so proves the early use of these designations. The designation "Catholic (i.e., General) Epistle" is first met with at the close of the second century (Apollonius, in Eusebius, Hist. eccl., V, xviii, 5, where the First Epistle of John is probably meant). The application and limiting of the term to the whole of the present collection is of later date; for even in the third and fourth century it was customary to give this term to epistles, like that of Barnabas or those of Dionysius of Corinth, which were not specially addressed. 2. The Manuscripts. The external history of the New Testament text for a thousand years prior to the invention of printing can be traced by means of manuscripts. Before the formal close of the canon (end of fourth century) there were probably few single manuscripts of the entire New Testament. Of the three thousand known manuscripts of the New Testament, only about thirty include all the books. Some of those of the fourth and fifth century now preserved contain not only the Greek Old Testament (', A, B, C), but also writings which, though not canonical, were read in churches and studied by catechumens. Thus, attached to the Codex Sinaiticus (') were the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas; to the Codex Alexandrinus (A), two "epistles" ascribed to [167]Clement of Rome and the so-called Psalterium Salomonis. The four Gospels were most frequently copied, the Pauline Epistles oftener than the Catholic Epistles or the Acts, least often the Apocalypse. The Gospels were usually arranged in the present order, then came the Pauline Epistles, the Acts, and the Catholic Epistles; the Apocalypse always last. The arrangement of the Epistles differed; indeed, there was no model. (On the various arrangements cf. C. A. Credner, Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanons, ed. G. Volkmar, Berlin, 1860; C. R. Gregory, Prolegomena, Leipsic, 1884, pp. 131 sqq.; T. Zahn, Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanons, Erlangen, 1883, ii, 343 sqq.) 3. Their Material and Form. After papyrus had gone out of use, parchment or vellum came in and was used from the fourth to the eleventh century; then came in cotton paper, and afterward linen paper (cf. W. Wattenbach, Das Schriftwesen im Mittelalter, Leipsic, 1896, pp. 139 sqq.). The growing scarcity of parchment led to the reuse of the old skins, the former writing being erased or washed off; and unfortunately it oftener happened that it was a Biblical manuscript which was thus turned into a patristic one than the reverse. Such manuscripts are termed Codices palimpsesti (palimpsests) or rescripti. By the use of chemicals the original text has often been recovered in modern times. The most famous New Testament palimpsest is the Codex Ephraemi (C), of the fifth century, rewritten upon in the twelfth. As papyrus disappeared from use, the book form was generally substituted for the rolls, in manuscripts written on parchment or paper. The books were mostly made up of quaternions, i.e., quires of four sheets, doubled so as to make sixteen pages, less frequently of five, though later quires of six sheets were common. The division of the page into columns was at first retained, two being the usual number (e.g., Cod. Alex.); but in many manuscripts (e.g., Cod. Ephraemi) the lines ran across the page. [Exceptionally, ' has four columns, B three.] From the seventh and eighth centuries the present accents were more or less used, but very arbitrarily and irregularly. The uncials gradually changed their earlier simple round or square forms, and from the tenth century yielded to the cursives. The earliest punctuation was by means of a blank space and a simple point. Euthalius, a deacon in Alexandria, in the year 458 published an edition of the Epistles of Paul, and soon after of the Acts and Catholic Epistles, written stichometrically, i.e., in single lines containing only so many words as could be read, consistently with the sense, at a single inspiration. This mode of writing was used long before in copying the poetical books of the Old Testament. It involved, however, a great waste of parchment, so that, in manuscripts of the New Testament, it was superseded after a few centuries by punctuation-marks. 4. The Ammonian Sections. Divisions of the text were early made for various purposes. In the third century [168]Ammonius of Alexandria prepared a Harmony of the Gospels, taking the text of Matthew as the basis. Eusebius of Caesarea, in the early part of the fourth century, availing himself of the work of Ammonius, divided the text of each Gospel into sections, the length of which, varying greatly (in John xix, 6 there are three, and in twenty four other instances two, in a single verse), was determined solely by their relation of parallelism or similarity to passages in one or more of the other Gospels, or by their having no parallel. These sections (often erroneously ascribed to Ammonius) were then numbered consecutively in the margin of the Gospel in black ink; Matthew having 355, Mark 233 (not 236), Luke 342, and John 232. They were distributed by Eusebius into ten tables or canons prefixed to the Gospels, and containing the sections corresponding in-- I. Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, 71. II. Matthew, Mark, Luke, 111. III. Matthew, Luke, John, 22. IV. Matthew, Mark, John, 26. V. Matthew, Luke, 82. VI. Matthew, Mark, 47. VII. Matthew, John, 7. VIII. Luke, Mark, 14. IX. Luke, John, 21. X. Sections peculiar to Matthew 62, Mark 21, Luke 71, John 97. Under the number of each section in the margin of the several Gospels was written in red ink the number of the canon or table to which it belonged. On turning to its place in this table, the number of the corresponding section or sections in the other Gospels stands with it, so that the parallel passages may readily be found. For example, the first verse of Matt. iv forms the fifteenth Eusebian section; the number two under this refers to the second canon or table, where it appears that section fifteen in Matthew corresponds to six in Mark, and fifteen in Luke; i.e., to Mark i. 12, and Luke iv. 1. In some manuscripts the parallel sections are indicated at the bottom of the page. They thus correspond to our marginal references. Cf. Eusebias, Epist. ad Carpianum; J. Burgon, The Last Twelve Verses of S. Mark (London, 1871), pp. 295 sqq. 5. Early Divisions of the Text. Wholly different in character and purpose from the Eusebian sections, and probably older, is a division of the Gospels into sections called titloi, also kephalaia majora (in Latin manuscripts, breves), found in most manuscripts from the Alexandrine and the Ephraem (A, C) of the fifth century onward. Of these sections Matthew contains 68, Mark 48, Luke 83, John 18. The numbers by which they are designated in the margin of manuscripts refer to the titles describing their contents at the top or bottom of the page, or in a list prefixed to each Gospel, or often in both places. A certain portion at the beginning of each Gospel is not numbered; for example, the first chapter in Matthew corresponds with our chap. ii, 1-15, and is entitled peri tOn magOn, "Concerning the Magi." There is a similar division in the Acts and Epistles, to which Euthalius (about 458 A.D.), though not its inventor, gave wide currency by his stichometric edition of these books. The Apocalypse was divided by Andrew, bishop of Caeasrea in Cappadocia (about 500 A.D.), into twenty-four logoi, or chapters, and each of these chapters into three kephalaia, or sections, the former number answering to the twenty-four elders spoken of in the book (Rev. iv, 4); the latter suggested by the threefold division of human nature into body, soul, and spirit (comp. I Thess. v, 23), as the author himself declares. In the Vatican manuscript (B), there is a division of the Gospels into much shorter chapters (Matt. 170, Mark 62, Luke 152, John 80), very judiciously made. This has been found in only one other manuscript, the Codex Zacynthius (E). In the Acts and Epistles the Vatican manuscript has a twofold division into chapters, one very ancient, the other later, but both different from the Euthalian. In the older division, the Pauline Epistles are treated as one book. (For further details see Tischendorf, Novum Testamentum Vaticanum, Leipsic, 1867, p. xxx; Scrivener, Introduction, i, London, 1894, pp. 56 sqq.) Other ancient divisions of the New Testament into chapters were more or less widely current, especially in Latin and Syriac manuscripts. The superscriptions, "Epistle of Paul," "Catholic Epistles," etc., can not be earlier than the fourth century, since they imply a canonical collection. The subscriptions at the end of the Pauline Epistles in many manuscripts are generally ascribed to Euthalius. At least six of these are untrustworthy (I Cor., Gal., I and II Thess., I Tim., Tit.). For the modern divisions of the Bible into chapters and verses see [169]III below. 6. Divisions for Liturgical Reading. An ancient division of the text is the lessons, or lections, from the Gospels on the one hand, and the Acts and Epistles on the other, read in the public services of the Church. The history of these is obscure, and they varied much at different periods and in different regions. The lessons for the Sundays and chief festivals of the year seem to have been the earliest; next were added lessons for the Saturdays, and finally for every day in the week, with special commemoration of saints and martyrs. Euthalius marked, in the Acts, 16 of these "lessons"; in the Catholic Epistles, 10; in the Pauline Epistles, 31; in all, 57. He was probably not, as many have supposed, their inventor. The system of lessons which ultimately prevailed in the Greek Church appears in our evangelistaries and lectionaries (more properly praxapostoli), containing the lessons from the Gospels and the Acts and Epistles respectively. The ordinary manuscripts of the Greek Testament were often adapted for church service by masking the beginning and end of each lesson, with a note in the margin of the time or occasion for reading it, and by prefixing to them a Synaxarion, or table of the lessons in their order; sometimes also a Menologion, or calendar of the immovable festivals and the saints' days, with their appropriate lessons. 7. Early Corruption of the Text. Turning to the internal history of the New Testament text, it is evident that its original purity was early lost. The quotations of the latter half of the second century contain readings which agree with later texts, but are not apostolic. Irenaeus alludes (Haer., V, xxx, 1) to the difference between the copies; and Origen, early in the third century, expressly declares that matters were growing worse (in Matt., xix, 19, vol. iii, p. 671, ed. De la Rue, Paris, 1733-59), as is proved by the quotations of the Fathers of the third and fourth centuries. From this time onward we have the manuscript text of each century, the writings of the Fathers, and the various Oriental and Occidental versions, all testifying to varieties of reading for almost every verse, which undoubtedly occasioned many more or less important departures from the sense of the original text. How came this? The early Church did not know anything of that anxious clinging to the letter which characterizes the scientific rigor and the piety of modern times, and therefore was not so bent upon preserving the exact words. Moreover, the first copies were made rather for private than for public use; copyists were careless, often wrote from dictation, and were liable to misunderstand. Attempted improvements of the text in grammar and style; proposed corrections in history and geography; efforts to harmonize the quotations in the New Testament with the Greek of the Septuagint, but especially to harmonize the Gospels; the writing out of abbreviations; incorporation of marginal notes in the text; the embellishing of the Gospel narratives with stories drawn from non-apostolic though trustworthy sources, e.g., John vii, 53 to viii, 11, and Mark xvi, 9 to end,--it is to these causes that we must attribute the very numerous "readings," or textual variations. It is true that the copyists were sometimes learned men; but their zeal in making corrections may have obscured the true text as much as the ignorance of the unlearned. The copier, indeed, came under the eye of an official reviser; but he may have sometimes exceeded his functions, and done more harm than good by his changes. 8. Varieties of Text Produced by Early Criticism. Attempts were made by learned Fathers to get the original text; and three men of the third century--Origen, the Egyptian Bishop Hesychius, and the Presbyter Lucian of Antioch--deserve mention for their devotion to this object. The last two undertook a sort of recension of the New Testament (cf. Jerome, Epist. ad Damasum); but it is not known exactly what they did, and their influence was small. In regard to Origen, while he did not make a formal recension of the New Testament text, his critical work was of the highest importance. Notwithstanding these diversities, there were, as early as the fourth and fifth centuries, affinities between manuscripts prepared in the same district, which seem to betray certain tendencies, as is proved by the Fathers, the versions, and the Greek manuscripts themselves. Thus critics are justified in speaking of an Oriental and Occidental, or, more correctly, an Alexandrian or Egyptian, and a Latin, as also of an Asiatic or Greek, and a Byzantine or Constantinopolitan text. According to this theory, the Alexandrian was used by those Jewish Christians of the East who already used the Septuagint; particularly was this text preserved and spread by the learned Alexandrian school. The Latin text characterizes not only the manuscripts prepared by Latins, but the Greek manuscripts they used. The Asiatic manuscripts were used chiefly by native Greeks in Greece, or in the Asiatic provinces having intercourse with Greece. The Byzantine manuscripts belonged to the Church of that empire. The latter alone had a certain official uniformity, and were, in the latter centuries, almost the only manuscripts circulated in the empire. This class of manuscripts is also the only one perfectly represented in existing documents, and is the result of the gradual mixture of older recensions under the predominance of the Asiatic or Greek. Each of these recensions is more or less altered and corrupted; so that it is often more difficult to assign a particular reading to its proper class than to find out the original. Finally, the differences and relationships are by far most strongly marked in the Gospels, least so in the Apocalypse, and again are more distinct in the Pauline Epistles and the Acts than in the Catholic Epistles. (Cf. C. Tischendorf, Novum Testamentum Graece, editio academica viii, Leipsic, 1875, pp. xxiv sqq.) 9. The Uncial Manuscripts. The number of uncial manuscripts of the New Testament, ranging in date from the fourth to the tenth century, is 114. This does not include eight psalters containing the text of the hymns in Luke i, 46-55, 68-79, ii, 29-32, designated by Tischendorf O ^a-h, nor the lectionaries, evangelistaries, and praxapostoli. About half of these 114 are mere fragments, containing but a few verses or at most a few chapters. They may be arranged as follows with reference to their probable date: Cent. IV, 2: ' with the whole New Testament; B, Gospels, Acts, Catholic, and Pauline Epistles (mutilated). Cent. V, 15: A C I^1, 2, 3 I^b Q[1] Q[2] T^ag T^woi v?[2] d?^7, 10, 14. Cent. VI, 24: D[1] D[2] E[2] H[3] I^4, 7 N[1] N[a] O[2] O^b[2] P[1] R[1] T^bceh Z Th^cefg S Ph d?^11. Cent. VII, 17: F^a G[2] I^5,6 R[2] T^dimpq W^ilmn Th^ab d?^12. Cent. VIII, 19: B[2] E[1] L[1] S[2] T^inors W^abk Y Th^d Z Ps O d?^6,8. Cent. IX, 31: E[3] F[1,2] G[2] G^b H[2] K[1,2] L[3] M[1,2] O[1] P[2] T^fk V W^c-ho X^b G D Th^h L P d?^9. Cent. X, 6: G[1] H[1] S[1] U X v?[1]. Of these only one, ', has the New Testament entire, and only four others, ABC^Ps, the greater part of it. The remainder are distributed, according to the principal divisions of the New Testament, as follows: Gospels, 81: Complete or nearly so, 12: D E K L M S U V G D P O; containing considerable portions, 14: F G H N P Q R X Z L X S Ph v; containing at most a few chapters or verses, 55: F^a I^1.8.4.7 I^b N^a O T^a-f.h-r T^woi W^a-o X^b Th^a-h d?^6-12. Acts, 13: Complete or nearly so, 5: D E L P S; the rest with larger (H) or smaller portions (G G^b F^a I^2.5.6 v). Catholic Epistles, 5: Complete or nearly so, 4: K L P S, and the fragment v. Pauline Epistles, 20: Complete or nearly so, 7: D E F G K L P; containing larger or smaller fragments, 13: F^a H I^b M N O O^b Q R S T^gs d?^14. Apocalypse: besides ' A C, B[2] contains the complete text; P has some small gaps. In reference to the character of their text, Tischendorf classifies the uncials as follows: in the Gospels the oldest form of the text, predominantly Alexandrine in its coloring, is found, though with many differences, in ' A B C D I I^b L P Q R T^abc X Z D Th^cg X; next to these stand F^a N O W^abc Y Th^abef. A later form of the text, in which the Asiatic coloring prevails, is presented by E F G H K M S U V G L P Th^h, among which E K M G L P Th^h, incline most toward the first class. For the Acts and Catholic Epistles, ' A B C give the oldest text, to which, in the Acts, D I approach, and, less closely, E G; also, in the Catholic Epistles (except I Pet.), P; while in the Acts, H L P, and, in the Catholic Epistles, K L, come nearest to the later form of the text. In the Pauline Epistles the oldest text is represented by ' A B C H I O Q, with the Greco-Latin manuscripts D F G; M P approach this; while K L N stand nearest to the more recent text. The text of the Apocalypse appears in its oldest form in ' A C, to which P comes nearer than B (cf. Gregory, Prolegomena, pp. 185 sqq.). Tregelles exhibits the "genealogy of the text" and affinities of the manuscripts in the Gospels in the following form: Western Alexandrine Byzantine B ' Z D C L X 1.33 P Q T R I N A X D 69 K M P E F G S U, etc. Westcott and Hort attach a superlative value to B, Tischendorf to '. The same manuscript may differ in character in different parts of the New Testament: thus, A is not so excellent in the Gospels as elsewhere; D is especially good in the Gospel of Mark; ' and D agree most closely in the Gospel of John; the cursive 1 is remarkably valuable in the Gospels, but not so in the rest of the New Testament. The following is a complete list of the 114 uncial manuscripts: ': Codex Sinaitiens, found by Tischendorf (1844 and 1859) in the Convent of St. Catherine at the foot of Mount Sinai, now preserved in St. Petersburg. Forty-three leaves of the Old Testament portion of the manuscript, known as the Codex Friderico-Augustanus, are in the library of Leipsic University. Besides twenty-six books of the Old Testament, of which five form the Codex Friderico-Augustanus, the manuscript contains the entire New Testament without the least break, the Epistle of Barnabas, and the first third of the Shepherd of Hermas. The Alexandrian copyist has frequently shown his imperfect knowledge of Greek, and his haste. The license in handling the text, common in the first three centuries, is greater than in B A C, though much lees than in D. Nevertheless, the superiority of the Codex Sinaiticus to all other New Testament manuscripts, with the single exception of B, is fully proved by the numerous places in which its reading has the support of the oldest quotations or the most ancient versions. The text is in four columns, which is a unique arrangement. The Pauline Epistles, among which is Hebrews after II Thessalonians, come directly after the Gospels; the Acts and the Catholic Epistles, then the Apocalypse, follow. The date of the codex is the fourth century. It has a special value from the fact that, owing to the corrections it received in the sixth and seventh centuries and later, its pages represent, after a fashion, the history of the changes in the New Testament text. The codex was published (1862) in facsimile type from the Leipsic press, in four folio volumes, at the expense of the emperor of Russia, Alexander II. The edition was limited to three hundred copies. The New Testament part was published separately in a critical edition by Tischendorf, Novum Testamentum Sinaiticum cum epistola Barnabae et fragmentis Pastoris etc., Leipsic, 1863, and in a more popular form, Novum Testamentum Graece ex Sinaitico codice omnium antiquissimo, Leipsic, 1865 (cf. C. Tischendorf, Die Sinaibibel, Ihre Entdeckung, Herausgabe, und Erwerbung, Leipsic, 1871; C. R. Gregory, Prolegomena, pp. 16-17; F. H. A. Scrivener, A Full Collation of the Codex Sinaiticus, Cambridge 1867). A: Codex Alexandrinus, now in the British Museum, presented in 1628 by Cyril Lucar, patriarch of Constantinople, to Charles I. The New Testament begins with Matt. xxv, 8; and contains the whole except John vi, 50-viii, 52, and II Cor. iv, 13-xii, 6, with the First Epistle of Clement and part of the second. It was printed in facsimile by C. G. Woide, London, 1786, in ordinary type by B. H. Cowper, ib. 1860, who corrected some mistakes of Woide, and in photographic facsimile by the trustees of the British Museum, ed. E. M. Thompson (4 vols., London, 1879-83). Tischendorf places it about the middle of the fifth century; Scrivener at the end of the fourth or very little later. B[1]: Codex Vaticanus, no. 1209, in the Vatican Library. The manuscript contains, besides the Old Testament, the entire New Testament, with the exception of Heb. ix. 14 to end and II Timothy, Titus, Philemon, and Revelation. Juan Sepulveda, writing to Erasmus about 1533, mentions it. The first collation of the manuscript, made in 1669, by Bartolocci, then librarian of the Vatican, exists only in manuscript in the Paris library. Another was made by Birch, 1788-1801. The collation made for R. Bentley by an Italian named Mico was published by Ford, 1790. J. L. Hug wrote a learned Commentatio de antiquitate codicis vaticani (Freiburg, 1810). The manuscript was then in Paris, but it was later restored to Rome, when it became practically inaccessible. An inaccurate and critically worthless edition of the whole manuscript was issued by Cardinal Mai (5 vols., Rome, 1828-38). C. Vercellone, J. Cozza, and G. Sergio published an edition of the entire codes in 6 vols. (New Testament is vol. v) in Rome, 1868-81, and a photographic reproduction was published by the Vatican (1889). The age of the manuscript is about the same as that of the Sinaitic, and possibly corrections are by the same first hand in both; and in the Vatican by a second hand contemporary with the first. B[2]: Codex Vaticanus 2066 (eighth century), formerly Basilian Codex 105, contains Revelation, was first imperfectly edited by Tischendorf in Monumenta sacra inedita (Leipsic, 1846), and more completely in Appendix Novi Testamenti vaticani ib. 1869). By Tregelles the manuscript was designated Q. C: Codex Ephrasmi (fifth century), now no. 9 in the National Library at Paris; its text was altered in the sixth century and again in the ninth. In the twelfth century the original writing was washed off to make room for the Greek text of several ascetic works of Ephraem Syrus (d. 373). Pierre Allix, at about the close of the seventeenth century, noticed the traces of the old writing under the later characters. Wetstein in 1716 collated the New Testament part so far as it was legible. In 1834 and 1835 the librarian Carl Hase revived the original writing by the application of the Giobertine tincture (prussiate of potash). Tischendorf, after great labor, brought out in 1843 an edition of the New Testament part of the manuscript, and in 1845, of the Old Testament fragments, representing the manuscript line for line, in facsimile. The codes contains portions of the Old Testament on sixty-four leaves, and five-eighths of the New Testament. D[1]: Codex Bezae (about 550 A.D.), from the monastery of St. Irenaeus in Lyons, now in the University Library at Cambridge, a present in 1581 from Theodore Beza. It contains, with few lacunae, the Greek and Latin text of the Gospels and Acts and III John 11-15, stichometrically written, perhaps in Gaul. Edited by Kipling in 1793, but in a far better manner by Scrivener (Besae Codex Cantabrigiensis) in 1864. No known manuscript has so many and so remarkable interpolations. Much study has been given to it, e.g., J. R. Harris, Codex Bezae (Cambridge, 1891). D[2]: Codex Claromontanus of the Pauline Epistles, including Hebrews (second half of sixth century). Beza found it in the Monastery of Clermont, hence the name; now in the Paris Library. Contains the Greek and Latin text written stichometrically. It was retouched at different times, and exhibits especially two periods of the text. The Latin text represents the oldest version,--that of the second century. It was collated by Tregelles in 1849 and 1850, and edited by Tischendorf in 1852 in facsimile. E[1]: Codex Basiliensis A. N. III, 12 (750 A.D.), in Basel, a nearly complete manuscript of the four Gospels, collated by Tregelles (1848), also by Tischendorf and J. C. Mueller (1843). E[2]: Codex Laudianus (end of sixth century), in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, a present from Archbishop Laud in 1636; was brought to England in 668; Bede (d. 735) used it when writing his Expositio retractata of the Acts. It contains an almost complete Greco-Latin text of the Acts; edited in 1715 by Hearne, and in 1870 by Tischendorf in Monumenta sacra inedita, novu collectio, vol. ix. E[3]: Codex Sangermanensis, a Greco-Latin manuscript of the Pauline Epistles (end of ninth century), now in St. Petersburg, the Greek text being a clumsy copy of the Codex Claromontanus. Of no critical value except for the Latin text. Sabatier published it in the third part of his Bibliorum sacrorum Latina versio (1749). F[1]: Codex Boreeli (ninth century), now in Utrecht University, contains the four Gospels, but with many lacunae. Full description is given in J. Heringa, Disputatio de codice Boreeliano, ed. H. E. Vinke (Utrecht, 1843). F[2]: Codex Augiensis (ninth century), contains Pauline Epistles in Greek and Latin, Hebrews only in Latin, and the Latin is not an exact translation of the Greek. Richard Bentley, bought it at Heidelberg and his nephew presented it to Trinity College, Cambridge. It was collated by Tischendorf (1842), Tregelles (1845), and edited by Scrivener (1859). F^a: Designates those passages from the Gospels, Acts, and Pauline Epistles written on the margin of the Coislin Octateuch in Paris early in the seventh century. It was edited by Tischendorf in Monumenta sacra inedita (1846). G[1]: Codex Harleianus (tenth century), contains the Gospels, defective, now in the British Museum, brought by A. Seidel from the East in the seventeenth century. It was collated by J. C. Wolf (1723), Griesbach, Tischendorf, and Tregelles. G[2]: A seventh century fragment of the Acts (ii, 45-iii, 7), brought by Tischendorf from the East in 1859 (see [170]L[2]). G^b: Six leaves of a ninth century manuscript now in the Vatican, five leaves edited by Cosza in Sacrorum bibliorum vetustissima fragmenta, iii (Rome, 1877). The sixth leaf was discovered by C. R. Gregory, in 1886. G[3]: Codex Boernerianus (ninth century), contains the Pauline Epistles, is now in the Dresden Royal Library, is in Greek and Latin. The Greek text agrees closely with that of F[2]. It was edited by Matthaei in 1792, partly collated by Tregelles and others (see under [171]D). H[1]: Codex Seidelii (tenth century), contains the Gospels, but defectively, now in the Hamburg Public Library, was collated by Tregelles. H[2]: Codex Mutinensis (ninth century), contains Acts except about seven chapters, now at Modena, collated by Tischendorf (1843) and Tregelles (1845). H[3]: Fragments of a sixth century manuscript of the Pauline Epistles in the edition of Euthalius, of which forty-one leaves have been found; twenty-two are in the National Library at Paris, eight in the Laura Monastery on Mt. Athos, two in the Synodal Library at Moscow, one in the Rumjanzew Museum there, three in the Imperial Library at St. Petersburg, three in the Ecclesiastical Academy at Kief, and two in the University Library at Turin. (Cf. H. Omont, Notice sur un tres ancien manuscrit grec, Paris, 1889.) I^1-7: Codex Tischendorfianus II, twenty-eight palimpsest leaves from the fifth, sixth, and seventh centuries, under the Georgian language, in a text related to that of 'ABC. Seven leaves contain parts of Matthew; two, parts of Mark; five, parts of Luke; eight, parts of John; four, of Acts; two, of Pauline letters. They were discovered by Tischendorf in the East, and by him published in the Monumenta sacra inedita, nov. col., vol. i (1855). I^b (formerly N^b): Four palimpsest leaves (early fifth century), containing sixteen verses from John xiii, xvi; now in the British Museum; deciphered by Tischendorf and Tregelles, published by the former in Monumenta sacra inedita, nov. col., vol. ii (1857). K[1]: Codex Cyprius of the Gospels, complete (middle or end of ninth century); now in the National Library in Paris. Collated by Tischendorf (1842) and Tregelles (1849 and 1850). K[2]: Codex Mosquensis of the Catholic and Pauline Epistles (ninth century); brought from Mount Athos to Moscow. Lacks a part of Romans and I Corinthians. Collated by Matthaei. L[1]: Codex Regius of the Gospels (eighth century), now in the National Library in Paris, almost complete. Closely related to N and B and the text of Origen. Published by Tischendorf in Monumenta sacra inedita (1846), in facsimile. L[2]: Codex Angelicus of the Acts and Catholic Epistles (formerly G), and of the Pauline (formerly I) (ninth century), now in the Angelica Library of the Augustinian monks at Rome. Contains Acts viii, 10, to Heb xiii, 10. Collated by Tischendorf (1843) and Tregelles (1845). M[1]: Codex Campianus of the Gospels, complete (end of ninth century), now in the National Library in Paris. Copied and used by Tischendorf (1849). M[2]: Codex Ruber of the Pauline Epistles (ninth century). Two folio leaves at Hamburg (Heb. i, 1-iv, 3, xii, 20-xiii, 25), and two at London (I Cor. xv, 52--II Cor. i, 15; II Cor. x, 13-xii, 5). Written in red, hence its name. Edited by Tischendorf in Anecdota sacra et profana (1855, corrected, 1861). N[1]: Codes Purpureus (late sixth century), a manuscript of the Gospels on purple parchment in silver letters. Forty-five leaves were early known: thirty-three are in the Monastery of St. John at Patmos, six in the Vatican, four in the British Museum, two in the Imperial Library at Vienna. One hundred and eighty-four leaves more were discovered in a village near Caesarea in Cappadocia and bought by M. Nelidow, Russian ambassador at Constantinople (cf. C. R. Gregory, in TLZ, 1896, pp. 393-394). The Vienna, London, and Vatican leaves were edited by Tischendorf in his Monumenta sacra inedita (1846), who used the leaves from Patmos (as collated by John Sakkelion) in his Novum Testamentum, ed. viii, critica major. These last were also edited by Duchesne in Archives des missions scientifiques (3 series, iii. 386 sqq.). N^a: Two fragments of a manuscript very much like N[1], seen by Tischendorf in the collection of Bishop Porfiri of St. Petersburg; they contain a portion of Mark ix, and came from the library of the Alexandrian patriarch in Cairo. N[2]: Two leaves (ninth century), containing Gal. v, 12-vi, 4, and Heb. v, 8-vi, 10, brought by Tischendorf to St. Petersburg. O[1]: Eight leaves (ninth century) containing a part of John i and xx, with scholia. Now in Moscow (S. Syn. 29, formerly 120). Edited by Matthaei (1785), and, after him, by Tregelles, with Codes Zacinthius (see below, [172]X), Appendix (1861). O[2]: Two leaves (sixth century) containing II Cor. i, 20-ii, 12. Brought from the East to St. Petersburg by Tischendorf in 1859. O^ah: Fragments (sixth century to ninth) containing the hymns from Luke i, 46 sqq., 68 sqq., ii, 29 sqq., now (O^a) in Wolfenbuettel, (O^b) Oxford, (O^c) Verona, (O^d) Zurich, (O^e) St. Gall, (O^f) Moscow, (O^g) Turin, and (O^h) Paris. O^a was edited by Tischendorf in Anecdota sacra et profana (1855), and O^d in Monumenta sacra inedita, nov. col., vol. iv (1869), and O^bc by Bianchini (1740). O^b: Pauline Epistles, a single leaf (sixth century), contains part of Eph. iv, 1-18, collated by Tischendorf at Moscow in 1868. P[1]: Codex Guelpherbytanus I (sixth century), a palimpsest at Wolfenbuettel, contains a part of all of the Gospels, was edited by Tischendorf in Monumenta sacra inedita, nov. col., vol. vi (1869). P[2]: Codex Porphyrianus (ninth century), a palimpsest, contains Acts, Catholic and Pauline Epistles, and Revelation, but with lacunae; the text of the Apocalypse is especially good. It was brought to St. Petersburg by the Russian bishop Porfiri, and edited by Tischendorf in Monumenta sacra inedita, nov. col., vols. v-vi (1865-69). Q[1]: Codex Guelpherbytanus II (fifth century), a palimpsest containing fragments of Luke and John, now at Wolfenbuettel; was edited by Tischendorf in Monumenta sacra inedita, vol. iii. Q[2]: Papyrus fragments (fifth century) of I Cor. i, vi, vii, in the collection of Bishop Porfiri, collated by Tischendorf in 1892. R[1]: Codex Nitriensis (sixth century), a palimpsest containing parts of Luke, came from a monastery in the Nitrian desert, now in the British Museum, collated by Cureton, then by Tregelles (1854) and Tischendorf (1855), and edited by the last in Monumenta sacra inedita, nov. col., vol. ii (1857). R[2]: Codex Cryptoferratensis (late seventh century), a palimpsest fragment containing II Cor. xi, 9-19, published by Cozza in Sacrorum bibliorum vetustissima fragmanta, ii (Rome, 1867). S[1]: Codex Vaticanus 354 (949 A.D.), containing the Gospels complete, collated by Tischendorf for his ed, viii. S[2]: Codex Athous Laurae (eighth or ninth century), containing Acts, Catholic Epistles, and Rom., I Cor. i, 1-v, 8, xiii, 8-xvi, 24, II Cor. i, 1-xi, 23, Eph. iv, 20-vi, 20, in the Laura Monastery on Mt. Athos, examined by Gregory in 1886. T^a: Codex Borgianus I (fifth century), fragments containing Luke xxii, 20-xxiii, 20, and John vi, 28-67, vii, 6-viii, 31, now in the College of the Propaganda at Rome, the first collated by H. Alford (1866), the second by Tischendorf and published by Giorgi (1789). T^b: Fragments (sixth century) of John (i, 25-42, ii, 9-iv, 14, 34-50), now at St. Petersburg. T^c: Fragments, similar to T^a, containing Matt. xiv, 19-27, 31-34, xv, 2-8. T^d: Fragments (seventh century) of a Greco-Coptic evangelistary (Matt. xvi, 13-20, Mark i, 3-8, xii, 35-37, John xix, 23-27, xx, 30-31) discovered by Tischendorf in the Borgian Library at Rome. T^e: A fragment (sixth century) containing Matt iii, 13-16, found in Upper Egypt, now in the University Library at Cambridge, England, used by Hort, and copied by Gregory in 1883. T^f: Another fragment (ninth century), also from Upper Egypt, of a Greco-Coptic evangelistary, containing Matt. iv, 2-11, copied by Gregory in 1883, now in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. T^g: Two fragments (fourth to sixth century) containing I Tim. iii, 15-16, and vi, 2, now in the Egyptian Museum of the Louvre; published by T. Zahn in Forschungen, iii, 277 sqq. (Leipsic, 1884). T^h: Three leaves (sixth or seventh century) containing Matt. xx, 3-32, xxii, 4-16, found in Cairo by A. Papadopulos-Kerameus. T^i-r: Fragments (seventh to tenth century) of six Greco-Coptic and three Greek manuscripts, containing parts of the Gospels, found in the Schnudi Monastery near Akhmim, Egypt, now in the National Library at Paris, published by E. Amelineau in Notices et extraits, vol. xxxiv, part ii (Paris, 1895), 363 sqq. The text is related to that of T^a. T^s: Two leaves (eighth to tenth century), also from the Schnudi Monastery, containing I Cor. i, 22-29. T^woi: Nine leaves (fifth century) with Greco-Coptic text of Luke xii, 15-xiii, 32, John viii, 33-42, formerly owned by Woide, now in the library of the Clarendon Press at Oxford, published by Ford, 1799. U: Codex Nanianus (ninth or tenth century), contains the Gospels, now in the Library of St. Mark, Venice, collated by Tischendorf and Tregelles. V: Codex Mosquensis (eighth or ninth century), contains the Gospels nearly complete to John vii, 49, written at Mt. Athos, collated by Matthaei (1785). W^a: Two leaves (eighth century) containing parts of Luke ix-x, now in the National Library at Paris, edited by Tischendorf in Monumenta sacra inedita (1846). W^b: A palimpsest, probably originally belonging with W^a, of fourteen leaves, containing fragments of Matt., Mark, and Luke, found by Tischendorf at Naples and by him deciphered in 1866. W^c: Three fragments (ninth century) of a Greco-Latin manuscript of the Gospels from Mark ii and Luke i, now at St. Gall, edited by Tischendorf in Monumenta sacra inedita, nov. col., vol. iii (1860). W^d: Fragments of four leaves (ninth century) containing parts of Mark vii, viii, ix, now in the library of Trinity College, Cambridge, published by Scrivener, Adversaria critica sacra (Cambridge, 1893), pp. xi sqq. W^e: Twelve leaves (ninth century) containing parts of John ii-iv, seven leaves in the monastery of St. Dionysius on Mt. Athos (collated by Pusey for Alford), three in the library of Christ Church College, Oxford (examined by Tischendorf), and two in the National Library at Athens (discovered by Gregory in 1886). W^f: A palimpsest (ninth century) containing part of Mark v, in the library of Christ Church College at Oxford. W^g: Thirty-six leaves of a palimpsest (ninth century) containing part of the four Gospels, now in the British Museum. W^h: Two leaves of a palimpsest (ninth century) containing parts of Mark iii, discovered by Gregory in 1883. W^i: Two leaves (seventh or eighth century) with parts of Luke iv, copied by Gregory in Paris in 1884. W^k: Two leaves (eighth or ninth century) with parts of Luke xx and xxiii, also copied by Gregory in Paris, 1884. W^l: Two leaves of a palimpsest (seventh century) containing Mark xiii, 34-xiv, 29, discovered by Gregory in the National Library at Paris, 1885. W^m: Four leaves of a palimpsest (seventh or eighth century) containing parts of Mark, in the National Library at Paris, discovered by Gregory, 1885. W^n: Four leaves (seventh century) containing John vi, 71-vii, 46, in Vienna. W^o: Sixteen leaves of a palimpsest (ninth century) containing parts of the Synoptic Gospels, in the Ambrosian Library at Milan. X: Codex Monacensis (ninth or tenth century) containing numerous fragments of the Gospels and a commentary, in the University Library at Munich. Collated by Scholz, Tischendorf, and Tregelles. X^b: Fourteen leaves (ninth or tenth century) containing Luke i, 1-ii, 40, incomplete, in the Court and State Library at Munich. Y: Codex Barberini 225 (eighth century), six leaves containing parts of John, published by Tischendorf in Monumenta sacra inedita (1846). Z: Codex Dublinensis rescriptus (sixth century), an important palimpsest with numerous fragments of Matthew, in Trinity College, Dublin. Published in facsimile by Barrett (1801), accurately deciphered by Tregelles (1853), newly edited by T. K. Abbott (Dublin, 1880). G: Codex Tischendorfianus IV (ninth century) contains large parts of Matthew and Mark. Luke and John are complete. It was found by Tischendorf in the East, part of it is in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, and the larger part at St. Petersburg. It strongly resembles K[1]. D: Codex Sangallensis (ninth century), a nearly complete copy of the Gospels (one leaf lacking) with interlinear Latin translation approximating the Vulgate text. It is in St. Gall, possibly copied there, and is possibly the same (for the Gospels) manuscript as G[3] (Pauline Epistles). (Cf. J. R. Harris, Codex Sangallensis, Cambridge, 1891.) Th^a: Codex Tischendorfianus I (seventh century), four leaves with parts of Matt. xii-xv, found by Tischendorf in the East in 1844 and 1853, now in the library of the University of Leipsic, edited by Tischendorf in Monumenta sacra inedita, nov. col., vol. ii (1857). Th^b: Six leaves (seventh century) containing fragments of Matt. xxii-xxiii and Mark iv-v, brought by Tischendorf to St. Petersburg in 1859. Th^c: Two folio leaves (sixth century) containing Matt. xxi, 19-24 and John xviii, 29-35, brought by Tischendorf and Bishop Porfiri to St. Petersburg. Th^d: A fragment (eighth century) containing Luke xi, 37-45, brought by Tischendorf to St. Petersburg. Th^e: A fragment (sixth century) containing Matt. xxvi, 2-7, 9. Th^f: Four leaves (sixth century) containing parts of Matthew and Mark. Th^g: A fragment (sixth century) containing John vi, 13-24, similar to O[2]. Th^h: Three fragments (ninth century) of a Greco-Arabic manuscript of the Gospels. Th^e-h: are all in the collection of Bishop Porfiri at St. Petersburg, and were collated by Tischendorf. L: Codex Tischendorfianus III (ninth century) containing Luke and John complete, with occasional scholia in uncials on the margin, partly of a critical kind. Now in the Bodleian Library, Oxford; collated by Tischendorf (who brought it from the East) and Tregelles. X: Codex Zacynthius (eighth century), a palimpsest containing Luke i, 1-xi, 33, with some gaps; brought from the Island of Zante, and presented in 1821 to the British and Foreign Bible Society, London; deciphered and published by Tregelles in 1861. The text, which is very valuable, is surrounded by a commentary. P Codex Petropolitanus (ninth century) of the Gospels complete, excepting seventy-seven verses. Brought to St. Petersburg by Tischendorf from Smyrna. S: Codex Rossanensis (sixth century), containing Matt. i, 1-Mark xvi, 14 and belonging to the chapter of the Cathedral Church at Rossano, written on very fine purple vellum in silver letters, with the three first lines in both columns at the beginning of each Gospel in gold. It is adorned with eighteen remarkable pictures in watercolors, representing scenes is the Gospel history, with forty figures of the prophets of the Old Testament. Its miniatures bear a striking resemblance to those of the celebrated Vienna purple manuscript of Genesis. It numbers a hundred and eighty-eight leaves, some of which have been much injured by dampness. It originally contained the four Gospels. The text, as well as the writing, resembles that of Codex N[1] of the Gospels. It was discovered in the spring of 1879, at Rossano in Calabria (Southern Italy), by Dr. Gebherdt of Goettingen and Professor Harnack of Giessen, who have published a full description of it with two facsimiles of the writing and outline sketches of the miniatures, is an elegant quarto entitled Evangeliorum codex Graecus Purpureus Rossanensis (Leipsic, 1880). The illuminations are reproduced in exact facsimile by Antonio Munoz (Rome, 1907). The text seems to hold a position about midway between that of the older uncials and those of the ninth and tenth centuries, agreeing most remarkably with N[1], often with A D P, or with D and the Old Latin, against the mass of later manuscripts. Ph: Codex Beratinus (probably sixth century), containing Matt. vi, 3-Mark xiv, 62, with some lacunae, on purple vellum and in possession of the Church of St. George at Berat, Albania, made generally known by P. Batiffol in 1885. Ps: Codex Athous-Laurae (eighth or ninth century), containing the New Testament except Matthew, Mark i, 1-ix, 4, Heb. viii, 11-ix, 19, and Revelation, is in the Laura Monastery on Mt. Athos, was examined by Gregory in 1886. O: Codex Athous Dionysii (eighth or ninth century), containing the four Gospels, is in the Monastery of St. Dionyeius on Mt. Athos, was examined by Gregory id 1886. v?[1]: Codex Athous Andreae (ninth or tenth century), containing the four Gospels but with lacunae, is in the Monastery of St. Andrew on Mt. Athos, was examined by Gregory in 1886. v?[2]: Codex Patiriensis (fifth century), twenty-one palimpsest leaves containing fragments of Acts and of the Catholic and the Pauline Epistles, now in the Vatican Library, was described by Batiffol (1891), partly read by W. Sanday (1895). ?g: The sign attached by Gregory to a fragment of N[1] before he knew its relationship. d?^6-12, 14: Small fragments (fifth to ninth century) of the Synoptics and I Corinthians in the convent of St. Catharine on Mt. Sinai, discovered by J. R. Harris and published in Biblical Fragments from Mt. Sinai (London, 1890). 10. The Cursive Manuscripts, Evangelistaries, etc. Besides the uncials, there are known for the Gospels over 1,200 cursives designated by Arabic numerals, over 950 evangelistaries of which about 100 are in uncial writing, varying in date from the tenth to the twelfth century. For the Acts and the Catholic Epistles there are over 400 cursives, for the Pauline Epistles about 500, and for the Apocalypse 180. Of lectionaries there are known over 260, only a very few of which antedate the tenth century. The following are noteworthy, either because of the value of their readings or for the influence they have had on the text: 1 Gospels, Acts, Catholic and Pauline Epistles: Codex Basiliensis (tenth or twelfth century), especially valuable for the text of the Gospels, contains the apparatus of Euthalius on the Acts and Epistles. Kindred to it in the Gospels are 209, 118, 131. 1 Apocalypse: Codex Reuchlini (twelfth century), used by Erasmus (1516), in the University Library at Basel. 13 Gospels: Codex Parisiensis (thirteenth century), has some lacunae, was collated by Wetstein, Griesbach, and W. H. Ferrar, and is closely related to 69, 124, and 346, while 543, 788, and 826 belong to the same group. 13 Acts and Catholic Epistles, 17 Pauline Epistles, and 33 Gospels are all parts of the same manuscript (ninth, tenth, or eleventh century), and the text agrees often with that of the best uncials; collated by Griesbach, and Tregelles (1850). 14 Apocalypse, 31 Acts and Catholic Epistles, 37 Pauline Epistles and 69 Gospels are parts of the same manuscript (Leicester Codex, fourteenth or fifteenth century), collated by Tregelles, Scrivener, and Abbott (cf. 13 supra). 34 Acts and Catholic Epistles, 40 Pauline Epistles, 81 Gospels, and 92 Apocalypse are parts of the same manuscript (Codex Montfortianus, sixteenth century), at Trinity College, Dublin, collated by O. T. Dobbin (1854). 47 Pauline Epistles (eleventh or twelfth century), in the Bodleian Library, collated by Tregelles. 95 Apocalypse (Codex Parham, eleventh or twelfth century), belongs among the best witnesses to Revelation, collated by Scrivener. 565 Gospels (ninth or tenth century) in letters of gold on purple parchment, with especially ancient readings in Mark; designated 81 by Westcott and Hort, now in St. Petersburg. 2. History of the Printed Text. 1. Complutensian and Erasmian Editions. For more than half a century after the invention of printing, the original text of the New Testament remained unpublished. The credit of first printing it belongs to Cardinal Ximenes de Cisneros, archbishop of Toledo, who made it vol. v of his Polyglot Bible (see [173]Bibles, Polyglot, I). The manuscripts depended upon were comparatively modern and of inferior value. Though the volume is dated June 10, 1514, the New Testament was not published before 1521 or 1522, and thus was preceded by the Greco-Latin New Testament of 1516, published by Froben of Basel, and edited by Erasmus, who used as the basis of his text, in the Gospels, an inferior Basel manuscript of the fifteenth century (cod. 2), and one of the thirteenth or fourteenth century in the Acts and Epistles (cod. 2). With these he collated more or less carefully one more manuscript of the Gospels (cod. 1), two in the Acts and Catholic Epistles (codd. 1 and 4), and three in the Pauline Epistles (codd. 1, 4, 7). The oldest of these (cod. 1, tenth century) has a good text in the Gospels; but Erasmus made very little use of it; the others are comparatively modern, and poor. For the Apocalypse he had only a single manuscript of the twelfth century, wanting the last six verses, which he translated into Greek from the Latin Vulgate. In various other places in the Apocalypse he followed the readings of the Vulgate in opposition to the Greek, as he did in a few cases elsewhere. The first edition of Erasmus was sped through the press with headlong haste (praecipitatum fuit verius quam editum, as Erasmus himself says) in order that the publisher, Froben, might get the start of the Complutensian. It consequently swarms with errors. A more correct edition was issued in 1519: Mill observed about four hundred changes in the text. For this and later editions, one additional manuscript (cod. 3) was used in the Gospels, Acts, and Epistles. In the third edition (1522) the changes were much fewer; but it is noted for the introduction of I John v, 7, from the Codex Montfortianus (sixteenth century). In the fourth edition (1527) the text was altered and improved in many places, particularly in Revelation, from the Complutensian Polyglot. That of the fifth (1535) and last (Erasmus died in 1536) hardly differs from the fourth. 2. Editions of Stephens and Beza. The next editions which call for notice are those of the great printer and scholar Robert Stephens (Estienne, Stephanus; see [174]Stephens), three published at Paris (1546, 1549, and 1550; the first two, in small 12mo, are known as the O mirificam editions, from the opening words of the preface, which is the same in both; the last, a magnificent folio, is called the editio regia), and one at Geneva (16mo, 1551), in which the present division into verses was first introduced into the Greek text (see below, [175]III, S: 3). The edition of 1550, notwithstanding its various readings in the margin from fifteen manuscripts and the Complutensian Polyglot, is mainly founded on the fourth or fifth edition of Erasmus. Scrivener has noted a hundred and nineteen places in which it differs from all of the manuscripts used. The text of the edition of 1551 varies but slightly from that of 1550. The four folio editions of Theodore Beza (Geneva, 1565, 1582, 1588 or 1589, and 1598), as well as his five 8vo editions (1565, 1567, 1580, 1590, 1604) follow, for the most part, Stephens's editions of 1550 or 1551, with changes here and there, many of which are not improvements. Stephens's edition of 1551 is commonly spoken of in England as the textus receptus; but on the Continent the first Elzevir edition, printed at Leyden in 1624, has generally received that designation. The expression is borrowed from the preface to the second Elzevir edition (1633), in which occur the words, Textum ergo habes, nunc ab omnibus receptum. The text of the seven Elzevir editions (1624, 1633, 1641, Leyden; 1656, 1662, 1670, 1678, Amsterdam), among which there are a few slight differences, is made up almost wholly from Beza's smaller editions of 1565 and 1580; its editor is unknown. The textus receptus, slavishly followed, with slight diversities, in hundreds of editions, and substantially represented in all the principal modern Protestant translations prior to the nineteenth century, thus resolves itself essentially into that of the last edition of Erasmus, framed from a few modern and inferior manuscripts and the Complutensian Polyglot, in the infancy of Biblical criticism. In more than twenty places its reading is supported by the authority of no known Greek manuscript. 3. Editions between 1657 and 1830. The editions from 1657 to 1830, with the exception of that of Griesbach (see below, [176]S: 3), are important, as regards the text, mainly for their accumulation of critical materials. In Walton's Polyglot (London, 1657; see [177]Bibles, Polyglot, IV), Stephens's Greek text of 1550 was accompanied by the Vulgate, Peshito-Syriac, Ethiopic, Arabic, and, in parts of the New Testament, other ancient versions, with a critical apparatus including the readings of Codd. A, D[1], D[2], Stephens's margin, and eleven cursive manuscripts collated by or for Archbishop Ussher. In Bishop Fell's edition (Oxford, 1675), which reproduces substantially the Elzevir text, other authorities, including readings of the Coptic and Gothic versions, are given in the notes, though the title page (ex plus 100 MSS. codicibus), is very misleading. The edition of John Mill (Oxford, 1707, fol.; improved and enlarged by Ludolph Kuster, Amsterdam, Leipsic, and Rotterdam, 1710), the work of thirty years, marks an epoch in the history of textual criticism by its vast additions to the store of critical material through the collation of the new manuscripts, the collection of readings from the ancient versions, and especially from the quotations found in the writings of the Christian Fathers, and by its very learned and valuable prolegomena. Mill gave his judgment on many readings in his notes and prolegomena, but did not venture to form a text of his own, reprinting Stephens's text of 1550 without intentional variation. The projected edition of the Greek Testament and Latin Vulgate in parallel columns, by the illustrious critic [178]Richard Bentley deserves a brief notice. Proposals for printing were issued in 1720, and a large amount of materials was collected at great expense, including a collation of cod. B (published by Ford in 1799); but the work was never completed. It was to have been founded on the oldest Greek and Latin manuscripts compared with the principal ancient versions and the quotations in the Fathers of the first five centuries. (Cf. A. A. Ellis, Bentleii critica sacra, Cambridge, 1862; R. C. Jebb, Bentley, London, 1882.) The edition of [179]Johann Albrecht Bengel (Tuebingen, 1734, 4to), while it had the advantage of some new manuscripts, was specially valuable for its discussions and illustrations of the principles of criticism, and its classification of manuscripts; but, except in the Apocalypse, Bengel did not venture to introduce any reading, even though he believed it unquestionably genuine, which had not previously appeared in some printed edition. His judgment of the value of different readings was, however, given in the margin (cf. E. Nestle, Bengel als Gelehrter, Tuebingen, 1893, pp. 39 sqq.). The magnificent edition of [180]Johann Jakob Wetstein (2 vols. fol., Amsterdam, 1751-52), the work of forty years, greatly enlarged the store of critical material by extensive collation of manuscripts and researches into the quotations of the Fathers, and by his description of this material in very valuable and copious prolegomena (reprinted, with additions by Semler, Halle, 1764). He gives also the readings of the chief printed editions which preceded him, and describes them fully. He introduced the present method of denoting the uncial manuscripts by Roman capitals, and the cursives and lectionaries by Arabic figures. Besides the critical matter, Wetstein's edition is a thesaurus of quotations from Greek, Latin, and Rabbinical authors, illustrating the phraseology of the New Testament, or containing passages more or less parallel in sentiment. His publisher insisted on his reprinting the textus receptus (substantially that of the Elzevirs); but he gives his critical judgment in the margin and the notes. Other editions to be briefly mentioned are those of F. C. Alter (Vienna, 1786-87), giving the readings of twenty-two Vienna manuscripts and of four manuscripts of the Slavonic version; of Andrew Birch (Quatuor Evangelia Graece, Copenhagen, 1788, 4to, and Variae lectiones, 1798, 1800, 1801), exhibiting the readings of many manuscripts collated in the libraries of Italy, Spain, and Germany, by himself and others; and of C. F. Matthaei (Novum Testamentum Graece et Latine [the Vulgate], 12 vols., 8vo, Riga, 1782-88; also Novum Testamentum Graece, 3 vols., 8vo, Wittenberg, etc., 1803-07), for which over a hundred manuscripts were used, mostly from the library of the Holy Synod at Moscow. Matthaei was a careful collator, but a very poor critic; and his manuscripts generally were of inferior quality. 4. Griesbach and his Followers. The first edition of [181]Johann Jacob Griesbach was published in 1774-75 (the first three Gospels in synopsis); but it was only in the second edition (2 vols., 8vo, Halle, 1796-1806) that be first made really good use of the materials gathered by his predecessors, and augmented by his own collections. A manual edition was issued at Leipsic in 1805, the text of which, differing somewhat from that of the larger edition, expresses his later critical judgment. Following in the track of Bengel and Semler, Griesbach sought to simplify the process of criticism by classifying his manuscripts and other authorities. He made three classes or recensions--the Alexandrian, the Western, and the Constantinopolitan or Byzantine--to the latter of which the mass of later and inferior manuscripts belongs. Though his system is not now accepted in its details, much truth lay at the bottom of it. His principles of criticism were sound; and in his application of them he displayed rare tact and skill. In 1827 a third edition of the first volume of his Greek Testament was published, with important additions, under the editorship of Dr. David Schulz. Griesbach's Symbolae criticae (Halle, 1785-93), and Commentarius criticus on Matthew and Mark, parts i, ii, with Meletemata critica prefixed to part ii, Jena, 1798, 1811, are still valuable. A number of manual editions founded on that of Griesbach, but inclining more to the textus receptus, as those of H. A. Schott (Leipsic, 1805,1813, 1825,1839), with a good Latin translation; G. C. Knapp (Halle, 1797, 1813, 1824, 1829, 1840), with a useful Commentatio isagogica, or introduction, and carefully punctuated and divided; J. A. H. Tittmann (ster., Leipsic, 1820, 1828, 16mo; 1824, 1831, 8vo); A. Hahn (Leipsic, 1840, 1841, revised ed. 1861; reprinted at New York, 1842, by Edward Robinson); K. G. W. Theile (ster., Leipsic, 1844, 11th ed. 1875, by O. von Gebhardt), with the variations of the chief modern editors, parallel passages, etc.; also S. T. Bloomfield's Greek Testament with English Notes (London, 1832, 9th ed., 1855, 2 vols., 8vo), mark no progress in criticism beyond Griesbach, but rather a retrograde movement. The same is true of the large edition of the Catholic scholar J. M. A. Scholz (2 vols., 4to, Leipsic, 1830-1836), whose extensive travels and researches in libraries enabled him to add a very large number of new manuscripts (according to Scrivener, 616) to the list of those previously known. But of these only thirteen were collated entire; a few others in the greater part; many in only a few chapters; many more simply inspected, or only enrolled in the list. Scholz was a poor critic, and as an editor and collator incredibly careless. He divided his manuscripts into two classes or recensions--the Alexandrian and the Constantinopolitan, giving the preference to the latter. But in applying his system, he was happily inconsistent, particularly in his second volume, and at a later period of his life (1845) abandoned it. His edition met with no favor from intelligent scholars; but in England, where Biblical criticism was at its lowest ebb, it was welcomed and praised by many, and its text reprinted. 5. Lachmann. A new period in the history of textual criticism was inaugurated by the appearance (Berlin 1831) of a small edition of the Greek Testament by the distinguished classical scholar [182]Carl Lachmann, followed by a larger edition, in which the authorities for the Greek text were supplied by Philipp Buttmann, with the Latin Vulgate in the lower margin, critically edited from codd. Fuldensis, Amiatinus, and other manuscripts (2 vols., 8vo, Berlin, 1842-50). Lachmann's aim in these editions was not to reproduce the original text according to his best judgment (for this he deemed conjectural criticism to be necessary in some cases), but to present as far as possible on purely documentary evidence the text current in the Eastern churches in the fourth century as a basis for criticism. He paid no attention to the textus receptus, and used no cursive manuscripts, but founded his text wholly on ancient authorities; viz., codd. A B C D P Q T Z of the Gospels, A B C D E in the Acts and Catholic Epistles, A B C D G in the Pauline Epistles, and A B C in the Apocalypse, with the Latin Vulgate, and codd. a (Vercellensis, fourth century), b (Veronensis, fifth century), and c (Colbertinus, eleventh century) of the Old Latin, for the Gospels, besides the Latin versions of the Greco-Latin manuscripts in the above list; of the Fathers he used Irenaeus, Cyprian, Hilary of Poitiers, Lucifer of Cagliari, and, in the Apocalypse, Primasius. His attempted task was not fully accomplished, partly because the text of some of the most important manuscripts which he used (B C P Q, and the Latin Codex Amiatinus) had been but very imperfectly collated or edited, partly because the range of his authorities was too narrow, and partly because he was sometimes, apparently at least, inconsistent in the application of his principles. But he was the first to found a test wholly on ancient evidence (Griesbach disregarded what he deemed unimportant variations from the received text); and his editions, to which his eminent reputation as a critic gave wide currency especially in Germany, did much toward breaking down the superstitious reverence for the textus receptus which had long prevailed. 6. Tischendorf. Next to be noted are the editions of Tischendorf and Tregelles. Through their combined labors we have a solid basis for a completely critical edition of the Greek Testament in the accurate knowledge, not possessed before, of all manuscripts of the oldest class (not including lectionaries), comprising many newly discovered, among them the Sinaitic of the fourth century. [183]Lobegott Friedrich Constantin Tischendorf spent about eight years of his life in travels in search of manuscripts (for which he visited the East three times--in 1844, 1853, and 1859), or in collating with extreme care or transcribing and preparing for publication the most important of those in the various libraries of Europe which were before known, but had not been published or thoroughly examined. The following uncial Greek manuscripts (see the list above) were discovered by Tischendorf: ' G[2] I N[2] O[2] T^b.d G Th^a-d L P; first used by him: F^a I^b N[1] O^b-f O^b[2] P[2] Q[2] R[1.2] T^a.c W^b-e Th^e-h; published: ' B[1.2] C D[2] E[2] F^a I I^b L[1] M[2] N[1] O^a P[1.2] Q[1] R[1] W^a.c Y Th^a; (cf. C. R. Gregory's Prolegomena to Tischendorf's Novum Testamentum Graece, ed. viii, i, Leipsic, 1884, p. 31). His editions of the texts of Biblical manuscripts (including some of the Septuagint) comprise no less than seventeen large quarto and five folio volumes, not including the Anecdota sacra et profana (1855, new ed. 1861), or the Notitia editionis Codicis Sinaitici (1860), two quarto volumes containing descriptions or collations of many new manuscripts; and many of his collations, or copies of manuscripts, remain unpublished. The titles of Tischendorf's various writings, most of them relating to Biblical criticism, fill pages 7-22 of Gregory's Prolegomena. His first edition of the Greek Testament (Leipsic, 1841) was promising as a first essay, but of no special importance except for the refutation, in the prolegomena, of Scholz's theory of recensions. In the Editio Lipsiana secunda (1849) the critical apparatus was much enlarged, and the text settled on the basis of ancient authority, generally with good judgment. In 1859 appeared the Editio septima critica maior (2 vols.), in which very large additions were made to the critical apparatus, not only from manuscripts, Greek and Latin, but from the quotations in the writings of the Christian Fathers, and the evidence was for the first time fully stated, both for and against the readings adopted. In the first volume, Tischendorf, influenced perhaps by Scrivener, showed a tendency to allow greater weight to the later uncials and cursives than he had done in his edition of 1849; but he soon found that he was on the wrong track; and on the whole, if orthographical changes are included, his edition of 1859 differs more widely from the textus receptus than that of 1849. Its publication was immediately followed by Tischendorf's third journey to the East, and the discovery of the great Sinaitic manuscript, together with the acquisition of much other new critical material. After the publication of the Codex Sinaiticus in 1862, in a magnificent edition of four volumes folio, in facsimile type, with twenty-one plates of actual facsimiles, at the expense of the Russian Government, the edition being limited to three hundred copies, he issued in 1863, in 4to, his Novum Testamentum Sinaiticum, in ordinary type, but representing the manuscript line for line, with full prolegomena; and his Novum Testamentum Graece ex Sinaitico Codice, Vaticana itemque Elzeviriana lectione notata, in 1865, 8vo, with a supplement of additions and corrections in 1870. After some other publications, particularly the second edition of his Synopsis evangelica in 1864, in which the Sinaitic manuscript was first used, he undertook his last great critical edition of the Greek New Testament, Novum Testamentum Graece, editio octava critica maior (issued in eleven parts, i, Leipsic, Oct., 1864, xi, at the end of 1872; collected into two volumes, 8vo, 1869-72). This edition far surpassed all that had preceded it in the richness of its critical apparatus, and, as compared with that of 1859, rests much more on the authority of the oldest manuscripts, particularly the Sinaitic. The preparation of the prolegomena by Tischendorf himself was prevented by his sudden illness and subsequent death, and was entrusted to an American scholar residing in Leipsic, [184]Caspar Rene Gregory, who had also the valuable assistance of [185]Ezra Abbot. In the interest of the work Dr. Gregory made special journeys through Europe and into the Orient, and was thus enabled to give first-hand descriptions and collations of many manuscripts. It was published in three parts at Leipsic, 1884-94. Besides the works mentioned, the most important publications of Tischendorf pertaining to the textual criticism of the New Testament are: Codex Ephraemi Syri rescriptus (1843, 4to; Old Testament part, 1845); Monumenta sacra inedita (1846, 4to); Evangelium ineditum (1847, 4to); Codex Amiatinus (Vulgate; 1850, new ed.1854); Codex Claromontanus (1852, 4to); Monumenta sacra inedita, nova collectio, vols. i-vi, ix (1855-70, 4to); Novum Testamentum Vaticanum and Appendix Novi Testamenti Vaticani (1867-69, 4to); cf. Responsa ad columnias Romanas (1870, 8vo), also Appendix codicum celeberrimorum, Sinaitici, Vaticani, Alexandrini (1867, 4to); Die Sinaibibel, ihre Entdeckung, Herausgabe, und Erwerbung (1871, large 8vo). His Novum Testamentum triglottum, Graece, Latine, Germanice (Leipsic, 1854, 2d ed., 1865) is a convenient book, the three parts of which were also issued separately, and in various combinations. The Greek is his own text, with the variations of the textus receptus; the Latin, the Vulgate critically revised from the oldest manuscripts, with the variations of the Clementine edition; the German the genuine text of Luther, though in modern orthography. Tischendorf also issued many manual editions of the Greek Testament, the three latest in his lifetime being published in 1875 by Tauchnitz, Brockhaus (to match his edition of the Septuagint), and Mendelssohn (Editio academica septima), respectively. His large editions of 1859 and 1869-72 were issued with the critical apparatus greatly abridged, but giving the chief authorities for all the important various readings, with the titles Editio septima critica minor (1859) and Editio octava critica minor (1872-77). 7. Tregelles. [186]Samuel Prideaux Tregelles ranks next to Tischendorf in the importance of his critical labors, and in single-hearted devotion to his chosen task. In 1848 he issued a Prospectus for a critical edition of the Greek Testament, the text of which was to be founded solely on the authority of the oldest Greek manuscripts, the ancient versions to the seventh century, and the citations of early writers, including Eusebius. No account was made of the "received text," or of the great mass of cursive manuscripts. Completeness and accuracy in the exhibition of the evidence of the witnesses used were especially aimed at. Like Tischendorf, Tregelles visited (in 1845-46, 1849-50, and 1862) the principal libraries in Europe for the purpose of collating manuscripts the text of which had not before been published. These were the uncials B[2] D[2] E[1] F[2] G[1] H[1.2] I^b K[1] L[2] M[1.2] R[1] U X Z G L, the cursives 1, 13, 17, 31, 37, 47, 61, 69, and also Codex Zacynthius (X). In many cases Tregelles compared his collations with those of Tischendorf, and settled the differences by a reexamination of the manuscript. In 1861 he edited the Codex Zacynthius (X), republishing in an appendix the fragments of O. His edition of The Greek New Testament, Edited from Ancient Authorities, with their Various Readings in Full, and the Latin Version of Jerome, was issued in London in seven successive parts: i, Matthew, Mark, 1857; ii, Luke, John, 1861; iii, Acts and Catholic Epistles, 1865; iv, Romans to II Thessalonians (iii, 3), 1869; v, Hebrews (with II Thess. iii, 3-18) to Philemon, 1870; vi, Revelation, 1872. Part vii, Prolegomena and Addenda and Corrigenda, appeared in 1879, four years after his death, edited by Dr. Hort and A. W. Streane. Though Tregelles added far less than Tischendorf to our store of critical material, he did more to establish correct principles of criticism, and his various writings had a wide and most beneficial influence in England. He also published, in 1854, An Account of the Printed Text of the Greek New Testament, with Remarks on its Revision upon Critical Principles, and, in 1856, Introduction to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament, forming part of vol. iv of the tenth and later editions of Horne's Introduction. This volume was also issued separately, and in the eleventh edition of Horne's Introduction (1861) appeared with "Additions" and a "Postscript." 8. Westcott and Hort. In 1881 appeared The New Testament in the Original Greek. The Text Revised by Brooke Foss Westcott . . . and Fenton John Anthony Hort (Cambridge and London). The American edition (New York) has a valuable introduction by Philip Schaff, with the cooperation of Ezra Abbot. Dr. Schaff also prepared a compact manual of New Testament criticism, A Companion to the Greek Testament and the English Version (New York, 1883), which embodies the substance of this introduction, thoroughly revised. The teat of Westcott and Hort is accompanied by an Introduction and Appendix (1882) in which the authors discuss the need of criticism for the text of the New Testament, the methods of textual criticism, the application of its principles to the text, the nature and details of their edition, and add notes on select readings and orthography, with orthographical alternative readings, and quotations from the Old Testament. In 1895 the text appeared in larger form, and, in 1896, the Introduction in finally revised form. This edition is not accompanied with any critical apparatus; it rather was the object of the authors, by a careful study of the materials furnished by their predecessors, augmented somewhat, however, by their own researches, to trace the history of the text as far as possible; to distinguish its different types, and determine their relations and their comparative value; to investigate the special characteristics of the most important documents and groups of documents; and, finally, to apply the principles of criticism which result from these studies to the determination of the original text. Their view of the genealogical relations of the chief ancient texts excited strong opposition in certain quarters, but their work was recognized as the most important contribution to the scientific criticism of the New Testament text which had yet been made. They distinguish four principal types of text: the Western, characterized by a tendency to paraphrase or to modify the form of expression, and also to interpolate from parallel passages or from extraneous sources, represented especially by D and the Old Latin versions, also in part by the Curetonian Syriac; the neutral represented by B and largely by ', preserving best the original form; the Alexandrian, much purer than the Western, but betraying a tendency to polish the language; and the Syrian, the latest form, a mixed text, borrowing from all, and aiming to be easy, smooth, and complete. They regard B as preeminent above all other manuscripts for the purity of its text; the readings of ' and B combined as generally deserving acceptance as genuine, their ancestries having "diverged from a point near the autographs"; and they attach great weight to every combination of B with another primary Greek manuscript, as L C T D X A Z 33, and, in Mark, D. Westcott and Hort (see [187]Westcott, Brooke Foss; [188]Hort, Fenton John Anthony) began their work in 1853. Their method of cooperation was first independent study, then comparison. The Introduction is chiefly the work of Dr. Hort, whose name is one of the greatest in the history of text-criticism. He carried into the study of the text a large knowledge of church history and patristic theology, and it was this breadth of historical knowledge which made the Introduction the great work it is. The genealogical theory, suggested by Bengel and elaborated by later scholars, was here worked into a truly monumental form. A thorough acquaintance with this book is necessary to the student if he would have a clear insight of the deepest tendencies in the text studies of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries or an understanding of the course taken by text-study in the present. Conscious agreement with it or conscious disagreement and qualification mark all work in this field since 1881. 9. Other Critics of the Text. Of the many other scholars whose labors have aided in the establishment of the text of the Greek New Testament, the Anglican scholar [189]Frederick Henry Ambrose Scrivener deserves mention especially for his editions and collation of manuscripts. His Plain Introduction of to the Criticism of the New Testament (Cambridge, 1861; 4th ed., by E. Miller, 2 vols., London, 1894) is a standard work. Scrivener was an able defender of the later manuscripts as witnesses to the original text against Tischendorf, Tregelles, and Westcott and Hort. In this contention he had the doughty support of [190]John William Burgon in The Revision Revised (London, 1883). Among Americans, Ezra Abbot and Joseph Henry Thayer; among Hollanders, W. C. Van Manen, J. Cramer, and J. J. Prins; among Frenchmen, P. Batiffol, J. P. P. Martin, and E. Amelineau; among Italians, Angelo Mai, Carlo Vercellone, and J. Cozza; and among Germans, F. Blass, E. Nestle, B. Weiss, E. Riggenbach, and O. von Gebhardt have made important contributions to textual criticism. 10. More Recent Tendencies. When Westcott and Hort published their text in 1881 and when, in 1882, Hort's masterpiece on introduction followed, there was a disposition in some quarters to believe that New Testament scholarship had come somewhere near a critical textus receptus. The genealogical theory first broached by Bengel seemed, after a century and a half of toil, to have led the student into a definite path which would surely lead to a final goal. But significant changes, in feeling if not in opinion, are beginning to manifest themselves. Westcott and Hort mark a main epoch in text study. More clearly than their predecessors, they showed that the study of the text was inseparable from the study of church history. But the hypothesis which Hort so powerfully worked out has to some extent wrought its own undoing. The lines of study that it suggested have brought to light so many new facts and so many serious problems that the tone of certitude at one time in fashion has passed away. To Scrivener's description of Westcott and Hort's text as a splendidum peccatum few will assent. Yet, beyond question, the situation has materially changed. The "Western Text" or, to call it by a safer name, the "Syro-Western Text," which Westcott and Hort took to be a fairly well delineated fact, has become an imperious problem. The genealogical theory has fulfilled the chief function of a good working hypothesis by introducing order into chaos and pointing to the promising lines of attack upon the vast body of data awaiting the student. But genealogical certitude has declined. With its decline has come a growing disposition to concede to exegesis a certain right against the overweening authority of any group of manuscripts, however imposing. The good text-critic should also be an accomplished exegete. In Barnnard Weiss the two qualities are in a measure blended. Hence, at a critical point like Rom. v. 1, the exegete in him goes against the authority of A B C D E K L, Vulgate, Peshito, etc., and adopts echomen instead of echomen. Monumental work is not at present the order of the day. The searching investigations of the versions, the detailed and comprehensive study of patriotic quotations, larger and clearer knowledge of the mental conditions under which an entire group of texts are likely to have undergone perceptible, even if inconsiderable, changes--in a word, a vast amount of labor lies ahead. The doing of it will require a very considerable time. Meanwhile the confidence and finality of a quarter-century ago are to be replaced by a restrained skepticism. 3. Principles of Textual Criticism: 1. The Basal Rule. It is impossible, within the limits here allowed, to state and illustrate the principles of criticism applicable to the text of the Greek Testament. A few hints may, however, be given. The object, of course, is to ascertain which, among two or more variations of the text presented by our manuscripts or other authorities, is the original. No kind of evidence, external or internal, is to be neglected. The problem is to be solved by a process of reasoning upon probabilities; and what has to be considered, in every case, is which hypothesis will best explain all the phenomena. This fact is sometimes partially stated under the form of the rule that that reading is to be accepted as genuine which will best explain the origin of the other variations. This is an important rule; but there must be taken into account not merely the nature of the variations, but the number, independence, and character of the witnesses that support them. The process of criticism is not a mechanical one. Authorities must be weighed, not counted. One good, very early manuscript may be worth more than a thousand copies derived from a late and corrupted archetype. Again, though the presumption is in favor of the oldest manuscripts, mere antiquity does not prove the excellence of a copy. 2. Other Canons. One of the essential prerequisites to intelligent criticism is a thorough study of the occasions of error in manuscripts. This involves a knowledge of paleography and of the history of pronunciation. The similarity of certain letters or abbreviations in their older forms gave occasion to errors which can be only thus explained; and in the corruption of the Greek language, vowels and diphthongs originally distinct in sound were pronounced alike (itacism). A study of the tendencies and habits of transcribers is also involved. Many manuscripts, in the alterations they have received from later hands, illustrate the manner in which the text was corrupted. Among the maxima resulting from such a study, in connection with the consideration of external testimony, are these: (1) The more difficult reading is to be preferred (Bengel's great rule). This applies to those variations which are to be ascribed to design. Transcribers would not intentionally substitute a harsh, ungrammatical, unusual, Hebraistic expression, one that caused a difficulty of any kind, for an easier one. (2) The shorter reading is to be preferred (Porson's "surest canon of criticism"). The tendency of scribes was almost always to add, rather than to omit. They did not like to have their copies regarded as incomplete. It was common to insert in the margin of manuscripts, or between the lines, glosses; or explanations of unusual or difficult expressions, also words or clauses which served to supplement the language of one Gospel from the parallel or similar passages in another, or to complete abridged quotations of the Old Testament from the fuller text of the Septuagint. Words accidentally omitted were also placed in the margin, or between the lines. A transcriber might thus easily mistake these glosses, or supplements, of his predecessor for accidental omissions and transfer them to his text. This rule does not apply to cases where an omission can be satisfactorily explained by homoeoteleuton; that is, cases where two successive sentences or parts of sentences have a like ending. The scribe copies the first of these, then his eye glances to the like ending of the second, and he thinks that that is what he has just copied, and omits unconsciously the intervening words. Another prerequisite to successful criticism is a careful study of the principal documents and groups or classes of documents, in connection with the history of the text, so far as it can be traced, in order to determine by a process of comparative criticism their peculiar characteristics, their weak points and their strong points, and the relative antiquity and value of their texts. This process includes the ancient versions and the quotations in the writings of the principal Christian Fathers. It can not be here detailed. Griesbach did good work in this direction, and it has been the special study of Westcott and Hort. It is thus possible to weigh the external evidence in particular cases with some approach to accuracy. 4. Results of the Textual Criticism of the New Testament: The host of "various readings" which an examination of ancient manuscripts, versions, and quotations, has brought to light, perhaps a hundred and fifty thousand in number, alarms some simple-minded people. Analysis at once dispels the alarm. It is seen that a very large proportion of these readings, say nineteen-twentieths, are of no authority, no one can suppose them to be genuine; and nineteen-twentieths of the remainder are of no importance as affecting the sense. Of how much, or rather, of how little, importance, for the most part, the remainder are, can readily be seen by comparing the Revised Version of the New Testament (with its marginal notes) with the text of the Authorized Version, or by an examination of the various readings of the chief modern editors in Scrivener's Novum Testamentum textus Stephanici A.D. 1550 . . . accedunt variae lectiones (8th ed., Cambridge, 1877). The great number of various readings is simply the result of the extraordinary richness of critical resources, Westcott and Hort remark, with entire truth, that "in the variety and fulness of the evidence on which it rests, the text of the New Testament stands absolutely and unapproachably alone among ancient prose-writings." Bibliography: On the paleography of the N. T.: S. P. Tregelles, An Account of the Printed Text of the Greek New Testament; with Remarks on its Revision upon Critical Principles, together with a Collation of the Critical Texts of Griesbach, Scholz, Lachmann, and Tischendorf, with that in Common Use, London, 1854; E. A. Bond and E. M. Thompson, Facsimiles of Ancient MSS, ib. 1873-82; W. Wattenbach, Anleitung zur griechischen Palaeographie, Leipsic, 1877; idem, Schrifttafeln zur Geschichte der griechischen Schrift, 2 parts, Berlin, 1876-77; idem and F. A. von Welsen, Exempla codicum Graecorum litteris minusculis scriptorum, Heidelberg, 1878; idem, Scripturae Gracae specimina, Berlin, 1883; N. Gardthausen, Griechische Palaeographie, Leipsic, 1879; J. R. Harris, New Testament Autographs, in supplement to AJP, no. 12, 1882; idem, Stichometry, New York, 1893; T. W. Allen, Notes on Abbreviations in Greek MSS, with Facsimiles, Oxford, 1889; F. Blass, Palaeographie, in Handbuch der klassischen Alterthumswrissenschaft, vol. i, Munich. 1892; W. A. Copinger, The Bible and its Transmission, London, 1897; F. G. Kenyon, Our Bible and the Ancient MSS, ib. 1897; idem, Bible Manuscripts in the British Museum, Facsimiles, ib. 1901; C. F. Sitterly, Praxis in Greek MSS of the N. T. The mechanical and literary Processes involved in their Writing and Preservation, New York, 1898; R. Proctor, The Printing of Greek in the Fifteenth Century, no. 8 of Illustrated Monographs, issued by the Bibliographical Society, London, 1900; DB, iv, 944-957. For the old printers consult--on Christopher Plantin: M. Rooses, Christopher Plantin, imprimeur Anvernois, Antwerp, 1884; idem, Christopher Plantin, Correspondance, Ghent, 1886; T. L. de Vinne, Christopher Plantin and the Plantin-Moretus Museum at Antwerp, New York, 1885; L. Degeorge, La Maison Plantin `a Anvers, Paris, 1886. On the Stephens: G. A. Crapelet, Robert Estienne, imprimeur royal, Paris, 1839; A. A. Renouard, Annales de l'imprimerie des Estienne ib. 1843; L. Feugere, Essai sur la vie et les ouvrages de Henri Estienne, ib. 1853. On the Elzevirs: C. Pieters, Annales de l'imprimerie Elsevirienne, Ghent, 1860; A Willems, Les Elzevier: histoire et annales typographiques, Brussels, 1880. Late critical editions are C. Tischendorf, Novum Testamentum Graece, ed. 8. critica major, Leipsic, 1864-72; Prolegomena, by C. R. Gregory, ib. 1884-94, small ed. of text of 8. ed., with selections of readings, ib. 1878; F. H. A. Scrivener and E. Palmer, The Greek Testament with the headings adopted by the Revisers of the Authorized Version, Oxford, 1882; B. F. Westcott and F. J. A. Hort, N. T. in the Original Greek, Am. ed. with introduction by P. Schaff, 3d ed., New York, 1883; W. Sanday, Lloyd's ed. of Mill's Text with Parallel References, Eusebian Canons . . . and three Appendices (published separately, containing variants of Westcott and Hort, and a selection of important readings with authorities, together with readings from Oriental versions, Memphitic, Armenian, and Ethiopic), Oxford, 1889; O, von Gebhardt, Novum Testamentum (with variants of Tregelles and Westcott and Hort), 6th ed., Leipsic, 1894; B. Weiss, Das Neue Testament, Textkritische Untersuchungen and Textherstellung, ib. 1894-1900; F. Blass, Acta Apostolorum sive Lucae ad Theophilum liber alter secundum formam quae videtur Romanam, ib. 1896; idem, Evangelium secundum Lucam sive Lucae ad Theophilum liber prior secundum formam quae videtur Romanam, ib. 1897; E. Nestle, Testamentum Novum Graece cum apparatu critico, Stuttgart, 1898 (the use of editions with the MS. variants will still be required); Novum Testamentum Graecum, editio Stutgardiana, ib. 1898 (based on collation of Tischendorf, Westcott and Hort, Weymouth, and Weiss; contains for the Gospels and Acts a selection of MS. readings, chiefly from Codex Bezae). Treatises on various phases of the history of N. T. textual criticism are: F. H. A. Scrivener, A Full and Exact Collation of about twenty Greek MSS of the Holy Gospels (hitherto unexamined) . . . in the British Museum the Archiepiscopal Library at Lambeth, . . . with a critical Introduction, Cambridge, 1853; idem, A Plain Introduction to the Criticism of the New Testament, 4th ed., by E. Miller, London, 1894 (conservative); O. T. Dobbin, The Codex Montfortianno, ib. 1854; F. W. A. Baethgen, Der griechische Text des Cureton'schen Syrers, Leipsic, 1885; J. R. Harris, The Origin of the Leicester Codex of the N. T., London, 1887; U. J. M. Bebb, Evidence of the Early Versions and Patristic Quotations on the Text of . . . the N. T., in Studia Biblica, ii, Oxford, 1890; H. C. Hoskier, A Full Account and Collation of the Greek Cursive Codex Evang. 504, London, 1890 (contains in Appendix C, A full and exact comparison of the Elzevir Editions of 1624 and 1635); G. H. Gwilliam, The Material for the Criticism of the Peshitto N. T., in Studia Biblica, iii, 47-104, Oxford, 1891; F. H. Chase, The Old Syriac Element in the Text of Codex Bezae, London, 1893; Mrs. A. S. Lewis, The Four Gospels translated from the Syriac Palimpsest, ib. 1894; R. C. Bensley, J. R. Harris, and F. C. Burkitt, The Four Gospels in Syriac transcribed from the Syriac Palimpsest, Cambridge, 1894; G. N. Bonwetsch and H. Achelis, Die christlichen grischischen Schriftsteller vor Eusebius, Berlin, 1897; E. Miller, The Present State of the Textual Controversy respecting the Holy Gospels, London, 1899 (conservative); idem The Textual Controversy and the Twentieth Century, ib. 1901; G. Salmon, Some Thoughts on the Textual Criticism of the N. T., ib. 1897; M. R. Vincent, A Hist. of the Textual Criticism of the N. T., New York, 1899; K. Lake, The Text of the N. T., London, 1900; F. G. Kenyon, Handbook to Textual Criticism of the N. T., ib. 1901; idem, Evidence of Greek Papyri with Regard to Textual Criticism, ib. 1905. On the Revisers' text consult W. M. Sanday in Expositor, 1881. The principles of textual criticism are discussed at length in Hort's Introduction to Westcott and Hort's Greek Testament, London, 1881, where also is found the most elaborate discussion of the Sinaitic and Vatican MSS. On the Sinaitic MS. consult also F. H. A. Scrivener, Collation of the Codex Sinaiticus, 3d ed., London, 1867; C. Tischendorf, Die Anfechtungen der Sinaibibel, Leipsic, 1883; idem, Die Sinaibibel, ihre Entdeckung, Herausgabe und Erwerbung, ib. 1871; idem, Waffen der Finsterniss wider die Sinaibibel, ib. 1863. Convenient manuals are: E. Nestle, Einfuehrung in das griechische Neue Testament, Goettingen, 1897. A valuable collection of editions of the Greek Testament, mostly amassed by the late Dr. Isaac H. Hall, is in the library of Union Theological Seminary, New York. During the last three years considerable discussion has been aroused on the subject of the text, to which the following are the most important contributions: For 1902: J. M. Bebb, in DB, iv, 848-855, 860-864; F. Blass, Evangelium secundum Johannem cum variae lectionis delectu, Leipsic; F. C. Burkitt, The Date of Codex Bezae, in JTS, vol. iii; F. C. Conybeare, Three Early Doctrinal Modifications of the Text of the Gospels, in Hibbert Journal, i, 96-113; M. D. Gibson, Four remarkable Sinai MSS, in Expository Times, xiii, 509-511; S. K. Gifford, Pauli epistolas qua forma legerit Joannes Chrysostomus, Halle; E. J. Goodspeed, The Haskell Gospels, in JBL, xxi, 100-107; C. R. Gregory, Textkritik des N. T., vol. ii, Leipsic; C. E. Hammond, Outlines of Textual Criticism applied to the N. T., Oxford; J. R. Harris, A curious Bezan reading vindicated, in Expositor, pp. 189-195; idem, On a Recent Emendation in the Text of St. Peter, ib., pp. 317-320; idem, The History of a Conjectural Emendation (ib., pp. 378-390); A. Hjelt, Die altsyrische Evangelienuebersetzung und Tatians Diatessaron, in T. Zahn's Forsehungen, viii, 1, Leipsic; K. Lake, Codex 1 of the Gospels and its Allies, Cambridge; idem, Texts from Mount Athos, in Studia Biblica, vol. v, part 2, pp. 89-185, London; A. S. Lewis, Studia Sinaitica XI. Apocrypha Syriaca, London; G. R. S. Mead, The Gospels and the Gospel. Study in most recent Results of lower and higher Criticism, London; A. Merx, Die vier kanonischen Evangelien nach ihrem aeltesten becannten Texte. Uebersetzung und Erlaeuterung der syrischen im Sinaikloster gerfundenen Palimpsesthandschriften, part 2: Erlaeuterungen, 1st half: Matthaeus, Berlin; E. Nestle, The Greek Testament, with Introduction and Appendix on irregular Verbs, by R. E. Weidner, New York; idem, in DB iv, 645-652, 732-741; H. von Soden, Die Schriften des N. T. in ihrer aeltesten erreichbaren Textgestalt, vol. i, part 1, Berlin; B. Weiss, Das Neue Testament, 3 vols., Leipsic; H. J. White, in DB, iv, 873-890. For 1903: L. Blau, Ueber den Einfluss des althebraeischen Buchwesens auf die Originale und auf die aeltesten Handschriften der LXX, des N. T. und der Hexapla, Berlin; F. C. Burkitt, On Codex Claromonianus, in JTS, iv, 587-588; idem, The Syriac Interpretation of John xiii, 4, in JTS, iv, 436-438; idem, in EB, iv, 4981-5012; idem, Further Notes on Codex k, in JTS, v, 100-107; W. E. Crum, Coptic Ostraka from the Collection of the Egypt Exploration Fund, the Cairo Museum, and others, London; M. D. Gibson, Four Remarkable Sinai Manuscripts, in Expository Times, xiii, 509-511; J. E. Gilmore, Manuscript Portions of three Coptic Lectionaries, in PSBA, xxiv, 186-191; G. H. Gwilliam, The Age of the Bodleian Syriac Codex Dawkins 3, in JTS, iii, 452 sq.; idem, Place of the Peshitto Version in the Apparatus criticus of the Greek N. T., in Studia Biblica, v, 3, pp. 187-237; K. Lake, Dr. Weiss', Text of the Gospels, in AJT, vii, 249-258; A. Schmidtke, Die Evangelien einer alten Unzialcodex, Leipsic; W. B. Smith, The Pauline Manuscripts F and G, in AJT, vii, 452-485, 662-688; C Taylor, The Pericope of the Adulteress, in JTS, iv, 129-130; B. Weiss, Die Perikopa von der Ehebrecherin, in ZWT, xlvi, 141-158; A. Wright, A Synopsis of the Gospels in Greek, 2d ed., London; O. Zoeckler, The Textual Question in Acts, transl. by A. Steimle, New Rochelle. For 1904: F. Blass, Ueber die Textkritik im N. T., Leipsic; F. C. Burkitt, Evangelion Da-Mepharreshe. The Curetonian Version of the four Gospels, with the Readings of the Sinai Palimpsest and the early Syriac patristic Evidance, 2 vols., Cambridge; Codex Veronensis . . . denuo ed. J. Belsheim, Prague; R. d'Onston, The Patristic Gospels. An English Version of the Holy Gospels as they existed in the second Century, London; J. T. Marshall, Remarkable Readings in the Epistles found in the Palestinian Syriac Lectionary; in JTS, v, 437-445; J. B. Mayor, Notes on the Text of ll Peter, in Expositor, pp. 284-293; idem, Notes on the Text of the Epistle of Jude, ib., pp. 450-460; J. O. F. Murray, Textual Criticism, in DB, extra vol., pp. 208-236; W. Sanday, The Present Greek Testaments of the Clarendon Press, in JTS, v, 279-280; A New Greek Testament, prepared by E. Nestle. Text with Critical Apparatus, London; Novum Testamentum . . . Latine secundum editionem sancti Hieronymi . . . recensuit J. Wordsworth--H. J. White, part ii, fasc. 2, Actus Apostolorum, Oxford; C. H. Turner, A Re-Collation of Codex k of the Old Latin Gospels, in JTS, v, 88-100. 1905: R. F. Weymouth, The Resultant Greek Text, with readings of Stephens (1550), Lachmann, Tregelles, Lightfoot, and (for the Pauline Epistles) Ellicott, also of Alford and Weiss for Matthew, the Basel ed., Westcott and Hort and Revisers, London, 1892, 3d ed., 1905. 1906: F. H. A. Scrivener, Novum Testamentum, Textus Stephanici, Variae Lectiones of Beza, the Elzevirs, Lachmann, Tischendorf, Tregelles, Westcott and Hort, and the Revisers, London, 1887, ed. E. Nestle, 1906; A. Deissmann, The New Biblical Papyri at Heidelberg, in Expository Times, pp. 248-254. The literature of the work which is being done may be found year by year in the Bibliographie der theologischen Literatur and in AJT. III. Chapter and Verse Divisions: 1. Chapter Divisions. The purpose of the present division into chapters and verses was to facilitate reference. These divisions sometimes, but not generally, ignore logical and natural divisions. Common opinion concerning chapter divisions attributes them to [191]Cardinal Hugo of Saint Cher for use in his concordance to the Latin Vulgate (c. 1240, first printed, with modification, at Bologna, 1479). This opinion rests on the direct testimony of Gilbert Genebrard (d. 1597), that "the scholastics who with Cardinal Hugo were authors of the concordance" made the division. Quetif and Echard, a century and a half later than Genebrard, ascribe to Hugo only the subdivision of the chapters presently to be mentioned. The better opinion is, that Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1228), made the chapter division to facilitate citation. Before the invention of printing it had already passed from Latin manuscripts to those of other tongues, and after the invention of printing it became general. It has undergone slight variations from the beginning to the present day. Many early printed Bibles, especially Greek Testaments, besides these chapters retain also the old breves or titloi noted in the margin (see above, [192]II, 1, S: 5). The chapters were at first subdivided into seven portions (not paragraphs), marked in the margin by the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, G, reference being made by the chapter-number and the letter under which the passage occurred. In the shorter Psalms, however, the division did not always extend to seven. In Ps. cxix it seems not to have been used at all. This division (except in the Psalms) was modified by Conrad of Halberstadt (c. 1290), who reduced the divisions of the shorter chapters from seven to four; so that the letters were always either A-G or A-D. This subdivision continued long after the introduction of the present verses, but in the seventeenth century was much modified, some chapters having more than four, and less than seven, subdivisions. 2. Verse Divisions, Old Testament. The present verses differ in origin for the Old Testament, New Testament, and Apocrypha. In the canonical Testament they appear in the oldest known manuscripts (see above, [193]I, 1, S: 7, [194]2, S: 2), though they were not used for citation by the Jews till the fifteenth century. The earlier printed Hebrew Bibles marked each fifth verse only with its Hebrew numeral. Arabic numerals were first added for the intervening verses by Joseph Athias, at Amsterdam, 1661, at the suggestion of Jan Leusden. The first portion of the Bible printed with the Masoretic verses numbered was the Psalterium Quincuplex of Faber Stapulensis, printed at Paris by Henry Stephens in 1509. In 1528 Sanctes Pagninus published at Lyons a new Latin version of the whole Bible with the Masoretic verses marked and numbered. He also divided the Apocrypha and New Testament into numbered verses; but these were three or four times as long as the present ones. 3. Verse Divisions, New Testament. The present New Testament verses were introduced by Robert Stephens in his Greco-Latin Testament of 1551 (see above, [195]II, 2, S: 2). Stephens says in his preface that the division is made to follow the most ancient Greek and Latin copies. But it will be difficult, if not impossible, to find any Greek or Latin manuscripts whose divisions coincide very nearly with Stephens's verses. Doubtless he made this division with reference to his concordance to the Vulgate, then preparing, published in 1555. This Latin concordance, like former ones, contains references to the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, G, and also to the numbers of the verses of each chapter "after the Hebrew method" of division. This latter, the preface states, has special reference to an operi pulcherrimo et praeclarissimo which he is now printing, which must mean his splendid Bible of 1556-57, 3 vols., containing the Vulgate, Pagninus, and the first edition of Beza's Latin New Testament. Meanwhile, for present convenience, he is issuing a more modest Bible (Vulgate), with the verses marked and numbered. This latter was his Vulgate of 1555 (Geneva)--the first whole Bible divided into the present verses, and the first in which they were introduced into the Apocrypha. The text is continuous, not having the verses in separate paragraphs, like the New Testament of 1551, but separated by a P: and the verse-number. The verse-division differs in only a very few places from that of 1551; and a comparison shows that the concordance agrees rather with the division of 1551 than with that of 1555. The statement so often made that the division was made "on horseback" while on a journey from Paris to Lyons must be qualified. His son asserts that the work was done while on the journey, but the inference most natural and best supported is that the task was accomplished while resting at the inns along the road. In other languages the division appeared first as follows: French, New Testament, Geneva, 1552, Bible, Geneva, 1553 (both R. Stephens); Italian, New Testament, L. Paschale (Geneva?), 1555; Dutch, New Testament, Gellius Ctematius (Gillis van der Erven), Embden, 1556, Bible, Nikolaus Biestkens van Diest, Embden, 1580; English, Genevan New Testament, 1557, Genevan Bible, 1560; German, Luther's Bible, perhaps Heidelberg, 1568, but certainly Frankfort, 1582. In Beza's editions of the Greek Testament (1565-1604) sundry variations were introduced, which were followed by later editors, notably the Elzevirs (1633, etc.); and many minor changes have been made, quite down to the present day. A very convenient and illuminating "table of ancient and modern divisions of the New Testament," giving the divisions in the Vatican manuscript, the titloi, the Ammonian kephalaia, the stichoi, remata, and the modern chapters and verses, is given in Scrivener, Introduction, i, 68. The titloi, kephalaia and tables of the Eusebian canons are available in such editions as Stephens's Greek Testament of 1550, and Mill's of 1707, 1710. The Greek Testament by Lloyd (Oxford, 1827) and by Mill (1859) give the Eusebian canons. For a synopsis of variations in manuscripts consult J. M. A. Scholz, Novum Testamentum Graece, i, Frankfort, 1830, pp. xxvii-xxix. The Stephanic verses have met with bitter criticism because of the fact that they break the text into fragments, the division often coming in the middle of the sentence, instead of forming it into convenient and logical paragraphs, an arrangement which has seldom found favor. But their utility for reference outweighs their disadvantage. They should never be printed in separate paragraphs (as in the English Authorized Version), but the text should be continuous and the numbers inserted in the margin (as in the Revised Version). Bibliography: C. R. Gregory, Prolegomena, i, 140-182, Leipsic, 1894; the Introductions of Tregelles and Scrivener, ut sup. under II; B. F, Westcott and F. J A. Hort, N. T., Introduction and Appendix, pp. 318 sqq., of Am. edition, New York, 1882; I. H. Hall in Sunday School Times, Apr. 2, 1881. Consult also W. Wright, in Kitto's Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature, "Verse," London, 1845 (the ed. of 1870 is not so good); DCA, ii, 953-967. Bible Versions BIBLE VERSIONS. A. Ancient Versions. [4] I. Greek Versions. 1. The Septuagint. Origin (S: 1). Printed Editions (S: 2). Early Corruption of the Text (S: 3). The Hexapla of Origen (S: 4). Lucian and Hesychius (S: 5). Versions Made from the Septuagint (S: 6). Manuscripts (S: 7). 2. Later Greek Translations. Aquila (S: 1). Symmachus (S: 2). Theodotion (S: 3). II. Latin Versions. 1. The Latin Bible before Jerome. The Old Latin Bible. The Itala (S: 1). Manuscripts and Editions (S: 2). Quotations in Latin Writers (S: 3). 2. The Bible of Jerome (the Vulgate). Jerome's Work. The New Testament (S: 1). The Old Testament (S: 2). History to the Invention of Printing (S: 3). Earlier Printed Editions (S: 4). The Sixtine-Clementine Edition (S: 5). Later Work. Problems (S: 6). 3. Later Latin Translations. III. Syriac Versions. 1. The Peshito. Origin and Name (S: 1). The Old Testament (S: 2). The New Testament (S: 3). 2. Later Versions. IV. The Samaritan Pentateuch. V. Aramaic Versions (the Targums). Origin and Language (S: 1). Targum Onkelos (S: 2). Targum Jonathan (S: 3). Other Targums of the Law and Prophets (S: 4). The Hagiographa (S: 5). VI. The Armenian Version. VII. Egyptian Coptic Versions. VIII. The Ethiopia Version. IX. The Georgian (Iberian) Version. X. The Gothic Version of Ulfilas. B. Modern Versions. I. Arabic Versions. II. Celtic Versions. III. Dutch Versions. IV. English Versions. The Earliest Versions (S: 1). Wyclif (S: 2). Tyndale (S: 3). Coverdale. Other Editions (S: 4). The Douai Bible (S: 5). The Authorized Version (S: 6). The Revised Version (S: 7). Minor Versions (S: 8). Rare and Curious Editions (S: 9). V. Finnish and Lappish Versions. VI. French Versions. The Earlier Versions (S: 1). Guyard des Moulins (S: 2). Protestant Versions (S: 3). Roman Catholic Versions (S: 4). VII. German Versions. Old German Fragments (S: 1). Printed Bibles Before Luther (S: 2). Luther's Bible (S: 3). Revision of Luther's Version (S: 4). Other Versions (S: 5). VIII. Greek Versions, Modern. IX. Hebrew Translations of the New Testament. X. Hungarian (Magyar) Versions. The First Versions (S: 1). The Komaromi Bible (S: 2). Modern Versions (S: 3). XI. Italian Versions. XII. Lithuanian and Lettish Versions. XIII. Persian Versions. XIV. Portuguese Versions. XV. Scandinavian Versions. Before the Reformation (S: 1). Since the Reformation (S: 2). XVI. Slavonic Versions. The Old Church Slavonic Version (S: 1). Russian Versions (S: 2). Bulgarian and Servian Versions (S: 3). Slovenian and Croatian Versions (S: 4). Bohemian Version (S: 5). Wendish or Sorbic Versions (S: 6). Polish Versions (S: 7). XVII. Spanish Versions. XVIII. Bible Versions in the Mission Field. Bible versions, or translations of the original Hebrew and Greek of the Old and New Testaments, may be treated in an encyclopedia from different points of view: (1) from the critical, as instruments with which to reconstruct the original text; (2) from the exegetical, as showing how the Bible was understood in different times and places; (3) from the historical, as documents for showing the extent of the Bible and of its propagation among the nations of the earth; (4) from a literary and philological standpoint, since the Bible versions are often the earliest monuments of the respective languages. Versions are either primary and direct, as the Septuagint, or secondary and indirect, derived versions, as the Old Latin. [They now exist, either for the entire Bible or a part, in more than five hundred languages. During 1906 eleven new versions were added and translation or revision is in progress in over one hundred tongues. Scriptures for the blind are issued by the British and Foreign Bible Society in fifteen languages.] Manifestly only a selection of the more important versions can be treated here. Of the complete Bible in the original languages there is as yet but one edition in existence: Biblia Sacratam Veteris quam Novi Testamenti cum Apocryphis secundum fontes Hebraeos et Graecos, ed. C. B. Michaelis (2 vols., Zuellichau, 1740--41; cf. the correspondence on this point in the Sunday School Times, Sept. and Oct., 1899, raised by a statement in the TLZ, 1899, no. 14). E. Nestle. Bibliography: Among older works the following are indispensable: J. H. Hottinger, Dissertationum theologicophilologicarum fasciculus, Heidelberg, 1660 (deals with Jewish and Christian translations); Richard Simon, Histoire critique du Vieux Testament, Amsterdam, 1680, Eng. transl., London, 1682; idem, Histoire critique des versions du Nouveau Testament, Rotterdam, 1690, Eng. transl., London, 1692; idem, Histoire critique du texte du Nouveau Testament, Rotterdam, 1689, Eng. transl., London, 1689; idem, Nouvelles observations sur le texte et les versions du Nouveau Testament, Paris, 1695 (on Simon consult H. Margival, in Revue d'histoire et de litterature religisuses, Jan., Feb., 1896). Bibliographical information is to be sought in the following: J. Le Long, Bibliotheca Sacra, emendata . . . ab A. G. Masch, 2 parts in 5 vols., Halle, 1778-90 (part 1 deals with editions of the original texts, part 2, in 4 vols., deals with versions); Article Bibel in J. S. Ersch and J. G. Gruber, Allgemeine Encyklopaedie, reprinted as a separate volume, Leipsic, 1823; The Bibles in the Caxton Exhibition, London, 1878; British Museum Catalogue, entry "Bible," 4 parts, including Appendix, London, 1892-99 (the fullest list printed of editions of the Bible and of its parts); T. H. Darlow and F. H. Moule, Historical Catalogue of the Printed Editions of Holy Scripture in the Library of the British and Foreign Bible Society, vol. i, English, London, 1903, vol. ii not yet issued. Of specific interest are: L. Hain, Repertorium bibliographicum, 5 vols., Stuttgart, 1825-91, Supplement by W. A. Copinger, 3 vols., London, 1891-1902, Appendices by D. Reichling, Munich, 1905-06; W. T. Lowndes, Bibliographer's Manual, 4 vols., London, 1857-64; J. C. Brunet, Manuel du Libraire, 7 vols., Paris, 1860-78. Consult also the works of Loisy, Copinger, and Kenyon given under Bible Text, I; the table of Bible Translations in J. S. Dennis, Centennial Survey of Foreign Missions, New York, 1904; T. Haering, Das Verstaendniss der Bibel in der Entwicklung der Menschheit, Tuebingen, 1905, and DB, iv, 848-865, extra volume, 236-271, 402-420. A. Ancient Versions. I. Greek Versions. 1. The Septuagint. 1. Origin. The Bible version most important in every respect is the Alexandrian translation of the Old Testament, the so-called Septuagint. "Custom now holds to the version which is called the Septuagint," writes Augustine (De civitate Dei, xviii, 42). The term "Septuagint" is an abbreviation of secundum septuaginta interpretes; the subscription of Genesis in the Codex Vaticanus is "According to the Seventy"; Codex A has before Isaiah, "the Edition of the Seventy"; this is based on the story that King Ptolemy Philadelphus, by the advice of his librarian Demetrius Phalereus, asked from the high priest Eleazar of Jerusalem seventy-two scholars, who translated for him in seventy-two days the law, and, after a later form of the legend, in seventy-two (or thirty six) cells, the seventy-two or thirty-six copies being found without any variation when brought together and compared. The story is first told in the so-called "Letter of Aristeas" (see [196]Aristeas), who pretends to be one of the officers sent by Philadelphus to Jerusalem, and is wholly unhistorical. As the date of the version ancient chronicles mention the 2d, 7th, 17th, 18th, 19th, or 20th year of Philadelphus, the year 1734, 35, 36, or 37 of Abraham; as its day the 8th of Tebeth, a day of darkness like that on which the golden calf was made (cf. Margoliouth, in the Expositor, Nov., 1900, 348-349). Philo relates, on the contrary, that the Jews of Alexandria kept in his time an annual festival "in commemoration of the time when the interpretation first shone out, and they praised God for his works in times new and old." He knows that the interpreters asked God's blessing on this undertaking; "for he answered their prayers that more and more the whole race of men might be assisted to correctness of life in thought and deed." This aspiration was fulfilled when the version became one of the chief instruments for the preparation and propagation of Christianity (on this aspect of the version cf. E. W. Grinfield, Apology for the Septuagint, London, 1850; W. R. Churton, The Influence of the Septuagint on the Progress of Christianity, London, 1861; A. Deissmann, Die Hellenisierung des semitischen Monotheismus, Leipsic, 1903). It is not yet certain whether the translation is due, as the legend purports, to the literary interest of a king who was a bibliophile; or, as is the common view at present, to the religious wants of the Jewish community of Alexandria; or to the needs of an intended Jewish propaganda. For the latter view the prologue of Ecclesiasticus may be mentioned, which is, at the same time, the first witness to speak of all three parts of the Hebrew Bible as already extant in Greek; Aristeas, Philo, and Josephus speak only of the law. Of the several books of the Old Testament only Esther has a statement about the translation of the book, which is referred generally to Soter II (114 B.C.), but by H. Willrich (Judaica, Goettingen, 1900) to Ptolemy XIV (48 B.C.). At the end of Job is the strange notice: "This is interpreted from the Syrian book." 2. Printed Editions The first part of the Septuagint to be multiplied by the printing-press was the Psalms in the Greek and Latin Psalter of Bonacursius (Milan, Sept. 20, 1481; in Greek alone, Venice, 1486, and again by Aldus Manutius about 1497). The complete editions fall into four classes according as they are derived from one or another of four original editions, of which the first (designated as c) is the Complutensian Polyglot of Cardinal Ximenes, printed 1514-17 but not published until 1521 (see [197]Bibles, Polyglot, I; cf. Franz Delitzsch, Studien zur Entstehungsgeschichte der Polyglottenbibel des Cardinals Ximenes, Leipsic, 1871, supplemented 1878-86; T. H. Darlow and F. H. Moule, Historical Catalogue . . . of the BFBS, ii, London, 1908, 1 sqq.). Of the manuscripts used for the Greek Old Testament we know with certainty Vat. Gr. 330 and 346, and Venet. 5 (= Holmes-Parsons 108, 248, and 68). The second (a) is the Aldine Bible published by Andreas Asulanus, father-in-law of the elder Aldus (Venice, 1518). Among the manuscripts used were Holmes-Parsons 29, 68, 121, all of Venice. The third and most important is the Editio Sixtina (b), published by Pope Sixtus V (Rome, 1586 [1587]) on the basis of Codex Vat. Gr. 1209 (= B[1] in the article [198]Bible Text, II, 1, S: 9). Besides c and a, the manuscripts Holmes-Parsons 16, 19, 23, 51 seem to have been used, especially for the scholia, which were collected chiefly by Petrus Morinus and enlarged by Flaminius Nobilius in the Latin translation published 1588. The fourth edition (4 vols. folio and 8 vols. 8vo, Oxford, 1707-20) was begun by [199]Johannes Ernst Grebe, who published vols. i and iv (1707, 1709), and after his death (1711) was completed by Francis Lee (vol. ii, 1719) and George Wigan (vol. iii, 1720). It is based on the Codex Alexandrinus (A; see [200]Bible Text, II, 1, S: 9) with use of other sources, especially Origen's Hexapla, has useful prolegomena, and possesses a merit of its own. These editions have been often reproduced--the Sixtine edition most frequently-- with more or less of editorial labor (for list of reprints, etc.; also mention of the more important editions of single books of the Greek Old Testament, cf. the Hauck-Herzog RE, iii, 4-9and Swete, Introduction, 171-194). But no existing edition of the Septuagint satisfies present wants, for none gives an exact reproduction of the manuscript or manuscripts which it follows, nor does any provide a full apparatus criticus. The first attempt to satisfy the latter want was made in the great work begun by [201]Robert Holmes and completed after his death (1805) by James Parsons, Vetus Testamentum Graecum cum variis lectionibus (5 vols., Oxford, 1798-1827; cf. Swete, Introduction, 184-187; Church Quarterly Review, Apr., 1899, 102 sqq., and the annual accounts published during the progress of the work from 1789 to 1805). The text is that of b. Not less than 164 volumes of manuscript collations prepared for this work are still in the Bodleian Library. All manuscripts, versions, and quotations were put under contribution. Despite some drawbacks in the plan and still more in the execution, the work deserves admiration; it is still indispensable to all who wish full information about the Old Testament in Greek. The advance made in the course of the nineteenth century is due, on the one hand, to the discovery of new materials (e.g. the Codex Sinaiticus; see [202]Bible Text, II, 1, S: 9); on the other, to greater exactness in handling witnesses. Both these advantages are evident in the work of C. Tischendorf, P. de Lagarde, and H. B. Swete. Tischendorf (Vetus Testamentum Graece juxta LXX interpretes, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1850; 7th ed., 1887) repeated the text of b and enriched it with variants from the Codex Alexandrinus, Ephraemi Rescriptus, and (after 1869) the Sinaiticus, adding rich prolegomena. Lagarde's work, though left incomplete, was monumental (for list of his publications, see [203]Lagarde, Paul Anton de). Swete reproduced in his edition (The Old Testament in Greek according to the Septuagint, 3 vols., Cambridge, 1887-94; 2d ed., 1895-99; 3d ed., 1901-07) for the first time not the printed text of b, but the Vatican manuscript itself, in the first edition according to the facsimile impression of Fabiani-Cozza (Rome, 1869-81), which for the second has been revised (by E. Nestle) after the photographic reproduction. Where the manuscript is deficient the text has been taken from the oldest manuscript accessible in a trustworthy form, while under the text variants have been given from some of the oldest manuscripts, as Sinaiticus, Alexandrines, and Ambrosianus. The merit of this edition is that it gives the materials with greatest accuracy; its defect, that it does not make any attempt to construct the text according to the principles of textual criticism, but follows the leading manuscript even in its most glaring faults. And in some books at least (e.g. in Ecclesiasticus), the oldest manuscripts are far from being the best. But this deficiency is fully explained by the fact that the edition is intended to be but the basis of a great critical edition now in course of preparation, of which the first part has already appeared, The Old Testament in Greek, according to the Text, of Codex Vaticanus Supplemented from Other Uncial Manuscripts, with a Critical Apparatus Containing the Variants of the Chief Ancient Authorities for the Text of the Septuagint, ed. A. E. Brooke and N. McLean, vol. i, The Octateuch, part i, Genesis (Cambridge, 1906; cf. JTS, iii, 601-621, and E. Nestle, Die grosse Cambridger Septuaginta, in Verhandlungen des XIII. Internationalen Orientalistenkongresses, 1902; idem, Septuagintastudien, vol. v, 1907 ). There are two English translations: The Septuagint Version of the Old Testament according to the Vatican Text, translated into English, with the principal various readings of the Alexandrine copy, and a table of comparative chronology, by Sir Lancelot Charles Lee Brenton (2 vols., London, 1844; has also the Greek text); the other by Charles Thomson (Philadelphia, 1808; new ed., The Old Covenant, commonly called the Old Testament, by S. F. Pells, 2 vols., London, 1904). 3. Early Corruption of the Text. That there is yet not a satisfactory edition of the Septuagint is not because of want of materials for its preparation--there is on the contrary an embarras de richesse--but of its complicated history. The history of a translation will always be more complicated than that of an original text, but in this case it is the more so as the Septuagint is a work of Jewish origin, taken over into the Christian Church. Of the pre-Christian period of its history next to nothing is known. There are some Hellenistic writers who used the Septuagint, as Demetrius, Eupolemus, Aristeas (the historian), Ezekiel, and Aristobulus; but the preserved fragments of their writings are too few and incomplete to establish more than the mere fact that they used the Septuagint. Philo made extensive use of the law, but his quotations from the rest of the Old Testament are very few, and from Ruth, Esther, Ecclesiastes, Canticles, Lamentations, Ezekiel, and Daniel he does not quote at all. Besides, his writings can be traced back only to the library of Origen, and have been transmitted to us probably exclusively through Christian copyists. For Josephus we must be content to know that for his description of the restoration he used what is now called I Esdras; but about his relation to the chief manuscripts there is uncertainty. Even the quotations in the New Testament do not justify very definite statements, except that they prove that already in those times the copies were not free from textual corruption (cf. Heb. iii, 9; xii, 5). A little later the situation is described by Origen-speaking, it is true, chiefly of the manuscripts of the New Testament, but what he says holds good also of those of the Old Testament: "Now it is clear that there has come a great difference in copies, either through the laziness of scribes or from the audacity of those who introduced corruptions as amendments, or of others who took away from or added to their new text such things as seemed good to them." 4. The Hexapla of Origen. If the situation was already bad, since any copyist or reader who was acquainted with the original might change single passages on comparison with the Hebrew, it became worse when new translations appeared, especially those of Aquila, Symmachus and Theodotion (see below, [204]2). At last a systematic comparison of the Septuagint with the Hebrew and these versions was carried out by Origen in the Hexapla (see [205]Origen), and what appeared to him a safeguard against the calamity that threatened the text turned out--not by his fault, but through later ignorance and carelessness--the worst aggravation of it. In continuation of the passage just quoted, he goes on to say that through the guidance of God he found a way to correct the dissonance in the copies. Using the Hebrew as a criterion, and adopting the text of the Septuagint which confirmed the Hebrew, he made the two the ground text, and marked changes by diacritical signs. It is pardonable that he took his Hebrew text--whence he got it is not known--as the original text; but it was contrary to sound criticism to take those readings of the Septuagint which agreed with the Hebrew for the true ones, instead of those which differed from it (cf. the third axiom of Lagarde for the restoration of the Septuagint, Mittheilungen, i, 21). Nevertheless we should be extremely thankful if the work of Origen had been preserved. Until 1896 it was known only from the descriptions of Eusebius, Jerome, Epiphanius, and some later writers, and by specimens preserved in scholia of Biblical manuscripts, a great part also by a literal Syriac translation (see below, [206]S: 6). In 1896 Giovanni Mercati discovered in a palimpsest of the Ambrosian Library of Milan the first continuous fragments of a copy of the Hexapla, and in 1900 another and much older piece was found by C. Taylor among the Greek palimpsests from the Cairo genizah in the Taylor and Schechter collection. These fragments show that Origen put generally only one Hebrew word, or at the most two, in one line; the extent of the work, therefore, must have been much greater than was previously supposed. The later fate of the original is unknown. Jerome saw and used it in the library at Caesarea; it may have been destroyed there during the invasion of the Arabs. Origen arranged his work in six columns, the first containing the Hebrew text in Hebrew letters, the second the same in a Greek transcription, the third the translation of Aquila, the fourth that of Symmachus, the fifth the Septuagint, the sixth the translation of Theodotion. For some books, especially the Psalms, Origen had a fifth, sixth, and even a seventh translation at his disposal (see below, [207]2, S: 3). In the Septuagint column he used the system of diacritical marks which was in use with the Alexandrian critics of Homer, especially Aristarchus, marking with an obelus--under different forms, as -:, called lemniscus, and --?, called hypolemniscus--those passages of the Septuagint which had nothing to correspond in Hebrew, and inserting, chiefly from Theodotion under an asterisk (*), those which were missing in the Septuagint; in both cases a metobelus (g) marked the end of the notation. This column was copied afterward with additional excerpts from the other versions on the margins; and, if it had been copied with all its critical marks, it would have been well, but later copyists neglected these, completely and produced what we may call kryptohexaplaric manuscripts, completely spoiling by this carelessness the value of the Septuagint for critical purposes. Such a copy, for instance, is, for Kings, the Codex Alexandrinus; and it is but a poor defense of these copyists that the same process has been repeated in the nineteenth century by the Moscow and Athens reprints of Grabe's edition of that codex. 5. Lucian and Hesychius. After Origen, Eusebius and his friend Pamphilus were careful to continue or disseminate his exegetical labors. Copies of the Pentateuch are known which were compared with the Samaritan text (cf. S. Kohn, Samareitikon und Septuaginta, in Monatsschrift fuer Wissenschaft des Judenthums, new series, i, 1894, pp. 1-7, 49-67; ZDMG, 1893, p. 650). Jerome mentions besides Eusebius and Pamphilus, Lucian and Hesychius, the text of the former being used from Constantinople to Antioch, that of the latter in Alexandria and Egypt, while the provinces between, especially Palestine, kept to the copies of Origen as published by Eusebius and Pamphilus (Praefatio in paralipomena; Adv. Rufinum, ii, 27). About neither the work nor the person of Hesychius (see [208]Hesychius, 1) is there complete certainty. He may have been the martyr bishop mentioned by Eusebius (Hist. eccl., viii, 13) together with Phileas of Thmuis. The result of his labors is sought now for the Octateuch in the manuscripts 44, 74, 76, 84, 106, 134; for the prophets, especially Isaiah and the Twelve, in the Codex Marchalianus and its supporters 26, 106, 198, 306 (cf. N. McLean, in JTS, ii, 1901, p. 306, and A. Ceriani, De Codice Marchaliano, Rome, 1890, pp. 48 sqq., 105 sqq.). Lucian was a deacon of Antioch, who died a martyr at Nicomedia 312 (see [209]Lucian the Martyr). He must have known a Hebrew text which showed many peculiarities, especially in the historical books, and perhaps used for his purposes the Syriac version. The first part of his work has been edited by Lagarde in Librorum Veteris Testamenti canonicorum, pars prior, graece (Goettingen , 1883; cf. his Mittheilungen, ii, 171). But this revision must not be confounded with the original Septuagint any more than the English Revised with the Authorized Version. Since the fourth century very little has been done in the Greek Church for its Bible. Emperors directed beautiful copies of it to be written--e.g., Constantine ordered fifty copies through Eusebius for the new churches of his capital, and for Constans Athanasius procured "copies of the divine writings," one of which is perhaps preserved in the famous Codex Vaticanus. Other royal persons wrote them with their own hands. 6. Versions Made from the Septuagint. Latin was probably the first language into which the Septuagint was translated. (On the Latin version, or rather versions, of the Septuagint see below, [210]II, 1. It is a pity that so little of these labors has been preserved, and that these few remnants are so difficult of access.) After the Latin versions came the Egyptian (see [211]VII), Here the difficulty of the language makes these helps for restoration of the Septuagint accessible to few. Similar is the case with the most neglected branch of the Semitic languages, the Ethiopic (see [212]VIII). The Arabic versions (see [213]B, I) are for a great part too late to have much weight for the critic of the Septuagint. The Gothic version (see [214]X) is an outcome of the Lucianic recension, for which it would have great importance, both for age and literalness, but very little of the Old Testament is preserved in Gothic. The Lucianic recension is also the basis of a Slavonic version (see [215]B, XVI) and through it of the Georgian (see [216]IX). The Armenian version (see [217]VI) is again of great importance, also the so-called Syro-Hexaplar version made in the year 616-617 by Paul, bishop of Tella (Constantine in Mesopotamia), in a cloister near Alexandria with the utmost fidelity from manuscripts which went back by few intervening links to the very copies of the Hexapla and Tetrapla of Origen. The greater is the pity, therefore, that only fragments have been preserved, and that especially the codex which Andre du Maes (Masius, d. 1573) had in his hands, containing the historical books (including part of Deuteronomy and Tobit), has been lost, and that only a part of this Bible (poetical and prophetic books) is still preserved in the Ambrosian Library at Milan, hence called Codex Syro-hexaplaris Ambrosianus (published in a photolithographic facsimile edition by A. Ceriani as vol. vii of the Monumenta sacra et profana, Milan, 1874). The fragments of Genesis, Exodus, Numbers, Joshua, Judges, and I and II Kings have been most carefully edited in the last work of Paul de Lagarde, Bibtiothecae Syriacae, a Paulo de Lagarde collectae quae ad philologiam sacram pertinent (Goettingen, 1892). For earlier works on this version cf. E. Nestle, Litteratura Syriaca (reprinted from his Syrische Grammatik, Berlin, 1888), 29-30; cf. also T. S. Rordam, Libri Judicum et Ruth (Copenhagen, 1859-61), and F. Field, Otium Norvicense, i (Oxford, 1864), and his edition of the Hexapla (Oxford, 1875). There are also fragments in the special dialect called Syro-Palestinian, on which cf. Swete, Introduction, 114, and F. C. Burkitt, in JTS, ii, 174 sqq. Up to the present day in several Churches these versions based on the Septuagint have been retained and even in those where they have been replaced by translations from the original, as in the Latin West through Jerome or in modern Europe through the Reformation, the influence of the Septuagint is still very marked; note, for instance, the names of the Biblical books in the latest of these revisions, the English Revised Version. 7. Manuscripts. The versions just mentioned are one of the three sources which exist for the recovery of the true text of the Septuagint, the first class being, of course, the Greek manuscripts still in existence, the third the quotations of ancient writers. A list of the more ancient manuscripts of the Septuagint was given in the eighteenth century by Stroth in Eichhorn's Repertorium (Leipsic, 1777 sqq.), vols. v sqq.; the most complete list was formerly that in the prefaces of Holmes-Parsons; then in the prolegomena of Tischendorf and in Lagarde's Genesis Graece; but reference may now be made to Swete, Introduction, pp. 122-170. A few remarks on some of them may be offered. The four great uncials, ' or S, A, B, and C, are the chief manuscripts also for the New Testament (see [218]Bible Text, II, 1, S: 9). For ' there is needed a photographic reproduction or a complete new collation. The notations from A in Swete's Septuagint need revision, at all events in the first volume. Of B a new photographic reproduction is in preparation; on the suggestion of Rahlfs that B is dependent on Athanasius, cf. E. Nestle, introduction to the Textual Criticism of the Greek New Testament (London, 1901), 62, 181, where (note 1) read Constantius instead of Constans. Concerning the famous illuminated Codex Cottonianus (D), which was badly injured by fire in 1731, nothing new has come to light since Swete wrote; it is well to mention the name of Martin Folkes as editor, by whom were issued the facsimiles in the Vetusta monument of 1747. On the purple illuminated Genesis of Vienna (L), there is a dissertation by W. Luedtke (Greifswald, 1897), who is inclined to ascribe this oldest Biblical history with illuminations to the second part of the fifth century. To the eighteen uncial manuscripts enumerated by Swete (Introduction, pp. 146-148) as not yet used for any edition of the Septuagint and remaining without a symbolical letter or number, may be added: fragments of Genesis at Vienna (cf. Philologischer Anzeiger, xiv, 1884, 415); a Hebrew-Greek palimpsest containing fragments of Ps. cxliii, cxliv; and parts of four leaves from a papyrus codex of Genesis, of the late second or early third century (Oxyrhynchus papyri no. 656). On the minuscules scarcely anything has been done lately, except that some will be used in the Cambridge edition mentioned above ([219]S: 2). For facsimiles, cf. F. G. Kenyon, Facsimiles of Biblical Manuscripts in the British Museum (London, 1901). The question, in which set of manuscripts the purest text is to be found, is not yet settled. It is the more complicated since the Old Testament is a collection of books which in one and the same manuscript may have had a very different pedigree; for whole Bibles (pandectes, such as manuscripts ', A, and B) do not seem to have been produced much before the time of Eusebius or Origen. 2. Later Greek Translations. The rupture between Church and Synagogue led to new translations. The authors of at least three of them are known by name, Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion. 1. Aquila. Of the Fathers of the Church, Irenaeus is the first who mentions Aquila of Pontus as a translator of the Bible. Epiphanius calls him a "Greek" and a relation of Hadrian, and tells that he was placed by Trajan in charge of the rebuilding of Jerusalem, that he became a Christian but returned to the Jewish faith. Epiphanius places his translation in the twelfth year of Hadrian, 430 years, four months, less nine days after the Septuagint. Jewish sources mention a proselyte Aquila, a contemporary of Rabbis Eliezer, Joshua, and Akiba, who met Hadrian and is called his nephew, and is praised as translator of the Bible in the words of Ps. xlv, "thou art fairer than the children of men"; some passages of his translation are quoted. It is not clear as yet, whether or how the dates of Epiphanius and the statements of the Pseudo-Clementine writings about Aquila, the disciple of Simon Magus, are to be combined. That Aquila the translator of the Bible is the well-known husband of Priscilla in the New Testament is a fancy of Hausdorff. His translation, the use of which was permitted in the synagogue by Justinian, is the most literal ever produced, and enough has been preserved to judge of its value and character. Up to 1897 all known of it went back to the Hexapla of Origen (cf. F. Field, Origenis Hexaplorum quae supersunt, 2 vols., Oxford, 1867-75, and, on Field, J. H. Burn, Expository Times, Jan., 1897). In 1897 for the first time a continuous portion of his translation came to light in a palimpsest of the Cairo Synagogue, showing the tetragrammaton written in Old Hebrew letters. The statement of Jerome that Aquila made two versions, "a second edition, which the Hebrews call 'the accurate one,'" seems to be correct. Some new fragments to be added to Field are in J. B. Pitra, Analecta sacra (Paris, 1876); E. Klostermann, Analekta zur Septuaginta (Leipsic, 1895); Jerome, in Anecdota Maredsolana, iii, 1. 2. Symmachus. According to Epiphanius, Symmachus was a Samaritan, and lived not under Severus, but under "Verus" (i.e., Marcus Aurelius; cf. Lagarde, Symmicta, ii, Goettingen, 1880). Geiger identified the translator with Symmachus ben Joseph, disciple of Rabbi Meir (juedische Zeitschrift fuer Wissenschaft und Leben, i, 1862, pp. 62-64). Origen got the manuscript of his translation from a certain Juliana of Caesarea, who had received it with other works of Symmachus from Symmachus himself. Whether the Caesarea where she lived was that of Palestine or Cappadocia is in doubt. In the sixteenth century Symmachus's works were still in existence at Rodosto near Constantinople (cf. R. fuerster, De antiquitatibus et libris manuscriptis Constantinopolitanis, Rostock, 1877; T. Zahn, TLB, 1893, p. 43). Symmachus wrote the most elegant Greek of all these translators. Jerome quotes in three passages a second translation. 3. Theodotion. Theodotion, according to Irenaeus, was from Ephesus; according to Epiphanius, from Pontus; he went over from Gnosticism to Judaism. His work is a revision of the Septuagint and has therefore been placed by Origen in his Hexapla next to the column of the Septuagint. For the same reason Origen made use chiefly of Theodotion to supply such passages as were missing in the Septuagint (cf. I Sam. xvii, 12 sqq.; Jer. xxxiii, 14-26; xxxix, 4-13). For the Book of Daniel his version came into general use in the Church, while the older Greek version has been preserved only in the one codex (Chisianus) discovered 1772. Readings similar to those of Theodotion are found before his time (on this question cf. E. Koenig, Einleitung, ii, 108; TLB, 1897, 51; Staerk, ZWT, 1895, 288). Howorth offers some unconventional views (PSBA, 1891-92) on the question whether Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah in our editions of the Septuagint are from Theodotion. That his name has the same meaning as that of the Targumist Jonathan seems accidental. Besides these versions, which covered the whole Old Testament--note, however, that for Samuel we have no quotations from Aquila--Origen succeeded in finding, at least for certain parts, more translations; the one which he numbered five, in Nicopolis near Actium; the sixth with other Hebrew and Greek books in a clay jar near Jericho in the time of Antoninus, the son of Severus. Deserving of brief mention is a Greek translation which is 1,000 years younger than the preceding, the (Graecus Venetus, which first became known in 1740 through the catalogue of the library of San Marco. The complete and final edition is due to O. von Gebhardt (Graecus Venetus, Pentateuchi, Proverbiorum, Ruth, Cantici, Ecclesiastae, Threnorum, Danielis graeca versio, with preface by F. Delitzsch, Leipsic, 1875). Delitzsch is inclined to see in the translation the work of a Jew, Elisseus, who lived at the court of Murad I in Prusa and Adrianople; von Gebhardt, that of a proselyte. The rendering of "Yahweh" by ontourgos, ousiOtes and the use of the Doric dialect for the Aramaic portions of Daniel are interesting. E. Nestle. Bibliography: The following is only a selection out of the vast body of literature available. The critical Introductions and Commentaries on the Old Testament and on separate parts deal more or less fully with the subject. For the literature on Polyglots see [220]Bibles, Polyglot; for that on Aristeas see [221]Aristeas; and on printed editions of the Septuagint cf. H. B. Swete, Introduction, pp. 171-194, London, 1902. On the Septuagint in general consult besides the works mentioned in the text: J. H. Hottinger, Exercitationes Anti-Morinianae, Zurich, 1644; idem, Dissertationum . . . fasciculus, Heidelberg, 1660; A. Calovius, Criticus sacer, Leipsic, 1646; L. Cappellus, Critica sacra, Paris, 1650; J. Buxtorf, Anticritica, seu vindiciae veritatus Hebraicae, Basel, 1653; J. Ussher, De Graeca septuaginta interpretum versione syntagma, London, 1655; J. Morinus, Exercitationes ecclesiasticae et biblicae, Paris, 1669; H. Hody, De bibliorum textibus originalibus, Oxford, 1705; J. E. Grabe, Epistola ad J. Millium, Oxford, 1705; idem, De vitiis septuaginta interpretum, ib. 1710; E. Leigh, Critica sacra, 5th ed., London, 1706; A. Trommius, Concordantiae Gracae versionis, Amsterdam, 1718; W. Whiston, Essay toward Restoring the True Text of the Old . . . Testament, London, 1722, and Supplement (to the same), 1723; J. G. Carpsov, Critica sacra, Leipsic, 1728; W. Wall, The Use of the Septuagint Translation, in his Brief Critical Notes, London, 1730; C. F. Houbigant, Prolegomena in scripturam sacrum, Paris, 1746; B. Kennicott, The State of the Printed Hebrew Text of the Old Testament, Oxford, 1753; idem, a second Dissertation on the same subject 1759; J. D. Michaelis, Programma . . . ueber dis 70 Dollmaetscher, Goettingen, 1767; H. Owen, Enquiry into the Present State of the Septuagint Version, London, 1769; idem, Critica sacra, 1774; idem, A Brief Account . . . of the Septuagint Version, 1787; J. C. Biel, Novus thesaurus philologicus, The Hague, 1779-80; J. F. Schleusner, Lexici in interpretes graeci Veteris Testamenti, Leipsic, 1784-88; C. A. Wahl, Clavis librorum Veteris Testamenti, Leipsic, 1853; G. Bickell, De indole ac ratione versionis Alexandrinae . . . Jobi, Marburg, 1862; F. Delitzsch, Studien . . . der complutensischen Polyglotte, Leipsic, 1886; A. Scholz, Masorethischer Text und die LXX-Uebersetzung des . . . Jeremias, Regensburg, 1875; idem, Die alexandrinische Uebersetzung des . . . Jesaias, Wuerzburg 1880; E. Flecker, Scripture Onomatology . . . Critical Notes on the Septuagint, London, 1883; W. J. Deane, in The Expositor, 1884, pp. 139-157, 223-237; E. Nestle, Septuagintastudien, vols. i-v, Ulm, 1886-1907, Maulbronn, 1899-1903; J. G. Carleton, The Bible of our Lord and his Apostles, London, 1888; E. Hatch, Essays in Biblical Greek, London, 1889 (cf. criticism by Hort, in The Expositor, Feb. 1897); A. Schulte, De restitutione . . . versionis Graecae . . . Judicum, Leipsic, 1889 G. C. Workman, Text of Jeremiah . . . Greek and Hebrew, Edinburgh, 1889; P. de Lagarde, Stichometric, in Mittheilungen, iv, 205, Goettingen, 1891; F. C. Conybeare on Philo's Text, in The Expositor, Dec., 1891, pp. 456-466; H. B. Swete, on Graetz's Theory, in Expository Times, June, 1891; J. Taylor, Massoretic Text and . . . Versions of . . . Micah London, 1891; Transactions of the Congress of Orientalists in London, London, 1894; E. Hatch and H. A. Redpath, Concordance to the Septuagint, London, 1892-1900; F. C. Conybeare, Philonean Text, in JQR, Jan., 1893, pp. 246-280, Oct., 1895, pp. 88-122; H. A. Redpath, in The Academy, Oct. 22, 1893; G. Morin, Une revision du psautier, in Revue benedictine, 1893, part b, pp. 193-197; H. H. Howorth, in The Academy, 1893, July 22, Sept. 18, Oct. 7, Dec. 16, 1894, Feb. 17, May 5, June 9 (cf. W. A. Wright, ib. 1894, Nov. 3, and T. K. Cheyne, 1894, Nov. 10); V. Nourisson, La Bibliotheque des Ptolemees, Alexandria, 1893; S. Silberstein, Codex Alexandrinus and Vaticanus des dritten Koenigsbuches, in ZATW, 1893-94; G. A. Deisemann, Bibelstudien, Marburg, 1895-96, Eng. transl. Edinburgh, 1901; H. A. Kennedy, Sources of New Testament Greek, Edinburgh, 1895; E. Klostermann, Analecta zur Septuaginta, Leipsic, 1895; Max Loehr, Vorarbeiten zu Daniel, in ZATW, xv (1895), 75-103, 193-225; E. Nestle, Zum Codex Alexandrinus, in ZATW, xv (1895), 261-262; idem, Zur Hexapla des Origenes, in ZWT, xxxviii, 231; H. E. Ryle, Philo and Holy Scripture, London, 1895; F. Johnson, Quotations of the New Testament, London, 1896; A. F. Kirkpatrick, The Septuagint, in The Expositor, April, 1896, 213-257; E. Klostermann, Die Mailaender Fragmente, in ZATW, 1896, pp. 334-337; J. Fuerst, in Semitic Studies in Memory of A. Kohut, Berlin, 1897; E. Nestle, Einfuehrung in das grieschische Neue Testament, Goettingen, 1897, Eng. transl., London, 1901; J. H. Moulton, A Grammar of New Testament Greek, vol. i, Prolegomena, pp. 1-41, Edinburgh, 1906; A. Merx, Der Werth der Septuaginta fuer die Textkritik des A. T., in JPT, ix, 65; A. Rahlfs, Septuaginta-Studien, parts i-ii, Goettingen, 1904-07. On Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion, besides the references in Irenaeus, Origen, Eusebius, Jerome, and Epiphanius, consult: C. A. Thieme, Pro puritate Symmachi, Leipsic, 1755; R. Anger, De Onkelo Chaldaico, ib. 1845; F. Field, Origenis Hexaplorum quae supersunt, i, pp. xvi sqq., Oxford, 1867; G. Mercati, L'Et`a di Simmaco interprete, Modena, 1892; L. Hausdorff, Zur Geschichte der Targumim nach talmudischen Quellen, in Monatsschrift fuer Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judentums, xxxviii (1893), 5-7; L. Blau, Zur Einleitung in die heilige Schrift, Budapest, 1894; M. Friedmann, Onkelos und Akylas, Vienna, 1896; S. Kraus-Budapest, in Festschrift zum achtzigsten Geburtstage M. Steinschneiders, Leipsic, 1896; F. C. Burkitt, Fragments of the Books of Kings . . . , Cambridge, 1897; DCB, i, 150-151, ii, 14-23 (valuable); DB, iv, 864-865; EB, iv, 5017-19. II. Latin Versions. The origin of the earliest Latin versions is unknown. This fact is easily explained if the case was stated correctly by Augustine: "Those who translated the Scriptures from Hebrew into Greek can be enumerated; but the Latin translators by no means. For in the early days of the faith when any one received a Greek manuscript into his hands and seemed to have ever so little facility in language, he dared to translate it" (De doctrina Christiana, ii, 11). Again (ii, 14) he mentions "the abundance of interpreters." Augustine is probably right in the supposition that Latin versions did not exist in pre-Christian times. At all events there are no traces of Jewish undertakings in this direction. The history of the Latin versions is divided into two unequal parts by the work of Jerome and closes with an account of later versions independent of Jerome, particularly those made by Protestants. 1. The Latin Bible before Jerome. 1. The Old Latin Bible. The Itala. The statement of Augustine about the great variety of Latin translations is corroborated by the documents, manuscripts, and quotations preserved, for the New Testament of course much more than for the Old. But even for the latter one may cite, e.g. for Deut. xxxi, 17, at least eight variant readings; and in the New Testament for Luke xxiv, 4, 5, at least twenty-seven variant readings. In other words, as Jerome says, "as many readings as copies"; and these readings are not merely different renderings of an identical Greek text, but correspond to various Greek readings, a fact which seems to demonstrate the more clearly the existence of different translations. Nevertheless Jerome speaks frequently as if there was but one ancient translation, which he opposes as "the common edition" and an "old translation" to his own undertaking. Some variations at least arose in the way sketched by Jerome--"by stupid interpreters badly translated, by presumptuous but unskilled men perversely amended, by sleepy copyists either added to or changed about." Nevertheless it is impossible to reduce all these variations to consecutive stages of one original translation and therefore scholars use the term "Old Latin versions" (in the plural) and avoid especially the name formerly used; viz., "Itala." This designation went back to a single passage of Augustine (De doctrina Christiana, ii, 14, 15); after he had fixed the principle "that the uncorrected texts should give way to the corrected ones at least when they are copies of the same translation," he goes on to say: "Among translations themselves the Itala is to be preferred to the others, for it keeps closer to the words, without prejudice to clearness of expression." There can be no doubt that he puts here one translation, which he prefers, in opposition to several other translations; therefore it was not well done to comprehend all that is left of the Latin Bibles from the time before Jerome under this name Itala. Some have tried to change the text, but Itala is the correct reading. Augustine must mean a version used in or having come from Italy, probably the northern part of the peninsula. Isidore of Seville (Etymologiae, vi, 4) in the seventh century clearly understood by "Itala" the work of Jerome. This view was restated in 1824 by C. A. Breyther, was considered possible by E. Reuss, and well founded by F. C. Burkitt (The Old Latin and the Itala, in TS, iv, 3), with the limitation that Augustine had not yet in view the whole of Jerome's labor, but only its beginning--the revision of the Gospels. It is therefore advisable to avoid completely the name "Itala" and to use "Old Latin" for the Bible before Jerome. The home of this Bible is not to be sought in Rome, where Greek was the language of the infant Church and its literature, but most probably in Africa. It is true, many of the linguistic peculiarities ascribed to Africa are shared by the lingua rustica in other parts of the Latin world, and it has become customary to distinguish an African and a European branch of the Latin Bible; nevertheless the origin of this whole literature seems to have been in Africa. Translations of certain books which in early times were of almost canonical standing--such as the Epistle of Barnabas, the Shepherd of Hermas, and the First Epistle of Clement--are closely connected with these versions (cf. Harnack, Litteratur, i, 883; O. Bardenhewer, Geschichte der altkirchlichen Litteratur, i, Freiburg, 1902). 2. Manuscripts and Editions. Because the Old Latin versions have been replaced in the use of the Church by the version of Jerome, only a few manuscripts of the Old Latin have survived and these as fragments and palimpsests only, but of high antiquity. It is a great pity that they are not yet collected in such a way as to make their use easy, especially for the Old Testament, since they are all important for the criticism of the Septuagint. This was recognized by the Roman commission which prepared the Editio Sixtina of the Septuagint. They collected with great care the Biblical quotations from the Latin ecclesiastical writers. Petrol Morinus, Antonius Agellius, and Laelius Malwerda were the members of the commission to whom this part of the task was entrusted. Their labors were used in the scholia of the Greek edition of 1586 [1587], but still more freely in its Latin translation, published by Flaminius Nobilius (Rome, 1588; reprinted with the Greek text at Paris, 1624; without it, Venice, 1609, 1628; Antwerp, 1616). But the chief work is Bibliorum Sacrorum Latinae versiones antiquae . . . opera et studio Petri Sabatier, 0. S. B., e congregatione S. Mauri, (3 vols., Reims, 1739-49, with new title, Paris, Didot, 1751). Before Sabatier, are to be mentioned J. M. Carus (Cardinal Tommasi), Sacrorum Bibliorum iuxta editionem seu LXX Interpretum seu B. Hieronymi veteres tituli, etc. (2 vols., Rome, 1688; 2d ed. in Thomasii Opera, ed. Vezzosi, i, Rome, 1747); and Ecclesiastes ex versione Itala cum notis Bossueti (Paris, 1693). For full list of manuscripts and editions, cf. the Hauck-Herzog RE, iii, 28-33. The manuscripts of the New Testament are enumerated also in Scrivener's Introduction, ii (London, 1894), 45-54 (revised by H. J. White); in Gregory's Prolegomena to Tischendorf's New Testament, iii, 952-971, and Textkritik des Neuen Testaments (Leipsic, 1900), 598-613; and in the prefaces of Jerome's New Testament edited by J. Wordsworth and H. J. White (Novum Testamentum Domini nostri Jesu Christi Latine secundum editionem S. Hieronymi ad codicum manuscriptorum fidem recensuit Johannes Wordsworth. In operis societatem adsumpto Henrico Juliano White, part i, the four Gospels, Oxford, 1889-98; part ii, section i, Acts, 1905). In the critical apparatus of the New Testament they are designated by the small letters of the Latin alphabet. The following additions may be made to what is contained in the RE (ut sup.): Old Testament: P. Sabatier, Bibliorum Sacorum Latinae versiones antiquae, i (Reims, 1744), 904 (for a fragment of Job; cf. S. Berger, Histoire de la Vulgate, Paris, 1893, 86); G. M. Bianchini, Vindiciae canonicarum scripturarum (Rome, 1740; Psalms from the Codex Veronensis); F. Mone, Lateinische und Grischische Messen (Frankfort, 1850), 40 (for fragments of Psalms from a palimpsest in Carlsruhe); P. de Lagarde, Probe einer neuen Ausgabe der lateinischen Uebersetzung des Alten Testaments (Goettingen, 1885; for Psalms); H. Ehrensberger, Psalterium vetus (Tauberbischofsheim, 1887); Heptateuchi partis posterioris versio Latina antiquissima e codice Lugdunensi (Lyons, 1890; cf. F. Vigouroux in Revue des questions historiques, Jan.-Apr., 1902); P. de Lagarde, Septuagintastudien, ii (Goettingen, 1892; for III Esdras); J. Belsheim, Libri Tobit, Judit, Ester . . . Latina translatio e codice . . . Monachensi (Trondhjem, 1893); V. Schultze, Die Quedlinburger Itala-Miniaturen . . . in Berlin (Munich, 1898; he refers them to the fourth century); P Corssen, Zwei neue Fragmente der Weingartener Prophetenhandschrift, nebst einer Untersuchung ueber das Verhaeltnis der Weingartener und Wuerzburger Prophetenhandschriften (Berlin, 1899); P. Thielmann, Bericht ueber das gesammelte handschriftliche Material zu einer kritischen Ausgabe der lateinischen Uebersetzungen biblischer Buecher des Alten Testaments, in Sitzungsberichte der koeniglichen Bayerischen Akadamie der Wissenschaften, 1899, ii, 2; G. Hoberg, Die aelteste lateinische Uebersetzung des Buches Baruch (Freiburg, 1902); A. M. Amelli, De libri Baruch vetustissima Latina versione . . . epistola (Montecassino, 1902); W. O. E. Oesterley, Old Latin Texts of the Minor Prophets, in JTS, v (1904), 76, 242, 378, 570, vi, 67, 217. The Psalms from the Mozarabic Liturgy are in MPL, lxxxv. New Testament: Gospels: The Fragmenta Curiensia (a) are edited in OLBT, ii (London, 1888); for Codex Saretianus (j), cf. G. Amelli, Un antichissimo codice biblico latino purpureo (Montecassino, 1893); Acts: Codex Demidovianus (dem), probably of the thirteenth century, now lost, a mixed text, was edited by C. F. Matthaei (Novum Testamentum, Riga, 1782); for the Codex Laudianus (e), see [222]Bible Text, II, 1, S: 9; it was revised by White for Wordsworth White; on the Codex Perpinianus (p), thirteenth century, a mixed text, collated by White, cf. S. Berger, Un Ancien Texte latin des Actes des Apotres, in Notices et Extraits des manuscrits, xxxv (Paris, 1895); cf. further Liber comicus sive lectionarius missae quo Toletana ecclesia ante annos MCC utebatur, ed. G. Morin (Anecdota Maredsolana, i, Maredsous, 1893). Pauline Epistles: for the manuscripts d, e, f, g, cf. H. Roensch, in ZWT, 1882, p. 83. Apocalypse: cf. H. Linke, Studien zur Itala (Breslau, 1889). The Codex Corbeiensis (ff[2]), with fragments of the Catholic Epistles, Acts, and the Apocalypse from the Fleury palimpsest (Paris, 6400 G), have been lately edited by E. S. Buchanan (Oxford, 1907, in OLBT, v). On the relation of the different texts, cf. for the New Testament Hort's Introduction (London, 1881) and Wordsworth-White; for the Old Testament Kennedy in DB, iii, 49 sqq. On the language, cf. H. Roensch, Itala und Vulgata (Marburg, 1869), on which work cf. J. N. Ott, in Neue Jahrbuecher fuer Philologie, cix, 1874, pp. 778, 833. 3. Quotations in Latin Writers. Of the highest importance for the restoration of the Old Latin Bible are the quotations of the older Latin writers. Their countries are known and thus the home of the Biblical texts is located. Yet many questions are still unsettled; e.g., did Tertullian know and use a Latin translation or are his quotations taken by him from the Greek and translated into Latin? Heinrich Hoppe (Syntax und Stil des Tertullian, Leipsic, 1903) denies that Tertullian knew a Latin version of the Old Testament. T. Zahn makes the same assertion for the New Testament. Quotations from almost all books are found in the Liber de divinis scripturis sive speculum (designated as m), ascribed to Augustine, published by A. Mai in Spicilegium Romanum, ix, 2 (Rome, 1843), 1-88, and in Nova patrum bibliotheca, i, 2 (1852), 1-117; better by F. Weihrich, in CSEL, xii (cf. Weihrich's dissertation, Die Bibel-Excerpte de divina scriptura, Vienna, 1893). Several fragments are also in C. Vercellone, Dissertationi accademiche (Rome, 1864). On the quotations in general, cf. H. Roensch, is ZHT, x, 1867, 606-634, 1869, 433-479, 1870, 91-150, 1871, 531, 1875, 88; L. J. Bebb, in Studia Biblia, ii (London, 1890), 195 sqq.; Scrivener's Introduction (London, 1894), 167-174; Gregory's Prolegomena, iii (Leipsic, 1894), 1131-1246; and Kennedy, in DB, 52-53. The writers that are of primary importance are: Alcimus Avitus, archbishop of Vienna c. 450-517; Ambrose, bishop of Milan 374-397; Ambrosiaster, the name liven to a most important commentator on the thirteen Epistles of St. Paul (cf. T. Zahn, in NKZ, xvi pp. 419 sqq., and A. Souter, TS, vii, 4, Cambridge, 1905); Arnobius, presbyter in Africa fourth century; Exhortationes de poenitentia, ascribed to Cyprian; Liber de aleatoribus (according to Harnack as early as Cyprian); Liber de pascha computus (written in Africa c. 243); Liber de promissionibus (ascribed to Prosper of Aquitaine); Liber collationis legum Mosaicarum et Romanarum (ed. P. Krueger and T. Mommsen in Collectio librorum juris antejustiniani, iii, Berlin, 1891); Augustine, bishop of Hippo 354-430 (from this author alone Lagarde collected 13,276 quotations of the Old Testament and 29,540 of the New Testament); Capreolus, bishop of Carthage c. 431; Cassian, monk at Marseilles (d. about 435); Commodian (perhaps middle of third century); Cyprian, bishop of Carthage (d. 258; cf. Sanday, in OLBT, ii; Lagarde, Symmicta, i, 74; Mittheilungen, ii, 54; P. Corssen, Der cyprianische Text der Acta Apostolorum, Berlin, 1892); Teaching of the Twelve Apostles; Philastrius, bishop of Brescia (c. 380; ad. Marx, in CSEL, xxxviii); Fulgentius, bishop of Ruspe (c. 468-533); Gildas of Britain; Eucherius; Hilarius, bishop of Poitiers (d. 380; cf. Zingerle, in Kleine philologische Abhandlunpen, Innsbruck, 1887); Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons (c. 180, Novum Testamentum Irenaei; to be published in OLBT by Prof. Sanday); Jovinian (in the time of Jerome); Lactantius (in Africa c. 260-340); Lucifer, bishop of Cagliari (d. 371; cf. Dombart, in Berliner Philoiogische Wochenschrift, 1866, no. 6); Julius Firmicus Maternus (c. 345); Maximin (cf. TLZ, 1900, 17); Novatian (at Rome c. 252; cf. Harnack, in TU, xiii, 4); Origen (Latin translation; c. 251); Optatus, bishop of Mileve in Numidia, c. 368; Primasius, bishop of Adrumetum, sixth century (cf. Haussleiter, in Zahn, Forschungen zur Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanons, iv, Berlin, 1900, 1-224); Pelagius of Ireland; Priscillian, bishop of Avila in Spain, fourth century (cf. CSEL, xviii); Salvianus of Marseilles, c. 450 (cf. Ullrich, De Salviani scripturae sacrae versionibus, Neustadt, 1893); Tertullian of Carthage, c. 150-240 (cf. Roensch, Das Neue Testament Tertullians, Leipsic, 1871, and J. N. Ott, in Neue Jahrbuecher fuer Philologie, 1874, p. 856); Tyconius, in Africa, c. 340 (cf. F. C. Burkitt, in TS, iii, 1, 1894); Verecundus (cf. Lagarde, Septuagintastudien, i); Victorinus, bishop of Pettau in Pannonia, c. 300 (cf. Haussleiter, in ZWT, vii, 239-257); Vigilius, bishop of Thapsus, c. 484. Some parts of the Old Latin Bible are still in ecclesiastical use and even in the works of Luther Denifle has shown readings from this source. The same is the case with some of the translations in the vernacular dialects of medieval Europe, such as the Anglo-Saxon (cf. for instance R. Handke, Ueber das Verhaeltnis der westsaechsischen Evangelienuebersetzung zum lateinischen Original, Halle, 1896; A. S. Cook, Biblical Quotations in Old English Prose Writers, New York, 1898; Max foerster, in Englische Studien, Leipsic, 1900, p. 480). 2. The Bible of Jerome (the Vulgate): 1. Jerome's Work. The New Testament. Toward the end of the fourth century the inconvenience from which the Western Church suffered because there was no single authorized Latin version of the Bible must have been seriously felt, and Damasus, bishop of Rome (d. 384), commissioned [223]Jerome to prepare an authoritative revision, probably in the year 382. The letter with which Jerome dedicated the first part (the Gospels) to the pope gives the only authentic record of the work and its scope (cf. NPNF, 2d ser., vi, 487-488). Jerome accepts the task set him by Damasus, notes its extreme difficulty and the resulting peril to himself, anticipates the harshest criticism of himself and of the results of his labor, and states that his emendations have been as conservative as possible. Not withstanding Jerome's modesty concerning his work, it has had an unparalleled history, inasmuch as it became the Bible of the whole Occident. To estimate Jerome's work properly, it would be necessary (1) to know what were the Latin texts which he had to revise; (2) what were the Greek texts which he chose as standard; (3) to have his work in its original form. The last is now realized, at least for the first part of the New Testament, since the monumental edition of Wordsworth-White. The Greek manuscript or manuscripts used by Jerome must have been of the type of the Codices Vaticanus and Sinaiticus; there are, however, some readings not attested by any Greek manuscript (cf., for instance, John x, 16, unum ovile; xvi, 13, docebit; and on this question cf. the letter of Wordsworth and White in The Academy, Jan. 27, 1894; their Epilogue, 657-672; E. Mangenot, in RSE, Jan., 1900). About Jerome's Latin texts there is still less information. Wordsworth and White printed under Jerome's text that of the Codex Brixianus (f) as most nearly related to it; but according to Burkitt and Kaufmann it is rather a text of Jerome himself adapted to the Gothic version. Jerome's statement in his prefatory letter that he changed as little as possible is probably true; for the language indicates that the Gospels came from different translators. Identical expressions in Greek are quite differently rendered into Latin (cf. the history of the Passion in the different Gospels, and notice for instance lagenam aquae baiulans = amphoram aquae portans or the rendering of "high priest" in Matthew by princeps sacerdotum, in Mark by summus sacerdos, in John by pontifex). It is, therefore, quite wrong to treat the Vulgate of the Gospels as a harmonious work, and it is clear that the value of it for textual criticism is greatly enhanced, since it preserves the text of the time when the Gospels were not yet united into one collection. Whether also in the second part of the New Testament such differences can be detected has not yet been investigated. It is not even quite certain how far Jerome revised the second part of the New Testament. Only the Gospels have his prefaces, and Augustine writes to him only of the Gospel: "We give no small thanks to God for your work in which you have interpreted the Gospel from the Greek." Jerome, however, answers: "If, as you say, you suspect me of emending the New Testament"; and in 398 he wrote to Lucinius Beticus, to whom he sent the first copy ready (Epist., lxxi, 5, NPNF, 2d series, vi, 154): "The New Testament I have restored to the authoritative form of the Greek." In his De vir. ill. he says: "The New Testament I have restored to the true Greek form, the Old I have rendered from the Hebrew." 2. The Old Testament. Jerome's work on the Old Testament was more thorough. First he revised the Psalter [from the Septuagint] in 383 in Rome. This revision was introduced by Damasus into the liturgy and is hence called the Psalterium Romanum in distinction from the Psalterium vetus or the unrevised Old Latin. It was in use in Italy till Pius V (1566-72), and it is still used in St. Peter's in Rome and in Milan, partly in the Roman Missal and in one place in the Breviary, in the hortatory Psalm xcv (xciv). About four years later in Palestine Jerome revised the Psalms a second time, making use of the critical marks of Origen, the obelus and asterisk. This revision is known as the Gallican Psalter, as it was first used chiefly in Gaul (it seems through Gregory of Tours), but finally it became the current version in the Latin Church (through Pius V), of course without the critical marks. At last Jerome translated the Psalms from the Hebrew at the suggestion of Sophronius about 392 (not 405, as Lagarde has it); but this remained a private labor and is not found in many manuscripts. The best edition of this version is Lagarde's Psalterium juxta Hebraeos Hieronymi (Leipsic, 1874). About the same time with his second revision of the Psalter Jerome revised the translation of Job (preserved in a few manuscripts, especially at Oxford and St. Gall; edited by Lagarde, Mittheilungen, ii, 189 sqq.; cf. Caspari, in Actes du huitieme congres des Orientalistes, i, Leyden, 1893, 37-51) and most of the books of the Old Testament; but he lost the work "by the deceit of somebody." Therefore he undertook the greater labor of translating the Old Testament afresh direct from the Hebrew. He began in 390 with Samuel and Kings and published them with his [224]Prologus galeatus; then followed Job, the Prophets, and Psalms. About the chronological order of the rest absolute certainty is not reached. [5] He left Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Maccabees, and Baruch without revision. According to his own statement he translated the three Solomonic writings in three days, Tobit in one day, Judith in one night; for the latter two his Jewish teacher translated to him the Aramaic into Hebrew and he dictated the Latin to a copyist (cf. G. Gr?tzmacher, Hieronymus, i, Leipsic, 1901, 73-77. On Jerome's method, cf. G. Hoberg, De S. Hieronymi ratione interpretandi, Bonn, 1886; M. Rahmer, Die hebraeischen Traditionen in den Werken des Hieronymus, Breslau, 1861). 3. History to the Invention of Printing. At first Jerome's work was not well received, especially because he had dared to part with the Septuagint, which even Augustine believed to be equally inspired with the original Hebrew. An African bishop on finding hedera ("ivy") in the Book of Jonah in the new version instead of the accustomed cucurbita ("gourd") raised a tumult in his Church. Jerome's former friend Rufinus wrote expressly against the new work. "So great is the force of established usage," says Jerome, "that even acknowledged corruptions [of text] please the greater part, for they prefer to have their copies pretty rather than correct." On the other hand he knows "that they attack it in public and read it in secret." At the time of his death (420) the attacks and criticism of his opponents had ceased. We are not informed where and when complete Bibles of Jerome's version were first produced and introduced into the use of the Church. In Spain it seems to have been at a pretty early time. Cassiodorus (d. about 570) was one of the first, if not the very first, who took care to produce correct copies. From his copies are derived the introductory pieces in the Codex Amiatinus (cf. H. J. White, in Studia Biblica, ii, Oxford, 1890, 273; P. Corssen, Die Bibeln des Cassiodorius, JPT, 1883, 1891). Pope Gregory the Great wrote at the end of the sixth century: "I indeed circulate the new translation; but when the course of argument demands it, I use now the new and now the old by way of proof; and this because the Apostolic See, over which under God I preside, uses both and by the study of both my toil is lightened." By that time the name Vulgata ("common," "ordinary"), which before had meant the Septuagint and its Latin translation, had gone over to the work of Jerome. Roger Bacon says of it "that [version] which is diffused among the Latins is that which the Church receives in these days: "But even in the printed editions of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries this name is not yet as invariable as we are inclined to suppose; and despite the warning of Walafrid Strabo, "let none desire to amend one from the other," mixing in all degrees of the old and the new texts took place and survives up to the present not only in manuscripts, but even in the printed text, as when in II Kings i, 18, the first part is from the Old Latin, and the second from Jerome. Charlemagne found several recensions in use in his dominions. In a capitulary of 789 he ordered that there should be "in each monastery and parish good copies of the catholic books, and the boys must not be permitted to deface them either in reading them or by writing on them; and if there be necessity for writing [copying] a Gospel, Psalter, or Missal, men of maturity are to do it, using all care." In 797 he committed to [225]Alcuin the "emendation of the Old and the New Testament"; and the copy of the Biblical books, "bound together in the sanctity of one most glorious body," which Alcuin offered to him on Christmas 801, must have been the first copy of this revision, of which the Codex Vallicellanus at Rome is the best representative in existence. As Alcuin was himself of Northumbria, he probably had his text brought from there, and fortunately just there the purest text seems to have survived (cf. Berger's Histoire and Wordsworth-White). At the same time Bishop Theodulf of Orleans (787-821) worked at a revision, but on very different lines. Being a Visigoth, he took Spanish manuscripts as the basis, but incorporated in the margins various readings; fortunately his work found no large circulation. It is still represented by some fine manuscripts (cf. Berger, 145-184, and Delisle, in Bibliotheque de l'Ecole des Charles, vol. xl, Paris, 1879). About the labors of [226]Lanfranc of Canterbury precise information is not obtainable; but the normal copy produced with the help of Jewish scholars by Stephen Herding, third abbot of Citeaux for the members of his order is still preserved at Dijon (cf. J. P. Martin, in RSE, 1887). Later on, critical observations on the true readings of certain passages were collected in the so-called Correctoria Biblica. The principal Correctoria are (1) the Correctorium Parisiense, prepared about 1236, also called Senonense, sneered at by Roger Bacon, who in 1267 called the Parisian text, in a letter to Pope Clement IV, "horribly corrupt"; "the correctors," he says, are "corruptors, for any reader whatsoever in the lower orders corrects as he pleases, in like manner also the preachers, and similarly the students change as they like what they do not understand"; (2) the Correctorium Sorbonicum, a sort of epitome of the larger Correctoria; (3) the Correctorium of the Dominicans, prepared under the auspices of Hugo of St. Cher, which sometimes went back of the Latin text to Greek and Hebrew manuscripts; (4) the Correctorium Vaticanum, the work of the Franciscans, perhaps especially of Willermus de Mara. (Cf. on the Correctoria, besides S. Berger, in RTP; xvi, 41, especially Denifle, in Archiv fuer Litteratur-und Kirchengeschichte, iv, Berlin, 1883, 263, 471.) By the influence of the University of Paris the text used there was the one which was most current in the Middle Ages and consequently that which found its way into the first printed editions, and gained thereby still more influence. To enumerate even the more important of the manuscripts of the Vulgate is here impossible. There are lists in J. Le Long, Bibliotheca sacra (i, Paris, 1723, 234 sqq.), and in C. Vercellone, Variae lectiones vulgatae Latinae Bibliorum editionis (i, Rome, 1860, lxxxii sqq., ii, 1864, xvii sqq.). Scrivener's Introduction (ii, London, 1804, 67-90) has a select list of 181 manuscripts, chiefly of the New Testament, by H. J. White; Berger's Histoire (Paris 1893, 374-422) one of 253; Gregory's Prolegomena (iii, Leipsic, 1894, 983-1108) notes some 2,270, and his Textkritik (2 vols., Leipsic, 1900-02) 2,369, reserving some for an appendix. H. J. White (DB, iv, 886-889) classifies them under the following headings: (1) Early Italian texts; (2) Early Spanish texts; (3) Italian texts transcribed in Britain; (4) Continental manuscripts written by Irish or Saxon scribes and showing a mixture of the two types of text; (5) Type of text current in Languedoc; (6) Other French texts; (7) Swiss manuscripts, especially of St. Gall; (8) Aleuinian recension; (9) Theodulfian recension; (10) Medieval texts. 4. Earlier Printed Editions. Naturally Bibles and parts of the Bible were among the earliest of printed books, and as a matter of course the text presented was the Vulgate. The Mazarin Bible, so called, because a copy in the library of Cardinal Mazarin first attracted the attention of bibliographers--i.e., the Bible in forty- two lines, not that in thirty-six--is now proved to be the first Bible printed by Gutenberg. His Psalter of 1457 is the first book with a printed date, while the Psalter of 1459 is one of the most costly of books. A Bible printed at Mainz 1462 is the first dated Bible. The first Bible printed at Rome is of 1471, by Sweinheim and Pannartz, printed in 250 copies. Of ninety-two editions of the fifteenth century which can be localized, thirty-six belong to Germany (to Nuremberg 13, Strasburg 8, Cologne 7, Mainz 3, Speyer 2, Bamberg 1, and Ulm 1, the latter of 1480 being the first Bible with summaries); twenty-nine belong to Italy, twenty-four of them to Venice. In England in the whole period none is known. The first quarto Bible is believed to have been printed at Piacenza 1475, and the first octavo at Basel 1491 (because of its small size called the first "poor man's Bible"). An undated Bible, probably of 1478, has for the first time the verses: Fontibus ex graecis hebraeorum quoque libris Emendata satis et decorata simul Biblia sum praesens, superos ego testor et astra. Copinger mentions 124 editions of the Latin Bible prior to 1500, of the sixteenth century he knows 438 editions, of the seventeenth 262, of the eighteenth 192, of the nineteenth (till 1892) 133, in all 1,149. These figures show that, under the influence of the religious and intellectual awakening, the sixteenth century was the time of the Latin Bible. The bad state of the text soon became evident and attempts were made to improve it from the original texts, as by the editors of the Complutensian Polyglot (see [227]Bibles, Polyglot, I), and, among Protestants, first by Andreas Osiander (Nuremberg, 1522) and at Wittenberg, in an edition of the Pentateuch, Joshua-Kings, and the New Testament, ascribed to Luther and Melanchthon (1529), then by Lukas Osiander at Tuebingen (9 vols., 1573-1586), with an "exposition." Of greater importance are the attempts to correct the text from the Latin manuscripts, to which Lorenzo della Valle had called attention in the fifteenth century. Erasmus published his In Latinam Novi Testamenti interpretationem ex collatione graecorum exemplarium annotationes apprime Wiles at Paris in 1505. The French printer [228]Robert Stephens in particular corrected the text from manuscripts and put variant readings on the margins (cf. Wordsworth, in OLBT, i, 1883, 47-54). For his edition of 1528 he used three good manuscripts, for the larger of 1540 not less than seventeen; his impression of 1555 is the first complete Bible with the modern verse division, and his text became the basis of the official Roman text through the mediation of the edition undertaken by the theological faculty of Louvain under the guidance of Johannes Hentenius after comparison of some thirty manuscripts (Louvain, 1547). 5. The Sixtine-Clemintine Edition. All these editions were private undertakings. In its fourth session (Apr. 8, 1546), the Council of Trent decreed that "of all Latin editions the old and vulgate (vulgata) edition be held as authoritative in public lectures, disputations, sermons, and expositions; and that no one is to dare or presume under any pretext to reject it." The council decreed at the same time that "this same old and vulgate edition be printed in as correct form as possible." It does not appear that steps were taken to entrust a special person or body with the latter task. The edition of Hentenius was used for a long time as the best available. At last several popes took the matter in hand, and after various attempts of Pius IV and Pius V, at last Sixtus V carried the work to completion through a committee, with Cardinal Antonio Caraffa at its head, and published the Biblia Sacra Vulgatae Editionis tribus tomis distincta. Romae: ex Typographia Apostolica Vaticana M.D.XC (on a second title-page: Biblia Sacra Vulgatae Editionis ad concilii Tridentini praescriptum emendata et a Sixto V. P. M. recognita et approbata). In the constitution AEternus ille (Mar. 1, 1589; not included in the Bullarium Romanum; printed in Thomas James, Bellum papale, London, 1600, and L. van Ess, Geschichte der Vulgata, Tuebingen, 1821, 269) Sixtus had declared the edition "true, lawful, authentic, and not to be questioned in disputations, either public or private." No future edition was to be published without the express permission of the Holy See, and for the next ten years it was forbidden to reprint it in any place except the Vatican; can; all future editions were to be carefully collated with it, "that no smallest part be changed, added to, or taken away," and they were to be accompanied with the official attestation of the inquisitor of the province or of the bishop of the diocese, no variant readings, scholia, or glosses being allowed on the margins. In August of 1590 Sixtus V died, and was followed by several short-lived popes; in 1592 Clement VIII called in all copies of the edition which were within reach--copies are, therefore, of extreme rarity--and replaced it under the direction of Cardinal Bellarmine with a new Biblia Sacra Vulgatae Editionis. Romae: Ex Typographia Apostolica Vaticana M.D.XCII (on the second title-page: Biblia Sacra Vulgatae Editionis Sixti Quinti Pont. Max. Jussu recognita atque edita). The accompanying bull decreed: "From the form of this copy let not even the least particle be changed, added to, or taken away, unless it happens that some fault is unmistakably due to typographical carelessness--let this be inviolably observed." The reasons for this whole proceeding are not quite clear. That the printing of the first edition was not correct enough is not true; as a matter of fact the Sixtine edition is typographically more correct than the Clementine, but the text of the Clementine is an improvement on that of the Sixtine. Sixtus was personally interested in the work and changed the text frequently to accord with that of Stephens, while the editors of the Clementine edition followed more often that of Hentenius. There are some 3,000 differences between the two editions. Nevertheless the names of both popes were placed on the title-pages of the later reprints, first, it seems, at Lyons, 1604, then at Mainz, 1609, the official title being now: Sixti V. et Clementis VIII. Pontt. Maxx. jussu recognita atque edita. A quarto edition was issued in 1593 with "marginal references, explanations of Hebrew names, and an index of subjects," and a small quarto edition in 1598 with a correctorium. All four editions (1590, 1592, 1593, 1598) are compared by Leander van Ess in his edition of the Vulgate (3 parts, Tuebingen, 1822-24). Of editions by other editors, those of C. Vercellone (Rome, 1861) and particularly M. Hetzenauer (Innsbruck, 1906) may be mentioned; the latter has useful appendices. 6. Later Work. Problems. Since the edition of 1592 scarcely any attempt has been made in the Roman Church to apply to its Bible the most necessary emendation. D. Vallarsi printed an emended text (Verona, 1734), under the title Divina bibliotheca, in his edition of the works of Jerome. [A Biblical commission was appointed late in the pontificate of Leo XIII, and Pius X has lately commissioned members of the Benedictine Order to revise the Vulgate. It is intended to restore, so far as possible, the exact text of Jerome.] Among Protestants, Richard Bentley contemplated a new edition of the Latin New Testament together with the Greek (see [229]Bible Text, II, 2, S: 3); about the same time [230]J. A. Bengal did much for it; in the nineteenth century S. Berger in France should have the greatest credit for clearing up the history of the Latin Bible; at last Wordsworth-White have issued what must be called the first critical edition of the Latin New Testament; and in Bavaria P. Thielmann is engaged in publishing those books of the Old Testament which were not translated by Jerome himself. It is a matter of surprise that a task so easy and interesting as the criticism of the Latin Bible has received so little attention. Berger knew more than 8,000 manuscripts of the Latin Bible; few of them have been properly investigated. What kind of surprises they may offer is shown by the recent discovery of two different translations of the Third Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians in two manuscripts of the tenth and thirteenth centuries at Milan and Laon. The order of the Biblical books in the manuscripts; the prefaces and summaries (cf. on this point Les Prefaces jointes aux livres de la Bible dans les manuscrits de la Vulgate; memoire posthume de M. Samuel Berger, in the Memoires de l'Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, ser. i,. vol. xi, part 2, 1902); the capitulation and divisions; the illumination and miniatures (many of the manuscripts belong to the most beautiful productions of Christian art); ecclesiastical or private notes; connection with the vernacular versions, influence upon the dialects of Europe; lists of the passages in literature which mention manuscripts of the Latin Bible; and many other points may be named as those which await investigation. 3. Later Latin Translations. That the Latin Vulgate was not sufficient was asserted in the Middle Ages by scholars like Nicolaus de Lyra and Raymond Martini. The English Benedictine Adam Easton (d. 1397) is said to have been one of the first to think of a new translation. It was Erasmus, however, who vindicated the right to place new Latin translations by the side of the Vulgate through his translation of the New Testament (Basel, 1516, 1519, 1522, 1527, 1535, and more than 200 times since the death of Erasmus; see [231]Bible Text, II, 2, S: 1; [232]Erasmus, Desiderius). He has had many followers who have translated into Latin either the Old or the New Testament or both, as well as separate books of the Bible, even as late as the nineteenth century. But the time has passed when Latin versions were necessary or helpful; since the Reformation translations into the vernacular languages have taken their place. The more important new translations of the whole Bible are those of the Dominican Sanctes Pagninus (Lyons, 1528; revised and annotated by Michael Servetus, Lyons 1542), of Arias Montanus in the Antwerp Polyglot (1572), and one prepared under the direction of Cardinal Cajetan (1530 sqq.; see [233]Cajetan, Thomas). The Old Testament was newly translated by the Hebraist Sebastian Muenster (Basel 1534-35 and often); by Leo Jud and (after Jud's death) T. Bibliander, C. Pellican, P. Cholinus, and R. Gualtherus (Zurich, 1543); by Sebastian Castellio (complete ed., Basel, 1651, with a dedication to King Edward VI of England); by Immanuel Tremellius, a Jew of Ferrara, and his son-in-law, Franciscus Junius. (du Jon; 5 parts, Frankfort, 1575-79; best ed., with full index, by P. Tossanus, Hanau, 1624. Tremellius's work was well received); by J. Piscator (24 parts, Herborn, 1601-1616; really a revision of Tremellius); by Thomas Malvenda, a Spanish Dominican (left incomplete at Malvenda's death in 1628 and first published with his Commentarii, 5 vols., Lyons, 1650); by J. Cocceius (published with his commentaries, Opera, vols. i-vi, Amsterdam, 1701; incomplete; contains also most of the New Testament); by Sebastian Schmid, a Strasburg Lutheran, who worked forty years on the translation (Strasburg, 1696; photographic facsimile, with manuscript notes by Swedenborg, ed. R. L. Tafel, Stockholm, 1872); by Jean Le Clerc (Claricus; Amsterdam, 1693-1731); by C. F. Houbigant (4 vols., Paris, 1753); by J. A. Dathe (Halle, 1773-89); and by H. A. Schott and J. F. Winzer (Leipsic, 1816). Forty years after the first edition of the New Testament of Erasmus, Beza's Latin New Testament appeared (Geneva, 1556, 1565, 1582, 1588, 1598, and more than 100 subsequent editions; by the BFBS, 1896). A translation by H. A. Schott was published at Leipsic in 1805. The latest works of the kind are by F. A. A. Naebe (Leipsic, 1831) and A. Goeschen (Leipsic, 1832). For other translations, including those of separate books of the Bible, cf. the Hauck-Herzog RE, iii, 49-58. On translations of the Psalms into Latin verse, cf. Hugues Vaganay, Les Traductions du Psautier en vers latin au seizieme siecle, in Compte rendu du quatrieme Congres international des Catholiques (Freiburg, 1898), part vi, Sciences philologiques. E. Nestle. Bibliography: On the Latin Bible before Jerome consult: H. Roensch, Itala und Vulgata, Marburg, 1875; idem, in ZWT, 1875, pp. 76, 81, 425, 1876, pp. 397, 1881, p. 198; Desjacques, in Etudes, religieuses, Philosophiques, historiques et litteraires de la compagnie de Jesus, 1878, pp. 721-724; L. Ziegler, Die lateinischen Uebersetzungen vor Hieronymus und die Itala des Augustinus, Munich, 1879; G. Koffmane, Geschichte des Kirchenlateins bis auf Augustinus-Hieronymus, Breslau, 1879-81; P. Corssen, Die vermeintliche "Itala" und die Bibeluebersetzung des Hieronymus, in JPT, 1881, pp. 507-519; F. Zimmer, in TSK, 1889; F. C. Burkitt, The Old Latin and the Itala, in TS, iv, 3, Cambridge, 1896; E. Ehrlich, Beitraege zur Latinitaet der Itala, Rochlitz, 1895; idem, Quae sit Italae quae dicitur verborum tenacitas, Leipsic, 1889; P. Monceaux, Les Africains. Etude sur la litterature Latine d'Afrique and La Bible Latine en Afrique, in REJ, 1901; DB, iii, 47-84; EB, iv, 5022-24. On the Vulgate consult: S. Berger, Histoire de la Vulgate, Paris, 1893 (this work was crowned by the Academy, pp. xx-xxiv contain a full list of earlier literature); G. Riegler, Geschichte der Vulgata, Sulzbach, 1820; L. Van Ess, Pragmatisch-kritische Geschichte der Vulgata, Tuebingen, 1824; A. Schmitter, Kurze Geschichte der hieronymianischen Bibeluebersetzung, Freysing, 1842; F. Kaulen, Geschichte der Vulgata, Mainz, 1868; O. Rottmanner, in Historisch-Politische Blaetter, cxiv, 31-38, 101-108; DB, iv, 873-890. On the grammar and the language consult: W. Nowack, Die Bedeutung des Hieronymus fuer die alttestamentliche Textkritik, Goettingen, 1875; J. A. Hagen, Sprachliche Eroerterungen zur Vulgata, Freiburg, 1863; J. B. Heiss, Zur Grammatik der Vulgata, Munich, 1864; V. Loch, Materialien zu einer lateinischen Grammatik der Vulgata, Bamberg, 1870; P. Hake, Sprachliche Bemerkungen zu dem Psalmentexte der Vulgata, Arnsberg, 1872; H. Goelzer, Etude . . . de la latinite de St. Jerome, Paris, 1884; P. Thielmann, in Philologus, xlii, 319, 370; G. A. Saalfeld, De bibliorum sacrorum Vulgatae editionis graecitate, Quedlinburg, 1891; W. M. C. Wilroy, The Participle in the Vulgate N. T., Baltimore, 1892; L. B. Andergassen, Ueber den Gebrauch des Infinitive in der Vulgata, 1891; P. Thielmann, Beitraege zur Textkritik der Vulgata, Speier, 1883; S. Berger, in Revue de theologie et de Philosophie, xvi (1883), 41 sqq.; idem, in Memoires de la societe des antiquaires de France, lii, 144; P. Martin, in Le Museon, vii (1888), 88-107, 169-196, viii (1889), 444; H. P. Smith, in Presbyterian and Reformed Review, April, 1891; E. von Dobschuetz, Studien zur Textkritik der Vulgata, Leipsic, 1894 (cf. on it H. J. White, in Critical Review, 1896, pp. 243-246); J. Ecker, Porta Sions, Lexikon zum lateinischen Psalter, viii, 234 1,936 columns, Trier, 1904; F. Kaulen, Sprachliches Handbuch zur biblischen Vulgata, Freiburg, 1904 (cf. on it Juelicher, in TLZ, 1905, no. 6). On the printed text consult: W. A. Copinger, Incunabula biblica, etc., London, 1892; cf. L. Delisle, in Journal des savans, 1893, pp 202-218, where Copinger's 124 editions prior to 1500 are reduced to ninety-nine, and W. Mueller, in Dziatzko's Bibliothekswissenschaftliche Arbeiten, no. 6, 1894, pp. 84-95); L. Hain, Repertorium bibliographicum, 4 vols., Paris, 1826-38, Index volume, Leipsic, 1891, Supplement by W. A. Copinger, 3 vols., London, 1895-1902, Appendices by D. Reichling, fasciculus 1, Munich, 1905 (gives ninety-seven editions prior to 1500). On the first printed Bible consult K. Dziatzko, Gutenbergs frueheste Druckerpraxis auf Grund einer Vergleichung der 42zeiligen und 36zeiligen Bibel, Leipsic, 1891; L. Delisle, in Journal des savans, 1894, pp. 401-413; British Museum Catalogue, entry Bible. III. Syriac Versions. 1. The Peshito. 1. Origin and Name. According to some Syrians certain of the Biblical books (enumerated by Ishodad, bishop of Haditha, c. 852) were translated into Syriac under Solomon at the request of Hiram, king of Tyre. Another tradition refers this work to a priest Asa or Ezra, who was sent by the king of Assyria to Samaria, and the rest of the Old Testament with the New to the days of King Abgar V of Edessa and the apostle Addai (i.e., Thaddaeus; see [234]Abgar. Cf. II Kings xvii, 24, I Chron. xv, 18, in the editions of Lee and Ceriani; J. P. N. Land, Anecdota Syriaca, iii, Leyden, 1870, 11; Bar Hebraeus on Ps. x; JA, 1872, 458). Bar Hebraeus makes the strange statement that, according to Eusebius (cf. Hist. eccl., VI, xvi, 4, and VI, xvii), Origen found the Syriac version in the keeping of a widow at Jericho; and equally curious is the tradition which refers the translation of the New Testament to Mark. Some manuscripts of the Psalms state that they were translated from Palestinian into Hebrew, from Hebrew into Greek, from Greek into Syriac. Theodore of Mopsuestia (commentary on Zeph. i, 6) rightly says: "These books were translated into Syriac by some one, but who he was no one knows to this day." Some scholars have thought to discover, at least for the New Testament, the influence of the Latin Vulgate; more probable is the supposition that at least some parts of the Old Testament are pre-Christian or certainly Jewish; and the home of the translation is not Jerusalem and Palestine (JA, 1872, 458) or Antioch, but Edessa and its neighborhood. The name which is commonly given to the oldest and most important Syriac version, "Peshito" ("Peshitto"), is first found with Moses bar Kepha (d. 913) and in Masoretic manuscripts of the ninth and tenth centuries (cf. N. P. S. Wiseman, Horae Syriacae, Rome, 1828, p. 223; J. P. P. Martin, Introduction `a la critique textuelle du Nouveau Testament, Paris, 1883, p. 101; ZDMG, xxxii, 589). It means "the simple" in contradistinction to the more elaborate versions, such as that made from the Greek by Paul of Tella (see below, [235]2; on the name, cf. K. W. M. Montijn and J. P. N. Land, in Godgeleerde Bijdragen, 1882; F. Field, Origenis Hexapla, i, Oxford, 1875, p. ix; ZDMG, xlvii, 157, 316; A. Mez, Die Bibel des Josephus, Basel, 1895, 4; F. C. Burkitt, Early Eastern Christianity, London, 1904, chap. ii). 2. The Old Testament. The Syriac Old Testament is practically the same as that of the Palestinian Jews. Chronicles, however, was missing in the Nestorian canon and, as it seems, also in that of the Jacobites; at least it is not treated in their Masoretic manuscripts, but it is found in very old manuscripts. Ezra-Nehemiah too are not treated in the Masoretic manuscripts nor Esther by the Nestorians, while in Jacobite manuscripts this book together with Judith, Ruth, Susanna, and Thecla forms the "Book of Women" (cf. A. Baumstark, in Oriens Christianus, iii, Leipsic, 1901, 353). After the Law there follows as the second part the "Book of Sessions," i.e., Job, Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Proverbs, Ecclesiasticus, Ecclesiastes, Ruth, Song of Solomon. Among the prophets, Isaiah (sometimes divided at xxv, 2) is followed by the minor prophets, then Jeremiah (with a division at xxxii, 6) with Baruch i-ii and the Epistle of Jeremiah, then Ezekiel and Daniel. Manuscripts with the Apocrypha are called "catholic" or "pandects"; they do not contain I Esdras, Tobit, or the Prayer of Manasses, but have an Apocalypse of Baruch, IV Esdras, and even the story of Shamuna and Josephus, War, V, as IV and V Maccabees. Tobit, as far as chap. vii, 11, is preserved only in the translation of Paul of Tella, but from that point on there is a still later text. Accurate manuscripts give stichometrical lists (cf. Martin, Introduction, 677; J. R. Harris, On the Origin of the Ferrar Group, London, 1893, 10, 26; DB, iv, 650). The character of the translation is different in various books; it is very literal in the Law, influenced by the Septuagint in Isaiah and the minor prophets, probably also in the Psalms. Ruth is paraphrastic. Chronicles resembles a Jewish targum, while the Syriac Proverbs has been used in the Targum. Ecclesiasticus is taken from the Hebrew. 3. The New Testament. Up to 1858 only one old version of the New Testament in Syriac was known in Europe; viz., that published for the first time by J. A. Widmanstadt (Vienna, 1555). Textual critics considered it "the queen of the Bible translations." In 1858 W. Cureton published in London, from manuscripts which had come into the British Museum in 1842, Remains of a very Antient Recension of the Four Gospels in Syriac hitherto Unknown in Europe. The great value of this recension was soon recognized, and was greatly enhanced when, in 1892, a second manuscript of it was discovered in a palimpsest on Mount Sinai by Mrs. A. S. Lewis and her sister, Mrs. M. D. Gibson, which was published under the title, The Four Gospels in Syriac Transcribed from the Sinaitic Palimpsest by the Late R. L. Bensly . . . J. R. Harris . . . and F. C. Burkitt. With an Introduction by Agnes Smith Lewis (Cambridge, 1894). Mrs. Lewis published Some Pages of the Four Gospels Retranscribed from the Syriac Palimpsest with a Translation of the Whole Text (London, 1894). F. C. Burkitt published Evangelion da-Mepharreshe: The Curetonian Version of the Four Gospels, with the Readings of the Sinai Palimpsest and the Early Syriac Patristic Evidence Edited, Collected, and Arranged (vol. i, text and translation, vol. ii, introduction and notes, Cambridge, 1904). Burkitt's title is taken from the heading or subscription of the two manuscripts and means "the Gospel of the Separated" (i.e., "the Separated Gospels"), used in contradistinction to the Diatessaron of Tatian, which was called among the Syrians "the Gospel of the Combined" ("the Combined Gospels"). Herein is indicated the first problem in the history of the Syriac New Testament. It is well known that a harmony of the Gospels was used in the Syriac Church till the beginning of the fifth century, when Theodoret removed the copies in his diocese, and Rabbulas of Edessa ordered that the "Gospel of the Separated" should be read in church. The great question concerns the relationship of the Peshito, the Mepharreshe, and Tatian. It seems certain that the three are interrelated. It seems further to have been proved by Burkitt that the Peshito is the latest, and is in all probability the revision which Rabbulas of Edessa (d. 435) is said to have undertaken. The decision of the other question, whether the Mepharreshe or Tatian is the earlier, is made difficult by the fact that Tatian's work is not preserved in its original form, and further by the fact that the two representatives of the Mepharreshe, the manuscripts of Cureton and Lewis, differ greatly. But on the whole it seems most probable that Tatian was the first to bring the Gospel to the Syrians in the form of his Diatessaron, and that then on the basis of his harmony the version of the separate Gospels originated. Burkitt is inclined to believe that this was toward the end of the second century, perhaps under the influence of the Church of Antioch, through Paul of Edessa. The opposite view, that the Mepharreshe is earlier than Tatian, is taken by Hjelt, who believed he was able to show that the Gospels in the Mepharreshe were translated by different hands, and that the first Gospel especially betrays a Jewish character. Without the discovery of new evidence the question will be very difficult to decide. No manuscript of an early Syriac version of the Acts and the Pauline Epistles is known. But that there was an older version can be proved from the quotations of such early writers as Aphrarates and Ephraem, and perhaps also from readings in the Armenian version. In early times the apocryphal correspondence with the Corinthians was placed with the Epistles of Paul. The Catholic Epistles were at first totally unknown, as is expressly stated by Theodore of Mopsuestia and Theodore bar Koni (cf. A. Baumstark, in Oriens Christianus, i, 176, iii, 555). In the Peshito as we have it the three greater of them are found, in accordance with the use of the Church of Antioch. Still later the four others were added. It is strange that the Nestorian inscription of Singan-fu (see [236]Nestorians) speaks of twenty-seven books of the New Testament. Revelation never formed part of the canon among the Syrians (cf. on the Syriac canon, T. Zahn, Grundriss der Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanons, Leipsic, 1904, S: 6; J. A. Bewer, The History of the New Testament Canon in the Syrian Church, Chicago, 1900; W. Bauer, Der Apostolos der Syrer, Giessen, 1903), and whether the Pauline collection included Philemon can not be decided. 2. Later Versions. The Nestorian patriarch Mar Abba (d. 552) is said by Bar Hebraeus, Ebed Jesu, and Amru to have translated and explained the Old and New Testaments from the Greek; but nothing more is known about it. In 508 Philoxenus of Mabug with the help of his coadjutor Polycarp translated at least some parts of the Old Testament and undertook a new version of the New Testament. Parts of Isaiah preserved in a manuscript of the British Museum may belong to this version (ed. A. Ceriani, Monumenta sacra et profana, v, 5, Milan, 1873, 1-40). According to Bernstein, the Gospels are contained in manuscript A2 of the Angelican library at Rome. Isaac H. Hall published a Syriac Manuscript. Gospels from a pre-Harklensian Version, Acts and Epistles of the, Peshitto Version, Written (probably) between 700 and 900 A.D. Presented to the Syrian Protestant College [Beirut] (Philadelphia, 1884). The minor epistles, first published by E. Pococke in 1630 and since often found in editions of the Syriac New Testament, are very likely part of this version, and so is the version of Revelation discovered by J. Gwynn and published by him (Dublin, 1897). About one hundred years later the work of translation was resumed, for the Old Testament, by Paul of Tella (the so-called Syro-Hexaplar version; see above, [237]I, 1, S: 6), and, for the New Testament, by Thomas of Heraclea (Harkel in Mesopotamia). This version was published by J. White under the inappropriate title, Versio Philoxeniana (Oxford, 1778-1803). A lacuna in the Epistle to the Hebrews was filled in by R. L. Bensly (Harklean Version of the Epistle to the Hebrews xi, 28-xiii, 25, London, 1889). W. Deane began a new edition but was prevented from finishing it. Its completion, especially for the Acts, is much to be desired. For his marginal notes, Thomas made use of a manuscript closely related to the Greek codex D (cf. A. Pott, Der abendlaendische Text der Apostelgeschichte, Leipsic, 1900, and Hilgenfeld, in ZWT, xliii, 1900, p. 3). The Syriac text of Revelation published by De Dieu (Leyden, 1627) and now in the common Syriac New Testaments belongs to this version (cf. J. Gwynn, in Hermathena, 1898, 227-245). On the revision of the Old Testament undertaken by Jacob of Edessa in 704-705, cf. Kamphausen, in TSK, 1869, 753, and A. Ceriani, Monumenta sacra et profana, v, 1 (Milan, 1871). Mention must also be made of the Palestinian version (used by the Melchite Church in Palestine and Egypt). Of the Old Testament, only fragments remain. The New Testament has been known from an evangeliarium at Rome since 1789 (published by F. Miniscalchi-Erizzo, Verona, 1861-1864, and by Lagarde, Bibliotheca Syriaca, Goettingen, 1892). Since that time many new texts have been brought to light, especially through Mrs. Lewis. A full list is given in the Lexicon syropalaestinum of F. Schulthess (Berlin, 1903), pp. vii-xvi. F. C. Burkitt (JTS, ii, 183) gives reasons for believing that this literature may have a connection with the attempts of Justinian in the fifth century to extirpate the Samaritans, and of Heraclius early in the sixth century to harass the Jews. This peculiar dialect is important lexically, as being closely akin to the language spoken in Galilee. E. Nestle. Bibliography: The first parts of the Bible printed in Syriac are in Ambrosius Theseus, Introductio in Chaldaicam linguam, Syriacum alque Armenicam, Pavia, 1539 (cf. ZDMG, lviii, 1904, 601). The Old Testament appeared first in the Paris Polyglot, vols. vi-ix, 1632-45, then in the London Polyglot, vols. i-iv, 1654-57, reprinted by S. Lee for the BFBS, London, 1823 (other copies, 1824; on their differences--one set contains Ps. cli, the other not--cf. ZDMG, lix, 1905, 31), and at Urumiah (with modern Syriac added), 1852. The text is very bad, resting on a single late manuscript at Paris adapted by Gabriel Sionita, editor of the Paris Polyglot, from which the London Polyglot and Lee took it with scarcely any correction the Urumiah edition, at least in some parts, with but few corrections (cf. W. E. Barnes, An Apparatus critical to Chronicles in the Peshitta Version, Cambridge, 1897; G. Diettrich, Ein Apparatus criticus zur Pe?itto zum Propheten Jesaia, Giessen, 1905). Bernstein and Rahlfe have published emendations, the former in ZDMG, iii, 1849, 387-396, the latter in ZATW, ix, 1889, 161-210. A. M. Ceriani published a photographic reproduction of the Codex Ambrosianus, Milan, 1876-83. The Apocrypha was published by Lagarde, Leipsic, 1861. The first critical edition of the Gospels was by P. E. Pusey and G. H. Gwilliam, Oxford, 1901; for the rest of the New Testament there are the editions of the American mission at Urumiah, 1846, New York, 1846, etc. The edition most used in textual criticism hitherto has been that of J. Leusden and C. Schaaf, Leyden, 1709 and 1717, reprinted by Jones, Oxford, 1805 (cf. Tischendorf on Matt. x, 8, with the note of Pusey-Gwilliam). The entire Bible was printed by the Dominicans at Mosul, 1887-91. A list of editions to 1888 is contained in Nestle, Litteratura Syriaca (reprinted from Syrische Grammatik, Berlin, 1888), 17-30. Consult further: Beck, Editiones principes Novi Testamenti Syriaci, Basel, 1771; J. Le Long, Bibliotheca sacra, emendata . . . ab A. G. Masch, i, part 4, pp. 54-102, 5 vols., Halle, 1778-90; A. M. Ceriani, Le Editioni e i manoscritti delle versione Siriache del vecchio Testamento, Milan, 1889; Printed editions of the Syriac New Testament, in Church Quarterly Review, July, 1888, 255-297; Syriac New Testament translated into Eng. by J. Murdock, with a bibliographical Appendix, by I. H. Hall, 6th ed., Boston, 1893; G. H. Gwilliam, The Ammonian Sections, Eusebian Canons and Harmonizing Tables in the Syriac Tetraeuangelium, in Studia Biblica et Ecclesiastica, ii, Oxford, 1890; idem, Materials for the Criticism of the Peshitto, ib, iii, 1891; Scrivener, Introduction, ii, 6-40; F. C. Burkitt, Evangelion da-Mepharreshe, Introduction, vol. i, London, 1905. On the Old Testament in the Peshito consult: J. Prager, De veteris testamenti versions Syriaca quam Peschitto, Goettingen,1875; J. Perles, Meletemata Peschitthoniana, Breslau, 1860; J. M. Schoenfelder, Onkelos und Peschittho, Munich, 1869. On parts of the Old Testament: L. Hirsel, De Pentateuchi versionis Syriacae indole, Leipsic, 1815; S. D. Lussatto, Philoxenus sive de Onkelosi Chaldaica Pentateuchi versione, Vienna, 1830; F. Tuch, De Lipsiensi codice Pentateuchi Syriaco, Leipsic, 1849; E. Schwartz, Die syrische Uebersetzung des 1. Samuelis, Berlin, 1897; J. Berliner, Die Peschitta zum 1. Buch der Koenige, Berlin, 1897; S. Fraenkel, in JPT, 1879, pp. 508, 720 (on Chronicles); A Oliver, A Transl. of the Syriac Peschito Version of the Psalms, Boston, 1861; F. Baethgen, Untersuchungen ueber die Psalmen nach der Peschito, Kiel. 1878; idem, in JPT, viii (1882), 405, 593; F. Dietrich, Commentato de psalterii usu in ecclesia Syriaca, Marburg, 1862; B. Oppenheim, Die syrische Uebersetzung . . . der Psalmen, Leipsic, 1891; J. F. Berg, Influence of the Septuagint upon the Peshitta Psalter New York, 1895; Techen, Glossar, in ZATW, xvii (1897), 129, 280 (on Psalms); Baumann (on Job), in ZATW, xviii-xx (1898-1900); J. A. Dathe, De ratione consensus . . . Syriacae Proverbiorum, Leipsic, 1764; A. S. Kamenetzky (on Ecclesiastes), in ZATW xxiv (1904); G. Dietrich, Die Massorah der oestlichen und westlichen Syrer, London, 1899; idem, Textkritischer Apparat, 1905 (Isaiah); C. H. Cornill, Das Buch des Propheten Ezechiel, pp. 137-156, Leipsic, 1886; C. A. Credner, De prophetarum minorum versionis Syriacae . . . indole, Goettingen,1827; M. Seboek (Schoenberger), Die syrische Uebersetzung der zwoelf Prophsten, Breslau, 1887; V. Ryssel, Untersuchungen ueber die Textgestalt . . . des Buches Micha, Leipsic 1887; J. J. Kneucker, Das Buch Baruch, pp. 190-198, Leipsic, 1889; T. Noeldeke, Die Texte des Buches Tobit, in Monatsberichte der Berliner Akadamie, 1879, pp. 45-69. On the New Testament: The Peshito Versions of the Gospels, ed. G. W. Gwilliam, London, 1901. On the Curetonian: C. Hermansen, De codice evangeliorum Syriaco, Copenhagen, 1869; Le Hir, Etude sur une ancienne version syriaque des evangiles, Paris, 1859; G. Wildeboer, De waarde der syrische evangelian, door Cureton ontdekt, Leyden, 1880; Fr. Baethgen, Evangelienfragmente, Leipsic, 1885; H. Harman, Cureton Fragments, in JBL, 1885, June-Dec., pp. 28-48. On the Mepharreshe, J. R. Crowfoot, Fragmenta Evangelica, London, 1870; idem, Collation in Greek of Cureton's Syriac Fragments, ib. 1872. On the Sinai Palimpsest: M. D. Gibson, How the Codex was found, Cambridge, 1893; Mrs. R. L. Bensly, Our Journey to Sinai . . . with a Chapter on the Sinai Palimpsest, London, 1896; K. Holshey, Der neuentdeckte Codex Syrus Sinaiticus, Munich, 1895; A. Bonus, Collatio codicis Lewisiani . . . cum codice Curetoniano, Oxford, 1896. For further accounts of the Lewis codex consult the files of the Athenaeum, Academy, Contemporary Review, Expository Times, Guardian, Church Quarterly Review, TLZ, and similar journals for the years 1893-96. On the Peshito in textual criticism consult: The Oxford Debate on The Textual Criticism of the New Testament, London, 1897; T. W. Etheridge, Horae Aramaicae. With a Transl. of . . . St. Matthew and . . . Hebrews from the . . . Peshita, London, 1843; idem, The Apostolical Acts; Transl. from the Peshito and a later Text, London, 1849; W. Norton, A Transl. . . . of the Seventeen Letters . . . of the Peshito Syriac, London, 1890; J. Gwynn, Older Syriac Version of the four Minor Catholic Epistles, in Hermathena, 1890. On Tatian: A. Hjelt, in T. Zahn, Forschungen, vii, 1 (1903); Mrs. Lewis, in Expositor, Aug., 1897, June, 1890. IV. The Samaritan Pentateuch. This must not be confounded with the Hebrew text of the Pentateuch in Samaritan characters or with the Arabic version used by the Samaritans. All three are contained in the famous triglot manuscript in the Barberini Library at Rome of the year 1227 (for facsimile cf. G. M. Bianchini's Evangeliarium quadruplex, Rome, 1749, or, on a reduced scale, F. G. Kenyon, Our Bible and the Ancient Manuscripts, London, 1896, pl. v). The question of the age of this targum depends on the decision of the question whence the readings are taken which are found under the rubric to Samaraitikon in some fifty marginal notes of Origen's Hexapla (to the passages collected by Field add Lev. xv, 8; Deut. viii, 22, xxxiv, 1-3, from the margins of Lagarde's Bibliotheca Syriaca). The most probable view seems to be that not Origen but Eusebius took these notes from the Hebrew Pentateuch as used among the Samaritans. On a Samaritan inscription found at Amwas (Emmaus) cf. Revue Biblique, 1896, p. 433. E. Nestle. The Samaritan Pentateuch is essentially the same as the Hebrew. The variations, aside from those of a linguistic character, are the following: the narrative of action or declaration by Moses is often preceded by the statement that he acted or spoke by divine direction; Gen. ii, 2a, "seventh" is changed to "sixth"; anthropomorphisms are removed, and in Gen. xx, 13, xxxi, 53, xxxv, 7, Ex. xxii, 8, the plural predicate after Elohim is changed to the singular to avoid a polytheistic implication; "Ebal" (Deut. xxvii, 4) was displaced by Gerizim for national reasons. The Samaritan Pentateuch is proved by these changes to be a revision of the Jewish, but a revision made in early times (possibly pre-Christian), though the modern tendency is to ascribe the text now extant to the second Christian century. Bibliography: The text was first printed in the Paris Polyglot, 1643, then in Walton's Polyglot, 1657. Other editions of the whole or of parts are: A. Bruell, Das samaritanische Targum zum Pentateuch, Frankfort, 1873-75, with two appendices which appeared 1875-76; H. Petermann and C. Vollers, Pentateuchus Samaritanus . . ., i, Genesis, Berlin, 1872, ii, Exodus, 1882, iii, Leviticus, 1883, iv, Numeri, 1885, v, Deuteronomium, 1891; J. W. Nutt, Fragments of a Samaritan Targum, London, 1874; F. Field, Origenis Hexaplorum, i, p. lxxxii-lxxxiv, Oxford, 1875; S. Kohn, in Monatsschrift fuer Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judantume, 1894; pp. 1-7, 49-67. On various phases of the relation to text-criticism consult: J. Morinus, Exercitationes in utrumque Samaritanorum Pentateuchum, Paris, 1881; idem, in the Preface of his edition of the Septuagint, 1828; W. Gesenius, De Pentateuchi Samaritani indole, . . . Halle, 1815; G. B. Winer, De versionis Pentateuchi Samaritanae indole, Leipsic, 1817; S. Kohn, De Pentateucho Samaritano . . ., ib. 1865; idem, Samaratanische Studien, Breslau, 1868; idem, Zur Sprache, Literatur und Dogmatik der Samaritaner, Leipsic, 1876; idem, in ZDMG, xxxix (1885), 165-226; A. Cowley, in JQR, viii (1896), 562 sqq., and in JE, x, 687; idem, A Supposed Early Copy of the Samaritan Pentateuch, in PEF, Quarterly Statement, Oct., 1904; P. Kahle, Textkritische und lexikalische Bemerkungen zum samaritanischen Pentateuchtargum, Leipsic, 1898; J. Skinner, Notes on a newly acquired Samaritan MS, in JQR, xiv (1901), 26-36; W. E. Barton, The Samaritan Pentateuch, in Bibliotheca sacra, lx (1903); R. Gottheil, in JBL, xxv, part 1, 1906; J. A. Montgomery, The Samaritans, Philadelphia, 1907. V. Aramaic Versions (The Targams). 1. Origin and Language. These are Aramaic paraphrases of the Old Testament (targum = "interpretation, translation," from targem, "to explain, translate"; cf. Ezra iv, 7) prepared for use in the synagogue, and took their rise from the custom of repeating and explaining the Hebrew sacred text in the Aramaic tongue, which after the exile became the vernacular of the Jews in Palestine and elsewhere. At first the targum was a free oral exposition; then it gradually acquired fixed form, and at last was reduced to writing. It is frequently found in manuscripts following the Hebrew text verse by verse. When the Law was read, the paraphrase was given after every verse; with the Prophets three verses were allowed to be taken together. The language of the Targums used to be called Chaldee, because Jerome so named the Aramaic portions of the Hebrew Bible, which are written in a dialect very akin to that of the Targums. In reality, these have preserved the Jewish form of the Aramaic, the next cognate dialect being Syriac, the form of the Aramaic used by the Christians of Edesea, while still other cognate dialects are those of the Palmyrene inscriptions and of the Samaritans (see [238]Semitic Languages). The grammatical and lexicographical use of the Targums is hampered by the fact that no edition has as yet appeared that takes account of all the materials now available. Mercier vocalized the texts after the Syriac, Buxtorf after the Biblical Aramaic; the edition printed by Foa (Sabbionetta, 1557) seems to rest on a manuscript in which the supralinear system of vocalization had been changed into that of Tiberias, but with many faults and inconsistencies. The most original system of vocalization is that preserved in manuscripts from Yemen, on which cf. the works of Merx, Berliner, Landauer, Kautzsch, Margoliouth (The Superlinear Punctuation, in PSBA, xxiii, 164-205), and Barnstein (The Targum of Onkelos to Genesis, London, 1896), and the editions of Praetorius (Joshua, Berlin, 1899; Judges, 1900). 2. Targum Onkelos. For the greater part of the Old Testament there is more than one Targum. One on the Pentateuch is attributed in some passages of the Talmud to the helpers of Ezra. According to the Babylonian Talmud (Megillot 3a), Onkelos delivered it orally in Palestine; but this is the result of confusing Onkelos with Aquila, who translated the Old Testament into Greek (see above, [239]I, 2, S: 1), and "Judaic Pentateuch-Targum" is a better name than "Targum of Onkelos," which has been in use since Bomberg's Rabbinic Bible of 1517. In the third century its text seems to have been considered fixed, and manuscripts are mentioned several times, but Origen and Jerome apparently did not know a Targum, and hence we may conclude that it did not find official recognition before the fifth century. Its language is different from that of both Talmuds, and seems to render the original into the language of the place and time of its origin (Palestine) as faithfully as a translation which is somewhat paraphrastic can do. The Hebrew text on which it rests is practically our Masoretic text, and it is of interest as representing the exegetical tradition of the Jews. It is quite literal, gives a messianic interpretation of Gen. xlix, 10, and Num. xxiv, 17, additions to Gen. xlix, Num. xxiv, Deut. xxxii, 33, and avoids all anthropomorphisms. Like the Hebrew text, it has been the subject of Masoretic studies, which have been edited by Berliner (Die Massorah zum Targum Onkelos, Leipsic, 1877). 3. Targum Jonathan. The Targum of the Prophets has been ascribed to Jonathan ben Uzziel, Hillel's greatest disciple; others give as its redactor Joseph ben Hiyya of Babylon (d. about 333); but it did not receive its final written form before the fifth century. It is more paraphrastic than the Targum of the Law, which induced Cornill to think that it is older. Eichhorn and Bertholdt thought they recognized different hands. The paraphrase is greatly influenced by the book of Daniel. Isa. liii is understood of the Messiah, whose suffering atones for Israel. Great enmity is shown against Rome. 4. Other Targums of the Law and Prophets. The two Targums just described represent the Judaic Aramaic; of a mixed character is the language of Targums Yerushalmi I and II on the Law. Some verses are missing from the former, and the latter is preserved only in fragments. Certain other fragments found in various manuscripts and editions of the Pentateuch are designated by Dalman (Grammatik, S: 6, 3) as Yerushalmi III. There are similar fragments of a Targum on the Prophets published by Lagarde from the margins of Reuchlin's codex (on which cf. Bacher, in ZDMG, xxviii). Bassfreund (Das Fragmententargum zum Pentateuch, Breslau, 1896) and similarly Dalman (Grammatik, S: 6, 4) see in Onkelos the oldest Palestinian Targum and in Yerushalmi I and II a later development. M. Ginsburger, on the contrary (Pseudo-jonathan, Berlin, 1903, preface), and Bacher find in them traces of a very old Palestinian Targum, which has been worked over by Onkelos. The comment in these pieces is sometimes very fantastic. 5. The Hagiographa. The Targums of the Hagiographa are not translations, but commentaries; the Targum of the Song of Solomon, for instance, is a panegyric of the Jewish nation with foolish anachronisms, the Targum of the Psalms is in some parts literal, in others explanatory. The Targum of Proverbs is a working over of the Syriac translation (cf. Pinkuss, in ZATW, xiv, 65, 161). As the Hagiographa were not read in the Synagogue as regularly as the Law and the Prophets (cf. Lk. iv, 16; Acts xiii, 15; xv, 21), their Targums are to some extent private literary works of differing character. For Ezra-Nehemiah and Daniel no Targum is known, unless the Aramaic parts of Daniel are fragments of a Targum. For Esther there are two Targums. E. Nestle. Bibliography: The best grammar is G. Dalman, Grammatik des juedisch-palaestinischen Aramaeisch, Leipsic, 1894, Ausgabe mit Dialektproben, 1896, 2d ed., 1905 (gives valuable compend of literature). The first special dictionary for the Targum is the Meturgeman of Elias Levita, Isny, 1541; quite complete but unsatisfactory linguistically is J. Levy, Chaldaeisches Woerterbuch ueber die Targumim, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1867-68. The whole range of Aramaic literature is treated in Nathan ben Jehiel Sepher he-aruk (c. 1100 A.D.), first printed without place and date, but before 1480 A.D., new ed., by A. Kohut, Vienna, 1878-92 (cf. JE, ix, 180-182). Others are: G. F. Boderianus (1573), printed in the Antwerp Polyglot; J. Buxtorf, Lexicon chaldaicum, 1640, new ed., B. Fischer, Leipsic, 1869-75; M. Jastrow, Dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud Babli and Jerushalmi and the Midrashic Literature, 2 vols., New York, 1903 (the most accessible); G. Dalman, Aramaeisch-neuhebraeisches Woerterbuch mit Lexikon der Abbreviaturen, von G. Haendler, Frankfort, 1897-1901. The Targum of Onkelos was first printed Bologna, 1482, with Hebr. text and Rashi's commentary; best edition by Foe, at Sabbionetta, 1557, republished by A. Berliner at Berlin, 1884 (cf. Lagarde, Mittheilungen, ii, 163-182); latest edition in the Hebrew Pentateuch Sefer keter tora at Jerusalem, 1894-1901. Parts are in A. Merx, Chrestomathia Targumica, Berlin, 1883; in E. Kautzsch, Ueber eine alte Handschrift des Targum Onkelos, Halle, 1893; and G. Dalman, Aramaeische Dialektproben, Leipsic, 1896. Translations are that in Eng, by J. W. Etheridge, including Onkelos, Jonathan, and the Jerusalem fragments, 2 vols., London, 1862, and the Latin transl. by P. Fagius, Strasburg, 1546. On the text-critical value and other relations consult: S. Landauer, Die Masorah zum Onkelos, Leipsic, 1877; H. Barnstein, Targum of Onkelos to Genesis, London, 1896; G. Diettrich, Grammatische Beobachtungen, in ZATW, xx (1900), 148-159; E. Brederek, in TSK, lxxiv (1901), 351-377; A. Merx, Die Vokalisation der Targume, in Verhandlung des 5ten orientalischen Congress, ii, part 1, pp. 142-188. On the person of Onkelos consult: D. Luzzatto, Philoxenus, Cracow, 1895; M. Friedmann, Onkelos und Akylas, Vienna, 1896; JE, ii, 36-38, ix, 405, xii, 58-59. The editions of the Targums of Jonathan are: For the "Former Prophets" 1st edition, Leiria, 1494, for the whole, in the first Rabbinic Bible, Venice, 1517; by Lagarde after Reuchlin's MS., 1872 (cf. A. Klostermann in TSK, xlvi, 1873, 731-767); Joshua and Judges by Praetorius from South Arabian MSS., Berlin, 1899-1900; Jonah and Micah by Merx, in his Chrestomathia, ut sup.; Nahum by Adler, in JQR, vii (1895), 630-657; Jer. i-xii by Wolfsohn, 1903; Ezekiel, i-x by Silbermann, 1902; the Haftaroth in the Hebrew Pentateuch Sefer keter torah, ut sup. Consult also: C. W. H. Pauli, The Chaldee Paraphrase on the Prophet Isaiah, London, 1871; Z. Frankel, Zu dem Targum der Propheten, Breslau, 1872; W. Bacher, in ZDMG, xxviii (1874), 1-72, 157, 319; H. S. Levy, Targum on Isaiah, with Commentary, London, 1889. Yerushalmi I and II were first published in Bomberg's Rabbinic Bible, Venice, 1517. The best editions of both are by M. Ginsburger, Pseudo-Jonathan, Berlin, 1903, and Das Fragmententhargum, 1899 (cf. Barnstein, in JQR, xiii, 1899, 167; ZDMG, lviii, 1904, 374-378). On both Targums, cf. Dalman, Grammatik, S: 6, 1-2; on an important manuscript of Yerushalmi II at Nuremberg, cf. Lagarde, Mittheilungen, iii, Goettingen, 1889, 87. The Targum of the Hagiographa: The first edition of Job, Ps., Prov., and the Rolls was in the Rabbinic Bible, Venice, 1517, which books were reprinted by Lagarde in 1873; the best edition of the Targum on Esther is by M. David, Berlin, 1898 (cf. Posner, Das Targum Rischon zu Esther, Breslau, 1896); Ecclesiastes, from South Arabian MSS., by A. Levy, ib. 1905. Consult E. Brederek, Konkordanz zum Targum Onkelos, Giessen, 1906; H. L. Strack, Einleitung in das A. T., S: 84, Munich, 1906. VI. The Armenian Version. The Armenian translation of the Old Testament rests on the Greek, though it shows in certain passages and books traces of revision either from the Syriac or from the Hebrew. The Greek text used seems to have been dependent on Origen, for in some Armenian manuscripts hexaplaric marks are found. In the manuscripts (not in the printed editions) various pseudepigraphic books appear. The Armenian Psalter printed for the British and Foreign Bible Society at Venice, 1850, was rejected in consequence of these additions. Ecclesiasticus has been translated twice, first in the fifth century, this version being printed in the Venice Bible, 1860; again probably in the eighth century, found in Zohrab's edition of the Armenian Bible of 1805. On the statements of Koriun, Lazar of Parpi, and Moses of Chorene, that the Scriptures were translated by Mesrob, Sahag, Eznik, and others between 396 and 430 from manuscripts brought from Edessa, Constantinople, and Alexandria, cf. Conybeare, DB, i, 152 (see [240]Armenia, II, S:S: 2-3). A collation of the Armenian version was made for Holmes-Parsons (see above, [241]I, 1, S: 2), and is being made afresh for the forthcoming Cambridge Septuagint by McLean (cf. Swete, Introduction, London, 1900, p. 118). Theodoret states that in his time the language of the Hebrews was translated into that of the Armenians, Scythians, and Sauromatians. A concordance to the Armenian Bible has been printed in the cloister of San Giacomo at Jerusalem (1895). The uncanonical writings of the Old Testament found in Armenian manuscripts in the library of San Lazzaro were translated into English by J. Issaverdens (Venice, 1901); on Ter Moosesjan's History of the Translation of the Bible into Armenian, cf. H. Goussen, in Nouvelle Revue de Theologie, 1904, p. 9. For the New Testament Mill used some notes on the Armenian version by W. Guise and L. Piques. For Tregelles C. Rieu collated Zohrab's edition of 1805. His notes were used by Tischendorf in the eighth edition of his New Testament; Gregory catalogued sixty-four manuscripts in Europe (outside of Russia) and America. At Moscow is a copy of the Gospels dated 887, at Echmiadzin is the manuscript 222 written in 989, but with an ivory binding which is much older. Conybeare discovered in this manuscript, after Mark xvi, 8, the words Ariston eritzou ("of the presbyter Arist[i]on"), which probably preserve the name of the author of the close of the second Gospel. The Gospels have invariably the so-called Ammonian sections; the Acts and Epistles of Paul, the Euthalian additions (see [242]Ammonius of Alexandria; [243]Euthalius); at their end is found the apocryphal correspondence of Paul with the Corinthians. After John follows sometimes the apocryphal "Rest of John." The Apocalypse is said to be a recension made by Nerses Lambron in the twelfth century; a much older version is indicated by H. Goussen (cf. Gregory, Textkritik, Leipsic, 1902, p. 568). The inclusion of the apocryphal correspondence of Paul with the Corinthians and other characteristics of this version and the whole history of the Armenian Church confirm the view that the Armenian version was first based on the Syriac Bible and afterward revised from the Greek; cf. on this question Conybeare and Burkitt. E. Nestle. Bibliography: The Armenian Bible was first printed, Amsterdam, 1666, from a single MS.; of this the edition by Mechitar, Venice, 1733, was in the main a reprint; the first critical edition was by Zohrab, Venice, 1805. Consult Scrivener, Introduction, ii, 148-154; Gregory, Textkritik, i, 565-573; F. C. Conybeare, in DB, i, 151-154, and in The Expositor, 1893, pp. 242 sqq., and Dec., 1895; F. C. Burkitt, in EB, iv, 5011, 5028; A. Abeghian, Vorfragen zur Entstehungsgeschichte der altarmenischen Bibeluebersetzungen, Marburg, 1906; idem, Zur Entstehungsgeschichte der altarmenischen Bibeluebersetzungen, Tuebingen, 1907. VII. Egyptian Coptic Versions. According to Zosimus Panopolitanus, the Hebrew Bible was translated into Egyptian at the same time as the Septuagint (see above, [244]I, 1, S: 6); according to the life of St. Anthony, he heard the Gospel read in church in the Egyptian language. But the latter statement is not certain enough to justify the supposition that the Egyptian version of the New Testament goes back to the middle of the third century. At that time Christianity in Egypt seems to have been restricted to the Greek-speaking towns. Modern scholars distinguish linguistically as many as five or six Coptic dialects; for the textual critic the Coptic versions fall into three divisions, although a former generation knew only one and called it the Coptic, i.e., the Egyptian, version. These divisions are: (1) The Saidic or the version of Upper Egypt, sometimes called the Thebaic; (2) the Fayyumic (formerly called the Bashmuric), with which text the fragments in the Middle-Egyptian dialect agree; (3) the version now in ecclesiastical use among all Copts or Egyptian Christians, called Bohairic. The Bohairah ("Lake") is a district near Alexandria and Lake Mareotis, the modern Beherah. There is a fourth dialect called Akhmimic; but the version of the Catholic Epistles in this dialect, preserved in a very ancient manuscript, is properly classed with the Saidic version. Bashmuric had already died out in the time of Athanasius. The Bohairic version was for a long time the only one known to European scholars, and is still supposed by some to be the earliest version in any Egyptian dialect; but with better reason others see in it a late recension, characterized by greater faithfulness to the Greek, the basal Greek text being best represented by the Greek Codex L and, among the Fathers, not by Clement and Origen, but by Cyril. Of the Saidic manuscripts some of the more ancient are bilingual, the Greek occupying the page on the left hand of the open book; the Bohairic manuscripts, on the contrary, are often accompanied by an Arabic translation, but there is no instance of a Greco-Bohairic manuscript. When written in two columns the Greco-Saidic manuscripts have both Greek columns on the left and both Saidic on the right, and occasionally the two pages of the codex give different readings. The text of this version generally supports that represented by Codex B, but it has some strange "Western" singularities; for instance, to Luke xxiii, 53, it is added that Joseph placed a stone at the door of the sepulcher, which twenty men were scarcely able to move, and in the parable of the rich man and Lazarus the name of the former is given as "Nineveh." Revelation seems to have been considered uncanonical, for it is not found with the rest of the New Testament. E. Nestle. Bibliography: Ersch and Gruber, Allgemeine Encyclopaedie, Section 2, vol. xxxix, 12-36; J. P. Martin, in Polybiblion, i, 126, Paris, 1886; A. Schulte, Die koptische Uebersetzung der vier grossen Propheten, Muenster, 1893; Scrivener, Introduction, ii, 91-144; H. Hyvernat, Etude sur les versions Coptes de la Bible, in Revue Biblique, v (1896), 3, 427-433, 540-569, vi (1897), 1, 48-74; Gregory, Textkritik, i, 528-553; DB, i, 668-673; EB, iv, 5006-11, 5027; W. E. Crum is accustomed to note new Biblical texts in the annual Archaeological Report of the Egypt Exploration Fund (cf. that for 1905-06, pp. 66 sqq.). On the Bohairic version of the Old Testament, especially the Pentateuch, cf. A. E. Brooke, in JTS, iii, 258-278. For the Bohairic New Testament there is now the fine edition of the Clarendon Press by G. Horner, The Coptic Version of the N. T. in the Northern Dialect, otherwise called the Memphitic and Bohairic, with Introduction, critical Apparatus, and literal Eng. transl., vols. i-ii, Gospels, 1898, vols. iii-iv, Acts and Epistles, 1905. The Saidic New Testament is edited by P. J. Balestri in Sacrorum bibliorum fragmenta copto-sahidica Musei Borgiani, vol. iii, Rome, 1904; the Berlin manuscript of the Psalter, by A. Rahlfs, GGA, iv, 4,1901; cf. also J. O. Prince, Two Versions of the Coptic Psalter, in JBL, xxi, 92-99; E. O. Winstedt, Sahidic Biblical Fragments in the Bodleian Library, in PSBA, xxvii, 2; and C. Wessely, Sahidischgriechische Psalmenfragmente, Vienna 1907. For parts of the Old Testament cf. Lagarde's Pentateuch, Leipsic, 1867, Psalterii versio Memphitica, Goettingen, 1875, and (for Wisdom, Ecclesiastes, and Psalms) his AEgyptiaca, 1883; vols. i and ii of the Borgian Fragments, by Ciasca, 1885-89; on the importance of the Egyptian version of Job, cf. Lagarde, Mittheilungen, Goettingen, 1884, i, 203. VIII. The Ethiopic Version. In Ethiopic there exists a translation of the Bible which has continued the only one authorized among Abyssinian Christians, and even among the Jewish Falashas; and it still maintains its ancient authority, although the Ethiopic long ago ceased to be spoken. There is no reliable information as to the exact time or manner of its origin; but it is certain that it was made from the Septuagint in the early days of Abyssinian Christianity, between the fourth and the sixth century. It is very faithful, being, for the most part, a verbal rendering of the Greek, readable and fluent, and in the Old Testament often renders closely the ideas and the words of the Hebrew. Dillmann projected an edition of the Ethiopic Old Testament in five volumes, of which he lived to publish vols. i, Gen.-Ruth (1853), ii, Sam.-Kings (1861-71), and v, the Apocrypha (1894). He arranged the manuscripts in three groups: (1) those which contain the original translation from the Septuagint uncorrupted; (2) those the text of which has been revised and completed from the Greek; (3) those which have been corrected from the Hebrew. From the circumstance that the Ethiopic Church was dependent on that in Egypt, it is probable that the particular recession of the Septuagint from which the Ethiopic translation was made was the Hesychian (see above, [245]I, 1, S: 5). But the early Aramaic speaking missionaries influenced the translation, as is shown by the numerous Aramaic words which are employed to convey Christian ideas. Possibly the Bible was translated, at least in part, by these missionaries or their pupils. The division into chapters was introduced at a later day into Abyssinia, under European influences. The Ethiopic Bible includes the Apocrypha, except the books of Maccabees, which were either not translated or very early lost, and several pseudepigrapha, and puts them upon perfect equality with the canonical writings; and in this way the number of books is given as eighty-one, forty-six for the Old Testament, thirty-five for the New. (See [246]Abyssinia and the Abyssinian Church.) (F. Praetorius.) Bibliography: For lists of Ethiopic MSS. available consult the Catalogues by A. T. d'Abbadie, Paris, 1859 (a general list), by C. F. A. Dillmann (for British Museum), London, 1847 (for Bodleian Library), Oxford, 1848, and (for Berlin) Berlin, 1878, by W. Wright (for British Museum), London, 1877, and by H. Zotenberg (for Bibliotheque Nationale), Paris; ZDMG, v, 164 sqq. (for those in Tuebingen), ZDMG, xvi (for Vienna), Bulletin scientifiqus publie par l'Academie des Sciences, ii, 302, iii, 145 sqq. (for those in St. Petersburg), and a general list in C. R. Gregory, Prolegomena, iii, 900-912, Leipsic, 1894. On the version consult: C. F. A. Dillmann, in Jahrbuecher der biblischen Wissenschaft, v (1853), 144-151; Reckendorf, in ZATW, vii (1887), 61-90; P. J. Bachmann, Dodekapropheton aethiopum, part 1, Obadiah, Halle, 1892, Part 2, Maleachi, 1893, Die Klagelieder, 1893, Jesaia, 1893; L. Goldschmidt, Bibliotheca aethiopica, Leipsic, 1893; Hackspill, in ZA, xi (1897), 150-151. The subject is treated also in C. R. Gregory, Prolegomena, iii, 894-900, ut sup.; in the Einleitung of Koenig, 1893, p. 113, of Juelicher, 1894, p. 388, and of Cornill, 1898, p. 338, and the Introduction of Scrivener, ii, 154-155. The best ed. of the Old Testament is that of Dillmann (ut sup.). The New Testament was first printed at Rome in 1548-49 by the Abyssinian Tasfa-Sion or, as he is also called, Peter the Ethiopian, reprinted in the London Polyglot. An ed. was issued by T. P. Platt for the BFBS in 1828-30, reprinted at Leipsic, 1899. IX. The Georgian (Iberian) Version. The earliest translations of parts of the Bible in the language of the Iberians belong to the fifth century, and seem to betray the influence of the Syriac version. David and Stephen in the eight century are the first names known of men engaged in revision of the Iberian Bible. A papyrus Psalter is assigned to the seventh or eighth century, and a copy of the Gospels is dated a century later (facsimile in Tsagareli). The edition printed at Moscow, 1743, has been retouched from the Slavonic. S. C. Malan in 1862 used this version for his edition of the Gospel of John. On the Georgian manuscripts of the library at Paris there is a recent paper by A. Khakhanov. E. Nestle. Bibliography: Scrivener, Introduction, ii, 156; A. A. Tsagareli, "Information about the Monuments of Georgian Literature" (Russian), parts i-iii, St. Petersburg, 1886-94; C. R. Gregory, Prolegomena, iii, 922-923, Leipsic, 1894; idem, Textkritik, i, 573; J. M. Bebb, in DB, iv, 861; A. Palmieri, Le Versione Georgiane della Bibbia, in Bessarione, 2 ser., vol. v, 259-268, 322-327, vi, 72-77, 189-194, Rome, 1901-02. On the people consult: A. Leist, Das georgische Volk, Dresden, 1903. X. The Gothic Version of Ulfilas. [247]Ulfilas, the Moses of the Goths, as Constantine styled him (cf. TSK, 1893, 273), was made bishop probably in 341 at Antioch and died in 381 or 383. He gave to his people the alphabet and the Bible, but, according to Philostorgius (Hist. eccl., ii, 5), omitted to translate the books of Kings because he thought they contained too much about war for the good of his fierce countrymen. Of the Old Testament very few fragments are left; viz., Gen. v, 3-30; Ps. lii, 2-3; Ezra xv (i.e. Neh. v), 13-16; xvi, 14-xvii, 3; xvii, 13-45. The translation follows the recension of Lucian (see above, [248]I, 1, S: 5). The Gothic priests Sunnias and Fretela, who were in correspondence with Jerome about the true readings of certain passages in the Psalter some twenty years after the death of Ulfilas (cf. Jerome, Epist., cvi), were perhaps engaged in a revision of the Gothic Psalms. That the Psalms were sung in Gothic at Constantinople is testified by Chrysostom (cf. the dissertation of J. Muehlau, Zur Frage nach der gotischen Psalmenuebersetzung, Kiel, 1904). On the fragments of Ezra (Nehemiah), cf. E. Langner, Die gotischen Nehemia-fragmente (Sprottau, 1903). More of the New Testament is preserved, thanks to the Codex Argenteus now in Upsala, also by a palimpsest from Weissenburg discovered in Wolfenbuettel in 1756, and fragments at Turin discovered by Angelo Mai in 1817 and by Reifferscheid in 1886. The Codex Argenteus must have had a very near relationship to Codex f. of the Latin Bible (cf. M. Haupt, Die Vorrede der gotischen Bibeluebersetzung, in his Opuscula, vol. iii, Leipsic, 1876; Burkitt, JTS, i, 129; Kauffmann, ZDP, xxxii, 305-335; Draeseke, ZWT, 1907). It was perhaps part of a Greek, Gothic, and Latin Testament. The version is very faithful, following the text used by Chrysostom. More than 100 Greek and Latin words were retained by Ulfilas (cf. C. Elis, Ueber die Fremdwoerter und fremden Eigennamen in der gotischen Bibeluebersetzung, Goettingen, 1903). E. Nestle. Bibliography: E. Bernhardt, Kritische Untersuchungen ueber die gothische Bibeluebersetzung, Meiningen, 1867; K. Weinhold, Die gothische Sprache im Dienste des Christenthums, Halle, 1870; A. Kisch, Der Septuaginta-Codex des Ulphilas in Monatsschrift fuer Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums, xxii (1873), 42-46, 85-89, 215-219; O. Ohrloff, Die Bruchstuecke . . . der gothischen Bibeluebersetzung, Halle, 1873; idem, in ZDP, vii (1878), 251-295; A. Schaubach, Ueber das Verhaeltnis der gothischen Bibeluebersetzung . . . zu der Lutherischen . . . , Meiningen, 1879; G. Kaufmann, in Zeitschrift fuer deutsches Alterthum, xxvii (1883); K. Marold, Kritische Untersuchungen ueber den Einfluss des Lateins auf die gotische Bibeluebersetzung, Koenigsberg, 1881; C. R. Gregory, Prolegomena, iii, 1108, Leipsic, 1894; F. Kauffmann, in ZDP, xxix (1896), 306-337; W. Bangert, Der Einfluss lateinischer Quellen auf die gothische Bibeluebersetzung, Rudolstadt, 1880; W. Luft and F. Vogt, in Zeitschrift fuer deutsches Alterthum, xlii (1898); J. Muehlau, Zur Frage nach der gotischen Psalmenuebersetzung, Kiel, 1904. On the language consult: G. H. Balg, Comparative Glossary of the Gothic Language, 8 parts, New York, 1887-90; J. Wright, A Primer of the Gothic Language, London, 1899; on the Gothic alphabet, W. Loft, Studien zu den aeltesten germanischen Alphabeten, Guetersloh, 1898. The Codex Argenteus was first published by Franciscus Junius (du Jon), Dort, 1665; with the other fragments, glossary, etc., by H. C. de Gabelentz and J. Loebe, Leipsic, 1836 and 1846; in facsimile by A. Uppstroem, Upsala, 1854, supplemented in 1857 by ten leaves which had been stolen but afterward recovered. The edition most used in Germany is by F. L. Stamm, Paderborn, 1858, 9th ed., with dictionary by M. Heyne and grammar by F. Wrede, 1896. Another ed. with apparatus is by E. Bernhardt, Halle, 1875 (text ed., 1884). There is an American edition by G. H. Balg, The First Germanic Bible, Milwaukee, 1891. Partial eds. are J. Bosworth, The Gothic and Anglo-Saxon Gospels . . . with . . . Wycliffe and Tyndale, London, 1885, new ed., 1907, and W. W. Skeat, Mark, London, 1882. B. Modern Versions. I. Arabic Versions. "There are more Arabic versions of the Gospels than can be welcome to theology, with its press of work," wrote Lagarde in the preface of his edition of the four Gospels in Arabic (Leipsic, 1864). There are translations made from Hebrew, Samaritan, Coptic, Latin, Syriac, and Greek. There was not, as it seems, a translation into Arabic before Mohammed (cf. M. J. de Goeje and M. Schreiner, in Semitic Studies in Memory of Alexander Kohut, Berlin, 1897, p. 495). John of Seville is said to have produced an Arabic Bible about 737; the chronicle of Michael Syrus mentions an Arabic translation of the Gospels made under direction of John, patriarch of Antioch, at the command of the emir Amru. The "Indians" mentioned by Chrysostom between Egyptians and Persians as in possession of the Scriptures in their mother tongue may be South-Arabians, but there is no additional information about this version. Of translations from the Hebrew Old Testament, by far the most important is the work of Saadia ben Joseph, the Gaon, from the Fayyum (d. 942; see [249]Saadia). On Saadia and his translation, cf. H. Ewald and L. Dukes, Beitraege zur Geschichte der aeltesten Auslegung und Spracherklaerung des alten Testaments, ii (Stuttgart, 1844); S. Munk, in La Bible, traduction nouvelle . . . par S. Cahen, ix (Paris, 1838), 73-159; M. Steinschneider, Die arabische Literatur der Juden (Frankfort, 1902), 56 sqq.; and especially the edition of his collected works by J. H. Derenbourg, vol. i, the Pentateuch (Paris, 1893); iii, Isaiah (1896); iv, Proverbs (1899); v, Job (ed. Bacher, 1899). On the question of the text, cf. P. Kahle, Die arabischen Bibeluebersetzungen . . . (Leipsic, 1904), no. viii, and against him Bacher, in TLZ, 1905, no. 8. Saadia's translation of the Pentateuch was printed first in Hebrew letters with the Hebrew text, Targum and a Persian translation at Constantinople, 1546, then in the Paris and London Polyglots (see [250]Bibles, Polyglot, III, [251]IV). For Genesis and Exodus, cf. Lagarde, in his Materialien zur Kritik (Leipsic, 1867). Kahle used for his Specimen a manuscript of Florence and Wolfenbuettel, not used by Derenbourg. On Isaiah, cf. Derenbourg, in ZATW, 1890, pp. 1-84. Of Job there is an edition by J. Cohn (Berlin, 1889). On the Psalms, cf. the dissertations of Haneberg in AMA, 1841, iii, 2; J. Cohn, in Magazin fuer die Wissenschaft des Judentums, 1881. On Canticles, cf. A. Merx, Die Saadjanische Uebersetzung des Hohen Liedes ins Arabische (Heidelberg, 1882). On Proverbs, cf. a dissertation of Jonas Bondi (Halle, 1888). On Saadia's system of translating, cf. W. Engelkemper, De Saadiae Gaonis vita, bibliorum versione, hermeneutica (Muenster, 1897). There are other Arabic translations made from the Hebrew by Jews such as the Arabe Erpenii, a translation of the Pentateuch made by an African Jew in the thirteenth century (published by Erpenius, Leyden, 1622), and a translation of the Psalms made by the Karaite Japhet ben Eli (ed. J. J. L. Barges, Paris, 1871); a specimen of his commentary on Genesis is in Kahle, viii; his commentary on Deuteronomy was edited by S. Margoliouth, in Anecdota Ozoniensia, Semitic series, vol. i, part 3, 1899. Hosea and Joel from an Oxford manuscript were edited by Schroeter, in Archiv fuer wissenschaftliche Erforschung des Alten Testaments, i and ii (1869-70). A Fragment einer arabischen Pentateuchuebersetzung was published by J. Hirsch, Leipsic, 1900. The first specimen of an Arabic translation of the Samaritan text was published by A. C. Hwiid (Rome, 1780) from the famous triglot in the Barberini library; then by Paulus, 1789 and 1791; better by de Sacy, in Memoires de l'Academie des Inscriptions, xlix, 1-199; S. Kohn, in Abhandlungen fuer die Kunde des Morgenlandes, vol. v, part 4 (Leipsic, 1876), 1-499; J. Bloch, Die samaritanisch-arabische Pentateuchuebersetzung (Berlin, 1901); and Kahle, ut sup., no. vi. The Samaritans seem to have used at first the translation of Saadia; soon after 1000 they made a translation of their own, which was revised in the middle of the thirteenth century by Abu Said; Genesis, Exodus, and Leviticus of this version were edited by Kuenen, 1851-54 (cf. A. Cowley, in JE, x, 677). Many Coptic manuscripts have an Arabic translation by the aide of the Coptic text; in other manuscripts containing only an Arabic version, this is derived from the Coptic (cf. Arab. 3 in the Greek Pentateuch of Holmes-Parsons; see above, [252]I, 1, S: 2); for Job such a translation has been edited by Lagarde, Psalterium, Job, Proverbia arabice (Goettingen, 1876); on Psalms, cf. Psalterium Coptice, ed. M. G. Schwartze (Leipsic, 1843), v. From the Latin, either made from it or corrected by it, are the Roman editions such as that of Sergius Risi (Arabic and Latin, 3 vols., Rome, 1871), the Gospels (1591), and Psalms and Prophets (1814). A new recension by Rafael Tuki contains only Genesis-Nehemiah and Tobit (2 vols., 1752). The edition of 1671 without the Apocrypha has been frequently reprinted by the BFBS since 1822 after it had reprinted the Arabic portion of the London Polyglot under the supervision of J. D. Carlyle (Newcastle, 1811). In 1858 the Gospels, in 1860 the New Testament, in 1865 the Old Testament appeared in the new translation begun by the American missionary [253]Eli Smith and finished by C. V. A. Van Dyck at Beirut, with the help of native scholars. It has been frequently reprinted in Beirut, Oxford, London, and New York. In competition with this translation are two from Roman Catholics, the one undertaken by the Dominicans of Mosul under the direction of Joseph David (4 vols., 1875-78), the other by the Jesuits in Beirut (3 vols., 1876-82; reproduced by photolithography in 1 vol. 1897; cf. on these editions Kahle, iii sqq.; A. G. Ellis, Catalogue of Arabic Books in the British Museum, London, 1894 sqq.; the Bible Catalogue of the same library; and Darlow-Moule, Historical Catalogue of the Collection of the BFBS, ii, London, 1908). Independent translations of the New Testament are those of Salomo Negri (London, 1727) and of Nathanael Sabat (Calcutta, 1816). There is also an edition of the Psalms by Negri (London, 1725; cf. G. A. Freylinghausen, Memoria Negriana, Halle, 1764). From the Syriac Bible is the text of Judges, Ruth, Samuel, I Kings i-xi, II Kings ii. 17 to the end, Chronicles, Neh. ix. 28 to end, and Job in the Paris and London Polyglots. The first four books are, according to Roediger, by the same author, the rest by different authors. Psalms, Proverbs, and Job have been reissued by Lagarde (Psalterium, etc., ut sup.) and the whole with few alterations by the BFBS (1811, ut sup.). A Psalter in Syriac and Arabic in Syriac letters (the so-called Karshunic script; i.e., Gersom's manner of writing) was printed by Maronite monks of Mount Lebanon at Koschaya, 1610 (perhaps as early as 1585), and reprinted in Arabic type by Lagarde. Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy in the Materialien of Lagarde seem to have been derived from the Syriac Bible. A translation of the Syriac Hexapla of the Pentateuch and Wisdom is the work of Hareth ben Senan ben Sabat (cf. Nestle, in ZDMG, 1878, p. 468; Holmes-Parsons, Praefatio ad Pentateuchum, and Kahle, ut sup., ix). The fragments of Job were edited by Baudissin, 1870. From the Greek are translated the prophets and the poetical books (except Job) in the Polyglots perhaps also the Psalms as edited by Athanasius, patriarch of Antioch (Aleppo, 1706), reprinted by Lagarde with a translation of the tenth century by Abu al-Fath Abdallah ben Fadhl. Gregory (Textkritik, Leipsic, 1902) mentions 137 Arabic manuscripts for the New Testament. On no. 136, cf. Stenij, Die altarabische Uebersetzung der Briefe an die Hebraeer, an die Roemer und an die Korinther (Helsingfors, 1901). For the manuscripts on Mount Sinai, cf. the catalogue of Mrs. M. D. Gibson, in Studia Sinaitica, iii (Cambridge, 1894), and her publication of a part of an Arabic translation of the Epistles of St. Paul in no. ii (1893) of the same collection; also in no. vii (1899), an Arabic translation of Acts and of the seven Catholic Epistles from an eighth or ninth century manuscript. On the revision of the Arabic made about 250 at Alexandria by Hibath Allah ibn al-Assaly with various readings from the Greek, the Syriac, and the Coptic, cf. D. B. Macdonald, in the Hartford Seminary Record, Apr., 1893. Finally, the Arabic version of Titian's Diatessaron (ed. Ciasca, Rome, 1888) must not be forgotten. E. Nestle. Bibliography: On the MSS. the one indispensable book is I. Guidi, Le traducioni degli evangelii in arabo . . . , Rome, 1888; and valuable is also C. R. Gregory, Prolegomena, iii, 928-947, Leipsic, 1894. On the version and editions consult: Walton's Polyglot, Prolegomena, chap. 14, London, 1852; C. F. Schnurrer, Bibliotheca arabica, de Pentateucho arabico . . . , Tuebingen, 1780; H. E. G. Paulus, Commentatio critica, Jena, 1789; R. Holmes, Vetus Testamentum Graece, the Preface to the Pentateuch, Oxford, 1798; J. Roediger, Commentatio . . . de interpretatione Arabica . . . , Halle, 1824; idem, De origins . . . Arabica . . . interpretationis, ib. 1829; J. Gildemeister, De evangeliis in Arabicum . . . translatis, Bonn, 1865; Gregory, Textkritik; Scrivener, Introduction, ii, 161-164; F. C. Burkitt, in DB, i, 138-138 (a lucid presentation). II. Celtic Versions. No version of the Bible or of single Biblical books in any of the Celtic dialects has come down from the pre-Reformation period, though a few Biblical extracts in Old Irish (8th-11th centuries) are extant in homilies. After the establishment of the English Church in 1560 as the State Church, Bishop Nicholas Walsh of Ossory and others made an effort toward giving the Bible to the Irish people, and the New Testament, translated by William O'Donnell, archbishop of Tuam, was published at Dublin in 1603 in Irish characters. This edition was republished at London in 1681, and in 1685 the Old Testament, translated by Bishop William Bedell of Kilmore and others, was issued. This edition was often reprinted, especially in a revised form by the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1827. A translation of the New Testament into the modern dialect of Munster by Dr. R. O'Kane appeared at Dublin, 1858. Of the Roman Catholic translation prepared by Archbishop John MacHale of Tuam from the Vulgate, the first volume only (Genesis-Joshua) has appeared (Tuam, 1861). Gaelic, which is spoken in the Highlands and western isles of Scotland, is related to Irish; consequently the Scottish Minister Robert Kirke, in order to satisfy the needs of the Protestant Highlanders, had O'Donnell's Irish translation of the New Testament printed in Roman letters and supplied with an Irish-Gaelic glossary (London, 1690). To provide the Gaelic-speaking Highlanders with a Bible of their own, the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge published in 1767 the New Testament translated by James Stuart of Killin, and in 1783-1801 a translation of the Old Testament prepared by John Stuart, Jr., and John Smith. At the instance of the same society, Dr. Mark Hildesley, bishop of Man, distributed different parts of the Bible among the Manx-speaking clergy of the Isle of Man, with the view of having a translation prepared into this tongue. The whole was revised by P. Moore and his pupil John Kelly. In 1770-72 the Bible in Manx was printed for the above society at Whitehaven under the supervision of J. Kelly, and is the basis of all later editions. Before the Reformation hardly any parts of the Bible were translated into Cymric. In 1562 the House of Commons resolved to have the Bible and the Book of Common Prayer translated into Cymric within four years, and made the bishops of Bangor, St. Asaph, Hereford, Llandaff, and St. Davids responsible for its execution. The New Testament was published in London in 1567, and in 1588 the whole Bible (revised by Bishop Richard Parry, 1620). All later issues follow Parry's revised text. The Bible has never been translated into Cornish. A manuscript belonging to the first half of the eighteenth century contains a translation of Gen. i, iii; Matt. iv, vi, 9-13, vii; and the ten commandments. Before the beginning of the nineteenth century only short passages of the Bible had appeared in the Breton. The British and Foreign Bible Society published at Angouleme in 1827 the New Testament translated by the Breton scholar Le Gonidec into the dialect of Leon. The translation was made from the Vulgate, and was for other reasons unsuitable. A new translation by the Baptist missionary John Jenkins was printed at Brest in 1847. Le Gonidec's translation of the Old Testament was revised by Troude and Milin, and published at Saint-Brieuc in 1866. In 1883 the Trinitarian Bible Society published a New Testament in the dialect of Treguier, prepared by the Breton Protestant G. Ar C'hoat, and in 1889 the whole Bible. A Roman Catholic translation of the New Testament was published in Guingamp in 1853, and an edition of the Psalms at Paris in 1873. For linguistic purposes C. Terrien translated the Gospel of Matthew into the dialect of Vannes (Lundayn, 1857) at the instance of Lucien Bonaparte. (H. Zimmer.) Bibliography: J. Reid, Bibliotheca Scoto-Celtica, Glasgow, 1832; the Scottish-Celtic Review, Nov., 1881, pp. 150 sqq.; T. Llewelyn, An Historical Account of the British or Welsh Versions and Editions of the Bible, London, 1768; W. Rowland, Llyfryddiaeth of Cymry, pp. 10-21, 41-50, 93-97, Llandloes, 1869; Revue Celtique, vi, 382, xi, 180-190, 368; Bible of Every Land, pp. 151-173, London, 1861; I. Ballinger, The Bible in Wales, London, 1906. III. Dutch Versions. The first printed Dutch version (Delft, 1477), was made, apparently by a layman, probably about 1300 from the Latin. Some parts, which the translator was unwilling to popularize, as Deut. xxii. 13-21, are passed over with a reference to the Latin text. Difficult passages have explanations mostly from the Historia scholastica of Peter Comestor. The printed edition omits Psalms and the New Testament, though both are contained in a good manuscript of this version at Vienna. A very good translation of the Psalms is found is several incunabula. About 1,300 translations of the New Testament, or at least of the church lessons or of the life of Christ, began to be made. A translation of the New Testament of Erasmus appeared at Delft in 1524, and two years before at Antwerp a translation of Luther's version was printed by Hans van Roemundt (repeated at Basel, 1525 and 1526, also, a little altered, at Amsterdam, 1526). The Old Testament with the Pentateuch and Psalms translated from Luther, the rest the text of the Delft edition revised, was printed, also by Roemundt, in 1525 in four small vols.; and the first complete Dutch Bible was printed at Antwerp in 1526 by Jacob van Liesveldt. It was reprinted and corrected several times until 1546, when Charles V prohibited the edition. Roman Catholic editions of the New Testament followed in 1527, 1530, and 1533, in Dutch and Latin in 1539. The whole Bible did not appear until after the meeting of the Council of Trent, at Cologne in 1548 by Alexander Blanckart, and at Louvain in the same year by Nicolaus van Winghe with a sharp preface against the Protestant editions. In 1599 it was revised after the official Vulgate of 1592, again in 1717 by AEgidius Wit of Ghent. After 1820 the Roman Catholics were allowed to use editions without notes, and such an edition of 1599, called the Moerentorf Bible (from its publisher), was circulated by the British and Foreign Bible Society. The division of Dutch Protestantism into various parties, Lutherans, Mennonites, and Reformed, caused the production of various versions. The Lutherans received a version in 1558 after Bugenhagen's edition in Low German; it has been several times revised and reprinted up to 1851. The Mennonites used a version printed by Nicolaes Biestkens at Emden in 1560, the first Dutch edition with verse divisions. The Reformed received another in 1556, based on the Zurich Bible of 1548-49 (see below, [254]VII, S: 5); but in 1562 they adopted a version based on Luther's, called the Deux Aes or Eulenspiegel Bible (from the marginal notes at Neh. ii, 5 and Ecclus. xix, 5). The Remonstrants used at first the Staatenbibel (see below) but received a New Testament of their own from Hartsoeker in 1680. After the beginning of the seventeenth century the necessity of improving the Dutch versions was felt and was shown especially by W. Baudartius of Zutphen, who published in 1614 an emended translation. As early as 1594 the States General determined on undertaking a revision. The result is the Staatenbibel. At first [255]Philips van Marnix was entrusted with the task of a new translation; in 1596 [256]Johannes Drusius was appointed his assistant. The Synod of Dort discussed the question in eight sessions in Nov., 1618, and May, 1619. The work of translation was completed in 1632, the revision of the Old Testament Sept., 1634, that of the New Testament, Oct. 10, 1635. The first edition was printed, with and without notes, in 1636, but not published before July 29, 1637. An official list of misprints followed in 1655 and in 1711 for the first time an edition was stereotyped. An edition of 500 copies of the New Testament was printed for Peter the Great in 1717, and of the Old Testament in five parts in 1721, in two columns, one being left blank in order to receive in St. Petersburg the Russian text. Language and orthography raised difficult questions in a revision of 1762, and another by Henry Cats and W. A. van Hengel in 1834. The first impression for the British and Foreign Bible Society was made in 1812. About the middle of the last century members of the theological faculty of Leyden began a new revision; the New Testament was finished in 1866; work on the Old Testament was interrupted for a time, but was resumed in 1884 by A. Kuenen and his pupils, H. Oort, W. H. Kosters, and J. Hooykas. The first instalment appeared at Leyden in 1897, the first part (Gen.-Esther) in 1900, the second part (Job-Malachi) in 1901. Of other translations that by J. H. van der Palm (1825 and often) is worthy of mention. The New Testament has been translated by G. Vissering, a Mennonite (1854), by S. P. Lipman, a Roman Catholic (1861), and by G. J. Vos of the Reformed Church (1895). E. Nestle. Bibliography: The really important work is Isaac Le Long, Baek-Zaal der nederduitsche Bybels, Amsterdam, 1732, 2d ed., 1764. Consult also Bible of Every Land, pp. 181-186, London, 1861; H. van Druten, Geschisdenis der Nederlandsche Bijbelvertaling, 2 vols., Leyden, 1896-97; G. N. De Vooys, ThT, March, 1903; J. M. Bebb, in DB, extra vol., pp. 414-415. On the Staatenbibel consult N. Hinlopen, Historie van de Nederlandsche Oversettinge des Bybels, Leyden, 1777; P. Meyjes, Jacobus Revius, Amsterdam, 1895; J. Heinsius, Klank-en Buigingsleer van de taal des statenbijbels, Amsterdam, 1897. IV. English Versions. 1. The Earliest Versions. Setting aside the Biblical poetry that is in the main wrongly ascribed to the Anglo-Saxon [257]Caedmon, and the translation of John's Gospel which Bede finished on his deathbed, but of which nothing further is known, the Psalms seem to have been the first part of the Bible to be translated into English. An Anglo-Saxon paraphrase is extant containing the first fifty Psalms in prose, the rest in verse (ed. B. Thorpe, Oxford 1835), which has been incorrectly attributed to [258]Aldhelm, bishop of Sherborne, who died in 709, and to King Alfred; the name of the translator is not known, but he did his work after 778 and used the Latin, not the Greek text, as did all the others down to and including Wyclif. A translation of the four Gospels was made probably in the ninth century (ed. Matthew Parker, 1571; T. Marshall, 1665; B. Thorpe, The halgan Godspel on Englisc. The Anglo-Saxon Version of the Holy Gospels, London, 1842; Joseph Bosworth and George Waring, The Gothic and Anglo-Saxon Gospels, London, 1865; new ed., 1907), and interlinear glosses for the Psalms and the Gospels in the ninth and tenth centuries (Psalterium Davidis Latino-Saxonicum vetus, London, 1640). The so-called Vespasian Gospels probably belong to the first half of the ninth century (cf. J. Stevenson, Anglo-Saxon and Early English Psalter, 2 vols., London, 1843-47; H. Sweet, The Oldest English Texts, Early English Text Society, vol. 83, London, 1885, pp. 183-420; E. Wende, Ueberlieferung und Sprache der mittelenglischen Version des Psalters und ihr Verhaeltnis zur lateinischen Vorlage, Breslau, 1884). There are other similar glosses to the Psalter in the libraries of Cambridge University and Trinity College, Cambridge, in the British Museum, in the Bodleian at Oxford, in Lambeth Palace, and Salisbury Cathedral. For other Gospel versions, cf. G. Stevenson and G. Waring, The Lindisfarne and Rushworth Gospels (4 vols., Durham and London, 1854-65); K. W. Bouterwek, Die vier Evangelien in altnorthumbrischer Sprache (Guetersloh, 1857); W. W. Skeat, The Gospel according to Matthew, etc. (Cambridge, 1887,--;Mark, 1871; Luke, 1871; John, 1878); A. S. Cook, A Glossary of the Old Northumbrian Gospels (Halle, 1894). [259]Alfric translated the Pentateuch and Joshua in 997-998. The following may also be mentioned: homilies on the lessons by the Augustinian monk Ormin in the twelfth or thirteenth century (the so-called Ormulum); the translation of the Psalms by William de Shorham, vicar of ChartSutton, near Leeds in County Kent, about 1325 (the manuscript in Trinity College, Dublin, owned by John Hyde and perhaps written by him, may be a revision of this translation); and the commentary with a translation of the Psalms by Richard Rolle of Hampole near Doncaster, Yorkshire, written about 1330 (cf. H. R. Bramley, The Psalter . . . by Richard Rolle . . . Edited from Manuscripts, Oxford, 1884; Heinrich Middendorff, Studien ueber Richard Rolle von Hampole, Magdeburg, 1888). 2. Wyclif. The language developed and the thoughts of men strode onward. [260]John Wyclif entered the lists to war for the pure truth, and he determined to give the people the Bible. With the help of his pupil [261]Nicholas of Hereford he seems to have translated the whole Bible, and when he was charged with heresy and driven from Oxford in 1382, he withdrew to Lutterworth and revised the whole very carefully. His pupil [262]John Purvey appears also to have revised some things in the Old Testament; he did all he could to spread the translation abroad after Wyclif's death (cf. The New Testament in English, Translated by John Wyclif circa 1380, now first printed from a contemporary manuscript. . . . Printed at Chiswick by Charles Whittingham for William Pickering, London, 1848; Josiah Forshall and Frederic Madden, The Holy Bible . . . in the Earliest English Versions Made . . . by John Wycliffe and his Followers, 4 vols., Oxford, 1850, with a list of 170 manuscripts; J. ten Brink, Geschichte der englischen Litteratur, vol. ii, by Alois Brandl, Strasburg, 1893, pp. 5-32, especially pp. 27; A. Richter, Das Wycliffesche Evangelium Johannis im 500. Bde. der Tauchnitzer Collection of British Authors, die Wycliffesche Bibeluebersetzung, und das Verhaeltnis des ersteren zu der letzteren, programme of the gymnasium at Wesel, Aug. 30, 1862). The first English Bible, the first Bible at all in a modern tongue, was well received by the people, but for a century and a half was the object of attack by Priests and nobility. Even long after the discovery of printing no one could think of publishing this translation. It finally came out as a literary necessity in 1731, edited by J. Lewis (reprinted by H. H. Baber, London, 1810, and by Batter, London, 1841; the edition of 1848 is named above). For another version of this period consult the work of a Swedish lady, Anna C. Paues, A Fourteenth Century English Biblical Version (Cambridge, 1904). 3. Tyndale. The first to translate the New Testament in English from the original Greek was [263]William Tyndale. He printed Matthew and Mark first, somewhere on the Continent, in 1524 and 1525, and then the whole New Testament in quarto, partly at Cologne at Peter Quentel's before 1526, partly, it seems, at Worms (at Peter Schoeffer's?) in 3,000 copies, and in octavo at Cologne at Schoeffer's in 3,000 copies. Both editions were in England by about March, 1526 (cf. The First Printed English New Testament Translated by William Tyndale. Photolithographed. . . . Edited by E. Arber, London, 1871; The First New Testament Printed in the English Language . . . by William Tyndale. Reproduced in facsimile . . . by F. Fry, Bristol, 1862; James Loring Cheney, The Sources of Tyndale's New Testament, Halle, 1883, especially pp. 39, 40; W. Sopp, Orthographie und Aussprache der ersten neuenglischen Bibeluebersetzurtg von William Tyndale, Marburg, 1889). The hierarchy attacked Tyndale's work violently. The first public burning of the volume appears to have taken place in the autumn of 1526. [264]William Warham, archbishop of Canterbury, thought in May, 1527, that his agents had bought up all the copies of all three editions. In 1528 the readers of the New Testament had to take their turn at being burned. Tyndale published the Pentateuch Jan. 17, 1530 (see [265]Tyndale, William), Joshua in 1531. 4. Coverdale. Other Editions. William Roye, George Joye (afterward a bitter enemy), [266]Miles Coverdale, [267]John Rogers, and [268]John Frith were among the friends who from time to time worked with Tyndale. Coverdale completed at Antwerp, Oct. 4, 1535, the printing of his translation of the whole Bible "out of Douche acid Latyn" (i.e. the German of Luther and the Zurich Bible of 1524-29--see below, [269]VII, S: 5--and the Vulgate), using also Tyndale's work. This was the first complete Bible in English; in it the non-canonical books of the Old Testament are in an appendix by themselves, named "Hagiographa." In 1537 the "Matthew" Bible came out, a speculation on the part of the king's printer, although most of it was perhaps printed in Antwerp; it was a combination of Tyndale and Coverdale, made by John Rogers (alias Matthew) in Antwerp. In 1539 appeared the "Taverner" Bible, a revision of the Matthew Bible by [270]Richard Taverner. The "Great" Bible was brought out by Cromwell, Earl of Essex, [271]Thomas Cranmer, and [272]Thomas More, and a committee of prelates and scholars, and was printed under Coverdale's supervision, partly at Paris, till the Inquisitor-General attacked it Dec. 17, 1538, and then in London, where the volume was finished in Apr., 1539; the second edition ("Cranmer's" Bible, 1540) was "apoynted to the vse of the churches"; the Psalter from this Bible still stands in the prayer-book of the English Church. In 1557 William Whittingham published at Geneva an English New Testament with Stephens's verse-division of 1551 (see [273]Bible Text, III, S:S: 2-3) and with many corrections of the translation. In 1558 Coverdale began in Geneva a new Bible, but returned to England in 1559, while Whittingham, Anthony Gilby, and Thomas Sampson finished the printing of the handsome edition known as the "Geneva" Bible in Apr., 1560. [274]Archbishop Parker with eleven bishops and four minor prelates began in 1583 a revision of the edition of 1539, which was completed Oct. 5, 1568, as the "Bishops'" Bible; but it was not especially liked; in the churches they used chiefly the Bible of 1539 and at home the Geneva Bible. See [275]Bibles, Annotated, and Bible Summaries, II, S:S: 1-2. 5. The Douai Bible. The Roman Catholic fugitives on the Continent now prepared an English version and published the New Testament at Reims in 1582; the Old Testament followed in two volumes at [276]Douai in 1609-10 (the first edition of the "Douai" Bible; cf. Gregory Martin, A Discoverie of the Manifold Corruptions of the Holie Scriptures by the Heretikes of our Daies, etc., Reims, 1582; William Fulke, A Defence of the Sincere and True Translations of the Holie Scriptures . . . against . . . Gregorie Martin, London, 1583, ed. C. H. Hartshorne for the Parker Society, Cambridge, 1843). [Both works profess to be "faithfully translated out of the authentical Latin, diligently conferred with the Hebrew, Greek, and other editions in divers languages," and are provided with arguments of books and chapters, annotations, and "other helps for the better understanding of the text, and specially for the discovery of the corruptions of divers late translations, and for clearing the controversies in religion of these days." The New Testament was reprinted at Antwerp in 1600; the two Testaments were united by [277]Richard Challoner in a five volume edition published in London, 1749-50. The version was promoted by [278]Cardinal William Allen and the translation was by Gregory Martin, a former fellow of St. John's College, Oxford, revised by Allen, Richard Bristow, fellow of Exeter College, Oxford, and probably others. The annotations, tables, etc., for the Old Testament were by Thomas Worthington, a graduate of Oxford (Brasenose College) and president of Douai College 1599-1613. The long interval between the publication of the two Testaments was due to lack of means as the translation of both was completed before 1582. The English of the translation is faulty owing to too close following of the Vulgate, and from the critical standpoint it possesses the advantages and defects inherent in that Latin version. An elaborate preface of more than twenty pages explains and justifies the translation. The notes are characterized by the controversial spirit of the time in which they were produced. The Douai version became the standard Bible of the English Roman Catholics and, with extensive changes in language and orthography introduced in Challoner's various editions (see [279]Challoner, Richard), still remains such. American editions were published in New York in 1854 and 1861. Consult Henry Cotton, Rhemes and Doway (Oxford, 1855); F. E. C. Gigot (Roman Catholic), General Introduction to the Study of the Scriptures (New York, 1900), pp. 345 sqq.] 6. The Authorized Version. Puritan dissatisfaction with existing versions, or perhaps with the existence of another version than the one used and approved by themselves, was urged by [280]John Reynolds, head of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, at the [281]Hampton Court Conference in Jan., 1604. The idea of a new Bible translation, to be made ostensibly at his instance and under his direction, was congenial to James I. By the summer of 1604 the preliminaries were completed. A commission of six "companies," each of nine scholars (two companies each in Westminster, Oxford, and Cambridge; actually forty-seven members took part; for names of the translators, the division of the work, and much other information about the Authorized Version in convenient form, cf. Mombert's Hand Book, chap. xiii; Schaff's Companion, chap. vii), was appointed by James and very strict rules were laid down for the work. After years of labor (although some say that the work really began only in 1607 and lasted but two years and a half), during which some passages were wrought over fourteen or even seventeen times, the version appeared in 1611 in two folio editions, set up and printed at the same time so as to have a large number of copies very quickly; in the same year a duodecimo edition came out, of which only one copy (in the Lenox Library, New York City) is said to be known, and in 1613 what is called the second folio edition. The translation was then called "The Authorized Version" (although it does not appear ever to have been "authorized") or "King James's Version," and the title read "Appointed to be read in Churches." The translation was good, clear, dignified, idiomatic, and suited to the people. Of course, like everything new, it was at first and for a long time sharply attacked, but little by little it made its way, and in 1661 the Epistles and Gospels in the English prayer-book were changed to this translation. F. H. A. Scrivener published a critical edition of this version: The Cambridge Paragraph Bible of the Authorized English Version, etc. (Cambridge, 1873), in which he compared many of the reprints, as well as the revisions of Dr. Paris in 1762, Dr. Blayney in 1769, and of the American Bible Society in 1867; unfortunately Scrivener does not give the exact text of 1611 or of 1613. 7. The Revised Version. On Feb. 10, 1870, on motion of [282]Samuel Wilberforce, bishop of Winchester, the Convocation of Canterbury determined upon a revision of the Authorized Version (cf. Mombert, Hand Book, chap. xiv; Schaff, Companion, chap. viii). About thirty-seven scholars were asked to take up the Old Testament, and about twenty-nine the New Testament, although the number really working at any time was less. At least five religious bodies besides the Church of England shared in the work. In like manner two groups of scholars from nine different religious bodies took up the work in America and the results of the deliberations were exchanged across the sea. The Greek text of the New Testament (cf. The Greek Testament with the Readings Adopted by the Revisers of the Authorized Version, Oxford, 1881) was thoroughly worked over and the translation made on the basis of the result compared with the translation of 1611, and in every detail filed and polished. The revised New Testament was published in England May 17, 1881, and in America, May 20, 1881; the Old Testament appeared May 19, 1885. Three million copies of the New Testament were sold within a year. The reception, especially in England, was at first, as was to be expected, not very friendly. A very few indeed were dissatisfied because too few alterations had been made. The great mass struggled against the change of old familiar words and found support in one scholar or another. Some conservative scholars condemned the English dress while they approved the changes made in the original text, and others took offense at the new readings in the original text, because they considered the common readings sacred. America had a peculiar reason for complaint, seeing that many an expression which American scholars had preferred was to be found only in the appendix, and they were bound not to issue a new edition within fourteen years. That time was up in 1896, and the American edition, a model of exact work, appeared in New York in 1901. As the years pass the revision gains friends, and gains them more rapidly than did the revision of 1611. Caspar Rene Gregory. 8. Minor Versions. The following is a list (incomplete) of translations of the Bible or parts of it into English or attempts at revision of the Authorized Version by individuals previous to the revision of 1881-85 (see also [283]Bibles, Annotated, and Bible Summaries, II). Daniel Mace, a Presbyterian clergyman, N. T. (2 vols., London, 1729; Gk. text with a scholarly but eccentric transl.); Anthony Purver, a Quaker, A New and Literal Transl. of All the Books of the O. and N. T. (2 vols., London, 1784; has notes); Edward Harwood, A Liberal Transl. of the N. T. (2 vols., London, 1768; described as an attempt to translate the sacred writings with the "freedom, spirit, and elegance" of other translations from the Greek; has notes and includes the First Epistle of Clement); Henry Southwell, entire Bible (London, 1782; the A. V. with notes, "wherein the mistranslations are corrected"); George Campbell, professor in Aberdeen, The Four Gospels (2 vols., London, 1789; has dissertations and notes); Gilbert Wakefield, a Unitarian N. T. (3 vols., London, 1791); James Macknight, All the Apostolical Epistles (4 vols., Edinburgh, 1795; has commentary, notes, and life of Paul); William Newcome, archbishop of Armagh, N. T. (2 vols., Dublin, 1796; from Griesbach's text; a Unitarian version based on Newcome's work was issued by Thomas Belsham in 2 vols., London, 1808; Newcome also published "attempts" at improved versions of the Minor Prophets, 1785, and Ezekiel, 1788 his manuscript materials for a revised O. T. are in Lambeth Palace); Nathaniel Scarlett, successively a Methodist, Universalist, and Baptist, N. T. (London, 1798; with notes); David Macrae, A Revised Transl. and Interpretation of the Sacred Scriptures, after the Eastern manner, from concurrent authorities of the critics, interpreters, and commentators' copies and versions, showing that the inspired writings contain the seeds of the valuable sciences, etc. (2 parts, London, 1798-99); Charles Thomson, entire Bible, the O. T. from the Septuagint (4 vols., Philadelphia, 1808); John Bellamy, O. T. through Song of Sol. (London, 1818 sqq.; has notes); Alexander Campbell, founder of the Disciples of Christ, N. T. (1826; see [284]Campbell, A. Alexander); Rodolphus Dickinson, an American Episcopalian, N. T. (Boston, 1833; has notes); Noah Webster, the lexicographer, the Bible "with amendments of the language" (New Haven, 1833; the amendments were the removal of obsolete words or "those deemed below the dignity and solemnity of the subject, the correction of errors in grammar, and the insertion of euphemisms, words, and phrases which are not very offensive to delicacy"); Nathan Hale, N. T. (Boston, 1836; from Griesbach's text); Granville Penn, N. T. (London, 1838); C. Wellbeloved a Unitarian, Pentateuch and Job-Song of Sol. (2 vols., London, 1838; "a new transl" with notes); Samuel Sharpe, the Egyptologist, N. T. (London, 1840; from Griesbach's text) and O. T. (3 vols., 1865; there were eight eds. of the former and four of the latter during the author's life; Sharpe's revision is commended for skilful removal of the archaisms of the A. V.); Edgar Taylor, N. T. (London, 1840; from Griesbach's text; a meritorious version); Joshua V. Himes, the "Millerite," N. T. (Boston, 1849); James Murdock, N. T. from the Peshito (New York, 1851); Andrews Norton, Gospels (2 vols., Boston, 1855); Gospel of John (London, 1857) and Pauline Epistles (1861) by Henry Alford, George Moberly, W. G. Humphry, C. J. Ellicott, and John Barrow; L. A. Ambrose, N. T. (Boston, 1858; with chronological arrangement and "improved" chapter and verse divisions); L. A. Sawyer, N. T. (Boston, 1858), entire Bible (New York, 1879 sqq.); Robert Young, author of the concordance, entire Bible (Edinburgh, 1883; very literal); T. S. Green, The Twofold N. T. (London, 1864; Gk. text and new transl. in parallel columns); Henry Alford, N. T. (London, 1869); G. R. Noyes, professor in Harvard, N. T. (Boston, 1869; from Tischendorf's text; Prof. Noyes also published translations of Job, 1827, Psalms, 1831, the Prophets, 1833, and Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Canticles, 1846); J. N. Derby, N. T. (2d ed., London, 1872); J. B. Rotherham, N. T. (London, 1872; from text of Tregelles, with introduction and notes); Samuel Davidson, N. T. (London, 1875; from Tischendorf's text, with introduction); J. B. McClellan, Gospels (London, 1875; based on A. V. with a "critically revised" text); Julia E. Smith, entire Bible (Hartford, 1876); The Revised English Bible (O. T. by F. W. Gotch and Benjamin Davies, N. T. by G. A. Jacob and S. G. Green, London, 1877; with notes, tables, and maps); The Sunday School Centenary Bible, by T. K. Cheyne R. L. Clarks, S. R. Driver, A. Goodwin, and W. Sanday (London, 1880; republished, 1882, as The Variorum Teacher's Bible). The American Bible Union, formed in 1850 (see [285]Bible Societies, III, 2), undertook an English version which should reflect Baptist views in the language used, and published the N. T. (2d revision, New York and London, 1869) and certain books of the O. T. Since 1882 the work has been continued by the American Baptist Publication Society of Philadelphia, and is now nearing completion. Among the scholars who have collaborated in this version are John A. Broadus, T. J. Conant, H. B. Hackett, William R. Harper, Alvah Hovey, A. C. Kendrick, Ira M. Price, J. R. Sampey, and B. C. Taylor. A present day tendency is represented by The Bible in Modern English, translated direct from the original languages by Ferrar Fenton, with critical introduction and notes (St. Paul's epistles, London, 1894; N. T. complete, 1895; O. T., 1903). The following are by Roman Catholics: John Caryll, a layman, secretary to the queen of James II end intimately associated with the family of James, the Psalms (St. Germains, 1700; a prose version from the Vulgate taking Bellarmine as a guide); Cornelius Nary, pariah priest of St. Michan's, Dublin, The N. T. . . newly Translated out of the Latin Vulgate Dublin, 1718; has annotations and notes); Robert Witham, president at Douai, Annotations on the N. T. (2 vols., Douai, 1730; explains the "literal sense," "examines and disproves" false interpretations, and gives "an account of the chief differences betwixt the text of the ancient Latin version and the Greek"); "Troy's Bible" (Dublin, 1791; ed. the Rev. Bernard MacMahon, who had already edited three annotated editions of the Reims N. T.; this Bible is annotated and the text of the N. T. differs considerably from Challoner; the name comes from J. T. Troy, titular archbishop of Dublin, who approved the work); Alexander Geddes, Genesis--II Chronicles and the Prayer of Manasses (2 vols., London, 1792-1797) and Psalms i-cviii (1807; see [286]Geddes. Alexander); the "Newcastle N. T." (1812; differs from every other known edition in the Gospels and Acts); John Lingard, A New Version of the Four Gospels (London, 1836; for the most part from the Greek; has notes); F. P. Kenrick, bishop of Philadelphia, later archbishop of Baltimore, N. T. (2 vols., New York, 1849-51; "a revision of the Rhemish translation with notes"); F. A. Spencer, O. P., N. T. (New York, 1898 sqq.; from the Greek). The work of Bishop Challoner has been referred to above (S: 5). 9. Rare and Curious Editions. The following are certain rare and curious editions of the English Bible with the passage or fact which gives to each its name. The Breeches Bible: the Geneva Bible of 1560 Gen. iii, 7 reads "They sewed fig leaves together and made themselves breeches" (also in Wyclif); the Bug Bible: an edition of the Matthew Bible in 1551; Ps. xci, 5 reads "So that thou shall not nede to be afraid for any bugges [i.e., bogies] by night" (also in Coverdale and Taverner) the Caxton Memorial Bible: Oxford, 1877, printed and bound in 100 copies in twelve hours; the Discharge Bible: London, 1802; I Tim. v, 21 "I discharge [for charge] thee before God"; the Ears to Ear Bible: Oxford, 1807; Matt. xiii, 43, "Who hath ears to ear" (also has "good works" for "dead works" in Heb. ix, 14); the Goose Bible: Dort editions of the Geneva Bible because the Dort press had a goose as its emblem; the He and She Bibles: the first and the second folio editions of the version of 1611; in Ruth iii, 15, the former reads "He measured six measures of barley and laid it on her: and he went into the city"; the latter "and she went into the city"; both issues were used by printers as copy until in and after 1814 all have "she" (cf. the Revised Version, text and margin); the Leda Bible: the first Bishops' Bible (1568); it used a series of initial letters prepared for Ovid's Metamorphoses and that for the Epistle to the Hebrews represented Leda and the swan (also called the Treacle Bible, see below); the Murderers' Bible: has "murderers" for "murmurers" in Jude 16, also other misprints; the Placemakers' Bible: the second edition of the Geneva Bible (1562); has "placemakers" for "peacemakers " in Matt. v, 9; the Rebekah Bible: London, 1823; Gen. xxiv, 61, "And Rebekah arose and her camels" (for "damsels"); the Rosin Bible: the first Douai Bible (1609-10): Jer. viii, 22 "Is there no rosin in Gilead?" (A. V. "balm"); the Standing Fishes Bible: London, 1806; Ezek. xlvii, 10 "The fishes [for fishers] shall stand upon it"; (the error was repeated in editions of 1813 and 1823); the Thumb Bible: Aberdeen, 1670; it is about one inch square and half an inch thick; the To Remain Bible: Cambridge, 1805; Gal. iv, 29, "Persecuted him that was born after the Spirit to remain even so it is now" (the words "to remain" has been written on the proof in answer to a query whether or not a comma should be deleted; the error was retained in an edition printed for the Bible Society in 1805-06 and in an edition of 1819); the Treacle Bible: the first Bishops Bible (1568; also called the Leda Bible, see above); Jer. viii, 22, "Is there no tryacle in Gilead" (cf. the Rosin Bible); the Vinegar Bible: Oxford, 1716-17; has "vinegar" for "vineyard" as the heading to Luke xx (it was printed by J. Baskett, and though the most sumptuous of the Oxford Bibles, soon came to be styled "a basketful of printer's errors"); the Wicked Bible: London, 1631; the negative was left out of the seventh commandment (it was printed by the king's printer and there were four editions in the same year; all were suppressed and the printer was fined -L-300); another Wicked Bible (London, 1653) makes Paul ask, I Cor. vi, 9, "Know ye not that the unrighteous shall inherit the kingdom of God?" the Wife-Hater Bible: Oxford, 1810; Luke xiv, 26, "If any man come to me and hate not his father . . . yea, and his own wife [for life] also, be can not be my disciple." The list of misprints might be greatly extended. A Cambridge Bible of 1829, printed and proof-read with great care, introduced "thy doctrine" for "the doctrine" in I Tim. iv, 18, and the error reappeared for many years. An Edinburgh octavo of 1837 has; Jer. iv, 17, " because she hath been religious [rebellious] against me." Perhaps the finest Bible ever printed at Cambridge (1638) has a famous error in Acts vi, 3, which is said to have cost Cromwell -L-1,000 as a bribe--"whom ye [for we] may appoint." Cotton Mather relates that a Bible printed before 1702 made David complain in Ps. cxix, 161, "Printers [princes] have persecuted me without a cause." The "wicked" Bible of 1631 does not furnish the only instance of an infelicitous omission of a negative; an Edinburgh Bible of 1760 reads, Heb. ii, 18, "He took on him the nature of angels" (correct reading "he took not"); another (Edinburgh, 1818) has, Luke vi, 29, "Forbid [not] to take thy coat also"; and a London Bible of 1817 reads, John xvii, 25, "O righteous Father, the world hath [not] known thee." On the other hand an Edinburgh edition of 1781 makes the Psalmist's prayer (cxix, 35) "Make me not to go in the path of thy commandments." The errors of an Oxford Bible of 1804 include, Num. xxxv, 18, "The murderer shall surely be put together" (for "to death"), I Kings viii, 19, "out of thy lions [loins]," and, Gal, v, 17, "For the flesh lusteth after [against] the Spirit." A Cambridge Bible of 1819 reads in Mal. iv, 2, " shall the son [sun] of righteousness arise . . . and shall [for ye shall] go forth." An Oxford Bible of 1820 has, Isa. lxvi, 9, "Shall I bring to the birth and not cease [cause] to bring forth?" A Cambridge Bible of 1826 has "heart" for "hart" in Ps. xlii. 1, and the error was repeated in an edition of 1830. A Bible printed at Utica, N. Y., in 1829 begins Jas. v, 17, "Elias was a man possible like unto us" ("subject to like passions as we are"). One of Jesper Harding's early editions, published at Philadelphia, has in I Kings i, 21, "The king shall dagger sleep with his fathers" (the copy read "The king shall sleep with his fathers"). A Bible published at Hartford in 1837 makes II Tim. iii, 18, read, "All scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable . . . for destruction [instruction] in righteousness." An edition printed for the American Bible Society in 1855 has in Mark v, 3, "Who had his dwelling among the lambs [tombs]." The Great Bible in 1539 introduced the mistranslation "fold" for "flock" in John x, 16, and it was not corrected till the Revised Version. Some of the renderings in the early versions are extremely quaint. In Gen. xxxix, 2, Tyndale has, "And the Lord was with Joseph and he was a lucky fellow," and in Matt. vi, 7, "When ye pray, babble not much." Coverdale renders Judges xv, 9, "Then God opened a gome tooth in the cheke bone so the water went out," and I Kings xxii, 34, "Shott the King of Israel between the mawe and the lunges." English-speaking Jews have used freely the Authorized Version, also, since its appearance in 1885, the revised Old Testament. The Jewish School and Family Bible (4 parts, London, 1851-61) has a new translation by A. Benisch, and The Jewish Family Bible (London, 1884) has a revision of the Authorized Version by M. Friedlaender; the latter was sanctioned by the chief rabbi of the British Jews. Isaac Leeser, a pioneer Jewish rabbi and founder of the Jewish press in America, published a translation of the complete Old Testament at Philadelphia in 1854, giving practically new versions of the Prophets, Psalms, and Job and following the Authorized Version in other parts. In 1898 the Jewish Publication Society of America (Philadelphia) took in hand the preparation of a complete revision, with M. Jastrow, Sr., as editor-in-chief and K. Kohler and F. de Sola Mendes as associate editors. In 1905 Dr. Kohler's translation of the Psalms was issued (cf. the JE, iii, 194-195). Bibliography: The most complete view of the literature on the subject is given in S. G. Ayres and C. F. Sitterly, The History of the Eng. Bible, New York, 1898 (a bibliography almost exhaustive, arranged in rubrics). The most complete account up to the time of its publication is J. Eadie, The Eng. Bible, an External and Critical Hist. of . . . Eng. Translations, 2 vols., London, 1876. The most recent, and worthy of confidence, is H. W. Hoare, Evolution of the English Bible . . . 1882-1885, London, 1902 (exceedingly handy). Consult further: T. J. Conant, Popular History of the Translation of the Holy Scriptures into the Eng. Tongue, New York, n.d.; The English Hexapla, published by Bagster, London, n.d., has a valuable preface; The Bible of Every Land, pp. 189-205, ib. 1861 (contains specimen paragraphs from several versions); C. Anderson, Annals of the Eng. Bible, new ed. by H. Anderson, ib. 1862; Anglo-American Bible Revision, by Members of the American Revision Committee, New York, 1879; J. Stoughton, Our Eng. Bible, its Translations and Translators, London, 1879; B. Condit, Hist. of the Eng. Bible, New York 1882; W. F. Moulton, Hist. of the Eng. Bible, London 1882; B. F. Westcott and F. J. A. Hort, The New Testament in the Original Greek, vol. ii, Introduction and Appendix, London, 1881, New York, 1882; J. I. Mombert, Handbook of the Eng. Versions, London, 1907 (valuable); A. S. Cook, The Bible and Eng. Prose Style, Boston, 1892; idem, Biblical Quotations in Old Eng. Prose Writers . . . Introduction on Old Eng. Versions, New York, 1904 (the work of a master, minute and exact); J. Wright, Early Bibles of America, ib. 1892 (on printed editions); R. Lovett, Printed Eng. Bibles 1525-1885, ib. 1894; T. H. Pattison, Hist. of the Eng. Bible, ib. 1894; G. Milligan, The Eng. Bible, a Sketch of its Hist., Edinburgh, 1895; P. Schaff, Companion to the Greek Testament and the Eng. Version, 4th ed., New York, 1896 (deals with the A. V. and R. V.); J. W. Beardslee, Bible among the Nations; Study of the great Translators, ib. 1899; G. L. Owen, Notes on the Hist. and Text of our Early Eng. Bible, London, 1901; E. H. Foley, The Language of the Northumbrian Gloss to the Gospel of St. Matthew, New York, 1903; R. Demans, W. Tindale: A Biography. Being a Contribution to the Early History of the English Bible, London, 1904; Anna C. Paues, Fourteenth Century Eng. Version A. Prologue and Parts of the N. T. now first edited from the MSS., London, 1904; B. F. Westcott, General View of the Hist. of the Eng. Bible, ib. 1905 (the latest ed. of Bishop Westcott's scholarly work); J. R. Slater, The Sources of Tyndale's Version of the Pentateuch, Chicago, 1906; S. Hemphill, Hist. of the R. V. of the N. T., London, 1906; I. M. Price, Ancestry of our Eng. Bible, Philadelphia, 1907. The Gospels in West Saxon, ed. J. W. Bright, are appearing in Boston, Matthew, 1904, Mark, 1905, Luke, 1906, cf. The Gospels, Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, Wycliffe, and Tyndale Versions, London, 1907. V. Finnish and Lappish Versions. Although Swedish was formerly the principal language of Finland, which remained a Swedish province till the year 1809, during the period of the Reformation the land acquired a Finnish ecclesiastical language. A young Finn, Michael Agricola (see [287]Finland, S: 2) became acquainted with Luther at Wittenberg. Having returned to his native land in 1539, he began to translate religious books into Finnish. His translation of the New Testament was published first in 1548; the Psalms and some of the Prophetical books in 1551-52. In 1642 the entire Bible in Finnish by E. Petraeus, M. Stadius, H. Hofman, and G. Favorin was published in Stockholm, Finland having at that time no printing establishment. There were new editions in 1683-85 by H. Florinus, and in 1758 by A. Litzelius; a new translation by A. V. Ingman appeared in 1859. The Lappish and Finnish languages are cognates, the former having several dialects. The [288]Lapps were nominally Christians early in the Middle Ages, but had little real knowledge of Christianity. [289]Thomas von Westen did much for Christian instruction among them during the years 1714-23. Some Christian works were published in Lappish; parts of the Bible were translated and sent to Copenhagen, where they were destroyed by a fire. The Norwegian Bible Society having resolved in 1821 to publish a Lappish translation of the Bible, Provost Kildahl offered his services in 1822 in conjunction with a teacher named Gundersen. Kildahl died the same year, but the work was continued by Gundersen and later by Niels Stockfleth. The first two Gospels were printed in 1838, and the complete New Testament in 1840 (new eds.1850 and, revised, 1874). Stockfleth translated also parts of the Pentateuch (1840), and the Psalms (1854). A Lapp, Lars Haetta, translated the whole Old Testament, which, after being revised by Prof. J. A. Friis and Seminary-Director Quigstad in Tromsoe, was printed in 1875. All these are in the Norwegian-Lapp dialect. In the Swedish-Lapp dialect a handbook containing the lessons from the Gospels and the Epistles for the church-year, the Psalms, Proverbs, and Ecclesiasticus was published by J. J. Tornaeus at Stockholm in 1648. The New Testament was translated by Per Fjellstroem and published in 1755; a new edition and also the entire Bible was issued at Hernoesand in 1811. J. Belsheim. Bibliography: Bible of Every Land, pp. 319-324, London, 1881. VI. French Versions. 1. The Earlier Versions. The beginnings of a French Bible may be traced at least to the early twelfth century. In all probability pupils of Lanfranc (d. 1089) translated the Psalter for the first time into the French-Norman vernacular. At that time there was scarcely any difference between the Norman and the French (i.e. the dialect used in the Ile-de-France, a province having Paris as its capital). The Psalter, together with the canticles used in the Church, was offered to the French-speaking people in a double form; viz., (1) after the Psalterium Hebraicum, i.e. the Psalter translated by Jerome directly from the Hebrew (cf. Le Livre des Psaumes, ed. from Cambridge and Paris manuscripts, F. Michel, Paris, 1876); (2) after the Psalterium Gallicanum, i.e. according to the Psalter carefully revised by Jerome from the Septuagint (cf. Libri Psalmorum versio antiqua Gallica, ed. F. Michel, Oxford, 1860; see above [290]A, II, 2, S: 2). These translations were made word for word, and are interlinear, the Latin text standing between the lines of the French. The translations from the Gallican Psalter were so well received that down to the Reformation no one ventured on a new rendering. The manuscripts of the French Psalter which are still extant, more than 100 in number, without an exception go back to the old Norman Psalter. About fifty years later Revelation was translated into French in the Norman provinces; also Samuel and Kings (cf. Les Quatre Livres des Rois, publies par le Roux de Lincy, Paris, 1842). In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries numerous translations originated (cf. G. Paris, La Litterature franc,aise au moyen age, Paris, 1890, S: 136; J. Bonnard, Les Traductions de la Bible en vers franc,ais, Paris, 1884). Toward 1170 Peter Waldo, the head of the Poor Men of Lyons, better known later as the [291]Waldenses, brought out translations of several parts of the Bible into the vernacular, which had been made by Lyonnaise priests at his expense, and Pope Innocent III did not rest till these suspicious writings were everywhere suppressed by the Inquisition. Nevertheless some remnants of this old Waldensian literature have been saved from the hands of the inquisitors at Metz and Liege. 2. Guyard des Moulins. Of the versions which have been printed, and of which it is possible to give some account, mention may be made of that of Guyard des Moulins, canon of St. Peter's at Aire in Artois, on the borders of Flanders. Taking the Historia scholastica of [292]Peter Comestor, composed in 1170 and containing a digest of the Bible history with glosses, he made a free translation of it between 1291 and 1295; added a sketch of the history of Job, Proverbs, and probably the other books ascribed to Solomon; substituted for Comestor's history of the Maccabees a translation of Maccabees from the Vulgate; and in general made the whole conform more closely to the text of the Vulgate than Comestor had done. Psalms, the Prophets, and the Epistles and Revelation were not in the work as first issued, and it is uncertain whether Acts was not also omitted; they were added, however, in later issues. These parts, brought together, received the name Biblium historiale (Bible historiale; see [293]Bibles, Historical), and it was printed and reprinted in great numbers. An edition completed by different hands and making thus the first complete Bible, was issued by order of Charles VIII about 1487, edited by the king's confessor, Jean de Rely, and printed by Verard in Paris. Twelve editions of this appeared between 1487 and 1545. This is called La Grande Bible to distinguish it from a work entitled La Bible pour les simples gens, a summary of the history of the Old Testament, of which five editions, four undated, one dated 1535, have been examined. Previous to the edition of 1487, an edition of the New Testament of the same translation as that found in the supplemented work of Guyard, but not by Guyard himself, was printed at Lyons by Bartolomee Buyer, edited by two Augustinian monks, Julien Macho and Pierre Farget. It is undated, but is referred to the year 1477, and justly claims to be the editio princeps of the French Scriptures. 3. Protestant Versions. In the year 1523 there appeared at Paris, from the press of Simon de Colinea, an anonymous translation of the New Testament (often reprinted), to which was added in the same year the Psalter and, in 1528, the rest of the Old Testament, issued at Antwerp in consequence of attempts on the part of the French clergy to suppress the book. There can be no doubt that the well-known humanist Jacques Lefevre d'Etaples (see [294]Faber Stapulensis) was the author of this version. The complete work appeared in one volume at Antwerp, 1530. It was placed on the papal Index in 1546; but in 1550 it was reissued at Louvain, edited by two priests, Nicolas de Leuze and Franc,ois van Larben, who revised the work, striking out all that savored of heresy. The first Protestant version was prepared by [295]Pierre Robert Olivetan within the space of one year, and printed in 1535 by Pierre de Wingle at Serrieres, near Neuchatel, in Switzerland, at the expense of the Waldensians. It was reprinted several times, in one case with a few emendations from the pen of Calvin, in 1545. The Roman critics had denounced Olivetan's work as of little value because of his supposed ignorance of the languages. But he really knew and used the Hebrew to advantage, and the Old Testament was quite well done; but either through press of time or less accurate knowledge of Greek, the New Testament was inferior. To remedy the defects of Olivetan's version, the "venerable company" of pastors of Geneva undertook a revision of the work and was assisted by Beza, Simon Goulart, Antoine Fay, and others. The editor was Bonaventure Corneille Bertram, who gives an account of his work in the Lucubrationes Franktallenses (in Pearson's Critici Sacri, vol. viii). This revised edition appeared in 1588. In this as well as in the following editions the divine name Yahweh was translated by l'Eternel and this rendering is retained to this day in the Protestant Bible of France. During the seventeenth century this revision of Olivetan's version, known as the "Geneva Bible," was again revised by different ministers; the editions of G. Diodati (Geneva, 1644), Samuel Des Marets (Amsterdam, 1669), and David Martin (New Testament, Utrecht, 1696; whole Bible, 1707) are the first of such revisions. Martin's Bible was again revised by the Basel minister Pierre Roques (1744), and is to this day disseminated by Bible Societies along with other editions. Twenty years before Roques published Martin's revised text, [296]J. F. Osterwald, a pastor at Neuchatel, published anew the Geneva Bible in 1724, and another and revised edition in 1744, in which he embodied the results of the exegetical science of the time. As Osterwald's translation became the standard version, it was adopted by the British and Foreign Bible Society and issued from time to time. A thoroughly revised version prepared by M. Fossard and other French pastors was published by the French Bible Society in 1887, and this revised text was then adopted by the British and Foreign Bible Society. The following are other Protestant versions: S. Chastillon (Castalio), complete Bible (2 vols., Basel, 1555); J. Le Clerc (Clericus), N. T. (Amsterdam, 1703); I. de Beausobre and J. Lenfant, N. T. (Amsterdam, 1718; often reprinted in Germany and Switzerland); Charles Le Cene, Bible (Amsterdam, 1741); H. A. Perret-Gentil, professor at Neuchatel, O. T. (Neuchatel, 1847 sqq.); E. Arnaud, N. T. (Toulouse, 1858); A. Rilliet, N. T. (Geneva, 1859); M. J. H. Oltramare, N. T. (Geneva, 1872); Louis Segond, O. T. (Geneva, 1874), N. T. (1879), whose work has been printed by the Oxford University press; E. Stapfer, N. T. (Paris, 1889). 4. Roman Catholic Versions. Of versions by Roman Catholics, the most important are a translation of the New Testament published anonymously (Trevoux, 1702), but ascribed with correctness to [297]Richard Simon, and a series of versions which proceeded from Port Royal and the Jansenists. As early as the middle of the seventeenth century, [298]Antoine Godeau published a translation of the Bible, at first in parts, then as a whole. In 1687 the New Testament followed, printed by the Elzevirs at Amsterdam, for a bookseller of Mons, whence it is often called the Mons Testament. The translators were Antoine and Louis Isaac Lemaistre de Sacy (see [299]Lemaistre de Sacy, Louis Isaac), aided by Antoine Arnauld, Pierre Nicole, Claude de Sainte-Marthe, and Thomas du Fosse. The Old Testament, translated by Louis Isaac Lemaistre de Sacy, was added later (1671), and the New Testament by [300]Pasquier Quesnel appeared in 1687. These translations exercised great influence, partly on account of the elegance of the language, partly on account of the notes, which served devotional purposes. Their method is not a literal rendering, but is paraphrastic. The translation of the New Testament generally known as that of De Sacy was often republished, and is still widely used in France, being circulated by the British and Foreign Bible Society. [301]Rene Benoist published a translation of the Bible in 1566. Jacques Corbin, an advocate of Paris, presented the Vulgate in a translation more Latin than French in 1643. The Latin New Testament of Erasmus was translated into French by Michel de Marolles, abbe of Villeloin (1649), who also published a version of the Psalms (1644). Denys Amelote, a priest of the Oratory, translated the New Testament Vulgate into very good French (1666). Dominique Bouhours, a Jesuit, also issued a French New Testament (1697). In the eighteenth century C. Hure (1702), Augustin Calmet (1707), N. Le Gros (1739), and others made versions, all more or less dependent on the Vulgate. In more recent times the Psalms and Job have been often translated. The entire Bible by E. Genoude (Paris, 1821 sqq.) had great success. The Gospels by Lamennais (Paris, 1846) are a model of style, but because of the notes are really a socialistic polemic. [Other names and works which may be mentioned are: M. Orsini, La Bible des familles catholiques (Paris, 1851); H. F. Delaunay, who translated the annotated Bible of [302]J. F. Allioli into French (5 vols., Paris, 1856); J. A. Gaume, Le Nouveau Testament (2 vols., Paris, 1863); M. A. Bayle, who furnished the translation for Paul Drach's annotated Bible(Paris, 1869 sqq.); P. Giguet, who translated the Septuagint (4 vols., Paris, 1872); H. Lasserre, Les Saints Evangiles (Paris, 1887); the Abbe Boisson (Paris, 1901); the Abbe Glaire, who furnished the French translation for the polyglot Bible of F. Vigouroux (Paris, 1898 sqq.); and the Abbe Crampon, La Sainte Bible, revised by the Jesuit fathers with the collaboration of the professors of St. Sulpice (Paris, 1907).] Translations of the Old Testament by Jews are found in S. Cahen's annotated Bible (18 vols., Paris, 1831-51) [and in the Old Testament translated under the direction of Zadoc Kahn, chief rabbi of France (1901 sqq.)]. (S. Berger.) Bibliography: The most important contributions on the subject have been produced by S. Berger, as follows: La Bible franc,aise au moyen age, Paris, 1884; Les Bibles provenc,ales et vaudoises, in Romania, xviii (1889); Nouvelles recherches sur les bibles provenc,ales et catalanes, ib. xix (1890), cf. P. Meyer, in Romania, xvii (1888), 121, and H. Suchier, in Zeitschrift fuer romanische Philologie, iii (1879), 412. For enumeration of French Bibles consult British Museum Catalogue, entry "Bibles, French," 175-188, and the Appendix, "Bibles, French," 18; O. Douen, Catalogue de la societe biblique de Paris, 1862; Bible of Every Land, pp. 254-260, 281-283, London, 1861 (incomplete, but clear so far as it goes). Consult also J. Le Long, Bibliotheca sacra, vol. i, Paris, 1723; E. Reuss, Fragments litteraires et critiques relatifs `a l'histoire de la Bible franc,aise, in Revue de theologie et philosophie, ii, iv-vi, xiv, new series, iii-v (1851-67, exceedingly important); idem, Geschichte der heiligen Schriften des Neuen Testaments, pp. 465 sqq., Brunswick, 1887; E. Petavel-Olliff, La Bible en France, ou les traductions franc,aises des saintes ecritures, Paris, 1864; E. Cadiot, Essai sur les conditions d'une traduction populaire de la bible en langue franc,aise, Strasburg, 1868; G. Struempell, Die ersten Bibeluebersetzungen der Franzosen 1100-1300, Brunswick, 1872; A. Matter, Note sur la revision de la bible d'Osterwald, Paris, 1882; J. Bonnard, Les Traductions de la bible en vers franc,ais au moyen age, Paris, 1884 P. Quievreux, La Traduction du N. T, de Lefevre d'Etaples, Paris, 1894; P. Meyer, Notice du MS. Bibliotheque Nationals F 6447, Paris, 1897; A. Laune, La Traduction de l'A.T., de Lefevre d'Etaples, Paris, 1895; Revue de l'histoire des Religions, xxxii, 56; DB, extra vol., pp. 402-406. VII. German Versions. 1. Old German Fragments. After the Gothic version of Ulfilas (see above, A, X), the oldest fragment of the Bible in a Germanic tongue is probably the Matthew of Monsee, of the year 738 (twenty-two leaves are in Vienna, two in Hanover; on the left page is the Latin, on the right German), a Bavarian working over of a Frankish or Alsacian original. The best edition is A. Hench, The Monsee Fragments newly Collated, with Text, Introduction, Notes, Grammatical Treatise, and Exhaustive Glossary and Facsimile (Strasburg, 1890). The "German Tatian," of which the chief manuscript is at St. Gall (second half of the ninth century, in two columns, left in Latin, right in German), originated about 830 in Fulda. The Latin rests upon a manuscript written about 540 for [303]Bishop Victor of Capua, which is still preserved in Fulda, and the German follows the Latin very closely (best edition by E. Sievers, Tatianus. Lateinisch und Altdeutsch, Paderborn, 1874, 2d ed., 1892). Heccard, count of Burgundy, in 876 gave as a present an Evangelium Theudiscum with other books (cf. P. Lejay, in Revue des Bibliotheques, July-Sept., 1896). Walton, in his Polyglot (Prolegomena, p. 34a), asserts that "Rhenanus testifies that Waldo, bishop of Freising [884-906] about the year 800 [sic!] translated the Gospels into German" (cf. Hauck, KD, ii, 620, 704, 712). Detached fragments of the Gospels have been published by F. Keinz (SMA, 1869, p. 546) and J. Haupt (Germania, xiv, 1869, p. 440), which are in a handwriting of the twelfth century, but show the accents used earlier in the school of Notker Balbulus (see [304]Notker, 1; cf. W. Walther, Die deutsche Bibeluebersetzung des Mittelalters, 3 vols., Brunswick, 1889-91, 455-465). For the Heliand and Otfrid's Liber Evangeliorum or Krist, see [305]Heliand, the, and the Old-Saxon Genesis; [306]Otfrid of Weissenburg). The first translator after Ulfilas known with certainty is Notker Labeo of St. Gall (d. June 29, 1022; see [307]Notker, 5). His Job is lost, but his translation of the Psalms can be almost completely reconstructed from his German and Latin commentary on them (best ed. in P. Piper's Schriften Notkers und seiner Schule, 3 vols., Freiburg, 1883-84; facsimile in Vogt and Koch, Deutsche Litteraturgeschichte, Leipsic, 1904, and Walther, ut sup., 563). Williram, after 1048 abbot of Ebersberg in Bavaria (see [308]Williram), made a translation of the Song of Solomon, which found so much favor that nineteen manuscripts are still known, one written as late as 1528 (cf. Walther, 523-536, with facsimile, and J. Seemueller, Die Handschriften und Quellen von Willirams Paraphrase, Strasburg, 1877, and Willirams Paraphrase, 1878; Hauck, KD, iii, 968). An interlinear version of the Psalms from the cloister of Windberg, written 1187, was published by E. G. Graff, Deutsche Interlinearversionen der Psalmen (Quedlinburg, 1839; cf. Walther, 566; also A. E. Schoenbach, Bruchstuecke einer fraenkischen Psalmenversion, in ZDAL, xxiv, 2, pp. 177-186). Other manuscripts of this kind are mentioned by Walther, 568. Some twenty manuscripts and two impressions (the one probably by Knubloezer in Strasburg about 1477, the other by Peter Drach in Worms 1504) have preserved the commentary of Nicolaus de Lyra (see [309]Lyra, Nicolaus de), containing translations into German by Heinrich von Muegeln, who was for a time with the emperor Charles IV at Prague and seems to have left him on account of his edict of 1469 against the German books on Holy Scripture (cf. Helm, in Sievers's Beitraege zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache, xxi, 1897, p. 240, xxii, 1898, p. 135). Especially interesting is Walther's eighth group of translations of the Psalms (which include all Latin-German Psalters printed in the Middle Ages and two or three manuscripts) on account of the fact that the German text does not go back to the Latin Vulgate is common use, but to Jerome's version from the Hebrew (see above, [310]A, II, 2, S: 2). To Walther's ninth group belongs the splendid Psalter of St. Florian in three languages, Latin, Polish, and German, which was made either for the Polish queen Marguerite, daughter of the emperor Charles IV, or for Mary, sister of the Polish queen Hedwig of Anjou. Another translation is due to Henry of Hesse, rector of the University of Heidelberg, who died 1427, a Carthusian. On the eve of the Reformation Duke Eberhard I of Wuerttemberg was careful to have translations made for him (cf. TLZ, iv, 473; 571). 2. Printed Bibles before Luther. Besides 202 (203) manuscripts, Walther enumerates between 1466 and 1521 eighteen impressions of complete German Bibles, twenty-two of Psalters, and twelve of other parts. Of the eighteen complete Bibles, fourteen are in High German. They differ from the common Latin Bible by containing the Epistle to the Laodiceans and by placing Acts after the Epistles of St. Paul. The prayer of Manasses is missing in the first two and placed after Chronicles in the rest. Their correct chronological order is: (1) Strasburg, Mantel, c. 1466 (Hain, Repertorium bibliographicum, no. 3130). (2) Strasburg, Eggestein, c. 1470 (Hain, 3129). (3) Augsburg, Pflansmann, c. 1473 (Hain, 3131). (4) Augsburg, G. Zainer, c. 1473, a thorough revision of 2 (Hain, 3133). (5) Swiss, 1474 (Hain, 3132). (6 and 7) Augsburg, G. Zainer, and A. Sorg, 1477 (Hain, 3134-3135). (8) Augsburg, A. Sorg, 1480, a repetition of Zainer's impression of 1477 (Hain, 3136). (9) Nuremberg, A. Koburger, 1483 (Hain, 3137). (10) Strasburg, Grueninger, 1485 (Hain, 3138). (11-14) All printed in Augsburg, by H. Schoensperger, 1487, 1490 (Hain, 3139-40), H. Otmar, 1507, and Silvanus Otmar, 1518. All these editions give in the main one and the same version, but Zainer (4 above) undertook a thorough revision, which had much influence. Koburger (9 above) also made changes. The version was already more than 100 years old when first printed. Its home is not yet ascertained, but there are traces which indicate Bohemia. The Latin text underlying this version is interesting especially in Acts, where it has preserved many Old Latin readings. Led by an entry in a manuscript of Nuremberg, F. Jostes tried to prove that a certain Johannes Rellach of Resoem (?) in the diocese of Constance, who he thinks was a Dominican, was the author of this version about 1460 (cf. his Meister Johannes Rellach, ein Bibeluebersetzer des 15. Jahrhunderts, in Historisches Jahrbuch, Munich, 1897, 133-145). Kurrelmeyer (Die deutsche Bibel, Tuebingen, 1904 sqq.) seems to think the version older than this Rellach, who may have undertaken a revision of it, and he has not pronounced upon the alleged Waldensian origin of the version; the manuscript of Tepl may have been in Waldensian hands, but this does not prove a Waldensian origin. There are certain peculiar readings in which the version agrees with the Provenc,al translation. A different translation containing only the Old Testament is represented by the "Wenzel" Bible at Vienna, translated from the Latin at the command of the emperor Wenceslaus by Martin Rotlev later than 1389 (facsimile in Vogt and Koch, ut sup.). A "Bible for the Poor" at Maihingen of 1437 gives a German working over of the 212 hexameters in which Alexander Villadeus summarized all the chapters of the Bible (e.g. Gen. i-vii: sex, prohibet, peccant, Abel, Enoch, archa fit, intrant) and counts seventy-six books, fifty-eight prologues, 1,457 chapters, and 1,606 verses in the Psalter. To the same group belongs a manuscript now at Maihingen (1472), beautifully illustrated by Furtmeyer for Albert IV of Bavaria, which has between Deuteronomy and Job Matt. i-v, 44, like a manuscript in the British Museum written by the same copyist in 1465 (cf. the Athenaeum for May 31, 1884, and R. Priebsch, Deutsche Handschriften in England, i, Erlangen, 1896). For other versions, cf. Walther. The Low German Bibles include the Old Testament of Delft (1477), without Psalms, and the famous Picture Bible of Cologne (about 1478; cf. R. Kautzsch, Die Holzschnitte der Koelner Bibel von 1479, in Studien zur deutschen Kunstgeschichte, vii, 1896, and G. Gerlach, in Dziatzko's Arbeiten, ii, 13, Leipsic, 1896). The Song of Solomon in this Bible is not translated but is given in Latin. The Bible of Luebeck of 1494 gives, up to II Kings vii, an original translation; from that chapter onward text and pictures of the Cologne Bible. The edition of Ludwig Trutebul (Halberstadt, 1522) is very scarce. On the Psalters cf. Walther, 682-703, and Kurrelmeyer, ut sup. On the "Wenzel" Bible, cf. AJP, xxi, 62-75, and F. Jelinek, Die Sprache der Wenzelbibel, Goerz, 1898-99. On the pre-Lutheran Bibles, cf. A. E. Schoenbach, Miscellen aus Grazer Handschriften, ii. Reihe, Deutsche Uebersetzungen biblischer Schriften, Graz, 1899; idem, Ueber ein mitteldeutsches Evangelienwerk aus St. Paul, Vienna, 1897, and L. J. M. Bebb, in DB, extra vol., 411-413. 3. Luther's Bible. Contemporaneously with Luther others were engaged in translating parts of the Bible into modern German, e.g., Boeschenstein, Lange, Krumpach, Amman, Nachtgal, Capito, and Froehlich; but their works are forgotten (see also below, [311]S: 5). Not contemplating at first the entire Bible, Luther began with the penitential Psalms (Mar., 1517, improved 1525) and followed with the Lord's Prayer and Ps. cx in 1518, the Prayer of Manasses with Matt. xvi, 13-20, in 1519, and other pieces. At the end of 1521 he began with the New Testament. He writes on Dec. 18, 1521: "Meanwhile I am gathering notes, being on the point of translating the New Testament into the vernacular;" two days later: "Now I am laboring on annotating and translating the Bible into the common speech;" on Jan. 13, 1522, to Amsdorff: "Meanwhile I am translating the Bible, though I have undertaken a task beyond my strength. The Old Testament I can not touch unless you lend your aid" (cf. G. Bossert, in TSK, 1897, pp. 324, 349, 366). The New Testament was in type Sept., 1522; it was published with woodcuts at Wittenberg without name of printer or of translator (Das Newe Testament Deutzsch) and was sold for one and one-half florins. In December a second edition followed (cf. R. Kuhrs, Verhaeltnis der Decemberbibel zur Septemberbibel. Kritischer Beitrag zur Geschichte der Bibelsprache M. Luthers. Mit einem Anhang ueber Joh. Lange's Matthaeusuebersetzung, Greifswald, 1901). Of the Old Testament, part i (the five books of Moses) was ready in 1523; parts ii and iii (the historical and poetical books) in 1524; the prophets did not follow until 1532; and the Apocrypha as a whole not until the first complete Bible in 1534. Eleven editions were published during Luther's lifetime, besides numerous reprints. For the Old Testament he used the edition of Brescia, 1494 (the copy is now at Berlin); for the New Testament, the second edition of Erasmus (1519), but he consulted the Vulgate, and for the Old Testament had the assistance of his friends Melanchthon, Bugenhagen, Aurogallus, and all available helps. In the preface to Sirach he mentions the earlier German translation, but he seems on the whole independent of it. The influence of Luther's work was great even outside of Germany. It formed the basis of the Danish translation of 1524, of the Swedish and Dutch of 1528, of the Icelandic of 1540, and, through the mediation of Tyndale, influenced the English Authorized Version of 1611. Large parts of Luther's autograph printer's copy are preserved, and the first part is in print in D. Martin Luther's Deutsche Bibel, Weimar, 1906. A catalogue of the original editions of Luther's Bible was published by H. E. Bindseil (Verzeichniss der Original-Ausgaben, etc., Halle, 1840), who also, in collaboration with H. A. Niemeyer, issued a critical reprint of the edition of 1545 with a collation of the earlier impressions (7 vols., Halle, 1845-55). J. G. Hagemann, Nachricht von denen fuernehmsten Uebersetzungen der heiligen Schrift (Brunswick, 1750), gives a list of editions to 1749. In the Hauck-Herzog RE, iii, 74-75, about ninety places are named in which Luther's Bible has been printed, with the date of the first edition in each place. It includes the following towns in America: Germantown, Penn., 1743 (the first Bible in a European language printed in America; see [312]Sower, Christopher) and 1763 (cf. Basler Bibelbote, 1899, 52); New York, 1854 (N. T.) and 1857 (complete Bible); Philadelphia, 1846. Reading, Penn., 1813, and Lancaster, Penn., 1819, may be added. A chronological list would show the influence of Pietism. The first Berlin edition (1699), for example, was due to Spener. The first Low German Bible, by J. Hoddersen, was printed by L. Diets at Luebeck in 1533; the last was that of Lueneburg, 1621. 4. Revision of Luther's Version. By the middle of the nineteenth century six or seven different recensions of Luther's version were in use in Protestant Germany (cf. C. Moenckeberg, Tabellarische Uebersicht der wichtigsten Varianten der bedeutendsten gangbaren Bibelausgaben; New Testament, Halle, 1865, Old Testament, 4 vols., 1870-71). In 1863 a Committee was named by the Eisenach Conference (see [313]Eisenach Conference) to undertake a final revision. As the result of the labors of this committee the revised New Testament appeared in 1867 and again in 1870, Genesis in 1873, the Psalms in 1876, the whole Bible (the so-called Probebibel) in 1883. At last, in Jan., 1890, the whole work was finished and the first impression was published at Halle in 1892. The revised edition was adopted in most parts of Germany, though in Mecklenburg it is still opposed. A comparison with the English revision shows that the German was much too timid (cf., on the one side, P. de Lagarde, Die revidierte Lutherbibel des Halleschen Waisenhauses, Goettingen, 1885, also in Mittheilungen, iii; on the other, E. V. Kohlschuetter, Die Revision der Lutherschen Bibeluebersetzung, 1887, and A. Kamphausen, Die berichtigte Lutherbibel, Berlin, 1894; also TJB, 1886, where twelve pamphlets for and against the revision are named; O. H. T. Willkomm, Was verliert unser Volk durch die Bibelrevision? Zwickau, 1901). Luther's work was criticized early, especially by his Roman Catholic opponents--e.g., by Hieronymus Emser, to whom Urbanus Rhegius replied in 1524 (see [314]Emser, Hieronymus; [315]Rhegius, Urbanus; cf. G. Kawerau's Hieronymus Emser, Halle, 1898; for criticism from the modern point of view, cf. P. de Lagarde, Die revidierte Lutherbibel, ut sup.). The Wittenberg edition of 1572 introduced the summaries of Veit Dietrich. A. Calovius added in 1661 a " Biblical Calendar" by which it was possible to read the Psalms four times every year, Proverbs twice, and the rest of the Bible with Luther's prefaces once. The Wittenberg faculty added a new preface in 1669. The verse of the "three witnesses" (I John v, 7) was first introduced into a Frankfort edition of 1575, into a Wittenberg impression in 1596. Dietrich's summaries were replaced by those of Leonhard Hutter in 1624; in this edition a Roman Catholic compositor changed "everlasting gospel" in Rev. xiv, 6, to "new gospel," the verse being often applied to Luther, and subsequent editions were printed from the sheet as copy. Several editions gave great offense because of changes in the text or additions--e.g., an edition by N. Funk (Altona, 1815) was asserted to teach a "new faith" because of changes in the indexes and notes. The Bible Institute founded at Halle by Karl Hildebrand, [316]Baron Canstein came to have great influence; after 1717 standing type or stereotyped plates were used and millions of copies of the Halle text were circulated (see [317]Bible Societies, II, 1). 5. Other Versions. The Anabaptists [318]Hans Denk and [319]Ludwig Haetzer translated the Prophets before the completion of Luther's version (published by Peter S246;ffer, Worms, 1527; many later editions); their work was used by other translators and has been praised for scholarship and style (cf. J. J. I. Doellinger, Die Reformation, i, Regensburg, 1846, 199; Heberle, in TSK, xxviii, 1855, 832; L. Keller, Ein Apostel der Wiedertaeufer, Leipsic, 1882, 210 sqq.). The preachers of Zurich published a complete Bible in six parts (1525--1529), using Luther's work so far as available and adding the Prophets (part iv) themselves and the Apocrypha (part v, including III and IV Esdras and III Maccabees but not the Prayer of Azariah, the Song of the Three Children, the Prayer of Manasses, or the Additions to Esther) by [320]Leo Jud. The complete Bible was printed in 1530, without prefaces and glosses, the Apocrypha at the end. The edition of 1531 (2 vols.) has a short admonition and introduction for "the Christian reader of these Biblical Books" probably by Zwingli; also summaries, parallel references, woodcuts, and a new translation of the poetical books. The edition of 1548 (2 vols.) professes to have been compared word for word with the Hebrew, but really does not differ from editions of 1542 and 1545; it became the basis of later editions. The verse division was first introduced in 1589. A revision of the Zurich New Testament was undertaken by J. J. Breitinger in 1629, by a collegium biblicum in 1817, 1860, 1868, and 1882, and a new revision of the New Testament and Psalms appeared in 1893 (cf. E. Riggenbach, Die schweizerische revidierte Uebersetzung des Neuen Testaments und der Psalmen, Basel, 1895). Besides the Zurich Bible three other "composite" Bibles (i.e., Luther's translation so far as it had appeared with the missing parts supplied from other translations) were published before 1534: (11 Worms, Peter Schoeffer, 1529, the so-called "Baptist" Bible, having Haetzer and Denk's version of the Prophets; it was the first Protestant Bible to use the word Biblia in the title, retained in Luther's Bible till the eighteenth century; (2) Strasburg, Wolff Koepphl, 1530, Prophets by Haetzer and Denk, Apocrypha by Jud; (3) Frankfort, C. Egenolph, 1534, in which only a part of the Apocrypha was not Luther's. The Epistle to the Laodiceans was included in these editions. About one hundred, years after Luther new versions began to appear. The first complete Bible was that of J. Piscator (Herborn, 1602), called the "Straf mich Gott" Bible because the translator added in smaller type to Mark viii, 12, Wann disem geschlecht ein zaichen wirdt gegeben werden, so straffe mich Gott ("If a sign be given to this generation, so strike me God;" cf. R. Steck, Die Piscatorbibel, Bern, 1897). The Berleburg Bible (8 vols., 1726-1742) and the Wertheim Bible (1735) were prepared in the interest of mysticism and rationalism respectively (see [321]Bibles, Annotated, and Bible Summaries, I, S:S: 3, 4). Later versions are by J. D. Michaelis (O. T., 13 vols., Goettingen, 1769 sqq.; N. T., 2 vols., 1790); J. H. D. Moldenhauer (O. T., 10 vols., Quedlinburg, 1774 sqq.; N. T., 2 vols., 1787-88); Simon Grynaeus (5 vols., Basel, 1776-77; a paraphrase in modern style, the historical books of the O. T, abridged, the Gospels harmonized); and G. F. Griesinger (Stuttgart, 1824). Better than these is the version of W. L. M. de Wette and J. C. W. Augusti (6 vols., Heidelberg, 1809-14; later editions by De Wette alone). Bunsen's annotated Bible (9 vols., Leipsic, 1858-70) has a translation of the Hagiographa by A. Kamphausen, of the Apocrypha and N. T. by H. J. Holtzmann, other portions by Bunsen. Translations of the New Testament alone include: J. Crell, J. Stegman the elder, and others, the Socinian N. T. (Rakow, 1630); J. Felbinger, also a Socinian (Amsterdam, 1660); J. H. Reitz, Reformed (Offenbach, 1703); C. E. Triller (Amsterdam, 1703); Count Zinzendorf (Ebersdorf, 1727); Timotheus Philadelphus (i.e., J. Kayser, a Stuttgart physician, 1733); C. A. Heumann (Hanover, 1748); J. A. Bengal (Stuttgart, 1753); C. T. Damm (3 vols., Berlin, 1765); C. F. Bahrdt ("the latest revelations of God," 4 vols., Riga, 1773-74); J. C. F. Schulz (vol. i, the Gospels, 1774); P. M. Hahn (Winterthur, 1777); G. W. Rullmann (3 vols., Lemgo, 1790-91); J. A. Bolten (8 vols., Altona, 1792-1806); J. O. Theiss, Gospels and Acts (4 vols., Hamburg, 1794-1800); J. J. Stolz (2 vols., Zurich, 1795; a second ed. of a version by Stolz, J. L. Voegeli, and C. Haefeli, 2 vols., 1781-82); G. F. Seiler (2 vols., Erlangen, 1806); J. C. R. Eckermann (3 vols., Kiel; 1806-08); J. W. F. Hetzel (Dorpat, 1809); C. F. Preiss (2 vols., Stettin, 1811); L. Schuhkrafft (Stuttgart); J. Gossner (Munich, 1815); H. A. W. Meyer (Goettingen, 1829); E. G. A. Boeckel (Altona, 1832); J. K. W. Alt (4 parts, Leipsic, 1837-39); K. von der Heydt (Elberfeld, 1852; used by the Plymouth Brethren); F. Rengsdorf (Hamburg, 1860); C. Weizsaecker (Tuebingen, 1875; 9th ed.,1900); C. Reinhardt (Lahr, 1878); E. Zittel (3 vols., Carlsruhe, 1880-85); C. Stage (Reclam, Leipsic, 1896; "in present-day speech"); H. Wiese (Berlin, 1905). Roman Catholic versions have been numerous. Hieronymus Emser's New Testament (Dresden, 1527; see [322]Emser, Hieronymus) was merely a slight revision of Luther after the Vulgate. J. Dietenberger, a Dominican, published the entire Bible at Mainz in 1534 (cf. F. Schneider, Johann Dietenberger's Bibeldruck, Mainz, 1901). In the New Testament he followed Emser chiefly, in the Apocrypha Leo Jud, in the Old Testament he took much from Luther. C. Ulenberg revised this version in 1630, and the clergy of Mainz in 1662; thenceforth it was commonly called the "Catholic" Bible. Later Roman Catholic versions are: T. A. Erhard (2 vols., Augsburg, 1722); the Benedictines of the cloister of Ettenheimmuenster (Constance, 1751); I. Weitenauer (14 vols., Augsburg, 1777-81); F. Rosalino (3 vols., Vienna, 1781); K. H. Seibt (Prague, 1781); H. Braun (13 vols., Augsburg, 1788-1805; worked over by J. F. Allioli, 6 vols., Nuremberg, 1830-32); D. von Brentano, T. A. Dereser, and J. M. A. Scholz (N. T. by Brentano, 3 vols., Kempten, 1790-91; revised and O. T. added by Dereser and Scholz, 15 vols., Frankfort, 1797-1833); K. and L. van Ess (3 vols., Sulzbach, 1807-22); H. J. Jaeck (Leipsic, 1847). Translations of the New Testament alone are: C. Fischer (Prague, 1784); B. B. M. Schaappinger (3 vols., Mannheim, 1787-99); S. Mutscheile (2 vols., Munich, 1789-90); B. Weyl (Mainz, 1789); J. G. Krach (2 vols., Freiburg, 1790); C. Schwartzel (8 vols., Ulm, 1802-05); M. Wittmann (Regensburg, 1809); J. M. Sailer (Graz, 1822); J. H. Kistemaker (Munich, 1825; circulated by the British and Foreign Bible Society, which now also circulates Allioli's translation); B. Weinhart (Freiburg, 1900); A. Arndt, S. J. (Regensburg, 1903); B. Grundl (Augsburg, 1903). Finally, mention should be made of the scholarly translation of the canonical Old Testament, edited by E. Kautzsch in collaboration with F. Baethgen, H. Guthe, A. Kamphausen, R. Kittel, K. Marti, W. Rothstein, R. Ruetschi, V. Ryssel, K. Siegfried, and A. Socin (Freiburg, 1894; 2d ed., 1896). In the supplementary translation of the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha Prof. Kautzsch had the assistance of G. Beer, F. Blass, C. Clemen, A. Deissmann, C. Fuchs, H. Gunkel, H. Guthe, A. Kamphausen, R. Kittel, E. Littmann, M. Loehr, W. Rothstein, V. Ryssel, F. Schnapp, K. Siegfried, and P. Wendland. Since 1899 cheap editions called Textbibel, both with and without Weizsaecker's New Testament, have been circulated. German Israelites have translations of the Old Testament prepared under the direction of L. Zunz (Berlin, 1837) and by S. Bernfeld (Berlin, 1902). There are also versions in the Jewish-German (Yiddish). E. Nestle. Bibliography: The one work on early German translations is W. Walther, Die deutsche Bibelubersetzung des Mittelalters, 3 vols., Brunswick, 1889-91; cf. Bible of all Lands, pp. 178-187, London, 1861, and DB, extra vol., pp. 411-414. The subject of the printed German Bible before Luther has been much elucidated by W. Kurrelmeyer of Baltimore, who has prepared an edition from a collation of all impressions and manuscripts; vols. i and ii, the N. T., have already appeared as nos. 234 and 238 of the Bibliothek des litterarischen Vereins in Stuttgart, Tuebingen, 1904 and 1905; vols. iii-iv of the O. T., nos. 243, 248, ib. 1907. F. Jostes (Roman Catholic) has long had a history in preparation. Consult L. Hain, Repertorium bibliographicum, vol. i, Paris, 1826; L. Keller, Die Reformation und die aelteren Reformparteien, Leipsic, 1885; idem, Die Waldenser und die deutschen Bibelubersetzungen, v, 189, ib. 1886; F. Jostes, Die Waldenser und die vorlutherische deutsche Bibelubersetzung, p. 44, Muenster, 1885; idem Die Tepler Bibeluebersetzung, Munster, 1886; idem, "Die Waldenserbibeln" und . . . Johannes Rellach, in Historisches Jahrbuch, xv (1894), 77 sqq.; H Haupt, Die deutsche Bibelubersetzung der mittelalterlichen Waldenser . . ., Wuerzburg, 1885; idem, in Centralblatt fuer Bibliothekswesen, 1885, pp. 287-290; idem, Der waldensische Ursprung des Codex Teplensis . . ., Wuerzburg, 1886; M. Rachel, Die Freiberger Bibelhandschrift, Freiburg, 1886; S. Berger, La Question du codex Teplensis, in Revue historique, xxx (1886), 164, xxxii (1886), 184; K. Schellhorn, Ueber das Verhaeltnis der Freiberger und der Tepler Bibelhandschrift, Freiberg, 1896; W. Walther, Ein angeblicher Bibelubersetzer des Mittelalters, in Neue kirchliche Zeitschrift, viii, 3 (1896), 194-207; Schaff, Christian Church, vi, 351 sqq. On Luther's Bible consult: J. G. Palm, Historie der deutschen Bibeluebersetzung Dr. M. Lutheri, 1517-34, ed. J. M. Goze, Halle, 1772; G. W. Panzer, Entwurf einer vollstandigen Geschichte der deutschen Bibeluebersetzung M. Luthers, 1517-81, Nuremberg, 1791; J. Janssen-Pastor, Geschichte des deutschen Volkes, vii, 531-575, Freiburg, 1893; Schaff, Christian Church, vi, 340-368; Moeller, Christian Church, iii, 34-35. On the language of Luther's Bible consult: R. von Raumer, Einwirkung des Christentums, Stuttgart, 1845; P. Pietsch, M. Luther und die hochdeutsche Schriftsprache, Breslau, 1883; K. Burdach, Die Einigung der neuhochdeutschen Schriftsprache, Halle, 1884; B. Lindmeyer, Der Wortschatz in Luthers Emsers und Ecks, Uebersetzung des N. T.'s, Strasburg, 1899; F. Dauner, Die oberdeutschen Bibelglossare des xvi. Jahrhunderts, Darmstadt, 1898; Boehme, Zur Geschichte der sachsischen Kanzleisprache, Reichenbach, 1899; W. W. Florer, Substantivflexion bei Martin Luther, Ann Arbor, 1899; H. Byland, Der Wortschatz des Zuericher A. T.'s von 1525 und 1531 . . ., Berlin, 1903. On translations after Luther consult: J. Mezger, Geschichte der Bibelubersetzungen in der schweizerisch-reformierten Kirche, Basel, 1876; A. Kappler, Die schweizerische Bibelubersetzung, Zurich, 1898; idem, Die neue Revision der Zuericher Bibel, in Neue Zuericher Zeitung, Nov. 2 and 27, 1904. On Roman Catholic versions consult: G. W. Panzer, Geschichte der romisch-katholischen Bibelubersetzung, Nuremberg, 1781; J. Janssen-Pastor, ut sup.; G. Keferstein, Der Lautstand in den Bibelubersetzungen von Emser und Eck, Jena, 1888. VIII. Greek Versions, Modern. Parts of the Old Testament were translated by Jews into modern Greek as early as the end of the Middle Ages. A version of the Pentateuch made in 1547 has been edited by C. Hesseling (Leipsic, 1897). On the whole the Greek Church has been anxious to make the people acquainted with the Bible, a fact evinced especially in the sixteenth century by the efforts of [323]Damascenus the Studite. But when, at the instance of Cyril Lucar, Maximos Kalliupolites published in 1638 an edition of the New Testament in the original Greek with a modern Greek version, the Church as a whole did not favor it, though the patriarch Parthenios permitted its circulation. This text was reprinted in London in 1703 by the monk Seraphim, also in 1710 at Halle, and by C. Reineccius in his polyglot Bible of 1713 (see [324]Bibles, Polyglot, V). In the East, Seraphim's edition was expressly prohibited by the patriarch Gabriel of Constantinople (1702-04). A new period began when the British and Foreign Bible Society took the matter in hand. As early as 1810 it published the text of Maximos, and English influence induced the patriarchs Cyril VI and Gregory V to permit its circulation. Other issues followed in 1814, 1819, and 1824. The deficiencies of the old text having been long known, it was decided to bring out a new translation, which should approach more nearly the ancient Greek. For this work the monk Hilarion was employed under the direction of the learned Archbishop Conatantius of Sinai, afterward patriarch. But when, in consequence of a controversy over the Apocrypha (1825-27), the society introduced bibles without the Apocrypha, the Greek Church would not circulate them. Moreover, after the war of liberation the desire to be entirely independent of Occidental aid greatly increased and orthodox reaction set in anew. The version of such learned Greeks as Typaldos, Bambas, and others found no more favorable reception. This disposition has continued. The latest version of the New Testament by A. Pallis (Liverpool, 1902), written in common Greek, has not been approved. The patriarch Joachim III has renewed the prohibition of Bible translation. Philipp Meyer. Bibliography: Korals, in Atakta, vol. iii (1830); J. Wenger, Beitraege zur Kenntnis der grischischen Kirche, Berlin, 1839; Bible of Every Land, pp. 241-244, London, 1861; E. Legrand, Bibliographie Hellenique, 3 vols., Paris, 1885-1903 (for 15th and 16th centuries); idem, Bibliographie Hellenique, 5 vols., ib. 1894-1903 (for the 17th century); A. D. Kyriakos, Geschichte der orientalischen Kirchen, 1453-1898, Leipsic 1902; Bible Society Reporter, Jan. and May, 1902; DB, extra vol., p. 420. IX. Hebrew Translations of the New Testament: The anciently attested Hebrew original of the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel according to the Hebrews are not to be included in this treatment (see [325]Matthew, II; [326]Apocrypha, B, I, 19). Of existing Hebrew versions of the New Testament, the more important are the following: 1. Versions by Jews: (1) The Evangelium Matthaei in lingua Hebraica cum versione Latina, by Sebastian Muenster, appeared at Basel, 1537 (2d ed., Paris, 1541; 3d ed., with Hebrews in Hebrew and Latin, Basel, 1557). (2) The Evangelium hebraice Matthaei recens e Judaeorum penetralibus erutum, with Latin translation, edited by Jean du Tillet and Jean Mercier (Paris, 1555) is part of a translation of the Gospels by Schemtob Schaprut (1385), which may be preserved in a Vatican manuscript. (3) A complete translation of the New Testament was made by Ezekiel Rachbi (d. 1772), and an assistant from Germany. 2. Versions by Christians: (1) Elias Hutter made a Hebrew translation of the complete New Testament for his polyglot editions (Nuremberg, 1599, 1602; see [327]Bibles, Polyglot, V); a better edition of this version was issued by B. Robertson (London, 1661), and the first part of the same by R. Caddick (London, 1798). (2) Johannes Baptista Jona translated the four Gospels (Rome, 1668). (3) A translation of Matthew by Johannes Kemper (d. 1714), with Latin rendering by A. Borelius, is preserved in manuscript in the library of the University of Upsala. (4) The Epistle to the Hebrews, translated by F. A. Christiani, appeared in Leipsic, 1676, and Luke i, 1-xxii, 14, by I. Fromman at Halle, 1735. (5) The translation of the whole New Testament prepared for the London Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews appeared in 1821, and in revised form in 1840 and 1866. (6) The edition of the British and Foreign Bible Society, begun in 1864, was made by Franz Delitzsch (Leipsic, 1877; stereotyped ed., 1881; revised ed., 1885; again revised by Delitzsch and edited by G. Dalman, 1892). (7) The translation of the Trinitarian Bible Society, begun by Isaac Salkinson and completed by C. Ginsburg, was issued in London, 1885. (G. Dalman.) Bibliography: On 1: A. Herbst, Die von Sebastian Muenster . . . Uebersetzungen des Evangeliums Matthaei, Goettingen, 1879; F. Delitzsch, Brief an die Roemer, pp. 22, 105, 103-109, Leipsic, 1870; S. Schechter, in JQR, vi, 144-145. On 2: F. Delitzsch, ut sup., pp. 21-38; Theologisches Literaturblatt, 1889-1890; G. Dalman, in Hebraica, ix, 226-231 and Theologisches Literaturblatt, 1891, pp. 289 sqq.; J. Dunlop, Memories of Gospel Triumphs, pp. 378-386, London, 1894. X. Hungarian (Magyar) Versions. 1. The First Versions. Janos Erdoesi (or Sylvester; b. 1504; died c. 1560) made the first Hungarian translation of the New Testament. After studying in Cracow and Wittenberg (1526-29), he returned to his native land and worked at Sarvar under the patronage of the magnate T. Nadasdi, who erected the first Hungarian printing-press in Uj-Sziget (Neanesis). There Erdoesi's translation was printed in 1541. Erdoesi was afterward professor of Hebrew in Vienna (1542-52); driven out by the Jesuits, he went to Debreczin and, in 1557, to Loecse (Leutschau) as teacher and preacher. A little later, G. Heltai, pastor at Kolosvar (Klausenburg), and his three colleagues translated the New Testament, with several books of the Old Testament (Kolosvar, 1552-61). Peter Juhasz (Melius), pastor and superintendent at Debreczin (1558-72), rendered into Hungarian the books of Job and Kings (Debreczin, 1565), and the New Testament (Szegedin, 1567); of the latter work no copy is known. T. Felegyhazi, professor and pastor at Debreczin, published a translation of the New Testament at Debreczin in 1586. Gaspar Karoli (d. 1591), a pupil of Melanchthon, pastor at Goenc (not far from Kassa), translated the entire Bible with the Apocrypha and published it at Visoly, 1590. This is styled the Visoly Bible, and it has remained in use to the present. It has passed through many editions with some slight corrections. 2. The Komaromi Bible. During the religious wars (1604-45) against the Austrian monarchs the Hungarian nation heroically fought for political and religious liberty; to the great Protestant princes of Transylvania, Bocskai, Bethlen, and George (Gyoergy) Rakoczi the Protestant Church is much indebted, for without them it would have suffered the fate of the Bohemian Church. The victorious Rakoczi family caused 10,000 copies of the Bible to be published at Varad in 1657. The years 1660 to 1781 were a dark period for Hungarian Protestants, during which the Austrian government, under Jesuitical influences, took control of the entire kingdom, and the freedom gained in the Reformation was lost. The crisis came in 1671-81, the so-called "decade of mourning." This grievous situation explains the fact that Hungarian bibles had to be printed in foreign countries. The learned Reformed pastor of Debreczin, Gyoergy Csipkes Komaromi, an excellent Hebrew scholar, in order to meet the common wish and to make the Bible keep pace with the growth of the language, made a new translation which was approved by the synods in 1681. The city of Debreczin at enormous cost had an edition of 4,000 copies printed at Leyden in 1718. When the edition reached the frontier it was seized by the Jesuits (who had secured from the king an order to that effect) and carried to their house at Kassa. The agitated citizens and council of Debreczin used all means available to recover the books and at length secured a royal edict from King Charles III (June 29, 1723) granting them a free Bible (P. Bod, Historia Hungarorum ecclesiastica, iii, 89). So great was the power of the Jesuits, however, that they frustrated the royal edict, and the bishop of Eger, Count F. Barkoczy, carried the Komaromi bibles to his palace and threw them all into damp cellars, where they remained till 1754, when on Nov. 1 he burned them in the court of his palace before a large gathering (cf. The Bible Society Monthly Reporter Mar., 1904, p. 69). A few copies retained in Varso, hidden in the Prussian ambassador's house, were brought to Debreczin in 1789. The Roman Catholics, on their part, had the Bible translated by a Jesuit scholar Gyoergy Kaldi, and this translation appeared at Vienna, 1626 (see [328]Kaldi, Gyoergy). In the nineteenth century Baron A. Bartakovics, archbishop of Eger, ordered a new translation, which was made by his secretary, the learned Tarkanyi (d. 1886); this "Eger Bible" was published at the cost of the archbishop in 1862, and again in 1892. 3. Modern Versions. Samuel Kamori, professor in the Lutheran theological academy at Pozsony (Pressburg), attempted a new translation of the whole Bible with the Apocrypha (Budapest, 1870). Because of the translator's modern style and his inadequate knowledge of the Magyar tongue, notwithstanding its fidelity to the original, this version can not be used by the people. A revision of the old Karoli text was proposed as early as 1840, and the British and Foreign Bible Society assumed the task. The first revision of the New Testament was accomplished by J. Menyhart, professor of exegesis in Debreczin College, and by W. Gyoeri, Lutheran pastor of Budapest. It was issued at Budapest in 1878 and, being sharply criticized, did not gain acceptance. The work of revision began more seriously in 1886, when T. Duka, a native of Hungary and a member of the committee of the Bible society in London, secured the aid of that great organization. Competent men were chosen from among the professors and pastors of both Churches. After many years' labor, the revised Old Testament left the press at Budapest in 1898. This noble work needs further revision, and the Hungarian Church awaits the moment when the second revision, soon to appear, will be ready. Work on the revision of the New Testament is progressing. After the great revolution of 1848 and between 1851 and 1861, the constitution of Hungary was suspended by the Austrian government and the circulation of the Bible was prohibited. The Bible depot, the property of the British Society, was ordered to be removed, and was located at Berlin; since the coronation of Francis Joseph I all hindrances have been removed, and under the Hungarian state government circulation of the Bible is free. F. Balogh. Bibliography: Bible of Every Land, pp. 325-327, London, 1861; F. Verseghi, Dissertatio de versione Hungarica scripturae sacrae, Budapest, 1822; T. Duka, in Bible Society's Monthly, London, 1892; KL, ii, 770-771; Hauck-Herzog, RE, pp. 115-118 (gives the literature in Hungarian); BD, extra vol., p. 417. XI. Italian Versions. Legend has it that [329]Jacobus de Varagine, bishop of Genoa, made an Italian translation of the Bible. There can be no doubt that one was prepared as early as the thirteenth century. The earliest printed Italian Bible is that of Nicolo di Malherbi, an abbot of the Camaldolites, based on the Vulgate and published Venice, 1471. In 1530 Antonio Bruccioli published at Venice his translation of the New Testament and in 1532 the entire Bible. In the same year the New Testament by the Dominican Zaccaria was published at Venice, and in 1551 that of Domenico Giglio. After this time Geneva became the home of the Italian Bible. A congregation of refugees settled there about the middle of the sixteenth century, and for their benefit Massimo Teofilo, a former Benedictine of Florence, translated the New Testament from the Greek (Lyons, 1551). For the Old Testament Bruccioli's version was revised and thus in 1562 the first Protestant Bible in the Italian language appeared (at Geneva). It was entirely superseded in 1607 by the translation of [330]G. Diodati of Lucca. This version, made directly from the original texts, stands in high esteem for fidelity and has been repeatedly reprinted by different Bible societies. A version affecting great elegance, but by no means as faithful because made from the Vulgate, is that of Antonio Martini, archbishop of Florence (Turin, 1776). This version has also been repeatedly reprinted by the British and Foreign Bible Society, and in 1889 sqq. an illustrated edition was published by the Catholic publisher Sonzogno at Milan. [A version of the Gospels and Acts in modern Italian prepared under the direction of the St. Jerome Society of Rome by Giuseppe Clementi, a secular priest and professor of Italian literature, with brief notes by Giovanni Genocchi of the Mission of the Sacred Heart, and preface by Giovanni Semeria of the Order of St. Paul (Barnabites), was printed at the Vatican Press with the approbation of Pope Leo XIII in 1902. The work was well received by the public and by scholars, and was approved and circulated by many dignitaries of the Roman Church, although some feared its influence. The completion of the New Testament and translation of the Old, which was contemplated by the Society, has been postponed, as it seemed inadvisable to Pope Pius X to give the Italian people the epistles of St. Paul at the present time. The volume published is sold at a nominal price, and about 500,000 copies, it is claimed, have been distributed. (S. Berger.) Bibliography: S. Berger, La Bible Italienne au moyen age, in Romania, xxiii (1894), 358 sqq. (contains bibliography and list of MSS.); Bible of Every Land, pp. 277-279, London, 1861; J. D. Hales, The Bible or the Bible Society? The Corruption of God's Word in the Italian Version of Martini, London, 1861; J. Carini, Le Versione della Biblia in volgari italiano, S. Pier d'Arena, 1894; S. Minocci, Versions Italiennes de la Bible, in Vigouroux, Dictionnaire de la Bible; KL, ii, 741-742; DB, extra vol., 406-408. XII. Lithuanian and Lettish Versions. A forerunner of the Bible translation for Protestant Lithuanians was the rendering of the Scripture lessons from the Gospels and Epistles by B. Willent (Koenigsberg, 1579) from Luther's text (edited by F. Bechtel, in Bezzenberger's Litauische und lettische Drucke des 16. Jahrhunderts, part 3, Goettingen, 1882). The first translator of the Bible in a fuller sense was Jan Bretkun (Bretkunas), minister at Labiau and Koenigsberg (d. 1602 or 1603). He translated the whole Bible, 1579-90. The manuscript, preserved in the university library at Koenigsberg, is described by A. Bezzenberger, Beitraege zur Geschichte der litauischen Sprache (Goettingen, 1877), pp. vi-vii. Only the Psalms were published (Koenigsberg, 1625) and the editor, J. Rhesa, introduced many changes. The Reformed Lithuanians, anxious for a Bible, in 1657 commissioned Samuel Boguslaw Chylinski to go to England and have the Bible printed there (cf. H. Reinhold, in Mittheilungen der litauischlitterarischen Gesellschaft, vol. iv, part 2, p. 105). The Old Testament as far as the Psalms was presented to the synod at Wilna in print in 1663, other parts in manuscript. Of this Bible impression only three copies, all imperfect, are known to exist. Chylinski was the translator. The New Testament, translated by Samuel Bythner, was published at Koenigsberg, 1701, for the benefit of the Lutherans (new ed., Berlin, 1866). A New Testament translated by different ministers was published at Koenigsberg in 1727. The Old Testament was prepared in the same way and the whole Bible was published at Koenigsberg, 1735. In the beginning of the nineteenth century the need of a new edition of the Bible was felt, and the work was undertaken, with the help of the British and Foreign Bible Society, by a number of clergymen and especially by L. J. Rhesa. It was based on Luther's version, with comparison of the Hebrew and Greek originals, and was published at Tilsit, 1824. For the Roman Catholic Lithuanians, Joseph Arnulf Giedraitis (Polish, Giedroj?), bishop of Samogitia, translated the New Testament from the Vulgate (Wilna, 1816). The oldest specimen of Lettish printing, the Enchiridion (Koenigsberg, 1586-87; called in later editions Vademecum and "Hand-Book"), contains among other writings for ecclesiastical use the Scripture lessons for Sundays and festivals for the Evangelical Letts (in later editions enlarged by parts of the Old Testament). The first Lettish Bible, translated by E. Glueck and C. B. Witten, was published at Riga, 1685-89. In 1877 A. Bielenstein published at Mitau a thoroughly revised edition. (A. Leiskien.) Bibliography: L. J. Rhesa, Geschichte der Litthauischen Bibel, Koenigsberg, 1816; H. Reinhold, Die sogenannte Chylinskische Bibeluebersetzung, in Mittheilungen der litauischlitterarischen Gesellschaft, vol. iv, part 2. p. 105; Napiersky, Chronologischer Conspect der lettisch-litterarischen Gesellschaft, vol. iii, 1831; Bible of Every Land, pp. 310-313, London, 1861; Bielenstein, Zum 300jaehrigen Jubilaeum der Lettischen Literatur, Riga, 1886. Consult also the Annual Reports of the BFBS. XIII. Persian Versions. Chrysostom mentions Persians as well as Syrians, Egyptians, Ethiopians, and other nations as being in possession of the Gospel; but it is very doubtful whether there was at that time a version of Scripture in the Persian tongue, since Syrian influence predominated in the Persian Empire. It is said, however, that Chosroes II had the Scriptures brought from Edessa (cf. TLZ, 1896, 432, and Theodoret, Hist. eccl., i, 5). All that was known in Europe till 1700 of Biblical and other texts is found in Lagarde, Persische Studien (Goettingen, 1884), 3-8. A translation of the Pentateuch by the Persian Jew Jacob ben Joseph Tawus, printed in Hebrew characters, is contained in a polyglot Pentateuch of Constantinople (1546), and was transcribed into Persian characters with a Latin translation by T. Hyde in vol. iv of Walton's Polyglot. The Gospels, translated from the Greek, were edited by Abraham Wheelocke and, after his death, by Pierson (London, 1657), and another translation from the Syriac was printed in vol. v of Walton's Polyglot, and used by Tischendorf after the edition of C. A. Bode (Helmstadt, 1750-51). In Paris are parts of two different translations of the Old Testament, the one made from the Hebrew, the other from the Aramaic (cf. Zotenberg, Catalogue des manuscrits Hebreux, etc., Paris, 1866 sqq., and Lagarde, Persische Studien, i, 69, and ii, and his Symmicta, ii, Goettingen, 1879, 14-17). On Jewish reports about the Bible in the language of Elam and Media cf. L. Blau, Einleitung in die heilige Schrift (Budapest, 1894), 80-94. E. Nestle. For partial translations of the Bible, particularly of the Pentateuch, the Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Canticles, the Minor Prophets, Esther, Daniel, Tobit, Judith, Job, and Lamentations, preserved in manuscript, cf. JE, iii, 190, vii, 318-319. The oldest fragments of this character are probably those found in the Pahlavi Shikandgumanig Vijar, which dates from the latter part of the ninth century (ed. Jamasp-Asana and E. W. West, Bombay, 1887; transl. by E. W. West, SBE, xxiv, 117 sqq.). These fragments are Gen. i, 2-3, ii, 16-17, iii, 9, 11-16, 18-19, vi, 6; Ex. xx. 5; Deut. xxix. 4, xxxii. 35; Ps. xcv. 10; Isa. xxx. 27-28, xliii. 19; Matt. i. 20, v. 17, vii. 17-18, xii. 34, xv. 13, xviii. 32; Luke v. 31-32, vi. 44, xv. 4; John i. 11, 14, viii. 23, viii. 37-38, 42-45, 47; and Rom. vii. 19-20. They were quoted for anti-Christian polemics, and from the forms of the proper names seem to have been derived from a Syriac original, though traces of the Targum of the pseudo-Jonathan (see above, [331]A, V, S: 3) may be discovered in the renderings of Ex. xx, 5 and especially of Gen. iii, 14 (cf. L. H. Gray, in Actes du XIV. congres international des orientalistes, i, Paris, 1905, 182-186). Equally interesting are the fragments of the New Testament in Estrangelo script but in an Iranian dialect (probably Sogdhian, thus constituting almost the only known remains of this dialect), discovered in Turfan, Eastern Turkestan, in 1903. These citations are Manichean in origin, and the following passages are thus far known: Matt. x, 14 sqq.; Luke i, 63-80; John xx, 19 sqq.; Gal. iii, 25 sqq., and a number of smaller fragments which are adaptations and compilations rather than translations (cf. F. W. K. Mueller, in appendix to the Abhandlungen der Berliner Akademie, 1904, pp. 34-37, and Sitzungsberichte der Berliner Akademie, 1907, pp. 260-270). Mention may also be made of a Persian version of Gen. i-vi, 6, by Abhichand, a Hindu converted to a mixture of Judaism and Mohammedanism by the Judeo-Persian poet Sarmad early in the seventeenth century, and preserved in the Dabistan. This version differs materially from the translation of Jacob Tawus. Bibliography: Walton's Polyglot, Prolegomena, 16, and S. Clericus, in vol. iv; S. Munk, Une version persane MS. de la Bibliotheque Royals, Paris, 1838; Bible of Every Land, pp. 64-71, London, 1861; A. Kohut, Beleuchtung der persischen Pentateuchuebersetzung, Heidelberg, 1871; T. Noeldeke, in ZDMG, li (1893), 548; Horn, Aus italienischen Bibliotheken, in ZDMG, li (1893); Scrivener, Introduction, ii, 165; Gregory, Textkritik, i, 575-578. XIV. Portuguese Versions. Portuguese versions begin with that by Joao Ferreira d'Almeida, a former Roman Catholic priest (New Testament, Amsterdam, 1681; Old Testament, revised and continued by Danish missionaries, Tranquebar, 1719-1751). A Roman Catholic version, with annotations, by Antonio Pereira de Figueiredo, was published in Lisbon, 1778 sqq. (23 vols.; revised ed., greatly improved, 1794-1819). A version based on Almeida's translation was made by the Rev. Thomas Boys, and published by the Trinitarian Bible Society (London, 1843-47). The British and Foreign Bible Society has often printed revised editions of both Almeida's and Pereira's versions. The need of a better and more accurate translation of the Bible in the Portuguese language is generally recognized by Protestant missionaries and laborers in Portugal and Brazil. (S. Berger.) Bibliography: Bible of Every Land, p. 271-276, London, 1861; S. Berger, in Romania, xxviii (1899), 543 sqq. (gives a full account of the literature); DB, extra vol., pp. 410-411. XV. Scandinavian Versions. 1. Before the Reformation. Of the Scandinavian countries, Norway and its colony, Iceland, had at a very early period a national literature in the Old Norwegian tongue (incorrectly called Old Norse). To the earliest period of Bible translation belongs the Stjorn ("Dispensation," sc., of God), which includes Gen.-II Kings. This is not a translation but a paraphrase of these books on the basis of the Vulgate, with explanatory remarks from different authors--Josephus, Augustine, Peter Comestor, Vincent of Beauvais, and others. The preface states that it was prepared under the patronage of King Haakon V (1299-1319), and from a note in one of the manuscripts it appears that Brand Jonson, bishop of Hole is Iceland (d. 1264), made the translation. If this note is correct, Jonson probably translated the middle and most ancient part (Ex. xix-Deut. xxxiv). The Stjorn was edited by Prof. C. R. Unger (Christiania, 1862). In the Old Norwegian literature there exist many homilies, legends of the saints, and apocryphal Acts of the Apostles which contain many Bible texts; these were put together and published by J. Belsheim under the title Af Bibelen i Norge og paa Island i Middelalderen (Christiania, 1884). The earliest traces of a translation of the Bible into Old Swedish appear in the time of St. Bridget. In her "Revelations" as well as in accounts of her life it is said that she had a copy of the Bible made in Swedish. This was undoubtedly only an exposition of the Pentateuch composed by her father confessor Matthias in Linkoeping (d. 1350; see [332]Bridget, Saint, of Sweden). Joshua and Judges were translated later by Nils Ragnvaldson (d. 1514), while Judith, Esther, Ruth, and Maccabees were translated by Jens Budde of the Naadendal monastery. There is also extant a translation of the Apocalypse, made prior to 1520. All these Biblical works, based on the Vulgate, were edited by G. E. Klemming, in Svenska Medeltidens Bibelarbeten (2 vols., Stockholm, 1848-55). An old Danish version based on the Vulgate, containing the first twelve books of the Old Testament, is contained in a manuscript of the Mariager monastery in Jutland, antedating 1480. The first eight books were edited by Prof. C. Molbech (Copenhagen, 1828). A translation of the Psalms of the same period is extant in different manuscripts. Some of them were edited by C. J. Brandt, in Gamle danske Laesebog (Copenhagen, 1857). 2. Since the Reformation. In both Denmark and Sweden the entire Bible was first translated in the period of the Reformation. Norway was united with Denmark from 1380 to 1814 and the Danish language, being cognate with the Norwegian, became the common literary language in the two countries. The New Testament was first rendered into Danish by Hans Mikkelsen, formerly burgomaster of Malmoe, who followed Christian II into exile in the Netherlands in 1523. This New Testament appeared at Leipsic in 1524. Being a mixture of Danish and German, the language was uncouth. A better translation was made by Christen Pedersen (d. 1554), the first editor of the history of Denmark by Saxo Grammaticus and of other older works. Pedersen's New Testament was printed at Antwerp 1529 and again in 1531, and in the latter year his translation of the Psalms appeared. Previous to this (1528) a translation of the Psalms made by Frans Wormordsen, a Dutchman by birth, was published at Rostock. All these followed the Vulgate closely, but were influenced by Luther and Erasmus. The Danish Reformer Hans Tausen (d. 1561, as bishop of Ribe [Ripen]) translated the Pentateuch from Luther's version (Magdeburg, 1535). Peder Tidemand translated Judges (Copenhagen, 1539), and Wisdom and Ecclesiasticus (Magdeburg, 1541). The first complete Bible in Danish was published at Copenhagen is 1550, following, according to the instructions of Christian III, as much as possible Luther's version. The greater part of the work was done by Christen Pedersen, assisted by a number of professors. A new edition followed, 1589, reprinted 1633. A translation from the original languages, prepared by Hans Paulsen Resen (d. 1638), appeared in 1607, and, revised by Bishop Hans Svane or Svaning (the so-called Svaning Bible), again in 1647 and was used till the middle of the nineteenth century. In 1819 Bishop [333]F. C. K. H. Muenter with others undertook a revision of the New Testament, and the whole Bible, revised by C. Rothe, C. Hermansen, and C. Kalkar under the presidency of Bishop [334]H. L. Martensen was published in 1872. There are translations made by other scholars, such as C. Bastholm (New Testament, 1780), O. H. Guldberg (New Testament, 1794), the whole Bible, by J. C. Lindberg (1837-56) and C. Kalkar (1847), the four Gospels by K. F. Viborg (1863), and the New Testament by Bishop T. S. Roerdam (1886; 2d ed., 1894-95). A Roman Catholic version of the New Testament after the Vulgate was published by J. L. V. Hansen in 1893. After the separation of Norway from Denmark in 1814, three revisions of the New Testament were made (1819, 1830, and 1873), the most important being by Prof. Hersleb in 1830. A new translation of the Old Testament undertaken by Adjunct Thistedahl and Profs. Kaurin, Holmboe, Caspari, and Nissen was published in parts (1857-1869; revised ed. completed 1890), and of the New Testament by Bishops F. W. Bugge, A. C. Bang, and others was published in 1904. The New Testament was rendered into the Norwegian vernacular, which much resembles the Old Norwegian, by Prof. E. Blix, I. Aasen, M. Skard, and J. Belsheim, and published in 1889 (new ed., 1899). A translation of parts of the Old Testament is in preparation and the Book of Psalms was printed in 1904, Genesis in 1905. A translation of the New Testament for the use of Roman Catholics has also been published. During the Reformation period Iceland also received the Bible in its old Norwegian-Icelandic tongue. An Icelander, Odd Gottskalkson, of Norwegian descent, translated the New Testament, which was published at Roskilde, 1540. The whole Bible translated after Luther's version by Bishop Gudbrand Thorlakson appeared in 1584 (revised 1644). A new translation by Bishop Stein Jonson was issued in 1728, but the rendering was not smooth, so the older version of Thorlakson was reprinted at Copenhagen in 1747, and the New Testament again in 1750 and 1807, followed in 1813 by a reprint of the whole Bible. In 1827 a new translation of the New Testament was published, followed by a revised edition of the whole Bible in 1841, and by a revised edition, Oxford, 1863. When Gustavus Vasa became king of Sweden in 1523, wishing for a Swedish translation, he applied to Archbishop Johannes Magni of Upsala, requesting him with the help of the clergy to prepare a translation of the New Testament. The archbishop devised a plan which, however, was opposed by some of the ministers. Bishop Hans Brask of Linkoeping said that "it were better for Paul to have been burned, than to be known by every one." The New Testament translated by the chancellor [335]Lorenz Andreae with the assistance of [336]Pastor Olaus Petri was published at Stockholm 1526. The whole Bible, translated by Lars Petri, archbishop of Upsala (d. 1573), was issued 1540-41. This Bible, made after Luther's, was for a long time the church Bible of Sweden. A revised edition by the two bishops Gezelius in Abo (father and son; see [337]Gezelius, Johannes) was highly praised. Different commissions for translating the Bible were appointed; one, consisting of twenty-three members, spent a long time in preparing a translation with a rationalistic tendency; but the "specimens" published from time to time found no favor. In 1844 the commission was reconstituted, with Prof. A. Knoes as one of its most active members. The New Testament prepared by the cathedral provosts C. A. Thoren and H. M. Melin and published in 1853-77 was not favorably received. A better reception met the version of the New Testament prepared by Archbishop Sundberg, Cathedral Provost Thoren, and Bishop Johanson, published in 1882. A new translation of the Old Testament is in preparation. The Bible version of Cathedral Provost Melin was published in 1865-89. J. Belsheim. Bibliography: J. Belsheim, Veiledning i Bibelens Historie, pp. 252 sqq., Christiania, 1880; J. A. Schinmeier, Geschichte der schwedischen Bibel-Uebersetzungen und Ausgaben, Leipsic, 1777; P. W. Becker, De J. P. Resenii versione Danica, Copenhagen, 1831; C. Molbeoh, Bidrag til en historie af de Danske Bibeloversaettelser, ib. 1840; Bible of Every Land, pp. 214-225, London, 1861; C. W. Bruun, Bibliotheca Danica, Copenhagen, 1872; J P. Haeggman, Forteckning oefver svenska upplagor af Bibeln, Upsala, 1882; KL, ii, 767-769; DB, extra vol., pp. 415-416. XVI. Slavonic Versions. 1. The Old Church Slavonic Version. The history of Bible versions in the Slavonic begins with the second half of the ninth century. The oldest translation, commonly called the Church Slavonic, is closely connected with the activity of the two apostles to the Slavs, Cyril and Methodius, in Moravia, 864-865 (see [338]Cyril and Methodius). The oldest manuscripts are written either in the so-called Cyrillic or the Glagolitic character. The former is the Greek majuscule writing of the ninth century with the addition of new characters for Slavic sounds which are not found in the Greek of that time; the latter was a style of the Greek minuscule with the addition of new signs as in the Cyrillic alphabet. The oldest manuscripts are written in the Glagolitic, which is older than the Cyrillic. The oldest manuscripts extant belong to the tenth or eleventh century, and the first complete collection of Biblical books in the Church Slavonic language originated in Russia in the last decade of the fifteenth century. It was made by Archbishop Gennadius of Novgorod, and the Old Testament was translated partly from the Vulgate, and partly from the Septuagint. The New Testament is based upon the old Church Slavonic translation. During the sixteenth century a greater interest in the Bible was awakened in South and West Russia, owing to the controversies between adherents of the Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholics and Uniates. In the second half of the sixteenth century the Gospels, Acts, and Epistles, and parts of the Psalter were often printed at Lemberg and Wilna, though the oldest edition of the Acts and Epistles was issued at Moscow in 1564. In 1581 the first edition of the Slavonic Bible was published at Ostrog, a number of Greek manuscripts, besides the Gennadius Bible, having been used for this edition. But neither the Gennadius nor the Ostrog Bible was satisfactory, and in 1663 a second somewhat revised edition of the latter was published at Moscow. In 1712 the czar Peter the Great issued a ukase ordering the printed Slavonic text to be carefully compared with the Greek of the Septuagint and to be made in every respect conformable to it. The revision was completed in 1724 and was ordered to be printed, but the death of Peter (1725) prevented the execution of the order. The manuscript of the Old Testament of this revision is in the synodal library at Moscow. Under the empress Elizabeth the work of revision was resumed by a ukase issued in 1744, and in 1751 a revised "Elizabeth" Bible, as it is called, was published. Three other editions were published in 1756, 1757, and 1759, the second somewhat revised. All later reprints of the Russian Church Bible are based upon this second edition, which is the authorized version of the Russian Church. 2. Russian Versions. The Church Slavonic is not intelligible to the Russian people. An effort to produce a version in the vernacular was made by Frantsisk Skorina (d. after 1535), a native of Polotsk in White Russia. He published at Prague, 1517-19, twenty-two Old Testament books in the "Russian language," in the preparation of which he was greatly influenced by the Bohemian Bible of 1506 (see below, [339]S: 5). Other efforts were made during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, but the Church Slavonic predominated in all these efforts. Peter the Great felt that the mass of the Russian people needed a Bible in the vernacular and authorized Pastor Glueck in 1703 to prepare such an edition. Unhappily Glueck died in 1705 and nothing is known of his work. It was left to the nineteenth century in connection with the establishment of the Russian Bible Society (founded in 1812 at St. Petersburg, with the consent of Alexander I; see [340]Bible Societies, II, 5) to prepare a Bible in the vernacular. The work was under taken by [341]Philaret, rector of the Theological Academy of St. Petersburg (afterward metropolitan of Moscow), and other members of the faculty of the academy. The Gospels were published in 1818 and in 1822 the entire New Testament. In 1820 the translation of the Old Testament was undertaken, and in 1822 Philaret's translation of the Psalms was published. In 1825 the Pentateuch, Joshua, Judges, and Ruth were issued. The year 1826 saw an end to the activity of the Bible Society in the ban put upon all kinds of private associations, even when non-political. Not before 1858 was the work of translation resumed. In 1876 the entire Bible was published in one volume. The Old Testament books, though based upon the Hebrew, follow the order of the Septuagint and the Church Slavonic Bible. The Apocryphal books also form a part of the Russian Bible. The British and Foreign Bible Society also issued a Russian edition, omitting, however, the Apocrypha. 3. Bulgarian and Servian Versions. The Bulgarians too were provided during the nineteenth century with translations of Biblical books into the vernacular. In 1828 the New Testament was published at Bucharest (2d ed., 1833), translated by the pastors Sapunov and Seraphim. For the British and Foreign Bible Society the archimandrite Theodosius, abbot of the Bistrica monastery, translated the New Testament, which was printed at London in 1828. The entire edition was sent to St. Petersburg and is said to have been destroyed there. A new translation of the New Testament was published at Smyrna in 1840 (3d ed., Bucharest, 1853, and often). In 1867 the American Bible Society printed in New York a translation of the New Testament and other editions were issued at Constantinople in 1866 and 1872. The Old Testament "translated from the original" was also published there in three parts (1862-64), but without the Apocrypha. An edition of the entire Bible "faithfully and accurately rendered from the original" was published by the same society at Constantinople in 1868 (3d ed., 1874). A translation of the New Testament into Servian was made by Vuk Stefanovi? Karaji?, the founder of modern Servian literature, and published at Vienna in 1847. The Old Testament was translated by Vuk's pupil Dyuro Danichi? and issued at Belgrade in 1868. The language in both is excellent. The Servian Bible of Atanasiie Ivanovi? Stoikovi? (published by the Russian Bible Society at St. Petersburg, 1824) is not written in the vernacular, but is a mixture of Church Slavonic and Servian. 4. Slovenian and Croatian Versions. The Bible versions for the Slovenes are most closely connected with the activity of the Reformer of Carniola, Primus Truber (1507-86; see [342]Truber, Primus), and his associates and successors; they were intended for the Evangelical Slovenes. Truber translated the Gospel of Matthew, which was printed at Reutlingen in 1555; in 1557 the first part of the New Testament was published at Tuebingen, the second part in 1560, and the complete New Testament was issued in 1582; the Psalms appeared in 1566. Dalmatin, who assisted Truber, translated the Old Testament, and an edition of the entire Scriptures in Slovenian was published under his direction at Wittenberg in 1584. Stevan Kuezmics published a New Testament for the Hungarian Slovenians in their dialect at Halle in 1771. An edition published at Guens (Koeszeg) in 1848 has the Psalms added. In 1784 a part of the New Testament for the use of Roman Catholics was printed at Laibach, translated from the Vulgate by several hands. The second part of the New Testament was issued in 1786, and the Old Testament between 1791 and 1802. Efforts were also made to prepare a Bible version for the Evangelical Croats or for those who should be brought over to the Evangelical faith. A New Testament translated by Anton Dalmata and Stipan Consul was printed in Glagolitic characters (2 parts) at Tuebingen, 1562-63. In the seventeenth century efforts were made to give a translation to the Catholic Croats and Servians in the so-called Illyrian dialect, but nothing was printed till the nineteenth century when a Bible in Latin letters together with the parallel text of the Vulgate, translated into "the Illyric language, Bosnian dialect" by Petrus Kataucsich, was published at Budapest (6 parts, 1831). It followed the Vulgate slavishly. 5. Bohemian Versions. The Czech literature of the Middle Ages is very rich in translations of Biblical books, made from the Vulgate (cf. the list of manuscripts and prints in J. Jungmann, Historie Literatury ?eske, Prague, 1849). During the fourteenth century all parts of the Bible seem to have been translated at different times and by different hands. The oldest translations are those of the Psalter. The New Testament must also have existed at that time, for according to a statement of Wyclif, Anne, daughter of Charles IV, received in 1381 upon her marrying Richard II of England a Bohemian New Testament. It is certain that Huss had the Bible in Bohemian before him as a whole and he and his successors undertook a revision of the text according to the Vulgate. The work of Huss on the Bible antedated 1412. During the fifteenth century the revision was continued. The first complete Bible was published at Prague, 1488; other editions were issued at Kuttenberg, 1489, and Venice, 1506. These prints were the basis of other editions which were published from time to time. With the United Brethren a new period began for the translation of the Bible. In 1518 the New Testament appeared at Jungbunzlau at the instance of [343]Luke of Prague. It was not satisfactory and the same must be said of the edition of 1533. Altogether different was the translation made by Jan Blahoslav from the original Greek (1564, 1568). The Brethren anon undertook the translation of the Old Testament from the original and appointed for this work a number of scholars, who based their translation upon the Hebrew text published in the Antwerp Polyglot. The work began in 1577 and was completed in 1593, and from the place of printing, Kralitz in Moravia, it is known as the Kralitz Bible (6 parts, 1579-93, containing also Blahoslav's New Testament). This excellent translation was issued in smaller size in 1596, and again in folio in 1613 (reprinted at Halle in 1722, 1745, 1766; Pressburg, 1787; Berlin, 1807). After the year 1620 the publication of non-Catholic Bibles in Bohemia and Moravia ceased, and efforts were made to prepare Bibles for the Catholics. After some fruitless beginnings the work was entrusted to certain Jesuits, who took the Venice edition of 1506 as the basis, but relied greatly, especially for the Old Testament, on the Brethren's Bible. Between 1677 and 1715 the so-called St. Wenceslaus Bible was published at the expense of a society founded in honor of the saint. A new edition appeared at Prague 1769-71. A thoroughly revised edition, using the text of the Brethren's Bible, was published in 1778-80. Still more dependent on the Brethren's Bible was Prochaska's New Testament (Prague, 1786), and his edition of the whole Bible (1804). Editions of Prochaska's text, slightly amended, were issued in 1851 and 1857. The Bible edited by BesdEka (Prague, 1860) gives the text of the Brethren's Bible with slight changes. G. Palkovi? translated the Bible from the Vulgate into Slovak (2 parts, Gran, 1829). 6. Wendish or Sorbic Versions. The oldest Sorbic Bible version, that of the New Testament of 1547, is extant in a manuscript in the Royal Library at Berlin. The translator was Miklawusch Jakubica, who employed a dialect (the Lower Sorbic) now extinct. In the eighteenth century Gottlieb Fabricius, a German, made a translation of the New Testament which was printed in 1709. In a revised form this version was published by the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1860. The Old Testament, translated by J. G. Fritz, was printed at Kottbus in 1796. An edition of the entire Bible was published by the Prussian Bible Society in 1868. Michael Frentzel, Pastor in Postwitz (d. 1706), translated the New Testament into the Wendish of Upper Lusatia (Upper Sorbic), and his version was published by his son, Abraham Frentzel (Zittau, 1706). A complete edition of the Bible, the work of different scholars, was first published at Bautzen, 1728. A second revised edition was prepared by Johann Gottfried Kuehn and issued in 1742; a third improved edition prepared by Johann Jacob Petschke was published in 1797. Passing over other editions, it is worth while to note that the ninth edition of the complete Bible (Bautzen, 1881) was revised by H. Immisch and others and contains a history of the Upper Lusatian Wendish Bible translation. For the Roman Catholic Wends of Upper Lusatia G. Lus?anski and M. Hornik translated the New Testament from the Vulgate, and published it at Bautzen, 1887-92; the Psalms were translated from the Hebrew by J. Laras (Bautzen, 1872). 7. Polish Versions. The history of the Polish translation of the Bible begins with the Psalter (cf. W. Nehring, Altpolnische Sprachdenkmaeler, Berlin, 1886). A manuscript of the second half of the fourteenth century, in the abbey of St. Florian, near Linz, in Latin, Polish, and German is probably the oldest. A critical edition of the Polish part was published by Nehring (Psalterii Florianensis pars Polonica, Posen, 1883) with a very instructive introduction. Besides the Florian Psalter there is the Psalter of Pulawy (now in Cracow) belonging to the end of the fifteenth century (published in facsimile, Posen, 1880). Polish Bibles originated after the middle of the fifteenth century. An incomplete Bible, the so-called Sophia Bible (named after Queen Sophia, for whom it was intended, according to a remark from the sixteenth century; also called the Sarospatak Bible from the place where it is preserved), contains Genesis, Joshua, Ruth, Kings, Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, II (III) Esdras, Tobit, and Judith (ed. A. Malecki, Biblia Krolowej Zofii, Lemberg, 1871). With the Reformation period activity in the work of translation increased as the different confessions endeavored to supply their adherents with texts of the Bible. An effort to provide the Lutherans with the Bible in Polish was made by [344]Duke Albert of Prussia in a letter directed in his name to Melanchthon. Jan Sieklucki, preacher at Koenigsberg (d. 1578), was commissioned to prepare a translation, and he published, the New Testament at Koenigsberg, 1551 and 1552. The Polish Reformed (Calvinists) received the Bible through Prince Nicholas Radziwill (1515-65). A company of Polish and foreign theologians and scholars undertook the task, and, after six years' labor at Pincow, not far from Cracow, finished the translation of the Bible which was published at the expense of Radziwill in Brest-Litovak, 1563 (hence called the Brest or Radziwill Bible). The translators state that for the Old Testament they consulted besides the Hebrew text the ancient versions and different modern Latin ones. The Brest Bible was not universally welcomed. The Reformed suspected it of Socinian interpretations; the Socinians complained that it was not accurate enough. The Socinian Simon Budny especially charged against the Brest Bible that it was not prepared according to the original texts, but after the Vulgate and other modern versions, and that the translators cared more for elegant Polish than for a faithful rendering. He undertook a new rendering, and his translation ("made anew from the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin into the Polish") was printed in 1572 at Ne?vi?h. As changes were introduced in the printing which were not approved by Budny, he disclaimed the New Testament and published another edition (1574). The charges which he made against the Brest Bible were also made against his own, and the Socinian Adam Czechowicz published a new and improved edition of the New Testament (Rakow, 1577). The interesting preface states that Czechowicz endeavored to make an accurate translation, but did not suppress his Socinian ideas; e.g., he used "immersion" instead of "baptism." Another Socinian New Testament was published by Valentinus Smalcius (Rakow, 1606). The Brest Bible was superseded by the so-called Danzig Bible, which finally became the Bible of all Evangelical Poles. At the synod in O?arowiec, 1600, a new edition of the Bible was proposed and the work was given to the Reformed minister Martin Janicki, who had already translated the Bible from the original texts. In 1603 the printing of this translation was decided upon, after the work had been carefully revised. The work of revision was entrusted to men of the Reformed and Lutheran confessions and members of the Moravian Church (1604), especially to Daniel Mikolajewski (d.1633), superintendent of the Reformed churches in Great Poland, and Jan Turnowski, senior of the Moravian Church in Great Poland (d. 1629). After it had been compared with the Janicki translation, the Brest, the Bohemian, Pagnini's, and the Vulgate, the new rendering was ordered printed. The Janicki translation as such has not been printed, and it is difficult to state how much of it is contained in the new Bible. The New Testament was first published at Danzig, 1606, and very often during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The complete Bible was issued in 1632, and often since. The Danzig Bible differs so much from that of Brest that it may be regarded as a new translation. It is erroneously called also the Bible of Paliurus (a Moravian, senior of the Evangelical Churches in Great Poland, d. 1632); but he had no part in the work. For the Roman Catholics the Bible was translated from the Vulgate by John of Lemberg (Leopolita, hence this was called the Leopolitan Bible) and published at Cracow, 1561, 1574, and 1577. This Bible was superseded by the new translation of Jakub Wujek (a Jesuit, b. about 1540; d. at Cracow 1593). Wujek criticized the Catholic and non-Catholic Bible versions and spoke very favorably of the Polish of the Brest Bible, but asserted that it was full of heresies and of errors in translation. With the approbation of the Holy See the New Testament was first published at Cracow, 1593, and the Old Testament in 1599, after Wujek's death. This Bible has often been reprinted. Wujek's translation follows, in the main, the Vulgate. (A. Leskien.) Bibliography: For the beginnings of Slavic versions consult: Vita sancti Methodii, russo-slovenice et latine, ed. F. Miklosich, Vienna, 1870; C. Duemmler, Die pannonische Legende vom heiligen Method, in Archiv fuer Kunde oester. Geschichtsquellen, vol. xiii; idem and F. Miklosich, Die Legende vom heiligen Cyrillus, in Denkschriften der Wiener Akademie, phil.-histor. Classe, xix (1870); Jagi?, Zur Entstehungsgeschichte der Kirchenslav-Sprache, Vienna, 1900. On the history of versions consult: S. W. Ringeltaube, Nachricht von polnischen Bibeln, Danzig, 1744; R. G. Ungar, Allgemeine boehmische Bibliothek, part 1, Theologie, Prague, 1786 (a bibliography of Bohemian versions); J. Dobrowsky, Ueber den ersten Text der boehmischen Bibeluebersetzung, Prague, 1798; idem, Glagolitica, ib. 1807; C. F. Schnurrer, Slavischer Buechernachdruck in Wuertemberg im 16. Jahrhundert, Tuebingen, 1799; G. J. Dlabacz, Nachricht von einem bisher noch unbekannten boehmischen A. T., Prague, 1804; Bible of Every Land, pp. 291-310, London, 1861; I. Kostren?i?, Geschichte der protestantischen Litteratur der Suedslaven, 1559-65, Vienna, 1874; W. R. Morfill, Slavonic Literature, London, 1883; Archiv fuer Slavische Philologie, by V. Jagi?, especially supplement vol. by F. Pastirnek, Berlin, 1892 (contains bibliographical lists of works on Slavonic subjects for the years 1876-91, including whatever has appeared during that time on the Russian Bible); V. Vondrak, Die Spuren der altkirchenslavischen Evangelienuebersetzung, Vienna, 1893; F. Ahn, Bibliographische Seltenheiten der Truberlitteratur, Leipsic, 1894; L. J. M. Bebb, The Russian Bible, in Church Quarterly Review, Oct., 1895, pp. 203-225; T. Elze, Die slovenischen protestantischen Druckschriften des xvi. Jahrhunderts, Venice, 1896; Scrivener, Introduction, ii, 157 sqq.; BD, extra vol., pp. 417-420. XVII. Spanish Versions. It is very difficult to decide at what time the first Spanish version was made. In treating of Spanish Bibles, a distinction should be made between the Catalonian and the Castilian speech. Of Biblical manuscripts in the former there are many from the fifteenth century, one (of the New Testament) from the fourteenth. Report has it that the Dominican Romeu Sabruguera of Mallorca (d. 1313), who translated the Psalms, worked on a translation of the entire Bible; but the report can not be verified. Most of the Catalonian translations of parts of the Bible (Proverbs, the Prophets, Pauline and Catholic Epistles) depend on the Vulgate and early French versions; a translation of the Psalms depends wholly on the French; the Gospels in the oldest manuscripts are not based on the Vulgate but on a text in southern French. Of an alleged translation supposed to have been printed in Valencia, 1478, no bibliographical datum or exemplar is known, only a few fragments being so attributed. Of the Castilian translations almost as little is known, since no efficient examination of Spanish manuscripts has yet been made. If tradition may be accepted, the oldest version belongs to the thirteenth century, having been made at the request of Alphonso of Castile and John of Leon; but there is no confirmation of this statement. It is a remarkable fact that the early Castilian versions of the Old Testament were made by Jews, and the basis was, naturally, the Hebrew text. Luis de Guzman, grand master of the Order of Calatrava, entrusted in 1422 to the learned rabbi Moses Arragel of Maqueda the work of translating and annotating the Scriptures, but with the help and under the supervision of the Franciscan Arias of Enzinas (Enciena) and others of the clergy. It accords with this that most of the manuscripts follow the order of the Hebrew canon. Of printed texts the first in chronological order is the New Testament by Francis of Enzinas (Antwerp, 1543); next a Bible printed in two editions (Ferrara, 1553), one for Jews, the other for Christians (reprinted Amsterdam, 1611, 1630; revised ed., 1661). In 1556 Juan Perez published (ostensibly at Venice, really at Geneva) an edition of the New Testament, which follows the original Greek. In 1569 a Bible was published, probably at Basel, in the translation of Cassiodoro de Reina. Another edition with slight changes was published by Ricardo del Campo, 1596, and an entirely revised edition by Cipriano de Valera was published at Amsterdam, 1602. The oldest Jewish-Spanish printed translation of the Pentateuch is that of Constance, 1547. The Old Testament in Hebrew and Spanish was published by Solomon Proops at Amsterdam in 1762. It was not until the end of the eighteenth century that a Roman Catholic scholar undertook to give his Spanish countrymen a new translation, with the Latin text and a commentary. The author of this work (10 vols., Valencia, 1790-93; 20 vols., Madrid, 1794-97) was Felipe Scio de San Miguel, bishop of Segovia. It was often reprinted. A more recent translation, having respect to the original texts, was published by Felix Torres Amat, bishop of Astorga (9 vols., Madrid, 1824-29; 6 vols., 1832-35; reprinted, 17 vols., Paris, 1835). A corrected edition of Amat's version was published under the care of Senor Calderon, by the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge in 1853. In 1893 the American Bible Society published a thoroughly revised edition of Valera's Bible, which may be regarded as practically a new version. The work was done by H. B. Pratt. A New Testament in the Catalan, translated by J. M. Pratt, was issued by the British and Foreign Bible Society. (S. Berger.) Bibliography: S. Berger, Nouvelles recherches sur les bibles . . . catalanes, in Romania, xix, 1890; idem, Les Bibles castillance, ib. xxviii, 1899 (contains bibliography and list of MSS.); J. M. de Eguren, Memoria de los codices notables, Madrid, 1859; J. Rodriguez de Castro; Biblioteca espanola, vol. i, ib. 1781; J. L. Villanueva, De la leccion de la S. Escritura en lenguas vulgares, Valenzia, 1791; Bible of Every Land, pp. 261-267, London, 1861; The Governor of Madrid's Bible, ib. 1871; J. E. B. Mayor, Spain, Portugal, and the Bible, ib. 1895; G. Borrow, The Bible in Spain, latest ed., ib. 1905; KL, ii, 743-744; DB, extra vol., pp. 408-410. XVIII. Bible Versions in the Mission Field. Eusebius (Theophania, iii, 28) says that the writings of the Apostles were translated in the whole world, in all languages of Greeks and barbarians; and Chrysostom and Theodoret repeat the remark with still greater emphasis. Nevertheless from this early time till the rise of Pietism and the founding of missionary and Bible societies little was done by the official Church or Churches for the translation and circulation of the Bible. The first Report of the British and Foreign Bible Society has an account of what was then the most famous collection of Bibles (at Stuttgart) and estimates the number of languages represented there at forty-one. The Bibles presented to the Society in its first year were in forty-six languages, from Arabic and Armenian to Turkish and Welsh. The catalogue of Bibles of the British Museum includes ninety-seven languages. The hundredth Report of the British and Foreign Bible Society, in the "Historical Table of Languages and Dialects in which the Translation, Printing, or Distribution of the Scriptures has been at any time promoted by the Society" (pp. 434 sqq.), gives 378 languages; versions in twenty-four languages prepared by other societies have been removed from the list. [The total number of languages into which the Bible, or parts of it, has now been translated is about 500.] The best conspectus is afforded by T. H. Darlow and H. F. Moule, Historical Catalogue of the Printed Editions of Holy Scripture in the Library of the British and Foreign Bible Society (2 vols., London, 1903-08). E. Nestle. Bibliography: The Bible of Every Land, London, 1881; R. N. Cust, Language as Illustrated by Bible Translations, ib. 1880; idem, Essays on the Languages of the Bible and Bible Translations, ib. 1890; idem, Three Lists of Bible Translations accomplished . . . to Aug. 1, 1890, ib. 1890; J. S. Dennis, Centennial Survey of Foreign Missions, New York, 1901; E. Wallroth, in Allgemeine Missionzeitschrift, xviii, 1901; T. Nicol, The Bible and the Church and the Mission Field, in London Quarterly Review, Jan., 1904. The Reports of the various Bible Societies furnish the sources. Bibles, Annotated, and Bible Summaries BIBLES, ANNOTATED, AND BIBLE SUMMARIES. I. German. The Ernestine and Tuebingen Bibles (S: 1). Wuerttemberg Bibles (S: 2). The Marburg, Berleburg, and Ebersdorf Bibles (S: 3). The Wertheim Bible (S: 4). Later Works (S: 5). II. English. Matthew's and the Geneva Bible (S: 1). The Bishops' Bible (S: 2). The Authorized Version (S: 3). John Canne's Notes, 1647 (S: 4). Other Works to 1701 (S: 5). Matthew Henry. Other Works to 1750 (S: 6). Various Works after 1750 (S: 7). Thomas Scott and Others to 1810 (S: 8). Adam Clarke, d'Oyly and Mant, and Bellamy, 1810-34 (S: 9). Other Works 1816-38 (S: 10). Republication in America (S: 11). Original American Works (S: 12). Later Works, English and American (S: 13). [Under this title certain works are mentioned which give the text of the Bible with annotations aiming to promote its proper use and understanding. They are of the nature of commentaries, and a distinction is not to be sharply drawn. The annotated Bible, however, will always include the text, to which the helps are strictly subordinate; the commentary is published for the sake of the comments and frequently does not include the text.] I. German. When the Reformation made the Bible the common property of the people, it was not only the source of their faith and piety, but the only literature, the whole intellectual world, of the uneducated classes. The more Luther's Bible was cherished as the compendium of religious and ethical truth and became the daily reading of the people, the more it needed explanatory notes. As early as 1531-33 Luther published his "Summaries of the Psalms," which were incorporated by Bugenhagen in his North Saxon Bible (Luebeck, 1534). In the High German Bible "summaries and brief contents of all the chapters" are found first appended to the Augsburg edition of 1535. Real annotations appeared as parts of the book only after Luther's death, first as marginal notes or in smaller type under the text (the Wittenberg editions of Lufft, 1551, and Krafft, 1572, the latter containing the arguments and notes of Veit Dietrich, the Nuremberg preacher). 1. The Ernestine and Tuebingen Bibles. It would be a mistake to imagine that the Reformation early brought the Bible into every house. There were no small cheap editions, and the Thirty Years' War made the earlier ones still scarcer. Duke Ernest the Pious of Saxe-Weimar (d. 1675; see [345]Ernest I, the Pious) brought about the publication of the famous Ernestine Bible, on which, after plans laid out by him, nearly thirty prominent theologians worked. Every community was to possess a copy; if they were poor, the duke provided it wholly or in part. The actual work of preparation began in 1630 and was completed in 1640. It contained, besides pictures and maps, and a running commentary, tables of weights, coins, etc., the topography of Jerusalem, and the creeds and Augsburg Confession. It was originally sold at six thalers, but the price gradually rose with later improvements and additional illustrations, until its general circulation was impeded. The Tuebingen Bible (1730) is an adaptation of this, less firm in its dogmatic stand, by [346]Christoph Matthaeus Pfaff, professor at Tuebingen, and his brother-in-law, Johann Christian Klemm. 2. Wuerttemberg Bibles. The same spirit that actuated Duke Ernest induced Eberhard III of Wuerttemberg to publish the "Wuerttemberg Summaries" in 1669, the first attempt to give a clear, precise, and connected paraphrase of the whole Scriptures. A revised and enlarged edition appeared at Leipsic in 1709, followed by others. The complete revision published in 1787 by Magnus Friedrich Roos, Karl Heinrich Rieger, and others of the school of Bengel was less clear, objective, and orthodox. Another Wuerttemberg edition which deserves mention is the New Testament published in 1701 by the court preacher [347]Johann Reinhard Hedinger; it was marked by Pietistic deviations from traditional theology, and attracted attention by its sharp rebukes of the sins of the people at large and especially of the clergy. 3. The Marburg, Berleburg, and Ebersdorf Bibles. The new spirit of mystical Pietism which influenced the last-named work was fully revealed in the Marburg Bible (1712), as might be inferred from the main title, "Mystical and Prophetic Bible." The interpretation of type and prophecy in this follows the federal theology of Cocceius, that of Canticles and Revelation Madame Guyon. It was the forerunner of a larger work in the same spirit, the Berleburg Bible of 1726-42 (8 vols. folio), projected and prepared chiefly by [348]Johann Heinrich Haug. The text is a revision of Luther's, with comparison of the English and French versions; the commentary reflects the views of the Philadelphian communities, and quotes the mystical books current among them, especially Madame Guyon's, but its teaching goes back beyond Dippel and Petersen to Jakob Boehme, or even to Origen in some points. It lacks unity of belief and of treatment; it is the work not of a single mystic, giving voice to his inner convictions, but of a propagandist sect with practical tendencies. It is not without value, however, from different points of view; it edifies by its continual application of Scriptural words to the spiritual life, and it prepares the way for historical criticism by an appendix containing apocrypha (Old and New Testament), pseudepigrapha, and postapostolic writings. In the same year (1726) appeared the Ebersdorf Bible, in the preparation of which Zinzendorf shared. Its commentaries are altogether in his spirit, and it was received with favor only by the friends of the Herrnhut community. 4. The Wertheim Bible. When the emotional mysticism of the Pietists gave way to the prosaic, commonplace conceptions of the age of [349]Enlightenment, attempts were made to replace the older commentaries by works conceived in the new spirit. The Wertheim Bible (1735) aroused great excitement in its day, both in Church and State, though its interest now is purely historical. This was only the first part of a projected whole, and contained merely the Pentateuch. The gist of the long, involved preface is that the traditional ideas about the Scriptures rested on prejudice and unscientific conceptions, and that the attempt was now made to found an exposition of their real meaning on adequate grounds of reason and historical evidence. It proposes to give a free translation, adapted to modern comprehension, though faithful in substance, and supplemented by the necessary explanations. The translation is hopelessly bald and common place to our taste; the editor showed some originality, however, as for example in venturing to discard the traditional division of chapters and verses. The general philosophical principles, as well as the critical and historical, are those of Wolf; in spite of many blunders, a fair knowledge of Hebrew is displayed. The editor's name is not given, but it was soon known. He was Johann Lorenz Schmidt, a graduate of Jena, personally much respected, who was then tutor to the young Count von Loewenstein at Wertheim in Franconia. He was arrested at the beginning of 1737 and the book was confiscated by the imperial authorities. After a year's close imprisonment, he was allowed more liberty, and escaped to Holland. The literary war which raged around the Wertheim Bible was fierce and not uninteresting. In 1738 Schmidt published a collection of reviews and polemical pamphlets, with his own replies. His work found imitators; another of a similar nature, with modern deistic explanations, appeared in 1756, but had little success; and the excitement over the frankly rationalistic commentary of Nicolaus Funk (Altona, 1815) was not wide-spread (cf. J. N. Sinnhold, Ausfuehrliche Historie der Wertheim Bibel, Erfurt, 1739). 5. Later Works. The eighteenth century was not destitute of attempts to carry on the old tradition in a spirit of orthodox edification. The first was that of Christoph Starke (New Testament, 3 vols., 1733 sqq.; Old Testament, 6 vols., 1741 sqq.), which gave Luther's text with extended comments from older expositors and ascetic writers, introductions to each book, and a summary of each chapter. Next came the Hirschberg Bible (1756-63), an excellent work which fell flat at the time and was rescued from oblivion only by a reprint in 1844 under the patronage of Frederick William IV. The age was not favorable to the spread of Biblical study, and but a few readers were found for the commentary translated from English expositors by R. Teller, J. A. Dietelmayer, and Brucker (19 vols., 1749-70), or for the edition of Michaelis (1769-92). But the revival of religious devotion ultimately made itself felt in this field. Friedrich von Meyer's revised translation with short, pointed comments and uncritical introductions appeared in 1819. More widely read were Richter's (1834-40) and Lisco's (1833-43). A more learned and thorough work was that of Otto von Gerlach in 6 vols., which is still popular in North Germany, as is the Calwer Handbuch der Bibelerklaerung (1849) in the South. Other more recent editions which may be mentioned here are those of Bunsen (9 vols., 1858-70), Christian Mueller (Collegium Biblicum, 6 vols., 1879-84), Johann Peter Lange (36 vols., 1856-77), K. A. Daechsel (illustrated, 7 vols., 1865-80), and R. J. Grau (2 vols., 1877-80). [J. F. Allioli's annotated Bible (6 vols., Nuremberg, 1830-34) has been very popular among Roman Catholics.] (H. Hoelscher.) II. English. As a rule, Bible societies publish the Scriptures "without note or comment "--a wise plan, for it secures the widest circulation of the Word of God. In early times, however, when a person bought a Bible, he found between the covers not only the Old and the New Testaments, but a commentary in the notes attached, a concordance at the end, and a small dictionary in the introduction and tables. These special editions had their day, and fell into disuse, for very evident reasons. The numerous comments made the volume too bulky for convenience and general use; the notes were likely to be one-sided and subjective, so that a man's theology might be judged by his Bible, from its being supplied with comments by Doddridge, or those of d'Oyly and Mant; however acceptable the annotations might be for a time, eventually they were superseded by later scholarship. Moreover, in the last half-century commentaries, Bible dictionaries, and concordance have grown into great volumes, and constitute a distinct class of literature. They have found their true places apart from the inspired words of the Bible. 1. Matthew's and the Geneva Bible. Annotated Bibles date back to the time of the Reformation. Matthew's Bible (1537) had annotations, and John Rogers, who was the real translator of this Bible, showed by his notes, especially on the subjects of faith, holy life, and repentance, that he was in full touch with the most advanced Protestantism. The Geneva Bible (1560) attained its great popularity and fame by its prologues and marginal notes. These annotations are so numerous and miscellaneous that it is not easy to give in a brief statement a fair representation of their general tenor. Many are strongly antipapal, and for that reason they were especially acceptable to overzealous Reformers. As might be expected, the Geneva notes are also Calvinistic. When the Geneva Bible was first published, Calvin was the ruling spirit in Geneva. All the features of his theological, ecclesiastical, political, and social system are accordingly reflected in the marginal annotations of the English Bible that issued from the city of his residence. The political doctrine of the book was as much disliked by kings of the absolute order, as were the ecclesiastical notes by infallible popes, and one of the reasons that led King James, in 1604, to agree readily to a new translation of the Scriptures, was his dislike of the politics preached on the margins of the Geneva Bible. 2. The Bishop's Bible. The marginal notes in the Bishops' Bible (1568) are not very numerous, and they are generally not interesting. They were designed mostly for readers of weak capacity. A few, which are valuable and entertaining, are taken verbatim, without acknowledgment, from the Geneva Bible. Some of them, too, remind of Geneva caps and predestination in a way that would scarcely be expected in a Bible issued by a body of prelates. The distribution of notes in the Bishops' Bible is very irregular and unequal. In some books hard to understand, such as the prophecies of Isaiah and Jeremiah, the notes are very sparse, so that five or six consecutive pages may be found here and there without a single annotation; while in other books, such as Genesis, Exodus, Job, and the Epistles of St. Paul, the notes are very frequent. 3. The Authorized Version. In the original edition of the Authorized Version (1611), the number of marginal references to corresponding passages, including those in the Apocrypha, was about 9,000. Large as this number seems, it is but a small fraction of what the references now amount to in some well-edited Bibles. These references, doubtless, have their value, but it can not be denied that many of them obscure the meaning of the statements to which they are attached. It is different, however, with what are called the marginal notes. In the original edition (1611) these notes were nearly as numerous as the marginal references. In the Old Testament there were 6,588 references and 6,637 notes; in the New Testament 1,517 references and 765 notes; in the Apocrypha 885 references and 1,017 notes. These notes are brief and non-polemical, differing in these respects very markedly from the annotations in both Matthew's and the Geneva Bible. They indicate, for the most part, alternative or more literal renderings. In some cases they specify variant readings in the original text, and, in other cases, they give brief explanations of words or expressions. Not a few of the alternative renderings they present have been adopted, either verbatim or substantially, in the revised version of 1881-85. The headings of chapters in the translation of 1611 were new. In the Bishops' Bible, the Geneva Bible, and the Great Bible, all the chapters were headed with a short table of contents; but the King James translators prepared tables of their own. And these tables, drawn up in 1611, appear in many editions at the present day unaltered, save in some twelve instances. 4. John Canne's Notes, 1647. Other Bibles with notes from the pen of annotators appeared and in course of time became very popular. These annotators did not write so much for the learned as for the common people, and their Bibles became household and family books, laying stress more or less on the devotional side. John Canne a Baptist minister (d. 1667?), was the author of three sets of notes which accompanied three editions of the Bible. His great ambition was "to make the Bible its own interpreter." His first authenticated version appeared in 1647 at Amsterdam, under the title, The Bible, with Marginal Notes, Shewing Scripture to be the Best Interpreter of Scripture. The work was often reprinted (9 editions, between 1662 and 1754). Orme, in his Bibliotheca Biblica (Edinburgh, 1824), says of it, "The marginal references of Canne are generally very judicious and apposite. They still retain a considerable reputation, though most of the latter editions which pass under the name of Canne's Bible are full of errors, and crowded with references which do not belong to the original author." 5. Other Works to 1701. In 1657 there was published Annotations upon All the Books of the Old and New Testament. . . . Wherein the text is explained, doubts resolved, Scriptures paralleled, and various readings observed by the labor of certain learned divines thereunto appointed and therein employed, as is expressed in the preface, 2 vols., London, 1657. This work is usually called the "Assembly's Annotations," from the circumstance of its having been composed by members of the Westminster Assembly.--Another popular work of the same character was Annotations upon the Holy Bible wherein the sacred text is inserted, and various readings annexed; together with the parallel Scriptures. The more difficult terms explained; seeming contradictions reconciled; doubts resolved, and the whole text opened. By the Rev. Matthew Poole, London, 1863, 2 vols., fo. The work was published in many editions. Poole, an eminent non-conformist divine (1624-79), did not finish it; but it was completed after his death.--Not less popular was a work entitled, The Old and New Testament, with Annotations and parallel Scriptures. By Samuel Clarke, A.M., London, 1690. Bishop Lloyd's Bible (London, 1701) was the first to incorporate Archbishop Ussher's chronology. 6. Matthew Henry. Other Works to 1750. In 1708 appeared the first volume of Matthew Henry's well-known Exposition of the Old and New Testament; four other volumes (to the end of the Gospels) were published in 1710, and a sixth volume (the Book of Acts) from Henry's manuscript after his death (1714); the work was completed by various non-conformist clergymen (see [350]Henry, Matthew). It long enjoyed a high and deserved reputation, and is distinguished, not for depth of learning or originality of views, but for sound practical piety, and the large measure of good sense which it discovers.--Dr. Edward Wells edited between the years 1709 and 1728, An Help for the more Easy and Clear Understanding of the Holy Scriptures, after the following method: 1. The common English translation rendered more agreeable to the original. 2. A paraphrase wherein the text is explained, and divided into proper sections, and lesser divisions. 3. Annotations. 4. Preface, 8 vols.--Patrick, Lowth, Whitby, and Arnold's Commentary on the Bible, a work of a similar character, appeared in London, 1727-60, 7 vols., and was reprinted as late as 1821. According to Orme, Patrick was "the most sensible and useful commentator on the Old Testament. He had a competent measure of learning for the undertaking, of which he never makes any ostentatious display. The elder Lowth completed the work on the Old Testament, and Whitby commentated on the New Testament. Neither Patrick nor Lowth has so much Arminianism as Whitby, though they all belong to the same theological school. Whitby was superior to both in acuteness and research, but if the reader do not find in them the same talent, he will be exposed to less injury from specious and sophistical reasonings against some important doctrines of Christianity."--John Gill published An Exposition of the Old and New Testaments, in which the sense of the sacred text is given; doctrinal and practical truths are set in a plain and easy light; difficult passages explained; seeming contradictions reconciled; and whatever is material in the various readings, and the several Oriental versions, is observed. The whole illustrated by notes from the most ancient Jewish writings. By John Gill, D.D., 9 vols. fo., London, 1748-63; 9 vols. 4to, London, 1809. Gill gives a summary of each chapter. Orme says of him, "Had Dr. Gill fulfilled the promise of his title page, no other commentary on the Bible could have been required. But he moves through his exposition like a man in lead, and overwhelms the inspired writers with dull lucubrations and rabbinical lumber. He is an ultra-Calvinist in his doctrinal sentiments; and often spiritualizes the text to absurdity. If the reader be inclined for a trial of his strength and patience, he may procure the burden of Dr. Gill. He was, after all, a man of undoubted learning, and of prodigious labour."--A very popular work was an English translation of Jean Frederic Osterwald's Argumens et reflexions sur l'ecriture sainte (Neuchatel, 1709-15 and often; see [351]Osterwald, Jean Frederic), which appeared under the title, The Arguments of the Books and Chapters of the Old and New Testaments, with practical observations. Translated by John Chamberlayne, Esq., London, 1749, 3 vols.; fifth edition, enlarged, 2 vols., London, 1779. 7. Various Works After 1750. Chamberlayne's work was followed by A New and Literal Translation of all the Books of the Old and New Testaments, with Notes critical and explanatory. By Anthony Purver (2 vols., London, 1764). Purver was a Quaker and originally a shoemaker. He taught himself Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, in order that he might understand the Bible. His work is often ungrammatical, and unintelligible; the notes are very similar to the text and, what is worse, full of pride and ill-nature. Notwithstanding these defects, Purver sometimes gives a better rendering than occurs in the Authorized Version.--One year later appeared The Evangelical Expositor; or a Commentary on the Holy Bible, wherein the Sacred Text is inserted at large, the sense explained, and different passages elucidated, with practical observations, etc. By T. Haweis, LL.B., M.D., London, 1765, 2 vols.; Glasgow, 3 vols. 4to, and various editions. Haweis (d. 1820) was rector of Aldwinkle, Northamptonshire; his work had little value.--Next to be mentioned is The Complete Family Bible: or a Spiritual Exposition of the Old and New Testament; wherein each chapter is summed up in its context, and the sacred text inserted at large, with Notes, spiritual, practical, and explanatory. By the Rev. Mr. Cruden, London, 1770, 2 vols.--In the same year appeared a similar work under the title, A Commentary on the Books of Old and New Testaments, in which, are inserted the Notes and Collections of John Locke, Esq., Daniel Waterland, D.D., and the Right Hon. Edward, Earl of Clarendon, and other learned persons, with practical improvements. By W. Dodd, LL.D., London, 1770, 3 vols. This is mostly a compilation, the chief value of which consists in notes furnished from the original papers of John Locke, Dr. Waterland, Lord Clarendon, Gilbert West, and some others. Great use is also made of some of the printed and long-established commentaries on Scripture, such as Calmet, Houbigant, and Doddridge. Adam Clarke said, rather hyperbolically, that it was on the whole by far the best comment that had yet appeared in the English language--The next work to be mentioned is The Self-Interpreting Bible, containing the Old and the New Testaments, to which are annexed an . . . introduction, marginal references and illustrations . . . explanatory notes . . . etc., etc. By the late Rev. John Brown, Minister of the Gospel at Haddington, London, 1778, 2 vols. It was repeatedly reprinted, and proved almost as popular south as north of the Tweed.--Henry Southwell published a Bible, Authorized Version; with notes etc.; wherein the mis-translations are corrected, London, 1782.--Another work of a similar character is The Holy Bible, containing the Books of the Old and New Testaments, carefully printed from the fatal edition (compared with others) of the present translation; with notes by Thomas Wilson, D.D., Bishop of Sodor and Man, and various renderings, collected from other translations, by the Rev. Clement Crutwell, editor, London, 1785, 8 vols. Bishop Wilson's notes are merely brief hints either for the explanation or the practical improvement of particular passages. Dr. Thomas Paris, in the Cambridge bible of 1762, and Dr. B. Blayney, in the Oxford Bible of 1769, added considerably to the number of marginal notes and references. 8. Thomas Scott and Others to 1810. But far more popular than any of the works already mentioned was the Bible with commentary edited by [352]Rev. Thomas Scott. It had the largest circulation and sustained it through many years. It appeared under the title, The Holy Bible, containing the Old and New Testaments; with original notes, practical observations, and copious marginal references. By Thomas Scott, Rector of Aston Sandford (London, 1788, and often). As a commentary Dr. Scott's work was superior to any that had appeared before its time. Horne, usually a discriminating judge, speaks of it in high praise (cf. his Manual of Biblical Bibliography, London, 1839, p. 259).--In 1799 appeared A Revised Translation and Interpretation of the Sacred Scriptures, after the Eastern manner, from concurrent authorities of critics, interpreters, and commentators' copies and versions; shewing that the inspired writings contain the seeds of the valuable sciences, being the source whence the antient philosophers derived them, also the most antient histories and greatest antiquities, and are the most entertaining as well as instructing to both the curious and serious (by David Macrae, or J. M. Ray, J. McRay, or D. McRae; Glasgow, 1799; 2d ed., 1815; 4to, also in 3 vols. 8vo.). The author introduced many approved renderings, but marred the simplicity and dignity of the Authorized Version.--Another noteworthy annotated Bible is that of John Reeves, which appeared in ten volumes in London, 1802. The explanatory notes are based on Wells's Paraphrase, and the commentaries of Patrick, Lowth, Whitby, and others. A similar work was the so-called "Reformers' Bible," The Holy Bible, containing the Old and New Testaments, according to the Authorized Version, with short Notes by several learned and pious Reformers, as printed by Royal Authority at the time of the Reformation, with additional Notes and Dissertations, London, 1810. The notes in the Old Testament in this edition are taken from the Geneva Bible, the annotations of the New Testament from the Latin of Theodore Beza. 9. Adam Clarke, d'Oyly and Mant, and Bellamy, 1810-34. Also in 1810 there began to be published The Holy Bible, containing the Old and New Testaments: the Text carefully printed from the most correct copies of the present authorized translation, including the marginal readings and parallel texts; with a Commentary, and Critical Notes, designed as a help to a better understanding of the Sacred Writings. By Adam Clarke, LL.D., F.A.S., London, 1810-26. The author, a Wesleyan minister (see [353]Clarke, Adam), attained a high reputation as a student of Oriental languages. The scope of the commentary is expressed in its own words: "In this work the whole of the text has been collated with the Hebrew and Greek originals, and all the ancient versions; the most difficult words analyzed and explained; the most important readings in the Hebrew collections of Kennicott and De Rossi on the Old Testament, and in those of Mill, Wetstein, and Griesbach on the New, are noticed; the date of every transaction, as far as it has been ascertained by the best chronologers, is marked; the peculiar customs of the Jews and neighboring nations, so frequently alluded to by the prophets, evangelists, and apostles, are explained from the best Asiatic authorities; the great doctrines of the Law and Gospel of God are defined, illustrated, and defended; and the whole is applied to the important purposes of practical Christianity." A considerable popularity was achieved also by d'Oyly and Mant's commentary, The Holy Bible according to the Authorized Version, with Notes explanatory and practical, taken principally from the most eminent writers of the United Church of England and Ireland; together with appropriate introductions, tables, indexes, maps, and plans, prepared and arranged by the Rev. G. d'Oyly, B.D., and Rev. Richard Mant, D.D., Oxford and London, 1814, 3 vols., and various subsequent editions printed at Cambridge and Oxford. "This work, which was published under the sanction of the venerable Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, professes to communicate only the results of the critical inquiries of learned men, without giving a detailed exposition of the inquiries themselves. These results, however, are selected with great judgment, so that the reader who may consult them on difficult passages will rarely be disappointed. Of the labour attending this publication some idea may be formed, when it is stated that the works of upward of one hundred and sixty authors have been consulted for it, amounting to several hundred volumes. On the fundamental articles of Christian verity--the Deity and atonement of Jesus Christ, and the personality and offices of the Holy Spirit--this work may be pronounced to be a library of divinity" (Horne, ut sup., pp. 261-262).--A work of a similar character was The Holy Bible, newly translated from the original Hebrew, with Notes critical and explanatory. By John Bellamy, London, 1818-34. Orme considers it a strange hodgepodge of error, confidence, misrepresentation, and abuse of learned and valuable writers in all the departments of Biblical literature. 10. Other Works 1818-38. Rev. B. Boothroyd edited A New Family Bible, and Improved Version, from corrected Texts of the Originals, with Notes critical and explanatory; and short Practical Reflections on each Chapter, Pontefract and London, 1818-23, 3 vols. The author has very happily blended critical disquisition with practical instruction, and an invariable regard to the spirit and design of revelation.--In 1821 there appeared The Plain Reader's Help in the Study of the Holy Scriptures; consisting of Notes, explanatory and illustrative, chiefly selected or abridged from the Family Bible, published by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. By the Rev. William Thomas Bree, M.A., Coventry, 1821-22. The aim was to supply brief and untechnical notes at a moderate price for readers who could not procure or consult larger works.--In 1824 appeared The Holy Bible, arranged and adapted for family reading, with notes, etc. by a Layman of the Church of England (2 vols., London).--Another popular Bible was the so-called Cottage Bible and Family Expositor; containing the Authorized Translation of the Old and New Testaments, with Practical Reflections and short Explanatory Notes, calculated to elucidate difficult and obscure Passages. By Thomas Williams, London, 1825-27, 3 vols., and various subsequent editions. This unassuming but cheap and useful commentary on the Holy Scriptures was professedly designed for persons and families in the humbler walks of life.--There is also to be mentioned The Comprehensive Bible; containing the Old and New Testaments, according to the Authorized Version, with the various readings and marginal notes usually printed therewith; a general introduction, containing disquisitions on the genuineness, authenticity, and inspiration of the Holy Scriptures,--various divisions and marks of distinction in the sacred Writings,--ancient versions,--coins, weights, and measures,--various sects among the Jews: introductions and concluding remarks to each book; the parallel passages contained in the Rev. J. Scott's Commentary, Canne's Bible, Rev. J. Brown's Self-Interpreting Bible, Dr. A. Clarke's Commentary, and the English Version of the Polyglott Bible systematically arranged; philological arid explanatory notes. With chronological and other indexes (by William Greenfield, London, 1827).--In 1828 there was published The Holy Bible . . . principally designed to facilitate the audible or social reading of the Sacred Scriptures; illustrated with notes, historical, geographical, and otherwise explanatory, and also pointing out the fulfilment of various prophecies. By William Alexander--vol. i--the Pentateuch--York, 1828; two other volumes were planned but did not appear). This Bible owed its origin to efforts of members of the Society of Friends. Passages "unsuitable for a mixed audience" were printed in italics below the text.--C. Girdlestone edited The Old and New Testament, with a commentary, consisting of short lectures for the daily use of families, London, 1835-42.--Another Bible of the same style was the Treasury Bible. First division: containing the authorized English Version of the Holy Scriptures, as printed in Bagster's Polyglott Bible, with the same copious and original selection of references to parallel and illustrative passages, and similarly printed in a centre column. Second division: containing the Treasury of Scripture Knowledge, consisting of a rich and copious assemblage of upwards of five hundred thousand parallel texts, from Canne, Brown, Blayney, Scott, and others, with numerous illustrative notes, London, 1835.--In 1837 there was published The Condensed Commentary and Family Exposition of the Holy Bible: containing the best criticisms of the most valuable Biblical Writers, with practical reflections and marginal references; chronology, indexes, etc., etc. By the Rev. Ingram Cobbin, M.A., London, 1837. This work is literally a condensed commentary, derived from the best accessible sources. The notes are brief, but well chosen, and are partly critical and explanatory, partly practical. They are taken from nearly two hundred writers, British and foreign.--Another annotated Bible was edited by the Rev. C. Wellbeloved, The Holy Bible, a New Translation, with introductory remarks, notes explanatory and critical, and practical, reflections, 2 vols., London, 1838. It is Unitarian and designed principally for the use of families. The standard English version of the Roman Catholics (the "Douai" Bible; see [354]Bible Versions, B, IV, S: 5), was provided with notes setting forth and defending the Roman standpoint. The later annotated English Bibles of the Catholics are based chiefly upon these notes. [355]Richard Challoner and George Leo Haydock (The Holy Bible, 2 vols., Manchester, 1811-14; revised Reims and Douai text with extensive notes) are well-known Roman Catholic annotators. Most of the "minor versions" enumerated in S: 8 of the article on English versions ([356]Bible Versions, B, IV) are annotated. 11. Republication in America. The popular works of England were reissued in America. The first American edition of Scott's commentary was printed and published by W. Woodward of Philadelphia in 1804 in 4 vols. Other issues followed by different publishers, most of them from the press of Woodward of Philadelphia, and that of Samuel T. Armstrong of Boston. The most popular form of the book was an octavo of six volumes. Scott's Bible had a continuous sale for more than forty years, and as late as 1841 W. E. Dean, 2 Ann Street, New York, published an edition in three volumes.--Adam Clarke's commentary was published by Ezra Sargeant, 86 Broadway, New York, in 1811.--Osterwald's Observations appeared in 1813 with this imprint: "New York: Published by Evert Duyckinck, John Tiebout, G. & R. Waite, and Websters & Skinners of Albany, George Long, Printer."--The first American edition of Matthew Henry's Exposition appeared in Philadelphia in 1816, published by Towar and Hogan in six volumes. They also issued a stereotyped edition in three volumes in 1829. Burder and Hughes of the same city issued a six volume edition in 1828, with preface by Archibald Alexander.--D'Oyly and Mant's Bible with commentary was reprinted in New York in 1818-20 by T. and J. Swords, 160 Pearl Street. This edition has additional notes from the pen of the Rt. Rev. John H. Hobart, D.D., bishop of New York, who quotes from a large number of Biblical scholars, mainly in the Anglican, Scottish, and American Episcopal Churches, who had not been noticed by the English editors.--Thomas Williams's Cottage Bible, reedited by the Rev. William Patton, was printed in two octavo volumes by Conner & Cooke, New York, in 1833. It contains numerous engravings and several maps, and was intended chiefly for the use of Sunday-schools and Bible-classes. The plates were sold by the New York printers, and in after-years the editions were issued at Hartford, Conn.--Greenfield's Comprehensive Bible was issued in 1839 with the imprint of "Robinson & Franklin, successors to Leavitt, Lord & Co., 180 Broadway." The book is a thick quarto of 1,460 pages. The American issue was also published by Lippincott, Gambo & Co., Philadelphia, in 1854, and by J. B. Lippincott & Co. in 1857. Canne's marginal notes and references appeared in many editions of American household and family Bibles, and John Brown's Self-Interpreting Bible was frequently reproduced. The American Tract Society early published a family Bible with brief notes and instructions and many editions were printed. Eugene Cummiskey, of Philadelphia, published various editions for Roman Catholics, such as The Holy Bible, translated from the Latin Vulgate, with annotations, references, etc. Isaiah Thomas, the famous author of the History of Printing in America, published and sold the Authorized Version with notes at his press in Worcester Mass.; various editions appeared after 1791. 12. Original American Works. One of the earliest productions of the Philadelphia press was The Christian's New and Complete Family Bible, published by William Woodhouse in 1790. It was issued in numbers, and the Rev. Paul Wright, D.D., vicar of Oakley, is supposed to have been the editor.--The Columbian Family and Pulpit Bible bears the imprint, "Boston: Published by Joseph Teal, printed by J. H. A. Frost, opposite U. S. Bank, Congress Street, 1822." It claims to be a "corrected and improved American edition of the Popular English Family Bible," supplied "with concise notes and annotations, theological, historical, chronological, critical, practical, moral, and explanatory"; also containing "sundry important received various readings from the most ancient Hebrew and Greek manuscripts and the most celebrated versions of Scripture. Also, sundry corrections and improvements of our excellent English version (generally admitted by learned Christians of every name) with references to authors, versions, and manuscripts; also, an illustrative argument prefixed to each sacred book or epistle, from the best authorities." The volume is a folio, embellished with thirty-six engravings. The book was issued in numbers and had more than three thousand subscribers. The Rev. Jonathan Homer, D.D., of Newton, Mass., revised the observations, and condensed some of the notes and enlarged others.--In 1826 The Collateral Bible made its appearance with the following imprint: "Philadelphia: Printed by Samuel F. Bradford, and by E. Bliss and E. White, New York. J. Harding, Printer, 1826." This book was edited by William McCorkle, assisted by the Rev. Ezra Stiles Ely, D.D., a Presbyterian minister, and the Rev. Gregory T. Bedell, A.M., rector of St. Andrew's Church, Philadelphia. "In this work the best marginal references are printed at large, and in connection with every passage, by which means every parallel or related phrase in the sacred volume is brought at once under the eye, so as to present the whole scope and subject of every text at a single view" (Horne, Biblical Bibliography, p. 86). The three volumes comprised only the Old Testament, and the New Testament part was never attempted.--The Devotional Family Bible was edited by the Rev. Alexander Fletcher, D.D., "with practical and experimental reflections on each verse of the Old and New Testaments, and rich marginal references." An edition in quarto with fifty-seven illustrations was published with this imprint: "London and New York: Virtue, Emmins and Company." The title-page has no date, though O'Callaghan assigns the publication to the year 1835. 13. Later Works, English and American. Of more modern works of a similar character the following may be mentioned: the Lange commentary, translated and edited, with additions, by Philip Schaff and others (25 vols., New York, 1866-88); the work commonly known as the "Speaker's Commentary" (because suggested by the Right Hon. J. Evelyn Denison, speaker of the House of Commons), ed. F. C. Cook (10 vols., London, 1871-81); the Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges, ed. J. J. S. Perowne (48 vols., Cambridge, 1877 sqq.); Bishop Ellicott's Commentary for English Readers (8 vols., London, 1877-84); J. H. Blunts Annotated Bible . . . a Household Commentary on the Holy Scriptures (3 vols., London, 1878); Clark's Handbooks far Bible Classes, ed. M. Dods and A. Whyte (47 vols., Edinburgh, 1879 sqq.); the American Commentary (Baptist; N. T. complete, ed. Alvah Hovey, 7 vols., O. T., 4 vols.--Lev. and Num., Job, Eccles., Prov. and Song of Songs--published at present, 1881 sqq.); the International Illustrated Commentary on the New Testament, ed. Philip Schaff (4 vols., New York, 1889); J. G. Butler, Bible Work (11 vols., 1892); the New Century Bible, ed. W. F. Adeney (N. T. complete, 13 vols.; O. T., 10 vols. issued, London, 1901 sqq.); and the Temple Bible (31 vols., London, 1901-03; especially useful for reading because the text is paragraphed according to the sense, and chapter and verse divisions are relegated to the margin). The so-called "Teachers' Bibles," of which many were published during the last quarter of the nineteenth century, may also be mentioned. Bibliography: G. W. Panzer, Geschichte der deutschen Bibeluelbersetzung Dr. M. Luthers von 1517-81, Nuremberg, 1791; J. A. Goez, Ueberblick ueber Luthers . . . Dolmetschung der heiligen Schrift und die . . . seiner Zeitgenossen, Nuremberg, 1824; W. Orme, Bibliotheca Biblica, Edinburgh, 1824; F. H. Horne, Manual of Biblical Bibliography, London, 1839; M. Goebel, Geschichte des christlichen Lebens in der rhein-westfaelischen evangelischen Kirche, vols. ii, iii, Coblenz, 1852-60; A. Beck, Ernst der Fromme, 2 vols., Weimer, 1865; A. Ritschl, Geschichte des Pietismus, vols. i, ii, Bonn, 1880-84; W. Boehne, Die paedagogischen Bestrebungen Herzog Ernst . . . von Gotha, Gotha, 1888; G. Frank, Die Wertheimer Bibeluebersetzung vor dem Reichshofrat in Wien, in ZKG, xii (1891), 2. Bibles for Children BIBLES FOR CHILDREN: Various attempts have been made to present the Bible in the form of a "child's book." The selection of parts best adapted to immature minds and the omission of the unsuitable, with simplification of language, are the chief aims in such attempts. Illustrations, coarse print, and other typographical devices are naturally used freely. Such books spring from the conviction that the Bible contains spiritual truth for all and is the greatest instrument for awakening religious feeling and quickening moral perception, but that its usefulness for these ends is necessarily conditioned upon the form of presentation and that the latter may well be varied for different classes of readers. The following list mentions some noteworthy books of this sort in English, but makes no claim to completeness. An Abridgement of the Holy Scriptures. By the Rev. Mr. Sellon, late Minister of St. James's, Clerkenwell, published in 1781 and many later eds., at Hartford by Hale and Hosmer, 1813. The Bible for Children. Arranged from the King James Version. With a Preface by the Rev. Francis Brown, D.D., and an Introduction by the Right Rev. Henry C. Potter, D.D. [compiled by Mrs. Joseph B. Gilder], New York [1902]. The Bible Story Re-told for Young People; the Old Testament Story by W. H. Bennett; the New Testament Story by W. F. Adeney, London, 1897. The Bible for Young People, translated from the Dutch of H. Oort and I. Hooykas by P. H. Wicksteed, 6 vols., London, 1873-79; 2d ed., 1882. The Children's Bible, or an History of the Holy Scriptures to which is added a new manual of devotions for children; by a divine of the Church of England, London, 1759. The Child's Bible. With plates. By a Lady of Cincinnati, Philadelphia, Henry F. Anners, 1834. A Compendium of the Religious Doctrines, Religious and Moral Precepts, Historical and Descriptive Beauties of the Bible; with a Separate Moral Selection from the Apocrypha; being a Transcript of the received Text: Intended for the use of Families, but more particularly as a Reading Book for Schools. By Rodolphus Dickinson, Esq., . . . Greenfield, Mass., Horace Graves, Printer, 1814. A curious Hieroglyphick Bible, or Select Passages in the Old and New Testaments, represented with emblematical figures, for the amusement of youth; designed chiefly to familiarize tender age, in a pleasing and diverting manner, with early ideas of the Holy Scriptures--a very popular work which appeared in many editions (12th ed., London, 1792; Worcester, Mass., Isaiah Thomas, 1788; Dublin, 1789; etc.). It is a child's book, containing short passages of Scripture in which some of the words are represented by small cuts. The Holy Bible abridged: or the History of the Old and New Testament. Illustrated with Notes, and adorned with cuts. For the Use of Children. To which is added, A Compleat Abstract of the Old and New Testament, with the Apocrypha, in Easy Verse, New York, Hodge, Allen, and Campbell, 1790. The School and Children's Bible; prepared under the superintendence of the Rev. William Ropers, . . . London, 1873. It presents the Bible in a shortened form, "adapted for the use of children, and rearranges the matter." The Bible for Young People, New York, 1902, n. e., 1906. Scripture Lessons for schools on the British system of mutual instruction. Adopted in Russia by order of the Emperor Alexander I., London, 1820. According to the preface, these selections were originally made in Russian at St. Petersburg in 1818-19, and adopted in Russian schools at the instance of Prince Alexander Galitzin, minister of instruction. The Committee of the British and Foreign School Society then determined to issue them in the chief languages of Europe. The extracts are divided into: (1) Historical Lessons from the Old Testament; (2) Lessons on Duty toward God and Man; (3) Lessons from the Evangelists and the Acts. Bibles, Historical (Story-bibles) BIBLES, HISTORICAL (STORY-BIBLES): The usual term applied to a compilation of Holy Scripture which, confining itself chiefly to the historical portions, adapts them to educational purposes. This may be done either by a faithful repetition of the Biblical narratives or by thoroughgoing changes in the selection of the material, by the representation of facts, and by devotional application. In this article the term is confined to certain medieval works which, written in the language of the people and in popular style, constituted in their time the chief literary media for disseminating the knowledge of Bible history. The Earliest Story-Bibles. It is an interesting fact that the historico-devotional mode of considering the Bible received attention only when the people themselves began their spiritual and religious emancipation. As soon as the vernacular was allowed to become the language of religious instruction, among the Anglo-Saxons and in Germany at the time of Charlemagne, literary phenomena appear which at least to a certain extent fall under the conception of Story-Bibles. It is said that the poetical productions of [357]Caedmon in their original form treated the whole Bible history to the day of judgment; in the Krist of [358]Otfrid of Weissenburg and in the Low Saxon [359]Heliand not only was sacred history given in poetical form, but in picturesqueness and minuteness of details it appealed directly to the spirit of the people. Several other Story-Bibles in poetical form were subsequently composed, especially in Germany; among them the work of [360]Rudolf of Ems seems to have become most popular. In the Biblical literature of Holland may be mentioned the "Riming Bible" of Jacob of Maerlant. Much older are the poetical compilations of Biblical history in the French language, especially that of Herman of Valenciennes and the popular Roman de S. Fanuel which piquantly interweaves evangelical history with apocryphal and miraculous stories. Compilations in prose were also written; it may be said, however, that the strictly literal method of translation made slow progress and fully asserted itself only at the time of the Reformation. It is strange that the history of the Old Testament was treated more frequently than that of the New Testament; probably, being the older and more unknown record, it was better adapted for a free compilation. Their Character and Sources. The space devoted to Genesis was large in proportion to that given to the other books of the Old Testament. At times an attempt was made to insert in chronological order the few facts known of secular history. As to the sources, many legendary elements from older times may have been incorporated from popular tradition. But most of these works presuppose a written source. The material, so far as it can not be traced immediately to the Vulgate, may easily be found in the popular collection of glosses of Walafrid Strabo or in the historical works of Vincent of Beauvais, of Gottfrid of Viterbo, and others. Moreover, later Story-Bibles used earlier works of the same nature. Thus the Historia scholastica of [361]Peter Comestor was the source of several German and French works. Similarly, poetical works became the sources of works in prose. A popular Story-Bible of Germany may be traced to the poetical production of Rudolf of Ems, and French literature possesses prose compilations of older riming Bibles; even in the Quatre Livres des rois of the twelfth century there are found occasional rimes or even larger passages in verse, all of which clearly show that the original form of the Biblical story in popular literature was poetic. It was only gradually that higher theological education found its way back to the Bible text in its proper form. In Spain originated the Historia general, under the influence of King Alfonso the Wise (1252-84). He entrusted to certain scholars the task of writing a great collective work on the basis of the Historia scholastica of Peter Comestor, in which the whole history of the world should be represented in the framework of the Biblical stories with the addition of extensive portions from secular history. There is a distinction between the French expressions bibles historiees and bibles historiales. Histoire in Old French means "picture," because to people of no education history in the form of pictures was most easily available. Hence bible historiee means "illustrated Bible" (see [362]Bibles, Illustrated), while bible historiale denotes "Story-Bible." Bibles historiales are, then, the works treated above. Of this sort was the translation of the Historia scholastica of Peter Comestor into the dialect of Picard by Guyard des Moulins, canon of Aire in Artois (1295), a work which, in connection with a literal translation of the Bible dating from the thirteenth century, formed for hundreds of years one of the most popular Story-Bibles (see [363]Bible Versions, B, VI, S: 2). It was reserved for the Reformation to place in the hands of Christian people the whole Bible according to the original texts, without glosses and additions, and thus with the beginning of that period the Story-Bible had fulfilled its mission. (S. Berger.) Bibliography: M. Guedemann, Haggadah und Midrasch-Haggadah, Berlin, 1884; D. H. Mueller and J. v. Schlosser, Die Haggadah von Sarajevo, Vienna, 1898; T. Merzdorf, Bibliothekarische Unterhaltungen, Oldenberg, 1850; E. Reuss, Die deutsche Historienbibel, Jena, 1855; idem, Geschichte der heiligen Schriften des N. T., S:S: 463-464, Brunswick, 1887; Les Quatre Livres des rois, ed. Le R. de Liney, Paris, 1841; E. Reuse, in Revue de theologie et philosophie, xvi (1857), 1 sqq.; H. Palm, Eine mittelhochdeutsche Historienbibel, Breslau, 1867; J. Bonnard, Les Traductions de la Bible en vers franc,ais, Paris, 1884; Le Roman de S. Fanuel, ed. C. Chabaneau, ib. 1889; L. Delisle, Livres d'images destines `a l'instruction religieuse des laiques, Paris, 1890; S. Berger, Les Bibles Castillanes, in Romania, xxviii, 1899. Bibles, Illustrated BIBLES, ILLUSTRATED. Illustrated Manuscripts, Roman and Byzantine (S: 1). Teutonic and Celtic Manuscripts (S: 2). Manuscripts of the Eleventh Century (S: 3). Biblia Pauperum (S: 4). Illustrated Bibles of the Reformation and Later (S: 5). The Nineteenth Century (S: 6). 1. Illustrated Manuscripts, Roman and Byzantine. The history of illustration goes back beyond the Christian era; the ancients adorned manuscripts of Homer, Vergil, and Livy with drawings and richly painted designs, and illustrations were introduced for educational purposes into the works of Vitruvius on architecture, Aratus on astrology, and Vegetius on the art of war. In like manner, from the time of Constantine and probably earlier, illustration was applied to manuscripts of the Bible. Presumably to this decoration may be referred what Jerome and Chrysostom say in reprobation of the luxury which people allowed themselves in the ornamentation of the Scriptures. The high veneration paid to the Bible explains the zeal with which miniature-painting was pursued in the early Church. The extant illustrated manuscripts do not apparently go further back than the fourth century (the fragment of Genesis in the Vienna library; the Vatican Joshua; the evangeliarium of Rossano; and a Syriac evangeliarium of 586 in the Laurentian library at Florence). In these many features, such as the architecture, costume, action, the introduction of allegorical figures and personifications, indicate the nature of the scene or its locality, which are derived from ancient art and reveal the prevalence of a good tradition. Among them are small pictures executed in body-colors with idyllic artistic feeling, after the manner of the older mural painting. The miniatures of the Vienna Genesis are still partly in the purely illusionist style which had been dominant since the Flavian period, like the paintings in the Baths of Constantine; but the greater part of them are in a style specially adapted to book illustration, more a draftsman's than a painter's. They exhibit the continued influence of the narrative art of the Roman empire in the second and third centuries, as shown in the pictures from the Odyssey on the Esquiline, on Roman sarcophagi, and in the pictures of Philostratus; this defined the specific style of all Christian compositions until the sixteenth century. The illustrations of the Paris Psalter and other manuscripts which may be assigned to the end of the fourth century are characteristic of the end of Greek and the beginning of Roman painting. The Joshua continues the Roman triumphal style, with strong affinity to the reliefs of Trajan's Column. In the Byzantine empire the influence of the ancient civilization was long felt; but a more ornamental tendency came in with the iconoclastic controversy. It is true there are some illustrations of the ninth and tenth centuries, a psalter and a commentary on Isaiah in the Vatican, another psalter and the sermons of Gregory Nazianzen in the Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris, which are worthy to stand by the side of the early Christian specimens; but as a rule the drawing grows harder and stiffer. Ornamentation, on the other hand, is richer; the gold ground becomes more usual, the initial letters are made prominent, and the ornamental borders are more noteworthy. Mosaic and enamel painting set the style for the miniatures as well. The standard of Byzantine painting is laid down in the Mount Athos "Guide to Painting" (1458; translated into German by G. Schaefer, Treves, 1855). The development of illustration in the West was altogether different. Here, too, the influence of the early Christian tradition was operative; but the entrance of the Teutonic nations into the Church brought new impulses and new problems. They were, indeed, barbarians, without any native artistic style; but they brought with them a joyous power of accomplishment, a feeling for nature, and a bold love of truth which had far-reaching effects. 2. Teutonic and Celtic Manuscripts. The Roman tradition continued among the Lombards and the Franks; but art became ruder and less refined. In the early Christian and Byzantine manuscripts the decoration had been usually confined to the addition of pictures; the Teutonic peoples extended it to the text itself. The initials are almost buried in bright colors and elaborate decoration, the leaves framed in colored designs. The scribe was often the painter. These characteristics appear plainly in the Irish manuscripts--the "Book of Kells" at Trinity College, Dublin, and those of Wuerzburg, Treves, and St. Gall. The influence of Gregory the Great helped to preserve the early Christian traditions among the Anglo-Saxons and Franks until within the Carolingian period (the Purple Gospel in the British Museum and an evangeliarium at Cambridge, seventh century). An independent conception comes out first in the illustrations proper, without any feeling for perspective, but with an attractive effort to attain truth and naturalness (Ashburnham Pentateuch, seventh century). Under the Carolingians great schools were founded for artistic copying of manuscripts at Tours, Orleans, Metz, Reichenau, St. Gall, Treves, etc. Their work was connected with the old tradition by its sober-minded simplicity and its careful technique (evangeliarium of Godescalc, Paris; another at Vienna; another of St. Medard, 826, at Soissons; another of King Lothair, 843, and the Bible of Charles the Bald, 850, both in Paris). In the provinces the development, though less beautiful, was more independent (Bible of Alcuin, British Museum). Here the draftsman takes precedence of the painter, but the work is marked by originality and poetic imagination and power (Utrecht Psalter, ninth century; a benedictionale at Chatsworth; evangeliaria of Otto I at Aix-la-Chapelle, of Egbert at Treves, c. 980, of Echternach at Gotha, c. 990, and of Otto III at Aix-la-Chapelle). Then the decoration becomes gradually more elaborate, the pictorial and ornamental parts begin to interchange their qualities, the initiate and borders are rich and gay. 3. Manuscripts of the Eleventh Century. In the eleventh century the Cluniac mood of struggle and renunciation prevails; the spiritual excitement and vivid fancy of the time are shown in the Bible-illustrations; wasted forms in stiff garments set forth the ascetic ideal of their creators; truth to nature disappears entirely. And yet there is great progress in every domain of the intellectual life-it is the age of Bernard. Even in the miniatures there are signs of the awakening of the individual life; beneath all the passion and combat there are a quiet melancholy and longing for peace. Henry II endowed his Bamberg foundations with beautifully painted books, and at Hildesheim an important scriptorium, influential throughout the north of Europe, was founded by Bernward, himself a pioneer in painting. Here the forms are hard and traditional, but the content is new and full of deep and animated feeling. After the rise of general civilization under the Hohenstaufens, the bars of form were to a great extent broken down. The joy of living came back, and led the imagination once more into the comprehension of beautiful things, both graceful and dignified. There is a better feeling for outline, and the study of the heritage of antiquity seems to revive. The Bruchsal evangeliarium at Carlsruhe shows surprisingly good drawing and natural movement, as does another of about 1200 in the cathedral library at Treves; best of all is that of Henry the Lion, formerly in the cathedral treasury at Prague but now in the possession of the Duke of Cumberland, and the Merseburg Vulgate. A brilliant period for miniature-painting was opening; but its tone was characterized rather by breadth than by depth, and the more popular it became, the more the profound symbolism of the early times disappeared. Illustration was now bestowed less on Bibles than on books used in public worship, until at the end of the Middle Ages artistic interest once more covered the whole Bible; but new life really came into this branch of illustration with the invention of wood-engraving. 4. Biblia Pauperum. The transition to illustrated Bibles for the people is seen in the Biblia pauperum of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries--short representations of the earthly life of Christ in simple drawings, generally uncolored, ranging in number from thirty-four to fifty. Each event depicted is accompanied by two antitypes from the Old Testament and by four prophets with appropriate citations, and the pictures are explained in Latin or in German. The most important examples of these "Bibles of the Poor" are those of St. Florian in Lower Austria, of the Lyceum library at Constance, in the Vienna and Munich libraries [and in the ducal library at Wolfenbuettel]. 5. Illustrated Bibles of the Reformation and Later. With the invention of printing and engraving, especially wood-engraving, both the Bible and art became common property. Reproductions of the Biblia pauperum, which now first became really accessible to the "poor," are among the most celebrated of early block books. The German Bibles before Luther (Augsburg 1477, Cologne c. 1480, Nuremberg 1483, Luebeck 1494) have woodcuts. Finally Duerer, with the wonderful vision which could realize even the majestic pictures of the Apocalypse, teased Biblical illustration to its highest dignity. With the vernacular text, eagerly sought after as it was, a great variety of illustrations went hand in hand. Luther recognized their importance to the Reformation cause and promoted illustration zealously, and Melanchthon drew rough sketches, which he gave to Lucas Cranach for execution. Bible-illustration has never had such a vogue as in the first half of the sixteenth century. The most splendid edition was published by Krafft of Wittenberg in 1576 and 1584. With Bibles of the middle of the century Biblical illustrating took a new direction, when line-engraving gradually forced wood-engraving into the background. The latter was used mainly for cheap popular editions, while artistic tendencies were mainly displayed by the former. In 1607 the fifty-two pictures from the logge of the Vatican, the so-called Raffael Bible, engraved by Badalocchio and Lanfranco, were published, followed by another important series of line-engravings, the Icones biblicae and Historiae sacrae published by Merian at Frankfort, 1625-27, and a long list of similar works in Germany, France, and Italy. In the eighteenth century wood-engraving almost entirely died out, except for cheap ephemeral productions, while line-engraving flourished in the hands of the Dutch school, who shared the renown of the French. German art was mainly imitative, and produced little that is noteworthy in Biblical illustration. Good editions, on the other hand, were published during this period in Holland by Mortier, 1700; Danckers, 1700; Luyken, 1740; Schots, 1749. In France the best were those of Basnage, 1705, and Martin, 1724. In England, besides the Oxford Bible of 1717, there were the editions of Royaumont, 1705; Clarke, 1759; and Fleetwood, 1769. In all these the Dutch-Flemish spirit appears, with its wide, free, joyous life; the fundamental principles of illustration are based on imitation of painting; Rubens, and Rembrandt for etching, are the highest authorities. In the nineteenth century Bible-illustration took a new impulse from England. The modern romantic manner and straining after effect entered into it, largely as a result of the great Holy Bible with Engravings from Pictures and Designs by the most Eminent Artists, published in London, 1800. [This, however, had been anticipated by the Historical Part of the Holy Bible with illustrations engraved by John Cole (London, 1730) and a volume with the same title illustrated by John Sturt, as well as by the James Tittler Bible (4 vols., 1794-95). It was followed by a series of efforts, such as the Pictorial Bible by Charles Knight, with woodcuts (London, 1828-29, New York, 1843), another of the same name, but with steel engravings (London, 1847-49), a numerous series of Bible Picture Books issued by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge and the Religious Tract Society, and Bible Illustrations, issued by Frowde (London, 1896).] 6. The Nineteenth Century. The interest in the Orient which came up with Napoleon's Egyptian campaign, in alliance with the strong realistic tendency of the century, brought in a wholly new sort of illustrated Bible, like Brown's Family Bible (London and New York), with views of towns and landscapes in addition to historical pictures. Later, wood-engraving revived reached once more an unexpected height of excellence, and succeeded in getting in touch with the great masses of the people. Notable products of this revival (in Germany) were Oliver's Bible of 1834; Overbeck's forty fine illustrations to the New Testament (1841); the Cotta edition of 1850, with 175 wood-engravings after the first artists of Germany; and, best of all the German editions, that published by Wigand (Leipsic, 1852-1860), with 240 illustrations by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld (Eng. ed., Leipsic, 1855-60; London, 1869). The technically brilliant but too theatrical designs of Dore won great popularity. The Germans have recently published several noteworthy editions, such as the "Pfeilstuecker Bible" in 1887, with many explanatory archeological drawings, and the "Star Bible" published by Hinrichs (Leipsic) in 1892, with reproductions of classical pictures for the Old Testament and Hofmann's for the New. [One of the latest attempts at Biblical illustration is the work of the French artist J. J. J. Tissot (d. 1902), who, during s ten years' residence in Palestine, prepared a series of sketches based upon study of the Biblical places and environment. The Life of our Lord Jesus Christ, with 365 compositions in color and black and white, was published in 4 vols. in 1899-1900, and The Old Testament, with 396 similar illustrations, in 1904 (2 vols.).] (H. Hoelscher.) Bibliography: A. de Bastard, Peintures et ornements des MSS., especially vol. iii, 8 vols., Paris, 1832-69 (4th-16th centuries, a very complete work); idem, Peintures, ornements . . . de la Bible de Charles le Chauve . . . `a Paris, ib. 1883; H. Shaw, Illuminated Ornaments of the Middle Ages, London, 1833 (6th-17th centuries, elaborate and costly); idem, Handbook of the Art of Illumination, ib. 1869; J. O. Westwood, Illuminated Illustrations of the Bible, copied from Select MSS. of the Middle Ages, ib. 1846 (with descriptive letterpress); H. N. Humphreys, Illuminated Books of the Middle Ages, ib. 1849 (historical and illustrative); H. A. Mueller, Das Evangelistarium Heinrichs III. in der Stadtbibliothek zu Bremen, Bremen, 1862; W. R. Tymms, Art of Illuminating, London, 1866 (noteworthy); J. O. Westwood, Facsimiles of the Miniatures and Ornaments of Anglo-Saxon and Irish MSS., ib. 1868; J. H. Todd, Descriptive Remarks on Illuminations, ib. 1869 (deals largely with the Book of Kells); J. E. Wocel, Die Bilderbibel des Belislav, Prague, 1871; A. Frind, Scriptum super Apocalypsin cum imaginibus, ib. 1872; F. W. Delamotte, Primer of the Art of Illumination, London, 1874; W. de G. Birch and H. Jenner, Early Drawings and Illuminations; Introduction to the Study of Illuminated MSS., ib. 1879 ("a handsome book for specialists"); A Springer, Psalterillustrationen im fruehen Mittelalter, Leipsic, 1881; idem, Die Genesisbilder in der Kunst des fruehen Mittelalters, ib. 1884; O. von Gebhardt, The Miniatures of the Ashburnham Pentateuch, London, 1883; R. Muther, Die aeltesten deutschen Bilderbibeln, Munich, 1883; F. X. Kraus, Die Miniaturen des Codex Egberti . . . zu Trier, Freiburg, 1884; idem, Geschichte der christlichen Kunst, i, 447 sqq., ib. 1896; Geschichte der deutschen Kunst, vol. iii, H. Janitschek, Die Malerei, Berlin, 1890; K. von Luetzow, Geschichte des deutschen Kupferstichs und Holzschnitts, vol. iv, ib. 1891; S. Beissel, Das . . . Evangelienbuch im Dome zu Hildesheim, Hildesheim,1891; J. Strsygowski, Das Etschmiadzin Evangeliar, Vienna, 1891; C. von Kobell, Miniaturen und Initialen aus MSS. des 4.-16. Jahrhunderts, Munich, 1892; J. H. Middleton, Illuminated MSS. in Classical and Modern Times, London, 1892 (letterpress elaborate and comprehensive); W. von Hartel and F. Wickhoff, Die Wiener Genesis, Vienna, 1895; S. Berger, Les Manuels pour l'illustration du Psautier, in Memoires de la societe des antiquites, 1898, lvii; G. E. Warner, Illuminated MSS., London, 1900; the illustrations of the Evangeliarium of Rossano are reproduced in the exact size of the originals by A. Munoz, Rome 1907. On the Biblia Pauperum consult: S. L. Sotheby, Principia typographica, London, 1858; J. T. Berjeau, Biblia pauperum, London, 1859; A. Camesina and G. Heider, Die bildlichen Darstellungen der Biblia pauperum . . . in St. Florian, Vienna, 1863; E. la Roche, Die aelteste Bilderbibel, die sogenannte Biblia pauperum, Basel, 1881; W. L. Schreiber, Manuel de l'amateur de la gravure . . . au xve. siecle, 7 vols., Leipsic, 1891-1900; F. Laib and F. J. Schwarz, Biblia pauperum, Freiburg, 1899; E. M. Thompson, On a MS. of the Biblia pauperum, in Bibliotheca, iii, 1897; Biblia pauperum. Unicum der Heidelberger Universitaets-Bibliothek, in 34 Lichtdrucktafeln und 4 Tafeln, Berlin, 1906. Bibles, Polyglot BIBLES, POLYGLOT. I. The Complutensian Polyglot. II. The Antwerp Polyglot. III. The Paris Polyglot. IV. The London Polyglot (Walton's Polyglot). V. Minor Polyglots. Polyglot Bibles are editions of the Bible presenting the text in several languages side by side. The practical needs of the Jews after Hebrew ceased to be a living tongue led to the preparation of manuscripts giving, with the original Hebrew, translations or paraphrases in Aramaic, Greek, Arabic, Persian, and the languages of Europe. Like conditions in the Church were met in similar manner. Certain manuscripts of the New Testament in both Greek and Latin are mentioned in the article [364]Bible-Text, II, 1, S: 9. An edition in the original and in modern Greek was printed in 1638 at the instance of Cyril Lucar (see [365]Bible Versions, B, VIII), and the needs of Syria, Egypt, and Armenia are met in like manner by editions still issued by Rome and by Protestant Bible Societies. The so-called glossaries (see [366]Glosses, Biblical) and interlinear versions giving the Vulgate and the vernacular text of the Middle Ages may also be mentioned in this connection. And there are numerous modern copies of the Vulgate accompanied by an English, German, French, Spanish, or Italian translation. The name Polyglot, however, can not strictly be given to editions presenting but two languages (Gk. polys = "many"), and, in common usage, is restricted to certain particular works, viz.: I. The Complutensian Polyglot, one of the most noted and rarest of Biblical works, was undertaken under the supervision and at the expense of Cardinal Francisco Ximenez de Cisneros, archbishop of Toledo and chancellor of Castile (d. 1517), and was prepared by the most famous scholars of Spain, such as Demetrius Ducas of Crete, Antonio of Lebrija, Diego Lopez de Stunica, Ferdinand Nunez de Guzman, and Alphonso of Zamora. After years of labor the work was printed at Alcala (Latin, Complutum) between 1513 and 1517, being finished only a few months before the death of the cardinal, and was published in 1520 with the sanction of Pope Leo X. It consists of six folio volumes, the first four including the Old Testament, the fifth the New Testament, and the sixth being a Hebrew-Chaldee lexicon with grammatical and other notes (printed separately as Alphonsi Zamorensis introductiones artis grammaticae Hebraicae, Alcala, 1526). The languages are (1) the Hebrew of the Old Testament; (2) the Targum of Onkelos; (3) the Septuagint (here printed for the first time and with remarkable alterations of the manuscripts to make the text fit the Hebrew or the Latin); (4) the Vulgate; (5) the Greek New Testament. Latin translations of the Targum and Septuagint are appended. The title-page and last page are given in reduced facsimile in Schaff's Companion to the Greek Testament (New York, 1885). II. The Antwerp Polyglot (Biblia Regia) was printed at the expense of Philip II of Spain by the famous Antwerp printer Christophe Plantin (8 vols., folio, 1569-72). Benedictus Arias Montanus (see [367]Arias, Benedictus) had charge of the work, with the help of Spanish, Belgian, and French scholars, among them Andre Maes, Guy le Fevre de la Boderie, and Franc,ois Rapheleng. Volumes i-iv contain the Old Testament, vol. v the New; besides the original texts, the Vulgate, and the Septuagint with Latin translation, Aramaic targums of the Old Testament (with the exception of Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Chronicles) are given, with Latin translation; also the old Syriac (Peshito) version of the New Testament, lacking II Peter, II and III John, Jude, and the Apocalypse; it is printed with both Syriac and Hebrew characters and has a Latin translation. Volumes vi-vii contain the Hebrew lexicon of Sanctes Pagninus, the Syriac-Chaldee lexicon of Le Fevre de la Boderie, a Syriac grammar by Maes, a Greek dictionary and archeological treatises by Arias Montanus, and many brief philological and critical notes. The last volume repeats the Hebrew and Greek texts with interlinear Latin translations, by Sanctes Pagninus of the former, and the Vulgate for the latter; this part of the work, especially the New Testament, has often been reprinted. The critical preparation was defective and the manuscripts used were of secondary importance; in many places there is dependence on the Complutensian work. III. The Paris Polyglot, the most magnificent but scientifically least important of all, was printed at the expense of Guy Michel le Jay in seven languages (10 vols., 1629-45). Volumes i-iv are merely reprints of the Antwerp Bible. Volumes v-vi contain the New Testament from the same edition, augmented by the Syriac Antilegomena and an Arabic version with Latin translation. The other volumes contain (1) the so-called Samaritan Pentateuch with its Samaritan translation (see [368]Bible Versions, A, IV); (2) the Syriac; and (3) an Arabic version of the Old Testament, all with Latin translations. The Oratorian Jean Morin prepared the Samaritan texts and the Maronite Gabriel Sionita did most of the Syriac work. IV. The London Polyglot (Walton's Polyglot), the most scholarly and the commonest of all, was undertaken by [369]Brian Walton, afterward bishop of Chester, and completed in 1657 (6 vols., London). Walton had the help of nearly all contemporary English scholars, particularly the Orientalists Edmund Castell, Edward Pococke, Thomas Hyde, Dudley Loftus, Abraham Weelocke, Thomas Greaves, and Samuel Clarke. The excellence of this Polyglot over others consists in the greater number of old Oriental versions and the much greater and more intelligent work of the editor. The first four volumes contain the Old Testament in the Hebrew with the Antwerp interlinear version, the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Septuagint from the Vatican edition of 1587 with the variants of the Alexandrine codex, the fragments of the Itala collected by Flaminius Nobilius, the Vulgate from the Vatican edition with the corrections of Lucas of Bruegge, the Peshito augmented by the translation of certain apocrypha, a better edition of the Arabic version, the Targums from Buxtorf, the Samaritan translation of the Pentateuch, and the Ethiopic version of the Psalms and Song of Songs. These texts (nine in all), with Latin translations of the Greek and the Oriental, are arranged side by side or one under the other. Two additional Targums, that of Pseudo-Jonathan and that of Jerusalem, with a Persian translation are given in vol. iv. The New Testament appears in vol. v, the text with few changes from Robert Stephens's folio edition of 1550; then are given Arias's version and the variants of the Alexandrine codex, Syriac, Latin, Ethiopic, and Arabic versions, and the Gospels in Persian, with literal Latin translations. Walton's Apparatus, a critical-historical introduction in vol. i, was not superseded for more than a century, and was several times republished. Volume vi contains critical collections to all the texts published. Finally Edmund Castell's Lexicon Heptaglottum (2 parts, Cambridge, 1669) is usually counted as an integral part of this Polyglot. V. Minor Polyglots: Less important are (1) the Heidelberg Polyglot (Polyglotta Sanctandreana; Old Testament, 1586; New Testament added, 1599), probably edited by Bonaventure Corneille Bertram, professor of Hebrew at Geneva 1566-84, afterward preacher at Frankenthal. It contains the original texts and Septuagint, with Latin translations, and the Vulgate, all from the Antwerp Polyglot. (2) The Hamburg Polyglot (1596) consists of six volumes by David Wolder, giving in four columns the Greek texts, the Vulgate, Pagninus's Latin translation of the Old Testament and Beza's of the New, with Luther's German version, to which Elias Hutter's Hebrew Bible of 1587 was added with new titlepage bearing the date 1596. (3) The Nuremberg Polyglot, the work of [370]Elias Hutter, comprises (a) an Old Testament in six languages (1599), carried only to the Book of Ruth; (b) a Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and German Psalter (1602); (c) a New Testament in twelve languages (2 parts, 1599)--Syriac, Italian, Hebrew, Spanish, Greek, French, Vulgate, English, German, Danish, Bohemian, and Polish; (d) a New Testament in Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and German, taken from the preceding (1602). (4) The Leipsic Polyglot of Christianus Reineccius, rector at Weiesenfels, has the New Testament in five languages (1713) and the Old Testament in four (2 vols., 1750-51). (5) The Bielefeld Polyglot, ed. R. Stier and C. G. W. Theile (4 vols., ii and iii in two parts, 1846-55), contains the Old Testament in Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and German, the New Testament in the last three languages, with variants of different German versions in the fourth column; there are also copies with the English version in place of the German. Lastly, mention may be made of the Biblia Hexaglotta of E. R. de Levante (6 vols., London, 1874-1876), and Bagster's Biblia sacra polyglotta, with prolegomena by S. Lee (London, 1831). Other works including only portions of the Bible do not fall within the scope of this article. E. Nestle. Bibliography: J. Le Long, Bibliotheca Sacra, emendata . . . ab A. G. Masch, part i, chap. 4, pp. 331-408, Halle, 1778; idem, Discours historique sur les principales editions des Bibles polyglottes, pp. 554 sqq., Paris, 1713; B. Pick, History of Printed Editions . . . and Polyglot Bibles, in Hebraica, ix (1892-93), 47-116. Bibles, Rabbinic BIBLES, RABBINIC, called also Great Bibles (Mik?ra'ot Gedolot): Hebrew Bibles containing, besides the original text, the commentaries of sundry Jewish rabbis. The first of these Bibles was published by Daniel Bomberg, edited by Felix Pratensis (4 parts, Venice, 1517-18); it contains, besides the Hebrew, the Aramaic paraphrases and commentaries of eight different writers on certain books, Masoretic notes, and other matter. As the editor was a convert to Christianity, his work did not prove acceptable to the Jews. Its faults induced Bomberg to undertake another edition, for which he employed as editor the celebrated Masoretic scholar Jacob ben Hayyim, who in after-life also embraced Christianity. This edition, the Hebrew title of which means "The Holy Gate of the Lord," was published at Venice (4 vols., 154-25) and, like the first edition, contains the Hebrew text, the Aramaic commentaries, and the Masoretic notes. The editor's introduction, containing a treatise on the Masorah, has been translated into English by Christian David Ginsburg (Jacob ben Chajim's Introduction to the Rabbinic Bible, London, 1865), who based The Massoretic Critical Text of the Hebrew Bible (1894) on this edition of Hayyim. A revised and improved edition of the second Bomberg Bible was published (Venice, 1546-48) under the supervision of Cornelius Adelkind. The changes made in this edition were the omission of some commentaries and the substitution of others. Bomberg's fourth Rabbinic Bible, by J. de Gara, was carried through the press and corrected by Isaac ben Joseph Salem and Isaac ben Gershon Treves (4 vols., Venice, 1568). The correctors remark at the end of the work that they have reinserted in this edition the portion of the Masorah omitted in the edition of 1546-48. Appended to this is the so-called Jerusalem Targum on the Pentateuch. A Rabbinic Bible (4 vols., Venice, 1617-18) was published by Pietro and Lorenzo Bragadini and edited by the celebrated Leon of Modena. It contains the Aramaic paraphrases, the Masorah, and the Rabbinic commentaries of De Gara's edition. This edition, however, is of less value to the critical student, being censored by the Inquisition. Buxtorf's Rabbinic Bible or Biblia sacra Hebraica et Chaldaica cum Masora, quae critica Hebraeorum sacra est, magna et parva ac selectissimis Hebraeorum interpretum commentariis (4 parts, 2 vols., Basel, 1618-19) has a Latin preface by Buxtorf, a table of the number of chapters in the Bible, and a poem of Aben Ezra in the Hebrew language. Besides the Hebrew and the Aramaic paraphrases, it contains the commentaries of Rashi, Aben Ezra, and others, and Buxtorf's Tiberias sive commentarius masorethicus triplex. The whole is formed after Jacob ben Hayyim's second edition (1546-48), with some corrections and alterations by Buxtorf. Buxtorf's Bible is imperfect, but in spite of its deficiencies, the student must still thank the editor for his work, which, however, was criticized by R. Simon in his Histoire critique du Vieux Testament (p. 513). The next Rabbinic Bible was the Sepher Kehillat Moshe, or "Book of the Congregation of Moses," edited by Moses Frankfurter (4 vols., Amsterdam, 1724-27). This is the most valuable of all the Rabbinic Bibles. It is founded upon the Bomberg editions, and gives not only their contents, but also those of Buxtorf's, with much additional matter. The latest Rabbinic Bible is the Mik?ra'ot Gedolot published at Warsaw (12 vols., 1860-68) by Lebenson. This gigantic work contains thirty-two commentaries, old and new, among others the critical commentary of Norzi. The Hebrew text is on the whole very correct, the size is more convenient than that of its predecessors, and the edition is recommended by the best Jewish authorities in Poland and Austria. B. Pick. Bibliography: The one book for consultation is C. D. Ginsburg, Introduction to the Massoretico-critical Edition of the Hebrew Bible, London, 1897; cf. B. Pick, in Hebraica, ix (1892-93), 47-116. Biblia Pauperum BIBLIA PAUPERUM ("Bible of the Poor"). See [371]Bibles, Illustrated, S: 4. Bibliander (Buchmann), Theodor BIBLIANDER (BUCHMANN), THEODOR: Swiss theologian and teacher; b. at Bischofszell (11 miles s.s.e. of Constance), Switzerland, 1504 (1509?); d. at Zurich Nov. 26, 1564. He studied Hebrew under Jacob Ceporinus in Zurich, in 1526 under Pellican and OEcolampadius at Basel, and later on under Capito. When Duke Frederick II of Liegnitz in 1527 asked for teachers for his high school, the Council of Zurich sent him Bibliander, who served there two years with distinction. He then returned home and was appointed Zwingli's successor in the theological professorship at Zurich in 1531. Bibliander's specialty was linguistics, and he used to call himself homo grammaticus; he was versed in the Semitic dialects and was master of several modern languages. From the beginning his rendering of the Prophets was successful, was indorsed by Bullinger and Pellican, and caused J. H. Hottinger to call him the father of exegetical theology in Switzerland. He wrote also on Hebrew Grammar and on Comparative Linguistics. Perhaps the greatest sensation he caused was that produced by his publication of the Koran (1543, rev. ed., 1550); the magistrates at Basel tried to prohibit the book, but Luther interfered in defense of it and of the translator. Bibliander issued studies on the Gospel of Mark and the Protevangelium Jacobi, translating them into Latin. His works betray a rich historical knowledge. Especially worthy of mention in this regard are his De Ratione Temporum (1551) and Temporum Supputatio (1558). Most of his writings were never published, but are preserved in manuscript at Zurich. Next to Bullinger, Bibliander appears as the most respected representative of the Church at Zurich. He participated in all theological and ecclesiastical discussions, preserving the heritage of Zwingli. He assisted in the publication of Zwingli's and OEcolampadius's letters (1536). In some treatises he openly attacked the Catholic Church and the Tridentinum (De Legitima Vindicatione Christianismi, 1553), and antagonized the Roman propaganda, appealing to England as the land of Christian liberty. He advocated missions to the Jews and Mohammedans, and went so far as to start on mission work, being restrained only by Bullinger's representations. He was made emeritus and given a pension in 1560. (Emil Egli.) Bibliography: A list of the writings of Bibliander is given in H. J. Leu, Allgemeines Lexicon, iv, 11-14, 20 vols., Zurich, 1747-65. For his life consult J. J. Christinger, T. Bibliander, ein biographisches Denkmal, Frauenfeld, 1867; E. Egli, Analecta reformatoria, vol. ii, Zurich, 1901. Biblical Archeology BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. See [372]Archeology, Biblical. Biblical Canon BIBLICAL CANON. See [373]Cannon of Scripture. Biblical Criticism BIBLICAL CRITICISM. I. Conception and Problem. The History of the Term (S: 1). Limitations and Sphere of the Critic (S: 2). Biblical Criticism (S: 3). II. The Critical Method. Fundamental Assumptions (S: 1). Classification (S: 2). Function (S: 3). III. The Departments of Criticism. Criticism of the Canon (S: 1). Textual Criticism and Apparatus (S: 2). Linguistic Criticism (S: 3). Historical Criticism (S: 4). Criticism of Style (S: 5). Reconstructive Criticism (S: 6). IV. History of Criticism. Meaning and Limitations (S: 1). Hellenistic and Patristic Criticism (S: 2). Criticism from the Time of the Reformation (S: 3). Modern Criticism (S: 4). V. Biblical Criticism in the Roman Catholic Church. I. Conception and Problem. Criticism, like interpretation, is an art; the two are related to each other as sisters, and both are nourished by science. Interpretation is the art of bringing to the comprehension what has really been handed down and of grasping it as it really is; criticism is the art of rightly estimating what has been actually apprehended according to its real value. Interpretation without criticism befogs and enervates; criticism without interpretation is vague and mere intellectual play. Since man can not understand without exercising the faculty of judgment, in work that deals with spiritual verities the two are not separated, yet the point of view from which they approach the same object is as different as their method. Interpretation proceeds inductively, collecting everything which bears upon the understanding of the matter; criticism proceeds deductively, furnishing the canons by which to value that understanding. While one asks about the fact, the other asks about the truth of it; one builds, the other classifies and estimates the material and tests the building process. Criticism is the inverse of interpretation, and more. While it pronounces upon the results of interpretation, it opens new questions about the trustworthiness or untrustworthiness, the completeness or fragmentariness, the genealogy and the significance of the object; and thus it affords a starting-point for final valuation and definition. It is skill, partly natural, partly acquired, in distinguishing and appropriating true from false, good from bad, beautiful from ugly, whether derived from contemplative perception and revelation or through chance or tradition. Its purpose is positive, though its result may often be negative. It knows no other authority than that of the case before it, no other method than that demanded by the same. 1. The History of the Term. The word has been in use since Plato's time; he distinguished between criticism and construction, the two being employed in the science of knowledge. Aristotle introduced a distinction between the critical and the literary arts, which was taken up by the Alexandrian school in connection with literature and particularly with poetry. Clement of Alexandria established in his review of Greek culture the fact that grammatikos as a technical term is later than kritikos. Terminology, however, was unstable in the ancient world. Philologos was differentiated from philosophos, meaning not the independent inquirer but the critic and expounder of classical productions. As the art of valuing, criticism is the product of the eighteenth century. The Encyclopedists called it in particular the restorer of ancient literature, in general the art of open-eyed examination of human productions and of judging them justly. 2. Limitations and Sphere of the Critic. The critic stands in an opposition between subjective and objective. The obscure, the ugly, the disorderly, the arrogant, the artificial--everything which tends to distort a pure impression--arouse the critical function, which manifests itself in simple aversion or blame, or in a deliberate exposition of the causes of distortion. Limitations to understanding lie also in the person. Complex and difficult to grasp are the conditions and impulses which deceive, divert, and suborn the faculty of judgment. Personal taste, inexperience, dogmatic presupposition, arrogance--such hindrances are as numerous as the emotions of the soul. A valuable inheritance sometimes suffers injury by the encroachments of critical ineptitude. Whoever regards a thing as worthy has a sense of loss, even if the criticism be pertinent; much more is that the case if in the critical process insincerity and arbitrariness be present. It is not surprising, therefore, that esthetic and religious natures are filled with aversion to criticism and distrust of it. Goethe once said that a book which had accomplished great results was simply above the operations of criticism, and that criticism is generally a mere habit of moderns. Such an attitude seems to the critic mere obedience to blind authority. Great events and much of literature have rested on fictitious bases. Apocrypha and pseudepigrapha claim genuineness. Such facts are warrant enough for the activities of critical science. 3. Biblical Criticism. The general standards of criticism, like those of interpretation, rest on logic, philosophy, and rhetoric. It applies those standards to the particular case, and the general rules are modified to accord with the demands of the occasion. Since the Scriptures of the Old and the New Testaments have a special importance as a related whole, Biblical criticism is a special and independent branch. It deals with sources, history, and religion; it tests the historical worth of the documents which set forth the religion of the two Testaments. It has as its object the discovery of the religious life operative therein by reason of which this literature has its special meaning. There is a double outlook here; insight into the essence of religion and into the essence of historic fact. Biblical criticism is on its other side historical criticism. Hence its function is to separate the natural progress of events and the religious limitations of the Biblical exposition of history in order to comprehend their relations upon the basis of this separation. Religious occurrences it must seek to explain upon psychological, pathological, and historico-religious grounds. Lessing says that "the dramatic poet is not a historian; historical verity is not his purpose, only the means to it." Is this poet then a falsifier of history? Similarly for the Biblical writers historical truth is only a means for offering religious truth; it is the channel of the revelation from God. Consequently the task is to examine case by case in order to determine how far historical reality carries revelation. Its own standpoint, therefore, is assured to this science. It asks with what right and under what conditions and limitations the Scriptures exist as a religious collection. It gives historical rating to the contents. Its leading word is--discriminate, which it uses in promoting recognition of worth or its opposite, of fact or mere appearance. II. The Critical Method. 1. Fundamental Assumptions. To achieve real service in Biblical criticism appreciation of the religious factor is necessary. The critic, however, may not walk in a rut if he is to attain a right position. After he has through interpretation grasped the object of investigation, he gives it rating according to the conditions and warrant of the facts of the case. He proceeds upon the immanent, not the transcendent. And after the right criterion is found, he has to remember that a complete and not a partial or fragmentary investigation is required, and further that fast hold must be laid upon equipoise between critical acuteness and the perception of what is possible and plain. Eccles. vii, 20 has its application here, "God made man upright, but he has sought out many inventions." What is the inherent standard of Biblical criticism? The historical narratives of the Bible are, so far as they deal with religious life, interpretations of history and testimonies to faith. To express a right judgment the critic must determine the relation between the historical and the religious and decide which is the more prominent. De Wette regarded the Pentateuch as poetry; the opposite view makes the Bible historical only. Between these extremes lies the recognition that the Bible employs history for religious purposes. Is this religious significance to be regarded as expert emphasis upon the worth and force of a real occurrence or was it used to support some dogmatic purpose? Is it found in or read into the case? Is it in the main possible to recognize the fact in the religious dress? These possibilities the critic must take into account as he holds the scales of truth, testing the composite parts of the Bible and proceeding thence to a consideration of the Bible as a whole. Upon this ground only can the decision be rendered how far the historic facts which the Bible reports stand in organic connection with their religious valuation and whether they may be regarded as history or as legend, fable, or myth. The varying ratio of the admixture of the historical and the religious and the degree of its significance must be observed; and especially the interval between the Old Testament and the New in their historical relations, original limitations, and purposes must be kept in mind. It is one thing to appreciate the essential qualities of Hebrew national literature, covering a thousand years in its development, and another to apprehend the worth and character of the New Testament, which is the literature of a religious propaganda covering but two generations. Yet the critic's methods are essentially the same, corresponding to the varied historical limitations of the subject-matter. When the question of the essence of Christianity arises, the bearing of the Old Testament religion upon Christianity is to be decided and grasped. 2. Classification. The fundamental axiom shows that each literary production, as well as each body of writings which has a common bond, requires its appropriate method both of interpretation and of criticism. Means and end will agree when the character of the whole presents itself in the parts; the last-named will separate and individualize themselves where origins and relations differ. The classifications of Biblical criticism arise not out of logical abstractions but out of the demands made by the individualistic Biblical qualities. Criticism of the canon asks how and with what right the two Testaments were united in one book, how and by what methods the correct text of that which has come down is to be ascertained, what was the origin and what is the historical worth and what the relation of the present form of the books to the original form. It draws conclusions from the data furnished by interpretation. On the basis of the recognition (1) of the suitability of means to ends and (2) of the literary individuality, it pronounces upon the worth of a document as a source and upon its relation to the whole to which it belongs and which it serves. The science divides, therefore, into criticism of the text, of the language, of the history, of the style, and constructive criticism. 3. Function. Since subjectively criticism finds its occasion in the limits of the understanding, its starting-point is doubt about the trustworthiness and the arrangement of what has come down. This doubt proceeds to ask the reason for this impression. If the reason lies not in the spiritual being of the doubter but in the object, then some defect is understood to exist in expression, contents, or style. The critic has then to discover the kind of defect and to discern its cause. As a means to this, Jerome directs the critic to digest, arrange, deduce, construct. In other words, the critic first diagnoses the case and then applies the remedy. And in this process comparison is constantly employed, holding in view the separate parts and the united whole. The division of the field of the critic into external and internal, higher and lower, does not have any essential truth at its root, and should be rejected for that given at the end of the last paragraph. III. The Departments of Criticism. 1. Criticism of the Canon. That the Old Testament existed as a holy authority for the synagogue and that the New in connection with the Old had the same value for the Church is the fact the success and the right of which criticism has to investigate. It notes the process of formation of the canon and the internal testimony of the canonical writings as related to the authority attributed to them. It asks whether the canon was made or whether it grew, whether and how far its parts are pseudepigraphic. For the Old Testament there is outside testimony only from late Judaism and the Talmud; for the New there is a wealth of evidence arising from the circumstances under which it came into existence by about 180 A.D. One result of criticisms is to reveal the motive of canon-formation and also the correctness of the separation of the literature made authoritative by comparison of it with the noncanonical (see [374]Cannon of Scripture). 2. Textual Criticism and Apparatus. A preliminary in this work is the collection of the text-critical apparatus which shall present an orderly and complete picture of the condition of the text. The documents must be described and their characteristics brought to light. The sources of text-criticism are manuscripts in the original languages, lectionaries of selected parts, translations, citations; for the Old Testament the Masorah, for the Septuagint and the New Testament also patristic commentaries and scholia. The variant readings in this mass of materials are to be arranged and classified, a preliminary to which is the valuation of the text-sources on the basis of age, genealogy, and trustworthiness. In the Old Testament the difference of the Masoretic text from that of the Septuagint proves the two to be independent witnesses; but the fact that the text of the latter is not yet settled makes difficult the task of arbitrating between the two. On the other hand, the New Testament writings were not, before the time of Origen, handled with the care bestowed by the Jews on the text of the law. The collection of apparatus for the New Testament text presents not only an agitated sea of differences in orthography and word-forms which create little or no difference in sense, but also a series of variations which affect the meaning and educed the wail of Origen that they were the result not only of carelessness on the part of the scribes but also of wilfulness and design. The task is to bring order into this mass of variations. There have been discerned three principal types of text, the Alexandrian, the Western, and the Constantinopolitan. The text of the Synoptic Gospels shows the most serious variations, in which purpose is manifest to make parallel passages read in the same way and to supply omissions. The text of Revelation and of the Lucan writings also is in a bad condition. Great differences exist between the text of the Alexandrian and the Greco-Latin types. The last word on relative values has not yet been said, and the matter is still further complicated by the fact that the minuscules have not yet been taken fully into consideration, and they contain very many excellent and independent readings. See [375]Bible Text. The purpose of comparison of variant texts is approximation to the original. The critic estimates the age of a document. For this much help has been received from the papyri and parchments recovered in Egypt, from which it has been learned that the earliest texts were written in capitals and without accents or marks of punctuation, and that the word or syllable was broken at the end of the line as the demands of space required. Study of the processes of reproduction of manuscripts has shown that errors are either mechanical or designed. The former are illustrated by the doubling of a word or a passage or the omission of the same either by an error of the eye or of the ear, or by the substitution of one word or letter for another which resembles it either in form or sound. Of conscious or designed variations from the original, some were brought about by attempts to smooth a rough passage or to illumine an obscure one, to correct real or supposed errors, to make two parallel passages read in the same way, or to change the reading so as to support some dogmatic interest. The Old Testament was originally written without punctuation or helps to reading and pronunciation; the possibility of error is, therefore, greatly increased as compared with the Greek text, the vowels of which were always written. 3. Linguistic Criticism. After interpretation has set forth the lexicographic and grammatical character of the language, criticism inquires into the relation of expression to thought, unity in the methods of expression, and individual characteristics in writing as related to the general character of the language, and into the various influences which have controlled the form. Dissimilarity in style in parts argues dissimilarity in authorship; disarrangement or disorder suggests interpolation. Especially valuable are the tests which depend upon uniformity in the use of certain fundamental notions such as those of the kingdom of God, life, faith, righteousness, spirit, flesh. Similarly use is made of collection and comparison of idioms which characterize a writing or a group of writings, and in this case critical judgment is of great importance. Individuality is thus discovered, since the idiosyncrasies of writers are in the main unconscious and undesigned. And rhetorical qualities also come into play, the tendency to a type of expression or fondness for certain words or kinds of figures or turns of sentence. Recognition of characteristic ways of using language adds to text-critical apparatus, since it not only presents the facts of different readings and of peculiarities, but also notes their effects, influences, and modifications. So that text-criticism and criticism of the language work together in correcting an unintelligible or corrupt text by employing conjecture. By this is not meant merely subjective sagacity or ineptly used technical skill. Conjecture is the result of study of the causes of error in the text which marks them as mechanical or designed, and then seeks a reading in accordance with the habit and character of the document under examination, a reading which on known principles of error in transmission will produce the particular error. 4. Historical Criticism. Historical criticism is applied not merely to works on history but to any literary product of the past which claims or really has importance for any historical reason. The result of this process is pronouncement upon the worth of any particular document as a source. It deals with the genuineness, unity, integrity, and trustworthiness of a writing, asks whether it is as the author wrote it or whether it has been corrupted or falsified, whether it reflects the habit of the author assumed or of the times in which it is placed. Since it is seldom that explicit external testimony to a document is available, criticism usually proceeds upon internal evidence. But this is not always decisive. Conceivably, the tradition of Israel's sojourn in Egypt might have arisen out of the story of the Babylonian exile. So of the New Testament writings, the decision whether they are really documents of the apostolic age depends finally upon the judgment of their character as a whole and upon appraisement of the distance between them and the postapostolic and apocryphal literature. The three points upon which the critic is intent are not of equal weight. Thus, though the authenticity of a writing be denied on internal grounds, the worth of the writing as a source is not thereby necessarily denied, for the document may have been produced anonymously, may be a genuine witness for the times in which it was written, and yet have had a name wrongly attached to it later. Examples of this are the Books of Samuel, the Gospel of Matthew, and the Epistle to the Hebrews, which last is a genuine document of the apostolic age, though the authorship is undetermined. So integrity does not of itself determine source-value. Investigation in this direction discovers gaps or additions and relates them to historic credibility. The final test has reference to this duality. Investigation into a writing as a whole leads to the discussion of its composition. Criticism of sources enters here, which on the basis of the linguistic character of the finished work and of its parts decides whether the work is a unit or is composite. In the latter case the questions arise what was the original form and how far it has been changed by the successive hands through which it has passed; whether the parts are in their original form or have been worked over, and in the latter case whether in some dogmatic interest. Such are the problems which arise respecting the Pentateuch and the Gospels. Decision in favor of the trustworthiness of a document in itself a unit and complete is carried a step further toward assurance by comparison with the general whole to which it belongs. This involves consideration of linguistic characteristics, of the circle of ideas in which it moves, the general trend of thought. Account is taken of external testimony. In this case error has to be guarded against, since the trustworthiness and competence of the witness is itself a subject for investigation. The criticism of the Epistle to the Philippians gives an illustration of the difficulties of the process, where irreconcilably different conclusions have been reached by Baur, Holster, and P. W. Schmidt. The most important problem affecting credibility arises from the specific character of the Biblical narratives. What attitude shall be assumed toward miracles? How far are the reports legendary or mythical? What is the relation of the religious idea to the question of the historicity of the reports and of their worth as sources? The position taken will depend upon the philosophical position of the critic. The theist does not disavow belief in miracles and values the divine self-consciousness of Jesus as testimony to his living participation in deity. But the historic spirit of the times enters a caveat by noting the limitation placed on the reporters by the characteristics of the times in which they lived. Moreover, he who accepts Jesus as a wonder-worker is not called on as a critic to prove the reports of miracles reliable; nor is he who accepts Jesus as God's son required to prove the stories of the infancy, analogies of which are so abundantly available. But with the recognition that there are obscurities in the reports of miracles and that poetry, legend, and myth are used by the Bible, the last word has not been spoken on the historicity of Biblical narratives. When the English minister Mitchell said in relation to the wars of Frederick the Great that the latter was fighting for the freedom of the human race, he gave an interpretation of history but did not alter the historic fact. It is then possible that without altering the facts the Gospels, under the impression made by the person of Jesus, acknowledge him as Son of God and Savior of the world. If the theologian speaks of salvation as a fact which has become known in history, that is not a dogmatic dislocation but a correct valuation of the historical order in which the Christian religion and its Old Testament precursor reveal themselves. 5. Criticism of Style. "Style is only the order and progress in which thought takes form; it supposes the union and exercise of all the intellectual faculties, and it is the man" (Buffon). This utters the final decision in the reaching of which the critical and hermeneutical faculties unite more closely than in the processes named above. It asks the question, what purposes did the writing have and how did it attain them? It takes into account the total impression made by the document, the progress of thought and the conception of history it embodies; it notes clearness and force or indefiniteness and unwieldiness, originality or accord with accustomed forms. And in the background is ever a reference to the historical setting and relationships. Historical criticism may shove compositeness in a document and answer the question whether the elements are united by a loose idea or are worked into each other. In the latter case criticism of style shows the relation of the parts to the whole. When historical criticism has thoroughly investigated historical conditions and order, the question of credibility in a new sense arises. Was the purpose objective or personal, did the ideal enter into the personal, did personal interests and passion modify the objectivity of the writing? For documents run to Tendenz whenever they are not purely objective narrative. 6. Reconstructive Criticism. The results from the processes so far reviewed are now positive, now negative. They produce decisions upon the completeness, reliability, and value of what has been transmitted. That done, the relation of the product under discussion to the original actuality in particular and in general remains to be investigated. What is historic reconstruction? Niebuhr's History of Rome was the first concrete example of the results of the process. It embodied his endeavor to pierce through the displacements and exaggerations of national pride which influenced the historical form of the statements and to discover actuality as it was and developed. His method is and remains the method of constructive criticism. The first step, then, is criticism of sources, which not only reveals their nature and value, but grasps also their connection with the original fact, their original relations, their mutual dependence or independence. In religious literature it is necessary to have regard to the conceptions embodied to see whether these are the original gift of the religion or whether they have entered during the course of the development. Hence the sources have to be traced to their original form, conceptions are abstracted, the historical course of events displayed, and the method by which events have worked out of the objective and essential conditions discovered. The dominant method of source-criticism is literary. It deals with documentary indication, traces backward parallel traditions and distinguishes their relationship, genealogy, and dependence; it shows their original or secondary character, seeks the occasions of their deviations; in documents it would discern the seams of joining, the manner and form of the insertions. And then often the question arises whether an oral or a written source lies in the background. And besides this there is in Biblical literature the complicating factor of the editors; so that modern criticism is well represented graphically by the "Rainbow Bible" In the foreground of interest now is the proving of the relationship of Biblical presentations and conceptions to the original form and sense and the attempt to show their interrelationship. Are the leading Biblical conceptions original and in their original form? Do the terms used carry their original meanings, or has the original sense become detached and connected itself with some other term? The answers to such questions will lead back to the early forms of the religion of the Old Testament and of Christianity, will produce a history of religious ideas; but the work is yet in its infancy. Even the prehistoric cult-motive, found in totemism, animism, and belief in demons will not clone the inquiry; there is the background of the self-seeking impulses which led men to placate ghosts and employ magic and sorcery. And the relations of these to the Old Testament and the New are yet under discussion. They indeed point out in which direction criticism must direct its researches. The highest and most difficult task is the reconstruction of the historic process, the monuments of which are found in the criticized writings. It purposes a presentation of the entire circle of ideas, and seeks to discover from the deficient sources the original connection, and from the reports brought together the original development. The results then are historical, the basis sought is the most ultimate facts attainable, but the degree of assurance necessarily varies. In Biblical science the two objective points are the recovery of the history of Israel and of the history of the origins of the Christian Church. The crux of the first is the relationship of the prophetic literature to the Pentateuch. Is the latter preprophetic or postprophetic and postexilic? Another question still under discussion is the historical value of the body of tradition about the patriarchs and Moses; estimates of the highest importance and bearing upon character hang upon the decision. The reconstruction of New Testament history depends upon the decision as to the existence or non-existence of usable sources of history in the New Testament. The new Dutch school returns a negative answer on the ground that New Testament literature is mostly pseudepigraphic. Everything here depends upon criticism of sources, upon the decision about the bases of the Synoptic Gospels, the Johannine literature, the Christology of the Epistles. Upon decisions rendered here hangs also the estimate of the person and work of the founder of Christianity. For the conception of apostolic times critical valuation of the worth of Acts as a source is required, and a determination of its relation to the Pauline Epistles and of the genuineness of the latter. In this case also conclusions the most opposite are reached with necessarily opposite results in the construction of history. The difficulties of the reconstruction of Biblical history are thus suggested, and in the work only a beginning has been made. Real progress is possible only if the critic is not self-deceived in respect to the continuity and completeness of the sources and the objective basis of his hypotheses, and if he does not forget that the history which he undertakes to reconstruct neither claims to nor can supply the religious force which is operative in history. IV. History of Criticism: 1. Meaning and Limitations. This might be made to embrace all work conducted with critical insight as well as of all branches of Biblical science with the hypotheses and conclusions. Decision must be made between a review of the results and of the conditions and valuations which have given the impulse to a new series of questions. With the latter goes a description of the methods necessitated by the newer conditions. It is also to be remarked that criticism and interpretation, so to speak, alternate and relieve each other. Interpretation flourishes when tradition is accepted at its face value; criticism, when doubt has called in question that value, though indeed criticism is never beyond call. 2. Hellenistic and Patristic Criticism. The Greeks were the fathers of criticism. No other people of the ancient world employed critical methods; the memory, not judgment, held sway. Judaism was no exception, for the Masorah is text-criticism in a limited sense only. But among the Greeks criticism was the handmaid of interpretation. Homer was their canon, furnishing the model of the completest expression of human relationships. Consequently, text- criticism found there its task and elaborated its methods, while interpretation was also at work. The questions of integrity, authenticity, and credibility were raised, but of course the answers were such as the age was qualified to give. It has often been denied that in the patristic age criticism existed. But patristic literature set itself the task of suppressing the old canon and replacing it by the new canon of the Old Testament and the New. And in this task criticism was a necessary agent. Alexandria and Antioch were the two seats of the new learning, the headquarters where the methods of the Greeks were applied in pursuit of the new object (see [376]Alexandria, School of; [377]Antioch, School of). Even the fourfold division of the science employed by the Greeks was adopted, though the whole work proceeded from a different standpoint. For the Greeks the esthetic was the principal thing, for the Church Fathers the religious; in both cases criticism served interpretation. The great undertaking of Origen to bring order into the corrupt text of the Septuagint remained incomplete and only introduced further confusion. What opinion is to be entertained of the recessions of Lucian and Hesychius is not yet certain. Jerome's efforts to obtain a better text of the Vulgate advanced text-criticism but little. In the matter of the canon of the New Testament, the genealogy of texts, the public use of the Scriptures, and their genuineness were discussed. Explanations were offered of the differences found in the writings ascribed to John. And in the councils and synods the matter of canonicity was raised for churchly authority to decide. 3. Criticism from the Time of the Reformation. With the Reformation criticism took a new start upon a basis prepared by humanism, but within the bounds set by patristic criticism. The inspiration of the Bible was assumed, for the need felt was for nourishment of the spirit. Criticism assumed more definite forms after attempts were made to fix the teaching of the Evangelical Church. The early Protestant doctrine of inspiration attempted to exalt into law what had been till then simple religious statement. A wall was built upon the Protestant doctrine of Scripture against the Roman Catholic conceptions. Apologetics and harmonistics were created. The doctrine of verbal inspiration came into play until text-critical apparatus began to accumulate. Then dogmatic pronouncement upon the contents of Scripture, upon its clearness and sufficiency, stumbled over fact, and the earlier dogma of inspiration came to grief. Under such conditions Biblical criticism developed and became more opposed to dogmatism. Its apostle was Spinoza, who in his Tractatus theologicopoliticus authoritatively formulated the problem for the future. The skepticism of the seventeenth and the deism and rationalism of the eighteenth centuries changed not the form of the problem, but only the tone of the critic. Spinoza had given a comprehensive description of the exigency produced by a theology benumbed by dogmatics. His desire was to produce an undogmatic Christianity through criticism of the documents. Christianity was to be apprehended as teaching for practical life and not as philosophy. Religion was not to contradict reason. Criticism attacked the problem of the text and proceeded to discussion of the canon and its contents. Meanwhile the view was held that religion was something different from theology. The first attempts to build up a critical method were in the region of the Roman classics. J. Robertellus (De arte sive ratione corrigendi antiquorum libros disputatio, Padua, 1557) defined the sources of error in the text as additions, eliminations, transpositions, extensions, condensations, separations (of parts belonging together), joinings (of parts which should be kept apart), and variations. Caspar Scioppius (1597) argued against the "rash and audacious attempts to better the text." Johannes Clericus (1697) connected criticism of the classics and of the Bible. Perhaps he was the first to see that the canon had a history. L. Cappellus (1634), A. Pfeiffer (1680), and J. G. Carpzov (1728) argued for the unassailable authority of Scripture, but Carpzov's conjectural emendation of the Masoretic text aroused the acorn of the orthodox, who declared this text inviolable, as Ball and Erasmus had that of the Vulgate. But a new turn was given when the Oratorian J. Morinus (1633) exalted the text of the Septuagint over that of the Masoretes because derived from purer sources, though this valuation was discredited by the insecure readings of the Septuagint. Mill (1707) and Wetstein (1751) collected a rich apparatus for the New Testament, and Bengal proposed to alter the Textus receptus upon the basis of manuscript readings properly discriminated. The great Bentley's proposal to form a new recession of the Greek text (on the basis of MS. A and of the Vulgate) was wrecked on the rocks of the opposition of the theologians. The criticism of sources was established in Bentley's disproof of the genuineness of the Letters of Phalaris. That method was applied to Biblical literature only in individual instances among the Arminians and Socinians, as example of which is found in H. Grotius's work on Thessalonians. The application of this to the Old Testament was first made in Astruc's discussion of Genesis (1753). The antidogmatic position of criticism became ever more pronounced in the eighteenth century. English deism attacked clumsily the historicity of the Old Testament Scriptures. Skepticism rejoiced over the proof of variety in origin of Biblical writings. Rationalism sought to prove that history is no puzzle and all proceeds in rational order. Leasing's discussion with Goetze over the "Wolfenbuettel Fragments" fathomed deep waters. Against the reckless criticism of English deism appeared Lardner's Ancient Jewish and Heathen Testimonies to the Truth of the Christian Religion (1764-67), while through Michaelis and Semler criticism sought to find equipoise. The modern age of critical research began with the end of the eighteenth century. Its aim is an undogmatic method founded on fact, and its task is reconstruction of history on the basis of a grasp of original conditions and of the actual course of development. It makes use of psychology, linguistics, literary art, and history, and it attempts to guard against the one-sided application of any or all of these, recognizing that subjective criticism world produce results inconsonant with the spirit of the times in which the literature discussed was produced. The historical point of view as applied to the Bible was first expressed by Herder. Schleiermacher and Eichhorn made contributions to it, but not without error. Strauss's intellectual method overlooked criticism of sources. Bruno Bauer's reconstruction of the early history of Christianity on the basis of Philo, Seneca, and Greco-Roman philosophy was bettered by F. C. Baur, who sought a factual basis. Vatke's work on the Old Testament has been confirmed and extended by Reuss, Graf, Wellhausen, and Kuenen. How Biblical criticism has changed its center of gravity is illustrated by the dictionaries. Teller's Woerterbuch des Alten Testaments (6th ed., 1805) was ultrarationalistic. Winer's work (3d ed., 1847) expressed the materialistic doubt of De Wette. Schenkel's Bibellexicon (1869-75) represented the Tuebingen school. Riehm-Baethgen (1897) shut the latter out as much as possible, in which line the new Dictionary of the Bible of Hastings follows, while the Encyclopaedia Biblica occupies the most advanced position and complains that criticism of the New Testament is less advanced than that of the Old. (G. Heinrici.) V. Biblical Criticism in the Roman Catholic Church: It is a well-known fact that the subject of Biblical criticism has never received so much attention among Roman Catholic as among Protestant scholars. This disparity of interest in a topic so important is doubtless largely due to the fundamentally different attitude of the two Churches toward the Bible itself. While the early Reformers claimed to set aside tradition and church authority, and to make the Bible--and the Bible alone--the foundation-stone of their respective creeds, the Catholic theologians and controversialists, on the other hand, emphasized anew the principle of central organic authority. For Catholics the supreme and ultimate guide in matters of religion, faith, and morals is the infallible authority of the living Church--authority which in their view has been inherited from the Apostles and the Divine Founder of Christianity. This organized society is considered as the divinely appointed custodian of all revelation, whether contained in the Scriptures or in the storehouse of Christian tradition and to this society belongs, under divine guidance, the official and authoritative interpretation of Holy Writ. The great and exclusive importance given to the Bible in the Protestant communions naturally called for a deep and comprehensive study of the Scriptures; and this, in the nature of things, was bound to develop on critical lines; whereas Catholics, resting content with the principle of church authority, continued to look upon the Bible as something incidental and secondary in comparison with the living, teaching organization. Hence less interest on the part of the latter in the various branches of Biblical investigation, and likewise less alarm at the changes wrought by the so-called destructive criticism in the traditional views concerning the Bible. But, while the general interest in the topic has been less marked among Catholics, it is true that scholars belonging to that faith have made valuable contributions to the rise and growth of scientific Biblical criticism. The first, perhaps, who deserves mention is the French Oratorian Richard Simon (1638-1712) who, setting aside the abstract, a priori methods previously in vogue, began a study at once historical and critical of the principal topics pertaining to the origin and growth of the Bible. The results of his investigations, which were too far in advance of his age to receive intelligent appreciation from his contemporaries, were embodied in a series of volumes, which, however much they may have been superseded by writings of later scholars, are nevertheless extremely interesting as setting forth the true critical method and applying it with a freedom which was bound to provoke opposition and censure on the part of orthodox theologians such as Bossuet (see [378]Simon, Richard). It was the Catholic physician [379]Jean Astruc who gave a valuable key and a starting-point to the modern documentary analysis of the Pentateuch by his essay published in 1753. Another Catholic clergyman who figures prominently among the pioneers in the field of scientific Biblical study is the Scotchman Alexander Geddes (1737-1802; see [380]Geddes, Alexander). Foremost among modern and contemporary Catholic scholars who have distinguished themselves in the field of Biblical criticism must be placed the abbe [381]A. F. Loisy, who to a vast erudition and a remarkably keen critical acumen has unfortunately joined a sarcasm of exposition and a rashness of speculation which have brought him into serious disfavor with the authorities of the Church. The more moderate school of Catholic Biblical scholars includes a relatively large and ever growing number of adherents who, always subject to the limitations imposed by church authority, frankly accept the well-authenticated results of scientific critical investigation. Obviously these scholars are not so free and independent in their researches as their non-Catholic brethren, but Catholic apologists claim that while the restrictions imposed do at times curtail unduly the freedom of investigators whose views though correct may not harmonize with traditionally received opinions, they serve, on the other hand, as a salutary check on critical speculations of the more radical and advanced type. Moved by the acute controversies which, within the last quarter of a. century have grown up in the field of Bible study and caused so much alarm in most of the orthodox communions, Pope Leo XIII instituted a Biblical Commission which was to be a standing tribunal composed of Scripture specialists and theologians, for the settlement on scientific as well as authoritative grounds of the various knotty questions raised by higher criticism. Under the present pope, however, while the number of members and consultors of this tribunal was greatly augmented, a large majority was conceded to the theologians as distinguished from the Biblical scholars; and the decisions rendered thus far have little or no interest for the scientific world, as they constitute simply a reaffirmation, without specified reasons, of the traditional positions. In the Church at present the trend of authoritative direction as regards the Scriptures is unfavorable to Biblical criticism, as is plain from the Syllabus of Modern Errors and the encyclical against Modernism issued by Pius X in 1907 (see [382]Syllabus). James F. Driscoll. Bibliography: For works on textual criticism see [383]Bible Text; on the history of criticism consult: H. Cave, The Battle of the Standpoints; the Old Testament and the Higher Criticism, London, 1892 (brief and popular); H. S. Nash, The History of the Higher Criticism of the New Testament, New York, 1900, new ed., 1907 (an argument for scientific Bible study). For exposition of methods consult C. A. Briggs, General Introduction to the Study of Holy Scripture, New York, 1899 (exhaustive); A. C. Zenos, Elements of the Higher Criticism, ib. 1895 (useful); F. Ast, Wissenschaftliche Darstellung der Grammatik, Hermeneutik und Kritik, Landshut, 1808; F. Hitzig, Begriff der Kritik am Alten Testament, Heidelberg, 1831; F. D. E. Schleiermacher, Ueber Begriff und Einteilung der philosophischen Kritik, in his Saemmtliche Werke, III, iii, 387-404; Berlin, 1835; A. Kuenen, Critices et hermeneuticae librorum Novi Testamenti lineamenta, Leyden, 1889; F. Blass, Hermeneutik und Kritik, in Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, I, i, 127-128, Munich, 1891; F. Godet and others, Higher Criticism, Six Papers, New York, 1893; C. W. Rishell, Higher Criticism, Cincinnati, 1893 (needs revision); E. Bernheim, Lehrbuch der historischen Methode, Leipsic, 1894; H. Hildebrand, Die hoehere Bibelkritik, Paderborn, 1902; W. Moeller, Biblical Criticism, London, 1903; G. W. Gilmore, Biblical Criticism, in The Monist, xiv (1904), 215 sqq. For criticism of higher-critical methods and results consult: E. Boehl, Zum Gesetz und zum Zeugniss, eine Abwehr wider die neu-kritische Schriftforschung im Alten Testament, Vienna, 1883; O. Naumann, Wellhausen's Methode, Leipsic, 1886; F. Vigouroux, Les Livres saints et la critique rationalists, 4 vols., Paris, 1886-90; J. J. Blunt, Undesigned Coincidences in the Writings of Both the Old and the New Testaments, republished, New York, 1890; R. F. Horton, Revelation and the Bible, London, 1892; E. Rupprecht, Die Anschauung der kritischen Schule Wellhausens, Erlangen, 1893; A. Zahn, Ernste Blicke in den Wahn der modernen Kritik des Alten Testaments, Guetersloh, 1893; F. R. Beattie, Radical Criticism, an Exposition and Examination of the Radical Critical Theory, Chicago, 1894; L. Munhall, Anti-higher Criticism, New York, 1894 (extreme in its conservatism); S. Leathes, Claims of the Old Testament, ib. 1897; W. H. Green, General Introduction to the Old Testament, New York, 1899 (Dr. Green was the exponent of the most conservative type of Biblical study, and his strictures on higher criticism will be found in his Moses and the Prophets, 1883, The Hebrew Feasts in their Relation to Recent Critical Hypotheses, 1886, Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch, 1895, and Unity of the Book of Genesis, 1895); W. Moeller, Are the Critics Right? ib. 1903; F. D. Storey, Higher Criticism Cross-examined, Philadelphia, 1905; J. Orr, The Problem of the O. T., London, 1906 (conservative). For application and statement of critical methods consult: G. d'Eichthal, Melanges de critique biblique, Paris, 1896; Smith, OTJC, cf. R. Watts, The Newer Criticism and the Analogy of the Faith, Edinburgh, 1883 (Watts is a reply to Smith); J. P. Smyth, The Old Documents and the New Bible, London, 1890; T. K. Cheyne, Aide to the Devout Study of Criticism, ib. 1892; W. Sanday, Inspiration, ib. 1896 (advanced in dealing with the O. T., conservative as respects the N. T.); idem, Criticism of the Fourth Gospel, ib. 1905; W. F. Adeney, How to Read the Bible, ib. 1897 (a helpful handbook); G. A. Smith, Modern Criticism and the Preaching of the Old Testament, ib. 1901; R. Balmforth, The Bible from the Standpoint of Higher Criticism, 2 vols., New York, 1904-05; T. W. Doane, Bible Myths and their Parallels in Other Religions, ib. 1905. On the interrelations of criticism, the Bible, and archeology consult: H. A. Harper, The Bible and Modern Discoveries, Boston, 1889; H. E. Ryle, Early Narratives of Genesis, London, 1892; T. Laurie, Assyrian Echoes of the Word, ib. 1894; A. H. Sayce, Higher Criticism and the Verdict of the Monuments, ib. 1894 (archeological, reaching the same conclusions as the critics, yet violently assailing them); W. St. C. Boscawen, Bible and the Monuments, ib. 1895; F. Hommel, Ancient Hebrew Tradition as Illustrated by the Monuments, ib. 1897 (the standpoint is similar to Sayce's); D. G. Hogarth, Authority and Archeology, ib. 1899 (in its Biblical parts sober, and a corrective of Sayce and Hommel); I. M. Price, Monuments and the Old Testament, Chicago, 1900; T. G. Pinches, The Old Testament in the Light of Historical Records and Legends of Assyria and Babylonia, London, 1902; Schrader, KAT. Biblical History BIBLICAL HISTORY. See [384]Israel, History of, I. Biblical History, Instruction in BIBLICAL HISTORY, INSTRUCTION IN: Conditions Before the Reformation. Fundamental to all Christian teaching and attainment, especially according to the Protestant view, is a knowledge of the Bible; and this knowledge naturally begins with the characters, events, and institutions of the Bible--a sum total of knowledge which may be comprehended under the general expression Bible history. Thence the individual is led on to the weightier matters of Christian doctrine and the manner of the Christian life. The organized and premeditated efforts of the earlier Church to impart Christian instruction (See [385]Catechumenate; [386]Catechesis, Catechetics; [387]Catechisms; [388]Homiletics; etc.) aimed more directly at the latter, assuming that the former already existed. In the New Testament, knowledge of Old Testament history is presupposed. This knowledge was communicated at home (II Tim. iii, 15) or by readings at public services (I Tim. iv, 13). The aim of a portion of the New Testament Scripture (the Gospels and Acts) was to keep alive in the congregations the knowledge of the New Testament history. In the primitive Church, besides public service, home training (Eusebius, Hist. eccl., vi, 2; Chrysostom on Eph. vi, 4) and private reading (Cyril, Catech., iv, 35; Apostolic Constitutions, vii, 39) were means of imparting Biblical history to beginners in Christianity. During the Middle Ages no systematic school instruction in Biblical history could be furnished for lack of common schools, and self-instruction was not possible for the people because the Bible was commonly in Latin and costly, and but few of the laity could read even the works provided for them in their mother tongue (See [389]Bibles, Historical). The great mass were limited to the translations by preachers of the texts of their sermons, or narrations of Bible stories in the sermon; also, scenes especially from the life of Jesus or dramatic spectacles from the Biblical record helped to preserve in the lay world the knowledge of Biblical essentials (see [390]Religious Dramas). In Reformation time as well as in the following centuries, there was no general systematic schooling in Biblical history; the common-school system was as yet a merely formative conception, and text-books of Bible history (for list cf. Reu) were designed for higher schools or for the home. Biblical Instruction in Schools. Not until Christian common schools were introduced did instruction in Biblical history become a systematized branch of public education. Among the text-books thus used may be mentioned the Biblische Historien of Justus Gesenius (1656), and the Zweimal 52 auserlesenen biblischen Historien of Johann Huebner (1714). These books are the prototypes of modern German manuals, and such manuals have now generally taken the place of the Bible, from which in earlier times Biblical history, was taught by reading aloud. The Roman Catholic Church also teaches Biblical history; a text-book widely in vogue was that of Christoph von Schmid (d. 1856). At present the Bible histories of the Catholics are combined with their diocesan catechisms. Their new catechism, which according to the desire of Plus X is to become the Catholic standard or uniform catechism (Compendio della dottrina christiana, 1905), contains a Breve storia della religione. It thus appears that modern Churches, in contrast with the primitive Church, have reached the conviction that catechumens should gain the necessary amount of knowledge of Bible history not immediately from the Bible, but from a text-book prepared for this educational object. But the fact is still more significant that the Churches are convinced of the necessity of a knowledge of Biblical history. Methods and Principals. This conviction rests on the knowledge that Christian belief is the product of a history which came to pass between God and humanity, and that the knowledge and understanding of this salvation on the part of individual Christians must proceed from acquaintance with this history. The selection of Bible stories for catechumens is adapted to this principle. The various manuals of Biblical history deviate from one another in details of selection, but are in substantial agreement in the matter of setting forth the main events of sacred history according to their historical succession. An exception occurs in the case of compilations intended for children who are not yet catechetical scholars; for these there is need of particular Bible narratives adapted to the years of childhood and related to the church festivals. With reference to the connection between instruction in Biblical history and instruction in the catechism, a change has come about, since in earlier times instruction in the former had practically no independent significance, but was designed to subserve the catechism; the contrary situation, however, obtains today, certain modern instructors making Biblical history the main issue, while catechetical scholars are confined to the fundamentally illustrative or especially adapted Biblical relations. Concerning the method of instruction, there is a consensus of modern conviction to the effect that the textbook should coincide as far as possible with the wording of the Bible as generally in use. The earlier method of reading the narrative from the Bible, or having it read aloud by a pupil, has been discarded. It is better to have a story related by the teacher; and the preferable method is that his oral discourse should adhere altogether or with close approximation to the phrasing of the textbook. In particular the decisive and striking utterances of the dramatis personae should be reproduced exactly. Opportunity for explanation and application is afforded by the subsequent discussion. The use of maps and pictures, with which modern Biblical text-books are provided, tends to give the matter more of an objective background, but pictures are not so necessary as they formerly were, when pupils had fewer books. [In the United States, religious instruction being necessarily excluded from the public schools, the teaching of Bible history belongs to the Church and the home. See [391]Sunday Schools.] W. Caspari. Bibliography: C. A. G. von Zezschwitz, Katechtik, II, 2, chaps. 2-4, Leipsic, 1872-74; K. H. Holtsch, Studien ueber den biblischen Geschichtsunterricht, Breslau, 1870; W. H. G. Thomas, Methods of Bible Study, New York, 1903; L. Emery, Introduction `a l'etude de b theologie protestante, pp. 122-132, Paris, 1904; J. M. Reu, Quellen zur Geschichte des biblischen Unterrichte, Guettersloh, 1906. Biblical Introduction BIBLICAL INTRODUCTION. I. Old Testament. Nature and Scope of the Discipline (S: 1). Method of Treatment (S: 2). History (S: 3). To the Renaissance (S: 4). The Reformation Period (S: 5). The Seventeenth Century (S: 6). The Eighteenth Century (S: 7). The Nineteenth Century (S: 8). II. New Testament. 1. History of the Discipline. To the Reformation (S: 1). The Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (S: 2). Michaelis (S: 3). Semler, Schmidt, and Others (S: 4). Baur (S: 5). Later Work (S: 6). 2. The Conception and the Task. History of New Testament Scriptures (S: 1). History of the Canon (S: 2). Textual Criticism and Versions (S: 3). I. Old Testament. 1. Nature and Scope of the Discipline. The science of Old Testament Introduction, like that of Biblical Introduction in general, has developed from indefinite beginnings, and has not yet won the assured and universally recognized form which most other theological disciplines have assumed. The name eisagOge was used in the fifth century by the Syro-Greek monk Adrian, the terms introductorii libri and introductores in the sixth by Cassiodorus. But these terms carried the meaning of a general and instructive direction how to read the Bible, a guide to its correct understanding, an exposition of the correct principles of exegesis. A complete understanding of the Bible involves, however, a number of auxiliary sciences--linguistics, exegesis, history of literature, general history, archeology, geography, Biblical theology, etc., all useful in obtaining a right apprehension of Scripture. But so large a conception of the science was not reached all at once. It was J. G. Carpzov who first appreciated the comprehensive nature of the discipline and defined it as the precise setting forth of those matters a knowledge of which prepares the approach to the reading of the sacred books. Similarly DeWette understood by Introduction all knowledge which contributed to the intelligent reading of the Bible, and which set it forth as a whole and in its parts in relation to history. Keil regarded it as an exposition of those matters the understanding of which prepares for a fruitful reading of Scripture, by which he understands only a history of the text, of the origin of the individual writings, the story of the rise of the canon, and of the general conception of Scripture. A new start was made by H. Hupfeld, who held that Introduction sought to discover what were the writings embraced in the Bible and how they had come to be what they are. In other words, what is sought are the extent and original character of the writings, and a knowledge of the vicissitudes through which they have passed in attaining their present form, unity, worth, and effectiveness. But care is needed in following such a formulation lest one make of Old Testament Introduction simply a history of Hebrew literature, a mistake made by Reuss, who included in his work the letter of Aristeas and the writings of Philo. The first consideration of this science must be its service to theology; its principal concern is with the books of the canon held by the Jews of Palestine, and only secondarily with the circle of writings derived from Hellenistic sources. Care must also be taken not to limit the task of Introduction so as to take away its freedom and to bind it in effect to the pronouncements of tradition as to authorship. On the other hand, Introduction is not what Riehm would make it, the literary-historical characterization of the Bible as the authentification of a divine revelation. It has its own functions to perform in the service of theological science, and its usefulness must not be diminished by setting it at tasks which it may not undertake. Its work is a preparation for that of exegesis and for that of Biblical theology. As Reuss has well expressed the fact, the science of Introduction is not the house itself, but is the set of calculations and estimates necessary for the actual processes of building. 2. Method of Treatment. From the preceding it follows that the articulation of this discipline in the general science of theology is fixed. In the arrangement and handling of its subject-matter it demands and requires great freedom; on the other hand, certain lines are laid down along which it must operate. Thus, while the origin of the separate writings and the story of their transmission (history of the text) are its concern, it is a matter of choice whether consideration of the individual writings precede or follow consideration of their collection into a canon. Not unimportant is the question of method of investigating the individual writings. Thus, the chronological order certainly lies near to hand, as in the treatment by Wildeboer and Kautzsch; yet, illuminating as this method is, weighty considerations may be urged for another way of proceeding. If one is disposed to emphasize the theological character of the discipline, concentrating his attention upon the writings received into the canon, the chronological, historical-literary order assumes a complexion of incompleteness, since only a small part of Hebrew literature found place in the canon and that part was not composed with the object of being gathered into a collection. By a simpler grouping the advantage is gained of awakening no expectations which are doomed to disappointment. Then, too, there are practical difficulties attending such a method. Over the origin of most Old Testament writings rests a darkness not yet dispelled and probably never wholly to be banished. Moreover, many of the writings, such as the historical books, are complex in origin, and refer to preceding compositions of which too little is known to admit of their being taken into a history of the literature. These same books also bear traces of being transmitted and worked over by hands the methods of operation of which are altogether uncertain. This historical method consequently leads frequently into a cul-de-sac. It is, therefore, not without reason that many have adopted the literary-historical method, following the grouping of the canon so far as to consider the historical books by themselves, the Prophets in another section, and so on, while the three departments of Introduction are history of the canon, of the separate books, and of the text. Whether a history of exegesis is to be included in this branch of study is debatable. For the history of the Bible in a narrower sense it is not important; yet in itself and its relationship it has such value that there is some justification for including in Introduction what properly belongs in hermeneutics. 3. History. The history of this science shows in all its phases the same marked trait; viz., that the Church, which would fair remain in restful and thankful enjoyment of the Scriptures as handed down, has been compelled by outside pressure to take up the problems of the origins of those Scriptures and either to modify or discard the traditions regarding them. In the earliest times this pressure came partly from Jewish sources, later from linguistic science and philosophy, and later still from the Roman Catholic Church, which sought to undermine the Protestant principle. Only the salient points of the development of Introduction can be here given. 4. To the Renaissance. The beginnings are found in the treatment of the canon in the prologue to Ecclesiasticus, in Josephus and the Talmud, and in the controversy between the Jews and some of the Church Fathers respecting the Palestinian and the Alexandrian canon. This led up to the text-critical labors of Origen. The next name is that of Jerome, about whose time began work on Introduction, but with the limits is treatment already referred to above, by Adrian and Casaiodorus, the latter of whom dealt briefly with the history of the text and of the canon. A slight advance was made in the work of Junilius Africanus (about 550) called Instituta regularia divinae legis. This classified the books according to their contents as history, prophecy, proverbs, and simple teaching, and according to their degree of authority as perfect, medium, or of no authority; it distinguished also between poetical and prose writings. In this connection must be mentioned Augustine's De doctrina Christiana, which treated of the extent of the canon and of the use of translations. The Church of the Middle Ages was content with the work done by Cassiodorus, Augustine, and Junilius. But among the Jews there were the stirrings of a more vigorous life, exemplified in the investigations of Ibn Ezra in the region of special introduction. 5. The Reformation Period. By the revival of learning the Christians were made familiar with the results of Jewish investigations which were soon to lead to the enrichment of isagogical science. The interest in the Hebrew language grew into a wider concern for Oriental philology, which had a fertile field in the translations of the Old Testament, soon to become of use in the department of text-criticism. The earliest fruits ripened among the Roman Catholics in the work of a convert from Judaism, Sixtus of Sienna (d. 1599), the Bibliotheca sancta, which distinguished between protocanonical and deuterocanonical writings, and which dealt also with matters of special introduction. The Reformers did not enter this field, though the exegetical works of Calvin contain materials for special introduction, and Luther necessarily had to do with the extent of the canon. Important was the work of Carlstadt, De canonicis scripturis (1520), in which he showed the superiority of the Jewish canon and made the canonicity of a Biblical writing depend not upon the authorship but upon its relation to that canon. The period immediately following the Reformation produced nothing notable. A. Rivetus (d. 1662) represents the standpoint of the age in his definition of Scripture as that which proceeds from God as the special author, who not only impelled (the scribe) to write and gave the thoughts, but even suggested the order and the words. 6. The Seventeenth Century. Out of this dogmatic quiet the theologians were shaken by the newer criticism, which began in the realm of the text. The Reformer Cappellus undertook investigations which showed that the traditional text was not altogether trustworthy, and he was followed by the Catholics Morinus and Richard Simon (d, 1712). The latter's Histoire critique was epoch-making in that it employed the literary-historical method, and showed that the Pentateuch could not be wholly the work of Moses and that other historical books had been worked over. Simon had been preceded by Hobbes, whose Leviathan had used the method of internal testimony, and Spinoza, whose Tractatus theologico-politicus had advanced a number of positions which were to be established later. Simon's book awakened much opposition and was suppressed, only to be reproduced in a Protestant land (Rotterdam, 1685). The ideas of Simon were further established in Protestant regions by the work of [392]Johannes Clericus, though the tendencies of Protestantism were conservative, and its supporters came later to hope that the learning of Carpzov would establish firmly the truth of the traditional views. 7. The Eighteenth Century. In the second half of the eighteenth century new doors were opened to Biblical criticism, especially by the researches of Semler. At that time the attitude of criticism toward the Old Testament was unfriendly; it treated the collection from the historical standpoint only, but insisted upon understanding the times in which the writings originated. Of religion little was discovered in the Old Testament. Herder came to the help of the defenders of the Bible with his discovery of the poetry it contained, and this newer light was intensified in the work of Eichhorn, which outshone all the works of his predecessors and contemporaries. Special interest attaches to the researches of Eichhorn in general introduction, while the work of special introduction gained from his treatment of the books as constituting a Hebrew national literature. Yet permanent results were lacking from that period, excepting only the discovery by Astruc which forecast the documentary analysis of the Pentateuch. 8. The Nineteenth Century. A new era was opened by De Wette, who combined the literary with the historical method. Ewald carried the process on, not indeed in a work on Introduction, but in exegetical researches in which he employed it, using along with it a sympathetic appreciation rather than a rigid logic. Meanwhile the Pentateuchal problem was pushing to the front in the works of Vatke and Reuss, to receive its most advanced consideration from Wellhausen and Kuenen. The side of the defense had meanwhile not been inactive, as the works of Hengstenberg, Haevernick, and Keil abundantly prove, all of which contributed something toward the solution of the problems discussed. Between the two extremes represented by the men named come others who approach one or the other tendency, but the general characteristic of their labor is to bring into accord the assured results of criticism and the faith of the Church in revelation. The most notable example of this kind of work is Driver's Introduction. But the final solution of the problems raised by the science of Introduction will come not from that discipline but from the other branches of theology which build upon it. (F. Buhl.) II. New Testament. 1. History of the Discipline. 1. To the Reformation. The employment of the term "Introduction" with its present connotation in connection with the New Testament dates in modern times from Michaelis. But as in the case of the Old Testament, beginnings had been made long before. Besides the men mentioned above ([393]I, S: 4) as working in this department, Tyconius and Eucherius of Lyons attempted to supply the needed information about the origin, occasion, purpose, and history of the New Testament writings. The antagonism to the apocryphal books and heretical parties such as the Marcionites with their variant canon and the Montanists with their new prophecy enhanced in the second and third centuries the Church's valuation of the Christian books which had come to it from the apostolic age. The Muratorian Canon employed a legendary report of the origin of the Gospels, not to explain individual peculiarities, but to establish the dogmatic unimportance of variations in the Gospel narratives. Similarly, the church practice of using in service the private letters of Paul as well as the public letters and of excluding the spurious ones from use was established. The vacillation of the Church in reference to such writings as the Apocalypse of Peter and the Sheperd of Herman, the Marcionitic criticism of the canon of the Gospels and of the Pauline epistles, the opposition of the Alogi to the Johannine writings as being the production of a heretic of the apostolic age, the writings of Melitus and Hippolytus about the Fourth Gospel and the Apocalypse--all these suggest the way in which the need for a kind of Introduction made itself felt in even those early times. So a beginning was made in the writing of Dionysius on the Apocalypse, while the sentiments and traditions of the different Churches began to take systematic form in the writings of Origen. Eusebius used considerable space in his works in setting forth the varied views and early testimonies concerning the New Testament books. Jerome followed in the steps of Eusebius, but without contributing much that was new in this particular line of investigation. The doctrinal contests of the fourth and succeeding centuries turned the channel of investigation away from the history of the canon, and for a considerable time there appeared only reproductions of the early opinions about the New Testament books in the prefaces to the commentaries or summaries and synopses which came into being and which gave a general view of the arrangement, contents, and origin of the New Testament writings. 2. The Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. The silence of the Middle Ages gave place during the Reformation to the utterances of the Catholic scholars Sanctes Pagninus of Lucca (d. 1541), Sixtus of Sienna (d. 1599), and A. Rivetus, who wrote an Isagoge sive introductio to both the Old and New Testaments (Leyden, 1627). These works contained much information in this department, along with dogmatic discussions concerning inspiration and the relations of Scripture and tradition. [394]Richard Simon published (at Rotterdam) his three works upon the critical history of the New Testament (Histoire critique du texte, 1689, des versions, 1690, and des principaux commentateurs, 1693, du Nouveau Testament), and thus won his place as the father of New Testament Introduction. By "critique" he understood the investigations for the establishment of the original text; and, by his history from the sources, he impugned not only the Protestant claim of "a witness of the Spirit," but also the scholastic treatment, which, resting upon imperfect acquaintance with antiquity, could not prove that Christianity was a religion based on facts and that the Bible was the record of those facts. In the effort to establish the New Testament text, he traversed a large part of the province of Introduction. 3. Michaelis. The next name is [395]Johann David Michaelis, who wrote the Einleitung in die goettlichen Schriften des Neuen Bundes (Goettingen, 1750). He disclaimed dependency upon Simon, and yet his work was really, in its first shape, based upon Simon. With each succeeding edition it was greatly improved; but, even in the fourth and last edition (1788), its standpoint was a strongly rational supernaturalism. The differences to be noted between the editions are mainly that his attacks on the "doubters" became milder, and that he gave up the inspiration of the historical books, denied also the inspiration of the non-apostolic books (among which he reckoned apparently the Epistle to the Hebrews), and declared that the "inner witness of the Spirit" was of as little worth as the witness of the Church in proof of the inspiration of any book. 4. Semler, Schmidt, and Others. [396]Johann Salomo Semler made the next contribution of importance (in his Abhandlung von freier Untersuchung des Kanons, 4 parts, Halle, 1771-75), when he distinguished between the word of God, which contained the doctrines of directly spiritual value, and the Holy Scriptures, which contained them only sporadically. There is, however, no historical proof that any particular passage was the word of God; the inner witness for the truth was the only source of proof. The Church had the right, exercised by the ancient Church and by the Reformers, to say what books should constitute the canon. It can not be said that Introduction was influenced permanently by Semler; the greater impulse was given by Michaelis, who was followed by J. E. C. Schmidt (1804), Eichhorn (1804-14), Hug (1808), Berthold (1812), and De Wette (1826), while in England Horne (1818) had included in his work the domains of Biblical geography and antiquities, which were excluded by the Germans. Schmidt applied the phrase "historico-critical"--since so widely used--to his Introduction; Eichhorn started his fruitful "original Gospel" theory; Hug, in an unexcelled manner, investigated the relations of the synoptists. Schleiermacher (1811) called attention to the need of a reconstruction of this branch of study, declaring that its object was a history of the New Testament, so that its present readers might be, in their knowledge of the origin of the books and their text, on a level with the first. Credner (1832 sqq.) projected a fairly complete scheme for a treatment of the subject, embracing the history of the science of Introduction, history of the origin of the New Testament Scriptures, history of the canon, of translations, of the text, and of interpretation. This scheme he was not permitted to carry out, though his posthumous publications completed the history of the canon. Reuss followed Credner's lead in the Geschichte der heiligen Schriften des Neuen Testaments (Brunswick, 1842), while Hupfeld made a contribution in his Begriff und Methode der . . . biblischen Einleitung (Marburg, 1844). 5. Baur. [397]Ferdinand Christian Baur (d. 1860) has had by far the most influence upon New Testament studies of any man of modern times. He attempted nothing less than a reconstruction of all apostolic and postapostolic history and literature, from the four Pauline epistles (Galatians, I and II Corinthians, and Romans) which alone he considered genuine. Starting with the idea that the difference between Paul and the rest of the apostles was fundamental, he declared that those New Testament writings which either put the relations of the apostles in a more favorable light or seemed to ignore their differences altogether were either forgeries or the products of a later time. But his historical considerations were derived from Hegel's philosophy, and his criticism rested upon dogmatic convictions. New discoveries of vital importance in the field of church history and patristics and the recovery of the Codex Sinaiticus and of parts of Tatian's Diatessaron from Ephraem's commentary have given a new basis for a historical discussion of the New Testament and its origin and contents. It is the irony of history upon Baur's methods that the modern Dutch school have used Baur's methods to discredit the four "genuine" epistles. These four points may be made against Baur: (1) He reasoned in a circle; for he examined critically, first the sources of the history, and then the history of the sources. The reasoning which reduced the genuine Pauline epistles to four reduces the four to none; so that Paul is robbed of his title to have produced any writing which lasted. (2) Baur certainly was extraordinarily familiar with the old Christian literature; but he read it with prejudice, and not with a desire to learn anything different from his preconceptions. (3) He was lacking in the sense of the concrete and the value of the individual, and therefore could not grasp complicated relations and their results. (4) If it is self-evident that one must understand what he criticizes, and that his criticism must rest upon thorough exegesis, then Baur surely was unfitted for his labor; for he was weak as an exegete and his school has done little in exegesis. 6. Later Work. It may, however, be added that the deficiencies in Baur's method of work were supplied by others. B. F. Westcott's General Survey of the History of the Canon (London, 1855 and often), E. Reuss's Histoire du canon (Strasburg, 1863), A. Hilgenfeld's Kanon und die Kritik des Neuen Testaments (Halle, 1863), T. Zahn's Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanons (2 vols., Leipsic, 1888-92), and A. Loisy's Histoire du canon du Nouveau Testament (Paris, 1891) are productions of this character. Such works as W. M. Ramsay's Church in the Roman Empire (London, 1893) have served also as correctives of much of the work which has been accomplished in Germany. The studies of F. Bleek (6th ed., 1893; Eng. transl. of 2d Germ. ed., 1869), Hilgenfeld (1875), Holtzmann (1892), Salmon (1894), S. Davidson (1894), Godet (1893-99; Eng, transl. 1894-99), Zahn (1900), and Juelicher (1901; Eng. transl, 1904), and of the Roman Catholics Trenkle (1897) and Schaefer (1898) in Introduction are important contributions to the science. 2. The Conception and the Task. 1. History of the New Testament Scriptures. In order to obtain an adequate comprehension of the books which together make up the New Testament as witnesses for a historical movement and to secure for them safe utilization as historic sources, there is required a scientific investigation of their origin. That is, there must be inquiry into the time in which, the circumstances under which, the purpose for which, and the personal relations of the persons by whom they were produced. In other words, the method of research is literary-historical. Whether this can be called a science is debatable, since criticism is the art of distinguishing the genuine from the spurious. But if it be granted that an examination from a historical standpoint of the writings of the New Testament and an adequate exposition of the history of their origin is really scientific, it is none the less a fact that the process has a theological character. For the fact that this literature is Greek and sprang up in the Roman world does not do away with the other fact that it originated in certain communities which had in certain vital respects their existence apart from the world about them. The religious element marks it off from the other productions of the time, and the history of this literature is one aide of the history of the Church. If Christianity depends upon the historic reality of a revelation mediated by Christ and authoritatively expounded by the apostles, it is no unimportant result that it can reach historical foundations for the early productions. And those foundations are found in the writings brought together in the New Testament. The supereminent value in this respect of these writings is sufficient justification for considering them apart. But the investigation must not start from a dogmatic conception of what the canon is. The ground fact is that even from the second century this collection has existed in the Church and has been accepted as the one legitimate source for the history of the revelation made through Christ. But if it should appear that there are in the New Testament writings which in general character and in origin separate themselves widely from the rest of the New Testament Scriptures, or if there were outside that collection writings which affiliate themselves with the New Testament Scriptures, Introduction can not content itself with disregarding those facts. It is hardly likely, however, that such discoveries will be made as will compel a radical departure from the accepted procedure, that there will come to light such writings as are referred to in Luke i, 1 sqq., or the correspondence of Paul with the Corinthians implied in I Cor. v, 9; vii, 1. Even such discoveries as those last mentioned would not be likely materially to change accepted results, and the business of the discipline would still be with the New Testament Scriptures. 2. History of the Canon. Along with the history of the separate writings which make up the New Testament goes as a second part the history of the combination of these into the canon in which they have been transmitted to the present time. It is of importance to examine and exhibit the historical antecedents and developments which compassed the formation of this collection, the irregularity and vacillation which existed during several centuries, and the adjustment which produced a final and universally accepted result. The examination of the origins of the individual writings and that of the origin of the collection supplement each other. The one brings to light the common spirit which animated the individual writers, the other reveals the influence which those writers exercised over the churches. And it is noteworthy that the collection was begun almost, if not quite, before the latest writers had finished their work, so that no appreciable interval of time separated the two operations of writing and of collection. And so, notwithstanding the different areas in which these two processes work, they belong together as sections of the one discipline of the literary history of the New Testament. 3. Textual Criticism and Versions. As to the inclusion of other departments in this branch of study, usage differs. Some have included therein not only the history of the text and of translations, but also the history of the theological handling of the same. But, strictly speaking, neither the story of the vicissitudes of transmission nor the history of translations belongs here. If with Credner and Reuss the history of translations is put as a part of the history of the propagation of the New Testament, its proper place is in the history of missions. So far as the versions assist in the recovery of the original text, the treatment of them belongs in a guide to the exercise of text-criticism or in the prolegomena to editions of the New Testament. To be sure, the history of the earlier text and that of the old versions have importance for the history of the canon because of the fact that not so much individual books as the entire collection or at least great parts of the collection were copied and translated. Were greater certainty than is yet the case attainable concerning the Syriac and the Latin versions, great gains would be made in the history of the canon of the New Testament. But it must be remembered that not all branches which contribute to results in any given line of research are to be included in the department of science in which they are used. (T. Zahn.) Bibliography: On the general introduction to the whole Bible consult: C. A. Briggs, Study of Holy Scripture, New York, 1899 (the best book for a comprehensive survey); G. T. Ladd, Doctrine of Sacred Scripture, ib. 1883 (full but dry); E. Rapin, Les Livres de l'Ancien et du Nouveau Testament, Moudon, 1890; A. Schlatter, Einleitung in die Bibel, Stuttgart, 1894 (conservative). On the Canon of the O. T. it is sufficient to mention: A. Kuenen, Historisch-kritisch onderzoek naar het onstaan en de verzameling van de boeken des Ouden Verbonds, 3 vols., Leyden, 1885-93 (the fullest discussion); F. Buhl, Kanon und Text des Alten Testaments, Leipsic, 1891, Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1892 (a model); H. E. Ryle, Canon and Text of the O. T., London, 1892 (reliable, indispensable); G. Wildeboer, Het Onstaan van den kanon des Ouden Verbonds, Groningen, 1889; Eng. transl., London, 1885 (all students should have it); E. Kautzsch, Abriss der Geschichte des alttestamentlichen Schrifttums, in his Heilige Schrift des A. T., Freiburg, 1896, Eng. transl., Outline of the Hist. of the Literature of the O. T., New York, 1899 (fresh and interesting). On O. T. Introduction the one indispensable book is Driver, Introduction, latest impression, London, 1897. Consult also J. P. P. Martin, Introduction `a la critique generale de l'A. T., 3 vols., Paris, 1888-89; A. F. Kirkpatrick, The Divine Library of the O. T., London, 1892 (conservative); S. Davidson, Introduction to the O. T., 3 vols., ib. 1894 (the antithesis of Kirkpatrick); H. L. Strack, Einleitung in das A. T., Munich, 1898; W. H. Green, General Introduction to the O. T., 2 vols., New York, 1898-99 (the extreme in conservatism); W. R. Smith, O. T. in Jewish Church, Edinburgh, 1902; C. H. Cornill, Einleitung in das A. T., Freiburg, 1905, Eng. transl., 1907; J. E. McFadyen, Introduction to the O. T., New York, 1905; K. Budde, Geschichte der althebraeischen Litteratur, Leipsic, 1906; C. L. Gautier, Introduction `a l'A. T., 2 vols., Lausanne, 1906. On the N. T. the works have been sufficiently indicated in the text, though worthy of mention are A. Loisy, Histoire du Canon du N. T., Paris, 1891; Biblical Introduction; N. T., by W. Adeney, London, 1899; B. W. Bacon, Introduction to N. T., New York, 1900; H. von Soden, Urchristliche Literatur-Geschichte, i, Die Schriften des N. T., Berlin, 1905, Eng. transl., 1905. Biblical Theology BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. Origin and History (S: 1). Study of New Testament Theology (S: 2). The Old Testament (S: 3). Limitations (S: 4). Constructive Work (S: 5). The True Aim (S: 6). Biblical theology, or the orderly presentation of the doctrinal contents of Scripture, is a comparatively modern branch of theological science. In general the term expresses not so much the construction of a theology which is Biblical in an especial sense as a method of dealing with the Biblical matter which is midway between exegesis and dogmatics. Its object and limitation can be shown best by tracing its history. 1. Origin and History. So long as the Church felt or admitted no discord between its tradition and the Biblical tradition, there was no need to compare or contrast the contents of the Bible with the teaching of the Church. On this account the beginnings of a Biblical theology appear in the circles of the theologians of the Reformation, who perceived in Scripture the test by which to try ecclesiastical tradition. Since to them the Bible was the sufficient, self-explaining basis of dogmatics, by this juxtaposition the possibility was given of a separate treatment of the doctrinal contents of the Bible. The first timid effort confined itself to a discussion of the customary quotations (Sebastian Schmidt, Collegium Biblicum in quo dicta Veteris et Novi Testamenti juxta seriem locorum . . . explicantur, 1671). Under the influence of Pietism the close connection of dogmatics and the Bible was relaxed, because in the latter was seen less an infallible source of knowledge than a means of grace (A. F. Buesching, Gedanken von der Beschaffenheit und dem Vorzuge der bibl.-dogm. Theologie von der scholastischen, Lemgo, 1758, and similar works). When in the eighteenth century J. S. Semler and his school busied themselves in discovering the differences in date and characteristics of the different books of the Bible, and brought to light the dissonance between crystallized dogma and New Testament teaching (a dissonance greater still in the case of the Old Testament), the desire naturally arose to show the essential agreement of the teaching of the Church and that of the Bible by an unprejudiced study of the latter (G. T. Zachariae, Biblische Theologie oder Untersuchtung des biblischen Grundes der vornehmsten kirchlichen Lehren, 5 vols., Goettingen, 1771-86). The rationalistic school, in opposition to the formulated dogma of the Church, endeavored to read its own views (those of natural religion) into the Bible (C. F. Ammon, Entwicklung einer reinen biblischen Theologie, Erlangen, 1792; G. P. C. Kaiser, Die biblische Theologie oder Judaismus und Christianismus nach einer freimuetigen Stellung in die kritisch-vergleichende Universalgeschichte der Religionen und in die universale Religion, 2 vols., Erlangen, 1813). In contradistinction to this there was during the nineteenth century an eager desire to give the purely historical results of examination of the Bible. In this way, the fact of differences of conception in the parts of the Bible was fully brought to light. 2. Study of New Testament Theology. Probably under the influence of [398]Schleiermacher especial attention was directed to the New Testament, and the "systems" of the different apostles were separately treated (the Pauline by Meyer, 1801, L. Usteri, 1824; the Johannine by K. Frommann, 1839). Along with this an effort was made to show the unity of the Gospel in the very variety of individual conceptions (of the many important works, note A. Neander, Geschichte der Pflanzung . . . der christlichen Kirche, Hamburg, 1832; B. Weiss, Lehrbuch der biblischen Theologie, Berlin, 1868; W. Beyschlag, Neutestamentliche Theologie, Halle, 1891). At the same time another class of theologians was eagerly engaged in tracing the differences of the individual conceptions to their very roots. According to Hegel's formula the crystallized dogma was a synthesis of the two sharp opposites of Paulinism and the primitive apostolate, and this development was followed up in all its details from a literary-historical point of view (F. C. Baur; H. E. G. Paulus; F. C. A. Schwegler, Nachapostolisches Zeitalter, Tuebingen, 1846; O. Pfleiderer, Paulinismus, Leipsic, 1873; C. Holsten, Evangelium des Paulus und Petrus, Rostock, 1868; A. Hilgenfeld, Urchristentum, Jena, 1854). In like manner the life of Jesus and its sources were treated, in connection with which work there originated a countless number of monographs on the self-consciousness of Jesus and the titles he assumed. The result from this point of view was the conviction that New Testament theology has to deal not with a completed whole, but with a mobile and developing Christianity. Hence "Biblical Theology" and "Introduction" together represent simply a part of the apparatus of general church history (cf. A. Hausrath, Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte, Heidelberg, 1868; O. Pfleiderer, Urchristentum, Berlin, 1887). 3. The Old Testament. Parallel to this development of New Testament theology was that of Old Testament theology. Students came to discern the narrowness and one-sidedness of the Old Testament religion, upon which Hengstenberg vainly insisted in his obliteration of the limits between the Old and the New Testament. In acknowledging the principle of slow historical genesis, others sought to understand the development of the Old Testament religion by the principle that no doctrine is completed in the Old Testament, no doctrine in the New Testament is altogether new (G. F. Oehler, Theologie des Alten Testaments, Tuebingen, 1873-74; similarly Schultz and Riehm). J. Wellhausen (Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels, Berlin, 1886) and A. Kuenen produced a revolution in the treatment of the Old Testament. Under the influence of their religious-historical suppositions and literary-critical conclusions, Old Testament theology served to describe how from the supposed original conditions, from animism and totemism, the prophetic monotheism of the prophets and ultimately the theocratic ceremonialism of postexilic Judaism gradually developed (B. Duhm, Theologie der Propheten, Bonn, 1875; R. Smend, Alttestamentliche Religionsgeschichte, Freiburg, 1893; S. Kayser and Marti). In this way the Old Testament religion was placed on a level with other religions, and the surprisingly rich discoveries concerning the ancient Orient and the rising science of the history of religion grasped hands with this method of treatment. It was a natural consequence to show that the New Testament possesses a rich heritage of religious fancy common to ethnic religions (cf. especially H. Gunkel, Schoepfung und Chaos, Goettingen, 1895; Religionsgeschichtliche Abhandlung des Neuen Testaments, 1904). The idea of unity and special individuality of the New Testament thus goes by the board. 4. Limitations. In glancing over the development of Biblical theology, it is surprising to see how this branch has worked out its own disintegration. In the beginning the aim was to make the Bible the only and sole source of Christian doctrine in the Reformers' understanding of the phrase, by allowing it to speak for itself without introducing any diluting medium. The investigator sought to penetrate its polymorphous nature, and finally saw that under his touch the uniting bond had disappeared which formerly kept together the disparate parts and made it an undivided object of scientific research. This self-immolation the discipline owes to a one-sided maintenance of the historical and religious-historical method. Biblical theology must indeed be a historical science; but the adjective must not become a noun and the method must not master the subject. For in this study there are fundamental perceptions which can not be obtained by literary criticism and general historical researches. Thus the subject itself--namely, the whole Bible--suggests the question whether the subject-matter is the remains of a religious literature or documents, productions, and descriptions of a history which is fixed by a revelation from God. And the answer to this question is of the greatest import for the investigation. How different must be the verdict of higher criticism, provided the miracles or the declarations of Jesus are regarded as a priori historically possible or impossible; how much the selection of the matter decides whether one shall find only religious-ethical views, or historical facts of the "religion of Jesus," or that "the belief in Christ" belongs to the essence of Christianity. 5. Constructive Work. For this reason there has always existed an opposition to the development described above. The history of salvation with its literary deposit ought not to be resolved into a purely human development. The impression is gained rather that the Bible contains a primary life of faith, having the character of uncorrupted self-consistency and unbroken independence, and that consequently there is underneath a uniform and fundamental idea. As standing for this, mention must be made of K. I. Nitzsch, System der christlichen Lehre (Bonn, 1829), and H. Ewald, Lehre der Bibel von Gott (3 vols., Leipsic, 1871), and particularly of J. C. K. von Hofmann, whose great work (Die heilige Schrift des Neuen Testaments zusammenhaengend untersucht, completed by Volck, Munich, 1886) culminated in the description of the history of the entire New Testament preaching as a historical development of the uniform word which is not the product of the individual authors. Hermann Cremer (Biblisch-theologisches Woerterbuch der neutestamentlichen Graecitaet, 8th ed., Gotha, 1895) endeavored in a new way to bring into view the unity of the contents of Scripture by collecting the individual notions of the Bible and following their development from the Hebrew into the Greek. According to him there are not only different modes of expression at different times, but there is a Bible-language, a linguistic body of the divine word, ever developing itself. It is a scientific necessity that Biblical theology regard the individuality of the Bible as the basal principle of its entire activity. For the religion of the Bible is not merely a part of the historical past; it is an active factor in the present. In like manner the Bible is not merely a document showing the manner in which the Christian Church originated; it is the authentic tradition of the word of God, out of which the Church is ever originating (M. Kaehler, Der historische Jesus, 2d ed., Leipsic, 1896). On this account Biblical theology must always proceed from the unexceptionable agreement, which can only be reached at the end of a development; its way leads, therefore, from the New to the Old Testament, through the whole to the parts. Since, however, that result is nowhere offered in complete form, it is the task of this branch to educe from that which exists what is essential--the entirety--so that the examination of the particular is ever a means to an end, and is always under the control of the final aim of the work. 6. The True Aim. Accordingly it is not the task of Biblical theology to criticize the theology of the Bible and to judge it by the measure of a probable understanding of the original to be obtained scientifically, but to show as a matter of fact what the contents of the Bible are and at the same time to bring into view the different forms and shapes in which these contents are offered. It owes to the Church a pure exhibition of the "word" by the preaching of which the Church has lived in all ages. On this account no help is gained by considering some "probable gospel of Jesus," sought behind the sources, but the necessity is that the Jesus Christ of primitive tradition be described, and that in the various forms in which it has been handed down. Again, the highest aim is always to produce a theology of the entire Bible (such an effort is K. Schlottmann, Kompendium der biblischen Theologie, 2d ed., Leipsic, 1895). But the separate treatment of the Testaments will generally recommend itself for practical reasons, since a great deal of preliminary work is necessary on the Old Testament, and because the difference of degrees of revelation must be indicated. But the correlation between the two must, after all, never be overlooked. It is a matter of course that the Biblical theology of the whole Bible can never dispense with exegesis. But it raises itself above the purely exegetical by its relation to systematic theology. It is released from the duty of exhibiting all the mazes and changes of development which are not essential to the understanding of the unified whole. On the other hand, it must not be misled into compressing Biblical riches into a narrow, one-sided system, which will take the form of contemporary dogmatics, for the dogmatic interest will take charge of the process of digesting the immense amount of subject-matter. One task of Biblical theology is to open the way of return from contemporary crystallization into formulas in dogmatics to the source itself. In this sense it will be of very great service to evangelical theology, provided it directs us to disclose more clearly and richly God's word in Holy Scripture and thus protests in the name of the document of revelation against every claim of human infallibility, for "God alone is infallible" (Zwingli). M. Kaehler. Bibliography: Discussions on the methods of the discipline are in: C. A. Briggs, Study of Holy Scripture, pp. 569-606, New York, 1899 (historical and critical, discriminating); G. R. Crooks and J. F. Hurst, Theological Encyclopaedia and Methodology, pp. 249-255, New York, 1894; A. Cave, Introduction to Theology, pp. 405-421, Edinburgh, 1896; W. Wrede, Ueber Aufgabe und Methode der sogenannten neutestamentlichen Theologie, Goettingen, 1897; L. Emery, Introduction `a l'etude de la theologie protestante, pp. 122-127, Paris, 1904 (the foregoing all contain bibliographies). An excellent review of recent literature is furnished in the Theologische Rundschau, May, 1907 (an excellent periodical devoted to the review of works on theology). Works additional to those in the text which deal with the whole of Biblical theology or of some phase of both the O. and the N. T. are: L. Noack, Die biblische Theologie, Halle, 1853; F. Gardner, The Old and the N. T. in their Mutual Relations, New York, 1885; H. Schultz, Alttestamentliche Theologie, Goettingen, 1885, Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1892; W. L. Alexander, A System of Biblical Theology, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1888; C. L. Fillion, L'Idee centraIe de la Bible, Paris, 1888; C. G. Chavannes, La Religion dans la Bible, 2 vols., Paris, 1889; C. H. Toy, Judaism and Christianity, Boston, 1890 (called by Dr. Briggs "the best book on the subject"); A. Duff, O. T. Theology, Edinburgh, 1891 (original); R. H. Charles, Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life in Israel, Judaism and Christianity, London, 1899 (the one book in the field). Additional and worthy books on O. T. theology are: C. H. Piepenbring, Theologie de l'Ancien Testament, Paris, 1886, Eng. transl., New York, 1893; A. Dillmann, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie, Leipsic, 1895 (posthumous); W. H. Bennett, Theology of the O. T., London, 1896 (a handbook); R. Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte, Freiburg, 1899; A. B. Davidson, The Theology of the O. T., Edinburgh, 1904 (somewhat disappointing). Additional works on the N. T. are W. F. Adeney, Theology of the N. T., London, 1894 (corresponds to Bennett on the O. T.); H. J. Holtzmann, Lehrbuch der neutestamentlichen Theologie, 2 vols., Tuebingen, 1897 (one of the best on the subject); G. B. Stevens, Theology of the N. T., New York, 1899; E. P. Gould, Biblical Theology of the N. T., New York, 1900; D. F. Estes, An Outline of N. T. Theology, ib. 1901; J. Bovon, Theologie du N. T., 2 vols., Lausanne, 1893-94, vol. i, 2d ed., 1902. Biblicists, Biblical Doctors BIBLICISTS, BIBLICAL DOCTORS: A name sometimes given to those who, during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, demonstrated religious truths by the Scriptures and by the authority of the Fathers, in contrast to others, who abandoned Scripture and tradition in order to give full rein to their fancy and philosophy. The most of the latter were Dominican and Franciscan monks who, since their orders held no property, had no libraries, and, owing to their unsettled and vagrant lives, had little opportunity for the study of books. Some of the Biblical doctors were scholars, and produced valuable works; but the majority of them were servile imitators of their predecessors. Bibra, Nicholas of BIBRA, NICHOLAS OF. See [399]Nicholas of Bibra. Bickell, Gustav BICKELL, GUSTAV: German Roman Catholic theologian and Orientalist; b. at Cassel July 7, 1838; d. at Vienna Jan. 15, 1906. In 1862 he became privat-docent of Semitic and Indo-Germanic philology at Marburg, and in the following year went in the same capacity to Giessen. Two years later he became a convert to Roman Catholicism, was ordained priest in 1866, and from 1867 to 1874 taught Oriental languages in the academy of Muenster, where he was appointed associate professor in 1871. From 1874 to 1891 he was professor of Christian archeology and Semitic languages in the University of Innsbruck, and from the latter year until his death was professor of Semitic philology at the University of Vienna. He wrote: De indole ac ratione versionis Alexandrinae in interpretando libro Jobi (Marburg, 1862); Sancti Ephraemi Syri carmina Nisibena (Leipsic, 1866); Grundriss der hebraeischen Grammatik (2 vols., 1869-70; Eng. transl. by S. I. Curtiss, 1877); Gruende fuer die Unfehlbarkeit des Kirchenoberhauptes (Muenster, 1870); Conspectus rei Syrorum literariae (1871); Messe und Pascha (1872, Eng. transl. by W. F. Skene, Edinburgh, 1891); Sancti Isaaci Antiocheni opera omnia (2 vols., Giessen, 1873); Kalilag und Damnag, alte syrische Uebersetzung des indischen fuerstenspiegels (text and translation, Leipsic, 1876); Metrices biblicae regulae exemplis illustratae (Innsbruck, 1879); Synodi Brixinenses saeculi quindecimi (1880); Carmina Veteris Testamenti metrica (1882); Dichtungen der Hebraeer (1882); Koheleths Untersuchung ueber den Wert des Daseins (1884); and Das Buch Job nach Anlass der Strophik und der Septuaginta auf seine urspruengliche Form zurueckgefuehrt und im Versmasse des Urtextes uebersetzt (Vienna, 1894). Bickell, Johann Wilhelm BICKELL, JOHANN WILHELM: Writer on canon law; b. at Marburg Nov. 2, 1799; d. at Cassel Jan. 23, 1848. He studied law at Marburg and Goettingen; was professor of jurisprudence at Marburg, 1824-34; president of the supreme court of Hesse-Cassel, 1841, and minister of state, 1846. He wrote Ueber die Entstehung . . . des Corpus Juris Canonici (Marburg, 1825); Ueber die Reform der protestantischen Kirchenverfassung (1831); Ueber die Verpflichtung der evangelischen Geistlichen auf die symbolischen Schriften (Cassel, 1839; 2d ed., 1840); of his Geschichte des Kirchenrechts, only one volume was completed (part i, Giessen, 1843; part ii, Frankfort, 1849). Bickersteth, Edward BICKERSTETH, EDWARD: The name of three clergymen of the Church of England. 1. A leader of the Evangelicals; b. at Kirkby Lonsdale (60 m. n. of Liverpool), Westmoreland, Mar. 19, 1786; d. at Watton (21 m. w.s.w. of Norwich), Hertfordshire, Feb. 28, 1850. He was at first a lawyer and practised at Norwich, but he was always of deeply religious temperament and in 1815 received priest's orders and was sent to Africa by the Church Missionary Society to inspect the work there. Returning in Aug., 1816, he became one of the society's secretaries and for the rest of his life spent much time traveling in the service of the society; in 1830 he became rector of Watton. He was an active opponent of the Tractarian Movement, and was one of the founders of the Evangelical Alliance and of the Irish Church Missions Society. His published works were numerous and many were very popular; the more important (A Help to the Study of the Scriptures, 21st edition; A Treatise on Prayer, 14th edition; A Treatise on the Lord's Supper, 13th edition; A Guide to the Prophecies, 8th edition; and others) were collected in sixteen volumes (London, 1853). He also compiled Christian Psalmody (Hereford, 1833), a much-used hymn-book, and edited the Christian's Family Library (50 vols.). Bibliography: T. R. Birks, Memoir of E. Bickersteth, 2 vols., London, 1858 (by his son-in-law); DNB, v, 3-4. 2. Dean of Lichfield, nephew of the preceding; b. at Acton (12 m, s. by e. of Bury St. Edmund's), Suffolk, Oct. 23, 1814; d. at Leamington (80 m. n.w. of London) Oct. 7, 1892. He studied at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge (B.A., 1836; M.A., 1839; D.D., 1864), and at Durham University; became curate of Chetton, Shropshire, 1838; at the Abbey, Shrewsbury, 1839; Penn Street, Buckinghamshire, 1849; vicar of Aylesbury and archdeacon of Buckinghamshire, 1853; honorary canon of Christ Church, Oxford, 1866; dean of Lichfield, 1875; resigned in 1892. In 1864, 1866, 1869, and 1874 he was prolocutor of the lower house of convocation of Canterbury, and as such was a member of the committee of New Testament revisers. He was a High-churchman. He published Diocesan Synods in Relation to Convocation and Parliament (London, 1867); My Hereafter (1883); edited the fifth edition of R. W. Evans's Bishopric of Souls (1877), with a memoir of the author; and contributed the commentary on Mark to the Pulpit Commentary (1882). 3. Bishop of South Tokyo, Japan, eldest son of [400]Edward Henry Bickersteth; b. at Banningham (10 m. n, of Norwich), Norfolk, June 26, 1850; d. at Chisledon (30 m. n. of Salisbury), Wiltshire, Aug. 5, 1897. He was educated at Cambridge (B.A., 1873), and was ordained priest in 1874. He was curate at Hampstead, London, 1873-75; fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge, from 1875 till 1877, when he headed the Cambridge Mission for Delhi, India. In this mission he so impaired his health that he was obliged to return to England in 1882, and he became rector of Framlingham, Suffolk. In 1886 he was consecrated bishop of Japan. He was an extreme High-churchman and strove to reproduce this type of church life among the Japanese. The result was the so-called "Catholic Church of Japan" (Nippon Sei Kokwai). In 1887 a visit to Korea bore fruit in the establishment of a mission in that country. In 1892 his visit to the Anglican mission stations in Japan convinced him that there should be more bishops; accordingly his diocese was made that of South Tokyo. Again his health gave way and he returned home to die. His lectures for Japanese divinity students were published under the title Our Heritage in the Church (London, 1898). Bibliography: S. Bickersteth, Life and Letters of Edward Bickersteth, Bishop of South Tokyo, London, 1905 (by his brother). Bickersteth, Edward Henry BICKERSTETH, EDWARD HENRY: Bishop of Exeter, son of Edward Bickersteth, 1; b. at Islington, London, Jan. 25, 1825; d. in London May 16, 1906. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge (B.A., 1847), and was ordered deacon in 1848, and ordained priest in the following year. He was curate of Banningham, Norfolk (1848-51); rector of Hinton Martell, Dorset (1852-55); vicar of Christ Church, Hampstead (1855-85); rural dean of Highgate (1878-85), and dean of Gloucester (1885). He was consecrated bishop of Exeter in 1885, but resigned five years later on account of age. He wrote Water from the Well Spring (London, 1852); The Rock of Ages (1857); Commentary on the New Testament (1864); Yesterday, To-day, and Forever (poem in twelve books, 1866; prized as a devout revelation of heaven); The Spirit of Life (1869); Hymnal Companion to the Book of Common Prayer (1870); The Two Brothers and Other Poems, (1871); The Reef and Other Parables (1873); The Shadowed Home and the Light Beyond (1874); Words of Counsel to the Clergy and Laity of the Diocese of Exeter (1888); Charge at Third Visitation (1895); From Year to Year (1895); The Feast of Divine Love (1896); and Charge at Fourth Visitation (1898). He was the author of a number of well-known hymns. Bibliography: F. K. Aglionby, Life of E. H. Bickersteth, London, 1907. Bickersteth, Samuel BICKERSTETH, SAMUEL: Church of England, second son of [401]Edward Henry Bickersteth; b. at Hampstead Sept. 9, 1857. He was educated at St. John's College, Oxford (B.A., 1881), and was ordered dean in 1881 and ordained priest in the following year. He was successively curate of Christ Church, Lancaster Gate (1881-84); chaplain to the bishop of Ripon (1884-87); vicar of Belvedere, Kent (1887-91); and vicar of Lewisham (1891-1905). Since 1905 he has been vicar of Leeds and rural dean. He has written Life and Letters of Edward Bickersteth, D.D., Bishop of South Tokyo (his brother, London, 1899), and is the editor of the Preachers of the Age series. Bidding Prayer BIDDING PRAYER: Originally bidding of prayers, signifying "the praying (offering) of prayers," one of the meanings of the verb "to bid" down to the Reformation being "to ask pressingly, to beg, to pray." As this meaning became obsolete the phrase was interpreted to mean "the ordering or directing of prayers"; i.e., an authoritative direction to the people concerning what or whom they should pray for, such directions being not uncommon in England in the sixteenth century. Still later "bidding" was taken as an adjective and the phrase "bidding prayer" came to mean the prayer before the sermon, which the preacher introduced by directing the congregation to pray for the Church catholic, the sovereign and the royal family, different estates of men, etc. (Constitution and Canons of the Church of England, S: 55). A collect is now usually substituted for it, as the sermon, except on rare occasions, is preceded by the common prayers, which include the petitions prescribed by the canon. When, however, these prayers are not said before the sermon (as at university sermons), and on occasions of more than usual solemnity, the "bidding prayer" is used. Bibliography: Forms of the Bidding Prayer are to be found in Manuale et Processionale . . . ecclesiae Eboracensis, ed. W. G. Henderson in Surtees Society Publications, no. 63, Durham, 1875, and in F. Procter, Hist. of Book of Common Prayer . . . revised by W. H. Frere, p. 394, London, 1905. Consult C. Wheatley, Bidding of Prayers before Sermons, London, 1845; D. Rock, Church of our Fathers, 3 vols., ib. 1849-53. Biddle, John BIDDLE, JOHN: A founder of modern English Unitarianism; b. at Wotton-under-Edge (15 m. s. of Gloucester), where he was baptized Jan. 14, 1615; d. in a London jail Sept. 22, 1662. He was educated at Oxford, and appointed head master of the free school in the parish of St. Mary le Crypt, Gloucester, 1641. Study of the Scriptures led him to disbelieve the doctrine of the Trinity, and, his unsoundness being reported to the city magistrates, he was summoned before them. Fearing imprisonment, he made a confession of faith (May 2, 1644) which was not satisfactory, and so he made a second in which he used more conventional language and was allowed to go free. He then committed to paper Twelve Arguments Drawn out of Scripture: wherein the commonly received opinion touching the Deity of the Holy Spirit is clearly and fully refuted, and to these views he was faithful the rest of his life. A friend informed the magistrates of the existence of this paper and so he was cited before the committee of Parliament then at Gloucester, and put in the common jail Dec. 2, 1645. Happily a prominent citizen bailed him out. In 1646 he was summoned to appear before Parliament at Westminster to explain his position, and boldly avowed his belief. He was committed to the custody of one of the officers of the House of Commons and so continued for five years. Meanwhile a committee of the Assembly of Divines sitting at Westminster considered his case and to them he gave a copy of his Twelve Arguments. They made answer to it, but did not move him. So in 1647 he published his paper, which makes a tract of thirty-eight small pages. It stirred up great indignation and was suppressed and burned by the common hangman. Next he published A Confession of Faith Touching the Holy Trinity, according to the Scripture (1648), a tract of seventy-five small pages, in which in six articles, accompanied by expositions, he plainly states his views, making God the Father the first person of the Holy Trinity; one chief Son of the most high God, with only a human nature, though our God by reason of his divine sovereignty over us, yet subordinate to the most high God, the second person; and one principal minister of God and Christ the third. Next came another tract (eighty-six pages) containing alleged testimonies in favor of his views from the Fathers. In 1648 Parliament, at the instigation of the Westminster divines, made denial of the Trinity a capital offense, yet Biddle was not only not put to death, but in 1649 was released on bail. He became a chaplain and preacher in Staffordshire, but was shortly recalled and remained in prison till Feb., 1651. On his release he publicly advocated his views and continued his publications with A Two-fold Catechism; the one simply called a Scripture Catechism; the other a brief Scripture Catechism for Children (1654, the first of 141 small pages, the second of thirty-four, both with a preface). The answers, being entirely in quoted Scripture, could not be gainsaid, but the questions were open to serious criticism. Consequently he was examined by the House of Commons and committed to prison on Dec. 3, 1854, and was not released till May 28, 1655. The Catechism was burned by the common hangman Dec. 14, 1654. Again publicly advocating his beliefs on July 3, 1655, he was thrown into prison and a little later was tried for his life on the ordinance above mentioned. Cromwell, unwilling to put him to death, banished him to the Scilly Islands (Oct. 5, 1655), and allowed him 100 crowns a year for maintenance. In 1658 he was released, and resumed preaching. In the latter part of Aug., 1662, he was again imprisoned and after five weeks died. Bibliography: The principal source of information respecting Biddle is the Life by Joshua Toulmin, London, 1789, which analyzes all his writings, including several translations, not mentioned above. There are earlier accounts, such as J. Bidelli Vita, by J. Farrington, ib. 1682, and A Short Account of the Life of John Biddle, ib. 1691. Consult also A. `a Wood, Athenae Oxonienses, ed. P. P. Bliss, iii, 593-603, 4 vols., ib. 1813-20; J. H. Allen, Historical Sketch of the Unitarian Movement, pp. 131-135, New York, 1894; DNB, v, 13-16. Some additional information is in Walter Lloyd's Bicentenary of Barton Street Dissenting Meeting House, Gloucester, pp. 40-50, Gloucester, 1899. Biedermann, Alois Emanuel BIEDERMANN, b238;'der-m??n, ALOIS EMANUEL: Swiss Protestant; b. near Bendlikon, on the west shore of the Lake of Zurich (4 m. from the city), Mar. 2, 1819; d. at Zurich Jan. 25, 1885. He studied at Basel 1837-39, and then at Berlin; became pastor at Moenchenstein (3 m. s. of Basel) 1843; professor extraordinary at Zurich 1850, ordinary 1860, where he lectured at first upon theological encyclopedia and New Testament introduction, later chiefly upon dogmatic theology. He was the leading theologian of the neo-Hegelians, and was deeply influenced by the Tuebingen school, especially by Strauss. He was a prolific writer for the religious press, but obtained his greatest repute by his Christliche Dogmatik (Zurich, 1869; 2d ed., Berlin, 1884-85, vol. ii edited by Rehmke), in which he denies the historicity of the Gospels, yet holds to the eternal ideas which the supposed facts of the Gospels embody; denies Christian doctrine, but advocates Christian practise; denies personality to God and personal immortality to man, yet holds that love to God and man constitutes the essence of religion. He took a deep interest in education and public affairs, preached often and by preference to small and weak congregations, and was tactful and courteous in his associations with men of all classes; he was a lover of athletics and a robust mountain-climber. Many of his briefer publications were collected under the title ausgewaehlte Vortraege und Aufsaetze, with a biographical introduction by J. Kradolfer (Berlin, 1885). Bibliography: For further notes on Biedermann's life consult J. J. Oeri, Persoenliche Erinnerungen an Biedermann, in Kirchenblatt fuer die reformierte Schweiz, 1886, nos. 7-18. On his theology and philosophy consult O. Pfleiderer, Religionsphilosophie, i, 594, Berlin, 1893; idem, in Preussische Jahrbuecher, Jan., 1886, pp. 53-76; T. Moosherr, A. E. Biedermann nach seiner allgemeinen philosophischen Stellung, Jena, 1893. Biel, Gabriel BIEL, bil, GABRIEL: One of the most remarkable theologians of the late Middle Ages; b. at Speyer; d. at Tuebingen 1495. He studied at Heidelberg, became preacher at St. Martin's Church at Mainz, provost of Urach in Wuerttemberg, and after 1484 professor of theology and philosophy in the newly founded University of Tuebingen. In his old age he joined the Brethren of the Common Life (see [402]Common Life, Brethern of the). In theology Biel followed the nominalism of [403]Occam, whose system he reproduced in his Epitome et collectorium ex Occamo super quattuor libros sententiarum (Tuebingen, 1495). In anthropology and soteriology he was a Semi-Pelagian, teaching that "merit depends on man's free will and God's grace" (sermo xiv, 7); the sacraments operate not only ex opere operantis, but also ex opere operato" (Sent., IV, i, 3). The Church, therefore, was for him a mechanically operating sacramental institution; in its priests he glorifies a "mighty dignity." In questions affecting the constitution of the Church, Biel took the position assumed by the councils of Constance and Basel. As a preacher he surpassed his predecessors in the practicality of his views; his knowledge of political economy also deserves recognition. Besides the work already noticed, he wrote Lectura super canonem missae (Reutlingen, 1488); Expositio canonis missae (Tuebingen, 1499); Sermones (1499); and other works. Paul Tschackert. Bibliography: F. X. Linsenmann, Gabriel Biel der letzte Scholastiker und der Nominalismus, in Tuebinger theologische Quartalschrift, 1865, pp. 449 sqq.; idem, in KL, ii, 804-808; A. Ritschl, Die christliche Lehre von der Rechtfertigung und Versoehnung, i, 102 sqq., Bonn, 1889; H. Plitt, Gabriel Biel als Prediger, Erlangen, 1879; Schultz, Der sittliche Begriff des Verdienstes, in TSK, 1894, pp. 304 sqq. Bierling, Ernst Rudolf BIERLING, bi'ar-ling, ERNST RUDOLF: German Protestant jurist; b. at Zittau (49 m. s.e. of Dresden) Jan. 7, 1841. He was educated at the universities of Leipsic (1859-63) and Goettingen (1864-65), and after being a lawyer in his native city in 1868-71 was privet-docent at Goettingen for two years. Since 1873 he has been professor of canon and criminal law at Greifswald. In addition to being a member of the Pomeranian provincial synod in 1878-99 and of the general synod in 1875 and 1884-1902, he was a member of the House of Deputies in 1881-85 and of the Upper House after 1889. His publications include Gesetzgebungsrecht evangelischer Kirchen im Gebiete der Kirchenlehre (Leipsic, 1869); Zur Kritik der juristischen Grundbegriffe (2 vols., Gotha, 1877-82); Die konfessionelle Schule in Preussen und ihr Recht (1885); and Juristische Prinzipienlehre (3 vols., Tuebingen, 1894-1905). Bigelmaier, Andreas BIGELMAIER, bi''gel-m?i'er, ANDREAS: German Roman Catholic; b. at Oberhausen (a suburb of Augsburg) Oct. 21, 1873. He was educated at the University of Munich (Th.D., 1899) and was ordained to the priesthood in 1897. From October to November, 1897, he was chaplain at Hoerzhausen, in 1904 became privat-docent for church history at the University of Munich; in 1906 professor of church history in the Royal Lyceum of Dillingen. Besides numerous contributions to literary and theological periodicals, he has written Die Beteiligungen der Christen am oeffentlichen Leben in vorkonstantinischer Zeit (Munich, 1902) and Zeno von Verona (1904). Bigg, Charles BIGG, CHARLES: Church of England; b. at Manchester Sept. 12, 1840; d. Oxford July 15, 1908. He studied at Christ Church, Oxford (B.A., 1862), where be became tutor. He was master in Cheltenham College (1866-71), head master of Brighton College (1871-81), and rector of Fenny Compton, Leamington, 1887-1901, and honorary canon of Worcester from 1889 to 1901, when he was appointed regius professor of ecclesiastical history in Oxford University. He was examining chaplain to the bishops of Worcester (1889-91), Peterborough (1891-96), London (1897-1901), and Man (1903), Bampton lecturer in 1886, and has been canon of Christ Church, Oxford, since 1901. He has edited a number of Greek classics and the "Confessions" of St. Augustine (London, 1896); the Didache (1898); the De Imitatione Christi of Thomas `a Kempis (1898); and Law's Serious Call (1899); and has written The Christian Platonists of Alexandria (London, 1886); Neoplatonism (1895); Unity in Diversity (1899); Commentary on the Epistles of Peter and Jude (Edinburgh, 1901); and The Church's Task under the Roman Empire (London, 1905). Bigne, Marguerin de la BIGNE, bin, MARGUERIN, m??r''ge''ran, DE LA: French theologian; b. at Bernieres-le-Patry, in Normandy, 1546 or 1547; d. at Paris 1589. He came of noble Norman parentage; studied at Caen and became rector of the university there; went to Paris, where he studied theology at the Sorbonne and received the doctorate. To refute the authors of the Magdeburg Centuries in June, 1576, he undertook to give a fuller edition of the writings of the Fathers of the Church than had been yet made. For this work he was appointed canon of the church of Bayeux, and some time after professor of the chapter-school; resigned to succeed his uncle, Franc,ois du Parc, who had died, as dean of the church of Mans. In 1576 he was sent as deputy from the clergy of Normandy to the States General of Blois. In 1581 he went as canon of Bayeux to the provincial council there, and defended vigorously his chapter against the usurpation of Bernardin de St. Franc,ois, bishop of Bayeux. The death of the bishop (July 14, 1582) appeared to end the conflict; but the bishop's successor, Mathurin de Savonnieres, eventually forced Bigne to resign. He returned to Paris, where he died the same year. He was a great patristic scholar and an eloquent preacher. G. Bonet-Maury. Bibliography: His works were: Veterum patrum et antiquorum scriptorum eccleesiasticorum collectio (Paris, 1575-79); Statuta synodalia Parisiensium episcoporum, Galonis cardinalis, Odonis et Wilhelmi; item Petri et Galteri Senonensium archiepiscoporum decreta primum edita (1578); S. Isidori Hispalensis Opera (1580). Consult: J. Hermant, L'Histoire du diocese de Bayeux, Caen, 1705; P. D. Huet, Les Origines de la ville de Caen, Rouen, 1706; Niceron, Memoires, xxx, 279; J. G. de Chauffepie, Nouveau dictionnaire historique et critique, vol. i, Amsterdam, 1750. Billican, Theobald BILLICAN, THEOBALD (Diepold Gernolt or Gerlacher): German theologian; b. at Billigheim (4 m. s.s.w. of Landau), Bavaria, toward the end of the fifteenth century; d. at Marburg Aug. 8, 1554. He took his surname from his birthplace; studied at Heidelberg, where Melanchthon was his fellow student; lectured at Heidelberg; became provost of the college of arts (1520) and had among others [404]Johann Brenz as his pupil. When, in 1518, Luther came to Heidelberg, Billican, Brenz, Schnepff, and [405]Martin Butzer were among his admirers. Billican left Heidelberg in 1522 and went to Weil as preacher. But his sermons against the mediatorship of the Virgin Mary and against purgatory brought about his deposition and he went to Noerdlingen (1523), where he remained till 1535. Billican opened there a way for the Reformation and published Von der Mess Gemein Schlussred (1524), in which he sharply rebuked the "fraud" of the mass as a sacrifice for the living and the dead. Billican, who corresponded with Luther, Melanchthon, Rhegius, Brenz, OEcolampadius, and Zwingli, was regarded as a leader of the Evangelical cause in South Germany. But future events showed the instability of his character. In his controversy with Carlstadt, who had come to Noerdlingen, he sided with Luther against Carlstadt in the doctrine of the Lord's Supper and stated in his Renovatio ecclesiae (1525) that "in the Lord's Supper the flesh and blood of the Lord are present." Induced by [406]Urbanus Rhegius openly to defend the Lutheran doctrine, Billican sent a statement to Rhegius, which the latter published (in mutilated form, as Billican complained) together with his answer Dec. 18, 1525, under the title De verbis coenae dominicae et opinionum varietate Theobaldi Billicani ad Urbanum Regium (1526). But while they of Wittenberg were rejoicing over this new ally, Billican changed his views in a letter addressed to OEcolampadius Jan. 16, 1526; and two months later, in letters addressed to Schleupner at Nuremberg and to Pirkheimer, he expressed still other views. While Billican did not fully agree with Zwingli, he stated that he learned more from the Zwinglians than from the Lutherans, and, adopting in part the views of Carlstadt and OEcolampadius, he pretended to teach the only correct doctrine because he stood between the two parties. His vacillating position is best illustrated in a booklet entitled Epistola Theobaldi Billicani ad Joannem Hubelium qua illo de eucharistia cogitandi materiam conscriptsit (1528) which remained unnoticed. Billican, of whom so much had been expected, was now avoided by both parties. In 1529 he applied to Heidelberg University for the doctorate, presenting at the same time a confession in which he acrimoniously rejected Lutheran, Zwinglian, and Anabaptist doctrine, and expressed his firm belief in the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church. Being refused by the faculty, he married a woman of wealth, and, regardless of what had taken place, he had the boldness to ask Melanchthon to procure him the doctorate at Wittenberg. The latter replied, "[The authorities] advance no one before he has set forth his doctrinal views" (CR, i, 1112). Since he was repelled by the Reformers and not fully trusted by the Roman Catholics, Billican's position became untenable, and so in 1535 he left Noerdlingen and went to Heidelberg, where he commenced the study of jurisprudence. He was made licentiate in jurisprudence and for a time took the place of a professor who was disabled on account of sickness. When in 1543 that professor died and Billican sought the position, the entire faculty opposed his nomination, but through the influence of Margaret von der Layen, whose "chancellor" he was considered, he was permitted to give independent lectures on law. On account of his relations with Margaret, the elector Frederick II deposed Billican from his office July 26, 1544, and ordered him to leave Heidelberg. He went to Marburg and was made professor of rhetoric, a position which he held till his death. (T. Kolde.) Bibliography: G. Veesenmeyer, Kleine Beytraege zur Geschichte des Reichstags zu Augsburg, 1530, pp. 59 sqq., Nuremberg, 1830; A. Steichele, Das Bistum Augsburg, iii, 947 sqq., Augsburg, 1872; T. Keim, Die Stellung der schwaebischen Kirchen zur zwinglisch-lutherischen Spaltung, in TJB, xiv, 1894; C. Geyer, Die Noerdlinger evangelischen Kirchenordnungen des 16. Jahrhunderts, Munich, 1896. Bilney (Bylney), Thomas BILNEY (BYLNEY), THOMAS: Early English Protestant; b. of a Norfolk family about 1495; burned at the stake at Norwich Aug. 19, 1531. He studied at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, and gave up law for theology and was ordained priest in 1519. He adopted the belief in justification by faith alone and was a leader in a company of Cambridge men who were inclined to the views of the Reformation; Hugh Latimer was added to the number by Bilney's influence and became his lifelong friend. Concerning the mass, transubstantiation, and the powers of the pope and the Church, Bilney remained orthodox; but he preached unremittingly in Cambridge, London, and neighboring counties, denouncing the invocation of saints and relic-worship, pilgrimages and fastings, at the same time leading a most austere life and devoted to deeds of charity. He was arrested and confined in the Tower Nov. 25, 1527; brought to trial, he denied having wittingly taught the doctrines of Luther, but was finally persuaded to abjure his alleged heresies and as penance was kept imprisoned for more than a year. Released in 1529, he went back to Cambridge, suffered much from remorse for his abjuration, and in 1531 resumed preaching, but was immediately arrested, and was executed as a relapsed heretic. Bibliography: The sources for a life are in Letters and Papers . . . of the Reign of Henry VIII., vol. v, ed. James Gairdner, in Record Publications, London, 1863-80. Consult also C. H. Cooper, Athenae Cantabrigienses, i, 42, ib. 1858; DNB, v, 40-43. Bilson, Thomas BILSON, THOMAS: Bishop of Winchester; b. at Winchester 1546 or 1547; d. there June 18, 1616. He studied at New College, Oxford (B.A., 1566; M.A., 1570; B.D., 1579; D.D., 1581); was made prebend of Winchester 1576, and became warden of the college there; was consecrated bishop of Worcester 1596, translated to Winchester 1597. He was a noted preacher, a man of much learning, and defended the Church of England against both Roman Catholics and Puritans. At the command of Queen Elizabeth he wrote The True Difference between Christian Subjection and Unchristian Rebellion (Oxford, 1585), in answer to Cardinal William Allen's Defence of the English Catholics (Ingoldstadt, 1584), and The Survey of Christ's Sufferings for Man's Redemption and of his Descent to Hades or Hell for our Deliverance (London, 1604), a reply to the Brownist Henry Jacob; in The Perpetual Government of Christ's Church (1593; new ed., with memoir, Oxford, 1842) he defended episcopacy. With Dr. Miles Smith he revised the King James translation of the Bible before its publication, and he added the summaries of contents at the head of each chapter. Bibliography: A. `a Wood, Athenae Oxonienses, ed. P. Bliss, ii, 169-171, 4 vols., London, 1813-20; DNB, v, 43-44. Binding and Loosing, Power of BINDING AND LOOSING, POWER OF.See [407]Keys, Power of the. Bindley, Thomas Herbert BINDLEY, THOMAS HERBERT: Church of England; b. at Smethwick (3 m. n.w. of Birmingham), Staffordshire, Oct. 21, 1861. He was educated at Brownsgrove College, Worcestershire, and Merton College, Oxford (B.A., 1884), and was ordered deacon in 1889 and ordained priest in the following year. He was assistant curate of Ixworth, Suffolk, in 1889, and since 1890 has been principal of Codrington College, Barbados, and examining chaplain to the bishop of Barbados. He became canon of Barbados in 1893 and archdeacon in 1904, while in the following year he was made vicar-general of the diocese. In theology he is a liberal High-churchman. In addition to numerous contributions to theological periodicals, he has translated St. Athanasius de incarnatione Verbi Dei (London, 1887); Tertullian's Apology (London, 1889); Epistle of the Gallican Churches (1900); and St. Cyprian on the Lord's Prayer (1904). He has also edited Tertulliani Apologeticus (Oxford, 1889); Tertulliani De Praescriptione (1893); and OEcumenical Documents of the Faith (London, 1900); and has written The Creeds (1896) and Et incarnates est (New York, 1896). Bingham, Hiram BINGHAM, HIRAM: Congregational missionary; b. at Honolulu, Hawaii, Aug. 16, 1831; d. at Baltimore Oct. 25, 1908. He was educated at Yale College (B.A., 1853) and Andover Theological Seminary (1854-55), and, after acting as principal of the Northampton High School in 1853-54, entered the service of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions in 1856. He began his missionary activity in the Gilbert Islands in 1857, and from 1866 to 1868 was in command of the missionary brig Morning Star. He was corresponding secretary of the board of the Hawaiian Evangelical Association from 1877 to 1880. From 1880-82 he was Hawaiian government protector of South Sea immigrants. In theology he was a conservative. He has written Story of the Morning Star (Boston, 1866); Gilbertese Bible (New York, 1893); Gilbertese Bible Dictionary (Honolulu, 1895); Gilbertese Hymn and Tune Book (New York, 1897); Gilbertese Commentary on Matthew (1904); and Gilbertese Commentary on the Four Gospels (1905). Bingham, Joseph BINGHAM, JOSEPH: Church of England; b. at Wakefield (9 m. s. of Leeds), Yorkshire, Sept., 1668; d. at Havant (6 m. s.e. of Portsmouth), Hampshire, Aug. 17, 1723. He studied at Oxford and was fellow of University College 1689-95, when he resigned and withdrew from the university because his controversial sermon on the Trinity preached before the university had led to the charge, wholly unmerited, of heresy. He was immediately appointed rector of HeadbournWorthy (2 m. n. of Winchester), which made the rich cathedral library accessible to him. In 1712 he was transferred to the better living of Havant. His fame rests upon his Origines Ecclesiasticae, or the Antiquities of the Christian Church (8 vols., London, 1708-22). This is exhaustive for the field it covers and can never be superseded, as it is derived from the sources and interestingly written. It has been a quarry for many books and itself several times reprinted; the best edition is by the great-great-grandson of the author, Rev. Richard Bingham (vols. i-viii of Bingham's Works, 10 vols., Oxford, 1855). There is a separate edition of the Antiquities in the Bohn Library (2 vols.), a Latin translation by Johann Heinrich Grischow (Grischovius; 11 vols., Halle, 1724-38), and an abridged German translation by an anonymous Roman Catholic author (4 vols., Augsburg, 1788-96). Unfortunately Bingham invested his savings in the South Sea Bubble and so lost them in 1720. Bibliography: Bingham's biography by his great-grandson is given in the Oxford ed. of his works. Consult also: J. Darling, Cyclopaedia Bibliographica, pp. 312-315, London, 1854; S. S. Allibone, Critical Dictionary of Eng. Literature, i, 189-190, Philadelphia, 1891; DNB, v, 48-50. Binney, Thomas BINNEY, THOMAS: English Congregationalist; b. at Newcastle-upon-Tyne Apr. 30, 1798; d. at Clapton, London, Feb. 24, 1874. He was for seven years a bookseller's clerk at Newcastle, during which time he learned Greek and Latin and accomplished considerable reading. He studied at the theological seminary at Wymondley, Hertfordshire, and was minister for a year at Bedford; became minister at Newport, Isle of Wight, 1824, of the King's Weigh-House Chapel, Eastcheap, London, 1829, and remained there forty years. After retiring from his pastorate he was professor of homiletics and pastoral theology at New College, London. He was chairman of the Congregational Union in 1848. He was strongly opposed to an established Church, and in 1833 at the laying of the cornerstone of a new chapel for the Weigh-House congregation expressed himself on the subject in language which led to a long and bitter controversy. He felt that the sermon occupied too large a place in the service of the non-ritualistic Churches and favored the introduction of responsive readings and similar changes in the form of worship; his Service of Song in the House of the Lord (London, 1848) exercised much influence in the development of a richer and better musical service, and he enriched the hymnals by the hymn "Eternal light, eternal light." He edited Charles W. Baird's Chapter on Liturgies, adding a preface and an appendix, "Are Dissenters to Have a Liturgy?" (1856). His other publications include a Memoir of Stephen Morell (1826); Dissent Not Schism (1835); a life of Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton (1849); Is it Possible to Make the Best of Both Worlds? (1853); Lights and Shadows, or Church Life in Australia, observations made during a visit in 1857-59 (1860); Money, a Popular Exposition in Rough Notes (1864); St. Paul, his Life and Ministry (1866); Micah the Priest Maker, a handbook on ritualism (1867); From Seventeen to Thirty, a book for young men (1868). Two series of his Sermons Preached in the King's Weigh-House Chapel, 1829-69, were published, the second with biographical sketch by the Rev. H. Allon (1869-75). Bibliography: Besides the sketch in the volume of his sermons, the following may be consulted: A Memorial of the late Rev. Thomas Binney, ed. J. Stoughton, London, 1874; E. P. Hood, Thomas Binney, his Mind, Life and Opinions, ib. 1874; DNB, v, 57-59. Binterim, Anton Josef BINTERIM, ANTON JOSEF: German Catholic theologian; b. at Duesseldorf Sept. 19, 1779; d. at Bilk (n. suburb of Duesseldorf) May 17, 1855. After receiving his first education in his native city, he entered the Franciscan order in 1796 and studied philosophy and theology at Dueren and Aachen for five years and a half. Returning to Duesseldorf, he was ordained priest at Cologne (Sept. 19, 1802). The suppression of the monasteries on the right bank of the Rhine in the following year, however, obliged him to become a secular priest, and in 1805, after passing the required examination, he was appointed to the ancient and extensive parish of Bilk, where he remained until his death. Binterim was an enthusiastic propagandist of ultramontanism, and to this cause he devoted the greater part of his prolific literary activity. He also defended the Jesuits and upheld the authenticity of the Holy Coat of Treves, while with equal consistency he opposed the followers of [408]Georg Hermes and Catholic "rationalism." In 1837, with his elder brother, he had founded and endowed the vicarage of St. Anthony of Padua at Bilk, and in honor of his jubilee the first impulse toward the establishment of the Historischer Verein fuer den Niederrhein was given in 1852. In his devotion to the Church he was imprisoned for six months in 1838 for opposing mixed marriages. (Victor Schultze.) Bibliography: Among the numerous publications of Binterim special mention may be made of the following: Ueber Ehe und Ehescheidung nach Gotteswort und dem Geiste der katholischen Kirche (Duesseldorf, 1819); Calendarium ecclesiae Germanicae Coloniensis saeculi noni (Cologne, 1824); Die vorzueglichsten Denkwuerdigkeiten der christ-katholischen Kirche (7 vols., Mainz, 1825-41); Die katholische Kirche, ein Gegensatz des Rationalismus und Aftermysticismus (Duesseldorf, 1827); Die alte und neue Erzdioecese Koeln (4 vols., 1828-30); Ueber die zweckmaessige Einrichtung des uralten katholischen Gottesdienstes und den heilsamen Gebrauch der lateinischen Sprache bei demselben (1832); Ueber den Gebrauch des Christenblutes bei den Juden (1834); Pragmatische Geschichte der deutschen Concilien (7 vols., 1835-49); Der katholische Bruderund Schwesterbund zu einer rein katholischen Ehe (1838); De proepiscopia sive suffraganeis Coloniensibus extraordinariis (Mainz, 1843); Zeugnisse fuer die Echtheit des heiligen Rockes zu Trier (3 parts, Duesseldorf, 1845-46); Die geistlichen Gerichte vom 12.-19. Jahrhundert (2 parts, 1849); Der heilige Hilarius (Leipsic, 1851); Hermann II., Erzbischof von Koeln (Duesseldorf, 1851); Ueber den Hostienhandel in Deutschland und Frankreich (2d ed., 1852); and Die geheimen Vorschriften der Jesuiten (Monita Secreta), ein altes Luegenwerk (1853). For his life consult: ADS, vol. ii; K. Werner, Geschichte der katholischen Theologie seit dem Trienter Konzil bis zur Gegenwart, pp. 391-393; KL, ii, 848-854 (in considerable detail). Birch, Thomas BIRCH, THOMAS: Church of England clergyman and author; b. in London Nov. 23, 1705; d. there Jan. 9, 1766. He was ordained priest in 1731, although of Quaker parentage and without a university education; was an ardent Whig and, having influential patrons, received many good preferments, holding at the time of his death the rectories of St. Margaret Pattens, London, and Depden, Suffolk. He was an indefatigable writer, and his works have been criticized as showing more industry than judgment; they include a number of volumes relating to English history; lives of Robert Boyle (London, 1744), Archbishop Tillotson (1752), and others, as well as most of the English biographies in the General Dictionary (10 vols., 1734-41); editions of Milton's prose (1738), Sir Walter Raleigh's works (1751), and the works and letters of Lord Bacon (1765); History of the Royal Society of London (4 vols., 1756-57); numerous communications in the "Philosophical Transactions" and other periodical publications. Bibliography: J. Nichols, Literary Anecdotes of the Eighteenth Century, i, 585-637, ii, 507, iii, 258, v, 40-43, 53, 282-290, London, 1812-15; DNB, v, 68-70. Bird, Frederic Mayer BIRD, FREDERIC MAYER: Protestant Episcopalian; b. at Philadelphia June 28, 1838; d. in South Bethlehem, Pa., Apr. 3, 1908. He was educated at the University of Pennsylvania (B.A., 1857) and Union Theological Seminary (1860). He was ordained to the Lutheran ministry in 1860, and after serving as an army-chaplain in 1862-63, held several pastorates. In 1870 he became Protestant Episcopal rector of Spotswood, N. J., from 1870 to 1874. Seven years later he was appointed professor of psychology, Christian ethics, and rhetoric in Lehigh University, remaining there in this capacity, as well as in that of chaplain, until 1886. He was also acting chaplain there in 1896-98, and from 1893 to 1898 was editor of Lippincott's Magazine. In the latter year be became associate editor of Chandler's Encyclopedia. In addition to numerous contributions to periodicals and encyclopedias, including most of the American matter in Julian's Dictionary of Hymnology (London, 1892), he has edited Charles Wesley Seen in his Finer land Less Familiar Poems ( New York, 1867); the Hymns of the Lutheran Pennsylvania ministerium (Philadelphia, 1865; in collaboration with S. M. Schmucker); and Songs of the Spirit (New York, 1871; in collaboration with Bishop W. H. Odenheimer). He made a noteworthy collection of hymnology, now in Union Theological Seminary, New York City. Biretta BIRETTA. See [409]Vestments and Insignia, Ecclesiastical. Birgitta, St., and the Birgittine Order BIRGITTA, ST., AND THE BIRGITTINE ORDER. See [410]Bridget, Saint, of Sweden. Birinus, Saint BIRINUS, SAINT: First bishop of the West Saxons; d. Dec. 3, 650. He was a Benedictine monk at Rome and was given a missionary commission by Pope Honorius I. After being consecrated bishop at Genoa by Asterius, archbishop of Milan, he landed in Wessex about 634. He baptized its king, Cynegils, in 635, Oswald of Northumbria standing as sponsor. He fixed his see at Dorchester (now a small village, 8 m. s.e. of Oxford), and gained influence in Wessex and Mercia. Cwichelm, the son of Cynegils, was baptized in 636; Cuthred, Cwichelm's son, in 639; Cenwalh, the brother and successor of Cynegils, in 646. Bibliography: Bede, Hist. ecel., iii, 7. Bishop BISHOP: A spiritual overseer in the Christian Church. The origin of the office, its historic development, and theories of its relative dignity will be found discussed in the article [411]Polity; for views of different communions concerning the office, see [412]Episcopacy; this article will deal mainly with the selection of bishops and their duties. Election and Consecration. In the Roman Catholic Church the bishop holds the first place in the hierarchy, not as belonging to a separate order, but as having the fulness of the priesthood. Conditions for consecration are the following: legitimate birth, the age of thirty years, eminent learning, and moral probity. In the ordinary case the candidate is supposed also to be a native of the country and acceptable to the government. The choice of the person belongs, on the curialist theory, to the pope; but in practise it is generally left to the chapter, either by election, or when there are canonical impediments to be removed, as when translation from another see is required, by [413]Postulation; or it may occur through nomination by the government. The candidate must then receive the papal confirmation, after examination as to his fitness. This is made first by a papal delegate in the place of the election (processus informativus in partibus electi), after which a second investigation takes place at Rome, by the committee of cardinals appointed for the purpose (congregatio examinis episcoporum); this second examination is called processus electionis definitivus in curia. If both prove favorable to the candidate, he is confirmed, preconized, and put in possession of his powers of jurisdiction, though not, of course, of those pertaining to orders until his consecration, which is supposed to occur within three months. It is administered by a bishop designated by the pope, with the assistance of two other bishops or prelates, in the cathedral of the new bishop's diocese. The candidate takes the ancient oath of fidelity to the pope (substantially the same as that prescribed by Gregory VII in 1079), signs the profession of faith, and then, after he has been duly consecrated according to the form laid down in the Roman Pontifical, is solemnly enthroned. An oath of allegiance to the government of the country is also usually administered before consecration. Rights and Duties. The rights or powers of a bishop may be considered under three heads--as pertaining to his orders, to his jurisdiction, and to his dignity. As to the first, he has all the jura ordinis of the fulness of the priesthood, including, besides those powers which every priest shares with him, the special episcopal prerogatives of administering ordination and confirmation, of consecrating the holy oils, churches, and sacred objects in general, of benediction of abbots and abbesses, and of anointing sovereigns. The rights of jurisdiction, in the broad sense, embrace the bishop's whole power of ruling his diocese as its chief pastor. Sometimes, however, the term lex jurisdictionis is applied specially to his legislative and executive functions (for the jurisdictio contentiosa and coercitiva--i.e., the power of hearing cases and pronouncing and enforcing judgment--see [414]Audientia Episcopalis; [415]Jurisdiction, Ecclesiastical), while the expression lex dioecesana refers to his right to the various church taxes. These rights belong to the bishop as bishop, and in regard to them he is judex ordinarius, "the ordinary"; but he often holds other powers specially delegated to him as representative of the pope (see [416]Faculties). Finally, in regard to his dignity, he takes ecclesiastical rank, in virtue of his exalted office, immediately after the cardinals, and bears various customary titles of honor, being addressed as " Right Reverend," "My Lord," etc. In many places he also enjoys secular precedence; and he has his special insignia and vestments (see [417]Vestments and Insignia, Ecclesiastical). To these prerogatives corresponding duties are attached, including not only the cure of souls, but residence in his diocese, and a visit to Rome to report upon its condition at fixed intervals, varying with the distance. Since the bishop is naturally unable to exercise all the rights and duties above described in person throughout his entire diocese, he has always had special assistants--in early times the archdeacons and archpriests, later his chapter and variously designated functionaries, vicars-general and the like, as well as, for those things which pertain to the power of orders, coadjutor or assistant bishops. See the articles under these titles. In the Protestant Churches the episcopate in the Roman Catholic sense has not been preserved. In the early days of the Reformation in Germany, the assaults of the Reformers were directed not so much against the episcopal power in itself as against abuses in its exercise; until 1545 the question was debated on what conditions the adherents of the evangelical doctrine could agree to submit to the existing bishops of the old Church. The Lutheran confessions of faith recognize as of divine right only the pastoral function in the bishop's office; all else is of merely human institution, and may be abolished by the same power that created it. Since, however, they laid down no definite form of ecclesiastical polity as ordained by God, they could and did declare themselves willing to recognize these powers still, so long as the bishops would allow freedom to teach the pure doctrine and tolerate the priests who preached it. Some bishops fulfilled the condition and accepted the evangelical doctrine; but this semblance of episcopal government had clearly nothing in common with the pre-Reformation episcopate except the name and certain forms. Elsewhere, as in Schwerin and later at Osnabrueck and Luebeck, the name bishop was definitely used for an official appointed by the ruling power, in no sense ecclesiastical. The attempt to prove that the German Reformation deliberately intended to retain episcopal government is quite useless, though the tendency which it represents has had adherents, among whom were Frederick William IV and Bunsen. Where the title has been employed in the modern evangelical Church of Germany, it represents nothing more than a general superintendent. The bishops of England, Sweden, and Denmark are also not bishops in the strict sense understood by the Roman Catholics; their institutions rest on special historical grounds which are beyond the scope of this article. (E. Friedberg.) In the Church of England there are three classes of bishops: the diocesan bishops, taking their titles (with a few exceptions of recently founded sees) from the old pre-Reformation dioceses; suffragan bishops, bearing likewise territorial titles; and assistant bishops. The diocesan bishops are nominally elected by the chapters of their cathedrals, but practically are appointed by the Crown, which sends a nomination to the chapter with the conge d'elire. Suffragan bishops are also nominated by the Crown, while assistant bishops are appointed by the prelate under whom they are to serve. Their appointment is revocable at his pleasure; that of suffragans is for life. None of these classes has any jurisdiction independent of its superior. With the first extension of the Anglican colonial episcopate, the English government attempted to claim the same right of nomination as at home; but this claim was abandoned, and the colonial bishops are now elected either by the clergy or by the deliberative assemblies of their dioceses. In the Episcopal Church of the United States, bishops are elected by the diocesan conventions: their election must then be confirmed by a majority of the other bishops and "standing committees." Assistant bishops in this Church are now known as bishops-coadjutor, and have the right of succession on the death of the diocesan bishop. In England bishops are frequently "translated" from one see to another; in the United States, bishops of missionary jurisdictions may be elected to a diocesan see, but this is all. Throughout the Anglican communion consecration by three other bishops is required. Every English bishop at his consecration takes the oaths of allegiance to the sovereign and canonical obedience to his metropolitan; in the United States each bishop is independent, subject only to the general law of the Church as formulated by the General Convention, the office of presiding bishop being almost purely honorary. Throughout the Anglican communion the administration of certain quasisacramental rites (confirmation, ordination, consecration of churches, etc.) is strictly reserved to the bishop, who also has a power of ordinary jurisdiction in some measure resembling that exercised by the Roman Catholic prelates. The two English archbishops, the bishops of London, Winchester, and Durham, and most of the other bishops (the number corresponding to that of the more ancient sees), as "spiritual lords," have seats in the upper house of parliament. The American Methodist Episcopal Church also has its bishops, who are elected in any number required by the General Conference. They have joint jurisdiction throughout the Church, being confined to no diocese or districts, though for practical reasons the General Conference designates episcopal residences at its quadrennial sessions. Their functions are purely executive--they preside at conferences, arrange districts for presiding elders, fix appointments of preachers, and, especially, travel throughout the Church to promote its spiritual and temporal interests. No distinction of order is recognized between them and other ministers. Bibliography: Consult Bingham, Origines, books iv, v, ix, xvi, xvii, for the election of bishops and the exercise of discipline; P. Hergenroether, Lehrbuch des katholischen Kirchenrechts, Freiburg, 1905. On the general subject consult works cited in [418]Church Government. Bishop, Nathan BISHOP, NATHAN: Baptist layman; b. of New England stock at Vernon, Oneida County, N. Y., Aug. 12, 1808; d. at Saratoga Aug. 7, 1880. He was graduated at Brown 1837, and elected tutor; was superintendent of schools in Providence 1838-51, in Boston 1851-57. Removing to New York, he became an active member of the Sabbath Committee, manager of the American Bible Society, a member of the Christian Commission during the Civil War, and of the Indian Commission appointed by President Grant in 1869; he was also a member of the New York State Board of Charities, a delegate of the Evangelical Alliance to the Czar of Russia in behalf of religious liberty in the Baltic provinces in 1871, a trustee of Brown University from 1842, and one of the original board of trustees of Vassar College. For two years he served gratuitously as secretary of the American Baptist Home Mission Society, and he was chairman of the finance committee of the American Bible Revision Committee till his death. (P. Schaff) D. S. Schaff. Bishop (Episcopus) in Partibus Infidelium BISHOP (EPISCOPUS) IN PARTIBUS INFIDELIUM. See [419]Bishop, Titular. Bishop, Titular BISHOP, TITULAR: According to the old law of the Church, only one bishop was consecrated for a diocese; and none was consecrated at large or without a definite diocese (First Council of Nicaea, canon viii). If, therefore, occasion arose for the designation of a representative to perform episcopal functions in the place of an incapacitated bishop, it was necessary to call upon some neighboring bishop or one who happened to be in those parts (see [420]Coadjutor). In the ninth and tenth centuries, certain Spanish bishops who had been driven from their sees by the Saracens, and in the tenth some from Prussia and Livonia who were in a similar position, served in this capacity. The same service was rendered in the fourteenth century by the bishops of sees founded in the East during the crusades and afterward occupied by the Mohammedans. So, even after all hope of the recovery of these territories had been abandoned, bishops continued to be consecrated for these dioceses, called episcopi in partibus infidelium ("bishops in the regions of the unbelieving") until 1882, when Leo XIII ordered the use of the designation episcopi titulares. Their functions are various. In the first place, they serve as auxiliary or coadjutor bishops in dioceses where the need exists, when the diocesan makes a request to the pope for such an assignment, naming a suitable person, and giving assurance for his support. The coadjutor of course possesses all the jura ordinis like any other bishop, but exercises them only at the direction of his superior, and he has not, ex officio, the other prerogatives of a diocesan bishop (see [421]Bishop). Apostolic vicars, who administer missionary districts not formed into dioceses are usually consecrated bishops, and so are certain Roman functionaries who are members of the great congregations, and papal nuncios and other diplomatic representatives. Titular bishops are also consecrated for certain special purposes, such as the administration of holy orders to the Uniat Greeks of Italy, and the spiritual oversight of the military and naval forces of certain countries (see [422]Exemption). (P. Hinschius.) Bibliography: L. Thomassin, Vetus et nova ecclesiae disciplina, part I, book i, chaps. 27-28, Lucca, 1728; A. H. Andnucci, Tractatus de episcopo titulari, Rome, 1732; J. C. Moeller, Geschichte der Weihbischoefe von Osnabrueck, Lingen, 1887. Bishopric, or Diocese BISHOPRIC, or DIOCESE: The territory over which the jurisdiction of a bishop extends. The origin of such divisions goes back to the foundation and growth of the very early Christian communities. When the apostles founded a church in a city, the faithful living there (Gk. paroikoi, parepidemoi; cf. Eph. ii, 19; I Pet. ii, 11) formed a community (paroikia) which gradually took more definite shape under the leadership of the presbyters or bishops, and gained adherents outside the town. At first these latter attended divine service in the city, until their numbers increased sufficiently to form a separate dependent community, the term paroikia being applied to the larger territory equally. In the West the name parochia retained this sense until the ninth century, when it became restricted to single parishes in the modern sense, the bishop's jurisdiction being known as dioecesis (already in use to designate a civil governor's jurisdiction). The latter word in the East, following the analogy of civil divisions, was applied to the district ruled by a patriarch. In Gaul the ecclesiastical unit was constituted out of the chief town of a district and its annexed territory (conventus, Gk. dioikesis), which in the Frankish period corresponded to the jurisdiction of a count. In Germany the original diocese was larger, and the Gau was coterminous with its subdivision of archdeaconry or deanery. The erection or redistribution of dioceses was from the fourth century a function of the metropolitan and the provincial synod; in Germany from the eighth century it was carried out under papal supervision. From the eleventh century it has been reserved to the pope; but in Germany the joint action of the state has been required, the matter being considered a causa mixta. (E. Friedberg.) Bibliography: L. Thomassin, Vetus et nova ecclesiae disciplina, part I, book iii, Lucca, 1728; R. Hooker, Ecclesiastical Polity, book viii, chap. 8, best ed., by Keble, 3 vols., Oxford, 1845; H. Milman, History of Christianity, book iv, London, 1867; W. T. Arnold, Roman System of Provincial Administration, London, 1879; Bingham, Origines, Books iv-v, ix; KL, ii, 878-888. Bishops' Book, The BISHOPS' BOOK, THE: A work published at London in 1537, compiled by a commission of English bishops and clergymen, of which the full title is The Institution of a Christian Man, containing the exposition or interpretation of the common creed, of the seven sacraments, of the x commandments and of the pater noster, and of the ave maria, justification, and purgatory. It reflects the conditions of the time in maintaining that the authority of the pope is a human institution, while not denying that the Church of Rome is a part of the Church Universal. It is reprinted in Formularies of Faith Put Forth by Authority during the Reign of Henry VIII, edited by C. Lloyd, bishop of Oxford (Oxford, 1825). Consult C. Hardwick, A History of the Christian Church during the Reformation (6th ed., London, 1877). Bissell, Edwin Cone BISSELL, EDWIN CONE: American Congregationalist; b. at Schoharie, N. Y., Mar. 2, 1832; d. at Chicago Apr. 10, 1894. He was graduated at Amherst 1855, and at Union Theological Seminary, New York, 1859; was pastor of Congregational churches at Westhampton, Mass., 1859-64, San Francisco, 1864-69, Winchester, Mass., 1871-73; missionary of the American Board in Austria 1874-79; became Nettleton professor of Hebrew and Old Testament exegesis in the Hartford Theological Seminary 1881, and of Old Testament exegesis and literature in McCormick Theological Seminary, Chicago, 1892. During his pastorate at Westhampton he raised a company of the fifty-second regiment, Massachusetts volunteers, and served as its captain under Gen. Banks at Port Hudson 1862-63. In 1869-70 he supplied the pulpit of the Congregational Church at Honolulu, Sandwich Islands. He published The Historic Origin of the Bible (New York, 1873); The Apocrypha of the Old Testament (a revised translation, introduction, and notes, vol. xv of the American Lange series, 1880); The Pentateuch, its origin and structure (1885); Biblical Antiquities (Philadelphia, 1888); A Practical Introductory Hebrew Grammar (Hartford, 1891); Genesis Printed in Colors, showing the original sources from which it is supposed to have been compiled, with introduction (1892). Bithynia BITHYNIA. See [423]Asia Minor in the Apostolic Time, VI. Bizochi BIZOCHI. See [424]Fraticelli. Bjoerling, Carl Olof BJOeRLING, biUr'ling, CARL OLOF: Swedish theologian; b. at Westeraas (60 m. w.n.w. of Stockholm), Sweden, Sept. 16, 1804; d. there Jan. 20, 1884. He studied at the University of Upsala; became bishop of Westeraas, 1866, having long been connected as teacher and rector with the Gefle gymnasium. He was the author of several learned works, including a treatise on Christian dogmatics (2 parts, 1847-75), which attracted considerable attention in Germany, and shows his firm adherence to the Augsburg Confession. Black Fathers BLACK FATHERS. See [425]Holy Ghost, Orders and Congregations of the, II, 6. Black Friars BLACK FRIARS: A name given in England to Dominican monks because of the color of their dress. Black, Hugh BLACK, HUGH: Scotch Presbyterian; b. at Rothesay (40 m. w. of Glasgow), Buteshire, Mar. 26, 1868. He was graduated from Glasgow University in 1887 and the Free Church College, Glasgow, in 1891, and was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry in the latter year. He was pastor of Sherwood Church, Paisley, 1891-96, and became associate pastor of St. George's Free Church, Edinburgh, 1896. He lectured on homiletics at Union Theological Seminary, New York, in 1905, and in 1906 became professor of practical theology in that institution. He has written The Dream of Youth (London, 1894); Friendship (1897); Culture and Restraint (1901); Work (1903); The Practice of Self-Culture (1904); and Comfort (1906). Black Jews BLACK JEWS. See [426]Church of God, 2. Black Rubric BLACK RUBRIC: The popular name for the declaration enjoining kneeling at the end of the order for the administration of the Lord's Supper in the prayer-book of the Church of England, so called because it was printed in black letter in the prayer-book as revised by [427]William Sancroft in 1661. It is not, strictly speaking, a rubric at all as it is intended for the direction of the people and not for the officiating clergy. Nor did Sancroft originate it, as it dates back to the second prayer-book of Edward VI (1552), whose council ordered that the communicants should receive the elements kneeling, and explained in the "rubric" that this attitude was not used to express belief in transubstantiation. The "rubric" was omitted in the Elizabethan prayer-book of 1559, and this omission was one of the cherished grievances of the Puritans. In the Savoy Conference of 1661 the Presbyterians demanded its restoration, but the bishops were not at the time inclined to grant it; at the last moment, however, it was replaced and so it appears in the revised prayer-book of Charles II and is still retained in the English prayer-book. It was removed from the prayer-book as revised for the American Episcopal Church in 1789. Blackwood, William BLACKWOOD, WILLIAM: Presbyterian; b. at Dromara, County Down, Ireland, June 1, 1804; d. in Baltimore Md., Nov. 13, 1893. He was graduated at the Royal College, Belfast, 1832; became pastor successively of the Presbyterian churches of Holywood, near Belfast, 1835; of Trinity Church, Newcastle-on-Tyne, 1843; and of the Ninth Church, Philadelphia, Penn., 1850. He was secretary to the Education Committee of the Irish Presbyterian Church, 1834-40; mathematical examiner of students under care of the Synod of Ulster, 1839-43; and was moderator of the Presbyterian Church in England, 1846. He published, with other works, essays on Missions to the Heathen (Belfast, 1830); Atonement, Faith, and Assurance (Philadelphia, 1856); Bellarmine's Notes of the Church (1858); and edited the papers of the late Rev. Richard Webster, with introduction and indexes, and published them under the title Webster's History of the Presbyterian Church (Philadelphia, 1857); also the Biblical, Theological, Biographical, and Literary Encyclopaedia, (2 vols., 1873-76). Blaikie, William Garden BLAIKIE, WILLIAM GARDEN: Free Church of Scotland; b. at Aberdeen Feb. 5, 1820; d. at North Berwick June 11, 1899. He studied at Marischal College and at Edinburgh (M.A., Aberdeen, 1837); was ordained minister of the Established Church at Drumblade, Aberdeenshire, 1842; joined the Free Church of Scotland, 1843; was minister of Pilrig, Edinburgh, 1844-68; professor of apologetics and pastoral theology in New College, Edinburgh, 1868-97. With the Rev. William Arnot he was delegate from the Free Church of Scotland to the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church of the United States at Philadelphia in 1870 to convey congratulations on union; he took a leading part in the Alliance of the Reformed Churches; was deeply interested in measures to improve the condition of the poor and the working classes; and active in behalf of home missions, temperance, church extension, and all the work of the Free Church. In 1892 he was moderator of the General Assembly. He edited The Free Church Magazine 1849-53, The North British Review 1860-1863, The Sunday Magazine 1873-74, and The Catholic Presbyterian 1879-83. Bibliography: The more important of his many books were Bible History in Connection with the General History of the World, London, 1859; Better Days for the Working People, 1863 (originally published as Six Lectures Addressed to the Working Classes on the Improvement of their Temporal Condition, Edinburgh, 1849); Heads and Hands in the World of Labor, 1865; For the Work of the Ministry, a Manual of Homiletical and Pastoral Theology, 1873; Glimpses of the Inner Life of our Lord, 1876; The Personal Life of David Livingstone, 1880; The Public Ministry and Pastoral Methods of our Lord, 1883; Leaders in Modern Philanthropy, 1884; Robert Rollock, first Principal of the University of Edinburgh, 1884; The Preachers of Scotland from the Sixth to the Nineteenth Century (Cunningham Lectures for 1888); Thomas Chalmers, Edinburgh, 1896; David Brown, a Memoir, London, 1898. He also edited Memorials of the Late Andrew Crichton, 1868, and James Walker's Theology and Theologians of Scotland, 1872; wrote five of the Present Day Tracts, 1883-1885; contributed the "Expositions and Homiletics" for the Epistle to the Ephesians in the Pulpit Commentary, and prepared the Books of Joshua and Samuel for the Expositor's Bible. For his life consult his Autobiography, edited with introduction by N. L. Walker, London, 1901, and DNB, supplement vol. i, 212-213. Blair, Hugh BLAIR, HUGH: Church of Scotland; b. in Edinburgh Apr. 7, 1718; d. there Dec. 27, 1800. He studied in the local university; became minister of Colessie, Fifeshire, 1742; second minister of the Canongate Church, Edinburgh, 1743; minister of Lady Yester's 1754; was transferred to the High Church 1758. From 1759 he lectured in the University so acceptably on rhetoric and belles-lettres, that in 1760 he was appointed the town council professor in that department, and from 1762 to 1783 was the royal professor; when on resigning he published his lectures (2 vols.) he became one of the most famous authors of works on rhetoric in the English language and retained the position for a century. In 1780 he received a pension of -L-200 a year. To his own generation he was a most acceptable preacher and his sermons continued to be read and to be translated far into the nineteenth century. Their simplicity, excellent style, and high morality account for their vogue, but their lack of depth in thought and spirituality have caused them to lose popularity. Bibliography: Sketches of Blair's life were appended to vol. v of his sermons by J. Finlayson, London, 1801; consult also John Hill, An Account of the Life and Writings of H. Blair, Edinburgh, 1807; DNB, v, 160-161. Blair, James BLAIR, JAMES: Virginia colonial Episcopal clergyman; b. in Scotland in 1656; d. at Williamsburg, Va., Apr. 18, 1743. He was graduated M.A. at Edinburgh in 1673; became a clergyman of the Episcopal Church of Scotland and was rector of Cranston in the diocese of Edinburgh. In the latter part of the reign of Charles II he went to England and was persuaded by Dr. Compton, bishop of London, to emigrate to Virginia, where he arrived in 1685; he was minister of Henrico parish till 1694, at Jamestown till 1710, and at Williamsburg the rest of his life. In 1689 he was appointed by the bishop of London commissar, for Virginia, the highest church office in the colony, the duties of which were practically those of a bishop exclusive of ordination. After 1793 he was member of the colonial Council and for many years its president. He was a man of sterling character and great ability, and worked with persistent zeal and energy to promote the religious and material welfare of Virginia. He did much to elevate the character of the colonial clergy. With several of the governors he had bitter disputes and was influential in securing their removal. He was founder and first president of William and Mary College, for which he procured a charter in England in 1693, and which he made a success in spite of great difficulties and discouragements. He published four volumes containing 117 sermons on Our Savior's Divine Sermon on the Mount (London, 1722) and with Henry Hartwell and Edward Chilton prepared The Present State of Virginia and the College (London, 1727). Bibliography: D. E. Motley, The Life of Commissary James Blair, in Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science, series xix, no. 10, Baltimore, 1901; DNB, v, 161-162. Blair, Samuel BLAIR, SAMUEL: American Presbyterian; b. in Ireland June 14, 1712; d. at Londonderry, Penn., July 5, 1751. He came early to America; studied at Tennent's "Log College" at Neshaminy; was ordained pastor of Middletown and Shrewsbury, N. J., 1734; in 1739 removed to Londonderry or Fagg's Manor (40 m. w.s.w. of Philadelphia), Chester County, Penn., and established there a school after the model of the "Log College." He was an adherent of Gilbert Tennent in the controversies of his time. His principal writings were collected by his brother, Rev. John Blair (Philadelphia, 1754); they include sermons, a treatise on predestination and reprobation, and an account of a revival in his congregation at Londonderry. Bibliography: Consult the biographical sketch in A. Alexander, The Founder and Principal Alumni of the Log College, pp. 164-196, Philadelphia, 1851. Blair, William BLAIR, WILLIAM: United Free Church of Scotland; b. at Cluny (23 m. s.w. of St. Andrews), Fifeshire, Jan. 13, 1830. He studied at the University of St. Andrews (M.A., 1850), and in 1856 was ordained to the United Presbyterian ministry at Dunblane, Perthshire. He was clerk to the Stirling Presbytery for twenty-five years, and to the United Presbyterian Synod 1894-1900; since 1900 he has been clerk to the United Free Church General Assembly, and was moderator of the United Presbyterian Synod in 1898-99. He has been chaplain to the famous Black Watch since 1892, a member of the University Court of St. Andrews University since 1903. In theology he adheres strictly to the Westminster Confession. He has written Chronicles of Aberbrothoc (Arbroath, 1853); Rambling Recollections: or, Scenes worth Seeing (Edinburgh, 1857); Archbishop Leighton, Life with Selections (London, 1883); Jubilee Memorial Volume (Edinburgh, 1887); History and Principles of the United Presbyterian Church (1888); and Robert Leighton, Extracts and Introduction (London, 1907). Blaise, Saint BLAISE, SAINT. See [428]Helpers in Need. Blakeslee, Erastus BLAKESLEE, ERASTUS: Congregationalist; b. at Plymouth, Conn., Sept. 2, 1838; d. at Brookline, Mass., July 12, 1908. While a sophomore at Yale in 1861 he enlisted as a cavalryman. He was mustered out in 1865 as brevet brigadier-general of volunteers. After a business career he studied in Andover Theological Seminary from 1876 to 1879, and entered the Congregational ministry. He had three charges, at Greenfield, Mass., Fairhaven, Conn., and at Spencer, Mass. (1887-92), and resigned the last that he might give his whole time to the preparation and publication of the "Bible Study Union Lessons," which are not only widely used in this country, but translated into several missionary languages. With the teachers' aids, issued separately, more than 160 volumes of lessons were published. Frank Sanders. Blanckmeister, Franz Theodor BLANCKMEISTER, FRANZ THEODOR: German Lutheran; b. at Plauen (21 m. s.w. of Zwickau) Feb. 4, 1858. After studying at Leipsic from 1877 to 1880 and teaching for a year, he entered the ministry, and has been, since 1897, pastor of Trinity Church in Dresden. In theology he is extremely Protestant and an adverse critic of the Roman Catholic Church. Of his numerous publications may be mentioned Alte Geschichte aus dem Sachsenlande (3 vols., Barmen, 1886-89); Sachsenspiegel (Dresden, 1897; 2d ed., 1902); and Saechsische Kirchengeschichte (1899; 2d ed., 1906). Blandina, Saint BLANDINA, SAINT: A martyr who was among the victims of the persecution in Lyons under Marcus Aurelius. In the account of that persecution given by the Christian community there, and preserved by Eusebius (Hist. eccl., v, 1), the courage of the young slave girl is specially extolled; and she is singled out for mention by name, an honor which she shares with only seven of the other martyrs, including the bishop Pothinus. (A. Hauck.) Blandrata, Georgius BLANDRATA, GEORGIUS: Italian Unitarian; b. about 1515 at Saluzzo (17 miles n.w. of Coni), Piedmont; d. after 1585. He migrated to Poland, where he became physician to Sigismund I, then went to Transylvania and served the widow of Jan Zapolya in a like capacity. Having returned to Italy, he went to Pavia, and became an object of suspicion on account of his radical utterances on theology, but escaped the Inquisition by going to Geneva. There he debated with Martinenghi, the preacher of the Italian congregation, also with Calvin, especially concerning the doctrine of the Trinity, which he regarded as endangering the doctrine of the unity of God. He regarded speculation on the relation of the three persons as unnecessary (F. Trechsel, Protestantische Antitrinitarier, 4 parts, Bern, 1841-42, ii, 467; CR, xvii, 2871). Calvin replied in his Responsum ad quaestiones G. Blandratae (Geneva, 1559). As some members of the congregation sided with Blandrata, Calvin had a confession signed which condemned the antitrinitarian doctrine. Blandrata went to Zurich, then again to Poland, where he was received by Prince Radziwill and took part in several synods (cf. H. Dalton, Lasciana, Berlin, 1898, iv), but Calvin's repeated warnings against him, stigmatizing him as "a foul pest," prevented any lasting activity. In 1563 Blandrata went again to Transylvania and openly professed Unitarianism, being assisted by Prince Stephen Bathori, afterward king of Poland. Faustus Socinus accused Blandrata of having separated from his coreligionists out of avarice; at any rate, tired of the conflict, he ceased to take part in public affairs. K. Benrath. Bibliography: Many of the letters of Blandrata are printed in CR, vols. xvii-xxi. Sources for a biography are: C. Sandius, Bibliotheca antitrinitariorum, Freistadt, 1684; S. Libienski, Historia reformationis Polonicae, ib. 1685. Consult V. Malacarne, Commentario delle opere e della vicendi di G. Biandrata, Padua, 1814; O. Fock, Der Socinianismus, Kiel, 1847; and J. H. Allen, Historical Sketch of the Unitarian Movement, New York, 1894. Blasphemy BLASPHEMY (Gk. blasphemia, "a speech or word of evil omen "): Properly any species of calumny and detraction, but technically limited to evil-speaking of God or things held sacred. The conception that such an act is a crime may be traced back to Judaism, whose code imposed death by stoning as a punishment (Lev. xxiv, 15-16; Matt. xxvi, 65; John x, 33). The later Roman law also attached the death penalty (Nov. Justin., LXXVII, i, 1-2). In the earlier church law, blasphemy is not mentioned as a punishable offense. Pope Gregory IX (1227-41) prescribed penance for public blasphemy against God, the saints, or the Virgin; the guilty person must stand for seven Sundays at the church porch during the mass, on the last of the seven without cloak or shoes; he must fast the Fridays preceding on bread and water, and give alms according to his means. The civil authorities were also admonished to impose a fine. By the end of the century the offense came to be more definitely defined as any depreciatory or opprobrious expression concerning God, Christ, or the Holy Spirit, such as the denial of a divine attribute, or the ascription of something unseemly (as falsehood or revenge), or wishing ill to or in any way dishonoring God, the saints, or the Virgin. Leo X (1513-21) imposed fines according to the ability of the offender and bodily punishments which included flogging, boring the tongue, and condemnation to the galleys in extreme cases. Later a tendency to substitute admonition and exhortation for severe penalties becomes apparent. By the common law of England, and in many of the United States by statute law, blasphemy is an indictable offense; prosecutions, however, have become infrequent. (P. Hinschius.) The blasphemy against the Holy Ghost which is pronounced unpardonable (Matt. xii, 31; Mark iii, 29; Luke xii, 10) is best understood to be wilful and persistent resistance to the influences and warnings of God, which renders the subject in capable of repentance and pardon. See [429]Holy Spirit, II. Bibliography: J. D. Michaelis, Mosaeisches Recht, part v, S: 251, Frankfort, 1770-75, Eng. transl., London, 1810; P. Hinschius, Das Kirchenrecht in Deutschland, iv, p. 793, n. 3, v, 184, 318-319, 325, 699, vi, 188, Berlin, 1869-98; Blackstone, Commentaries, IV, 4, iv; Sir J. F. Stephen, History of the Criminal Law of England, ii, 469-476, London, 1883; Bishop, Commentaries, X, x; DB, i, 305-306; EB, i, 589-590. Blass, Friedrich Wilhelm BLASS, FRIEDRICH WILHELM: German Protestant classical scholar; b. at Osnabrueck (30 m. n.e. of Muenster) Jan. 22, 1843; d. at Halle Mar. 5, 1907. He studied in Goettingen (1860-61) and Bonn (1861-63; Ph.D., 1863), and after being a teacher in gymnasia at Bielefeld (1864-66), Naumburg-an-der-Saale (1866-70), Magdeburg (1870-73), and Stettin (1873-74), became privat-docent at Koenigsberg in 1874. Two years later he was appointed associate professor at Kiel, where he was promoted to the rank of full professor in 1881. From 1892 he was professor of classical philology at Halle. Besides editions of Greek authors and inscriptions, and several works on strictly classical themes, he published Philology of the Gospels (London, 1898) and Grammatik des neutestamentlichen Griechisch (Goettingen,1896; Eng. transl. by H. St. J. Thackeray, London, 1898), and edited Acta Apostolorum (Goettingen,1895; minor edition, Leipsic, 1896); Evangelium secundum Lucam (Leipsic, 1897); Evangelium secundum Matthaeum (1901); Evangelium secundum Johannem (1902); and (Barnabas) Brief an die Hebraeer (Halle, 1903). Blastares, Matthaeus BLASTARES, MATTHAEUS: At first a secular priest and later a monk of the order of St. Basil, who made about 1335 a collection of laws, both civil and ecclesiastical, known as "Alphabetical Collection," Syntagma alphabeticum rerum omnium quae in sacris canonibus comprehenduntur. The civil part ("political laws") is based upon the Novelae of Justinian, the ecclesiastical ("canons") upon the collection of Photius, with the commentaries of Zonaras and Balsamon. Such a dictionary of law filled a practical want, and so was universally used by the Eastern clergy, and even translated into Slavic. A complete reprint is found in Beveridge's Synodicon, ii, 2, and in vol. vi of the Syntagma tOn theiOn kai hierOn kanonOn (Athens, 1859). (E. Friedberg.) Blaurer (Blarer, Blaarer), Ambrosius BLAURER (BLARER, BLAARER), AMBROSIUS: German Reformer; b. at Constance Apr. 12, 1492; d. at Winterthur (12 miles n.e. of Zurich), Switzerland, Dec. 6, 1564. He studied at Tuebingen, where he became acquainted with Melanchthon; about 1510 he entered the monastery at Alpirsbach, and continued his studies at Tuebingen till 1513. Through study of the Bible and of Luther's writings, to the reading of which he was led by his brother Thomas, who while studying at Wittenberg had become intimate with Luther and Melanchthon, he embraced the principles of the Reformation, which he tried to introduce into the monastery. Being opposed by the abbot, he went to Constance July 5, 1522, and at the instance of the council of the city began to preach in 1525. He became the leader of the Reformation there. From 1528, Blaurer labored for the Reformation outside of his native city. He was present at the colloquy in Bern (Jan. 6, 1528), was at Memmingen Nov., 1528-Feb., 1529, and presided over the convention of the friends of the Reformation in Upper Germany which met in Memmingen Feb. 27-Mar. 1, 1531. From May to July, 1531, he was at Ulm with OEcolampadius and Butzer, afterward at Geislingen, and (Sept. 1531-July, 1532) at Esslingen. He everywhere displayed ability in organization. In July, 1532, his native city recalled him, and in 1533 he married a former nun. In 1534 he was called by Duke Ulrich, together with the Lutheran Erhard Schnepf, to further the cause of the Reformation in the duchy of Wuerttemberg. The two men came to an agreement, Aug. 2, 1534, concerning the doctrine of the Lord's Supper paving thereby the way for the coming union of the German Evangelical Church. To Blaurer was assigned the south of Wuerttemberg with residence at Tuebingen. He encountered there certain difficulties: (1) the agreement with Schwenckfeld, 1535; (2) the reformation at the University of Tuebingen, which Brenz had undertaken; (3) the image-question, which Blaurer solved by removing all of them from the churches, but the "idol-diet" at Urach left the decision to the duke. At Schmalkald Blaurer refused in Feb., 1537, to sign the articles of Luther, but approved those of Melanchthon. Court intrigues brought about Blaurer's dismissal in June, 1538. Not till 1556 did Duke Christopher compensate him for his four years' services. He was at Augsburg June 27-Dec. 6, 1539, where he earnestly labored against the luxury of the rich, pleaded for benevolence to the poor, and for the cause of morality. He went to Kempten and labored there (Dec., 1539, to the end of Jan., 1540) for the peace of the Church, and also at Isny, 1544-55. By the Interim, Constance lost its independence. The Spaniards took the city Aug. 6, 1548, and made it an Austrian town, speedily crushing the Reformation. Blaurer left there Aug. 28, and preached in Biel (1551-59), Leutmerken, and finally at Winterthur, where he died. He declined calls to Bern, Augsburg, Memmingen, and the Palatinate, and influenced large circles by his correspondence. His twenty-two hymns give evidence of poetical power and fervor. G. Bossert. Bibliography: D. C. Pfister, Denkwuerdigkeiten der wuerttembergischen und schwaebischen Reformationsgeschichte, part 1, Tuebingen, 1817; T. Keim, Ambr. Blarer der schwaebische Reformator, Stuttgart, 1860; T. Pressel, Ambrosius Blaurer's Leben und Schriften, ib. 1861; Leben und ausgewaehlte Schriften der Vaeter der reformierten Kirche, vol. xiv, Elberfeld, 1861; E. Schneider, Wuerttembergische Reformationsgeschichte, Stuttgart, 1887; E. Issel, Die Reformation in Konstanz, Freiburg, 1898; F. Roth, Augsburgs Reformationsgeschichte, vols. i, ii, Munich, 1901, 1904; Zwingliana, 1900, no. 2, p. 163, 1902, no. 2, p. 317. Blaurer, Margaretha BLAURER, MARGARETHA: Sister of [430]Ambrosius Blaurer, one of the most intelligent and deeply religious women of the Reformation time; d. in Constance 1542. She became deeply interested in the person and work of [431]Pilgram Marbeck during his residence in Strasburg (1528-1532) and, whether she sympathized with his antipedobaptist teaching or not, reproached Butzer for his intolerant proceedings against Marbeck and refused to be convinced by Butzer's arguments that Marbeck was a heretic or a hypocrite. She died while ministering to the plague-stricken poor of Constance, and has the honor of being one of the first Protestant women to engage in diaconal service. A. H. Newman. Bibliography: J. W. Baum, Capito und Butzer, passim, Elberfeld, 1860; C. Gerbert, Geschichte der Strassburger Sectenbewegung zur Zeit der Reformation, 1524-1534, pp. 97 sqq., Strasburg, 1889; and literature under Blaurer, Ambrosius. Blavatsky, Helena Petrovna BLAVATSKY, HELENA PETROVNA: Theosophist; b. at Ekaterinoslav (250 m. n.e. of Odessa), Russia, July 31 (O. S.), 1831; d. in London May 8, 1891. Supposed to have been the child of a Russian officer named Peter Hahn, she married, at the age of seventeen, a Russian official, Nicephore Blavatsky, from whom she separated after a very few months. For the next twenty years her life was a wandering one, mixed with spiritualism and similar cults. During this time she visited Paris, Cairo, New Orleans, Tokyo, and Calcutta, and she claimed to have resided for seven years in Tibet, whence she pretended to draw the mysteries of [432]theosophy. In 1858 she started a spiritualistic movement in Russia, and in 1873 was again in the United States. In 1875 she founded at New York, in collaboration with Col. Henry Steel Olcott, the Theosophical Society. Her chief works, which have run through repeated editions and have been translated into many languages, both in Europe and India, are Isis Unveiled: The Master Key to Ancient and Modern Mysteries, the standard text-book of the Theosophists (2 vols., New York, 1877); Secret Doctrine: The Synthesis of Science, Religion, and Philosophy (2 vols., 1888); Voice of the Silence (1889); Key to Theosophy, in the Form of Question and Answer (1889); and the posthumous From the Caves and Jungles of Hindostan (1892; originally contributed to the Russian Russky Vyestnik); Nightmare Tales (London, 1892) Theosophical Glossary (1892); and Modern Panarion Collection of Fugitive Fragments (1899). Bibliography: E. Coulomb, Some Account of my Intercourse with Madame Blavatsky from 1872 to 1884, London, 1885; A. P. Sinnett, Incidents in the Life of Madame Blavatsky, ib. 1886; C. Wachtmeister, Reminiscences of H. P. Blavatsky and "the Secret Doctrine," ib. 1893; A. Lillie, Madame Blavatsky and her "Theosophy": A Study, ib. 1895; V. S. Solovyoff, Modern Priestess of Isis, from the Russian, by W. Leaf, ib. 1895 (an expose); H. Freimark, Helena Petrovna Blavatzky, Leipsic, 1907. Blayney, Benjamin BLAYNEY, BENJAMIN: Church of England Hebrew scholar; b. 1728; d. at Poulshot (22 m. n.w. of Salisbury), Wiltshire, Sept. 20, 1801. He studied at Worcester and Hertford Colleges, Oxford (B.A., 1750; M.A., 1753; B.D., 1768; D.D., 1787); was appointed regius professor of Hebrew in 1787 and was made canon of Christ Church. He revised the text of the Authorized Version of the Bible to secure typographical accuracy and added to the marginal references; the edition appeared in 1769 and is the standard for the Oxford press. He also published A Dissertation by Way of Inquiry into the True Import and Application of the Vision Called Daniel's Prophecy of Seventy Weeks (Oxford, 1775); two sermons, on The Sign Given to Ahaz (1786) and Christ the Greater Glory of the Temple (1788); translations of Jeremiah and Lamentations (1784) and Zechariah (1797); and an edition of the Samaritan Pentateuch (1790). Bledsoe, Albert Taylor BLEDSOE, ALBERT TAYLOR: American Southern Methodist; b. at Frankfort, Ky., Nov. 9, 1809; d. at Alexandria, Va., Dec. 8, 1877. He was graduated at West Point, 1830, became lieutenant of infantry, and resigned 1832; he became assistant professor of mathematics at Kenyan College, Gambier, O., 1834; entered the ministry of the Protestant Episcopal Church, was rector at Hamilton, O., and professor of mathematics at Miami University, Oxford, O., 1835-36; practised law in Springfield, Ill., and in the United States Supreme Court at Washington, 1840-48; was professor of mathematics in the University of Mississippi, 1848-54, and in the University of Virginia, 1854-1861; he entered the Confederate service as a colonel, but was soon made assistant secretary of war; lived in England 1863-68; after 1867 published The Southern Review at Baltimore, which under his management became one of the leading periodicals of the Methodist Church, South. He was ordained a Methodist minister in 1871, but never took charge of a church. He was a strenuous advocate of the doctrine of free will and a stern opponent of atheism and skepticism; the doctrine of predestination he considered a reflection upon the divine glory, and a cause of unbelief; his views are set forth in his Examination of Edwards on the Will (Philadelphia, 1845) and his Theodicy, or Vindication of the Divine Glory (New York, 1853). He also published Liberty and Slavery (Philadelphia, 1857); The Philosophy of Mathematics (1868); Is Davis a Traitor? or was secession a constitutional right previous to the war of 1861? (Baltimore, 1866). Bleek, Friedrich BLEEK, FRIEDRICH: Protestant theologian and exegete; b. at Ahrensboek, Holstein, July 4, 1793; d. at Bonn Feb. 27, 1859. He studied theology and philology at Kiel and Berlin, 1812-17, and began to lecture as repetent in theology in the latter place in 1818. His lectures on the Old and the New Testaments attracted attention, and in 1821 he was made extraordinary professor; he succeeded Luecke as professor at Bonn, 1829, receiving the same year his doctorate from Breslau. For thirty years Bleek lectured at the university in Bonn. He was extremely painstaking in the preparation of his lectures, which were so carefully written that after his death they could easily be used for publication, and continue in much larger circles the influence they had already exerted. His works printed during his lifetime include: Ueber die Entstehung und Zusammensetzung der Sibyllinischen Orakel, Ueber Verfasser und Zweck des Buches Daniel, and Beitrag zur Kritik und Deutung der Offenbarung Johannis, three valuable essays published in the theological review edited by Schleiermacher, De Wette, and Luecke (Berlin, 1819-22); Versuch einer vollstaendigen Einleitung in den Brief an die Hebraeer (Berlin, 1828), followed in 1836 and 1840 by a translation of Hebrews and commentary on the book; Beitraege zur Evangelienkritik (Berlin, 1846). Of his posthumous works mention may be made of Einleitung in das Alte Testament (edited by his son J. F. Bleek and A. Kamphausen, Berlin, 1860; 3d ed., by Kamphausen, 1870; 4th, 5th, and 6th ed., by J. Wellhausen, 1878, 1886, 1893; Eng. transl. by G. H. Venables, 2 vols., London, 1869; on the last three editions cf. H. L. Strack, Einleitung in das Alte Testament, Munich, 1895, 11); Einleitung in das Neue Testament (1st and 2d editions by his son, J. F. Bleek, 1862, 1866; 3d and 4th editions by W. Mangold, Berlin, 1875, 1886; Eng. transl. by W. Urwick, London, 1870); Synoptische Erklaerung der drei ersten Evangelien (ed. H. Holtzmann, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1862); Vorlesungen ueber die Apokalypse (ed. T. Hossbach, Berlin, 1862; Engl. transl., London, 1874); Vorlesungen ueber die Briefe an die Kolosser, den Philemon und die Epheser (ed. F. Nitzsch, Berlin, 1865); Vorlesungen ueber den Hebraeerbrief (ed. A. Windrath, Elberfeld,1868). Bleek's writings are especially distinguished for thoroughness in investigation and clearness of expression. His standpoint in criticism was conservative. A. Kamphausen. Blemmydes, Nikephoros BLEMMYDES, NIKEPHOROS: Greek monk; b. at Constantinople about 1197; d. (near Ephesus?) 1272. He founded a monastery near Ephesus, and became its archimandrite. His many writings were philosophical treatises, discourses on the procession of the Holy Spirit, on the Trinity, on Christology, on the duties of the king, and an exposition of the Psalms. [He is principally noted for his defense of the Roman doctrine of the procession of the Spirit from Father and Son before the emperor John III Vatatzes at Nicaea.] Blemmydes was honest and incorruptible, but harsh in character. Out of devotion to the ascetic life, he declined the patriarchate. Philipp Meyer. Bibliography: The works of Blemmydes are in MPG, cxlii, and also in A. Heisenberg's N. Blemmydae, curriculum vitae et carmina, Leipsic, 1896, which contains the newly discovered autobiography. Consult Krumbacher, Geschichte, pp. 445 sqq., et passim. Blessedness BLESSEDNESS. Biblical Basis (S: 1). Foundation in Ethics (S: 2). In Communion with God (S: 3). Degrees of Blessedness (S: 4). 1. Biblical Basis. The term "blessedness" is the usual rendering in the English Bible for the idea of the Hebrew asher and Greek makarios. The German Seligkeit represents besides the content of those words also the idea of the Greek sOzein, "to save." The Latin equivalent of makarios is beatus, which has, however, passed in usage to designate the state of Christians who have fallen asleep (cf. Rev. xiv, 13); while beatitudo in scholastic usage designates the aim and the highest good of the Christian. The union of two Biblical conceptions in one expression gives to the latter its unique Christian content, as is realized when the two ideas are traced to their junction. Illuminative of this point is Paul's use (Rom. iv, 7-8) of Ps. xxxii, 1-2. The Old Testament passage bases "blessedness" on forgiveness of sin, and goes to the root of human felicity or its opposite. The Reformed theology traced the idea of blessedness to the salvation implied in that forgiveness, and the fact is evinced in Luther's use of Seligkeit to express the state consequent upon forgiveness. Thus the union of the ideas of blessedness and salvation is manifest. The term suggests also the idea of a condition of abiding satisfaction fully realized in consciousness. This is attributed to God in I Tim. vi, 15-16 (cf. i, 11), with which dogmatics agrees on the ground of his absoluteness and completeness. In this respect, to man may be attributed only a relative blessedness. By reason of his constitution man may pursue and attain a sort of arbitrary satisfaction; and in consequence of his being a creature he can attain full satisfaction only in a way in accord with his inner nature. A purpose which for him reaches beyond the present life involves a blessedness not to be reached here, where only a conditioned form is for him attainable. This is the point of view of the Biblical presentation. Man holds, on the one hand, relations with God, and on this depends his blessedness; he is also, as a member of the race of Adam, a sinner and so under the impress of evil, and his blessedness is contingent upon salvation from this condition. 2. Foundation in Ethics. On the foregoing basis is built Christian usage, in which "eternal life," "eternal blessedness," and "blessed eternity" are variant expressions for the same concept. Life in its fulness is the idea. The Bible and philosophy agree in the ethical as the source of blessedness (Jas. i, 25; Acts xx, 35), but the former annexes also a religious relationship (Jas. i, 27). If the most significant limitation in life, that which distinguishes man from God, viz., guilt, be removed, on this line of thought blessedness may be attributed to man. Out of this comes the emphasis constantly laid in the language of the Gospels upon the identity of salvation and blessedness, the latter resting upon freedom from guilt and from the proscription arising from sin. Thus blessedness and life, in this way reaching its fulness, are regarded as equivalents. 3. In Communion with God. A special dogmatic terminology has developed from this usage, as when Schleiermacher (Christliche Glaube, Berlin, 1821, S:S: 100, 101, 108, 110) describes the activity of Christ in that he receives believers up into his own God-consciousness and into participation in his serene blessedness, into the "peace" of the New Testament. Similarly J. C. K. von Hofmann (Theologische Ethik, Noerdlingen, 1878, p. 89) asserts that "faith as obedience is freedom, faith as certainty is blessedness." So the term designates the religious side of the Christian's condition as distinct from the ethical. The eudemonistic side is expressed by J. Kaftan (Wesen der christlichen Religion, Bielefeld, 1881, pp. 67, 292) in the form "blessedness is enjoyment of the highest good." Into Christian usage there has come a transcendent element, implying the satisfaction of all needs which present themselves to the people of God. If among these needs is classed complete communion with God in the completely realized kingdom of God, or intercommunion of mankind made one in God, the satisfaction of this need goes on to God as the source, and to communion with him as the means of attaining such satisfaction. Hence in Biblical representations intimate communion with him is the highest privilege of which man may think in his Godward relations. Companionship with God appears therefore as an implicit ground of blessedness, and the Old Testament conception comes out in the manifestation of theophanies and in the intimate intercourse had by Moses with God (Ex. xxxiii, 11; Num. xii, 8; Deut. xxxiv, 10). The idea is still further carried out in later books, as in Ps. xvii, 15; cxl, 14 ("I shall be satisfied"), and is expressed by Job as a desire (xix, 26). The opposite effect is the result of separation from God (Isa. xxxviii, 11). Ps. lxxxiv exuberantly sets forth the blessedness arising from this companionship with God. In the New Testament the same notion of the consciousness of God's presence and of faith in him is in evidence (John xiv, 9; II Cor. iv, 6; I Pet. i, 8). Yet in this life knowledge of God and communion with him is but partial (I Cor. xiii, 12, cf. II Cor. v, 7; Matt. xi, 27). It is the sons who see the father, and so the sons of the Heavenly Father are called blessed (Matt. v, 9). This intimacy, which is conditioned upon ethical oneness with God, is the source throughout the development of the man of God from which he draws the completion of his happiness. 4. Degrees of Blessedness. A difficulty has been encountered in the question whether there are steps or grades of blessedness or glory. To this an affirmative answer is given on the basis of such passages as Matt. x, 41; xiv, 28-29; xxv, 14-15. Such a conclusion is fortified by the consideration that blessedness includes within itself a kingdom whose subjects are men of God, and that such a conception involves diversity in which differences must exist in relation to blessedness. Such differences imply variety in order of felicity to accord with personal gifts and individuality. The figurative language of Heb. iv, 10 makes mention of a final Sabbath rest. The question has been raised whether by this is meant a state of inactivity or of continued activity. It will be noted that the passage refers to the rest following upon creation; therefore, not the stagnation of absence of life is represented, but the quietude of the achievement of an end. And in the Christian imagery of Rev. xxi, 3-4, what is implied is the absence of evil, grief, and toil with the unrest which they entail. Similarly the inception of the restoration of all things (apokatastasis pantOn), in which there is stated an eternity of punishment as well as of satisfaction or peace, raises the question whether the latter will not be marred because of pity on account of the misery of the condemned. Relief is afforded by the consideration that the region is one in which ethical measures apply, not those of emotion. Dante has the blessed look into the mirror of God's heart, which last is the source from which the ethical world draws its being and order. In ancient times Tertullian (De spectaculis, xxx), in modern times Jonathan Edwards held that among the causes of the blessedness of the redeemed will be the sight of the misery of the wicked. Edwards declared that the "sight of hell torments will exalt the happiness of the saints forever" (Works, vol. vi, pp. 120, 426). Bibliography: H. L. Martensen, Dogmatik, S:S: 283-284, Berlin, 1856, Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1865; E. Riehm, Lehrbegriff des Hebraeerbriefs, Basel, 1867; B. Weiss, Theologie des N. T., S:S: 144, 149, 157, Berlin, 1880, Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1882-83; I. A. Dorner, System der christlichen Glaubenslehre, ii, 864, Berlin, 1887; H. Schultz, Alttestamentliche Theologie, pp. 370-371, Goettingen, 1896, Eng, transl., London, 1892. Blessig, Johann Lorenz BLESSIG, JOHANN LORENZ: German Protestant; b. at Strasburg Apr. 15, 1747; d. there Feb. 17,1816. He studied at the university of his native city; traveled extensively in Italy, Hungary, and Germany; began to preach, and was continually promoted till he was in charge of the principal Protestant church of Strasburg; became professor in the philosophical faculty in 1778, and in the theological, 1787. He was three times rector; his lectures covered Greek literature, history of philosophy, Old Testament exegesis, dogmatics, and homiletics, and in them all he made the practical dominate. His activities carried him into the field of politics also, and he was elected to the city council. The French Revolution brought upon him exile, a fine, and imprisonment for eleven months. Robespierre's downfall restored his liberty and he returned to his labors. Church and school were reorganized, Blessig's influence being felt everywhere. He left no great work, but not less than forty minor writings, including several memorial addresses, which were highly esteemed in their time. Worthy of special mention are: Ueber Unglauben, Aberglauben und Glauben (Strasburg, 1786); De censu Davidico Pesteque hunc censum secuta (1788); and De evangeliis secundum Ebraeos, AEgyptios atque Justini Martyris (1807). (A. Erichson.) Bibliography: C. M. Fritz, Leben Dr. J. L. Blessigs, 2 vols., Strasburg, 1819; A. Froelich, Dr. J. L. Blessig, Ein Vorkaempfer des religioesen Liberalismus im Elsass, in Schriften des protestantischen liberalen Vereins in Elsass-Lothringen, no. 36, ib. 1891. Blessing and Cursing BLESSING AND CURSING. Ethnic Conceptions (S: 1). In the Old Testament (S: 2). Higher and Lower View (S: 3). 1. Ethnic Conceptions. The conception of blessing and cursing has a large part in every religion. It refers to the supernatural or divine promotion or hindrance to human action and welfare. Sometimes it is predicated of man himself as possessing through his connection with deity the ability to exercise over another the power originally possessed only by deity (cf. Gen. xii, 3; Num. vi, 24, 27). In this latter case, the power is often exercised by means of verbal expression, though it is not confined to that means. It is apparent that in the religion of the peoples who were neighbors of the Hebrews as well as elsewhere the conception of blessing and cursing belonged in the sphere of magic. Wizards commanded the blessing and furthering force of deity, which they could exercise at a given point for good and still more often the power resident in a host of evil spirits, to damage or to cause damage at the desired place and time. While often power to bless comes not from an equipment gained for a special occasion and then lost, continuance of power and conditions for evil are especially frequent. The curse lurks in the background of earthly existence, enshrined in the form of harmful and malicious demons, into whose power a careless word or heedless step may instantly cast the unfortunate. According to ethnic belief, only the most painstaking care, the most punctilious caution, observance of a host of rules and practises can enable one to escape danger. Frequently without any overt act, by merely mentioning these spirits or by entering their domain without adequate protection, the spirits are summoned and their power let loose on man, animal, and possessions. 2. In the Old Testament Within the Old Testament there are many traces of the contact of Israel with such conceptions. The prophetic religion was especially emphatic in its opposition to witchcraft, necromancy, and the like, and, especially in the Babylonian age, was not successful in combating them. Earlier examples are found in Saul's resort to the witch of Endor and the cases suggested by Deut. xviii, 10-14, and Isa. ii, 6. It is, then, not surprising that the conceptions of blessing and cursing are found together among the Hebrews, though they come to have a more spiritual content. It is noticeable that the tendency of the development was toward a narrowing of the region in which the idea was operative, and it was thrust more and more into the background. In examining the cases presented in the Old Testament, it becomes evident that use was made both of the word of power and of an instrument. The staff was used frequently, its use being attributed to Moses and Aaron and to the Egyptian magicians (Ex. iv, 2; vii, 8 sqq.), while in Hos. iv, 12, it seems to have been used to obtain oracles, and possibly it was a magical staff which Balaam carried (Num. xxii, 27). It is possible that the origin of the staff is to be connected with the idea of the tree as the seat of deity (cf. the Asherah and the stake customary at the grave). A branch from a tree was either the seat of deity or the symbol of his power. A farther means of operating, especially for evil, was the glance of the eye (cf. the common notion of the "evil eye"). Cases of this in the Old Testament are suggested by Prov. xxiii, 6; xxviii, 22 (cf. Ecclus. xiv, 3; Pirk?e Abot v, 13). The laying on of hands seems to have had close connection with the operation of blessing (Gen. xxvii, xlviii, 14 sqq.), the idea being that in this way the person bestowing the blessing caused to pass to the recipient some of the power which was his, especially if he were a man of God. Blessing and cursing were often connected with things holy, particularly with sacrifice. By means of these a blessing or a curse were often bespoken. So in Judges ix, 27 the cursing of Abimelech was evidently closely bound up with the feast in the temple of the deity. The episode of Balaam also makes evident the connection between sacrifice and curse (or blessing, Num. xxiii, 1 sqq.), and the same fact has been noted among Arabs of ancient and modern times. A special case is that of the ordeal by water, narrated in Num. v, 11 sqq. Blessing and curse operate also through the spoken word, which may take either the phase of a magical formula or of a prayer of which the content is spiritually pure. The latter is of very frequent occurrence in the Old Testament, where the blessing, or equally the curse, is besought of God. This practise of seeking blessing or curse had continuing vogue in the common religious ideas of Israel, remaining in evidence down to prophetic times. As elsewhere, so among the Hebrews, superstition and the practise of magic never completely died out, and not only deity but the spirits of the dead (I Sam. xxviii) and of ancestors were invoked to give effect to the invocation or the imprecation. The deity is in mind in Samuel's blessing of the meal (I Sam. ix, 13), in Eli's blessing of Hannah (I Sam. i, 17), in the blessing of Rebecca by her brothers (Gen. xxiv, 60), and in Solomon's blessing (I Kings viii, 15 sqq.). There is every reason to assume that on occasions of gatherings such as sacrifices and feasts the priests besought a blessing for the people. While such invocations did not always take a fixed form, there must have been a tendency in that direction, as is proved by the priestly blessing in, Num. vi, 24-26. And there is a suggestion of a fixed formula for the curse in I Kings viii and in the alternate words of blessing and cursing in Deut. xxviii. If it be asked who are the persons who may bless or curse, it is always found that they are those in especially close relation to deity, either seer or priest or man of God. Of these Moses, Balaam, Joshua (Josh. vi, 26), Elisha (II Kings ii, 24-25) are examples. And like persons are among the Arabs conceived as possessing the power. Special power in this matter is also ascribed to the dying, who are already on the border between the human and the divine. Thus Moses when dying blesses his people (Deut. xxxiii), and the dying patriarchs Isaac and Jacob distribute both blessing and its opposite when on the eve of dissolution (Gen. xxvii, 10 sqq., xlviii, 8 sqq., xlix, 2 sqq.). Under special stress the power to bless or curse, especially the latter, is attributed to almost any one, as when the Arabs assert that one influenced by anger may effectively pronounce a curse. Such a case is presented in II Sam. xvi, 5 (cf. verse 10); and another in the narrative of II Sam. xxi, 1 sqq. Prov. xxvii, 14 presents a peculiar case, in which the early and loud call may be thought of as arousing the spirits of malice and letting them loose on the object of the call. A similar conception is involved in Amos vi, 10. The name of Yahweh, who lingers near occupied in the work of the plague, is not to be spoken lest by the mere utterance he be summoned to the spot and slay the only surviving member of the household. 3. Higher and Lower View. Investigation into the way in which blessing and cursing operate in the Old Testament shows a lower and a higher view. Not infrequently the mere vocal expression of the wish works out the fulfilment in a kind of blind compulsion such as takes place in ethnic magic (cf. Gen. xxvii, 33 sqq.--the blessing has been uttered over Jacob and can not be recalled--and Num. xxii sqq., especially xxii, 6, "I know that he whom thou blessest is blessed, and he whom thou cursest is cursed," the words of Balak to Balsam). An illuminating case is given in the connection of Josh. vi, 26 with I Kings xvi, 34, in which the ancient curse pronounced upon him who should rebuild Jericho works itself out in the death of the youngest and the eldest sons of Hiel the Bethelite. And a similar instance is Saul's breach of the treaty with the Gibeonites in which the curse operates after his death until reparation is made with blood (II Sam. xxi). David's charge to Solomon (I Kings ii, 5 sqq.; cf. II Sam. xvi, 13) furnishes other examples. Solomon is to take vengeance on Shimei and on Joab. The former had pronounced a heavy curse on David. Since it was yet operative but had not fallen on David himself, it must work itself out on his house. But it can be so diverted as to fall on the head of its formulator and become changed into a blessing for David's family. On the other hand, Joab's deeds of blood laid David, Joab's lord, under a curse which could be relieved only by expiation exacted from the perpetrator of the deeds [cf. on this EB, i, 1034, note 1]. While this inevitability is to be recognized in the Old Testament as inherent by the mere formulation of blessing and cursing or curse, the act takes on more and more the character of the expression of a wish to be fulfilled by Yahweh, and so it becomes distinguished in form and character from magic and witchcraft. And while the method of operation is thus transferred, the character of the blessing sought changes from the material to the spiritual. Thus in the priestly blessing of Num. vi, 24-26 there is doubtless in mind the highest good of God's grace and peace, and in this light is to be construed verse 27. A similar content is to be recognized in Gen. xii, 3 and parallel passages: "In thee shall all families of the earth bless them selves," i.e., shall wish for themselves the very blessing which Abraham had obtained. As oracles were quoted among the heathen, so sayings attributed to Yahweh or spoken in his name were cited among the Hebrews, and blessings and curses appear almost in profusion in the Old Testament, derived from prophetic or ancestral authority. These take on often a cryptic character and anticipate the more extended apocalyptic writings of later times (cf. the sayings ascribed to Moses and to Jacob in Gen. xlix and Deut. xxxiii). The uncertainty of the original significance of the practise is disclosed by an examination of the etymology of the words used. The technical Hebrew term for cursing is arar, the meaning of which was evidently to press heavily upon one. Alongside this was used for the curse a word derived from alah, connected with the word el, "God." This last implies a calling upon deity or a reference to him as agent, a meaning which recalls the idea in the German segnen, "to (make the) sign (of the cross over one)." But another root also used, k?alal, had no inherent reference to the deity, meaning simply "to vilify." So the original sense of the word obscure meaning "to curse," is uncertain. Not less obscure is the original meaning of the word for blessing, berakhah. It has been referred to berekh, "knee," suggesting the meaning "to bow the knee." But that the idea of worship was originally connected with the word or that it meant "to pray" does not appear probable. It is possible to relate it to berekhah, meaning an accumulation of the growth and fruitfulness attributed to water and, then the attainment of prosperity. A noteworthy expression is that which appears quite frequently (e.g., Gen. ix, 26), " Blessed be Yahweh." Is this only a manner of speech equivalent to "Yahweh be praised"? While this may be the sense in later ages, it was hardly so in early times. It has doubtless come down as a survival of the conception that even deity might be blessed by the utterance of some highly endowed individual. (R. Kittel.) Bibliography: P. Scholz, Goetzendienst und Zauberwesen bei den Hebraeern, Regensburg, 1877; C. F. Keil, Biblical Archaeology, ii, 457, Edinburgh, 1888; R. Smend, Alttestamentliche Religionsgeschichte, S: 334, Freiburg, 1893; DB, i, 307, 534-535; EB, i, 591-592; JE, iii, 242-247. For ethnic parallels consult: E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, pp. 112-132, New York, 1877; I. Goldziher, Muhammidanische Studien, 2 vols., Halle, 1889-90; Wellhausen, Heidentum; F. T. Elworthy, The Evil Eye, London, 1895; F. B. Jevons, Introduction to Hist. of Religion, chaps. iii-iv, ib. 1896; G. B. Frazer, Golden Bough, i, 97, ib. 1900; S. I. Curtiss, Primitive Semitic Religion, New York, 1902. Bliss, Daniel BLISS, DANIEL: Congregational missionary; b. at Georgia, Vt., Aug. 17, 1823. He was graduated at Amherst College in 1852 and Andover Theological Seminary in 1855. He was ordained to the Congregational ministry in 1855, and immediately went to Syria as a missionary of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, remaining there in this capacity until 1862. Four years later he was appointed president of the Syrian Protestant College, Beirut, and retained this position until 1902, when he resigned and became president emeritus. He is the author of a number of works in Arabic, particularly a text-book of mental philosophy and another of natural philosophy. Bliss, Edwin Munsell BLISS, EDWIN MUNSELL: Congregationalist; b. at Erzerum, Turkey, Sept. 12, 1848. He was educated at Robert College, Constantinople, High School, Springfield, Mass., Amherst College (B.A., 1871), and Yale Divinity School (B.D., 1877). He was assistant agent of the American Bible Society for the Levant in 1872-88 (excepting 1875-77, when he was completing his theological studies in America), and after his return to America in 1888 edited The Encyclopedia of Missions (New York, 1889-91) and was associate editor of The Independent in 1891-1901, He was an editorial writer on Harper's Weekly and The New York Times in 1901-02, and was field secretary of the American Tract Society for New England in 1903-04. He was then pastor of the Congregational church at Sanford, Fla., in 1904-05, and general secretary of the Foreign Missions Industrial Association in 1905-06. In 1907 he became connected with the United States Census Bureau in Washington. In theology he is liberal-orthodox. He has written Turkey and the Armenian Atrocities (Philadelphia, 1896); The Turk in Armenia, Crete, and Greece (1896); and Concise History of Missions (Chicago, 1897). Bliss, Frederick Jones BLISS, FREDERICK JONES: American archeologist; b. at Mount Lebanon, Syria, Jan. 22, 1859. He was educated at Amherst College (B.A., 1880), and was for three years principal of the preparatory department of the Syrian Protestant College, Beirut, Syria. He then studied at Union Theological Seminary, where he was graduated in 1887. Returning to Syria, he was an independent explorer until his appointment, in 1890 as explorer to the Palestine Exploration Fund (London). During the ten years in which he held this position, he excavated the mound of Tell-el-Hesy (Lachish) in 1891-93, and from 1894 to 1897 was engaged in excavations at Jerusalem. In 1898-1900 he excavated four Palestinian cities. In addition to numerous briefer contributions, he has written A Mound of Many Cities; or Tell-el-Hesy Excavated (London 1894); Excavations at Jerusalem, 1894-1897 (1898); Excavations in Palestine during 1898-1900 (1902; in collaboration with R. A. S. Macalister); and The Development of Palestine Exploration, the Ely lectures at Union Seminary for 1903 (New York, 1906). Bliss, Howard Sweetser BLISS, HOWARD SWEETSER: Congregational missionary; b. at Mount Lebanon, Syria, Dec. 6, 1860. He was educated at Amherst College (B.A., 1882), Union Theological Seminary (1884-1887), and the universities of Oxford (1887-88), Goettingen, and Berlin (1888-89). He taught at Washburn College, Topeka, Kan., in 1883-84, and after his return from Europe to the United States was successively assistant pastor of Plymouth Church, Brooklyn, N. Y. (1889-94), and pastor of the Christian Union Congregational Church, Upper Montclair, N. J. (1894-1902). Since 1902 he has been president of the Syrian Protestant College, Beirut, Syria. Bliss, Isaac Grout BLISS, ISAAC GROUT: Congregational foreign missionary; b. at Springfield, Mass., July 5, 1822; d. at Assiut, Egypt, Feb. 16, 1889. Educated at Amherst College (B.A., 1844) and at Yale and Andover (1847) theological seminaries, he served as missionary of the American Board at Erzerum, Eastern Turkey, 1847-52, when the failure of his health compelled his return to the United States. In 1857 he returned to the foreign field as agent for the Levant of the American Bible Society, with residence in Constantinople. Bliss, William Dwight Porter BLISS, WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER: American Protestant Episcopalian; b. at Constantinople Aug. 20, 1856. He was educated at Robert College, Constantinople, Phillips Academy, Andover Mass., Amherst College (B.A., 1878), and Hartford Theological Seminary (1882). He was ordained to the Congregational ministry, but after holding pastorates in Denver, Col., and South Natick, Mass., he entered the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1885, and was ordered deacon in 1886 and ordained priest in the following year. He was minister at Lee, Mass., in 1885-87, and was then successively rector of Grace Church, South Boston (1887-90), Linden, Mass. (1890), Church of the Carpenter, Boston, Mass. (1890-94), Church of Our Savior, San Gabriel, Cal. (1898-1902), and Amityville, L. I. (since 1902). He has taken an active interest in social reform, and in 1889 organized the first Christian Socialist Society in the United States, and has since been its secretary, while he has been president of the National Social Reform League since 1899, and was the Labor candidate for lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts in 1887. He has also been secretary of the Christian Social Union since 1891, and in 1905 was a member of the United States Labor Department on the Unemployed. In theology he is a radical Broad-churchman. He edited The Dawn (1889-96), The American Fabian (1895-96), The Civic Councillor (1900), and the Encyclopedia of Social Reform (New York, 1898; 1908); and has written Hand-Book of Socialism (London, 1895). Blodget, Henry BLODGET, HENRY: Congregational foreign missionary; b, at Bucksport, Me., July 13, 1825; d. at Bridgeport Conn., May 23, 1903. Educated at Yale College (B.A., 1848) and at Yale Divinity School, he was a missionary in China of the American Board from 1854 to 1894, living in Peking from 1864 on. He shared in the translation of the New Testament into the Mandarin colloquial of Peking, and independently translated much in prose and verse. Blomfield, Charles James BLOMFIELD, CHARLES JAMES: Bishop of London; b. at Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk, May 29, 1786; d. at Fulham Palace Aug. 5, 1857. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge (B.A., 1808); was ordained 1810; became chaplain to Bishop Howley of London 1819; archdeacon of Colchester 1822; bishop of Chester 1824; bishop of London 1828. He retired from office in 1856 after a vigorous and effective administration. He was a noted Greek scholar, edited a Greek grammar (Cambridge, 1818), and a number of Greek texts (the dramas of AEschylus, 1810-24; Callimachus 1815; Euripides, 1821; fragments of Sappho, Alcaeus, and Stesichorus for Gaisford's Poetae minores Graeci, 1823), and wrote much for the reviews on classical subjects. His theological works comprise Five Lectures on John's Gospel (1823); Twelve Lectures on the Acts (1828); several collections of sermons; and A Manual of Private and Family Prayers (1824). Bibliography: A. Blomfield, A Memoir of C. J. Blomfield, . . . with Selections from his Correspondence, 2 vols., London, 1863 (by his son); G. E. Biber, Bishop Blomfield and his Times, London, 1857; DNB, v, 229-230. The British Museum Catalogue devotes five pages to a list of Blomfield's works. Blomfield, William Ernest BLOMFIELD, WILLIAM ERNEST: English Baptist; b. at Rayleigh (24 m. s.w. of Colchester), Essex, Oct. 23, 1862. He was educated at Regent's Park College, London (B.A., University of London, 1883), and after being assistant (1884-85) and sole minister (1885-86) of Elm Road Baptist Church, Beckenham, was pastor of Turret Green Church, Ipswich, 1886-95 and of Queen's Road Church, Coventry, 1895-1904. Since 1904 he has been president of the Baptist College, Rawdon, Leeds. Blommaerdine, Hadewich (Hadewijch) BLOMMAERDINE, blem''mar-di'ne, HADEWICH or HADEWIJCH: A heretical mystic whose religious activity and writings caused great excitement in Brussels early in the 14th century. Her adherents venerated her as a saint and her writings as divine revelations; her opponents charged her with heretical teaching on the freedom of the spirit, and with mingling religious devotion and sensual passion. During his stay in Brussels (1317-43), Ruysbroeck conducted a strong polemical campaign against her, which, however, did not prevent people from coming after her death to seek the cure of diseases by touching her shroud. The scanty notices which Ruysbroeck's biographer gives of her life and writings have been recently filled out by the scholarly investigations of K. Ruelens and P. Fredericq. They have shown it to be extremely probable that the mystic was identical with the important Flemish poetess Hadewijch (erroneously called "Sister Hadewijch"), whose remains in prose and verse, known only in part heretofore, have been published in full by J. Vercoullie (Ghent, 1877). The principal theme of all these writings is love (Minne) for God. The specimens given by Fredericq display the tempestuous, sometimes actually sensual, passion with which she longs for mystical union with him. In describing her numerous visions the poetess boasts of very intimate relations with Christ and the saints, and claims the gift of prophecy and the power of working miracles. She expresses herself bitterly in regard to the persecutions set on foot by her enemies, the vremden, against herself and her adherents, whom she calls vriende, the nuwen or volmaakten der Minne (perfeti). In one place she gives the number of her then living followers (principally nuns or Beguines) as ninety-seven, of whom twenty-nine were outside the Netherlands. Apparently the domicella Heilwigis dicta Blammardine, the daughter of William Blommaert, a rich and noble citizen of Brussels, who died about 1336, is the same as the mystic and the poetess. It appears that as late as the beginning of the fifteenth century the Inquisition in Brussels was still obliged to proceed against adherents of the heresies promulgated by her, which were not far removed from the views of the Brethren of the [433]Free Spirit. (Herman Haupt.) Bibliography: Henricus Pomerius, De origine monasterii Viridisvallis, in Analecta Bollandiana, iv, 286, Paris, 1886; H. C. Lea, History of the Inquisition, ii, 377, Philadelphia, 1888; P. Fredericq, Corpus documentorum inquisitionis . . . Neerlandicae, I, 185 sqq., 266 sqq., The Hague, 1889; idem, De geheimzinnige ketterin Bloemaerdinne en de secte der "Nuwe" te Brussel, in Verslagen en Mededeelingen der koninkl. Akademie van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam, series 3, xii (1895), 77 sqq.; W. A. Jonckbloet, Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche letterkunde, ii, 270 sqq., 1889; A. Auger, Etude sur les mystiques des Pays-Bas au moyen age, in Memoires couronnes . . . par l'academie royale de Belgique, xlvi (1892), 149 sqq., 164. Blondel, David BLONDEL, DAVID: French Protestant theologian; b. at Chalons-sur-Marne 1590; d. at Amsterdam 1655. He belonged to a noble family of Champagne; studied classics at the College of Sedan and theology at the Academy of Geneva; was called as pastor to Houdan (Ile de France), then to Roucy on the estate of La Rochefoucauld. Because of his great knowledge of the Scriptures and of ecclesiastical history, he was chosen more than twenty times secretary of the provincial synod of Ile de France. His writings in defense of the Protestants against their Roman Catholic opponents won for him a great reputation for scholarship. In 1631 he was appointed professor of divinity at Saumur, but his pariah of Roucy declined to give him up. For his contributions to the history of the Reformation, the National Council of Charenton allowed him an annuity of 1,000 livres, enabling him to devote himself to his studies without fear of want. After the death of Vossius in 1650, he was appointed professor of history at the Ecole Illustre at Amsterdam. Pierre Bayle said of him: "He was a man who had an unbounded knowledge of religious and profane history." He was accused by the orthodox party of Arminianism and of indifference to his church; he also endured much from political opponents on account of an article against Cromwell written during the war between Great Britain and Holland. His works were in part: Modeste declaration de la sincerite et verite des Eglises reformees de France (Sedan, 1619); Pseudo-Isidorus et Turrianus vapulantes (Geneva, 1628); Eclaircissements familiers de la controverse de l'Eucharistie (Quevilly, 1641); De la primaute en l'Eglise (Geneva, 1641); Des Sibylles, celebrees tant par l'antiquite payenne que par les Saints-Peres (Charenton, 1649); Actes authentiques des Eglises reformees de France, Germanie, Grande-Bretagne (Amsterdam, 1655). G. Bonet-Maury. Blood-Brotherhood BLOOD-BROTHERHOOD. See [434]Comparative Religion, VI, 1, b, S: 6. Blood-Revenge BLOOD-REVENGE: A custom nearly universal in the tribal or clan stage of society, often surviving later, binding the kin of a murdered man to secure satisfaction for the murder by the death of the slayer or of one of his clan. The custom depends upon two fundamentals of that stage of civilization: (1) the sacredness of life and the solidarity of the clan; (2) the lex talionis. Its essence is execution of the slayer or some of his kin by the representatives of the slain, not by public authorities; it belongs therefore to private as opposed to public justice. In nomadic society the perpetuation of the clan depends upon its fighting strength and its sense of unity. Hence assault upon a member of the clan, if attended with even unintended fatal results, involves the tribe, clan, or family of the slain in what is felt to be a sacred duty, the avenging of the shedding of blood. The custom is important from the standpoint of utilitarian ethics, since the knowledge that reparation will be demanded by the clan of the assailed restrains a potential assailant from wanton attack and makes men more careful in ordinary intercourse. The duty set by the institution is binding, and so close is the relationship in the clan (see [435]Comparative Religion, VI, 1, b, S: 1) that all its members may become involved, the result being a blood-feud between the clans of the assailant and the victim. Usually, however, the duty devolves upon the next of kin. Refusal on his part to exercise his right and perform his duty subjects him to utter contempt and even to outlawry. In the advance of civilization the State assumes exclusively the function of [436]Capital Punishment and the custom becomes obsolete. The Hebrew legislation furnishes an example of an intermediate condition, by which the right of the family of a man deliberately (not wantonly) murdered to execute justice was recognized and the murderer, when captured, was delivered by the authorities to the avenger of blood (go'el haddam, Lev. xix, 11-13; Num. xxxv, 19, 21, 27; for the general law of murder among the Hebrews consult Gen. ix, 6; Ex. xxi, 12; Lev. xxiv, 17; Josh. xx). Even in the case of accidental killing, the avenger of blood might kill the slayer if before the death of the high priest he found him outside the city of refuge in which he had taken sanctuary. See [437]Law, Hebrew, Civil and Criminal, III. Geo. W. Gilmore. Bibliography: A. H. Post, Studien sur Entwicklungsgeschichte des Familienrechts, pp. 113-137, Oldenburg, 1889; Smith, Kinship (invaluable for the Semitic peoples, cf. also his Rel. of Sem.); and for modern savage practise, Spencer and F. J. Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, London, 1899; idem, Northern Tribes of Central Australia, ib. 1904; DB. ii, 222-224; EB, ii, 1746-47. Blount, Charles BLOUNT, CHARLES. See [438]Deism, I, S: 3. Blumhardt, Christian Gottlieb BLUMHARDT, CHRISTIAN GOTTLIEB: German Protestant; b. in Stuttgart Apr. 29, 1779; d. in Basel Dec. 19, 1838. He studied at Tuebingen; in 1803 became secretary of the Deutsche Christentumsgesellschaft in Basel; minister at Buerg, Wuerttemberg, 1807; returned in 1816 to Basel as director of the missionary school. From 1816 he edited the Missionsmagazin, and from 1828 also the Heidenbote; he published Versuch einer allgemienen Missionsgeschichte der Kirche Christi (5 vols., Basel, 1828-37), reaching down to the time of the Reformation. Blumhardt, Johann Christoph BLUMHARDT, JOHANN CHRISTOPH: German Lutheran; b. at Stuttgart July 16, 1805 d. at Boll (5 miles s.w. of Goeppingen) Feb. 25, 1880. He studied at Tuebingen; became teacher at the missionary institution at Basel 1830; succeeded pastor Barth at Moettlingen, near Calw, 1838. By the reported cure by prayer of a girl named Gottliebin Dittus, supposed to be a demoniac, which cure was effected after a two years' struggle, Blumhardt gained great fame. A revival followed, attended by so many people from so large an area that on Good Friday, 1845, no less than 176 localities were represented at the service. At his services, so it is reported, healing of physical infirmities resulted from Blumhardt's laying on of hands in token of absolution. Blumhardt received calls to other places, but felt that his gifts and time belonged to the "distressed"; in order to be able to devote himself entirely to them, he bought in 1853 the royal watering-place Boll, which became an asylum for sufferers of all kinds, and from all ranks of society. The girl he had cured went with him as an assistant, accompanied by a brother and a sister whom Blumhardt had also cured. In 1869 and 1872 his sons joined him in the work. From all countries the afflicted flocked to his asylum, where his unique treatment seemed to give them new vital energy. At last sickness attacked him, and he ordained his son to the work with the words "I consecrate thee to victory." In 1899 this son withdrew from the clergy, but continued to maintain the establishment at Boll. (J. Hesse.) Bibliography: F. Zuendel, Pfarrer J. C. Blumhardt, Zurich, 1887; T. H. Mandel, Der Sieg von Moettlingen im Licht des Glaubens und der Wissenschaft, Leipsic, 1895; C. Blumhardt, Gedanken aus dem Reiche Gottes im Anschluss an die Geschichte von Moettlingen und Bad Boll und unsere heutige Stellung, Bad Boll, 1895. Blunt, John Henry BLUNT, JOHN HENRY: Church of England scholar; b. in Chelsea, London, Aug. 25, 1823; d. in London Apr. 11, 1884. He gave up a business career for the ministry, studied at University College, Durham (M.A., 1855), and was ordained priest in 1855; after filling a number of curacies, he became in 1868 vicar of Kensington, near Oxford, and in 1873 rector of Beverston, Gloucestershire. He was a pronounced High-churchman, and an indefatigable writer both of articles for the periodicals and of books; among his works are a number of useful theological and Biblical compends, such as The Annotated Book of Common Prayer (2 vols., London, 1866; new ed., 1895); Dictionary of Doctrinal and Historical Theology (1870); The Book of Church Law (1872; 9th ed., revised by W. G. F. Phillimore and G. E. Jones, 1901); Dictionary of Sects, Heresies, Ecclesiastical Parties, and Schools of Religious Thought (1874); The Annotated Bible: being a household commentary upon the Holy Scriptures, comprehending the results of modern discovery and criticism (3 vols., 1879-82); A Companion to the New Testament (1881); A Companion to the Old Testament (1883); also an important history of The Reformation of the Church of England (2 vols., 1869-82). At the time of his death he was working upon a Cyclopaedia of Religion (1884). Blunt, John James BLUNT, JOHN JAMES: English theologian; b. at Newcastle-under-Lyme (15 m. n.n.w. of Stafford), Staffordshire, 1794; d. at Cambridge June 18, 1856. He studied at St. John's College, Cambridge (B.A., and fellow, 1816; M.A., 1819; B.D., 1826); traveled in Italy and Sicily; became curate to Reginald Heber at Hodnet, Shropshire, in 1821; rector of Great Oakley, Essex, 1834; Lady Margaret professor of divinity at Cambridge 1839. He wrote many books and contributed much to the periodical press; some of his works have passed through many editions. They include A Sketch of the Reformation in England (London, 1832); Undesigned Coincidences in the Writings both of the Old Testament and New Testament an Argument for their Veracity (1847); A History of the Christian Church during the First Three Centuries (1856); The Duties of the Parish Priest (1856); Two Introductory Lectures on the Study of the Early Fathers (with memoir, Cambridge, 1856). Blyth, George Francis Popham BLYTH, GEORGE FRANCIS POPHAM: Anglican bishop in Jerusalem and the East; b. at Beverley (9 m. n.n.w. of Hull), Yorkshire, in 1832. He was educated at Lincoln College, Oxford (B.A., 1854), and was ordered deacon in 1855, and ordained priest in the following year. He was successively curate of Westport St. Mary's, Wiltshire (1855-61), and Sigglesthorne, Yorkshire (1861-63), and chaplain to the earl of Kimberley (1863-66). He then went to India, was chaplain of the ecclesiastical establishment at Allahabad (1866-67), and was attached to the cathedral of Calcutta and chaplain to the bishop of Calcutta (1867-68). He was then stationed successively at Barrackpur, Bengal (1868-74), Naini-Tal, North-West Provinces (1874-77), and Fort William, Bengal (1877-1878), after which he was archdeacon of the pro-cathedral at Rangoon from 1879 to 1887. In the latter year he was consecrated bishop in Jerusalem and the East. He has written The Holy Week and Forty Days (2 vols., London, 1879). Boardman, George Dana BOARDMAN, GEORGE DANA: 1. Baptist foreign missionary; b. at Livermore, Me., Feb. 8, 1801; d. at Tavoy, Burma, Feb. 11, 1831. In 1824 he was a resident licentiate in Andover Theological Seminary. In 1825 he went out to Burma under the Baptist Board of Missions, which had accepted his services in 1823, but owing to the Burmese war he could not reach that country till 1827. After a year at Maulmain he opened the new station at Tavoy, 150 miles north, and there he immersed the first Karen convert--Ko Tha Byu. From this center he prosecuted a very successful missionary work, but pulmonary disease caused his death after less than three years. Bibliography: A. King, Good Fight, or G. D. Boardman and the Burman Mission, Boston, 1875. 2. American Baptist, son of the preceding; b. at Tavoy, Burma, Aug. 18, 1828; d. at Atlantic City, N. J., Apr. 28, 1903. He was graduated at Brown in 1852 and at the Newton Theological Institution 1855; was pastor in South Carolina 1855-1856; in Rochester, N. Y., 1856-84; of the First Baptist Church, Philadelphia, 1864-94. He was president of the American Baptist Missionary Union (1880-84), and of the Christian Arbitration and Peace Society of America. His publications were for the most part studies of Biblical texts of an exegetical character and include Studies in the Creative Week (New York, 1877), in the Model Prayer (1879), and in the Mountain Instruction (1881); Epiphanies of the Risen Lord (1879); The Divine Man from the Nativity to the Temptation (1887); University Lectures on the Ten Commandments (1889); The Kingdom (1899); The Church (1901); Our Risen King's Forty Days (Philadelphia, 1902). Bibliography: Life and Light. Thoughts from the Writings of George Dana Boardman, with Memorabilia, Philadelphia, 1905. Boardman, George Nye BOARDMAN, GEORGE NYE: American Congregationalist; b. at Pittsford, Vt., Dec. 23, 1825. He was graduated at Middlebury College, Vt. (B.A., 1847), and Andover Theological Seminary (1852). He was tutor at Middlebury College, in 1847-49, and after the completion of his theological studies was appointed professor of rhetoric and English literature in Middlebury College, also acting as temporary professor of intellectual philosophy. Six years later (1859), he accepted a call to the pastorate of the First Presbyterian Church at Binghamton, N. Y., where he remained until 1871, when he was chosen professor of systematic theology in Chicago Theological Seminary. He resigned from this position in 1893, with the title of professor emeritus. He was the first moderator of the new synod after the reunion of the Old School and New School Presbyterian Churches, being also chairman of the committee for the formation of new presbyteries. He was also moderator of the Congregational General Association of Illinois in 1881, and has been a corporate member of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions since 1869. He prepared the section on systematic theology in the seven volumes of Current Discussion, issued by the faculty of the Chicago Theological Seminary (Chicago, 1883-89), and has also written Lectures on Natural Theology (1881); Congregationalism (1889); Regeneration (1891); and History of New England Theology (New York, 1899). Bochart, Samuel BOCHART, bO''sh??r', SAMUEL: French Protestant; b. at Rouen 1599; d. at Caen 1667. His father was the learned Rene Bochart, pastor at Rouen, and his mother Esther du Moulin. At the age of fourteen he made Greek verses in honor of his masters. He studied philosophy at Sedan, theology at Saumur under Cameron, whom he accompanied to London in 1621. He did not stay long, but soon returned to Leyden, where he took up theology and the study of the Arabic language under Erpenius. He was appointed Protestant minister at Caen, but gave private lessons in a Roman Catholic family. His controversy with the Jesuit Veron, in 1628, gave him a great name, and he edited an account of it (2 vols., Saumur, 1630) to refute Veron's teachings. In 1652 Queen Christina of Sweden wished his presence and he followed her call, accompanied by his pupil Huet, later bishop of Avranches. He remained in Stockholm one year, studying Arabic texts in the queen's library. Returning to Caen, he became the representative of Normandy at the National Calvinist Synod of Loudun. He died suddenly during a session of the academy at Caen. His works include Theses theologicae de verbo Dei (Saumur, 1620); Actes de la conference tenue `a Caen entre Samuel Bochart et Jean Baillehache, ministres de la parole de Dieu en l'Eglise reformee . . . et Franc,ois Veron (2 vols., 1630); Reponse `a la lettre du pere de la Barre, Jesuite, sur la presence reelle (1661); Hierozoicon sive historia animalium S. Scripturae (London, 1663); Opera omnia, hoc est, Phaleg, Canaan, et Hierozoicon, quibus accessere variae dissertationes (Leyden, 1675). G. Bonet-Maury. Bibliography: P. D. Huet, Les Origines de la ville de Caen, Rouen, 1706; Niceron, Memoires; W. R. Whittingham, The Life and Writings of S. Bochart, in Essays on Biblical Literature, London, 1829; Smith, Samuel Bochart, Caen, 1833; E. and E. Haag, La France protestante, ed. H. L. Bordier, vol. ii, Paris, 1879; KL, ii, 950-952. Bockhold, Johann (Jan Beukelszoon) BOCKHOLD, JOHANN (JAN BEUKELSZOON). See [439]Muenster, Anabaptists in.. Bod, Peter BOD, bed, PETER: Hungarian theologian and ecclesiastical historian; b. at Felsoe-Csernaton (a village of Transylvania) Feb. 12, 1712; d. at Magyar-Igen (40 m. s.w. of Klausenburg) Mar. 3, 1769. He was educated at the Reformed college of Nagy-Enyed and the University of Leyden, and in 1743 became pastor at Heviz, whence he was called, six years later, to Magyar-Igen. He was the author of fifty-six works, of which twenty-three were printed, but by a decree of Maria Theresa restricting the liberty of the press certain of his books of a patriotic and Protestant tendency were confiscated. Among his works in Hungarian special mention may be made of the following, the titles being translated into English: "History of the Holy Bible" (Hermannstadt, 1748); "History of the Church of God" (Basel, 1760); "History of the Reformed Bishops of Transylvania" (Enyed, 1766); "The Magyar Athens" (Hermannstadt, 1767); biographies of 485 Hungarian authors, and "The Hungarian Phenix" (Enyed, 1767); biography of the printer Kiss; while his Latin works include: Historia Unitariorum in Transylvania (Leyden, 1776), a vivid description of the struggles of the Socinians in Hungary; Historia Hungarorum ecclesiastica (ed. Rauwenhoff and Prins, 3 vols., 1888-1890, from a manuscript recently discovered in the library of the university); and two treatises on the promoters and defenders of the Hungarian Reformation (in Gerdes, Scrinium Antiquarium, ii, Groningen, 1763). F. Balogh. Bibliography: G. D. Teutsch, Korrespondenzblatt des Vereins fuer siebenb. Landeskunde, no. xi, 1888, nos. v, vi, 1891; Presbyterian and Reformed Review, vols. i-ii, 1891-92. Bodelschwingh, Friedrich von BODELSCHWIRGH, bO'del-shving, FRIEDRICH VON: German Lutheran; b. near Tecklenburg (20 m. n.n.e. of Muenster), Westphalia, Mar. 6, 1831, son of Ernst von Bodelschwingh-Velmede, a distinguished Prussian statesman. After gaining practical experience of mining and agriculture, he studied theology (from 1854) in Basel, Erlangen, and Berlin, and in 1858 became pastor of the German congregation in Paris, at Dellwig in Westphalia 1864. During the wars of 1866 and 1870-1871 he served as army chaplain. Since 1872 he has devoted himself to the work of the [440]Innere Mission at Bielefeld, and the following institutions have been founded by his exertions: the Bethel house for epileptics with 1,800 inmates; the Sarepta deaconesses' house with 980 sisters located in 326 stations, of which eleven are in foreign countries; the Nazareth house for training male nurses with 350 deacons in 120 stations, six not in Europe and six more outside Germany; the "workingmen's colony" Wilhelmsdorf (a practical attempt to deal with the tramp problem), the first of its kind in Germany, having at present five branches and 400 inmates; a "workingmen's home" with 164 houses and 400 dwellings; a missionary seminary for candidates in theology. Bibliography: M. Siebold, Kurze Geschichte und Beschreibung der Anstalten Bethel . . . bei Bielefeld, Bethel publishing house, 1896, and the annual reports. Bodenstein, Andreas Rudolf von BODENSTEIN, ANDREAS RUDOLF VON. See [441]Carlstadt. Body, Charles William Edmund BODY, CHARLES WILLIAM EDMUND: Protestant Episcopalian; b. at Clapham (a suburb of London) Oct. 4, 1851. He was educated at St. John's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1875), where he was fellow from 1877 to 1881. In the latter year he was chosen provost and vice-chancellor of Trinity University, Toronto, where he remained until 1894, when he was appointed professor of Old Testament literature and interpretation in the General Theological Seminary, New York City. He has written The Permanent Value of Genesis (the Paddock Lectures for 1894; New York, 1894). Body, George BODY, GEORGE: Church of England; b. at Cheriton Fitzpaine (9 m. n.w. of Exeter), Devonshire, Jan. 7, 1840. He was educated at St. John's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1882), and was curate of St. James's, Wednesbury, Staffordshire (1863-65), Sedgley, Staffordshire (1865-67), and Christ Church, Wolverhampton (1867-70). From 1870 to 1884 he was rector of Kirby-Misperton, Yorkshire; and since 1883 he has been canon of Durham. He was proctor in convocation of York for Cleveland in 1880-85 and was select preacher to the University of Cambridge in 1892, 1894, 1896, 1900, and 1904, as well as lecturer on pastoral theology in the same university in 1897. He was warden of the Community of the Epiphany, diocese of Truro, in 1891, and is also chaplain to the bishop of St. Andrews and vice-president of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. He has written: Life of Justification (London, 1884); Life of Temptation (1884); The Appearances of the Risen Lord (1890); The School of Calvary (1891); Activities of the Ascended Lord (1891); The Life of Love (1893); The Guided Life (1894); and The Work of Grace in Paradise (1896). Boeckenhoff, Wilhelm Bernard Aloysius Karl BOECKENHOFF, bUk'en-hof, WILHELM BERNARD ALOYSIUS KARL: German Roman Catholic; b. at Schermbeck (37 m. s.w. of Muenster) July 10, 1870. He was educated at Muenster (1890-93), the Gregorian University, Rome (1897-1900; Doctor Juris Canonici, 1899), and the University of Berlin (1900-01; D.D., Muenster, 1901). He was ordained to the priesthood in 1894 and was a vicar in Dolberg from that year until 1897, when he resumed his studies. He became a privat-docent at Muenster in 1902, but three years later went in a similar capacity to Strasburg, where he was appointed associate professor of canon law in the following month. In addition to contributions to theological periodicals, he has written De individuitate matrimonii (Berlin, 1901) and Das apostolische Speisegesetz in den ersten fuenf Jahrhunderten (Paderborn, 1903). Boegner, Alfred Edouard BOEGNER, bUg'ner, ALFRED EDOUARD: French Protestant; b. at Strasburg Aug. 2, 1851. He was educated at the university of his native city and at the theological faculty at Montauban, after which he studied at the German universities of Leipsic, Erlangen, and Tuebingen in 1873-74. From 1876 to 1879 he was pastor of the Protestant church at Fresnoy-le-Grand, and in the latter year became subdirector of the Paris Society of Evangelical Missions, of which he has been director since 1882. In this capacity he made tours of inspection of South Africa in 1883, Senegal and the West Coast in 1890-91, and Madagascar, the Transvaal, Orange Free State, and Cape Colony in 1898-99. He is also director of the Paris House of Evangelical Missions, and in addition to editing the Journal des missions evangeliques de Paris since 1879 and publishing or editing a number of minor contributions, has written Patterson, le missionnaire de la Melanesie (Paris, 1881); Le Missionnaire de Methlakatla (1882); Les Bassoutos, autrefois et aujourd'hui (1885); Quelques reflexions sur l'autorite en matiere de foi (1892); and Rapport sur la delegation `a Madagascar (in collaboration with P. Germond; 1900). Boehl, Eduard BOEHL, bUl, EDUARD: German theologian; b. at Hamburg Nov. 18, 1836; d. at Vienna Jan. 24, 1903. He was educated at Berlin (1855), Halle (1856-58), and Erlangen (1858-60), and became licentiate and privat-docent at Basel in 1860, whence he was called to Vienna four years later as professor of Reformed dogmatics and symbolics, and also of pedagogics, philosophy of religion, and apologetics, in the Protestant faculty of theology. In 1864 he also became a permanent member of the Synod of the Reformed Church of Austria, and was in 1883 president of its fourth General Synod. He edited the Evangelische Sonntagsboten fuer Oesterreich, and published De Aramaismis libri Koheleth (Erlangen, 1860); Vaticinium Jesajae c. 24-27 commentario illustratum (Leipsic, 1861); Zwoelf messianische Psalmen erklaert; nebst einer grundlegenden christologischen Einleitung (Basel, 1862); Confessio Helvetica Posterior (Vienna, 1866); Allgemeine Paedagogik (1870); Forschungen nach einer Volksbibel zur Zeit Jesu und deren Zusammenhang mit der Septuaginta-Uebersetzung (1873); Die alttestamentlichen Citate im Neuen Testament (1878); Christologie des Alten Testaments, oder Auslegung der wichtigsten messianischen Weissagungen (1882); Zum Gesetz und zum Zeugniss; eine Abwehr wider die neukritischen Schriftforschungen im Alten Testament (1883); Von der Incarnation des goettlichen Wortes (1884); Christliche Glaubenslehre (Amsterdam, 1886); Dogmatik; Darstellung der christlichen Glaubenslehre auf reformirtkirchlicher Grundlage (1887); Zur Abwehr: etliche Bemerkungen gegen Prof. Dr. A. Kuyper's Einleitung zu seiner Schrift "Die Incarnation des Wortes" (1888); Von der Rechtfertigung durch den Glauben (Leipsic, 1890); Beitraege zur Geschichte der Reformation in Oesterreich (Jena, 1902). Boehm, Hans BOEHM, HANS: A popular preacher of the fifteenth century, known as the Drummer of Niklashausen; executed July 19, 1476. He was originally a shepherd at Helmstadt, between Wuerzburg and Wertheim. Up to the beginning of 1476, he had been used to play the drum and fife for rustic dances, but what he heard of the preaching of the Franciscan Capistrano (see [442]Capistrano, Giovanni di) worked a great change in him. He alleged that the Virgin Mary had appeared to him and called him to be a prophet and preacher of repentance. In the village of Niklashausen near his home there was a picture of her already reputed miraculous and visited by pilgrims. Here, at the end of March, he began to preach, having burnt his drum in token of conversion. Lacking not only secular education but even elementary religious knowledge, he yet made a deep impression on his hearers by the innocence and purity of his nature. He did not stop with calling the peasants to repentance, but showed increasing bitterness against the clergy and nobles, who, he said, would find no place in the kingdom announced to him by the Virgin; taxes were to be abolished, no one was to have more than another, and all men were to live as brothers. His fame soon spread throughout central and southern Germany, and crowds of pilgrims, put as high as 40,000, thronged to hear him. He seems to have intended to lead them in an armed rising; but Bishop Rudolf of Wuerzburg had him arrested on July 12, and warded off the danger of a great peasants' war. Two days later, 16,000 of his followers appeared to rescue him, but were dispersed; and on the 19th, a recantation having been extorted from him, he perished on the scaffold as a heretic and enchanter. (Herman Haupt.) Bibliography: C. A. Barack, Hans Boehm und die Wallfahrt nach Niklashausen im Jahre 1476, Wuerzburg, 1858; C. Ullmann, Reformers before the Reformation, i, 377-392. Edinburgh, 1877 (a very detailed account); E. Gothein, Politische und religioese Volksbewegungen vor der Reformation, pp. 10 sqq., Breslau, 1878; H. Haupt, Die religioesen Sekten in Franker vor der Reformation, pp. 57 sqq., Wuerzburg, 1882. Boehme, Jakob BOEHME, bU'me, JAKOB. Early Tendency Toward Mysticism (S: 1). Mystic Visions (S: 2). Opposition to his First Book (S: 3). Finds Sympathy in Dresden (S: 4). Death of Boehme (S: 5). His Writings (S: 6). His Transcendentalism (S: 7). His Essential Orthodoxy (S: 8). 1. Early Tendency Toward Mysticism. The famous German mystic Jakob Boehme (often written Behmen or Boehme in English), born at Alt-Seidenberg, near Goerlitz, Nov., 1575; d. at Goerlitz Nov. 17, 1624. His parents were peasants, from whom he inherited, it seems, a strain of visionary mysticism. Unable to bear the rough outdoor life of the farm, he was put to shoemaking in the little town of Seidenberg, where he had a hard apprenticeship with a family that had no Christian principles, and got an early insight into the controversies of the age. With diligent reading of the Bible and prayer for the illumination of the Holy Spirit he combined eager study of the works of fanatical visionaries, such as Paracelsus, Weigel, and Schwenckfeld, by means of which he felt himself elevated above the strife of tongues around him into the light and joy of the contemplation of God. He settled, as master of his trade, at Goerlitz in 1599. He had his shop there until 1613, and must have prospered to a certain extent, since he bought a house in 1610 and had fully paid for it in 1618. He married a master butcher's daughter in 1599, and had four sons and two daughters, passing as a model husband and father among his neighbors. All these things go to show that he had a practical hold on life, and was far from being a mere crazy visionary. 2. Mystic Visions. A visionary, however, he remained. He tells the story of a stranger coming into his shop and calling him by name, taking him aside to tell him he should be so great that the world should wonder at him, and warning him to remain true to the Word of God and to a life of virtue. Other visions followed. One day the reflection of the sun from a bright metal vessel in his shop seemed to infuse such spiritual light into his soul that the inner mysteries of things were laid open to his sight. He went out into the fields to seek the revelation of God's will in earnest prayer, and found his peace and joy only grow the deeper. None the less, ten years passed before he ventured to put down in writing what he had seen, and then he did so only on the encouragement of a new vision and as a memorandum for himself. 3. Opposition to his First Book. The incomplete manuscript, written in great haste, which he called Aurora oder die Morgenroete im Aufgang, began to circulate among his acquaintances at the instance of Karl von Ender, a friendly noble man who was an adherent of Schwenckfeld's. In this way it came under the notice of Gregorius Richter, the pastor of Goerlitz, who at once began a fanatical war upon the presumptuous shoemaker, and urged the local magistrate to suppress him, lest the wrath of God should fall upon the town. Boehme was minutely examined before the council, and only dismissed on promising to write no more books. The observance of this promise, however, was not only made difficult by the insistence of his friends, but by his own inner feeling that the fear of men had driven him to deny the grace of God that was in him. The bitter abuse of Richter, too, still continued, and after five years of silence, during which he had learned a good deal and developed more, Boehme could bear it no longer, and, encouraged by a fresh vision, again took up his pen. His new writings were at first circulated only in manuscript copies. Richter, who thought himself the appointed guardian of orthodoxy, thundered against him from the pulpit and attacked him in a vulgar lampoon, which Boehme answered in a tone naturally excited, but still showing a nobler spirit than the absurdly haughty and unchristian contempt of the attack. Far from having broken with the word of God and the sacraments, he was trying to live as an upright Christian, in strict self-discipline; and although among his twenty-eight works there are some which directly attack the visible Church as Babel, the city of confusion, and set forth Christ in us as the mystical ideal, his general attitude by no means justifies the scornful "Shoemaker, stick to thy last" of his opponent. 4. Finds Sympathy In Dresden. In 1624 he was obliged to leave Goerlitz, and went to Dresden, where he found shelter in the house of the director of the Elector's chemical laboratory and enjoyed the society of many of the most intellectual people of the court and the capital. In May he had a hearing before several distinguished clerics and professors, who fully recognized his mental endowments, and encouraged him to go home, especially as his family, deprived of its head, had been exposed to no little suffering in the confusion of the Thirty Years' War. 5. Death of Boehme. He returned to Goerlitz, but his end was near. When he asked for communion upon his death-bed, the successor of Richter, a man like-minded, would only give it to him after a searching examination, of which the report is still extant. Full of confidence, however, and with heavenly voices ringing in his ears, Boehme took leave of his wife and children and died with the joyful cry "I go to Paradise!" In spite of clerical opposition, a befitting funeral was provided by the town authorities; a cross was put up over the grave by his friends, to be defiled and thrown down by the populace. 6. His Writings. Thus despised and rejected in his own day, Boehme has been honored by some of the greatest minds of Germany in a later age; such men as Friedrich von Hardenberg, Jung-Stilling, Friedrich Schlegel and Ludwig Tieck, Hegel and Schelling received valuable intellectual impulses from his works, which also attracted much attention in England, where a complete translation appeared between 1644 and 1682. Besides those already named, the most important are Von den drei Principien goettlichen Wesens; Vom dreifachen Leben des Menschen; Vierzig Fragen von der Seele; Von wahrer Busse; Das Gespraech einer unerleuchteten Seele; and Der Weg zu Christo; including two against predestinarianism and two against pantheism. Boehme's influence has never been a popular one, because his train of thought is frequently difficult and sometimes almost impossible to follow. This is due partly to his lack of education, which prevented him from expressing himself clearly, but partly also to the depth and intensity of his thought, which has to struggle for adequate representation in words. With sincere longing, with real hunger of the soul he plunges into the depths of God's being. 7. His Transcendentalism. The traditional theology of the schools, with its strife about the letter, could not content him. "As the many kinds of flowers grow in the earth near each other, and none contends with the other about color, smell, or taste, but they let the earth and the sun, rain and wind, heat and cold, do what they will with them, while they grow each according to its own nature, so is it with the children of God." And he was simply a child of God, that longed to grow and approach more closely to God. In this effort he studied the Bible and clung to it, but nature and life, to say nothing of the writings of earlier enthusiasts, contributed their part. 8. His Essential Orthodoxy. He held fast to the fundamental doctrines of his Church, the Trinity, the Incarnation, the Atonement. "That which is said of God, that he is Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, is truly said; but it must be explained, or the unenlightened can not comprehend it." "Thou must not think the Son is another God from the Father, or that he is outside the Father, as when two men stand side by side. The Father is the source of all forces, and all forces are in each other as one force; and thus he is called one God. The Son is the Father's heart, the heart or center of all the powers of the Father. From the Son rises the eternal heavenly joy, having its source in all the powers of the Father, a joy that no eye has seen, and no ear heard." Christ, the Father's heart, descended into the midst of the conflagration which had broken out in the world, extinguished it by his death, and by his resurrection, the resurrection of the God-Man, raised man to participation in the Godhead. The Scripture is the receptacle of the truth; he holds to it, and its sense alone (cf. Col. i, 15-20) teaches a cosmic, universal conception of Christianity; baptism and the Lord's supper are means of grace to him. He remains, in spite of all obscurities, a man of inspiration who raised Protestant mysticism to a great height, and not only endowed it with the riches of his own meditations but, through his "theosophic Pentecostal school, in which the soul is taught by God," has shown many others the way to a deep and abiding happiness. (F. W. Dibelius.) Bibliography: The works of Boehme were collected in Germany by J. G. Gichtel, 1682, and an edition in 7 vols. was edited by Schiebler, Leipsic, 1831-47. The Eng. ed. is mentioned in the text. Early accounts in Eng. of his life were by D. Hotham, London, 1654, and by F. Okeley, Northampton, 1780; in Germ. by J. A. Calo, Wittenberg, 1707. For later accounts consult: J. Claassen, J. Boehme. Sein Leben und seine theosophischen Werke, 3 vols., Stuttgart, 1885; H. L. Martensen, J. Boehme, Copenhagen, 1882, Eng. transl., London, 1885; R. A. Vaughan, Hours with the Mystics, vol. ii, ib. 1888; Schoenwaelder, Lebensbeschreibung J. Boehmes, Goerlitz, 1895. More nearly concerned with his philosophy are: J. Hamberger, Die Lehre des deutschen Philosophen J. Boehme, Munich, 1844: C. F. Baur, Zur Geschichte der protestantischen Mystik, in Theologische Jahrbuecher, vii-viii, 1848-49; A. Peip, J. Boehme . . . der Vorlaeufer christlicher Wissenschaft, Leipsic, 1860; idem, J. Boehme . . . in seiner Stellung zur Kirche, Hamburg, 1862; J. Tulloch, Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy in the Seventeenth Century, Edinburgh, 1874; F. von Baader, Vorlesungen ueber J. Boehme, in Saemmtliche Werke, vol. xiii, Leipsic, 1855; F. Hartmann, Life and Doctrines of Boehme, the God-taught Philosopher, London, 1893; J. F. Hurst, History of Rationalism, chap. i, New York, 1902. McClintock and Strong, Cyclopaedia, ii, 842, gives in Eng. complete list of his works. Boehmer, Eduard BOEHMER, bU'mer, EDUARD: German theologian and Romance scholar; b. at Stettin May 24, 1827; d. at Lichtental Feb. 5,1906. He was educated at the universities of Halle and Berlin, and in 1854 became privat-docent for theology in Halle. He later turned his attention to Romance, and in 1866 was appointed associate professor in that subject in Halle, becoming full professor two years later. In 1872 he was called to Strasburg in the same capacity, but retired with the title of professor emeritus in 1879. Among his numerous works those of theological importance are Ueber Verfasser und Abfassungszeit der johanneischen Apokalypse (Halle, 1855); Das erste Buch des Thora (1862); Franzisca Hernandez und Frai Franzisco Ortiz (Leipsic, 1866); Bibliotheca Wiffeniana: Spanish Reformers of two Centuries from 1520 (2 vols., Strasburg, 1874-83); and Des Apostels Paulus Brief an die Roemer (Bonn, 1886). Boehmer, Justus Henning BOEHMER, JUSTUS HENNING: A jurist who made important contributions to the study of Roman and still more of canon law; b. at Hanover Jan. 29, 1674; d. at Halle Aug. 23 or 29, 1749, as chancellor of the duchy of Magdeburg and head of the faculty of law at Halle. He rendered a great service to the continuity of Protestant church law in that he was the first to show the adaptability of the older canonical principles to post-Reformation conditions. This was made possible by his profound knowledge of church history and his extensive theoretical and practical acquaintance with both the common and the statute law. In the question of the relation of Church and State he declared for the territorial system. Out of the large number of his writings may be mentioned the Duodecim dissertationes juris ecclesiastici ad Plinium Secundum et Tertullianum (2d ed., Halle, 1729); Entwurf des Kirchenstaats derer ersten drei Jahrhundert . . . (1733); Institutiones juris canonici (5th ed., 1770); Jus ecclesiasticum Protestantium (6 vols., 1714); and an edition of the Corpus juris canonici (2 vols., 1747), valuable for its notes, index, and appendices. He also made some contributions to church hymnody. He was the founder of a family of jurists, two of whom deserve mention for their contributions to the study of canon law. These are his son, Georg Ludwig, b. 1715; d. 1797, as head of the law faculty at Goettingen; author of Principia juris canonici (Goettingen,1762), which was used in the revision of the Prussian laws; and Georg Ludwig's son, Georg Wilhelm (1761-1839), who published Grundriss des protestantischen Kirchenrechts (Goettingen,1786) and other cognate works. (E. Friedberg.) Bibliography: Niceron, Memoires; C. G. Haubold, Institutiones juris Romani literariae, p. 153, Leipsic, 1819; ADB, iii, 79 sqq., 1876; J. F. Schulte, Geschichte der Quellen und Litteratur des canonischen Rechts, vol. iii, part 2, pp. 92 sqq., Stuttgart, 1880; W. Schrader, Geschichte der Friedrichs-Universitaet zu Halle, i, 146 sqq., Berlin, 1894. Boehringer, Georg Friedrich BOEHRINGER, bU-ring'er, GEORG FRIEDRICH: Swiss Protestant (Tuebingen school); b. at Maulbronn, Wuerttemberg, Dec. 28, 1812; d. at Basel, blind and crippled, Sept. 16, 1879. He studied at Tuebingen, took part in the insurrectionary movements in 1833, and was in consequence compelled to flee to Switzerland; became pastor at Glattfelden, Canton Zurich, 1842; resigned, 1853; removed to Zurich, and then to Basel. He wrote, from the sources and in a scholarly manner, a series of biographies which constituted a church history down to pre-Reformation times, under the general title Die Kirche Christi und ihre Zeugen (24 vols., Zurich, 1842-58; 2d ed., 1860-79). Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus BOETHIUS, bO-i'thi-Us, ANICIUS MANLIUS SEVERINUS: Statesman and philosopher; b. at Rome, of wealthy and influential family, c. 480; executed at Pavia 525. He received as good an education as the time could give, and acquired a close acquaintance with Greek philosophy. In 510 he was consul, and for several years occupied a prominent position in the Roman world, equally revered by the people and esteemed by the Ostrogothic king, Theodoric, the ruler of Italy (489-526). After the decree of the Emperor Justin I (518-527) against the Arians, Theodoric became suspicious of all Romans and Catholics; he imprisoned Boethius at Pavia on a charge of desiring to restore the old Roman freedom, and finally put him to death. By his translations and commentaries (including the entire six books of the Organon of Aristotle and the Isagoge of Porphyry) and by his independent works (Introductio ad categoricos syllogismos, De syllogismo categorico, De syllogismo hypothetico, De divisione, De definitione, De musica, De arithmetica, etc.), Boethius became the connecting link between the logical and metaphysical Science of antiquity and the scientific attempts of the Middle Ages. His influence on medieval thought was still greater through his De consolatione philosophiae (written while in prison at Pavia) and the theological writings attributed to him. Whether Boethius was a Christian has been doubted; and it is certain that the Consolotio makes no mention of Christ, and all the comfort it contains it owes to the optimism of the Neoplatonic school and to the stoicism of Seneca. Nevertheless, for a long time the book was read with the greatest reverence by all Christendom, and its author was regarded as a martyr for the true faith. Having advanced from a mere logician to a moralist, he next came to be regarded as a theologian; but it is not probable that he wrote any of the theological works attributed to him. The tradition is very old, however; he is mentioned by Alcuin as the author of De sancta trinitate, and by Hincmar of Reims as author of a treatise, Utrum pater et filius et spiritus sanctus de divinitate substantialiter praedicentur. Bibliography: The complete works of Boethius first appeared at Venice, 1492; again at Basel, 1546 and 1570; they are reproduced in MPL lxiii-lxiv. The Consolatio philosophiae was first printed at Nuremberg, 1473; a good edition is by Peiper, Leipsic, 1871; there have been many English translations, beginning with King Alfred's Anglo-Saxon version, and including one by Chaucer and one ascribed to Queen Elizabeth; a late translation is by H. R. James, London, 1897. The translations from Aristotle were published by C. Meiser, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1877-80; the De arithmetica, De musica, and De geometrica by G. Friedlein, ib. 1867. The theological writings appeared at Louvain in 1633 and are in Peiper's edition of the Consolatio (ut sup.). Consult: F. Nitzsch, Das System des Boethius Berlin 1860; Jourdain, De l'origine des traditions sur le christianisme de Boece, Paris, 1861; A. Hildebrand, Boethius und seine Stellung zum Christenthum, Regensburg, 1885; H. F. Stewart, Boethius: an Essay, Edinburgh, 1891 (valuable; an analysis of the Consolation and other theological tracts, discusses the question of Boethius's Christianity, gives literature at head of each chapter); E. K. Rand, Joh. Scottus. I. Der Kommentar des Johannes Scottus, II. Des Remigius von Auxerre zu den opuscula sacra des Boethius, Munich, 1906. Bogatzky, Karl Heinrich von BOGATZKY, KARL HEINRICH VON: German Pietist; b. at Jankowe (a village of Lower Silesia) Sept. 7, 1690; d. at Halle June 15, 1774. When fourteen years of age, he entered the ducal court of Saxe-Weissenfels as a page, but at the instance of the pious count Henry XXIV of Reuse-Koestritz, he began to complete his education in his twentieth year. From 1713 to 1715 he studied law at Jena and then devoted himself to theology at Halle, where Francke, Anton, Freylinghausen, and other Pietists greatly influenced him. After completing his theological studies in 1718, he lived for several years among the nobility of Silesia, and exercised much influence as a spiritual leader. He also resided for a number of years at the Silesian village of Glaucha, where he aided in building an orphan-asylum, and from 1740 to 1746 he lived at the ducal court of Saalfeld, and finally at Halle, engaged in literary work of a devotional character and in the practical furtherance of Pietistic life. The most popular of his many works was his Gueldenes Schatzkaestlein der Kinder Gottes, which he composed for his own edification while at the university (Breslau, 1718; 65th ed., Halle, 1904; Eng. transl., London, 1745, and many subsequent editions); while among his other books special mention may be made of his Taegliches Hausbuch der Kinder Gottes (2 vols., Halle, 1748-49) and of his Betrachtungen und Gebete ueber das Neue Testament (7 parts, 1755-61). Several of his hymns obtained a place in the popular hymnals of the German people, and were collected in his Uebung der Gottseligkeit in allerlei geistlichen Liedern (Halle, 1749), while a selection of 160, was published by Johannes Claassen, (Stuttgart, 1888), together with a biography of Bogatzky. (Georg Mueller.) Bibliography: Bogatsky's autobiography was published by Knapp, Halle, 1801, Eng transl, by S. Jackson, London, 1856. Consult: G. Frank, Geschichte der protestantischen Theologie, iii, 201-202, Leipsic, 1875; ADB, iii, 37-39, Leipsic, 1876; A. F. W. Fischer, Kirchen-LiederLexikon, ii, 430-431, Gotha, 1879; Julian, Hymnology, p. 152. Bogerman, Jan BOGERMAN, bO'ger-man, JAN: Dutch theologian; b. at Oplewert, East Friesland, 1576; d. at Franeker Sept. 11, 1637. He was professor of divinity at Franeker after 1633. He took an active part in the Arminian controversy and presided at the [443]Synod of Dort. He was one of the workers on the Old Testament of the Staatenbibel (see [444]Bible Versions, B, III). He wrote a polemic against Grotius, Annototiones contra H. Grotium, and translated Beza's De la punition des heretiques, under the title Van het ketter straffen (Franeker, 1601). Bogomiles BOGOMILES. See [445]New Manicheans, I. Bogue, David BOGUE, DAVID: English Congregationalist; b. at Hallydown, near Coldingham (10 m. n.w. of Berwick), Berwickshire, Feb. 18, 1750; d. at Brighton Oct. 25, 1825. He studied at Edinburgh (M.A., 1771), was licensed to preach, and taught school in England; in 1780, while minister of a Congregational chapel at Gosport (opposite Portsmouth), he undertook the instruction of young men for the ministry, and from this beginning was developed the London Missionary Society. He was also active in founding the British and Foreign Bible Society and the Religious Tract Society. In 1796 with two other ministers and Robert Haldane he offered to go to India as a missionary, but the plan was not approved by the East India Company. Besides sermons and tracts he published An Essay on the Divine Authority of the New Testament (London, 1801), and with James Bennett wrote the History of Dissenters from the Revolution to 1808 (4 vols., 1808-12; 2d ed., 2 vols., 1833). Bibliography: James Bennett, Memoirs of the Life of Rev. David Bogue, London, 1827; DNB, v, 302-303. Bohemia BOHEMIA. See [446]Austria. Bohemian Brethren BOHEMIAN BRETHREN. I. Origin and History to 1496. Origin of the Sect (S: 1). Early Organization (S: 2). First Priests of the Brethren (S: 3). Relations with the Waldensians (S: 4). II.The Brethren under Lukas. Oppressive Measures of Vladislav (S: 1). Overtures to the Protestants (S: 2). Later Organization (S: 3). III.Development from 1528 to 1621. Johann Augusta (S: 1). Cessation of Persecution (S: 2). The Brethren Merged in the Utraquists (S: 3). IV. The Brethren in Prussia and Poland. I. Origin and History to 1496. 1. Origin of the Sect. The Compactata of Prague, which marked the political end of the Hussite Wars in 1433 (see [447]Huss, John, Hussites), proved unsatisfactory to the religious and ecclesiastical demands of the majority of the Bohemians. Many scattered communities accordingly arose throughout the country, seeking to carry out the Reformation in life and doctrine, independent of the Waldensians who had long been settled in Bohemia. In 1453-54, moreover, the preaching of the Utraquistic archbishop Rokycana (pastor of the Teinkirche at Prague after 1448) resulted in the formation of a community at Prague, headed by his nephew Gregory. The conviction that the validity of the sacraments, sermons, prayer, and the like depended on the moral and religious character of the priest caused them to seek for "good" pastors, and this congregation, together with others and at the suggestion of Rokycana, became closely allied with the Chelcic Brethren, the followers of a layman named Peter of Chelcic, who first appeared at Prague in 1419 and seems to have died before 1457. He had refused to join any of the Hussite parties, since he rejected all temporal defense of the Gospel, and recorded his peculiar views in his writings, of which the most important were his Netz des wahren Glaubens (1455) and his Postilla (1434-36). His ideal of Christian life, the fulfilment of the "law of Christ" (Matt. xxii, 37-39; Gal. vi, 2) in public and in private life without regard to consequences, and his rejection of all that could not be reconciled with this law, such as temporal power, wealth, war, and trade, made a profound impression on Gregory and his followers, and inspired them to attempt to realize this ideal. At their request their friend and counselor Rokycana secured permission from King George Podebrad for them to settle in the village of Kunwald in the district of Lititz, which belonged to him, and they accordingly established their colony there in 1457 or 1458, Michael, the pastor of the neighboring town of Senftenberg, becoming their spiritual head. How large it was, whether including only individuals or entire families, is not known, although the latter seems to have been the case. At all events, families were soon attracted to Kunwald, for the oldest document of the Brethren, a synodical resolution of 1464, presupposes the existence of households with civil occupations, as well as of widows and orphans. 2. Early Organization. This sketch of the origin of the Bohemian Brethren renders it clear that the current view which represents them as remnants of the Taborites is incorrect. In 1471 they designated themselves as disciples of Rokycana and his colleagues, and declared that they had been developed from the older communities mentioned above. The main outlines of the organization are contained in certain synodical resolutions of 1464-67. The community was divided into three groups: beginners or penitents, comprising children under the age of twelve and all who sought to enter the community from the time they made profession of their desire until they were received; the advanced, forming the majority of the community and devoting themselves to various civil callings, with masters and matrons appointed to supervise and counsel them; and the perfected (also called priests; although the community then had no specially appointed priesthood), who had renounced private property and given their possessions to the poor, particularly to those who "journey for the sake of the word of God." It was the duty of the perfected to proclaim the word and to hear confessions; they were required to travel in pairs, instead of alone, to earn a livelihood by the work of their hands, and to collect alms regularly, which were destined partly for the poor and partly for themselves, in case their work was insufficient to support them. Those of the laity, either male or female, who had voluntarily chosen poverty, also belonged to this class. At the head of the communities stood one or more elders, although no details of their duties are known, and information is equally scanty regarding the imposition of their frequent synods. The Brethren at Kunwald gained an increasing number of adherents in Bohemia and Moravia, while their opposition to the dominant Church became stronger and stronger, especially as a result of the persecution instituted against them by King George in 1460. They accordingly felt themselves obliged, seven years later, to break entirely with the Church by the creation of an independent priesthood, the historical course of events being as follows, according to Goll's proposed combination of the sources, which are not always in entire agreement. 3. First Priests of the Brethen. By a meeting with the Waldensians and their "bishop" Stephen, with whom they had become acquainted through Rokycana, the Bohemian Brethren had entered into relations with the Waldensians previous to 1467. These negotiations proved fruitless, however, since the Waldensians as a body would not countenance an open break with the Roman Catholic Church. Some of them, on the other hand, joined the Brethren, and among this number was an old Waldensian priest, who was present, together with certain representatives of the German Waldensians, at a conference of about sixty Brethren from various parts of Bohemia and Moravia which was held, according to a later tradition, at Lhotka, a village near Reichenau, in 1467 to choose and ordain priests of their own. Fully aware of the momentous nature of their proceeding, they wished God himself to decide by lot whether the time had come for them to venture the step, and which persons should be the first priests. Nine candidates were proposed, each of whom was required to draw one of twelve slips, nine blank and three containing the word jest ("he is"). In case all the candidates drew blanks, the synod was to be adjourned for a year. Thomas, Matthias, and Elias, however, drew the three written slips, whereupon they were "confirmed" by the laying on of hands by the old Waldensian priest, apparently assisted by the priest Michael (?), in the name and authority of the synod. By a more restricted lot Matthias was chosen from the three to have "the first place in authority," or as "bishop," as Michael called himself in a conference with the Utraquistic consistory in 1478. It was not until May of the following year (1468) that the Brethren informed Rokycana of what had occurred, and they then seem to have broken definitely with him. They themselves, however, were soon divided as to "whether it should so remain," and the result was the decision that Matthias should be consecrated bishop by the Waldensian bishop Stephen. Strangely enough, the priest Michael was sent, instead of Matthias himself. Michael met Stephen in southern Moravia, received consecration from him, and gave it, when he returned, to Matthias, whereupon he resigned both the authority of bishop, which he had received only for this purpose, and also his Catholic priesthood, having himself reordained by Matthias as a priest of the Brethren, while the new bishop likewise ordained Thomas and Elias. This is the account of Michael and other eye-witnesses, while later sources, even of the early sixteenth century, present many deviations, partly in an endeavor to conceal the cooperation of the Waldensians so far as possible. 4. Relations with the Waldensians. The members of this newly constituted community called themselves "Brethren," and were known in different portions of the country by the names of their chief centers, such as Kunwalders, Bunzlau Brethren, and the like. As a whole they termed themselves Jednota Bratrska, which they later rendered into Latin as Unitas Fratrum. Their characteristic designation was Brethren, which had already been current in various older Bohemian communities. The name Fratres legis Christi first arose in the second half of the sixteenth century, but never became general. Their opponents usually termed them Waldensians or Pickards (a corruption of Beghards), and this designation, found even in the royal decrees, became so general that they themselves employed it in the titles of many of their writings, terming themselves "the Brethren who for envy and hatred are called Waldensians or Pickards." The first result of the events of 1467 was a renewal of the persecutions, which lasted until the death of George and Rokycana in 1471, and which also involved the Waldensians, Stephen being burned at the stake in Vienna during this period. This persecution may also have been the cause of the renewed attacks on them in Brandenburg, and about 1478 two Waldensians accordingly went from that country to the Brethren, thus inaugurating an intercommunication between the two sects which resulted in a number of Waldensians joining the Brethren after 1480 and settling at Landskron in Bohemia and at Fulneck in Moravia. In the latter country both sects were tolerated under King Matthias, until the end of his reign, when a decree of expulsion was issued in 1488, although it was soon revoked at the petition of some patrons of high rank. A portion of the Brethren had already emigrated to Moldavia, but apparently returned within a few years. Internal strife, centered about the ideal of Peter mentioned above, was more perilous to the maintenance of unity than external oppression. A "small" party clung to this ideal, and accordingly rejected temporal power, law, service in war, the oath, and the like as unchristian, while a "great " party regarded all these as dangerous, yet not to be rejected unconditionally. The controversies ended in 1494 with the victory of the "great" party, the "small" party, who called themselves Amosites after their leader Amos, separating as an independent community and preserving an existence for several decades. During these dissensions two leaders of the "great" party, Lukas and Thomas, journeyed to North Italy to visit the Lombard Waldensians in their own homes, possibly seeking, in view of their disagreement with the "small" party, to make a final effort to induce the Waldensians to break openly with Rome. A correspondence between the Brethren and the Waldensians was associated with this journey, the three Waldensian treatises, preserved either entire or in fragments, La epistola al serenissimo Rey Lancelau; Ayczo es la causa del nostre departiment de la gleysa Romana; and De l'Antichrist, as well as the catechism Las interrogations menors, being apparently translations or revisions of Bohemian writings composed by the Brethren, although the mutual relations are not yet altogether clear. II. The Brethren under Lukas. 1. Oppressive Measures of Vladislav. The period between 1496 and 1528 is marked by the activity of Lukas. Although he was not appointed presiding bishop until 1517, his influence was potent during the administration of his predecessors in office, Procopius (1507) and Thomas of P?elou? (1517). His special task was the restoration of the Unity which had become necessary in consequence of the secession of the "small" party. A mass of ordinances, touching on all the relations of life, was prepared to build up the Christian community on the principles newly won. The doctrines, which had thus far been formulated but feebly, were now systematized on other foundations, and from these various points of view Lukas developed a noteworthy literary activity. The external existence of the Unity was seriously threatened at the beginning of the sixteenth century, when Vladislav, who had tolerated them hitherto, was induced to proceed against them by Bohuslav of Lobkowitz, the foremost representative of Bohemian humanism, who saw the roots of manifold evils in religious disunion. At the same time Alexander VI sent the Dominican Heinrich Institoris to Olmuetz as censor of books for Bohemia and Moravia (bull of Feb. 4, 1500), and he, after a fruitless disputation with certain representatives of the Brethren, preached against them with extreme severity. The overtures toward a reconciliation between Rome and the Utraquists (1501) led the latter to make common cause in opposition to the Brethren, and a decree of the king, dated July 5, 1503, forbade all further toleration of the sect in Prague and the royal cities, while the Roman Catholic estates voluntarily enforced this prohibition in their districts. A conference held at Prague between the Utraquistic clergy and some of the Brethren failed to convince the latter of their "errors," nor did a Latin creed given them by the king in 1503 meet with their approval. He was still more incensed at them by two venomous letters of the Olmuetz canon Augustine Kaesebrut, so that he issued a sharp decree against them in 1507. These decrees, however, could not become valid until accepted by the diet, and Vladislav accordingly proposed a law against the Brethren at the diet convoked on July 25, 1508. This was accepted by the estates and placed on the code, as in force throughout the country. It forbade all public and private gatherings of the "Pickards," and ordered the destruction of all their books and writings, while they were commanded to attend Roman Catholic or Utraquistic churches, their clergy and teachers being prisoners of the king unless they should consent, after receiving instruction, to join one of these religious bodies. The law is said to have been obeyed by all estates until Christmas, and those who still tolerated "Pickards" were mulcted. This measure conditioned the position of the Brethren in Bohemia for almost the entire period of their existence, but the Moravian diet refused to accept it. In 1541 the code was destroyed by a fire at Prague, so that it became necessary to draft the laws anew at following diets. Thereupon the Brethren endeavored to secure the abolition of the law, but in vain; nor was it repealed until an imperial letter of Rudolf II in 1609. It is strikingly suggestive of the political conditions of Bohemia in the sixteenth century, however, that a community which was legally prohibited, like the Brethren, could attain such wide extension and importance. This was possible only because the nobles obeyed the laws as they pleased, for the king was generally too much occupied with foreign affairs to be able to insist rigidly on compliance with his statutes, and in case he did attempt to execute them, he was resisted by a coalition of the estates, who sought to check all growth of the royal power. At first the law was strictly observed, and the Brethren were severely oppressed, their meeting-places being closed, their priests expelled, and imprisonment and even occasional execution serving as deterrent measures. Lukas himself was imprisoned, and was freed only by the death of Vladislav on Mar. 13, 1516. This event lessened the severity of a persecution which had been opposed by some estates from the very beginning. During the reign of Vladislav's son Louis, which marked a further decay of the royal power, the persecution of the Brethren ceased altogether, and the governmental center of the Unity, which had been transferred to Prerau in Moravia during the period of oppression, was again removed to Bohemia, and located at Jungbunzlau, the residence of Lukas. While he was presiding bishop, the Brethren first came into contact with the German Reformation, when Luther learned of their short catechism, of which he seems to have received a German translation in 1521. 2. Overtures to the Protestants. Although Luther at first declared himself at least in sympathy with their doctrine of the Lord's Supper, he became estranged from the Brethren after 1524, while their tendency to remain aloof, so far as possible, from the Lutheran movement was strengthened by the vagaries of Gallus Cahera in Prague (1523-29), especially since it resulted in the enforcement by the diet of the decree of Vladislav (1525). The Brethren also sent a fruitless deputation to Erasmus, apparently in 1520. In the closing years of his life Lukas found himself obliged to break with the Habrovanites or Lultish Brethren in Moravia, who were closely associated with the "small" party, and rejected celibacy, spiritual and temporal authority, and the taking of oaths, in addition to following Carlstadt in the doctrine of the Lord's Supper, and wishing to substitute baptism of the spirit for baptism by water. After a fruitless conference, letters were exchanged with considerable frequency for a number of years, while an effort made by the Anabaptists who had emigrated from the Tyrol to Moravia to unite with the Brethren ended in 1528 in a complete schism. Lukas died at Jungbunzlau on Dec. 11, 1528, and was buried in the local house of the Brethren, which had formerly been a monastery. The organization, however, which he had given the Unity remained unchanged until its end. 3. Later Organization. In principle the supreme judicial power was lodged with the synod, which consisted of all the clergy, although it contained no delegates chosen from the communities. It was, at the same time, the supreme court of appeal, although the chief administrative body, the "Close Council" (uzka rada), which was composed of some ten members chosen by the synod for life, apparently constituted the real government. The legal relation of the "Close Council" to the synod seems never to have been accurately defined. At the Synod of 1497 the "Close Council" was treated with all submission and obedience, and was empowered to make whatever changes and ordinances it deemed best without awaiting a decision of the synod. According to tradition, it never abused its privileges, and held a general council yearly whenever this was possible, while other synods also existed in individual districts. The presiding officer of the "Close Council" was called a "judge" (sudi), and this office was originally united with that of bishop in the person of Matthias, although he proved himself unequal to the position in the strife with the "small" party, so that Procopius was appointed sudi, Matthias retaining only the episcopal power of ordination. Authorized by the "Close Council," he associated Thomas and Elias, whom be had already ordained priests, and after the death of Matthias and the resignation of Procopius in 1500, the power of direction and ordination was again united, and given to four newly chosen Brethren, Thomas, Elias, Lukas, and Ambrose, the first two already possessing the episcopal ordination and the last two now receiving it. Each of them was placed over a diocese which he controlled and in which he ordained the priests. The priest next in age to these four was called the judge, and had special functions. Jafet, writing in 1605, sought to show that this organization existed from the first and that four bishops had ruled simultaneously since 1467, and this erroneous view was so widely disseminated by Wengierski (Regenvolscius) that it is still found sporadically. At the head of each community stood the priest or director (spravce), who lived in the "house of the Brethren" and supported himself as an artisan or farmer. He might possess property, although he was bound by certain restrictions, so that when, for example, he received a legacy, he was required to deposit it with the "Close Council," which deprived him of it in case of need or inability to discharge his office. While there was no insistence on the celibacy of the clergy, it was regarded as desirable, in view of the unsettled position of the community, and was the rule until the second half of the sixteenth century. With the priest lived his assistant or deacon, who aided him both in his daily toil and in teaching school, and especially in the instruction of the acolytes (young men in training for the priesthood), who resided in the "house of the Brethren." The deacon accompanied the priest in all his pastoral journeys, and was permitted to preach, to baptize in case of need, and to aid in the Lord's Supper, although he could neither consecrate the elements nor pronounce the benediction at the close of the service of the community. A council of the community aided, and in part supervised, the priest in controlling the property of the congregation and in distributing alms. The income consisted, in addition to gifts and foundations, of two collections, taken at Christmas and St. John's Day. Three persons were deputed to oversee the giving of alms, while the council of the community was required to reconcile antagonistic members of the congregation with each other or with the priest, to control morals, and to maintain the discipline of the church. The bodies next in rank were the "Close Council" and the synods. The council of the community found its counterpart in a committee of aged widows and spinsters appointed to supervise the morals and the conduct of the sisters. This organization, the genesis of which is known chiefly from the Dekrety, remained unchanged after Lukas. It was first described in full detail by Lasicius in the eighth book of his history of the Brethren, and was officially formulated by them at the General Synod of ?eravic in Moravia, held in 1616. III. Development from 1528 to 1621. 1. Johann Agusta. The independent development of the Unitas Fratrum closed with the death of Lukas. The Lutheran party among the Brethren, headed by such men as Johann Horn (Roh), Michael Weisse, Johann Augusta, and Mach Sionsky, now became more prominent and assumed the leadership. After the brief administration of the insignificant Martin Skoda, Horn became judge in 1532, but was surpassed in importance by his colleague Johann Augusta, a man characterized by meager education, yet of great firmness, energy, and eloquence, and deeply impressed with a sense of the peculiar advantages of the community. He sought to associate the Brethren with the foreign Evangelicals, and found a favorable opportunity shortly after 1530, when the margrave George of Brandenburg requested Conrad of Krajek to instruct him in the doctrines of his sect. A confession was prepared, and Luther was induced to have it painted at Wittenberg with a eulogistic preface. At the same time, however, Augusta made overtures to the Strasburg theologians, and Matthias ?ervenka, his envoy to Butzer, unexpectedly met Calvin. On the other hand, his relations with the Utraquistic Church of Bohemia were strained, especially during the administration of Mistopol. Another trait which characterizes the history of the Brethren after Lukas (1528-47) is the prominence of their nobility. The country estates were required to take part in the country diets just as the estates of the kingdom shared in the royal diets, and it thus became necessary for the estates of the Brethren to enter the former to defend the existence of their ecclesiastical union. In 1535, therefore, they gave King Ferdinand the creed of the Brethren, signed by all members of the nobility among them, twelve lords and thirty-five knights. Since ten of the twenty-six nobles tried by Ferdinand after the suppression of the so-called Bohemian revolt in 1547 were members of the Unity, he found a long-desired pretext to crush the community so far as possible. The decree of Vladislav was reenforced, certain estates which had been the centers of the brotherhood were confiscated by the king, and the former protectors of the Brethren were no longer able to evade the execution of the decree under the existing circumstances. The community was practically destroyed in Bohemia. Its seat of government was transferred to Moravia, but the majority of the Brethren were banished from the entire kingdom. Augusta himself was betrayed to Ferdinand, and regained his freedom only after repeated tortures and an imprisonment of sixteen years. 2. Cessation of Persecution. The sixth decade of the century ushered in a period of comparative peace for the Brethren, and they now sought, under the leadership of Johann Blahoslav, to gain state recognition of their Church, their chances seeming especially favorable in view of the supposed Protestant tendency of Maximilian. In 1555 and the following years they accordingly endeavored to win the favor of the archduke through repeated conferences between Blahoslav and Maximilian's court preacher, Pfauser of Vienna, but their efforts to secure definite promises for the future bore little fruit. The same object was pursued by Utraquism, which had now become essentially Lutheran, and which had prepared a new creed for the Lutheran Church in Bohemia in 1575, after the compacts had been annulled by the diet of deputies in 1567 as antiquated. Through their representatives the Brethren sought to have their independence clearly expressed in the preface of the new creed, but their chance of recognition by the side of the "Neo-Utraquists" steadily decreased, while their essential community of interest with the new body became more and more clear. In 1609, when the estates forced Rudolf to issue his charter, the Brethren shared the religious liberty which it granted by joining in the Bohemian Confession of 1575, after having already given a full explanation of its acceptance in the previous year. 3. The Brethren Merged in the Utraquists. All special names were now to cease, and the members of the united Bohemian Evangelical Church were henceforth to be called "Utraquistic Christians." The Brethren were represented in the common consistory, but despite the abolition of a separate name, this was, strictly speaking, not a union, but rather a confederation between the Unitas Fratrum and the Bohemian Church. The Brethren, therefore, retained their own organization and regulations, and even their independent creed (1564), while the Bohemian Lutherans, in like manner, held to the Augsburg Confession, although both creeds are declared to be in full harmony with the Bohemian Confession of 1575. Definitive form was accordingly given the church discipline of the Brethren at the Synod of ?eravic in 1616 under the title Ratio disciplinae ordinisque ecclesiastici in unitate fratrum Bohemorum, but the plan of making this valid for the whole Bohemian Church was not realized. This organization, however, had but a brief period of prosperity, for the battle at the White Hill (Nov. 8, 1620) destroyed Protestantism in Bohemia and Moravia for more than a century and a half. IV. The Brethren in Prussia and Poland: The Brethren expelled from Bohemia in 1547 in consequence of the Schmalkald War emigrated partly to Moravia and partly to Prussia, where they were received by Duke Albert. After his death in 1568 they returned to Moravia and Poland, exercising an important influence on the introduction of the Reformation in the latter country, and attempting to establish friendly relations between the various Evangelical bodies at a synod held at Sendomir in 1570. Their scanty remnants still exist in the five so-called communities of Unity in the Prussian province of Posen: Posen, Lissa, Lasswitz, Waschke, and Orzeszkowo. Josef Mueller. Bibliography: For full bibliography of the subject consult W. G. Malin, Catalogue of Books relating to or illustrating the History of the Unitas Fratrum or United Brethren now generally known as the Moravian Church, Philadelphia, 1881. For general history consult: J. Camerarius, Historica narratio de fratrum orthodoxorum ecclesiis in Bohemia, Moravia, at Polonia, Heidelberg, 1605; J. Lasicius, De origine et institutis Fratrum libri viii (only the eighth book was published, ed. J. A. Comenius, 1649); Historia persecutionum ecclesiae Bohemicae, Amsterdam, 1648, Eng. transl., London, 1650; J. A. Comenius, Ecclesiae Slavonicae historiola, Amsterdam, 1660; idem, Historia fratrum Bohemorum, ed. Buddeus, Halle, 1702; Martyrologium Bohemicum, oder die boehmische Verfolgungsgeschichte, 894-1632, Berlin, 1766; D. Cranz, Alte und neue Brueder Historie, Barby, 1771, Eng. transl., London, 1780; The Reformation and Anti-Reformation in Bohemia, ib. 1845; V. Krasinski, Religious History of the Slavonic Nations, Edinburgh, 1851; A. Gindely, Geschichte der boehmischen Brueder, 2 vols., Prague, 1857; A. Bost, Hist. of the Bohemian and Moravian Brethren, London, 1863; E. W. Croeger, Geschichte der alten Bruederkirche, Gnadau, 1865; D. Benham, Notes on the Origin and Episcopate of the Bohemian Brethren, London, 1867; B. Czerwenka, Geschichte der evanelischen Kirche in Boehmen, 2 vols., Bielefeld, 1870; E. Jane Whately, Sketches of Bohemian Religious History, London, 1876; E. de Schweinitz, Hist. of the Church known as the Unitas Fratrum, Bethlehem, 1885. For the church order consult: Ratio disciplinae ordinisque ecclesiastici in unitate fratrum Bohemorum, Leszno, 1632, Amsterdam, 1660, and Halle, 1732; B. Seifferth, Church Constitution of the Bohemian and Moravian Brethren. The Original Latin with a Transl., London, 1866. The original text of the Confession is reproduced in A. Gindely, Quellen zur Geschichte der boehmischen Brueder, p. 354 sqq., Vienna, 1861, and in de Schweinitz, History, ut sup., pp. 648 sqq. Consult also J. C. Koecher, Die drey letzten und vornehmsten Glaubensbekenntnisse der boehmischen Brueder, Leipsic, 1741; H. A. Niemeyer, Collectio confessionum, pp. 771 sqq., ib. 1840. For catechisms consult: J. G. Ehwalt, Die alte und neue Lehre der boehmischen Brueder, Danzig, 1756; C. A. G. von Zezschwitz, Die Katechismen der Waldenser und boehmischen Brueder, Erlangen, 1863; J. Mueller, Die deutschen Katechismen der boehmischen Brueder, Berlin, 1887. On the Hymnology consult: P. Wackernagel, Das deutsche Kirchenlied, iii, 229-368, iv, 346-485, Berlin, 1870-75; J. Zahn, Die geistlichen Lieder der Brueder in Boehmen, Maehren und Polen, Nuremberg, 1875; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 153-160. Bois (Boys), John BOIS (BOYS), JOHN: Church of England scholar; b. at Nettlestead, near Hadleigh (35 m. e.s.e. of Cambridge), Suffolk, Jan. 3, 1561; d. at Ely Jan. 14, 1644. He studied at St. John's and Magdalen Colleges, Cambridge, was elected fellow of the former in 1580, and was Greek lecturer 1584-1595; became rector of Boxworth (5 m. n.w. of Cambridge) 1596, and prebendary of Ely 1615. He was one of the translators of the Authorized Version, belonging to the Apocrypha company, and when his own part was done is said to have assisted the other Cambridge company on the section from Chronicles to Canticles; he was one of the delegates engaged in the final revision. He assisted Sir Henry Savile (who calls him "most ingenious and most learned") in his edition of Chrysostom (8 vols., Eton, 1612 [1610-13]), and left many manuscripts, but his only published work was Veteris interpretis cum Beza aliisque recentioribus collatio in quattuor evangeliis et apostolorum actis (London, 1655). Bibliography: The life of Bois, founded partly on his diary and written by Anthony Walker, is printed in Francis Peck's Desiderata curiosa, ii, 325-342, London, 1779, and additions to it by T. Baker are appended to Peck's Memoirs of . . . Oliver Cromwell, London, 1740. Consult also DNB, v, 311-313. Bolingbroke, Henry Saint-John, Viscount BOLINGBROKE, HENRY SAINT-JOHN, VISCOUNT. See [448]Deism, I, S: 8. Bolivia BOLIVIA: A republic of western South America, bounded on the north and east by Brazil; on the south by Paraguay and Argentina; and on the west by Chile and Peru. The area is estimated at from 520,000 to 600,000 square miles, the population from 1,900,000 to 2,500,000, of whom 1,250,000 are Indians and over 500,000 half-breeds. The constitution adopted in 1826 after independence had been attained recognized Roman Catholicism as the state religion and prohibited the public exercise of any other form of faith, toleration existing only in new colonies. Nevertheless, the properties of the Church were confiscated and sold, only the bishops being allowed a moderate annual sum. Complete religious liberty was granted by the government in 1905. In its hierarchical organization, Bolivia forms the province of La Plata, under the archbishop of La Plata (Chuquisaca de la Plata) or Sucre (diocese since 1551; archdiocese since 1609 with 135 parishes). The suffragan bishoprics are those of Cochabamba, La Paz, and Santa Cruz de la Sierra. Cochabamba, founded in 1847, has fifty-six parishes; La Paz, founded 1608, has thirty-eight; and Santa Cruz, founded 1605, fifty-four. In addition to the secular clergy, members of orders, including the Jesuits, are actively engaged in missionary labors among the Indians, of whom some 200,000 still cling to their pagan faith. The schools among the converted Indians are under religious control. There are four seminaries for the clergy, six "universities," and sixteen higher schools. The inaccessibility of Bolivia renders immigration, especially from Europe and North America, scanty. The number of Protestants in the country is accordingly small. There is a Presbyterian chapel in Sucre. Canadian Baptists have been engaged in missionary work in the country since 1898 and have organized churches at Oruro, La Paz, and Cochabamba. More recently the Methodist Episcopal Church of the United States has entered the field with headquarters at La Paz. An interdenominational mission is being conducted at Cochabamba by Australians. The educational system is being reorganized under the direction of an American missionary. Bibliography: Bolivia, issued by Bureau of American Republics, Washington, 1891 cf. the Annual Reports of the Bureau since then; A. Bellessont, La Jeune Amerique. Chili et Bolivie, Paris, 1897; C. Matzenauer, Bolivia in historischer, geographischer und cultureller Hinsicht, Vienna, 1897; J. S. Dennis, Centennial Survey of Foreign Missions, New York, 1902; T. C. Dawson, The South American Republics, vol. ii, New York, 1904; J. Lee, Religious Liberty in South America; with special Reference to recent Legislation in Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia, Cincinnati, 1907. Bolland, Jan, and the Bollandists BOLLAND, JAN, AND THE BOLLANDISTS: The founder of the monumental hagiographical work known as the Acta Sanctorum Bollondistarum (see [449]Acta Martyrum, [450]Acta Sanctorum), and his associates. Bolland was born at Julemont, near Liege, Aug. 13, 1596; d. at Antwerp Sept. 12, 1665. He entered the Jesuit order in 1612, was ordained priest before 1625, and in 1630 was sent to Antwerp, where he began what was to prove his lifework, making use of the mass of accumulated material left by [451]Heribert Rosweyde, the originator of the idea, but largely extending the space contemplated by him. After working for thirteen years on the two volumes of January, he called to his aid two other Jesuits, [452]Gottfried Henschen and [453]Daniel Papebroch, who visited numerous libraries of Germany, Spain, and Italy in quest of material, and laid the foundation of the magnificent collection of 120,000 volumes which the Bollandists now possess. The first volume appeared at Antwerp in 1643, and the work went on without interruption until the suppression of the Jesuits in 1773. Their house at Antwerp was to be turned into a military school, and there seemed little prospect of continuing their task until in 1776 the empress Maria Theresa made arrangements to help them, and two years later assigned them the Caudenberg monastery in Brussels as a home. Here they labored on as a company of secular priests until Joseph II interfered arbitrarily with their plans and finally, in 1788, forbade them to continue the publication, as a mere collection of old documents which could have but little interest for educated men. In the following year the Premonstratensians of the abbey of Tangerlo in Brabant offered to buy their library and continue the work. The sixth volume of October appeared there in 1794; but in 1796 the French Republic took possession of Belgium and dissolved the abbey; the manuscripts, however, were preserved in the Royal Library at Brussels. Though both Napoleon and the French Academy desired the continuation of the work, it was not found possible until 1837, when, under the inspiration of De Ram, rector of the University of Louvain, the Belgian Jesuits once more took it up, with the promise of an annual subsidy of 6,000 francs from the government. The editors are now at work on the month of November, and at the present rate of progress, it is hoped that the end of the twentieth century may see the completion of the gigantic work. The present Bollandists are also publishing (since 1882) an annual volume of Analecta Bollandiana, containing additional Latin, Greek, and Syriac texts, new dissertations, and corrections to the earlier part of the work; and since 1890 they have also published a Bulletin de publications hagiographiques, a review of all new books bearing on the subject. They have published, in addition, two complete bibliographies (Greek, 1 vol., Latin, 2 vols.) of all the printed texts and other works on hagiography. Bibliography: A memoir of Bollard is prefixed to vol. i for March of the ASB. Consult further J. M. Neale, Essays on Liturgiology, pp. 89-97, London, 1863; C. Dehaisnes, Les Origines des Acta Sanctorum, Douai, 1869; G. T. Stokes, The Bollandists in Contemporary Review, xliii (1883), 69-84; B. Aube, Les Derniers Travaux des Bollandistes, in Revue du deux mondes, lxviii (1885), 189-199. Bolsec, Jerome Hermes BOLSEC, JEROME HERMES: French controversialist and physician; b. at Paris in the early part of the sixteenth century; d. probably at Lyons 1584. He entered the Carmelite order, but was driven from Paris for the boldness of his sermons and fled to Ferrara. In 1550 he was physician to M. de Falais, a nobleman residing near Geneva, who was a friend of Calvin. Bolsec was fond of dabbling in dogmatics, but was repeatedly admonished by the compagnie des pasteurs that his objections to the doctrine of predestination were contrary to the Bible. He seemed to submit, but on Oct. 16, 1551, he provoked a new discussion at Geneva on the same subject and was imprisoned, whereupon he charged Calvin with ignorance of the Bible and of teaching contrary to it, and the council, in their perplexity, accepted the proposition of the clergy to ask the advice of the Swiss churches. Their condemnation of Bolsec was mild, but the clergy of Basel declared that Bolsec was heretical in many respects, while the pastors of Neuchatel declared that he was an instrument of Satan. On Dec. 22 he was sentenced to perpetual banishment for publishing offensive doctrines, as well as for slandering the clergy and charging them with preaching false dogmas. He was expelled from Thonon (Chablais) by Calvin, and from Lausanne by Beza, after having again accused the former of "making God the author of sin." He then returned to France and abjured Protestantism. He was the author of three works: Le Miroir, envoye de Verite au Roi Charles neufieme (1562), addressed to the king to bring about a reformation; Histoire de la vie, moeurs, actes, doctrine, constance et mort de Jean Calvin, jadis ministre de Geneve (Lyons, 1577), which made the author infamous; and Histoire de la vie, moeurs, doctrine et deportemens de Th. de Beze, dit le Spectable, grand ministre de Geneve (Paris, 1582), written in a tone of moderation. The entire life of Bolsec shows him to have been a restless, vain spirit, not overscrupulous in getting revenge or in winning patrons. EugEne Choisy. Bolsec may easily be represented in a more favorable light as an honest opponent of Calvinistic dogma, and an advocate of liberty of conscience and freedom of speech. Persecution (defamation, repeated imprisonment, banishment from Geneva and from other places where he attempted to settle by the persistent efforts of Calvin, Beza, and others) embittered his spirit and no doubt led to exaggerated representations of the tyranny and cruelty of his opponents, and at last drove him back to the Roman Catholic Church. A. H. N. Bibliography: CR, Opera Calvini, viii, 141; E. and E. Haag, La France protestante, ed. H. L. Bordier, vol. ii, Paris, 1879; E. Choisy, La Theocratie `a Geneve au temps de Calvin, Geneva, 1897; J. A. Gautier, Histoire de Geneve, iii, 432 sqq., ib. 1899. Bolsena, Miracle of BOLSENA, MIRACLE OF: A miracle which, according to an account strongly affirmed in local tradition, occurred in 1264 in the town of Bolsena (the ancient Vulsinius; 7 m. s.w. of Orvieto) in Umbria, Italy. The details of the story vary in different accounts, but the substance of the occurrence is as follows: A priest, who had been long troubled with doubts as to the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, accidentally let fall upon the linen corporal, while saying mass, some drops from the consecrated chalice. While endeavoring to conceal this mishap, he was amazed to perceive that the stain was no longer as of wine but resembled fresh blood, and had not the irregular trace of a few spilled drops, but the form and contour of the consecrated boat or wafer. The miracle produced a great sensation throughout the surrounding country. Pope Urban IV, at that time staying in Orvieto with the pontifical court, caused the stained corporal to be brought to the city, where it has ever since been carefully preserved. This miracle was the determining reason which caused Urban to make general the celebration of the feast of [454]Corpus Christi. The composition of the liturgical office of the feast was entrusted to Thomas Aquinas, but in it there is no allusion to the miracle. The miracle of Bolsena has been immortalized by the genius of Raffael, who made it the subject of one of his frescoes in the second sala of the Vatican. The painting idealizes the scene and introduces, not Urban IV but Julius II, under whose pontificate the fresco was executed, as present at the mass. The present cathedral church of Orvieto was built on the site of an earlier structure to commemorate the miracle, and much of the elaborate decoration refers to it. The corporal is preserved in a silver shrine enriched with many figures in relief and subjects in translucent colored enamels. The shrine was begun by Ugolino Veri of Sienna in 1338 and is one of the most important specimens of medieval silversmith work in Italy. The feast of Corpus Christi is celebrated with extraordinary solemnity each year in Orvieto and the corporal is carried in procession through the town together with the Blessed Sacrament. James F. Driscoll. Bibliography: Dictionnaire des propheties et des miracles, vol. i, in Migne's Encyclopedie theologique, vol. xxiv, Paris, 1852. Bolzano, Bernhard BOLZANO, bel-ts??'nO, BERNHARD: German Roman Catholic theologian, and noted mathematician; b. at Prague Oct. 5, 1781; d. there Dec. 18, 1848. He took orders and was made professor of the philosophy of religion in Prague 1805. He was soon suspected of heterodoxy, was accused at Rome by the Jesuits, and in 1820, on a charge of connection with certain student societies, was compelled to resign his professorship; he was also suspended from his priestly functions. Thenceforth he devoted himself to study and literary work. He sought to reconcile the teachings of the Church with reason and, it was said, considered the reasonableness of a doctrine of more importance than its traditional belief. In philosophy he was influenced by Leibnitz and Kant. His contributions to mathematical science were original and important. His works were numerous; the most noteworthy are Lehrbuch der Religionswissenschaft (4 vols., Sulzbach, 1834), a philosophic presentation of the dogmas of Roman Catholic theology; Wissenschaftslehre; Versuch einer neuen Darstellung der Logik (4 vols., 1837). Bibliography: Lebensbeschreibung des Dr. Bolzano, new ed., Vienna, 1875 (an autobiography); Dr. Bolzano und seine Gegner. Ein Beitrag zur neuesten Literaturgeschichte, ib. 1839; A. Wisshaupt, Skizzen aus dem Leben B. Bolzanos, Liepsic, 1850. Bomberger, John Henry Augustus BOMBERGER, JOHN HENRY AUGUSTUS: Reformed (German); b. at Lancaster, Penn., Jan. 13, 1817; d. at Collegeville, Penn., Aug. 19, 1890. He was graduated at Marshall College, 1837, and at the Theological Seminary, Mercersburg, Penn., 1838; served as pastor of German Reformed Churches in Pennsylvania till 1870, when he became president of Ursinus College at Collegeville. He began a condensed translation of the first edition of Herzog's Realencyklopaedie of which two volumes were published (Philadelphia, 1856-60), embracing vols. i-vi of the original; he issued a revised translation of Kurtz's Text-book of Church History (Philadelphia, 1860), and edited The Reformed Church Monthly (in opposition to the "Mercersburg theology"), 1868-77. He also published Infant Salvation in its Relation to Infant Depravity, Infant Regeneration, and Infant Baptism (1859); Five Years at the Race Street Church [Philadelphia], with an ecclesiastical appendix (1860); The Revised Liturgy, a history and criticism of the ritualistic movement in the German Reformed Church (1867); Reformed, not Ritualistic: a reply to Dr. Nevin's "Vindication" (1867). Bona, Giovanni BONA, GIOVANNI: Roman Catholic theological writer; b. at Mondovi (55 m. w. of Genoa), Piedmont, Oct. 19, 1609; d. in Rome Oct. 28, 1674. He came of an old French family, and in his fifteenth year entered the Italian congregation of reformed Cistercians, becoming later prior, abbot, and general. Clement IX made him a cardinal in 1669, and he acquired a great reputation for both piety and learning. His most important writings are ascetical and liturgical. To the latter class belong his Psallentis ecclesiae harmonia (Rome, 1653), a historical, symbolic, and ascetic treatise on the psalmody of the Church, and the still better known Rerum liturgicarum libri ii (Rome, 1671), a sober and learned investigation of liturgical antiquities. The first complete edition of his works appeared at Antwerp, 1677, followed by several others. Bonald, Louis Gabriel Ambroise, Vicomte de BONALD, LOUIS GABRIEL AMBROISE, VICOMTE DE: French political and philosophical writer; b. at Monna, near Millau (130 m. w.n.w. of Marseilles), Aveyron, Oct. 2, 1754; d. there Nov. 23, 1840. He emigrated in 1791 and settled at Heidelberg; returned to France in 1797, lived in concealment for a time, and then was allowed to proceed to his estates; in 1808 he was appointed councilor of the Imperial University, and, after the Restoration, member of the Council of Public Instruction; from 1815 to 1822 he was member of the chamber of deputies, in 1822 minister of state, and in 1823 was made a peer of France; after 1830 he retired to private life. He was one of the leaders of the reactionary school to which belonged De Maistre, d'Eckstein, Ballanche, Lamennais, and others, which started with the principle that revelation and not observation is the true ground of philosophy; absolutism in politics and ecclesiastical despotism in religion were in his view the natural and desirable order of things. The most noteworthy of his many writings were Theorie du pouvoir politique et religieux (3 vols., Constance, 1796); La Legislation primitive (3 vols., Paris, 1802); Recherches philosophiques sur les premiers objets des connaissances morales (2 vols., 1818). His collected works were published in twelve volumes in 1817-19 and again in three volumes in 1859. His second son, Louis Jacques Maurice, b. at Millau Oct. 30, 1787, d. at Lyons Feb. 25, 1870, became bishop of Puy in 1823, archbishop of Lyons in 1839, cardinal in 1841; he was a strong Ultramontane. Bibliography: Victor de Bonald, De la vie et des ecrits du vicomte de Bonald, Avignon, 1853 (by his son); J. Blanchon, Le Cardinal de Bonald . . ., sa vie et ses oeuvres, Lyons, 1870. Bonar, Andrew Alexander BONAR, ANDREW ALEXANDER: Free Church of Scotland; b. at Edinburgh May 29, 1810, youngest brother of [455]Horatius Boner; d. in Glasgow Dec. 30, 1892. He studied at Edinburgh; was minister at Collate, Perthshire, 1838-56, of the Finnieston Church, Glasgow, 1856 till his death. He joined the Free Church in 1843, and was its moderator in 1878. He was identified with evangelical and revival movements and adhered to the doctrine of premillenialism. With the Rev. R. M. McCheyne he visited Palestine in 1839 to inquire into the condition of the Jews there, and published A Narrative of a Mission of Inquiry to the Jews from the Church of Scotland in 1839 (Edinburgh, 1842); he also published a Memoir of Mr. McCheyne (1845); a Commentary on Leviticus (1846); Redemption Drawing Nigh, a defence of Premillenialism (1847); Christ and his Church in the Book of Psalms (1859); edited Samuel Rutherford's Letters (1863); and wrote many tracts, pamphlets, and minor biographies. Bibliography: A. A. Boner, Diary and Letters, edited by his daughter, Marjory Boner, London, 1895, who published also a volume of Reminiscences, ib. 1895. Bonar, Horatius BONAR, HORATIUS: Free Church of Scotland; b. in Edinburgh Dec. 19, 1808; d. there July 31, 1889. He studied at Edinburgh; became minister at Kelso 1837, at the Chalmers Memorial Church, Edinburgh, 1866; with his congregation he joined the Free Church in 1843. He was a premillenarian and expressed his views in books, such as Prophetical Landmarks (London, 1847), and in the Quarterly Journal of Prophecy, which he founded in 1849. He is best known for his poems and hymns which include "What a friend we have in Jesus," "I heard the voice of Jesus say," and others equally familiar. The best known collections of his verse are Hymns of Faith and Hope (3 vols., 1857-66); The Song of the New Creation and other pieces (1872); Hymns of the Nativity (1878); Songs of Love and Joy (1888); Until the Daybreak and other hymns left behind (1890). His prose publications, besides sermons, tracts etc., include The Night of Weeping, or words for the suffering family of God (1846); God's Way of Peace (1862); The White Fields of France: or the story of Mr. McAll's mission to the workingmen of Paris and Lyons (1879); Life and Work of G. T. Dodds (1884). Bibliography: Horatius Bonar, a Memorial, London, 1889; S. W. Duffield, English Hymns, pp. 168-169 and passim, New York, 1886; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 161-162; DNB, supplement vol. i, 231-232. Bonaventura BONAVENTURA (Giovanni di Fidanza, called Doctor Seraphicus): Theologian; b. at Bagnorea (50 m. n.n.w. of Rome) 1221; d. at Lyons July 15, 1274. He entered the order of St. Francis probably in 1238; went to Paris, 1242 or 1243, and studied under Alexander of Hales; lectured there on the "Sentences" of Peter Lombard and on the Holy Scriptures till the university suspended lectures in 1255; was chosen general of his order, 1257; cardinal bishop of Albano, 1273. His last public act was an impressive speech delivered before the Council of Lyons in May, 1274, for the union of the Eastern and Western churches. He was canonized by Sixtus IV in 1482. In defense of his order, before he became its general, during the contest between the Sorbonne and the mendicant monks, he wrote his De paupertate Christi, in reply to William of St. Amour's De periculis novissimorum temporum (1256); by a somewhat forced and sophistical argumentation he represents voluntary poverty as an element of moral perfection. Of his general views on monastic life he has given an exposition in his Determinationes quaestionum circa regulam Francisci. In his administration he was mild yet firm. As a teacher and author he occupies one of the most prominent places in the history of medieval theology; not so much, however, on account of any strongly pronounced originality as on account of the comprehensiveness of his views, the ease and clearness of his reasoning, and a style in which still linger some traces of the great charm of his personality. His mystical and devotional writings--as, far instance, De septem itineribus aeternitatis--are almost imitations of Hugo of St. Victor. His dialectical writings are more independent. His Breviloquium (ed. Da Vicenza, 2d ed., Freiburg, 1881) is one of the best expositions of Christian dogmatics produced during the Middle Ages. Bibliography: Bonaventura's works have been published in many editions, of which the best are that by Peltier, 15 vols., Paris, 1863-71, and that prepared by the Franciscans, 10 vols., Clairac, 1882-93. Of his real or supposititious works accessible in English translation, the following may be mentioned: The Mirror of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Dublin, 1849; Psalter of the Blessed Virgin, London, 1852; The Life of Christ, ib. 1881; The Month of Jesus Christ, ib. 1882; The Life of St. Francis of Assisi, 4th ed., ib. 1898; St. Bonaventura'a Instructions for the Season of Lent; ib. 1884; The Soul's Progress in God (transl. of the Itinerarium mentis in deum) is in the Journal of Speculative Philosophy, vol. xxi (1887). For his life consult: ASB, July 14, vol. iii, pp. 838-860; Histoire litteraire de la France, xix, 266-291; A. M. da Vicenza, Der heilige Bonaventura . . . in seinem Leben und Wirken, Germ. transl. from the Italian, Paderborn, 1874; Le Cardinal S. Bonaventure . . . sa vie, sa mort et son culte `a Lyon, Lyons, 1875; L. C. Skey, Life of St. Bonaventure, London, 1889. On his works consult: A. de Margerie, Essai sur la philosophie de S. Bonaventure, Paris, 1855; W. A. Hollenberg, Studien zu Bonaventura, Berlin, 1862; J. Richard, Etude sur le mysticisms speculatif de S. Bonaventure, Paris, 1873; Fidelis a Fauna, Ratio nova collectionis operum omnium . . . Bonaventurae, Paris, 1874; A. Maria a Vicetia et Johannes a Rubino, Lexicon Bonaventurianum philosophico-theologicum, Venice, 1880; J. Krause, Die Lehre des heiligen Bonaventura ueber die Natur der koerperlichen und geistigen Wesen, Paderborn, 1888. Bond, William Bennett BOND, WILLIAM BENNETT: Anglican archbishop of Montreal and primate of all Canada; b. at Truro (8 m. n.n.e. of Falmouth), Cornwall, England, Sept. 10, 1815; d. at Montreal Oct. 9, 1906. He came to Newfoundland while in early youth and was educated at Bishop's College, Lennoxville, P. Q., being ordered deacon in 1840 and ordained priest in the following year. After being successively a traveling missionary in 1840-42 and a missionary at Lachine, P. Q., in 1842-48, he was curate of St. George's, Montreal, from 1848 to 1860 and rector of the same church from 1860 to 1878. He was likewise archdeacon of Montreal in 1870-72 and dean in 1872-78. In the latter year he was consecrated archbishop of Montreal, and in 1901 was elected metropolitan of Canada, while in 1904 he became primate of all Canada. He was also president of the theological college of the diocese of Montreal. Bonet-Maury, Amy Gaston Charles Auguste BONET-MAURY, AMY GASTON CHARLES AUGUSTE: French Protestant; b. at Paris Jan. 2, 1842. He was educated at the Lycee Napoleon (now College Henri IV), the Sorbonne (baccalaureat es lettres, 1860) and the universities of Geneva and Strasburg (1868). He was successively pastor of the Walloon Reformed Church at Dort in 1868-72 and of the French Reformed Church at Beauvais (Oise) in 1872-79. In 1879 he became professor of church history in the faculty of Protestant theology of the University of Paris, and now holds the same position in the Independent Divinity School of Paris. From 1885 to 1889 he was librarian of the Musee Pedagogique. In theology he is a liberal evangelical. He wrote: Les Origines de la reforme `a Beauvais (Paris, 1874); Gerard de Groote, un precurseur de la reforme au quatorzieme siecle (1878); E quibus fontibus Nederlandicis hauserit scriptor libri cui titulus est De Imitatione Christi (1878); Des Origines du christianisme unitaire chez les Anglais (1881; Eng. transl., London, 1883); Arnauld de Brescia, un reformateur au douzieme siecle (Paris, 1881); De opera scholastica fratrum vitae communis in Nederlandia (1889); G. A. Buerger et les origines anglaises de la ballade litteraire en Allemagne (1890); Ignace Doellinger, 1799-1890 (1892); Lettres et declarations de J. J. I. Doellinger au sujet des decrets du Vatican, traduites de l'Allemand (1893); Le Congres des religions `a Chicago en 1893 (1895); Histoire de la liberte de conscience depuis l'Edit de Nantes jusqu'`a juillet 1870 (1900); Les Precurseurs de la reforme et de la liberte de conscience dans les pays latins du douzieme au quinzieme siecle (1904); Edgar Quinet, son oeuvre religieuse et son charactere moral (1903); and L'Islamisme et le christianisme en Afrique (1906). Boniface BONIFACE: The name of nine popes. Boniface I: Pope 418-422. After the death of Zosimus, a part of the clergy and people chose the archdeacon Eulalius to succeed him (Dec. 27, 418); he was recognized by the prefect Symmachus and consecrated in the Lateran two days later. But another faction held an election on the 28th, and chose Boniface, the son of the priest Jocundus, consecrating him on the following day. In accordance with the report of Symmachus, the emperor Honorius recognized Eulalius, and Boniface had to leave Rome. His supporters appealed to the emperor, representing him as the choice of the majority. Honorius called a council to meet at Ravenna, Feb. 8, 419, to decide the matter, but it reached no conclusion, and another was summoned for May 1, both candidates being forbidden to enter Rome in the mean time. Eulalius, however, entered the city or Mar. 18, and had to be removed forcibly; and Honorius now recognized Boniface, who took up his duties on Apr. 10. This contest caused Honorius to decree that in any subsequent case of a contested election, both candidates should be set aside and a new choice made. When Boniface I intervened in any ecclesiastical disputes, he showed great justice and moderation. The clergy of Valence accused their bishop Maximus of grievous crimes; Boniface referred the matter to a Gallic synod, reserving to himself the right to review its decision. Considering the privilege granted by Pope Zosimus (417) to Bishop Patroclus of Arles, to consecrate bishops for the provinces known as Viennensis, Narbonensis prima, and Narbonensis secunda, to be an infringement of earlier canonical provisions, he did not hesitate to withdraw it so far as to allow the bishop of Narbonne this metropolitan privilege for the Provincia Narbonensia prima. He was involved in long-drawnout negotiations with the patriarch of Constantinople. Certain Illyrian bishops, wishing to bring charges against Bishop Perigenes of Patras, who had been chosen metropolitan of Corinth, getting satisfaction neither from the papal delegate for Illyria, Bishop Rufus of Thessalonica, nor from the pope himself, turned to Atticus of Constantinople for redress. The latter procured an edict from the emperor Theodosius II (421), placing Illyria under the jurisdiction of Constantinople. Boniface made strong representations to the Byzantine court (Mar., 422), but would probably not have been successful had not the influence of the Western emperor Honorius prevailed with Theodosius, who withdrew the edict. Finally, Boniface had inherited from his predecessor a difficult controversy with the African church (see [456]Zosimus); he had no better success than Zosimus in securing the recognition in Africa, of the right of appeal to Rome. On the contrary, the Synod of Carthage in 419 confirmed the seventeenth canon of the synod of 418, which positively forbade to priests and lower clergy any such appeals, and tolerated them for bishops only on condition that the prescription appealed to could be shown to be Nicene; as a matter of fact, it came from the Council of Sardica. Boniface died Sept. 4, 422, and is reckoned among the saints of the Roman Catholic Church. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Liber pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, i, 227, Paris, 1886; ASB, Oct., xi, 605-616; F. Gregorovius, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, i, 170 sqq., Stuttgart, 1875, Eng. transl., London, 1900; J. Langen, Geschichte der roemischen Kirche bis Leo I., pp. 763 sqq., Bonn, 1881; Jaffe, Regesta, i, 52; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, ii, 122, Eng. transl., ii, 466; Bower, Popes, i, 162-166; Neander, Christian Church, ii, 208, 235, 652. Boniface II: Pope 530-532. After the death of Felix IV (middle of Sept., 530), a contested election followed. The minority, in obedience to the dying charge of Felix, chose the archdeacon Boniface, a Goth; the majority elected Dioscurus, a Greek, and both were consecrated on the same day (Sept. 22). The Roman senate took cognizance of the matter, forbidding under heavy penalties any proceedings in the lifetime of a pope looking toward the elevation of a successor. The schism was soon ended by the death of Dioscurus, Oct. 14. The Liber pontificalis asserts that Boniface proceeded with great violence against his adherents; and we have evidence that five years later the bitterness caused by this was not extinct among the Roman clergy. The close of the Semi-Pelagian controversy falls in the pontificate of Boniface II. In a letter to Caesarius of Arles he pronounced against the opinion that man could attain faith in Christ by his own resources, without the help of divine grace; and at the same time, in accordance with the wishes of Caesarius, he confirmed the decisions of the Synod of Orange. He was always zealous in maintaining, if it was not possible to extend, the papal claims to jurisdiction. When Bishop Stephen of Larissa in Thessaly appealed to him from a sentence of deposition pronounced by the patriarch of Constantinople, Boniface endeavored to reassert the old rights of the Roman See over Illyria, which had been obsolete for a hundred years. The proceedings of a synod held in Rome for this purpose (Dec., 531) seem to have been fruitless, for soon afterward the see of Larissa was filled by a nominee of Constantinople. After attempting in vain to designate the deacon Vigilius as his successor, Boniface died in Oct., 532. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Liber pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, i, 281, Paris, 1886; F. Gregorovius, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, i, 329, Stuttgart, 1875, Eng. transl., London, 1900; L. Duchesne, La Succession du pape Felix IV., Rome, 1884; J. Langen, Geschichte der roemischen Kirche von Leo I. bis Nikolaus I., p. 305, Bonn, 1885; R. Baxmann, Die Politik der Paepste von Gregor I. bis auf Gregor VII., i, 20 sqq., Elberfeld, 1868; Jaffe, Regesta, i, 111; Schaff, Christian Church, iii, 326, 869; Neander, Christian Church, ii, 711; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, ii, 737-742, Eng. transl., iv, 165, 167, 171 sqq.; Bower, Popes, i, 331-333. Boniface III: Pope 607. He was a Roman by birth, previously a deacon and apocrisiarius at the court of Constantinople, to which he had been sent by Gregory the Great in 603. Apparently he was still there when the election took place, as nearly a year elapsed between the death of his predecessor and his consecration (Feb. 19, 607). As (in modern language) nuncio at Constantinople, he had apparently maintained friendly relations with the usurper Phocas, which would account for the favorable decision made by the latter on a point of great importance to the papal claims. One of the commissions given to him by Gregory was the settlement of the strife over the title of "universal bishop" claimed by the patriarch of Constantinople, John the Faster; Gregory did not claim it for himself, but he was unwilling that it should be borne by another. The Liber pontificalis, Paulus Diaconus, and Bede all assert that Phocas recognized Rome as caput omnium ecclesiarum. Though the fact is not denied, it is to be regarded rather as a triumph of papal politics, which did not disdain the alliance of a base and criminal ruler, than as a historical justification of the claims of Rome. Boniface died Nov. 12, 607. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Liber pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, i, 316, Paris, 1886; Paulus Diaconus, Hist. Langobardorum, iv, 36, in MGH, Script. rer. Langob., ed. G. Waitz, Hanover, 1878, Eng. transl., p. 177, Philadelphia, 1907; F. Gregorovius, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, ii, 102, Stuttgart, 1876, Eng. transl., London, 1900; J. Langen, Geschichte der roemischen Kirche . . . bis Nikolaus I., p. 500, Bonn, 1885; Bower, Popes, i, 425-427; Mann, Popes, I, i, 259-262. Boniface IV: Pope 608-615. He was the successor of Boniface III after an interregnum of ten months. He kept up the same friendly relations with Phocas, from whom he acquired the Pantheon in Rome, built as a heathen temple, and transformed it into a church. When Heraclius, who overthrew Phocas in 610, was endeavoring to find a way to reconciliation with the Monophysites, Boniface seems to have approved of his plans; which probably accounts for a letter of [457]Columban written from Bobbio (c. 613), informing him that people call him a receiver and protector of heretics who deny the double nature of Christ, and warning him that his power will remain only so long as he maintains the true faith. Boniface died May 25, 615. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Liber pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, i, 317, Paris, 1886; Jaffe, Regesta, i, 220; Paulus Diaconus, Historia Langobardorum, iv, 36, in MGM, Script, rer. Langob., ed. G. Waitz, Hanover, 1878, Eng. transl., p. 178, Philadelphia, 1907; Bede, Hist. eccl., ii, 4, ed. Plummer, vol. i, p. 88, Oxford, 1896; R. Baxmann, Die Politik der Paepste, i, 150, Elberfeld, 1868; F. Gregorovius, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, ii, 102, Stuttgart, 1876, Eng, transl., London, 1900; J. Langen, Geschichte der roemischen Kirche . . . bis Nikolaus I., p. 501, Bonn, 1885; Neander, Christian Church, iii, 32, 34, 134; Bower, Popes, i, 428-429; Mann, Popes, I, i, 268. Boniface V: Pope 619-625. The Liber pontificalis tells that he was a Neapolitan, that he distinguished himself as pope by his love of peace and kindness, and that he issued a number of decrees affecting the functions of the different orders of the clergy. Bede and William of Malmesbury mention several letters addressed to English personages; the most important is that preserved by the latter, a letter to Justus, archbishop of Canterbury (625); confirming for all time the position of his diocese as the metropolitan see of Britain, and extending his powers. Boniface died Oct. 25, 625. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Liber pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, i, 321, Paris, 1886; Jaffe, Regesta, i, 222; Bede, Hist. eccl., ii, 7, ed. Plummer, vol. i, pp. 93-95, Oxford, 1896; F. Gregorovius, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, ii, 122, Stuttgart, 1876, Eng. transl., London, 1902; Mann, Popes, I, i, 294; Bower, Popes, i, 430-432. Boniface VI: Pope 896. He was the son of Hadrian, a Roman, and was elevated to the papal throne in April or May, 896, by a popular movement, on the death of Formosus, although he had twice been deposed from his spiritual functions by John VIII on charges affecting his moral character, and apparently was never canonically restored. He maintained his position only for fifteen days, as the party hostile to Formosus carried through the election of Stephen VI, who drove him out. Others say that he died fifteen days after his election. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Jaffe Regesta, i, 439; Annales Fuldenses, ed. G. H. Pertz, in MGH, Script., i, 412, Hanover, 1826; R. Baxmann, Die Politik der Paepste, ii, 70, Elberfeld, 1869; J. Langen, Geschichte der roemischen Kirche . . . bis Gregor VII., p. 303, Bonn, 1892; Bower, Popes, ii, 229. Boniface VII: Pope 974, 984-985. After the downfall of Benedict VI, Crescentius, the leader of the nobles, caused the election of the deacon Boniface, called Franco (June, 974). One of his first acts was to order his predecessor to be put to death. But he was able to hold his own only for six weeks, after which he fled to Constantinople. Here he remained for more than nine years--or as long as Otto II lived to protect the popes set up by him, Benedict VII and John XIV. Otto died Dec. 7, 983, and the fugitive Boniface immediately asserted his claims. He reappeared in Rome, and in the following April defeated John XIV, imprisoned him in the castle of Sant'Angelo, and had him either poisoned or starved to death there. Eleven months later, this "horrible monster" (as a contemporary calls him) met a like fate, dying, it seems probable, by assassination in the summer of 985; his body was mutilated and insulted by the infuriated populace. Gfroerer's hypothesis that his murder was caused by the empress Theophano has no support in the original authorities. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Jaffe, Regesta, i, 485; Herimannus Augiensis, Chronicon, ed. G. H. Pertz, in MGH, Script., v, 116 sqq., Hanover, 1844; Gerbert, Acta concilii Remensis, ed. G. H. Pertz, MGH, Script., iii, 672, ib. 1839; L. C. Ferucci, Investigazioni . . . su la persona ed il pontificato di Bonif. VII, Lugo, 1856 (attempts to clear Boniface of the charges); J. M. Watterich, Pontificum Romanorum vitae, i, 66, Leipsic, 1862; J. Langen, Geschichte der roemischen Kirche . . . bis Gregor VII., Bonn, 1892. Boniface VIII (Benedetto Gaetani): Policy and Successes in Italy. Pope 1294-1303. He was born at Anagni [c. 1235], and probably studied civil and canon law at Paris. He began his ecclesiastical career as canon of Todi, held benefices in Lyons and Rome, and became notary of the Curia. Martin IV made him a cardinal in 1281, and under Nicholas IV and Celestine V he was one of the most prominent members of the sacred college, being employed in the most varied missions. He encouraged Celestine V in his project of retirement to ascetic seclusion, and even drew up the formula of abdication, by which he was to profit; for, less than a fortnight after Celestine had laid down the papal dignity, it was bestowed upon his adviser (Dec. 24, 1294). Even before his consecration, the new pope asserted his prerogatives by revoking many appointments of his two predecessors, deposing archbishops and bishops appointed by Celestine without the consent of the cardinals, and leaving Naples for Rome with all his court, in spite of the efforts of Charles II to detain him there. He was consecrated and crowned in St. Peter's, Jan. 23, 1295, and soon took an active part in the conflicts of the time, offering to mediate between Genoa and Venice in February. Sicily occupied him next; it had freed itself from French domination in 1282, chosen Peter III of Aragon as king, and thus dissolved the feudal connection with Rome. Peter's son and heir, James II, showed himself ready to abandon Sicily after Aragon had fallen to him by the death of his elder brother. Another brother, however--Frederick--stepped in and assumed the Sicilian crown, and neither repeated papal anathemas nor an armed league against him could make him renounce it; in 1302 he obtained favorable terms of peace, and in 1303 papal recognition. Boniface also intervened in the strife between the Blacks and Whites of Florence, in favor of the former, and sent a legate to Tuscany. From the sojourn of Dante in Rome as the ambassador of the Bianchi dates the bitter hatred which he displays for Boniface VIII. In agreement with the Neri, Boniface brought Charles of Valois to Tuscany in 1301 as governor; but his five months' rule accomplished nothing but the alienation of the last sympathizers of the pope there. Boniface had real power only in the south of Italy and some central cities. Charles II of Naples became the obedient servant of the Curia, while Pisa, Velletri, Orvieto, and Terracina chose Boniface as their ruler. But a hostile party was forming in Rome, led by the two Colonna, cardinals, who disapproved of the close alliance with Charles II and secretly supported the pretensions of the house of Aragon in Sicily. In 1297 the pope stripped them of all their ecclesiastical dignities; and on the same day they formally renounced their allegiance to him, declaring Celestine's abdication to have been invalid and appealing to a general council. Boniface deprived the whole family of their possessions, one after another, and soon Palestrina alone held out against the papal army. The Colonna submitted in 1298; but when, the next year, Boniface destroyed Palestrina, contrary, they asserted, to a promise of ultimate restitution, they took up arms once more against him. Again they were defeated, and their estates divided between their enemies, the Orsini and the Gaetani. Denmark, Hungary, and Poland. Soon after his accession, Boniface became involved in complications beyond the boundaries of Italy. Eric VIII of Denmark had imprisoned the archbishop of Lund in 1294, really to extort money from him, but nominally on the ground of conspiracy. In 1295 Boniface sent a legate to demand his release on pain of excommunication and interdict. These penalties were imposed in 1296, but Eric held out until 1302, though even then the pope did not succeed in restoring the deposed archbishop. In the contest for the throne of Hungary, on the ground that he had been "set over princes and kingdoms, to put down iniquity," and that Hungary belonged on special grounds to the Apostolic See, he claimed the deciding voice; in 1300 he sent Charles Robert, grandson of Mary of Sicily, to the Hungarians as their king; but they first clung to Andrew III, and after his death elected the son of Wenceslaus II of Bohemia as Ladislaus V. At the moment of Boniface's death, Wenceslaus was preparing to unite with Philip the Fair against him, and his interests clashed with the pope's in another place as well--in Poland, which had elected Wenceslaus in 1300, to take the place of the deposed King Ladislaus. Again Boniface claimed suzerain rights, supported the exiled king, who had sought his aid, and forbade Wenceslaus to assume the crown without the papal sanction; but, as in Hungary, his words were not heeded. Germany. He met with somewhat greater success in Germany. The undertaking given by Adolf of Nassau, in the Treaty of Nuremberg (Aug. 21, 1294), to support Edward I of England against Philip IV, displeased the pope, who wished to see peace between France and England. He wrote to Adolf forbidding him to take up arms, and reproaching him for not having announced his election to him. Adolf returned a submissive answer, and received some privileges in return, but the papal legates were bidden still to insist on peace. He even went so far as to impose a year's truce on all three kings (1295), which, at its expiration, he renewed for another two years. In 1296 he commanded them to submit their differences to his decision; but only Adolf sent his representatives to Rome. On June 27, 1298, Boniface decided that neither Philip nor Adolf must overstep his boundaries, and that these must be restored where they had been violated. Adolf never heard of this decision; four days before it was rendered, he had been deposed by the electoral princes, and on July 2 he fell in battle against his rival Albert of Austria. Boniface took a lofty tone with Albert, summoning him to appear within six months and submit his claims to the throne, since it belonged to the pope to examine the person chosen king of the Romans, and reject him if unsuitable. Albert delayed until he made his position secure in Germany, and then sent his ambassadors (Mar., 1302) with liberal promises and the required evidence. Boniface needed his help against France too badly to raise any objection, and recognized him as king of the Romans and future emperor. Albert, in return, renounced his alliance with Philip, and made all possible theoretical and practical concessions. England. But a more stubborn obstacle was found in the king and parliament of England. When Edward I had conquered Scotland for the second time in 1298, Boniface claimed that country also as a fief of the Holy See, and summoned Edward before his tribunal for having ventured to lay hands upon it. Edward laid the bull before Parliament in 1301; the reply of the English people was that Scotland had never been a papal fief, that their king should not answer the summons, and that, even if he wished to, they would not permit it. On May 7 Edward informed the pope that he would not give up Scotland; and Boniface was obliged to be content with the answer, because in the mean time the memorable conflict with France had broken out. France. Philip the Fair was a ruler after the very pattern of Macchiavelli's later description, knowing no law but self-interest, and sticking at nothing to accomplish his ends. His relations with Boniface had at first been friendly, but he was probably offended by the pope's above-mentioned interference with his designs against England. When in 1296 the clergy of both France and England complained to Boniface of the taxes laid upon them by their sovereigns for warlike purposes, he answered by the bull Clericis laicos (Feb. 25, 1296). It opened with the offensive assertion that the laity had always been and still were hostile to the clergy, and proceeded to forbid all princes to tax the clergy of their dominions without papal sanction, under pain of excommunication. Edward, though at first protesting, declared in 1297 that no further tax should be laid upon the clergy without their consent; but Philip responded by forbidding all exportation of gold and silver, coined or uncoined, from France (Aug., 1296). This cut off so large a portion of the papal revenue that Boniface modified his attitude in the bull Ineffabilis amoris (Sept. 25), and yielded more completely in three briefs (Feb. and July, 1297) extremely conciliatory in tone; in the same spirit he completed the canonization of Louis IX in August, and the discord seemed in a fair way to be removed. But it was not long in breaking out again. Philip had welcomed to his court some of the exiled Colonna family, and had lent a willing ear to their unmeasured abuse of the pope, which did not spare his moral character. The king's misuse of the droit de regale (see [458]Regale), on the other hand, had been giving increasing provocation to the pope since 1299. An open rupture came in 1301; and by that time both contestants had increased their pretensions and were ready to wage a more bitter war than ever. Boniface chose to send as legate to Paris a Frenchman, Bernard de Saisset, bishop of Pamiers, who was for several reasons persona non grata at the French court, and his haughty tone at this time made him no better liked. Philip refused to see him; and, then, when he had returned to Pamiers, brought him back to Paris, and had him tried and condemned on a charge of treason and lese-majesty. On Dec. 5, 1301, Boniface demanded that his ambassador should immediately be set free to come to Rome; and at the same time he summoned the principal French churchmen and jurists to assemble in Rome Nov. 1, 1302, to take counsel with him in the difficulties of the French question. Notifying Philip of this, amid the most passionate reproaches, in the bull Ausculta fili, he commanded him also to appear in person or by proxy at this assembly; the assertions were repeated that God had set the Vicar of Christ over princes and kingdoms, thus giving him charge to ordain what might be needed for the removal of scandals and for the welfare of the kingdom of France. To meet this, Philip summoned his estates to Paris for Apr. 10, 1302, and laid before them not the bull Ausculta fili, but a document purporting to be the pope's utterance, which far surpassed even the real one in matter of offense. The estates, stirred up by this, voted to stand by the king. Toward the end of the year, Philip notified the pope that he would have none of his arbitration in the struggle with England; and Boniface now urged Edward to war instead of peace. Peace, however, was made in 1303. Meantime, as a result of the synod which the pope opened on Oct. 30, 1302, at which not a few French prelates were present in spite of Philip, the Bull Unam sanctum was drawn up, asserting in the most definite terms the theory of "the two swords," and the necessity to salvation of submission to the pope. Some futile attempts at conciliation took place in the early part of 1303, but Philip was declared on Apr. 13 to have rendered himself liable to excommunication. Two months later, the king assembled his nobles, prelates, and jurists, and his answer came in the form of a definite accusation against Boniface under twenty-four separate heads of the most appalling nature. Impressed by this, the assembly resolved to appeal to a general council against him; but since he would have to be forced to attend it, the collection of funds for this purpose was begun. William of Nogaret, the king's vice-chancellor, went to Italy and struck up an alliance with Sciarra Colonna, who had the wrongs of his family to avenge. They enlisted a number of the nobles of the Campagna, and used money freely, winning adherents even among Boniface's fellow townsmen of Anagni, where he was then holding his court. He had resolved to make formal publication of the anathema against Philip on Sept. 8; but early on the morning of the 7th, William and his adherents, a few hundred strong, gained an entrance into the town, penetrated even into the sleeping apartments of Boniface, and when he refused all concessions made him a prisoner in his own palace. On the 9th the citizens rose and liberated him; Nogaret and Sciarra Colonna were forced to flee, while Boniface returned to Rome Sept. 25. But, worn out by the long strife, he died Oct. 11. Character and Achievements of Boniface. His defeat is to be seen not in the circumstances of his captivity and his death, but in the fact that the spiritual weapons he wielded proved utterly unequal to the conquest of the aroused national feeling of France. The national spirit showed itself more powerful than the ecclesiastical. This defeat inflicted a staggering blow upon the authority of the papacy. Yet Boniface was no ordinary man. Though he was between seventy and eighty when he became pope, he showed no trace of the weakness of age; his will was unbending, his mind clear and logical. But his whole heart was set on power. In some ways he reminds of Gregory VII, and he could no more hope to escape conflicts than could the unflinching Hildebrand. But he did not in the conflict show the moral loftiness of Hildebrand--to say nothing of that of such men as Nicholas I and Innocent III. Nor is his personality without moral flaws. He had no scruple in using the funds he had raised for the recovery of the Holy Land in his own wars; nor is the reproach unfounded that he used the privileges of his position to surround his own family with princely splendor. When he strove for peace, as between England and France, his determining motive was plainly the desire to show himself the supreme arbiter of nations; when he had nothing to gain, he was ready enough to set them against each other, as he set Albert I and Edward I against Philip. Fair criticism must, however, reject the accusations of debauchery entirely, since they rest on no trustworthy testimony; and quite as groundless is the charge of heresy brought against him by his foes. Clement V had good foundation for the doubtful praise which he bestows upon Boniface when he calls him a destroyer of heretics; for he not only confirmed, but even strengthened the laws passed against heresy by Frederick II. He had a great influence on the development of the canon law by the issue in 1298 of his so-called Liber sextus,--a continuation of the five books which Gregory IX had put together in 1234; it contains his own decrees as well as those of his predecessors since Gregory's time. It must be mentioned to his credit that he erected higher schools at Avignon and at Fermo in the March of Ancona, modeled after the University of Bologna, for the study of theology, civil and canon law, medicine, and the liberal arts; and he has a special title to the gratitude of Rome for the refounding of the Roman University, originally established by Charles of Anjou in 1265. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Walter de Heminghburgh, Chronicon de gestis regum Angliae, ed. H. C. Hamilton, pp. 39 sqq., London, 1848; Rishanger, Chronica, ed. H. T. Riley, pp. 145 sqq., 483 sqq., ib. 1865; Annales Parmenses majores, in MGH, Script., xviii (1863), 715 sqq.; Chronicon Colmar, ib. xvii (1861), 263; Guilelmus de Nangiaco, Chronicon, ib. xxvi (1882), 647 sqq. The bulls Clericis laicos and Unam sanctam are translated in Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book, pp. 311-313, 314-317, and other relevant documents on pp. 276, 313; the bulls are also in Henderson, Documents, pp. 435-437; Unam sanctam is in Robinson, European History, i, 346-348; the Clericis laicos is also in Gee and Hardy, Documents, pp. 87-88; the Lat. text is in Reich, Documents, pp. 191-195. Valuable for sources is also G. Digard, M. Faucon, and A. Thomas, Les Registres de Boniface VIII. Recueil des bulles de ce pape . . . d'apres les MSS. originaux des archives du Vatican, 5 vols., Paris, 1884-90; T. H. Finke, Aus den Tagen Bonifaz VIII., Muenster, 1902. For Boniface's life and activities consult: L. Tosti, Storia di Bonifazio VIII., 2 vols., Monte Cassino, 1846; Jorry, Histoire du pape Boniface VIII., Plancy, 1850; W. Drumann, Geschichte Bonifacius VIII., 2 vols., Koenigsberg, 1852 (critical); A. von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, ii, 618, Berlin, 1868; A. Potthast, Regesta pontificum Romanorum, ii, 1923-2024, 2133, Berlin, 1875; F. Gregorovius, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, v, 502, Stuttgart, 1878, Eng. transl., London, 1898; W. Wattenbach, Geschichte des roemischen Papsttums, 216 sqq., Berlin, 1876; Balan, Il Processo di Bonifazio VIII., Rome, 1881; F. Rocquain, La Papaute au moyen age. . . . Boniface VIII., Paris, 1881; idem, Philippe le Bel et la bulle Ausculta fili, in Bibliotheque de l'ecole des chartes, 1883, pp. 393-394; B. Jungmann, Dissertationes selectae, vol. vi, Regensburg, 1886; J. Berchtold, Die Bulle Unam sanctam, Munich, 1887; W. Martens, Das Vaticanum und Bonifaz VIII., Freiburg, 1888; Neander, Christian Church, iv, 67, 632, v, 1-13 and passim; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, vi, 281 sqq.; Bower, Popes, iii, 43-55, 64; R. Scholz, Die Publizistik zur Zeit . . . Bonifaz VIII., Leipsic, 1903. On his relations to the various European states consult: F. C. Dahlmann, Geschichte von Daenemark, i, 425 sqq., Hamburg, 1840; R. Pauli, Geschichte von England, vol. iv, Gotha, 1855; E. Boutaric, La France sous Philippe le Bel, pp. 88 sqq., Paris, 1861; A. Baillet, Histoire des demeles du pape Boniface VIII. avec Philippe le Bel, Paris, 1818; E. Engelmann, Der Anspruch der Paepste auf Konfirmation bei den deutschen Koenigswahlen, Breslau, 1886; Fessler, Geschichte von Ungarn, i, 451 sqq., ii, 3 sqq., Leipsic, 1867-69; J. B. Sagmueller, Die Thaetigkeit und Stellung der Cardinaele bis Bonifaz VIII, Freiburg, 1895; J. Caro, Geschichte Polens, Gotha, 1863. Boniface IX (Pietro Tomacelli): Pope 1389-1404. He came of a noble Neapolitan family, and was made a cardinal by Urban VI, whom he succeeded Nov. 2, 1389. He is said to have been judicious, affable, and pious, but without learning or knowledge of affairs. His principal aim was the restoration of the papal authority in Rome and the States of the Church, for which he labored not unsuccessfully. The Romans, it is true, expelled him from the city in 1392, but fearful that he might fix his residence permanently elsewhere, they recalled him in the following year. He returned on condition of the surrender of a great part of the civic liberties; and another rising in 1398 gave him the opportunity to limit them still further. He was fortunate also in regard to Naples, where things were in a condition very unfavorable to the papacy, owing to the confused policy of Urban VI. Clement VII and Louis II of Anjou thought the time had come to make a thorough conquest of the kingdom, but Boniface made a close alliance with King Ladislaus and finally gained a complete victory over the French, holding Naples in the Roman obedience. By the aid of his political influence, Boniface hoped to succeed in ending the great schism, at first depending on the German king Wenceslaus, whom he invited to Rome for coronation as emperor; but matters were in too critical a state in Germany for him to leave. An appeal to Charles VI of France in 1392 to abandon his allegiance to Clement had no good result; nor had a similar attempt in Castile. The hope of accommodation raised by the death of Clement VII (Sept. 16, 1394) was destroyed by the action of the Avignon cardinals, who elected Benedict XIII. In the contests resulting in the deposition of Wenceslaus and the attempt to put the count palatine Rupert in big place, Boniface wavered from side to aide, and only expressed his willingness to recognize Rupert in 1403 from a fear that he would be thrown into the arms of the king of France. Boniface acquired an unenviable reputation for avarice, nepotism, and simoniacal transactions. He died Oct. 1, 1404. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Some of the sources for a history of Boniface IX are the following: The bulls are in O. Raynaldus, Annales ecclesiastici, ed. Baronius, continued by A. Theiner, Paris, 1864 sqq.; the Diplomata are in Monumenta vaticana historiam Hungariae illustrantia, vol. iii, Budapest, 1888; Dietrich von Nieheim, De Schismate, book ii, chap. 6 sqq., ed. G. Erler, pp. 129 sqq., Leipsic, 1880; Gobelinus Persona, Cosmodromium, in H. Meibom, Rerum Germanicarum, i, 316 sqq., Helmstadt, 1688; and a Vita in L. A. Muratori, Rerum Italicaram script., III, ii, 830, 25 vols., Milan, 1723-38. Consult further: M. Jansen, Papst Bonifatius IX., Freiburg, 1904; Historia . . . de Bonifazio nono, Venice, 1613; N. Valois, La France et le grand schisme, ii, 157, Paris, 1898; Creighton, Papacy, i, 111-183; Pastor, Popes, i, passim; Neander, Christian Church, vol. v, passim; Bower, Popes, iii, 143-152; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, vi, 812. Boniface, Saint BONIFACE, SAINT: The apostle of the Germans; b. at Crediton (8 m. n.w. of Exeter), Devonshire, between 675 and 683; d. a martyr on the banks of the Borne near Dokkum (13 m. n.e. of Leeuwarden), in Friesland, June 5, 755. He was an Englishman of a distinguished family of Wessex, and was originally named Winfrid or Wynfrith. His studies were begun at the monastery of Adescancastre (Exeter?), and continued at Nutshalling or Nursling, near Winchester. Here he won distinction for learning and practical wisdom, and at an early age was made master of the monastic school. Early Missionary Work. Disregarding brilliant prospects at home, from 717 Boniface gave himself to missionary work on the Continent. After a brief effort in Friesland--the field of his countryman [459]Willibrord--he went to Rome and received a commission from the pope (Gregory II) as missionary to Central Germany. He began his labor in Thuringia and Hessia, the easternmost of the lands of the Franks, where he found not only heathen but Christians and priests who knew nothing and wanted to know nothing of Roman discipline and order. They were probably converts and disciples of Iro-Scottish and British monks, who had long been laboring among the tribes from the Rhine to the Saale and southward to the Alps (see [460]Celtic Church in Britain and Ireland, II, 2, S: 3, [461]III, 2, S: 2). For two or three years Boniface's activity was diverted to Friesland, but then he returned to the Franks, and, with the help of two landed proprietors, founded a central settlement for himself and companions at Amoeneburg on the Ohm in Hessia. His success was great and led to a summons to Rome from Gregory II. There he was consecrated bishop and swore fidelity to the canons of the Church; he was charged to be on his guard against heretical priests and anti-Roman bishops. About 724 he returned to Germany, provided with letters of recommendation to the major domus, Charles Martel, to the clergy, chieftains, and people. Charles Martel granted him protection, and, after confirming recent converts in Hessia, and felling the sacred oak of Thor near Geismar, Boniface went eastward into Thuringia, and established its first monastery at Ohrdruf. He founded many churches, converted the heathen, expelled the anti-Roman priests, and in ten years had won a new province for the Church and the pope. Organization. Being promoted to the dignity of archbishop, Boniface organized his Church by founding the sees of Wuerzburg, Buraburg, and Erfurt, and by building monasteries and nunneries, which he filled with monks and nuns from England and endowed and improved with the help of English money. Bavaria next claimed his attention. Anti-Roman influence was strong there and among the neighboring [462]Alemanni, but, with the authorization of Gregory III, in a few years, Boniface placed men in sympathy with Rome in the sees of Regensburg, Passau, Salzburg, and Freising, and substituted the Benedictine rules for those of Columban in the monasteries. On the death of Charles Martel (741), his sons Karlman and Pepin, who had been brought up under monkish influence, succeeded to his power. In 742 Karlman called upon the papal legate to regulate the affairs of the Church for the East Franks. Under the guiding influence of Boniface two synods were held and measures were adopted concerning the monastic and scholastic discipline, the restoration of church estates which had been lost, the introduction of Roman marriage laws, celibacy of the clergy, the expulsion of the old British itinerant priests and bishops, the extirpation of remnants of heathenism, the establishment of the hierarchical order, and the like. There was some opposition from the nobles, certain of the bishops, and the people, who were attached to their old customs, but at court and in the Council the adversaries of the "reformation of the Church" lost all authority. Archbishop. In 744 Pepin followed the example of his brother. A synod was held at Soissons, and Boniface was given a free hand, notwithstanding resistance from the Frankish clergy. For a long time, however, he was unable to alienate the people from their old priests and bishops, such as [463]Adalbert and [464]Clement. A general Frankish synod in 745 published new agenda for both divisions of the country and promised Boniface the metropolitan see at Cologne. In 747 the Frankish bishops with Boniface at the head signed in due form a bill of submission in which they acknowledged the papal rights, laws, and power, and promised obedience and faithfulness. By this action the bond between the Frankish empire and Rome was sealed; the "Prince of the Apostles" was to be head and master in the countries north of the Alps. Pope Zacharias had every reason to be grateful to his legate. Instead of Cologne, Boniface received Mainz as his see. Here he was near his old mission field in Hessia and Thuringia, and from Mainz he could direct the building of his favorite foundation, the abbey of [465]Fulda. Worldly affairs now occupied him little. After the death of Willibrord he desired strongly to continue the Friesian mission. In 754 he spent some time in Friesland. The next year he again descended the Rhine with a large following and pitched his camp on the little river Borne, expecting the newly baptized would come thither for confirmation. But the camp was attacked by night by a band of heathen and Boniface and his entire company were massacred. He is buried at Fulda. An English synod shortly after his death proclaimed him patron of the English Church by the side of Gregory the Great and Augustine. Plus IX in 1875 ordered to invoke his name because of troubles in Germany and England. Many churches in Germany are dedicated to him. [A number of writings have been attributed to Boniface. Those most commonly regarded as genuine are letters, a collection of ecclesiastical statutes, a Latin poem called AEnigmata de virtutibus, and several shorter poems.] A. Werner. Bibliography: S. Bonifacii opera quae extant omnia, ed. J. A. Giles, 2 vols., London, 1844, contains, besides the genuine and supposed works of Boniface, his life, written within ten years of his death by Willibald, a presbyter of Mainz. The works, Willibald's life, and a life by Othlo, a monk of St. Emmeram's at Regensburg, written at Fulda between 1062 and 1066, are in MPL, lxxxix. Better editions are: Of the letters, Willibald's life, the so-called Passio S. Bonifatii (11th century), and extracts from Othlo and a life by an unknown writer of Utrecht in Monumenta Moguntina, ed. P. Jaffe, Bibliotheca rer. Germ., vol. iii, 1866; the biographical matter also issued separately with title, Vitae S. Bonifatii, Berlin, 1866; cf. also Vitae S. Bonifatii, ed. W. Levison, Hanover, 1905; of the letters, ed. E. Duemmler, in MGH, Epist., iii (1892), Epistolae Merovingici et Carolini aevi, i; of the poems, ed. idem, in MGH, Poet. Lat. aevi Car., i (1881), pp. 1-23; of Willibald's life, ed. A. Nuernberger, Breslau, 1895, and, with Othlo's prologue, in MGH, Script., ii (1829). For the letters consult F. Loofs, Zur Chronologie der auf die fraenkischen Synoden des heiligen Bonifatius bezueglichen Briefe der bonifazischen Briefsammlung, Leipsic, 1881; G. Pfahler, Die bonifatianische Briefsammlung chronologisch geordnet, Heilbronn, 1882. For modern accounts in German from the Roman Catholic standpoint, consult: J. C. A. Seiters, Bonifacius, . . . nach seinem Leben und Wirken geschildert, Mainz, 1845; G. Pfahler, St. Bonifacius und seine Zeit, Regensberg, 1880; F. J. von Buss, Winfred Bonifacius, ed. R. von Scherer, Gras, 1880. From the Protestant standpoint: J. P. Mueller, Bonifacius. Eene kerkhistorische Studie, 2 vols., Amsterdam, 1869-70; A. Werner, Bonifacius . . . und die Romanisirung von Mitteleuropa, Leipsic, 1875; O. Fischer, Bonifatius der Apostel der Deutschen, ib. 1881; J. H. A. Ebrard, Bonifatius, der Zerstoerer des columbanischen Kirchenthums auf dem Festlande, Guetersloh, 1882, cf. his Iroschottische Missionskirche des 6ten-8ten Jahrhunderts, ib. 1873; G. Traub, Bonifatius. Ein Lebensbild, Leipsic, 1884. For life in Eng. consult: G. W. Cox, Life of Boniface, London, 1853; Mrs. Hope, Boniface and the Conversion of Germany, ib. 1872; G. F. Maclear, Apostles of Mediaeval Europe, pp. 110-128, London, 1888; I. G. Smith, Boniface, in Fathers for English Readers, ib.1896; J. M. Williamson, Life and Times of St. Boniface, ib. 1904. Consult also: H. Hahn, Bonafaz und Lul, Leipsic, 1883; G. Woelbing, Die mittelalterlichen Lebensbeschreibungan des Bonifatius untersucht, ib. 1883; Moeller, Christian Church, ii, 74-83; Schaff, Christian Church, iv, 92-100; DCB, i, 324-327; DNB, v, 346-350; Neander, Christian Church, iii, 46-96 et passim. Bonifatius-Verein BONIFATIUS-VEREIN ("Boniface Society"): A Roman Catholic society of Germany, having as its object "to promote the spiritual interests of Catholics living in Protestant parts of Germany, and the maintenance of schools" (by-laws, S: 1). The tendency toward freer relations between different confessions and shifting of confessional connections in Germany in the earlier years of the nineteenth century aroused the anxiety of the Church of Rome. According to a statement in the Ultramontane Muenchener historisch-politische Blaetter (lxviii, 45) the Roman Church lost between 1802 and 1870 more than 500,000 souls in South Germany, whereas the loss in North Germany between 1802 and 1850 was estimated at one million. The "Francis Xavier Society," which had its headquarters at Lyons in France, and properly speaking was a missionary society, took care of the "missions" in Germany as far as possible; but until 1848 no Roman Catholic church or school could be established in Germany without the consent of the government. These restrictions were done away with in 1848, and when the third convention of Roman Catholics met at Regensburg, Oct. 4, 1849, at the suggestion of Doellinger, at that time an ardent champion of Rome, and of Count Josef von Stolberg, son of the famous convert Frederick Leopold von Stolberg, the Bonifatius-Verein was founded. Paderborn was chosen as the center of operation. Pius IX approved the society, Apr. 21, 1852, and Leo XIII favored the priests belonging to it with indulgences, Mar. 15, 1901. In Bavaria the society was not favorably received at first on account of similar societies already existing, and in North Germany it seemed to be a failure by 1853. But after 1857, owing to the exertions of Bishop Martin of Paderborn and of Alban Stolz, it progressed rapidly and in 1899 celebrated the golden jubilee of its successful activity. The society obtains the means necessary for carrying on its work in various ways: (1) from collections in, the churches; (2) from private persons who obligate themselves to pay for a number of years the minister's salary in a certain congregation; (3) from donations to a permanent endowment fund; (4) from societies which collect seemingly worthless objects, as cigar ends, corks, and the like; the income from these societies, used particularly for orphan asylums and like institutions, amounted from 1885 to 1891 to 1,490,539 marks; (5) from the profits of the Bonifatius printing-house and the Bonifatius second-hand book-stall at Paderborn; (6) from periodicals and pamphlets; (7) from academical Bonifatius societies, which built the Catholic church at Greifswald; (8) from societies of a like character, as the "Boniface Society of the Catholic Noblemen of Silesia," the "Boniface Society of Catholic Ladies for Church Vestments and Furniture," and others. The aggregate receipts from all these sources between 1849 and 1899 were 36,000,000 marks; and between 1849 and 1901 more than 29,000,000 marks were expended for 2,240 stations. In 1902 the revenues aggregated 442,000 marks, and expenditures 310,000 marks. The territory of the Bonifatius-Verein comprises Germany, Austria with Bosnia and Herzegovina, Switzerland, Denmark, and Luxembourg. In Germany special attention is paid to the Protestant parts of Prussia, above all Berlin; Saxony, Brunswick, and Mecklenburg are also regarded as missionary fields. In Bavaria, Nuremberg, formerly wholly Protestant, is especially an object of the propaganda in order to connect the northern and southern parts of Bavaria. C. Fey. Bibliography: A. J. Kleffner and F. W. Woker, Der Bonifacius-Verein. Seine Geschichte, seine Arbeit und sein Arbeitsfeld, 1849-1899, 2 parts, Paderborn, 1899; Bonifaciusblatt, ib. 1853 sqq.; Schlesisches Bonifacius-Vereins-Blatt, Breslau, 1880 sqq. Boni Homines BONI HOMINES: A name borne by several monastic brotherhoods, particularly by the Grammontensians (see [466]Grammont, Order of), the Fratres saccati, or [467]Sack Brethren, and an order of canons regular founded in Portugal by John Vicenza (d. 1463), physician and professor at Lisbon, afterward bishop of Lamego, and later bishop of Vizeu. In 1425 Vicenza and his followers, who had made pilgrimages throughout Portugal, received the Benedictine cloister of San Salvador in Villar de Frades. They adopted the dress and statutes of the canons regular of San Giorgio in Alga, at Venice, and received papal confirmation under this title. In another house near Lisbon they received the name Canons Regular of the Congregation of St. John the Evangelist. The Boni homines of San Salvador were later included under this title. They gradually attained a strength of fourteen houses in Portugal, and also maintained missions in India and Ethiopia. After the [468]Minims had come into possession of the house of the Grammontensians at Vincennes they, too, came to be called bons hommes. Even at an earlier date it seems that the Minims in Paris had been contemptuously called bons hommes. The same name was also appropriated by certain heretical sects, for instance, by the Cathari (see [469]New Manicheans) and by the Brethren of the Free Spirit. In Florence, in the thirteenth century, the twelve men elected to restore order after the withdrawal of the Ghibellines were called buoni uomini, likewise the overseers of the thirteen city districts in Rome in the fourteenth century. Bonizo (Bonitho) BONIZO (BONITHO): Bishop of Sutri; b. at Cremona c. 1045; d. at Piacenza July 14, probably 1090. As a young cleric he joined the Patarene movement (see [470]Patarenes) in Cremona and Piacenza. He came to Rome in 1074, possibly in consequence of his conflict with Bishop Dionysius of Piacenza, and was himself made bishop of Sutri in 1075 or 1076. In the spring of 1078 he was in Lombardy as legate, and back in Rome by November, when he took part in the synod that discussed Berengar's teachings. A zealous partizan of Gregory VII, he was imprisoned by Henry IV in 1082 and entrusted for safe-keeping to the antipope Guibert of Ravenna (Clement III). He contrived to escape, but never returned to his see. In 1085 he found shelter with Countess Matilda, and in the summer of 1086 was chosen bishop of Piacenza by the Patarene party. His election being uncanonical, Anselm of Milan, the metropolitan, refused to install him; but he succeeded in gaining the approval of Pope Urban II in 1088 or 1089. He did not long enjoy his triumph, meeting a violent death in a rising of the imperialist party. The most important of his writings, the Liber ad amicum (ed. E. Duemmler, MGH, Libelli de lite, i, 1891), composed between the death of Gregory VII and the accession of Victor III (1085-86), besides discussing the question whether a Christian may bear arms in the defense of the Church (which he answers in the affirmative), shown by an extended historical sketch that the Church grows under persecution. The chief value of the work is due to its presentation of the ideas of Gregory and his adherents; it informs us how the papal camp judged of the numerous theological and ecclesiastico-political controversies of the time, and as a whole is one of the most noteworthy productions of the Gregorian party. Often as it has been appealed to as a contemporary source, it has to be used with caution, owing not only to carelessness and errors of detail, but to demonstrable perversions of history, as in the account of the Canossa episode. In fact, it is colored throughout by the author's subjective standpoint. The Liber in Hugonem schismaticum (presumably Cardinal Hugo Candidus) has unfortunately been lost. As a canonist Bonizo left a large Decretum in ten books, from which Mai published extracts in 1854. Carl Mirbt. Bibliography: H. Saur, Studien ueber Bonizo, in Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte, viii, 397-464, Goettingen,1868; E. Steindorff, Jahrbuecher des deutschen Reichs unter Heinrich III., i, 457-462, ii, 473-482, Leipsic, 1874, 1887; W. Martens, Ueber die Geschichtschreibung Bonizos, in Tuebinger theologische Quartalschrift, 1883, pp. 457-483; idem, Gregor VII, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1894; H. Lehmgruebner, Ueber des Leben des Bonizo . . . , in Benzo von Alba, pp. 129-151, Berlin, 1887; G. Meyer von Knonau, Jahrbuecher des deutschen Reichs unter Heinrich IV., vols. i, ii, Leipsic, 1890-94; C. Mirbt, Die Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregors VII., ib. 1894; idem, Die Wahl Gregors VII., Marburg, 1892. Bonner, Edmund BONNER, EDMUND: Bishop of London; b., probably at Hanley, Worcestershire, about 1500; d. in the Marshalsea prison, at Southwark, near London, Sept. 5, 1569. He studied at Pembroke College (then called Broadgate Hall), Oxford (B.C.L., 1519; D.C.L., 1525), and was ordained about 1519. He received his first preferment from Cardinal Wolsey; after the death of Wolsey (1530) he served the king, received a number of benefices, and was employed at different times as ambassador to the pope, to the king of France, and to the emperor; he was made bishop of London in 1539. He fell out with the privy council, which undertook to govern under Edward VI (1547), and in 1549 was reprimanded for not enforcing the use of the new prayer-book, deprived of his bishopric, and imprisoned. The accession of Mary (1553) brought his release and reinstated him in his see. He is remembered chiefly by his connection with the religious persecutions of the reign of Mary and it is said that in three years he condemned more than two hundred persons to the stake. In 1559, after the accession of Elizabeth, he refused to take the oath of supremacy and was imprisoned and kept in confinement till his death. It has been usual to represent Bishop Bonner as unprincipled and cruel; yet his firmness in following the unpopular course and the suffering undergone in consequence do not indicate a lack of principle; to judge and condemn heretics was one of the duties of his position, and it is not clear that he took delight in undue severity; there is documentary evidence that he acted under pressure from the queen and her husband (Philip II of Spain). He was unpopular in London apart from the persecutions. He wrote a preface for the second edition of Gardiner's De vera obedientia (Hamburg, 1536) and published a collection of Homilies for his diocese (London, 1555, and many later editions). Bibliography: The sources for a life are in the State Papers of Henry VIII, in the Rolls Series, 15 vols., ed. by various hands, London, 189-. Consult also: S. R. Maitland, Subjects Connected with the Reformation in England, London, 1849; DNB, vi, 356-360. Bonnet, Alfred Maximilien BONNET, ben?''ne', ALFRED MAXIMILIEN: French classical scholar; b. at Frankfort Nov. 3, 1841. He was educated at Bonn University, and, after being a professor at the academy of Lausanne in 1866-74 and at the Ecole Monge and the Ecole Alsacienne at Paris in 1874-81, was successively lecturer and instructor in the faculty of letters at Montpellier. Since 1890 he has been professor of Latin in the same institution. In 1898 he was elected a corresponding member of the Academy of Inscriptions, and has written, among other work, Narratio de miraculo a Michaele archangelo Chonis patrato, adjecto Symeonis Metaphrastae de eadem re libello (Paris, 1890) and Le Latin de Gregoire de Tours (1890); and has prepared editions of the Liber de miraculis beati Andreae apostoli, in MGH, Script. rer. Merov., i (1885), 821-846, the Acts of Thomas (Leipsic, 1883) and of Andrew (1895), and the Acta apostolorum apocrypha (1891 sqq.; in collaboration with R. A. Lipsius). Bonnet, Jules BONNET, JULES: French Protestant layman; b. at Nimes (40 m. n.e. of Montpellier) June 30, 1820; d. there Mar. 23, 1892. He was educated as a lawyer, but became a professor in the University of France and gained recognition by his works on the history of the Reformation. He was also secretary of the Societe d'Histoire du Protestantisme Franc,ais and editor of its publications. Among his works special mention may be made of the following: Olympia Morata, episode de la renaissance en Italie (Paris, 1850; Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1852); Lettres franc,aises de Calvin (2 vols., 1854; Eng. transl., 4 vols., Edinburgh, 1855-57); Calvin au val d'Aoste (1861); Aonio Paleario, etude sur la reforme en Italie (1863; Eng. transl., London, 1864); Recits du seizieme siecle (1864); Nouveaux recits du seizieme siecle (1869); La Reforme au chateau de Saint Privat (1873); Notice sur la vie et les ecrits de M. Merle d'Aubigne (1874); Derniers recits du seizieme siecle (1875); Quelques souvenirs sur Augustin Thierry (1877); Famille de Curione, recit du seizieme siecle (Basel, 1878); Histoire des souffrances du bienheureux martyr Louis de Marolles (Paris, 1882); Souvenirs de l'Eglise reformee de la Calmette (1884); and Recits du seizieme siecle, troisieme serie (1885). He also edited the Memoires de la vie de Jean de Parthenay-Larcheveque, sieur de Soubise (Paris, 1879), while his own letters from 1851 to 1863 have been edited by E. de Bude (Geneva, 1898). Bonnivard, Francois de BONNIVARD, ben''ni''v??r', FRANC,OIS DE: The "Prisoner of Chillon"; b. at Seyssel on the Rhone (21 m. s.w. of Geneva) c. 1493; d. at Geneva 1570. As a younger son he entered the Church and became prior of St. Victor near Geneva; certain other benefices to which he thought he was entitled he failed to receive through the intrigues of Charles III, duke of Savoy; in consequence he joined the party of the young Genevan patriots who were resisting the duke's attempts to gain control of the city. When the duke entered Geneva in 1519, Bonnivard fled, but fell into the hands of the duke, and was imprisoned for twenty months. On May 28, 1530 he was arrested near Lausanne, taken to the castle of Chillon at the east end of Lake Geneva and kept there for six years. It is this imprisonment which Byron has immortalized in verse more musical than truthful. The first two years were tolerable; but after a visit from the duke in 1532 he was put in the dungeon now shown to visitors. It is only a local tradition that he was chained to a pillar. In the spring of 1536 the Bernese took the castle and freed Bonnivard. During his incarceration the priory and church of St. Victor had been razed and the income of the estates applied to the city hospital. As indemnification he was pensioned and given a liberal sum to pay his debts. He adopted the Reformation and married four times, but no time happily. He made the city of Geneva his heir on condition that it should pay his debts; but his estate consisted only of certain books which formed the beginning of the city library. Bonnivard's literary activity was the chief reason for the forbearance which his contemporaries showed him; his career was somewhat wavering, time-serving, and dishonorable. In 1517 he was entitled "poet-laureate," and after his liberation he was commissioned by the magistracy to write a history of the republic of Geneva. This work, Les Chroniques de Geneve (published at Geneva, 2 vols., 1831), ends with 1551, is full of anecdotes and interesting, but unreliable. Other works which have been published are: Advis et devis des langues (Geneva, 1849); Advis et devis de la source de l'idolatrie et tyrannie papale (1856); De l'ancienne et nouvelle police de Geneve (1865). Bibliography: J. J. Chaponniere, Memoire sur Bonnivard, Geneva, 1846; F. Gribble, Lake Geneva and its Literary Landmarks, London, 1901. Bonnus, Hermannus BONNUS, HERMANNUS (Hermann Gude?): German Reformer; b. at Quackenbrueck, in Osnabrueck, 1504; d. at Luebeck Feb. 12, 1548. He was educated apparently first at Muenster, then in Bugenhagen's school at Treptow, but certainly entered the University of Wittenberg in 1523, coming under the influence of Luther and Melanchthon. In 1525, probably, he migrated to Greifswald, and about two years later went to Gottorp to act as tutor to the six-year-old son of Frederick I of Denmark. Thence he was called to Luebeck in 1530, and (on Bugenhagen's organization of the Evangelical Church there) made superintendent in the following February. Here he remained until his death, in spite of calls to Hamburg in 1532 and to Lueneburg in 1534. He represented his town in the conference of the six free cities of Luebeck, Bremen, Hamburg, Rostock, Stralsund, and Lueneburg, held at Hamburg in 1535 to concert measures for dealing with Papists, Anabaptists, and Sacramentarians. In 1543 he visited Osnabrueck to take part in the establishment of a Reformed system and liturgy which received the approval of the bishop, Franz von Waldeck, and was later extended to the whole diocese. The attempt to carry it into that of Muenster was forcibly resisted by the chapter, but met with partial success in the country districts. His influence was extended by his Low German catechism (1539) and by his services to the hymnody of this dialect. He certainly edited and revised several collections of both German and Latin hymns, and probably contributed some of his own. He took a courageous part against the democratic revolution in Luebeck under Wullenweber, and in his Chronika der kaiserlichen Stadt Luebeck (1539) pointed out the dangers of innovating tendencies. After the formal adoption of the Augsburg Confession in 1535, he contended successfully against the efforts of the Roman Catholic party to regain control and against the propaganda of the Anabaptists. His office required him to expound the Scriptures, and his discourses on the Acts and on the liturgical epistles for the Sundays were published. In accordance with the Hamburg decisions, which had required preachers to dwell upon the examples of the saints, he published in 1539 a compilation of hagiographical extracts. The king of Denmark tried to secure him for an important office (probably the bishopric of Sleswick), but he refused to leave Luebeck, where his body was deposited amid universal mourning in St. Mary's church. (G. Kawerau.) Bibliography: A. Spiegel, Hermann Bonnus, Goettingen, 1892; G. Bossert, in TLZ, 1892, pp. 260 sqq. Bonosus and the Bonosians BONOSUS AND THE BONOSIANS. Heresy and Suspension of Bonosus (S: 1). Final Condemnation of Bonosus (S: 2). Bonosians in Spain and Southern Gaul (S: 3). Sympathy between Bonosians and Arians (S: 4). Relation between Bonosus and the Bonosians (S: 5). 1. Heresy and Suspension of Bonosus. From a letter written to Anysius of Thessalonica and the other Illyrian bishops, soon after the Synod of Capua (winter of 391-392), by either Pope Siricius or an unknown Italian bishop, we learn certain facts about a bishop Bonosus, whose see is not given. He had been accused, apparently by neighboring bishops, but of what does not clearly appear in the letter, except that he had asserted that Mary bore other children to Joseph, after the birth of Jesus. The case came before this synod at Capua, called by the emperor Theodosius to put an end to the schism at Antioch (see [471]Meletius of Antioch); but the synod referred it to the bishops whose dioceses bordered on those of both parties, especially the Macedonian prelates. The decision was in favor of suspension, a temporary provision being made for the administration of Bonosus's diocese. He wrote to St. Ambrose to know whether he was bound to heed this sentence, and Ambrose counseled patience. Meantime the bishops hesitated to make the sentence absolute, and would have been glad of the opinion of the writer of the letter. He, however, whether Siricius or some one else, declared that it did not belong to him "to decide as if by authority of a synod"; the responsibility, he told them, rested on them of forming such a decision that neither the accused nor the accusers should be able to evade it. So much consideration was not usually shown to "heretics"; there may have been circumstances connected with the case which we do not know. But to deny the perpetual virginity of Mary was a serious offense from the stand point of the time (see [472]Helvidius). Ambrose speaks (De instit. virg., v, 35) of a bishop being accused of this "sacrilege"--probably meaning Bonosus. It is, therefore, evident that at this time Bonosus was accused of no worse or further heresies. 2. Final Condemnation of Bonosus. Some twenty years later we hear more of Bonosus in two letters of Innocent I--one to Marcian of Naissus, northwest of Sardica, and a later one to the bishops of Illyria. From them it appears that Bonosus had been definitely condemned by his fellow bishops, and had then founded a separate ecclesiastical organization of his own. For the avoiding of scandal, those who had been ordained by him were, if they wished it, received back into the Church as clerics. Innocent allows this only in the case of those ordained by Bonosus before his condemnation; but here again his heresy is not specified. Twenty years later still (431), Marius Mercator names Marcellus, Photinus, "and lately the Sardican bishop, Bonosus, who was condemned by Pope Damascus, among the followers of Ebion." There is practically no doubt that this is the same Bonosus; in this case, and accepting the statement of Marius, we have learned that Bonosus was bishop of Sardica, and that his errors had grown, after 392, into dynamistic Monarchianism. We have no further information as to the fate of his following in the Balkan peninsula. The mention of him in the so-called Decretum Gelasii, even if it was written by Gelasius, and the anathemas pronounced against him by Vigilius in 552 and 553 prove nothing on this point. If Gregory I in his Epistola ad Quiricum really named the Bonosiaci with the Cataphrygians as heretics who needed rebaptism because they did not believe in Christ the Lord, this is not very strong evidence for the continued existence of the body, and tells nothing of its locality. 3. Bonosians in Spain and Southern Gaul. The case is different with the repeated mentions of Bonosiaci or Bonosiani by the writers of Spain and southern Gaul. Gennadius quotes the Spanish bishop Audentius (end of fourth century) as having specially written against them, which proves at least that Gennadius knew them; he speaks in another place of "Photinians, who now are called Bonosians." A little later Avitus of Vienne mentions them in two well-known passages; in one he expresses himself in relation to King Gundobad (see [473]Burgundians) as willing to accept their baptism. The 17th canon of the so-called Second Synod of Arles (generally placed 443-452) shows the same conciliatory attitude; but the Third Synod of Orleans (538) tells us that the Bonosians rebaptized their converts, which may be taken to show that their baptism was not then recognized by the other side. About the same time, according to Isidore of Seville, Justinian of Valencia was writing against them his lost Liber responsionum contra Bonosianos, qui Christum adoptivum filium et non proprium dicunt. While for Gaul the latest reference is given by the Synod of Clichy in 626 or 627; showing thus their gradual extinction there, in Spain they were attracting attention fifty years later; the Synod of Toledo in 675, declaring that Christ was the Son of God by nature, not by adoption, was plainly directed against them. On the other hand, the mention of Bonosus--not of the Bonosians--in the Adoptionist controversy (see [474]Adoptionism) does not prove that they lasted to the eighth century in Spain, nor is the medieval view that Adoptionism was a revival of the heresy of Bonosus worth considering. They really disappear with the end of the seventh century. 4. Sympathy between Bonosians and Arians. That these mentions of Bonosians from the fifth to the seventh centuries are not merely the survival of an old term of opprobrium, but that they really existed in Spain and southern Gaul at that period has long been justly accepted. It is still further confirmed by a passage of Avitus, whose true reading (Bonosiacorum for bonorum) has only lately been established. Writing to Sigismund, his convert son of the Arian king Gundobad, he gives the information that the latter had formally promised to set up a Bonosian community in his kingdom by the establishment of a bishop of their faith, and that this body was recruited from the Arians. This would explain the attitude of Gennadius toward their baptism. Avitus took an opposite view, either to conciliate the king, who at that time gave hopes of his conversion, or from motives of general policy. The Bonosians began to be absorbed into, the Arian body; toward the end of Gundobad's reign Avitus had hopes that they would entirely disappear, if the king could be induced to let his promises to them lapse into oblivion. The later history shows that this hope proved false, because the sect was not confined to Burgundian territory; and it is not surprising that sharp measures were taken against those who remained obdurate in their heresy under Catholic rule. Only one thing can be urged against the correctness of the account here given--the recognition of the validity of Bonosian baptism by the synod said to have been held at Arles about 450; but this really tells the other way, for general support is now accorded to the theory put forth in the eighteenth century that this second synod of Arles never had any existence, the canons attributed to it being nothing but a collection of various older synodical decisions made toward the end of the fifth century, and canon xvii having then first been heard of. Accordingly it is safe to say that the Bonosians in the generally Arian territories of the Burgundians and the West-Goths were the followers of Bonosus of Sardica, though the name Bonosus was not an uncommon one. 5. Relation between Bonosus and the Bonosians. Isidore of Seville says expressly that they had sprung "from a certain bishop Bonosus," and the "plague of the Bonosians" did not begin in the Burgundian kingdom, since Avitus speaks of it as ab infernalibus latebris excitata. The district in which Bonosus of Sardica labored bordered on territories held in his time by the West-Goths, and relations may well have remained close between that region and the West-Goths of the south of Gaul; so that the passage of his teaching from the Balkan peninsula into the Burgundian kingdom, which was in close contact with the West-Goths, is perfectly possible, and we may safely conclude to accept the statement of Marius Mercator. (F. Loofs.) The wide-spread acceptance of the Adoptionist view of the person of Christ from the apostolic time throughout the Middle Ages and beyond (Ebionites, Shepherd of Hermas, Theodotas of Rome, Paul of Samosata, the Paulicians, most medieval sects, many Anabaptists, and others) makes it easy to account for this aspect of the teaching of the Bonosians as well as for the Spanish Adoptionism of the eighth century without the supposition of its independent origin in either case. For much valuable information on the early origin and the persecution of Adoptionist Christology cf. F. C. Conybeare, The Key of Truth; A Manual of the Paulician Church of Armenia. The Armenian Text edited and translated with illustrative Documents and Introduction (Oxford, 1898). A. H. N. Bibliography: Ceillier, Auteurs sacres, v, 708-711; C. W. F. Walch, Historie der Ketzereien, iii, 598-625, Leipsic, 1766; A. Helfferich, Der westgothische Arianismus, Berlin, 1860; C. Binding, Das burgundisch-romanische Koenigreich, vol. i, Leipsic, 1868; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, vols. ii, iii; DCB, i, 330-331. Bonwetsch, Gottlieb Nathanael BONWETSCH, bon''vetch', GOTTLIEB NATHANAEL: German Protestant theologian; b. at Nortla, Russia, Feb. 17, 1848. He was educated at the universities of Dorpat (1866-70), Goettingen (1874-75), and Bonn (1877-78), the time between his residence at these universities being spent in practical pastoral work. He became privat-docent at Dorpat in 1878 and associate professor of church history four years later, while from 1883 to 1891 he was full professor in the same university. Since 1891 he has been professor of church history at Goettingen . In addition to numerous contributions to theological journals and religious encyclopedias, he edited Thomasius's Dogmengeschichte der alten Kirche (Erlangen, 1886) and the Studien zur Geschichte der Theologie und Kirche in collaboration with R. Seeberg (Leipsic, 1897 sqq.); and has written Die Schriften Tertullians untersucht (Bonn, 1878); Die Geschichte des Montanismus (Erlangen, 1881); Unser Reformator Martin Luther (Dorpat, 1883); Kyrill und Methodius, die Lehrer der Slaven (Erlangen, 1885); Methodius von Olympus, i, Schriften (Leipsic,1891); Studien zu den Kommentaren Hippolytus zum Buche Daniel und Hohenliede (1897); Hippolytus Werke (Berlin, 1897; in collaboration with H. Achelis); and Die Apokalypse Abrahams, das Testament der vierziq Maertyrer (1898). He also edited, in collaboration with P. Tschackert, the thirteenth and fourteenth editions of J. H. Kurtz's Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte (2 vols., Leipsic, 1899, 1906). Boos, Martin BOOS, MARTIN: Roman Catholic priest; b. at Huttenried near Schongau, Bavaria, Dec. 25, 1762; d. at Sayn, near Coblenz, Aug. 29, 1825. He studied at Dillingen under Sailer, Zimmer, and Weber. He followed the extreme practises of asceticism as a penance for sin, all to no avail, as he believed, and then developed a doctrine of salvation by faith which came very near to pure Lutheranism. This he preached with great effect. He was driven from Bavaria by the opposition of the ecclesiastical authorities and other priests and lived in Austria from 1799 to 1816, when he was compelled to leave that country. His last years were spent at Duesseldorf and Sayn. Bibliography: His autobiography was edited by J. Gossner, Leipsic, 1831, Eng. transl., London, 1836, who also issued two volumes of his sermons Berlin, 1830. Consult also F. W. Bodemann, Gesammelte Briefe von, an und ueber Martin Boos, Frankfort, 1854. Booth, Ballington BOOTH, BALLINGTON: General-in-chief and president of the Volunteers of America; b. at Brighouse (4 m. e.s.e. of Halifax), Yorkshire, England, July 28, 1859. He was educated at a private school in Bristol and subsequently at Trenton Collegiate Institute and Nottingham Seminary, Nottingham, England. He was commander of the Salvation Army in Australia from 1885 to 1887, and held the same office in the United States from 1887 to 1896. In the latter year his connection with the Salvation Army ceased, however, and he established a similar though not identical organization known as the [475]Volunteers of America, of which he has since been the head. He was ordained at Chicago in August, 1896, a presbyter in the Christian Church. Booth, Catherine (Mumford) BOOTH, CATHERINE (MUMFORD): "Mother of the Salvation Army"; b. at Ashbourne (13 m. n.w. of Derby), Derbyshire, England, Jan. 17, 1829; d. at Clacton-on-Sea (13 m. s.e. of Colchester), Essex, Oct. 4, 1890. She was educated chiefly at home, and in 1844 removed with her parents to London. In the same year she joined the Wesleyan congregation at Brixton, but four years later was debarred from that organization, together with others. These "Reformers," as they called themselves, then formed a separate congregation, and in 1851 she became acquainted with her future husband, [476]William Booth, likewise an excommunicated "Reformer." Four years later they were married, and in 1858 she first took public part in her husband's pastoral work at Gateshead, Durham, where he was then located. Two years later, after the publication of a pamphlet defending the right of women to preach, she delivered her first sermon in her husband's pulpit, and within the next three years began to conduct independent religious meetings, leading successful missions at Margate in 1867 and at Portsmouth in 1873. Meanwhile the plan which resulted in the formation of the [477]Salvation Army was maturing, and the new organization was definitely formulated in 1877. Mrs. Booth herself took an active part in the work, especially among women and children. Her greatest work as a revivalist was done in 1886-87, but in the following year she was stricken with cancer, which ultimately caused her death. She wrote Papers on Practical Religion (London, 1879); Papers on Aggressive Christianity (1881); Papers on Godliness (1882); Life and Death (1883); The Salvation Army in Relation to the Church and State (1883); and Popular Christianity (1887). Bibliography: F. St. G. de L. Booth Tucker, The Life of Catherine Booth, 2 vols., London and Chicago, 1892; T. Chappell, Four Noble Women and their Work, ib. 1898. Booth, William BOOTH, WILLIAM: Commander-in-chief of the Salvation Army; b. at Nottingham, England, Apr. 10, 1829. He was educated by a private theological tutor of the Methodist New Connexion Church, and began his career as an open air preacher at the age of fifteen. He entered the ministry of the Methodist New Connexion Church in 1852, and was successively a traveling evangelist and a circuit preacher until 1861, when he left the denomination to devote himself entirely to evangelistic work. In 1865 he founded at London the Christian Mission for the amelioration of the condition of the destitute and vicious population of the eastern portion of London, and this developed, in 1878, into the [478]Salvation Army. He has traveled extensively in the interests of his Army, and has written Salvation Soldiery (1890); In Darkest England and the Way Out (1890); and Religion for Every Day (1902). Bibliography: F. St. G. de L. Booth Tucker, Life of General William Booth, Chicago, 1898; T. F. G. Coates, The Prophet of the Poor; the Life Story of General Booth, London, 1905. Booth Tucker, Emma Moss BOOTH TUCKER, EMMA MOSS: Salvation Army worker; b. at Gateshead, Durham, Jan. 8, 1860; d. near Dean Lake, Mo., Oct. 28, 1903. She was the daughter of [479]William Booth, the founder of the Salvation Army, and from 1880 to 1888 was in charge of the international training homes of that organization. In the latter year, she married Frederick St. George de Lautour Tucker (see the following article), and went with him successively to India and London, whence she came to the United States in 1896. She held the rank of consul in the Salvation Army, and had equal powers with her husband in its control. She died from injuries received in a railroad accident. A volume of selections from her writing has been published under the title The Cross and Our Comfort (London, 1907). Booth Tucker, Frederick St. George de Lautour BOOTH TUCKER, FREDERICK ST. GEORGE DE LAUTOUR: Secretary for Foreign Affairs of the Salvation Army; b. at Monghyr (80 m. e. of Patna), Bengal, Mar. 21, 1853. He was educated at Cheltenham College, England, and passed the examinations for the India Civil Service in 1874. After two years of additional study, he was appointed to the Punjab, where he was successively assistant commissioner and treasury officer. He resigned from the service, however, in 1881 to join the Salvation Army, which he established in India in the following year. He remained in command of the Army there until 1891, when he was transferred to London as secretary for international work. He held this office for five years, and from 1896 to 1904 was commander of the Army in the United States. Since the latter year he has been Secretary for Foreign Affairs of the Salvation Army, with headquarters in London, and is thus responsible to [480]General William Booth for all work of the organization outside of the British Isles. In 1888 he married the daughter of Gen. William Booth (see the preceding article) and subsequently assumed the name of Booth Tucker. He has written In Darkest India and the Way Out (Bombay, 1891); The Life of Catherine Booth (2 vols., Chicago, 1892); Life of General William Booth (1898); and Favorite Songs of the Salvation Army (1899). Booths, Feast of BOOTHS, FEAST OF. See [481]Tabernacles, Feast of. Bora, Katharina von BORA, KATHARINA VON: Luther's wife; b. of an old family of Klein-Laussig, near Bitterfeld in Meissen, Jan. 29, 1499; d. at Torgau Dec. 20, 1552. She was placed in the Cistercian convent of Nimpsch at Grimma (17 m. s.e. of Leipsic) when a child and became a nun in 1515; with the cognizance of Luther she and eight other nuns fled from the convent Apr. 4, 1523, and repaired to Wittenberg. She is said to have refused an offer of marriage from Dr. Kasper Glatz, vicar at Orlamuende, and at the same time to have expressed a preference for Amsdorf or Luther. She was married to the latter June 13, 1525, and bore him six children. She proved a true wife, was a good housekeeper, and the marriage was a happy one. After Luther's death (Feb. 18, 1546) she remained at Wittenberg, much of the time in poverty. Her death was due to an accident which occurred as she was on the way, with her children, to Torgau to escape the plague at Wittenberg. Bibliography: W. Beste, Die Geschichte Katharinas von Bora, Halle, 1843; F. G. Hofmann, Katharina von Bora oder Luther als Gatte und Vater, Leipsic, 1845; A. Stein, Katharina von Bora, Luthers Ehegemahl, Halle, 1897; A. Thoma, Katharina von Bora, Berlin, 1900. Consult also the various biographies of Luther. The chief of the many libels concerning Luther's marriage is Eusebius Engelhard's (Michael Kuen) Lucifer Wittenbergensis, 2 vols., Landsberg, 1747-49. Borborites, Bardelites BORBORITES, BARDELITES. See [482]Gnosticism. Bordelumians BORDELUMIANS: A separatistic sect formed at Bordelum, a village of Sleswick, about 1739, under the leadership of a pietistic Saxon theological student named David Baehr. They originally consisted of fifteen or twenty persons, and claimed to be saints who had advanced further than Paul according to Rom. vii, 24. Since they believed that they had received special gifts from God, they decried the Church as the house of the devil, and despised the sacramants. As being pure, to whom all things were pure, they rejected marriage in favor of free love, and instituted a communism of property for their financial support. An edict of Christian VI, issued June 11, 1739, condemned the leaders to imprisonment; those who had led an immoral life were punished according to the laws, and the remainder were admonished. The leaders managed to escape the punishment, however, Baehr, who had seduced a married woman, fleeing to Jena. Expelled from that city, he returned to Holstein, and was imprisoned at Glueckstadt. Having become a cripple in consequence of the rough treatment to which he had been subjected in prison, he was released, and died wretchedly, still unconverted, at Bredstaedt in 1743. His adherents caused much trouble to the pastor of Bordelum. Paul Tschackert. Bibliography: Acta historico-ecclesiastica, vol. v, part 29, p. 653 sqq., and Supplement, pp. 1014 sqq., 20 vols., Weimar, 1734-38, continued in 13 vols., till 1790. Bordier, Henri Leonard BORDIER, bOr''dye', HENRI LEONARD: Reformed Church of France; b. in Paris Aug. 8, 1817; d. there Aug. 31, 1888. He was educated at the Ecole de Droit and the Ecole des Chartes in Paris, and licensed in law and as paleographic archivist in 1840; thereafter he devoted himself to historical studies. He was successively assistant to the historian Augustin Thierry; assistant in the Academy of Inscriptions; secretary par interim of the Ecole des Chartes; a member of the commission on the departmental archives of the minister of the interior (1846); archivist of the national archives (1850), and dismissed on the establishment of the Empire. He was, during the siege of Paris, on the commission upon the papers of the Tuileries; and in 1872 was nominated honorary librarian in the department of manuscripts in the Bibliotheque Nationale. He was for many years on the committee of the Societe d'Histoire du Protestantisme Franc,ais, and prepared numerous works, noted for their accuracy. Among them may be mentioned: various notices in the Bibliotheque de l'Ecole des Chartes (Paris, 1841-86); Histoire generale de tous les depots d'archives existant en France (1855); Les Eglises et monasteres de Paris (1856); an edition of the Libri miraculorum aliaque opera minora of Gregory of Tours, Latin text with French translation (4 vols., 1857-64); a French translation of the Historia Francorum of Gregory of Tours (2 vols., 1859-61); Les Inventaires des archives de l'Empire (1867); Une Fabrique de faux autographes (1869); Chansonnier huguenot du seizieme siecle (1869); L'Allemagne aux Tuileries, de 1850 `a 1870, collection de documents tires du cabinet de l'Empereur (1872); La Saint-Barthelemy et la critique moderne (Geneva, 1879); L'Ecole historique de Jerome Bolsec (Paris, 1880); Nicolas Castellin de Tournay, refugie `a Geneve, 1564-1576 (1881); Description des peintures et autres ornements contenus dans les manuscrits grecs de la Bibliotheque Nationale (1885). With E. Charton he published in 1860: Histoire de France d'apres les documents originaux et les monuments de l'art de chaque epoque. At the time of his death he was engaged upon a new and enlarged edition of the brothers Eugene and Emile Haag's La France protestante (originally 12 vols., Paris, 1845-59), and had brought out the first five volumes (1877-86). Boreel, Adam BOREEL, bo''rel', ADAM: Preacher and sectary; b. at Middelburg, in Zealand, 1603; d. in Amsterdam 1666. He was pastor of a Reformed congregation, but resigned his office, and became the leader of a separatistic party, which acknowledged no other religious authority than the Scripture. His work, Ad legem et testimonium (1645), attracted great attention. Here he developed that the written word of God, without any human commentary, was the sole means of awakening faith; that the Church had fallen completely away from the Lord; that the Christian ought to shun all connection with the Established Church, and confine himself to his private devotion, etc. His minor writings, fifteen in number, were collected at Amsterdam, 1683. His followers, known as Boreelists, never attained to much importance. Bornemann, Friedrich Wilhelm Bernhard BORNEMANN, bOr'ne-m??n, FRIEDRICH WILHELM BERNHARD: German Lutheran theologian; b. at Lueneburg (68 m. n.n.e. of Hanover) Mar. 2, 1858. He was educated at the universities of Goettingen (Ph.D., 1879) and Leipsic, and was successively tutor at Bremen (1879) and Medingen (1880). Two years later he became inspector of the seminary at Goettingen, and in 1884 was privat-docent for church history in the same university. In 1886 he was appointed inspector of the seminary for theological candidates at Magdeburg, where he became professor in the following year. From 1898 to 1902 he was professor of theology at Basel, and since the latter year has been pastor of the Luther Church at Frankfort. His works include In investiganda monachatus origine quibus de causis ratio habenda sit Origenis (Goettingen,1886); Die Unzulaenglichkeit des theologischen Studiums (Leipsic, 1886; anonymous); Kirchenideale und Kirchenreformen (1887); Schulandachten (Berlin, 1889); Bittere Wahrheiten (5th ed., Goettingen,1891); Unterricht im Christentum (1891); Die Thessalonicherbriefe (1894; in Kritisch-exegetischer Kommentar ueber das Neue Testament); Historische und praktische Theologie (Basel, 1898); Die Allegorie in Kunst, Wissenschaft und Kirche (Freiburg, 1899); Einfuehrung in die evangelische Missionskunde (Tuebingen, 1902); and Bete und Arbeite! (Leipsic, 1904; a collection of sermons). He likewise translated the "Confessions" of St. Augustine (Gotha, 1889). Bornhaeuser, Karl Bernhard BORNHAEUSER, bOrn-hoi'zer, KARL BERNHARD: German Lutheran; b. at Mannheim (43 m. s.w. of Frankfort) May 19, 1868. He was educated at the universities of Halle and Greifswald, and was pastor at Sinsheim (1890-94) and Carlsruhe (1894-1902). In 1902 he became associate professor of systematic and practical theology at Greifswald, and in 1905-06 was also assistant to the professor of practical theology at Halle. Became professor of systematic and practical theology at Marburg, 1907. He has written Vergottungslehre des Athanasius und Johannes Damascenus (Guetersloh, 1903); and Wollte Jesus die Heidenmission? (1903). Bornholmers BORNHOLMERS: Danish sect of the nineteenth century. During the first part of the century different parts of Sweden were permeated with sects which emphasized the gospel of the free and unmerited grace of God in Christ. About 1805 the Nya Laesare ("New Readers") originated in the congregation at Piteaa in Norrbotten, deviating from the old Laesare, who adhered to the Lutheran doctrines, by asserting that saving faith may be found in those whose hearts are still attached to sin and the world, and by regarding the importance attributed to the law as a temptation to pharisaical self-righteousness. In the course of time this party, headed by a soldier named Erik Stalberg, broke with the State Church, and finally the "New Readers" declared that the ministers of the latter preached the doctrine of the devil. In the fifth decade of the century, the Finnish preacher Frederik Gabriel Hedberg, afterward provost and preacher at Kimito in the archbishopric of Abo, evolved similar views in a work on "Pietism and Christianity," in which he accused Spener and his followers of teaching that man must be holy and pure before he can rely on the unmerited grace in Christ, whereas Hedberg seems to have regarded man as a soul hungering for grace, but utterly unable to aid himself in the attainment of salvation. In 1846 a party of Hedbergians was formed at Stockholm and Helsingland which rejected all preaching of repentance. A like tendency was manifested by the sect headed by Karl Olof Rosenius (b. 1816; d. 1868), who had been greatly influenced by the Methodist George Scott, who labored in the Swedish capital. Rosenius, who sought to remain a true Lutheran throughout his life, emphasized the grace of God in Christ. His sermons and his magazine, which he entitled Pietisten, although he was opposed to the legalism of the Pietists, exercised an important influence on the religious life of Sweden. Hedbergianism and the writings of Rosenius gave rise between 1850 and 1870 to a new evangelical party in many parts of Sweden, whose sole dogma was the forgiveness of sins without merit of the sinner, and whose watchword, "the world is justified in Christ," won them many proselytes not only in Sweden and Norway, but also in the American Synod of Missouri. The new evangelism found a fertile soil in the Danish island of Bornholm (in the Baltic Sea, 90 m. e. of Zealand), which became the center of propaganda for a part of Denmark. The movement was inaugurated by P. C. Trandberg, a powerful preacher of repentance, who had broken with the State Church, and by 1863 had gathered about him almost a thousand followers. Trandberg sent out laypreachers, and the "Bornholmers," as they were called, were soon found in North Zealand, Copenhagen, Lolland, Falster, and West Jutland. His adherents gradually lost confidence in him, however, and in 1877 he resigned. Later he became professor in the Dano-Norwegian department of Chicago Theological Seminary and died in 1896. As a rule, the Bornholmers are pious and earnest, and their antinomistic theory usually becomes nomistic, and even quasipietistic in practise, thus forming a bond of union between them and the "Inner Mission" in Denmark, and making them one of the means to awaken spiritual life in many of the Danish people. F. Nielsen. Borowski, Ludwig Ernst von BOROWSKI, bo-rov'ski, LUDWIG ERNST VON: A prominent Prussian evangelical preacher; b. at Koenigsberg June 17, 1740, of a well-to-do Polish family which had emigrated on account of its religion; d. in Berlin Nov. 10, 1831. In his fourteenth year he went to the University of Koenigsberg, where he was one of Kant's earliest pupils, practised oratory, and showed an inclination toward literature. His theological convictions were not influenced by Kant, despite a lasting personal devotion, but rather by the supernaturalist school. In 1758 Kant recommended him to General von Knobloch as a tutor in his family; but before long Field-marshal von Kunheim, impressed by Borowski's oratorical gifts, urged him to become a military chaplain. This career he finally took up in 1762, being ordained by Suessmilch, and joining his regiment in the camp at Sorau soon afterward. He remained with the army until 1770, when Suesamilch had him appointed superintendent of the district of Schaaken in East Prussia. Here he labored diligently for twelve years, until he was called to a pastoral charge in his native town. The development of his preaching powers and theological knowledge won him increasing prominence; in 1793 the king appointed him a member of the special commission on churches and schools, and he received the title of consistorial councilor in 1804. When the storms of war burst over Germany, he rose to the height of the occasion, and his eloquent exhortations had a deep effect on Frederick William III and his queen, who resided in Koenigsberg from 1807 to 1809. The king's warm affection and respect continued to be shown through the years that followed. In 1812 he made Borowski general superintendent, in 1815 first court preacher, in 1816 a bishop, and in 1829 archbishop of the Prussian Evangelical Church. These last years of his life, old as he was, were full of incessant activity; he was president of the Bible Society and of the Missionary Union founded in 1822. Outside of his preaching, however, he gave more thought to the training of his candidates for ordination than to anything else, and even in the wanderings of his last illness his mind was occupied with them. (Hermann Hering.) Bibliography: Selected sermons and lectures, with sketches of his activities by von Kahle and E. Oesterreich, were published by his grandson, K. L. Volkmann, Koenigsberg, 1833. Consult also ADB, iii, 177. Borrhaus, Martin (Cellarius) BORRHAUS, MARTIN (generally known as CELLARIUS): German theologian; b. at Stuttgart 1499; d. at Basel Oct. 11, 1564. Being educated and adopted by his kinsman Simon Cellarius, he called himself Cellarius until about forty years of age, although the name of his parents seems to have been Burress or Borrhus. In 1515 he was made magister artium at Tuebingen, where he became intimately acquainted with Melanchthon, two years his senior. He was made bachelor of theology under Reuchlin at Ingolstadt in 1521, and became a friend of Marcus Stuebner at Wittenberg. The eight sermons delivered by Luther after his return from the Wartburg impressed Cellarius deeply, but his zeal in defense of Stuebner was such that he left Wittenberg, where he had treated Luther with rudeness, and went to Switzerland, whence he traveled by way of Austria and Poland to Prussia, which had just embraced the Evangelical faith. There he was tried, and required to sign a bond in which he promised to return at once to Wittenberg. His interview with Luther in 1526 filled the latter with respect for Cellarius, who now settled in southern Germany, winning the hearts of Capito and Butzer in Strasburg. In 1527 he published his first work, De operibus Dei, and in 1544 he was appointed professor of the Old Testament at Basel, where, in collaboration with Castello and Curio, he composed a polemical treatise under the name of Martin Bellius, directed against Calvin in the Servetus controversy. He rejected infant baptism, but was a firm believer in predestination. Carl Albrecht Bernoulli. Bibliography: ADB, iii (1876), 381; E. Egli, Zwingliana, i, 30-31, Zurich, 1904; C. Gerbert, Geschichte der Strassburger Sektenbewegung zur Zeit der Reformation, 1524-34, Strasburg, 1889. References will be found in the lives of the Reformers Luther, Melanchthon, Butzer, Zwingli. Borromeo, Carlo BORROMEO, CARLO: Italian prelate and reformer; b. at Arona (on the s.w. shore of Lago Maggiore, 37 m. n.w. of Milan) Oct. 2, 1538; d. at Milan Nov. 3, 1584. He was the nephew of Giovanni Angelo Medici (afterward Pope Pius IV), and even in his boyhood showed an inclination for the priesthood, receiving his first benefice at the age of twelve through the resignation of an uncle. Four years later he went to Pavia, where he studied law, and had just taken his degree in 1559, when the newly elected Pius IV invited him to Rome. His rise was extraordinary, and at the age of twenty-two he was a cardinal and the archbishop of Milan. When the Council of Trent was reopened on Jan. 18, 1562, Borromeo used his influence in securing the sharp formulation of questions relating to discipline and faith. He also governed the Romagna and the March, both of which had been added to the papal dominions in the course of the fifteenth century. In foreign politics nothing took place without him and he was also an active member of the Congregation of the Inquisition, besides being the protector of the Franciscans, the Knights of Malta, and the Carmelites. He could maintain such an activity, however, only while he lived at Rome; conforming to the decision of the Council which required all bishops to reside in their own dioceses, he removed to Milan, where he had already prepared a house for the Jesuits, who acted as his instruments in reorganizing his diocese of Milan. Borromeo's activity here had scarcely begun when Pius IV died, but his successor Pius V assisted the archbishop in the reorganization of the largest of the Italian dioceses, which was to be a model for all. Borromeo founded seminaries for the better education of the clergy in the strictest ecclesiastical spirit, and also introduced rigid church discipline, beginning with the clergy; his efforts to popularize synodical work and to improve the existing orders, as well as his introduction of others, such as the Theatines, into Italy were all designed to further the same object. In revenge, some degenerate monks who had been affected by his reform, planned his murder, but by a miracle, as it was claimed, he escaped the bullet of his would-be assassins. Hand in hand with the reform within the Church went a merciless severity against every form of "heresy" in Lombardy, the Valtellina, and the Engadine, as well as against "witches" in Valcamonica. During the plague of 1576 he heroically cared for the sick and buried the dead, while the officials fled in terror from the city. His statue near Arona still recalls the memory of Borromeo, who became, by his canonization in 1610, the saint of the Counter reformation. K. Benrath. Bibliography: The Opera omnia appeared in Milan, 1747. The earlier biographies are antiquated by the works of A. Sala: Documenti circa la vita e le opere di San C. Borromeo, 3 vols., Milan, 1857-61, and Biografia di C. Borromeo, ib. 1858; The Life of St. Charles Borromeo, ed. E. H. Thompson, London, 1858, new ed., 1893; St. Charles and his Fellow Labourers, ib. 1869; C. Sylvain, Histoire de S. Charles Borromee, 3 vols., ib. 1884; C. Camenisch, Carlo Borromeo und die Gegenreformation im Veltlin, Chur, 1901; E. Wymann, Der heilige Karl Borromeo, Stans, 1903. Borrow, George (Henry) BORROW, GEORGE (HENRY): English adventurer and writer; b. at East Dereham (15 m. w.n.w. of Norwich), Norfolk, July 5, 1803; d. at Oulton (15 m. s.e. of Norwich), Suffolk, July 26, 1881. His boyhood was unsettled, his father, a soldier, moving about the country with his regiment. In 1819 he was articled to a solicitor at Norwich, but abandoned the work, went to London, and lived as a hack writer for the publishers. Then he took to wandering about England, and visited France, Spain, and Italy. In 1833 he was sent by the British and Foreign Bible Society to St. Petersburg to superintend the publication of a Manchu translation of the New Testament (published in eight volumes, 1835); he continued in the service of the Society, most of the time in Spain, till 1840. Then he married and adopted a more settled life in England. He had much aptitude for languages and acquired a knowledge, though not scientific, of many tongues, being particularly noted for his acquaintance with the Romany, the dialect of the Gipsies, with whom he associated much both on his wanderings and after his return to England. He published a Romany word-book (London, 1874), translations, and romances which tell the story of his life with more or less fiction interwoven. He edited a translation of the New Testament into Spanish (Madrid, 1837) and translated the Gospel of Luke into the dialect of tile Gitanos (Spanish Gipsies; 1837) and into Basque (1838). Complete editions of his works were published in five volumes in London and New York. The best known of them are The Zincali; or an Account of the Gipsies in Spain (2 vols., London, 1841) and The Bible in Spain (3 vols., 1843). Bibliography: W. I. Knapp, The Life, Writings, and Correspondence of George Borrow, 2 vols., London, 1899; W. A. Dutt, George Borrow in East Anglia, ib. 1896; DNB, v, 407-408. Boschi, Giulio BOSCHI, bos'ki, GIULIO: Cardinal; b. at Perugia, Italy, Mar. 2, 1838. He was educated in his native city and completed his studies at Rome, where he became the secretary of Cardinal Pecci (afterward Pope Leo XIII) in 1861. In 1888 he was consecrated bishop of Todi, and seven years later was translated to the see of Sinigaglia. In 1900 he was elevated to the archbishopric of Ferrara, and in the following year was created cardinal priest of S. Lorenzo in Panisperna. Bosnia and Herzegovina BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA: Two provinces of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. Previous to the Treaty of Berlin (1878) they formed the extreme northwestern part of Turkey in Europe, but since 1908 they have been part of Austria. Bosnia has the Hungarian and Austrian provinces of Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia on the north and west, Servia to the east, and to the south Herzegovina, which is bounded on the east by Montenegro and on the south and west by Dalmatia. The capital is Sarajevo in Bosnia, the chief town and former capital of Herzegovina, Mostar. The area is about 16,200 and 3,500 miles respectively; the population (1896) 1,591,036, of whom 219,511 are credited to Herzegovina. The natives are nearly all Slavs of the Servian branch. The number of foreigners living in the land is estimated at 71,000, most of them having entered the country since the Austrian occupation. The religious statistics for 1895 were as follows: Greek-Orientals, 673,246 (43 per cent.); Mohammedans, 548,632 (35 per cent.); Roman Catholics, 334,142 (21 per cent.); Jews, 8,213; other religions (mostly Protestants), 3,859. The Mohammedans, in the main converts from Christianity since the Turkish conquest in the fifteenth century, are not of the most rigid kind, although they made a brave stand against the Austrian government. They are the landed proprietors of the country and merchants in the towns. They are under the Sheik ul Islam in Constantinople and a Rais al Ulama in Sarajevo. They have a large endowment fund for mosques, schools, hospitals, and the like, which is now administered under government supervision. The free exercise of their religion is guaranteed to them. The Roman Catholics are descendants of the older population and constitute the larger number of the artisans in the cities and the farmers. They are most numerous in the districts of Travnik and Mostar. The Franciscans have been active among them since the thirteenth century and have done much for them. Their condition has much improved since the Austrian occupation. There is an archbishop of Bosnia, who since 1881 has resided at Sarajevo, and there are suffragan bishops of Banjaluka, Mostar and Duvno, and Marcana and Trebinje. The provincial seminary is at Banjaluka, where there are also four schools for boys and four for girls and an orphan asylum under the charge of Trappist monks. The adherents of the Greek Church are under the patriarch of Constantinople and the metropolitans of Sarajevo, Dolnja Tuzla, and Mostar. They are most numerous in the north, are farmers and traders, and are inferior to both the Latins and Mohammedans in education. Less than ten per cent. of the entire population can read or write, and the church schools are poor. Public schools are being established and there are three higher schools (two gymnasia and a Realschule), ten trade schools, and a normal school. Bibliography: The church statistics are included in those for [483]Austria. Consult: V. Klais, Geschichte Bosniens bis zum Zerfall des Koenigreichs, Leipsic, 1885; Bosniens Gegenwart und naechste Zukunft, Leipsic, 1886; Die Lage der Mohammedaner in Bosnien, Vienna, 1900 (answered by Kallay und Bosnien-Herzegovina, Budapest, 1900). Boso BOSO: Third English cardinal; d. after 1178. His name was Boso Breakspear and he was a nephew of Pope Adrian IV (Nicholas Breakspear). He belonged to the Benedictine monastery of St. Albans, but went to Rome probably under Eugenius III. From Nov. 6, 1149, to May 3, 1152, he calls himself Romanae ecclesiae scriptor. Adrian IV made him his chamberlain early in his pontificate, probably therefore in 1154, and later made him cardinal deacon of Sts. Cosmas and Damian; under Alexander III he became cardinal priest of St. Pudentiana. With the latter title his signature appears to a number of papal bulls from March 18, 1166, to July 10, 1178, soon after which he appears to have died. He was a strong supporter of the policy of Adrian and Alexander. He wrote nine poetical lives of female saints, which are still in manuscript and was a poet of considerable merit. For the papal biographies composed by him see [484]Liber Pontificalis. Bibliography: The sources for a life are in Thietmar of Merseburg, Chronicon, MGH, Script., iii (1839), 750. Consult Migne, Encyclopedie theologique, vol. xxxi, Dictionnaire des Cardinaux, s.v.; T. Greenwood, Cathedra Petri, London, 1856; DNB, v, 421; KL, ii, 1129-30. Consult also the biographies of Adrian IV and Alexander III. Bosse, Friedrich BOSSE, FRIEDRICH: German Lutheran; b. at Rossla (38 m. w. of Halle) Aug. 23, 1864. He was educated at the universities of Tuebingen, Berlin (Ph.D., 1886), Marburg, Heidelberg, and Greifswald, completing his studies in 1890. In the following year he became privat-docent at the University of Greifswald, and from 1892 to 1894 was provisional professor in Koenigsberg. In the latter year he was appointed associate professor of church history at Kiel, and five years later returned in a similar capacity to Greifswald, where he still remains. He has written Prolegomena zu einer Geschichte des Begriffes "Nachfolge Christi" (Berlin, 1895). Bossuet, Jacques Benigne BOSSUET, bos''sue''e', JACQUES BENIGNE: Bishop of Meaux (about 27 m. e.n.e. of Paris); b. at Dijon Sept. 27, 1627; d. in Paris Apr. 12, 1704. He began his studies in the Jesuit school of Dijon, and finished at the College de Navarre, Paris. He became priest and doctor of theology, 1652; after some time spent in retirement at St. Lazare, he went to Metz, where he was canon and archdeacon, acquired great fame as a preacher, and engaged in controversy with representatives of the Reformed Churches. At the request of his bishop he published his first work (1655), a Refutation of the catechism of [485]Paul Ferry. In 1669 he was made bishop of Condom, Gascony, but resigned this office after he was appointed tutor to the dauphin (1670). When the education of his pupil was finished, in 1681, he was made bishop of Meaux. Bossuet adopted the Cartesian philosophy, to which he added the Thomist theology and a great admiration for Augustine. He is generally considered the foremost of French preachers; and, in so far as the art of eloquence is concerned, his six Oraisons funebres (best collected eds., by Lequeux, Paris, 1762, and, with notes, etc., by A. Gaste, 1883) must be ranked among the finest specimens of Christian oratory, though they reflect the splendor and greatness of Louis Quatorze more vividly than the power and humility of the Gospel. As tutor to the dauphin he wrote De la connaissance de Dieu et de soi-meme (1722; better ed., 1741) and Discours sur l'histoire universelle depuis le commencement du monde jusqu'o l'empire de Charlemagne (1681; 5th ed., enlarged, 1703; the continuation to 1661, published 1806, was printed from his notes), the latter of which is a strikingly original attempt to construct a Christian philosophy of history on the principle that the destinies of nations are controlled by providence in the interest of the Roman Catholic Church. Among his controversial writings against the Protestants, the two most remarkable are Exposition de la doctrine de l'Eglise catholique sur les matieres de controverse (1671) and Histoire des variations des Eglises protestantes (2 vols., 1688; best ed., 4 vols., 1689). The latter was sharply criticized by Jurieu and Basnage, and involved its author in a long and vehement controversy. He characterized the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) as "le plus bel usage de l'autorite," but he was no ultramontanist. He presided in 1682 over the assembly of the French clergy which the king had convened to defend the royal prerogatives and the liberties of the Gallican Church against the claims of the pope. Nor was he in the least tainted by mysticism. His attacks on Fenelon and the Quietists approached very near to persecution. He was one of the greatest of the many distinguished men who lent brilliancy to the century of Louis XIV, but he was a representative of his time, and his ideas of church polity corresponded to, if they were not dictated by, the king's "l'etat, c'est moi." Bibliography: There have been many editions of his works; the basis of most of them is that prepared by the Abbe Perau, at government expense, 20 vols., Paris, 1743-1750; three volumes of OEuvres posthumes, ed. by C. F. Leroy were published in 1753; the best edition is the OEuvres completes, by F. Lechat and others, 31 vols., 1862-66; with appendix of oeuvres inedites, 2 vols., 1881-1883. Besides many single sermons accessible in English translation, the following works may be mentioned: Select Sermons and Funeral Orations, 1801; A Survey of Universal History, 1819; A Conference [between Bossuet and J. Claude, Mar. 1, 1679] on the Authority of the Church, London, 1841; An Exposition of the Doctrine of the Catholic Faith, 1841; Elevations to God, 1850; The History of the Variations of the Protestant Churches, 2 vols., Dublin, 1836; Meditations, London, 1901. For a bibliography consult H. M. Bourseaud, Histoire et description des MSS. et des editions originales des ouvrages de Bossuet, Paris 1898 (includes translations). For his life and writings and his relations to Fenelon, Jansenism, Quietism, etc., consult: L. F. de Bausset, Histoire de Jacques Benigne Bossuet, 4 vols., Paris, 1814, Besanc,on, 1846; M. M. Tabaraud, Supplement aux histoires de Bossuet . . . compose par . . . de Bausset, Paris, 1822; F. le Dieu (his secretary), Memoires et journal sur la vie et les ouvrages de Bossuet, 4 vols., ib. 1856-57; A. Reaume, Histoire de J.-B. Bossuet et de ses oeuvres, 3 vols., ib. 1869; Mrs. H. L. (Farrer) Lear, Bossuet and his Contemporaries, London, 1874; C A. Sainte-Beuve, Essays on Men and Women, ib. 1890; R. de la Broise, Bossuet et la Bible, Paris, 1891; G. Lanson, Bossuet, ib. 1891 (a study of the writings); A. Rebelliau, Bossuet, historien du protestantisme, ib. 1891; Sir J. F. Stephen, Horae Sabbaticae, vol. ii, London, 1892; C. E. Freppel, Bossuet et l'eloquence sacree au xvii, sicele, Paris, 1893; J. Denis, Querelle de Bossuet et de Fenlon, ib. 1894; L. Crousle, Fenelon et Bossuet. Etudes morales et litteraires, 2 vols., ib. 1894-95; A. M. P. Ingod, Bossuet et jansenisme, ib.1897. Bost, Paul Ami Isaac David BOST, PAUL AMI ISAAC DAVID: Swiss evangelist; b. at Geneva June 10, 1790; d. at La Force (6 m. w. of Bergerac), France, Dec. 14, 1874. He devoted four years to theology at the University of Geneva, but gained little spiritual profit from his studies, and was ordained in 1814 in a spirit of empty formalism. In 1816 he accepted a call as assistant pastor at Moutiers-Granval in the Canton of Bern, where he remained two years, ascribing to this period his firm belief in the doctrines of grace and justification. A parish proved too small for his energies, however, and in 1818, under the auspices of the "London Continental Society," he began the missionary journeys which were to occupy almost thirty-five years of his life. After the first of these trips, he withdrew from the Church of Geneva, and in the following year was in Colmar. He was expelled from France, however, and began a roving life, oppressed by poverty and burdened with a large family, yet preaching in Offenbach, Frankfort, Hanau, Friedrichsdorf, and Carlsruhe. In 1825-26 Bost was in Geneva as the pastor of the free church of Bourg-de-Four. In answer to the attacks of the State Church, he published his Defense de ceux des fideles de Geneve qui se sont constitues en eglises independantes (Geneva, 1825), charging the national Church with abandoning the Gospel and adopting Arianism. He was accordingly tried for slander, but was acquitted, although he was fined 500 francs for his libelous statements regarding the "Compagnie des pasteurs." Despite the fact that this trial marked a union of the divergent elements of the Free Church, Bost resigned his pastorate at Bourg-de-Four and founded a new congregation at Carouge near Geneva, which he dissolved after two years in favor of a more diversified activity, establishing the religious and political magazine L'Esperance in 1838. Two years later he successfully sought readmission to the clergy of Geneva, without retracting any of his views. After a brief pastorate at Asnieres and Bourges in France, he was appointed chaplain of the prison of the Maison Centrale at Melun, where he remained until 1848, then living successively at Geneva, Nimes, Neuchatel, Jersey, and Paris, and spending his last years at La Force. The chief works of Bost, who also gained a certain amount of reputation as a writer of hymns, are as follows: Geneve religieuse (Geneva, 1819); Histoire des freres moraves (2 vols., 1831; abridged Eng. transl., London, 1834); Sur la primaute de Pierre et son Episcopat (3 pamphlets, 1832); Histoire generale de l'etablissement du Christianisme (a revised translation of Blumhardt's Versuch einer allgemeinen Missionsgeschichte der Kirche Christi, 4 vols., Valence, 1838); Les propetes protestants (Melun, 1847); and Memoires pouvant servir `a l'histoire du reveil religieux (Paris, 1854-55). (E. Barde.) Bibliography: E. Guers, Premier reveil `a Geneve, Paris, 1871; Lichtenberger, ESR, ii, 373-374. Boston, Thomas BOSTON, THOMAS: Church of Scotland; b. at Dunse (13 m. w. of Berwick-upon-Tweed), Berwickshire, Mar. 17, 1677; d. at Ettrick (40 m. s. of Edinburgh), Selkirkshire, May 20, 1732. He studied at the University of Edinburgh; became minister at Simprin, Berwickshire, 1699; at Ettrick, 1707. By circulating the Marrow of Modern Divinity among his friends he started the [486]Marrow Controversy. He wrote much and has exercised great influence in the Presbyterian Churches both of Scotland and England. The works by which he is now best known are Human Nature in its Fourfold State of Primitive Integrity, Entire Depravation, Begun Recovery, and Consummate Happiness or Misery (Edinburgh, 1720), commonly called "Boston's Fourfold State"; The Sovereignty and Wisdom of God Displayed in the Afflictions of Men (1737; reprinted as The Crook in the Lot, with memoir, Glasgow, 1863). He left an autobiography published as Memoirs (Edinburgh, 1776; ed. G. H. Morrison, 1899), and printed from Boston's manuscript, with introduction, notes, and bibliography by G. L. Low, under the title General Account of my Life (Edinburgh, 1907). His Whole Works edited by S. McMillan were published in twelve volumes at Aberdeen in 1848-52. Bibliography: Besides the autobiography mentioned above, consult: A. `a Wood, Athenae Oxonienses, ed. P. Bliss, iii, 407-409, 4 vols., Oxford, London, 1813-20; Jean L. Watson, Life and Times of Thomas Boston, Edinburgh, 1883; A. Thomson, Thomas Boston, London, 1895; DNB, v, 424-426. Bottome, Margaret (McDonald) BOTTOME, MARGARET (McDONALD): Founder of the King's Daughters; b. in New York City Dec. 29, 1827; d. there Nov. 14, 1906. She was educated at a private school in Brooklyn, and in 1850 married the Rev. Frank Bottome. She had already become interested in religious and philanthropic work, and in 1876 began to give Bible talks in the homes of prominent New York women, continuing them for twenty-five years. In 1886 she organized the order of King's Daughters, basing her system on Edward Everett Hale's Ten Times One is Ten. In the following year the society was enlarged to include men, and the name was changed to the present International Order of the King's Daughters and Sons. In 1896 she was elected president of the women's branch of the International Medical Mission. She was also an associate editor of the The Ladies' Home Journal, and in addition to a few pamphlets and a large number of contributions to religious magazines wrote The Guest Chamber (New York, 1893); Crumbs from the King's Table (1894); and A Sunshine Trip to the Orient (1897). Boudinot, Elias BOUDINOT, bu''di''nO', ELIAS: American man of affairs and philanthropist; b. at Philadelphia May 2, 1740; d. at Burlington, N. J., Oct. 24, 1821. He was a lawyer and eminent in his profession; represented New Jersey in the Continental Congress 1778-79 and 1781-84, was chosen president in 1782, and, as such, signed the treaty of peace with Great Britain; he was member of the first three national congresses, and director of the United States mint 1795-1805. He was a member of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (1812-21), and first president of the American Bible Society (1816-21). He was wealthy and gave liberally for philanthropic purposes during his life and in his will. He wrote The Age of Revelation; or the age of reason shown to be an age of infidelity (Philadelphia, 1801), in reply to Thomas Paine; The Second Advent or Coming of the Messiah in Glory shown to be a scriptural doctrine and taught by divine revelation (Trenton, N. J., 1815); and A Star in the West; or a humble attempt to discover the long lost tribes of Israel (1816), in which he advocated the view that the American Indians are the ten lost tribes. He also published anonymously in the Evangelical Intelligencer for 1806 a memoir of William Tennent (reprinted New York, 1847). His Journal or Historical Recollections of American Events during the Revolutionary War was printed at Philadelphia in 1894. Bibliography: The Life, Public Services, Addresses, and Letters of Elias Boudinot, edited by Jane J. Boudinot, 2 vols., Boston, 1896. Bouhours, Dominique BOUHOURS, bu''hur', DOMINIQUE: Jesuit; b. in Paris May 15, 1628; d. there May 27, 1702. He entered the Society of Jesus at sixteen, and acquired such renown as a teacher that the young Longueville princes and the son of Colbert were put under his care. Besides a number of biographical and other works, he made (with two other Jesuits, Tellier and Bernier) a translation of the New Testament from the Vulgate into French (Paris, 1697-1703). Bouquet, Martin BOUQUET, bu''ke', MARTIN: Benedictine of St. Maur; b. at Amiens Aug. 6, 1685, d. in Paris Apr. 6, 1754. He entered the Benedictine order at St. Faron, Meaux, in 1706, and was ordained priest. His knowledge of Hebrew and Greek secured his appointment as special assistant to Montfaucon in his editorial labors. When the great edition of the Scriptores rerum Gallicarum et Francicarum came to be made (it had been projected by Colbert as early as 1676, and was entrusted to the Benedictines of St. Maur in 1723), he was placed in charge of it. Difficulties were encountered owing to his opposition to the bull Unigenitus, which caused the king to banish him from Paris; but he succeeded in preparing the first eight volumes for publication (1738-52). Other members of the congregation brought out five more after his death (1757-86). Interrupted by the Revolution, the work was taken up again by the Institute, and later by the Academy of Inscriptions, by whom ten more volumes were published in the nineteenth century. Bouquin, Pierre (Petrus Boquinus) BOUQUIN, bu''kaaa', PIERRE (PETRUS BOQUINUS): French Calvinist; b. either in the province of Saintonge or in that of Guienne; d. at Lausanne 1582. The first certain date in his life is his taking the degree of doctor of theology at the university of Bourges Apr. 23, 1539. He was a Carmelite monk at Bourges and rose to be prior; but, embracing the Reformation, he left his monastery in 1541 and went first to Basel, then to Leipsic and Wittenberg, where he had letters to Luther and Melanchthon. The latter recommended him to Butzer when a theologian was required to continue the lectures which Calvin had delivered in Strasburg. Here he began to lecture on Galatians in September, 1542. Later he returned to Bourges, where he lectured on Hebrew and the Scriptures, gaining protection and a pension from Margaret of Navarre, and being allowed by the archbishop to preach in the cathedral. The Protestant leaders, Calvin, Farel, and Beza, seem to have suspected him of intending to desert the Reformation; but his teaching brought him again into conflict with the Roman authorities, and he left Bourges once more for Strasburg in 1555. Here he remained until the elector Otto Henry appointed him in 1557 to a provisional professorship in the University of Heidelberg, which was made permanent the next year. In the internal dissensions of Protestantism he took an increasingly decided Calvinistic stand, and in the reign of Frederick III was thus the only Heidelberg theologian to retain his position, and was made head of the faculty and a member of the new Reformed church council (1560). This period of prosperity ended, however, with the death of Frederick III, after which he was deprived of his position (1577), and became, a year later, professor and preacher at Lausanne. His numerous works are mainly polemical treatises against the Lutherans and Roman Catholics. (E. F. Karl Mueller.) Bibliography: Biographical materiel is found in his Brevis notatio . . . de coena domini, pp. 140-179, Heidelberg, 1582. Consult further: M. Adam, Vitae eruditorum, ii, 72 sqq., Heidelberg, 1706; E. and E. Haag, La France protestante, ed. H. L. Bordier, ii, 875 sqq., Paris, 1879. Bourdaloue, Louis BOURDALOUE, bur''d??''lu', LOUIS: Jesuit preacher; b. at Bourges Aug. 20, 1632; d. in Paris May 13,1704. He was for some time a teacher in literature and philosophy; in 1665 he was sent to preach in the provinces, in 1669 was recalled to Paris; after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, he was sent to Languedoc to preach to the Protestants; his last years he devoted to the service of the poor and unfortunate in Paris. As a man he was justly esteemed and loved; as a preacher his strength is in the clearness of his argument, its readiness and its cogency. The first edition of his works was edited by Bretonneau (16 vols., Paris, 1707-34); a good recent edition is that of Lille, 1882 (6 vols.). Bibliography: L. Pauthe, Bourdaloue, d'apres les documents nouveaux, Paris, 1900; A. Feugere, Bourdaloue, sa predication et son temps, ib. 1874; M Lauras, Bourdaloue, sa vie et ses oeuvres, 2 vols., ib. 1881; E. de Menorval, Bourdaloue, Paris, 1897; F. Castets, La Vie et la predication d'un religieux au xvii. siecle, vol. i, Montpellier, 1901. Bourignon, de la Porte, Antoinette BOURIGNON, bu''ri''nyen', DE LA PORTE, ANTOINETTE: Fanatical enthusiast; b. at Ryssel (Lille), then in the Spanish Netherlands, Jan. 13, 1616; d. at Franeker, Friesland, Oct. 30, 1680. She grew up neglected and solitary on account of a facial deformity, afterward removed by an operation, and came to love isolation and communion with God. For a time her older sister drew her into the world; but she shrank from marriage, and once thought she heard the voice of God asking her, "Canst thou find a lover more perfect than I?" She thought of becoming a Carmelite, but concluded that the true Christians were not to be found in the cloisters, and sought another way to leave the world. Her father tried to force a marriage upon her in 1636; she fled in a male disguise, and after many romantic adventures was brought home, but took refuge at Mons under the protection of the archbishop. When her plans for founding an ascetic community on a primitive model were hindered, she went to Liege and made another unsuccessful attempt. On her father's death she brought suit against her stepmother for his entire property and won it. Now she fell under the influence of a doubtful friend of mysticism, Jean de St. Saulieu, who induced her to take charge of a home for orphan girls (1653), which she put under the Augustinian rule and made cloistered (1658). Her rule there came to an untoward end in 1662, when she took flight under serious accusations of cruelty. She went first to Ghent and then to Mechlin, where she found an adherent in the superior of the Oratorians, Christian de Cort. Soon she developed a fantastical system, based on alleged revelations. As the "woman clothed with the sun" of the Apocalypse, she was to revive the teachings of the Gospel and gather her spiritual children around her into a communistic, priestless brotherhood; she was the second revelation of the Son of Man on earth. The books which Antoinette now began to publish contain the bitterest condemnation of the Roman Catholic Church, reject infant baptism, and the Trinity was exchanged for a sacred triad of truth, mercy, and justice. She had dealings with the Jansenists, but rejected their teaching on predestination. In 1667, with De Cort, she went to Amsterdam and lived for a while in the happy exchange of views with the most various heretics and fanatics. The following years are occupied with the history of the attempt to find a home for her elect on the island of Nordstrand in the North Sea, which De Cort had discovered as the destined place. His financial troubles, which make up a large part of the story, ended only with his imprisonment at Amsterdam and his death in 1669. Antoinette, as his heir, was for several years more much occupied with courts of justice, not without danger of imprisonment, and went from Amsterdam to Haarlem, thence to Sleswick, and finally to Husum to be as near as possible to Nordstrand. Here she might have been left in peace if she would have given up her claims. But she set up a printing-press and carried on the liveliest literary controversy, until her press was confiscated by the government. So her story proceeds, amid quaint and vivid details too numerous to give here, until she is found at Hamburg in 1679 formally charged with sorcery by a former adherent, an eccentric colonel of artillery named La Coste. She fled to escape arrest, and remained in hiding until her death the next year. The points of her quietistic mysticism need no discussion; for herself the important one was her own position as bride of the Holy Ghost and channel of revelation. Though she was probably more of an adventuress than even an enthusiast or an insane woman, the solemn prophetic tone of her visions and divine messages continued for some time to attract readers who believed in her inspiration; but her community seems to have been entirely scattered at her death. (G. Kawerau.) Antoinette had many followers in Scotland, more, it is said, than in any other country. Prominent among them were the Rev. James Garden (1647-1726), who rose to be professor of divinity at King's College, Aberdeen, and was deprived in 1696 because he had refused to sign the Westminster Confession of Faith, and his younger brother, Rev. George Garden (1649-1733), who after being one of the ministers of St. Nicholas, the town parish of Aberdeen, was "laid aside" by the privy council in 1692 because he refused to pray for William and Mary and in 1701 was deposed from the ministry because he had advocated Bourignonianism in his book, An Apology for M. Antonia Bourignon (1699), a reply to books by his brother-in-law, the Rev. John Cockburn (1652-1729), entitled Bourignianism Detected; or, the Delusions and Errors of A. Bourignon and her Growing Sect. Narrative i. (London, 1698), Narrative ii. (1698), and A Letter to his Friend giving an account why the other Narratives about Bourignianism are not yet published, and answering some Reflections passed upon the first (1698). The General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in 1701, 1709, and 1710 passed deliverances against Bourignonians in which their views are thus described: I. They denied (1) the divine permission of sin and that divine vengeance and eternal damnation were inflicted upon it; (2) the decrees of election and reprobation; and (3) the doctrine of the divine foreknowledge. II. They asserted (1) that Christ had a twofold human nature, one produced of Adam before the woman was formed, and the other born of the Virgin Mary; (2) that in each soul before birth are a good and an evil spirit; (3) that the will is absolutely free, and there is in man some infinite quality which makes it possible for him to unite himself to God; (4) that Christ's nature was sinfully corrupt, so that by nature he was rebellious to the will of God; (5) that perfection may be attained in this life; and (6) that children are born in heaven. Notwithstanding these deliverances, the views of Antoinette Bourignon continued to exist in Scotland and in 1711 Bourignonianism was put among the heresies which candidates for the ministry were required formally to disown when applying for ordination. Bibliography: An edition of the works of Antoinette Bourignon was published in 19 vols., at Amsterdam, 1680-86. She wrote two accounts of her life: La Parole de Dieu, ou sa vie interieure (1634-63), Mechlin, 1663; and La Vie exterieure (1616-61), Amsterdam, 1668. These were continued by her disciple, Pierre Poiret, in Sa vie continuee, reprise depuis sa naissance et suivie jusqu'`a sa mort, appended to a later edition of the preceding. Her autobiography in Eng. transl. under the title The Light of the World; a Most True Relation of a Pilgrimess Travelling Towards Eternity, 3 parts, London, 1696, reprinted, ib. 1863; abridged, ib. 1786. Consult especially A. van der Linde, Antoinette Bourignon, Das Licht der Welt, Leyden, 1895 (cf. on this G. Kawerau, in GGA, 1895, pp. 428 sqq.). Bourne, Francis BOURNE, FRANCIS: Roman Catholic archbishop of Westminster; b. at Clapham (a suburb of London) Mar. 23, 1861. He was educated at St. Cuthbert's College, Ushaw (1869-75), St. Edmund's, Ware (1875-80), St. Thomas's Seminary, Hammersmith (1880-81), St. Sulpice, Paris (1881-1883), and the University of Louvain (1883-84). He was ordained to the priesthood in 1884, and after serving as assistant at Blackheath, Mortlake, and West Grinstead for five years, was appointed rector of Southwark Diocesan Seminary, holding this position until 1898, also acting for several years as professor of moral theology and Holy Scripture. He was named domestic prelate to the pope in 1895, and in the following year was consecrated titular bishop of Epiphania and coadjutor to the bishop of Southwark. He was bishop of Southwark from 1897 to 1903, and since the latter year has been archbishop of Westminster. He practically refounded St. John's Seminary at Wonersh, and has been most active in movements for social reform in the diocese of Southwark. He represented the Roman Catholics of England at the St. Augustine celebrations at Arles in 1897, as well as the English Roman Catholic bishops at Autun in 1899, and led the English pilgrims to Lourdes in 1902. Bourne, Hugh BOURNE, HUGH. See [487]Methodists, I, 4. Bousset, Johann Franz Wilhelm BOUSSET, bu''set', JOHANN FRANZ WILHELM: German Protestant; b. at Luebeck Sept. 3, 1865. He was educated at Erlangen, Leipsic, and Goettingen (Th.Lic., 1890) and became privat-docent at the latter university in 1890, being made associate professor of New Testament exegesis six years later. Theologically he belongs to the liberal historical school. In addition to minor contributions, he has written Evangeliencitate Justins des Maertyrers (Goettingen,1891); Jesu Predigt im Gegensatz zum Judentum (1892); Textkritische Studien (Leipsic, 1894); Antichrist (Goettingen,1895; Eng. transl. by A. H. Keane, London, 1896); Kommentar zur Offenbarung des Johannes (in the Kritisch-exegetischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament, 1896); Religion des Judentums im neutestamentlichen Zeitalter (Berlin, 1903; 2d ed., 1906); Das Wesen der Religion (Halle, 1903); Was wissen wir von Jesus? (1904); Jesus (Halle, 1904; Eng. transl., London, 1906); and Erklaerung des Galater-und ersten und zweiten Korintherbriefes, in J. Weiss's Schriften des Neuen Testaments neu uebersetzt (Goettingen,1905). Since 1897 he has edited the Theologische Rundschau in collaboration with W. Heitmueller, and the Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments in collaboration with H. Gunkel since 1903. Bouthillier, de Rance, Armand Jean le BOUTHILLIER, bu''til''lye', DE RANCE, ARMAND JEAN LE. See [488]Trappists. Bowen, George BOWEN, GEORGE: Methodist Episcopal foreign missionary; b. at Middlebury, Vt., April 30, 1816; d. in Bombay, India, Feb. b, 1888. He was graduated at Union Theological Seminary, New York City, in 1847; was ordained by the presbytery of New York, and the same year went to Bombay under the American Board. He spent the rest of his life in that city, but severed his connection with the American Board in 1855 and was an independent missionary till 1872 when he connected himself with the Methodist Episcopal missionary society. He edited the Bombay Guardian from 1854 on; and was also the secretary of the Religious Tract Society of Bombay. By the volumes which have been made up from his writings he has helped many spiritually. They are: Daily Meditations (Philadelphia, 1865); Discussions by the Seaside (Bombay, 1857); Love revealed. Meditations on the parting words of Jesus with his disciples in John xiii. to xvii. (Philadelphia, 1872); Verily, Verily. The Amens of Christ (1879). Bowen, John Wesley Edward BOWEN, JOHN WESLEY EDWARD: Methodist Episcopalian; b. at New Orleans, La., Dec. 3, 1855. He was educated at the University of New Orleans (B.A., 1878) and Boston University (Ph.D., 1887). After acting as professor of ancient languages at Central Tennessee College, Nashville, Tenn., from 1878 to 1882, he held successive pastorates at Boston (1882-85), Newark, N. J. (1885-1888), and Baltimore and Washington (1888-92), while during the latter incumbency he was likewise professor of church history and systematic theology in Morgan College, Baltimore, and also professor of Hebrew in Howard University, Washington, in 1891-92. Since 1893 he has been president and professor of historical theology in Gammon Theological Seminary, Atlanta, Ga. He was a member and examiner of the American Institute of Sacred Literature in 1889-93, as well as secretary and librarian of the Stewart Missionary Foundation for Africa. He was likewise a member of the general conferences of 1896, 1900, and 1904, and from 1892 to 1900 was a member of the board of control of the Epworth League. He is the editor of The Voice, The Negro, and the Stewart Missionary Magazine, and has written National Sermons, Africa and the American Negro (Philadelphia, 1891); University Addresses (Atlanta, 1895); Discussions in Philosophy and Theology (1895); and The United Negro (1902). Bower, Archibald BOWER, ARCHIBALD: Professed convert from Roman Catholicism to Protestantism; b. at Dundee Jan. 17, 1686; d. in London Sept. 3, 1766. He was educated at Douai, went to Italy, became a Jesuit 1706, and in 1723 was made a counselor of the Inquisition at Macerata, Italy. In 1726 he fled secretly to England, and, after some years, joined the Established Church; he gained influential patrons, who procured him employment in literary work and teaching. In 1745 he was readmitted into the Society of Jesus, but, after two years, again professed to leave the Church of Rome. His principal publication was the History o/ the Popes (7 vols., London, 1748-66; reprinted with a continuation by S. H. Cox, 3 vols., Philadelphia, 1844-45), which was attacked by Alban Butler and John Douglas as a mere translation of Tillemont and earlier writers without proper acknowledgment. Bower's character for virtue as well as veracity is not above suspicion. Bibliography: The DNB, vi, 48-51, furnishes a succinct account of his life and the charges against him, with a list of literature upon him. Bowman, Thomas BOWMAN, THOMAS: The name of two contemporary American bishops. 1. Methodist Episcopal bishop; b. at Berwick, Pa., July 15, 1817. He was educated at Dickinson College (B.A., 1837), and two years later entered the Baltimore conference of the Methodist ministry. He taught in the grammar-school of Dickinson College in 1840-43, and five years later founded Dickinson Seminary, Williamsport, Pa., of which he was the president until 1858, when he was chosen president of Asbury (now De Pauw) University, Greencastle, Ind. In 1864-1865 he was also chaplain of the United States Senate. He resigned the presidency of Asbury University in 1872, when he was elected bishop, and since that time has officially visited all the conferences of his denomination in the United States, Europe, India, China, Japan, and Mexico. 2. Bishop of the Evangelical Association; b. in Lehigh township, Northampton County, Pa., May 28, 1836. He studied at the Vanderveers Seminary, Easton, Pa., and entered the ministry of the Evangelical Association. He was pastor in the eastern Pennsylvania conference 1859-75, and was presiding elder of the same conference 1870-75. He has been a bishop since 1875, and since 1896 principal of the Union Biblical Institute at Narpersville, Ill., which is the theological seminary of the Evangelical Association. He characterizes his theological position as "Arminian-evangelical." He has published a revision of the catechism of his Church, also an account of the disturbance in the Evangelical Association. Bowne, Borden Parker BOWNE, BORDEN PARKER: American educator; b. at Leonardville, N. J., Jan. 14, 1847. Died at Brookline, Mass., Apr. 1, 1910. He was educated at the University of New York (B.A., 1871), and studied at Halle, Goettingen, and Paris. From 1876 he was professor of philosophy at Boston University. He was chairman of the Philosophical Department at the St. Louis World's Fair in 1904 and an honorary member of the Imperial Education Society of Japan. His writings are: The Philosophy of Herbert Spencer (New York, 1874); Studies in Theism (1879); Metaphysics (1882); Philosophy of Theism (1887); Introduction to Psychological Theory (1887); Principles of Ethics (1892); Theory of Thought and Knowledge (1897); The Christian Revelation (Cincinnati, 1898); The Christian Life (1899); The Atonement (1900); Theism (Deems lectures for 1902; New York, 1902); and The Immanence of God (Boston, 1905). Bowring, Sir John BOWRING, SIR JOHN: English Unitarian; b. at Exeter Oct. 17, 1792; d. there Nov. 23, 1872. He served his country as member of Parliament (1835-37 and 1841-49), in the public service in China and the Far East (1849-59), and as member of various governmental commissions; he was an ardent Utilitarian and first editor of the Westminster Review (1825). He was a remarkable linguist and an enthusiastic student of literature. His writings relate to public affairs, give the results of his travels, and include numerous translations, particularly of the popular poetry of Eastern Europe; he edited the works of Jeremy Bentham with biography (11 vols., London, 1838-43). He is mentioned here for his hymns, many of which are in general use, as "God is love, his mercy brightens," "From the recesses of a lowly spirit," "In the cross of Christ I glory," "Watchman, tell us of the night," "We can not always trace the way," and others. Bibliography: Autobiographical Recollections, with Memoir by [his son] Lewin Bowring, London, 1877; DNB, vi, 76-80; S. W. Duffield, English Hymns, pp. 263-263, New York, 1886; J. Julian, Dictionary of Hymnology, pp. 166-167, London, 1907. Boy-Bishop BOY-BISHOP: A popular custom of the Middle Ages to provide a diversion for the boys of a church or cathedral choir or school, and to reward the most deserving. One of the number was chosen "bishop," most commonly on St. Nicholas's day (Dec. 6), and in episcopal dress and attended by his fellows as priests, he went through the streets bestowing his blessing. Often he entered into the church and conducted some part of the service, at times delivering a sermon, prepared for the purpose by an older head (cf. the Concio de puero Jesu of Erasmus, edited by S. Bentley, London, 1816, which was spoken by a boy of St. Paul's School, London, on such an occasion). The boys occupied the seats of the clergy while the latter sat in the lowest places. In some localities the game lasted from St. Nicholas's day until Holy Innocents' day (Dec. 28). It was very popular in England, where it was observed not only in the churches and schools, but at the court and in the castles of the nobility; the boys were called "St. Nicholas's clerks." The custom was forbidden in 1542 but was restored under Mary. It was also common in France, although repeatedly forbidden there (by the papal legate, 1198; the synods of Paris 1212, Cognac 1260, Nantes 1431; the chapter of Troyes 1445). In some places, as Reims and Mainz, it lasted till the eighteenth century. See [489]Fools, Feast of, and consult the works mentioned in the bibliography of that article. Boyce, James Petigru BOYCE, JAMES PETIGRU: American Baptist; b. at Charleston, S. C., Jan. 11, 1827; d. at Pau, France, Dec. 28, 1888. He was graduated at Brown University 1847; studied theology at Princeton Theological Seminary, 1849-51; became pastor of the Baptist church at Columbia, S. C., 1851; professor of theology in Furman University, Greenville, S. C., 1855; chairman of the faculty, and professor of systematic theology in the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, opened at the same place in 1859. He was opposed to secession, but went with his State into the Civil War; was chaplain of the Sixteenth South Carolina volunteers 1861-62; member of the legislature 1862-65; of the State council and on the staff of Gov. A. G. Magrath 1864-65; member of the State convention for reconstruction 1865. At the close of the war he returned to his duties in the seminary, reopened it and reestablished it with much labor, and made considerable contributions to its support from his own means. In 1872 he was transferred to the chair of church government and pastoral duties, but was absent much of the time for the next few years arranging for the removal of the seminary to Louisville, Ky., which was accomplished in 1877. In 1887 he returned to his old department of systematic theology. He was president of the Southern Baptist Convention 1872-79 and in 1888. Besides sermons, speeches, and articles he published Three Changes in Theological Education (Greenville, 1856); A Brief Catechism of Bible Doctrine (Memphis, 1872); An Abstract of Theology (Louisville, 1882; rev. and enlarged ed., Baltimore, 1887; rev. and annotated by F. H. Kerfoot, Philadelphia, 1898). Bibliography: J. A. Broadus, Memoir of James Petigru Boyce, New York, 1893. Boyd, Andrew Kennedy Hutchison BOYD, ANDREW KENNEDY HUTCHISON: Established Church of Scotland; b. at Auchinleck (28 m. s. of Glasgow), Ayrshire, Nov. 3, 1825; d. at Bournemouth, Hampshire, England, Mar. 1, 1899. He studied at King's College and the Middle Temple, London, and at the University of Glasgow (B.A., Glasgow, 1846); was ordained minister of Newton-on-Ayr 1851; minister of Kirkpatrick-Irongray, near Dumfries, 1854-59; of St. Bernard's, Edinburgh, 1859-65; first minister of the city of St. Andrews from 1865. He won distinction both as a clergyman and a writer (over the signature A. K. H. B., and the sobriquet "The Country Parson"), and was perhaps the most widely known minister of the Scottish Church. In 1866 he was made chairman of a committee to prepare a new collection of hymns and filled the place with much judgment and tact. He was moderator of the General Assembly in 1890. The most notable of his many books were Recreations of a Country Parson (3 series, London, 1859-78); Leisure Hours in Town (1862); Graver Thoughts of a Country Parson (3 series, 1862-75); The Commonplace Philosopher in Town and Country (1862-64); Counsel and Comfort Spoken from a City Pulpit (1863); The Autumn Holidays of a Country Parson (1864); Critical Essays of a Country Parson (1865); Sunday Afternoons in the Parish Church of a University City (1866); Lessons of Middle Age (1867); Changed Aspects of Unchanged Truths (1869); Present Day Thoughts (1870); Seaside Musings (1872); A Scotch Communion Sunday (1873); Landscapes, Churches, and Moralities (1874); From a Quiet Place (1879); Our Little Life (2 series, 1881-84); Towards the Sunset, Teachings after Thirty Years (1882); What Set him Right, with other chapters to help (1885); Our Homely Comedy and Tragedy (1887); The Best Last, with other papers (1888); To Meet the Day through the Christian Year (1889); East Coast Days and Memories (1889); Twenty-five Years of St. Andrews (2 vols., 1892), autobiographical reminiscences, continued in St. Andrews and Elsewhere (1894), and Last Years of St. Andrews (1896). Bibliography: Consult, besides the autobiographical sketches mentioned above: A. Lang, in Longman's Magazine, May, 1899; DNB, supplement vol. i, 244-245. Boyle, Robert, and the Boyle Lectures BOYLE, ROBERT, AND THE BOYLE LECTURES: Robert Boyle was born at Lismore Castle (30 m. n.e. of Cork), Waterford, Ireland, Jan. 25, 1627, son of Richard Boyle, earl of Cork; d. in London Dec. 30,1691. He studied at Eton and (1638-44) at Geneva and elsewhere on the Continent; on his return to England he lived at first on his estate, Stalbridge, Dorsetshire, after 1654 in Oxford, and after 1668 in London. As a scientist he holds a high rank and has been considered the heir to both the methods and abilities of Francis Bacon. He was one of the founders of the Royal Society (1662), and was constantly engaged in investigations which resulted in numerous publications. He wrote many theological, moral, and religious essays, gave freely for the translation of the Bible into various languages, and was liberal in private charity. He was governor of the Corporation for the Spread of the Gospel in New England (see [490]Eliot, John). In his will he left an endowment of -L-50 annually for the Boyle Lectures, a series of 8 sermons, to be delivered each year in some church, against unbelievers. For the lectures St. Paul's was used in 1699 and 1701, the pariah church of St. Mary le Bow 1711-1805, Westminster Abbey 1852-53, the Chapel Royal, Whitehall, 1864-85, while the lectures of 1903-05 were delivered in the Church of St. Edmund, Lombard St. The first course was given by Richard Bentley (1692); his successors have included some of England's most prominent theologians. A selection from the sermons was published by Gilbert Burnet, vicar of Coggeshall, in 4 vols., London, 1737. A partial list of the published Boyle Lectures down to 1892-93 is given in J. F. Hurst, Literature of Theology (New York, 1896). Since then there have been published the lectures for 1895, W. C. E. Newbolt, The Gospel of Experience (London, 1896), and for 1903-05 by R. J. Knowling, The Testimony of St. Paul to Christ (London, 1905). Boyle's complete works with life were published by Thomas Birch (5 vols., London, 1744; 2d ed., 6 vols., 1772). Bibliography: Aside from the life by Birch there are available: A. `a Wood. Athenae Oxonienses, ed. P. Bliss, ii, 286, 4 vols., London, 1813-20; A. C. Brown, Development of the Idea of Chemical Composition, pp. 9-14, Edinburgh, 1869; DNB, vi, 118-123. Brace, Charles Loring BRACE, CHARLES LORING: American philanthropist; b. at Litchfield, Conn., June 19, 1826; d. at Campfer in the Engadine, Switzerland, Aug. 11, 1890. He was graduated at Yale 1846; studied at the Yale Divinity School 1847-48 and at Union Theological Seminary, New York, 1848-1849; traveled and studied in Europe for two years; in 1853 he became first secretary and executive agent of the Children's Aid Society of New York, and remained such till his death. He planned and developed the work and supported it in the earlier days with much self-sacrificing labor; industrial and night schools were established, lodging-houses provided for newsboys and for girls, reading-rooms opened, summer charities instituted, and nearly 100,000 boys and girls were assisted to new homes and occupations with healthful and moral surroundings. By thus removing incipient criminals a marked diminution in juvenile crime was shown in the police reports of New York. The history of the work was given by Mr. Brace in his annual reports and in his two books, Short Sermons to Newsboys, with a history of the formation of the Newsboys' Lodging House (New York, 1866); and The Dangerous Classes of New York, and twenty years' work among them (1872; enlarged ed., 1880). He published several works of travel of a popular character such as Home Life in Germany (1853); The New West (1869); and as results of considerable thinking and study, Gesta Christi, a history of humane progress under Christianity (1882; 4th ed., 1884); and The Unknown God, or inspiration among pre-Christian races (1890). Bibliography: C. L. Brace, His Life, chiefly told in his own Letters, edited by his daughter, Emma Brace, New York, 1894. Brackmann, Albert BRACKMANN, ALBERT: German Protestant historian; b. at Hanover June 24, 1871. He was educated at the universities of Tuebingen, Leipsic, and Goettingen, and occupies the position of associate professor of history at the University of Marburg. He is a collaborator of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Goettingen for the publication of early papal documents, and in addition to a number of contributions to historical periodicals has written: Urkundliche Geschichte des Halberstaedter Domkapitels im Mittelalter (Wernigerode, 1898). Bradford, Amory Howe BRADFORD, AMORY HOWE: American Congregationalist; b. at Granby, N. Y., Apr. 14, 1846. He was educated at Genesee College, Hamilton College (B.A., 1867), Andover Theological Seminary (1870), and Oxford University. Since 1870 he has been pastor of the First Congregational Church, Montclair, N. J. He was associate editor of The Outlook from 1894 to 1901, member of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions deputation to Japan in 1895, and moderator of the National Council of Congregational Churches in 1901-04. He is also first secretary and second president of the American Institute of Christian Philosophy, and was elected president of the American Missionary Association in 1904. He was Southworth Lecturer at Andover Theological Seminary in 1902-03 and George Sheppard Lecturer at Bangor Theological Seminary in 1906. In theology he is a liberal evangelical. He has written Spirit and Life (New York, 1888); Old Wine, New Bottles (1892); The Pilgrim in Old England (1893); Heredity and Christian Problems (1895); The Growing Revelation (1897); The Sistine Madonna (1897); The Holy Family (1899); The Art of Living Alone (1899); The Return to Christ (1900); The Age of Faith (Boston, 1900); Spiritual Lessons from the Brownings (New York, 1900); Messages of the Masters (1902); The Ascent of the Soul (1905); and The Inward Light (1905). Bradford, John BRADFORD, JOHN: Church of England Protestant martyr; b. at Manchester about 1510; burned at Smithfield July 1, 1555. He was in the service of Sir John Harrington, the king's paymaster in France; began to study law in the Temple 1547, but the next year turned to divinity and entered St. Catherine's Hall, Cambridge (M.A., by special grace, 1549); was elected fellow of Pembroke Hall 1549; became prebendary of Kentish Town in the church of St. Paul, 1551; was chaplain to Bishop Ridley, in 1552 one of the king's six chaplains in ordinary, and preached in many localities with great fervor and earnestness. In August, 1553 (six weeks after the accession of Mary), he was arrested on the charge of preaching seditious sermons and committed to the Tower; he was examined before Bishops Gardiner, Bonner, and others in January, 1555, and condemned as a heretic. His writings (chiefly sermons, letters, and devotional pieces) were edited for the Parker Society by Aubrey Townsend (2 vols., Cambridge, 1848-53). Bibliography: W. Stephens, Memoirs of John Bradford, London, 1832; The Life of John Bradford, vol. iii of Library of Christian Biography, London, 1855; DNB, vi, 157-159. Bradlaugh, Charles BRADLAUGH, CHARLES: English freethought advocate and politician; b. at Hoxton (a suburb of London) Sept. 26,1833; d. at London Jan. 30,1891. He was educated in local schools until the age of twelve, when his business life began. A few years later he became an advocate of freethought, and rapidly achieved notoriety for his propaganda. His attitude seriously affected his career, and at the age of seventeen he enlisted as a private soldier, remaining in the army three years. He then entered a solicitor's office, and soon rose to a position of responsibility. Meantime he had resumed his campaign for freethought, and in 1858 began a platform tour of the provinces, advocating not only radicalism in religion, but also in politics. From 1862 until his death, excepting in 1863-66, he was the proprietor of the republican National Reformer, and in his advocacy of radical politics was secretary of the fund raised in 1858 to defend E. Truelove for publishing a vindication of Orsini's attempt to assassinate Napoleon III. He was likewise a member of the parliamentary reform league of 1866, and drew up the first draft of the Fenian proclamation issued in the following year, while three years later he was the envoy of the English republicans to the Spanish republican leader Castelar, and was likewise nominated as candidate for a division of Paris on the foundation of the French republic in the same year. He then attempted to go to Paris on the outbreak of the Commune to be an intermediary between Thiers and the insurrectionists, but was arrested at Calais and forced to return to England. In 1868 Bradlaugh's attempts to gain a seat in the House of Commons began, but his avowed principles caused his defeat both in that year and in 1874. Six years later, however, he was returned, and by his refusal to take the required oath on the Bible initiated a struggle which involved him in repeated scenes in the House of Commons and in eight legal actions. He was again and again excluded from the House, his willingness to take the oath as a mere matter of form, or to affirm, being overruled by the plea that he was an avowed freethinker. Nevertheless, he was reelected for Northampton by special elections after his expulsion in 1881 and 1882, and at the general election in 1886 was once more returned, being permitted this time to take his seat, which he retained until his death. During this troubled period of his life he was also involved in a contest for the abolition of all restrictions on the press, beginning with his refusal, in 1868, to give security to the government against the publication of blasphemy and sedition in his National Reformer. In the following year another legal contest resulted in the passage of the Evidence Amendment Act, by which the evidence of freethinkers was declared admissible, a judge having refused to take his testimony on the ground that he was a freethinker. A few years later, in 1874, he became associated with [491]Annie Besant, who was assistant editor of the National Reformer until 1885, when she resigned on account of his opposition to socialism. In 1876 they were sentenced to six months' imprisonment and a fine of -L-200 for the publication of the Fruits of Philosophy, which advocated the artificial restraint of the increase of population. The sentence was suspended, however, and the contest resulted in the passage of an act removing the remaining restrictions on the press. In Parliament Bradlaugh was active in securing the passage of a number of measures, of which the chief was one permitting the substitution of an affirmation for the oath both in the House of Commons and in the courts. In 1889 he visited India, and during his final illness the resolutions of his expulsion from the House of Commons were unanimously expunged. The writings of Bradlaugh were chiefly brief controversial pamphlets and contributions to the press. Among them the most important are The Impeachment of the House of Brunswick (London, 1872); Autobiography (1873); Land for the People (1877); The New Life of David (1877); Genesis, its Authorship and Authenticity (1882); and The True Story of my Parliamentary Struggle (1882). Bibliography: A. S. Headingley, Biography of Charles Bradlaugh, London, 1880; C. R. Mackay, Life of Charles Bradlaugh ib. 1888; H. Bonner (his daughter), Charles Bradlaugh: A Record of his Life and Work, 2 vols., ib. 1894. Bradley, George Granville BRADLEY, GEORGE GRANVILLE: Dean of Westminster; b. at High Wycombe (30 m. w.n.w. of London), Buckinghamshire, Dec. 11, 1821; d. in London Mar. 12, 1903. He studied at Rugby under Arnold (1837-40), and at University College, Oxford (B.A., 1844; M.A., 1847); was fellow of University College 1844-50; became assistant master at Rugby 1846; head master of Marlborough College, Wiltshire, 1858; master of University College, Oxford, 1870; dean of Westminster, London, succeeding Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, 1881; resigned his deanery 1902. He edited and revised Arnold's Latin Prose Composition (London, 1881), and published Aids to Writing Latin Prose (1884); Recollections of Arthur Penrhyn Stanley (1883); Lectures on Ecclesiastes (Oxford, 1885; new ed., 1898); Lectures on the Book of Job (1887); and assisted R. E. Prothero in preparing the Life and Correspondence of Arthur Penrhyn Stanley (2 vols., London, 1894). Bradshaw, William BRADSHAW, WILLIAM: Puritan; b. at Market Bosworth (12 m. w. of Leicester), Leicestershire, 1571; d. at Chelsea 1618. He studied at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and became fellow of Sidney Sussex College in 1599; took orders but never received a living owing to his Puritan principles, and spent much of his time in retirement in Derbyshire, whence he made many journeys in behalf of the cause to which he was devoted. His chief work was English Puritanism: containing the main opinions of the rigid sort of those that are called Puritans in the Realm of England (London, 1605; Latin transl., by William Ames, Frankfort, 1610; an abstract is given in Neal's History of the Puritans, part ii, chap. i). The main point of his system was that he would subject no congregation to any ecclesiastical jurisdiction "save that which is within itself." He would have the members delegate their powers to pastors and elders, retaining that of excommunication. No clergyman should hold civil office. He was strongly opposed to "ceremonies." He was not a separatist and held that the king as "the archbishop and general overseer of all the churches within his dominions" had the right to rule and must not be resisted except passively. He published many other works and tracts, most of them anonymously. Bibliography: A fair biography and references to the somewhat abundant literature may be found in DNB, vi, 182-185. Bradwardine, Thomas BRADWARDINE, THOMAS: Archbishop of Canterbury; b. probably at Chichester, Sussex, 1290; d. in London Aug. 28, 1349. His name is variously spelled (Bragwardin, Brandnardin, Bredwardyn, etc.), in public documents he is usually called Thomas de Bradwardina, and a title often given him is Doctor Profundus. He studied theology, philosophy, mathematics, and astronomy at Merton College, Oxford; lectured there; became chancellor of St. Paul's Church at London; in 1339 accompanied Edward III as his confessor in campaigns in France; in 1349 was chosen archbishop of Canterbury, was consecrated at Avignon and died a few weeks afterward. He was highly esteemed by Wyclif, Jean Gerson, and Flacius. He was the author of a large work entitled De causa Dei contra Pelagium [ed. Sir Henry Savile, London 1618], in which he attempted to show that the theology as well as the Church of his time were Pelagian. He gave the name Cainites to those who gave up hope in God and depended upon their own merits; his personal experience gave him a different conception: "In the schools of the philosophers I rarely heard a word concerning grace, . . . but I continually heard that we are the masters of our own free actions." Rom. ix, 16 had seemed to him to be wrong; "but afterward . . . I came to see that the grace of God far preceded all good works both in time and in nature--by grace I mean the will of God." Bradwardine wished to support this position on theoretical grounds. He acknowledged Augustine as his master. The sum of his teaching is as follows: God is complete perfection and goodness, is good action itself, free from the potentiality of imperfection. He is not limited by mentality. He is the first cause, the absolute principle of being and motion. Therefore, no one can act nor can anything "happen"; God works or orders events. Divine foreknowledge is will exercised long before, or predestination of [man's] will. God's will, moreover, is unchanging. Everything takes place by virtue of the immutable antecedent necessity caused by the divine volition. Hence man can say nothing "more useful or efficacious . . . than 'thy will be done.'" The effects of predestination are the gift of grace in the present, justification from sin, award of merit, perseverance to the end, and unending bliss in the world to come. The result of this line of thought is, of course, determinism of a Thomistic type. In spite of this theory, Bradwardine, like Augustine, asserted the reality of free will. His historical importance consists in the fact that he was one of the most powerful champions of the Augustinian movement which took place toward the end of the Middle Ages. This movement contributed to the dissolution of scholasticism and to a new understanding of Christian doctrine from the point of view of personal faith. R. Seeberg. Bibliography: The scanty notices of his life are collected by Sir Henry Savile in the preface to his edition of the Causa Dei. For his mathematical works consult M. Cantor, Geschichte der Mathematik, ii, 102 sqq., Leipsic, 1892. Consult further G. V. Lechler, De Thomas Bradwardino, Leipsic, 1862; idem, Johann von Wiclif und die Vorgeschichte der Reformation, i, 229 sqq., Leipsic, 1873; Eng. transl., pp. 88-96, London, 1878; K. Werner, Der Augustinismus in der Scholastik des spaeteren Mittelalters, pp. 337 sqq., Vienna, 1883; R. Seeberg, Dogmengeschichte, ii, 192, Leipsic, 1898; DNB, vi, 188-190. Brady, Nicholas BRADY, NICHOLAS: Church of England clergyman and poet; b. at Bandon (20 m. s.w. of Cork), County Cork, Ireland, Oct. 28, 1659; d. at Richmond, Surrey, May 20, 1726. He studied at Christ Church, Oxford (B.A., 1682), and Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1685; M.A., 1686; B.D. and D.D., 1699); took orders in Ireland and received two livings in the diocese of Cork. He was a zealous promoter of the Revolution of 1688 and soon thereafter removed to England; became lecturer at St. Michael's, Wood Street, London; minister at St. Catherine Cree, 1691; rector of Richmond, 1696, and of Clapham, 1706. He was also rector of Stratford-on-Avon, 1702-05, and conducted a school at Richmond. He was chaplain to William III, to Mary, and to Queen Anne. He published a tragedy, The Rape, or the Innocent Imposters (London, 1692), a translation of the AEneid of Vergil (4 vols., 1726; now extremely rare), and two volumes of sermons (1704-06); but is remembered chiefly for his share in the New Version of the Psalms of David, produced jointly by himself and [492]Nahum Tate. Brahmanism BRAHMANISM. I. Vedism, the Age of the Vedas and their Ancillary Literature. The People of the Vedas and their Gods (S: 1). The Rig-Veda (S: 2). The Sama- and Yajur-Vedas (S: 3). The Atharva-Veda (S: 4). II. Brahmanism and the Pantheism of the Upanishads. The Upanishads (S: 1). The Six Orthodox Systems of Philosophy (S: 2). III. The Age of the Buddhistic and Jainistic Heresies. Brahmanism is the orthodox religion of India, the most ancient of all Indo-Germanic faiths of which there is record. In itself the most catholic and elastic of cults, its test is the recognition of the divine authority of the Vedas; its outward sign is reverence for the gods, some of whom are comparatively late and foreign in origin; and, for the Brahmans, its end is emancipation from the sorrow of existence and the misery of reincarnation through reabsorption into the divine essence of the All-Soul. Brahmanism may be divided into three periods: I. The Age of the Vedas and their Ancillary Literature; II. Brahmanism and the Pantheism of the Upanishads; III. The Age during which the Buddhistic and Jainistic Heresies Prevailed. The two phases which are included in the Brahmanistic counterreformation and rise of the Hindu sects, and modern Hinduism and the unitarian movements are treated under [493]Hinduism. I. Vedism, the Age of the Vedas and their Ancillary Literature (the Brahmanas and Sutras--the former a sort of Hindu Talmud; the latter brief verses in technical language, a favorite form of expressing rules): 1. The People of the Vedas and their Gods. At a period of remote antiquity, possibly between 2000 and 1500 B.C., a section of the Indo-Germanic peoples known by various names, of which the most common are Indians and Aryans, broke off from the kindred Iranian stock and wandered southward and eastward through Afghanistan into the Punjab or the "Five Waters," in the extreme northwest of the Indian peninsula. Like the Iranians of Persia, they were divided into the three classes of priests, warriors, and husbandmen, whence were to be formed later the three higher castes, and were a nomadic and agricultural people, filled with the joy of living, valiant in war, daring freebooters, hot in love and reveling in wine, almost everything, in short, that the later Hindus were not. Their gods were like themselves, concrete and strong: Surya, the bright deity of the sun; Indra, the blinding lightning which ushers in the rainy season; Agni, the god of fire; and Soma, the deified inspiration of strong drink and of the divine courage which it gives. Few are the deities which show the softer side of the early Aryan mind, such as Ushas, the goddess of the dawn, or Varuna, the god of the sky-ocean, who watches over all and even later in this period receives praises which almost savor of monotheism. 2. The Rig-Veda. The beliefs of the Aryans of this period are contained in the Rig-Veda, a book of hymns, the earliest literary records of the Indo-Germanic race, to which the most probable date assigned is 1500-500 B.C. This Veda is divided into ten books containing 1,022 hymns. Books ii-vii form the "family books," composed by successive generations of families of bards. Book ix is restricted to the Soma hymns, while i and viii, and especially x, the latest of all, are more diverse in contents and authorship. Within this range of space and time are represented many phases of religious thought, ranging from crass polytheism through intricate henotheism or syncretism to a quasimonotheism, or rather pantheism; varying from earnest faith to incipient skepticism; touching, too, on daily life as well as on worship and sacrifice. It must not be supposed, however, that the faith of the Veda is naive or childlike. It is, on the contrary, quite developed and occasionally even corrupt. Many of the hymns were undoubtedly composed for the ritual, although it is scarcely possible to regard the entire collection as subservient to the liturgy. Untenable also is the theory of the French school which reduces the entire Rig-Veda to a mass of allegory, nor are the conclusions of the realistic school, which regards this Veda as entirely Indic and interprets it rationalistically, altogether free from criticism. To the elucidation of a collection so extended both in space and time no single method of interpretation is adequate. Naivete and mature thought, liturgy and hymnology, allegory and realism must each be recognized as occasion demands, must even be combined at times to give a true representation of the Vedic Hinduism. The basis of the Vedic religion is nature-worship. Each element is deified, the fire as Agni, the dawn as Ushas, the sky as Varuna, and the lightning of the storm as Indra. A single object in nature may be represented by many gods, as when the sun is venerated under the names of Surya, " the glowing one"; Savitar, "the enlivener"; Bhaga, "the bestower of boons"; Pushan, "he who causeth to flourish"; and Vishnu, "the mighty one." While these names may represent the deity in different aspects, as do the Egyptian Ra and Tum, the gods of the rising and the setting sun, it must not be forgotten that variance in name and even in concept of the same divinity may have been in its origin mere local divergence in expression for one and the same god, for the Rig-Veda was composed by many minds, at many places, in many periods. Behind nature-worship doubtless lay the earlier phase of animism, although its traces are obscured in the Vedic texts. Still more scanty are the evidences of ancestor-worship, or the cult of ghosts, though this phase was perhaps rather officially ignored than popularly absent. The eschatology of the Rig-Veda is comparatively simple, and resembles in its meagerness the poverty of early Semitism as represented by the Assyro-Babylonian religion. Allusions to the future state of the dead are practically confined to the late tenth book. Yama, the first of men to die, is the king of the dead; and apparently the blessed, i.e., the brave and generous, go when they die to the sun, where they engage in revelry like that of the Norse heroes of Asgard. The unblessed dead merely disappear, for hell is, in Indian thought, a late theological invention, devised to counterbalance the joys of heaven. In the latest portion of the Rig-Veda, moreover, appear the chief hymns later rubricized in the ritual, if indeed they were not, at least in part, designedly composed for an already existing liturgy. 3. The Sama- and Yajur-Vedas. Beside the Rig-Veda exist two other canonical Vedas, and a fourth which is uncanonical. The Sama or "Song" Veda is composed of verses taken chiefly from the eighth and ninth books of the Rig-Veda and arranged for the liturgy. Far more important is the Yajur or "Sacrificial" Veda, which exists in several recensions, the chief being the Vajasaneyi or "White" Yajur-Veda, so called from being composed only in verse, and the Taittirya and Maitrayani, which are termed "black," since the verse of the text is intermingled with a quasicommentary and amplification in prose. The arena implied is no longer the Punjab but the "middle district," around the modern Delhi, which the Aryans had reached in their slow migration eastward. The change of locality, however, is dwarfed into insignificance by the alteration in religious tone. The frank delight in life which characterizes the Rig-Veda is changed to mysticism and an ever-increasing ritualism. Religion has given place to magic. The principle of henotheism which is so marked a feature of the Rig-Veda, through which poetic enthusiasm comes to attribute to one divinity the names and attributes of another, thus elevating him for the nonce into the supreme and only object of adoration, becomes in the Yajur-Veda symbolism carried to its limit. A thing is no longer like something else, it is something else. The Brahman is no longer merely a priest, he is a god with all the attributes of divinity, while prayer and sacrifice are now means of compelling the deity to perform the will of his worshipers, instead of being modes of propitiation or bargaining. The religion of India now centers in the sacrifice, and a ritual is developed which is perhaps the most elaborate that the world has ever seen. While the power of the Brahmans was thereby increased until they were apotheosized, the view is antiquated which regards the development of the liturgy as the ecclesiastical device of a cunning and self-interested priesthood, despite the enormous fees which were given for the performance of sacrifice. The pantheon of this period suffers little diminution as compared with the epoch of the Rig Veda, but the gods have declined in power, although some have been greatly magnified, such as Kala (Time), who played no part in the earliest Veda. The epithets and the functions of the gods become separate divinities in many cases, and an All-God now gains the full recognition which is only suggested even in the latest portions of the Rig-Veda. The legends of the deities, on the other hand, are richly developed, though their quantity is more admirable than their quality. This, however, is a recrudescence of popular beliefs previously not officially recognized, rather than new speculations of the Brahmans, though this faith of the people finds its application in the explanation and proof of the sacrifice. The rules for the Brahmanic ritual are contained not only in the various recensions of the Yajur-Veda, but in the still more important Brahmanas, of which each school of each of the Vedas has at least one, while the Tandin recension of then Same-Veda has three. Additional details are contained in the Srautasutras, and the ritual for daily life may be found in the various Grihyasutras. 4. The Atharva-Veda. Beside the three canonical Vedas and their ancillary literature, representing the official religion of the Vedic and Brahmanic periods, stood a Veda of magic--the uncanonical Atharva-Veda. The pantheon of the Rig-Veda is here a jumbled confusion of divinities, at their head a supreme god of all, while eschatology has so far developed as to recognize a place of torment for the malignant dead. The predominant note of the Atharva-Veda is magic. It is filled with all manner of charms and incantations for wealth and for children, for long life and good health, for love and for revenge, charms for plants, animals, and diseases, curses and maledictions for the destruction of enemies and for counteracting the enemy's black magic. Linguistically and chronologically far later than the Rig-Veda, the material of the Atharva-Veda is in all probability as old in some of its parts as the most ancient portions of the Rig. It is an invaluable document for early Hindu religion as the oldest monument of its popular faith. II. Brahmanism and the Pantheism of the Upanishads: The enormous structure of ritualism erected by the Yajur-Veda, the Brahmanas, and the Sutras gradually became a burden too heavy to be borne; liturgy was then undermined by philosophical speculation. Traces of this are already evident in the later portions of the Rig-Veda, as in the famous hymn (x, 121) whose refrain runs: "To whom (as) god shall we offer sacrifice?" thus affording a basis for the Brahmanas to create a god "Who." By this time, moreover, an All-God was definitely recognized in Prajapati, "the lord of creatures," but it was reserved for the close of the Brahmanic period to ignore the gods and arrive at God. 1. The Upanishads. The Upanishads, the literary records of this phase of thought, represent a perfection of pantheism which has never been equaled, and their influence is a mighty factor in Hindu thought of the present day. Salvation is no longer to be attained by works, but by knowledge, and the entire teaching of the Upanishads may be comprised in the one famous phrase found in the Chandogya Upanishad: Tat tvam asi, "That art thou," or, in other words, "Thou art the Infinite." Though the summum bonum of the Upanishads is this saving knowledge and the reunion with the All-Soul which it brings, such a consummation is not requisite for all, since there are many who do not desire it, and for them minor blessings are reserved in a future life. The existence of the gods is not denied, though they be but phases of the All-Soul, nor is the advantage of sacrifice denied, for such offerings are still imperative. Herein lies, perhaps, the secret of the origin of the Upanishads. The concluding portion of each Brahmana is an Aranyaka, or "forest-book," designed for the use of those forest hermits who had passed beyond the need of sacrifice, and in each Aranyaka is an Upanishad. Primarily, therefore, the Upanishads represented the text-books of those who had passed through the sacrificial stage of their religious life and were henceforth free to meditate on sacred things as seemed best in their own eyes. Later, however, the Upanishads became a special form of the sacred writings of the Hindus; and served as the basis of the most lofty of all their six orthodox systems of philosophy. To see in them a religious revolt of the second, or warrior, caste against Brahman control, as certain scholars have sought to do, seems, on the whole, scarcely warranted. 2. The Six Orthodox Systems of Philosophy. Somewhat subsequent to the Upanishads were developed the six orthodox systems of Indian philosophy, the Samkhya and Yoga, the Vaiseshika and Nyaya, and the Purvamimamsa and Vedanta. Of these the Vaiseshika and Nyaya are systems of logic rather than of philosophy; the Samkhya and Yoga, which supplement each other, are essentially dualistic; while the Purvamimamsa and Vedanta, of which the former is the least important of all the systems, represent the spiritual aftermath of the Upanishads, and are, accordingly, rigidly pantheistic. III. The Age of the Buddhistic and Jainistic Heresies: Beneath the excessive ritual of the Brahmanistic period and the pantheistic speculations of a chosen few still lay the popular faith of the Aryan invaders of India. Meanwhile, however, the course of immigration had moved still further to the east and become centered about the holy city of Benares. The doctrine of the misery of all earthly existence was by this time accepted by all, and the teachings of metempsychosis were fully established. The worship of Siva, originally a local godling of some aboriginal western tribe, was attaining such popularity that he was opposed as the Destroyer to the Vedic sun-god Vishnu, who was worshiped as the Preserver (of the universe). For the sake of symmetry, Brahma, denoting in the Rig-Veda "prayer," was developed by the priestly theologians into Brahma, the Creator, who, though on the whole a pale abstract deity, respected rather than worshiped, formed the third member of the trimurti, or triad. The religious texts of this period are comparatively few, though from them may be gleaned data of the greatest importance for a knowledge of India's faith. The principal sources are the law books, especially the famous code of Manu, and the Mahabharata, the great epic of India and the longest poem of all literature. From the point of view of orthodox Hinduism, however, the epoch, possibly because of the comparative scantiness of material, presents less of interest than any of the others. It was, on the other hand, essentially the age of heresy, this term denoting in India simply a formal denial of the divine authority of the three canonical Vedas. There had, of course, been heretics and infidels long before this period; traces of them occur as early as the tenth book of the Rig-Veda, but it was not until the period under consideration that heresies of lasting importance were able to develop. In the sixth century B.C. arose two independent teachers, both from the Kshatriya, or warrior, class and both accordingly more or less antagonistic to the Brahmans. Forebodings of such a struggle between the two upper castes are not lacking in the Upanishads, where, in more than one instance, a warrior rose superior to a Brahman in theological learning. Rebelling against Brahman supremacy, ignoring salvation by sacrifice, rejecting the authority of the Vedas, teaching emancipation from the pain of life and the misery of rebirth by personal service to all living creatures however lowly, and choosing, moreover, with pointed significance, as their linguistic medium the despised popular dialects instead of the hallowed Sanskrit of the Brahmans, Sakya Muni (Buddha) and Mahavira founded the religions which still exist as [494]Buddhism and [495]Jainism. When, after the lapse of nearly a millennium, those two religions lost their hold upon India, a new form of Brahmanism arose in what is known as [496]Hinduism, the basis of which was a compromise between the orthodox and philosophical Brahmanism of pre-Buddhistic times and the religions of the Dravidian and other non-Aryan peoples of southern India. See [497]India. Bibliography: The literature of India itself is enormous, and that upon it is almost as great. A bibliography of India is much needed. The most accessible and convenient body of sources for the English reader is the SBE, more than half of which is devoted to translations from the various departments of Indian literature. Outside of this collection, the following texts and translations are important: Sanskrit Texts, Sacred Hymns, 6 vols., London, 1849-74, new ed., 1890-92; H. H. Wilson, Rig-Veda Sanhita, 6 vols., ib. 1850 sqq. (a translation); Rig-Veda, a transl. by P. Peterson, ib. 1888; H. Grassmann, Rigveda uebersetzt, 4 vols., Leipsic, 1876-77; Rig-Veda, by A. Ludwig, in 6 vols., Prague, 1875-88 (Germ. transl., introduction and commentary); Sama-Veda, T. Benfey, Leipsic, 1848 (text and Germ. transl.); R. T. Griffith, Hymns of the Rigveda, Transl. with Commentary, 4 vols., Benarea, 1889-92; idem. Hymns of the Samaveda, Transl. with Commentary, ib. 1893; idem. Hymns of the Atharva-Veda, ib., 2 vols., 1895-96; Atharvaveda, by A. Ludwig, 2 vols., Prague, 1876 (Germ, transl.); Atharva-Veda, livre vii (viii, xiii) traduit . . . par V. Henry, Paris, 1891-1892; The Aitareya-Brahmana, transl. by M. Haug, 2 vols., Bombay, 1863; the Brahmanas of the Sama Veda have been edited by A. C. Burnell, 6 vols., London, Truebner, n.d.; Atharva-Veda Samhita, Translation and . . . Commentary by W. D. Whitney, ed. C. R. Lanman, 2 vols., Boston, 1906; The Vedantasara, A Manual of Hindu Pantheism, transl. by G. A. Jacob, ib. 1881. Parts of some of the Upanishads have been edited and translated by E. Roer, 19 parts, Calcutta, n.d., and by E. B. Cowell, 2 parts, ib. 1861. Important is J. Muir, Original Sanskrit Texts, 5 vols., London, 1868-73. The Sutras are represented in the Germ. transl. by A. F. Stensler, Leipsic, 1876, in the Eng. transl. of W. D. Whitney, New Haven, 1871, and of G. Thibaut, London, Truebner, n.d. On the history of Indian literature consult: A. Weber, The White Yajur Veda, Berlin, 1849; idem, A Hist. of Indian Literature, London, 1882 (critical and brief); F. Max Mueller, Hist. of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, ib. 1860 (now out of print); A. Kaegi, Der Rigveda, Leipsic, 1881, Eng. transl., London, 1886; F. Neve, Les Epoques litteraires de l'Inde, Paris, 1887; J. C. Oman, The Great Indian Epics, London, 1884 (a condensation of the stories, with notes); A. A. Macdonell, Hist. of Sanskrit Literature, ib. 1900; E. W. Hopkins, The Great Epic of India, New Haven, 1901. On the philosophy the best single book is F. Max Mueller, Six Systems of Indian Philosophy, London, 1899, cf. his Three Lectures on the Vedanta Philosophy, ib. 1894. Other works are J. Davies, The Sankhya Karika of Iswara Krishna. An Exposition of the System of Kapil`a, ib. 1881; A. E. Gough, Philosophy of the Upanishads, ib. 1882; Ram Chandra Bose, Hindu Philosophy popularly Explained, Calcutta, 1888; M. Williams, Indian Wisdom, London, 1893; R. Garbe, Philosophy of Ancient India, Chicago, 1897 (an excellent "first book"); J. Kreyher, Die Weisheit der Brahmanen und des Christentums, Guetersloh, 1901; P. Deussen, Philosophy of the Upanishads, Edinburgh, 1905; idem, Die Geheimlehre des Veda, Leipsic, 1907; idem, Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Berlin, 1907; L. D. Barnett, Some Sayings of the Upanishads, London, 1906; S. A. Desai, A Study of the Indian Philosophy, ib. 1907. On the religion of India the best single book is R. W. Frazer, Literary Hist. of India, New York, 1898. H. T. Colebrooke, Essays on the Religion and Philosophy of the Hindus, 2d ed. by his son, 3 vols., London, 1873, is a classic, with which should be put C. Lassen, Indische Alterthumskunde, 4 vols., Bonn, 1847-61. Of high value is J. H. Wilson, Essays on the Religion of the Hindus, 2 vols., London, 1861-62. Other treatises are: S. Johnson, Oriental Religions, India, Boston, 1872; F. Max Mueller, Lectures on . . . Religions of India, London, 1879; A. Barth, Religions of India, ib. 1882; W. J. Wilkins, Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Puranic, ib. 1882; A. W. Wallis, Cosmology of the Rig Veda, ib. 1887; M. Williams, Religious Life and Thought in India, ib. 1887; G. A. Jacob, Hindu Pantheism, ib. 1889; J. Dowson, Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, ib. 1891; Religious Systems of the World, ib. 1893; H. Oldenberg, Die Religion des Veda, Berlin, 1894; idem, Ancient India, its Language and Reigions, London, 1896; E. W. Hopkins, Religions of India, Boston, 1895 (very useful, systematic and clear, gives list of works); idem, India, Old and New, New York, 1902; M. Phillips, The Teaching of the Vedas, London, 1895; Z. A, Ragozin, Vedic India, ib 1895; A Weber, Vedische Beitraege, Berlin, 1895; A. Hillebrandt, Vedische Mythologie, 3 vols., Breslau, 1902; J. C. Oman, Mystics, Ascetics and Saints of India, London, 1903; J. M. Mitchell, Great Religions of India, New York, 1905; E. B. Haven, Benares the Sacred City. Sketches of Hindu Life and Religion, London, 1906. On the philosophy the best single book is F. Max Mueller, Six Systems of Indian Philosophy, London, 1899, cf. his Three Lectures on the Vedanta Philosophy, ib. 1894. Other works are J. Davies, The Sankhya Karika of Iswara Krishna. An Exposition of the System of Kapil`a, ib. 1881; A. E. Gough, Philosophy of the Upanishads, ib. 1882; Ram Chandra Bose, Hindu Philosophy popularly Explained, Calcutta, 1888; M. Williams, Indian Wisdom, London, 1893; R. Garbe, Philosophy of Ancient India, Chicago, 1897 (an excellent "first book"); J. Kreyher, Die Weisheit der Brahmanen und des Christentums, Guetersloh, 1901; P. Deussen, Philosophy of the Upanishads, Edinburgh, 1905; idem, Die Geheimlehre des Veda, Leipsic, 1907; idem, Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Berlin, 1907; L. D. Barnett, Some Sayings of the Upanishads, London, 1906; S. A. Desai, A Study of the Indian Philosophy, ib. 1907. On the religion of India the best single book is R. W. Frazer, Literary Hist. of India, New York, 1898. H. T. Colebrooke, Essays on the Religion and Philosophy of the Hindus, 2d ed. by his son, 3 vols., London, 1873, is a classic, with which should be put C. Lassen, Indische Alterthumskunde, 4 vols., Bonn, 1847-61. Of high value is J. H. Wilson, Essays on the Religion of the Hindus, 2 vols., London, 1861-62. Other treatises are: S. Johnson, Oriental Religions, India, Boston, 1872; F. Max Mueller, Lectures on . . . Religions of India, London, 1879; A. Barth, Religions of India, ib. 1882; W. J. Wilkins, Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Puranic, ib. 1882; A. W. Wallis, Cosmology of the Rig Veda, ib. 1887; M. Williams, Religious Life and Thought in India, ib. 1887; G. A. Jacob, Hindu Pantheism, ib. 1889; J. Dowson, Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, ib. 1891; Religious Systems of the World, ib. 1893; H. Oldenberg, Die Religion des Veda, Berlin, 1894; idem, Ancient India, its Language and Reigions, London, 1896; E. W. Hopkins, Religions of India, Boston, 1895 (very useful, systematic and clear, gives list of works); idem, India, Old and New, New York, 1902; M. Phillips, The Teaching of the Vedas, London, 1895; Z. A, Ragozin, Vedic India, ib 1895; A Weber, Vedische Beitraege, Berlin, 1895; A. Hillebrandt, Vedische Mythologie, 3 vols., Breslau, 1902; J. C. Oman, Mystics, Ascetics and Saints of India, London, 1903; J. M. Mitchell, Great Religions of India, New York, 1905; E. B. Haven, Benares the Sacred City. Sketches of Hindu Life and Religion, London, 1906. Brahmo Somaj BRAHMO SOMAJ: A Hindu theistic society. Its aim is the monotheistic reform of the Hindu polytheistic religion. The founder, Rammohan Roy (b. 1774), of Brahman descent, through the study of the Koran and the Bible became estranged from his ancestral belief, and was attracted by Christianity, without, however, getting beyond a rationalistic pantheism. He endeavored to formulate a universal monotheism based upon various ancient scriptures. He denounced ethnic impurities, but maintained the institution of caste. In 1816 he gathered a small community at Calcutta, the Atmiya Sabha, of which he was the leader till his death, Sept. 28, 1833, at Bristol, England, where he acted as political agent. The weakened reform party was strengthened in 1839 by the founding of the Tatwabodhini Sabha, whose leader was Babu Devendranath Tagore. He held aloof from Christian influences in the patriotic effort to restore (what he regarded as) the pure religion of the Vedas, but finally conceived a deistic system on the basis of reason, rejecting all scriptures. In 1862 the religious community was reorganized as the Adi Somaj. Meanwhile a follower named Dayanand Saraswati had turned again to the Vedas, which he regarded as teaching a purely theistic religion, and as anticipating also the results of modern culture. He founded the Arya Somaj, the adherents of which came afterward under spiritualistic influences. The two societies last named found a competitor in the adherents of Babu Keshav Chandra Sen (b. Nov. 19, 1838, at Calcutta), who, through European culture had become dissatisfied with the religion of his ancestors, and attempted to find rest in philosophy. But this brought no satisfaction to his religiously disposed mind. After much study of the Bible he came to a decision, and in 1858 joined the Adi Somaj. For a time he cooperated with Devendranath Tagore, but finally found himself at variance with this conservatively disposed leader, who did not approve his bold denunciation of the shameful practises of heathenism, and even of caste. After the rupture which naturally resulted, in 1863 he founded the Brahmo Somaj of India, which soon developed an activity that almost rivaled the Christian propaganda. He went to England in 1870, where he was much honored. Many Christian ideas tending to promote his cause were brought back by him to India, and the Brahmo Somaj found many adherents. But he grew more conservative and gradually drew away from Occidental influences. The representatives of progress separated and founded the Sadharan Brahmo Somaj. Only the less important members of the former community adhered to Chandra Sen, who lost himself more and more in a dark mysticism. Finally he appeared as the founder of a world-religion ("The New Dispensation"), as he claimed by divine command. For the new Church he prepared a ritual and teaching. Nevertheless, his success was not striking, though by his small circle of adherents he was almost worshiped. He died January 8, 1884. His successor, Babu Protap Chandra Mozumdar, had great difficulty in preventing the further disruption of the community, and little progress was made. In 1891 it numbered 3,051 members, mostly in Bengal. The Arya Somaj had a larger success, developing especially in the United Provinces and the Punjab, numbering some 40,000 members. But few of the Brahmo Somaj have accepted Christianity. See [498]India, III, 1. R. Grundemann. Bibliography: Sources: Indian Mirror, Calcutta, 1861-1880; Sunday Mirror, ib.1880-82; The Liberal and the New Dispensation, ib. 1881 sqq.; Theistic Annual, ib. 1872 sqq.; Theistic Quarterly Review, ib. 1879. Consult also: Mary Carpenter, Last Days in England of Romohun Roy, London, 1886; K. Chunder Sen, Brahmo Somaj, ib. 1870; J. Hesse, Der Brahmo Somaj . . . , in Basler Missions Magazin, 1876, pp. 385 sqq.; Kesavachandra, Brahmo Somaj, Calcutta, 1883; F. Max Mueller, in Biographical Essays, London, 1884 (gives accounts of recent religious movements); T. E. Slater, Keshab Chundra Sen and the Brahma Samaj, Madras, 1884; P. C. Mozoomdar, Life and Teachings of Chunder Sen, Calcutta, 1887; H. Baynes, Evolution of Religious Thought in India, London, 1889 (a full account); L. J. Frohmeyer, Neuere Reformbestrebungen in Hinduismus, in Basler Missions Magazin, 1888, pp. 129 sqq.; The Offering of Devendranath Tagore, transl. by M. M. Chatterji, Calcutta, 1889; Rammohun Roy, English Works, 2 vols., London, 1888; Navakanta Chattopadhyaya, Life and Character of Ram Mohun Roy, Dacca, 1890; C. N. Aitchison, The Brahmo Somaj, in Church Missionary Intelligencer, 1893, pp. 161 sqq. Braig, Karl von Borromaeo BRAIG, KARL VON BORROMAEO: German Roman Catholic; b. at Kanzach (a village near Buchau, 30 m. s.w. of Ulm) Feb. 10, 1853. He was educated at the University of Tuebingen (Ph.D., 1877), where he was instructor in dogmatic theology in 1879-83, and was parish priest at Wildbad and district inspector of schools, except for tours of Austria, Germany, France, Italy, and England, from 1883 to 1893. In the latter year he was appointed associate professor of apologetics and dogmatics at the University of Freiburg, and four years later was promoted to his present position of full professor of the same subjects. He is also director of the dogmatic seminar in the university, and has written Zukunftsreligion des Unbewussten (Freiburg, 1882); Kunst des Gedankenlesens (Frankfort, 1886); Encyklopaedie der theoretischen Philosophie (Stuttgart, 1886); Gottesbeweis oder Gottesbeweise? (1888); Apologie des Christentums (Freiburg, 1889); La Matiere (Paris, 1891); Die Freiheit der philosophischen Forschung (Freiburg, 1894); Vom Denken (1896); Vom Sein (1896); Vom Erkennen (1897); Leibniz, sein Leben und die Bedeutung seiner Lehre (Frankfort, 1901); Zur Erinnerung an Franz Xavier Krauss (Freiburg, 1902); Wesen des Christentums (1903); and Der Papst und die Freiheit (1903). Brainerd, David BRAINERD, DAVID: Missionary to the American Indians; b. at Haddam, Conn., Apr. 20, 1718; d. at the home of Jonathan Edwards (to whose daughter Jemima he was engaged), Northampton, Mass., Oct. 9, 1747. He entered Yale College in 1739 and was expelled in his junior year; it was the time of the Great Awakening and Brainerd, who was "sober and inclined to melancholy" from childhood, sympathized with the "New Lights" (Whitefield, Tennent, and their followers); he attended their meetings when forbidden to do so, and criticized one of the tutors as having "no more grace than a chair"; as a consequence he was expelled. He was licensed at Danbury, Conn., July 29, 1742; was approved as a missionary by the New York correspondents of the Society in Scotland for Propagating Christian Knowledge, Nov. 25, 1742, and labored among the Indians at Kaunaumeek (Brainerd, Rensselaer County, N. Y., 18 m. s.e. of Albany) Apr., 1743-Mar., 1744; was ordained as a missionary at Newark, N. J., June 12, 1744; ten days later began work at what was intended to be his permanent station, at the forks of the Delaware, near Easton, Penn.; in October he visited the Indians on the Susquehanna, and June 19, 1745, began to preach at Crossweeksung (Crosswick, 9 m. s.e. of Trenton), the scene of his greatest success. His life among the Indians was one of hardship and suffering borne with heroic fortitude and self-devotion; his health gave way under the strain and he relinquished the work, Mar. 20, 1747, dying from consumption. The portions of his diary dealing with his work at Crossweeksung (June 19-Nov. 4, 1745, and Nov. 24, 1745-June 19, 1746) were published before his death, by the commissioners of the Society (Mirabilia dei inter Indicos: or the rise and progress of a remarkable work of grace among a number of the Indians in the provinces of New Jersey and Pennsylvania; and Divine Grace Displayed: or the continuance and progress of a remarkable work of grace, etc., both published at Philadelphia, 1746, and commonly known as "Brainerd's Journal"). All of his papers, including an account of his early life and the original copy of his diary, were left with Jonathan Edwards, who prepared An Account of the Life of the Late Rev. David Brainerd (Boston, 1749), omitting the parts of the diary already published. The life and diary entire, with his letters and other writings, were edited by S. E. Dwight (New Haven, 1822) and by J. M. Sherwood (New York, 1884). His place as missionary was taken, at his request, by his brother John (b. at Haddam, Conn., Feb. 28, 1720; d. at Deerfield, N. J., Mar. 18, 1781). He was graduated at Yale, 1746. His work was hindered by disputes about title to Indian lands, war, and opposition from the Quakers; he was dismissed by the Society in Scotland in 1755, reengaged in 1756, again dismissed in 1757, and again asked to return in 1759; the funds provided by the Society and by the Synod of New York and New Jersey were insufficient, and he gave freely from his own scanty means; he served the whites no less faithfully than the Indians and was at the same time both foreign and home missionary; after 1777 he had charge of a church at Deerfield. Consult his life by Thomas Brainerd (Philadelphia, 1865). Brainerd, Thomas BRAINERD, THOMAS: American Presbyterian; b. at Leyden, Lewis County, N. Y., June 17, 1804; d. at Scranton, Penn., Aug. 22, 1866. He gave up the study of law for theology, and was graduated at Andover in 1831; was pastor of the Fourth Presbyterian Church, Cincinnati, 1831-33; of the Pine Street (Third) Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia, 1837 till his death. He was a leader of the New School branch of the Presbyterian Church, a personal friend of Lyman Beecher and Albert Barnes; was distinguished for patriotic ardor and services during the Civil War. Ha wrote much for religious periodicals, edited the Cincinnati Journal, a Presbyterian religious paper (1833-36), and a young people's paper, and wrote the Life of John Brainerd (Philadelphia, 1865). His great-great-grandfather was an uncle of David and John Brainerd, the missionaries. Bibliography: Mary Brainerd, Life of Rev. Thomas Brainerd, Philadelphia, 1870. Bramhall, John BRAMHALL, JOHN: Protestant archbishop of Armagh; b. at or near Pontefract (22 m. s.s.w. of York), Yorkshire, 1594; d. at Omagh (30 m. s. of Londonderry), County Tyrone, Ireland, June 25, 1663. He studied at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge (B.A., 1612; M.A., 1616; B.D., 1623; D.D., 1630); took orders about 1616 and distinguished himself in Yorkshire, where he received several appointments. In 1633 he went to Ireland as chaplain to Wentworth (afterward Earl of Strafford); became archdeacon of Meath, and, in 1634, bishop of Derry. He did much to increase the revenues of the Irish Church, and tried to establish episcopacy more firmly. Most of the time from the Irish insurrection of 1641 till the Restoration he spent on the Continent, was made archbishop of Armagh in 1661, and as such displayed a commendable moderation in striving to secure conformity. His works were collected by John Vesey, archbishop of Tuam, and published at Dublin in 1677; they include five treatises against Romanists, three against sectaries, three against Hobbes, and seven miscellaneous, in defense of royalist and Anglican views. The works are reprinted in the Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology (5 vols., Oxford, 1842-45) with life. Brandenburg, Bishopric of BRANDENBURG, BISHOPRIC OF: A diocese established by Otto the Great in 948, including the territory between the Elbe on the west, the Oder on the east, and the Black Elster on the south, and taking in the Uckermark to the north. It was originally under the archiepiscopal jurisdiction of Mainz, but in 968 was transferred to that of Magdeburg. The disturbances of 983 practically annihilated it; bishops continued to be named, but they were merely titular, until the downfall of the Wends in the twelfth century and the German settlement of that region revived the bishopric. Bishop Wigers (1138-60) was the first of a series of bishops of the Premonstratensian order; which chose the occupants of the see until 1447; in that year a bull of Nicholas V gave the right of nomination to the elector of Brandenburg, with whom the bishops stood in a close feudal relation. The last actual bishop was Matthias von Jagow (d. 1544), who took the side of the Reformation, married, and in every way furthered the undertakings of [499]Elector Joachim II. There were two more nominal bishops, but on the petition of the latter of these, the electoral prince John George, the secularization of the bishopric was undertaken and finally accomplished, in spite of legal proceedings to have the bishopric declared immediately dependent on the empire and so to preserve it, which dragged on into the seventeenth century. Brandenburg, Confessions BRANDENBURG, CONFESSIONS or CONFESSIONS OF THE MARK (Confessiones marchicae, i.e., Brennoburgenses): The confessions of the mark Brandenburg during the Reformation. They are three in number: (1) the Confession prepared by order of Johann Sigismund, elector of Brandenburg, 1614, which was intended to reconcile the views of Luther with those of Calvin (see [500]Sigismund, Johann); (2) the Leipsic Colloquy, 1631, i.e., the declarations of the theologians who took part in the [501]Colloquy of Leipsic, 1631; (3) the Declaration of Thorn, 1645 (see [502]Thorn, Conference of). Bibliography: The text of the three confessions is in J. C. W. Augusti, Corpus librorum symbolicorum, pp. 369 sqq., Elberfeld, 1827 and in H. A. Niemeyer, Collectio confessionum in reformata publicatarum, pp. 642 sqq., Leipsic, 1840. Consult Schaff, Creeds, ii, 554-563. Brandes, Friedrich Heinreich BRANDES, br??n'dez, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH: German Reformed; b. at Salzuflen (48 m. s.w. of Hanover) Apr. 25, 1825. Educated at the University of Berlin, he was successively second preacher and rector at Salzuflen from 1853 to 1856, and pastor at Goettingen from 1856 to 1901. Since the latter year he has been court-preacher at Bueckeburg. Among his numerous writings those of theological interest are: Wir werden leben, Gespraeche ueber Unsterblichkeit (Goettingen, 1858); John Knox, der Reformator Schottlands (Elberfeld, 1862); Katechismus der christlichen Lehre (Goettingen, 1865); Verfassung der Kirche nach evangelischen Grundsaetzen (2 vols., Elberfeld, 1867); Zur Wiedervereinigung der beiden evangelischen Kirchen (Goettingen, 1868); Des Apostel Paulus Sendschreiben an die Galater (Wiesbaden, 1869); Geschichte der kirchlichen Polizei des Hauses Brandenburg, (2 vols., Gotha, 1872-73); Blicke in das Seelenleben des Herrn (Guetersloh, 1888); Unser Herr Christus. i, Seine Person (1901); and Einigungen der evangelischen Kirchen ein Befehl des Herrn (Berlin, 1902). Brandt, Wilhelm BRANDT, WILHELM: Dutch Protestant; b. at Amsterdam July 22, 1855. He was educated for the ministry of the Dutch Reformed Church and was a pastor until 1891, when he went to Berlin, where he resided for two years. Since 1893 he has been professor of New Testament exegesis and the history of religions at the University of Amsterdam. In theology he belongs to the historico-critical school, and has written Die mandaeische Religion (Leipsic, 1889); Mandaeische Schriften (Goettingen, 1893); and Die evangelische Geschichte und der Ursprung des Christenthums (Leipsic, 1893). Brann, Henry Athanasius BRANN, HENRY ATHANASIUS: Roman Catholic; b. at Parkstown (27 m. s.w. of Drogheda), County Meath, Ireland, Aug. 15, 1837. He came to the United States at the age of ten, and was educated at St. Mary's College, Wilmington, Del., St. Francis Xavier's College, New York City (B.A., 1857), St. Sulpice, Paris (1857-60), and the American College, Rome (D.D., 1862). He was ordained to the priesthood at Rome in 1862, being the first priest of the American College, and from 1862 to 1864 was vice-president of Seton Hall College, South Orange, N. J., where he also taught theology. Four years later he became director of an ecclesiastical seminary at Wheeling, W. Va., where he remained until 1870, when he was appointed rector of St. Elizabeth's Church, Fort Washington, N. Y. Twenty years later he became rector of St. Agness Church, New York City, where he still remains. He is archdiocesan censor of books and has written Curious Questions (Newark, N. J., 1867); Truth and Error (New York, 1871); Essay on the Popes (1875); The Age of Unreason (1881); The Immortality of the Soul (1882); and Life of Archbishop Hughes (1892). Brann, Marcus BRANN, MARCUS: German Jewish historian; b. at Rawitsch (64 m. s. of Posen) July 9, 1849. He was educated at the University of Breslau (Ph.D., 1873) and the rabbinical seminary in the same city, from which he was graduated in 1875. He was then a rabbi in various cities of Germany until 1891, when he was appointed to succeed H. Graetz as professor of history and Biblical exegesis in the Jewish theological seminary at Breslau, where he still remains. He has written: De Herodis Magni filiis patrem in imperio secutis (Breslau, 1873); Die Soehne des Herodes (1873); Geschichte der Gesellschaft der Brueder in Breslau (1880); Geschichte der Juden und ihrer Literatur (2 vols., 1893-94); Geschichte des Rabbinats in Schneidemuehl (1894); Geschichte der Juden in Schlesien (3 parts, 1895-1901); Ein kurzer Gang durch die juedische Geschichte (1895); Ein kurzer Gang durch die Geschichte der juedischen Literatur (1896); Lehrbuch der juedischen Geschichte (4 vols., 1900-03); and Geschichte des juedischen theologischen Seminars (1904). He has likewise edited the Jahrbuch zur Belehrung and Unterhaltung since 1890, and from 1892 to 1899, in collaboration with D. Kaufmann, edited the Monatsschrift fuer Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judentums, becoming its sole editor on Kaufmann's death in the latter year. He likewise collaborated with F. Rosenthal in editing the Gedenkbuch zur Erinnerung an David Kaufmann (Breslau, 1900). Brant, Sebastian BRANT, br??nt, SEBASTIAN: German satirist; b. at Strasburg 1457; d. there May 10,1521. He was but ten years old when his father died, and, after being educated privately, entered the University of Basel in 1475, where the strife between realism and nominalism had been revived as a struggle between humanism and scholasticism. There Brant devoted himself half-heartedly to the study of law, but his preference for philosophy and poetry proved too unremunerative to yield him a livelihood, so he was obliged to take up the study of jurisprudence in earnest, and finally received the degree of doctor of civil and canon law in 1489. Meanwhile he had developed a literary activity which led him, in addition to the lectures which he delivered after 1484, to write book upon book, partly on jurisprudence, both in Latin and the vernacular, and partly in verse, chiefly in German. Filled with longing for his native city, he applied for the vacant position of syndic, and secured it in the early part of 1501, both through his own reputation and through the recommendation of Johann Geiler. Two years afterward he was appointed secretary of the municipality, and later was made imperial councilor to the emperor Maximilian. His "Ship of Fools." Though Brant was either the author or the editor of a long series of books, there is but one which has preserved his fame to the present day, the Narrenschiff (Basel, 1494). The end of the Middle Ages, which marked the wreck and ruin of all the ancient conditions in Church and State, as well as in moral and social life, was felt most keenly in Germany, where it evoked a spirit of satire which spared neither life nor death. The most striking representative of this tendency, next to the Dance of Death, is the Narrenschiff of Brant. Wherever the poet looked, he saw only folly, regardless of sex, age, or estate, and as at carnival the mummers ran through the streets in the guise of fools, often with ships on wheels, he regarded life as a great carnival, where fool on fool took his seat in the ship of fools to voyage to Narragonia, the land of fools. Brant was, therefore, in this sense the spokesman of his time, and his work has become immortal in that it is a mirror of the period. He remained true, moreover, to the genius of the German people, despite his attraction toward humanism and his numerous sentiments and parallels drawn from the classics. His views and his habits of thought were taken from the life around him, and his German, though evidently based on his Latinity, is neither as awkward nor as unintelligible as that of Niclas of Wyle immediately preceding him or that of his successor Hutten. He was so far from intending to restrict his work to the learned that he even considered those who did not know how to read, and accordingly adorned his book with pictures as a substitute for the letters. The Narrenschiff, therefore, alternates between picture and text, thus giving a double representation of folly, an arrangement which divides the poem into disjointed fragments succeeding each other by chance rather than by design, although the diversity of the material would scarcely have permitted the author to mold it into a homogeneous whole. Yet Brant was swayed by two opposing tendencies, and while, on the one hand, he did not hesitate to expose the faults in the external life of the Church with its lack of faith, and its lack of morality, he feared to touch its inner and higher teachings, and lamented the wavering bark of St. Peter, upbraiding the heretics and regarding the printer as an unmixed evil. (E. Steinmeyer.) Bibliography: The Narrenschiff was reprinted many times and was as frequently revamped, especially in the Latin translation of Jakob Locher Philomusus (1497). In 1497 it was translated into French, four years later into Latin verse by Jodocus Badius Ascensius, in 1519 into Low German, and in 1635 into Dutch, while in 1509 it was rendered into English by [503]Alexander Barclay under the title of the Ship o/ Fools. The best German edition is by F. Zarncke, Leipsic, 1854, next to it is that by K. Goedeke, ib. 1872. In 1498 a series of sermons was based upon the Narrenschiff by Geiler of Kaisersberg, and it was repeatedly imitated, as in the Von S. Ursulen-Schifflein, by the Brotherhood of St. Ursula (Strasburg, 1497), and by Brant's compatriot, Thomas Murner, in his Narrenbeschwoerung (1512). Bibliographies are given by C. Schmidt, Histoire litteraire de l'Alsace, i, 189-333, ii, 340-373, Paris, 1879, and K. Goedeke, Grundriss zur Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung, i, 383-392, Dresden, 1884. The best accounts of the life of Brant are to be found in the introductions to the editions of the Narrenschiff by Zarncke and Goedeke, ut sup. Consult also C. Schmidt, Notice sur Sebastian Brant, in the Revue d'Alsace, new series, vol. iii, 1874. Brastberger, Immanuel Gottlob BRASTBERGER, IMMANUEL GOTTLOB: Popular German preacher; b. at Sulz (40 m. s.w. of Stuttgart), Wuerttemberg, 1716; d. July 13, 1764, as Spezialsuperintendent at Nuertingen. His sermons on the Gospels, Evangelische Zeugnisse der Wahrheit zur Aufmunterung im wahren Christenthum (Stuttgart, 1758) are still read, the eighty-fifth edition having appeared at Reutlingen in 1883, and a translation into Polish in 1905. Brastow, Lewis Orsmond BRASTOW, LEWIS ORSMOND: Congregationalist; b. at Brewer, Me., Mar. 23, 1834. He was educated at Bowdoin College (B.A., 1857) and Bangor Theological Seminary (1860), and held successive pastorates at the South Congregational Church, St. Johnsbury, Vt. (1860-73), and the First Congregational Church, Burlington, Vt. (1873-84), in addition to being chaplain of the Twelfth Vermont Volunteers in the Civil War. Since 1885 he has been professor of practical theology in Yale Divinity School. He was a member of the Constitutional Convention of the State of Vermont in 1870. In theology he is a conservative liberal, and in addition to numerous briefer contributions has written Representative Modern Preachers (New York, 1904) and The Modern Pulpit (1906). Bratke, Eduard BRATKE, EDUARD: German Protestant; b. at Neuhaus (a village near Waldenburg, 43 m. s.w. of Breslau), Silesia, Feb. 26, 1861; d. at Breslau Jan. 30, 1906. He was educated at the universities of Berlin, Goettingen (Ph.D., 1883), and Breslau (licentiate of theology, 1885). In 1886 be became privat-docent of the latter university, but four years later was called to Bonn as associate professor of church history, remaining there until 1903, when he returned to Breslau as full professor of the same subject. He wrote Justus Gesenius und seine Verdienste um die hannoverische Landeskirche (Goettingen, 1883); Luthers fuenfundneunzig Thesen und ihre dogmenhistorischen Voraussetzungen (1884); Wegweiser zur Quellen- und Literaturkunde der Kirchengeschichte (Gotha, 1890); Das neuentdeckte vierte Buch des Danielkommentars des Hippolytus (Bonn, 1891); Das sogenannte Religionsgesgraech am Hof der Sasaniden (Leipsic, 1900); Die Weisheit des Todes (Guetersloh, 1902); and Euagrii altercatio legis inter Simonem Judaeum et Theophilum Christianum (Vienna, 1904; text and commentary). Bratton, Theodore du Bose BRATTON, THEODORE DU BOSE: Protestant Episcopal bishop of Mississippi; b. at Winnsboro, S. C., Nov. 11, 1862. He studied at the University of the South, Sewanee, Tenn., but withdrew in 1882, a few months before graduation, because of trouble with his eyes. He was at once appointed proctor of the university, and in 1883 became a teacher in the preparatory school attached to the same institution. He pursued theological studies in St. Luke's Theological Hall, the seminary of the University, and was graduated in 1887. He was ordered deacon in the same year and was priested in 1888, after having been a missionary in his native State in the interval. He was then rector of the Church of the Advent, Spartanburg, S. C., 1888-99, also being professor of history in Converse College, Spartanburg, 1890-99, after which he was rector of St. Mary's School for Girls at Raleigh, N. C. In 1903 he was consecrated third bishop of the diocese of Mississippi. Braun, Johann Wilhelm Josef BRAUN, JOHANN WILHELM JOSEF: Roman Catholic theologian and scholar; b. at Gronau (30 m. n.w. of Muenster) Apr. 27, 1801; d. at Bonn Sept. 30, 1863. He was associated with the University of Bonn as a student from 1821 to 1825, adjunct professor from 1829 to 1833, and professor of theology from 1833. For the part which he took in the Hermesian controversy see [504]Hermes, Georg. With J. H. Achterfeld, he published the Zeitschrift fuer Philosophie und katholische Theologie from 1832 to 1852. His Bibliotheca regularum fidei (Bonn, 1844) and a number of occasional archeological studies should also be mentioned. A. Hauck Bray, Guido de. BRAY, GUIDO DE. See [505]Bres. Bray, Thomas BRAY, THOMAS: Church of England; b. at Merton, near Cherbury (17 m. s.w. of Shrewsbury), Shropshire, 1656; d. in London Feb. 15, 1730. He studied at Oxford (B.A., All Souls, 1678; M.A., Hart Hall, 1693; B.D. and D.D., Magdalen, 1696), took orders about 1678, and soon won friends and advancement by his "exemplary behaviour and distinguished diligence." In 1690 he became rector of Sheldon, Warwickshire. In 1696 Bishop Compton of London appointed him commissary for Maryland. He was unable to sail for the colony until Dec., 1699, landed in Mar., 1700, but after a residence of less than six months returned to England, finding he could better promote the interests of the province there. From 1706 he was rector of St. Botolph Without, Aldgate, London. Bray's Varied and Effective Activity. Bray's life furnishes a striking example of what can be accomplished by energy, good judgment, and disinterested benevolence. As soon as he was appointed commissary for Maryland he took up the work, and, while detained in England, tried to find there suitable men to send out as missionaries and formed a plan to provide them with books. He did not limit his good services to Maryland, and his plan grew into a scheme for a "Protestant congregation pro propaganda fide by charter from the king." When this failed in spite of persistent endeavor, he organized a voluntary society to provide libraries at home and abroad and to support schools and missions for the colonies and the heathen. The first meeting was held Mar. 8, 1699, and this was the beginning of the [506]Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge. In June,1701, he divided its work and procured a royal charter for a second society--the [507]Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. From his appointment as commissary till he was able to sail he bore his own expenses and he paid the costs of his voyage. By his return he forfeited his salary, which was available only when he was in Maryland. A present of -L-400 he devoted to public use. He collected and managed a fund for the instruction of the negroes in the provinces, and, at the age of seventy-one, became interested in the prisoners in the London jails and undertook to ameliorate their condition. It is believed that he influenced General Oglethorpe to found the colony of Georgia. His benefactions were continued by numerous bequests in his will. Libraries in America. Bray's exertions resulted in the foundation of nearly forty libraries in America. In 1699, just before he sailed for Maryland, he wrote that he had sent books to the value of -L-2,400 into the plantations, "whereby thirty libraries have been already advanced, and a foundation is laid of seventy libraries more." The greater number were in Maryland, but there were several in Virginia, two in North Carolina, and one each in Boston, Rhode Island, New York City, Albany, New Jersey, Philadelphia, and Charleston. That at Annapolis, Md., was the largest collection of books at the time in the plantations and was the first lending library in the British colonies. Its remains are now in the possession of St. John's College, Annapolis. The remnant of the Boston library is in the Boston Athenaeum. The Bray Associates. After a severe illness in 1723 Bray chose four friends to assist in the management of the negro schools and continue his work after his death. Thus originated "Dr. Bray's Associates for Founding Clerical Libraries and Supporting Negro Schools," an association which has continued to exist and in 1906 reported 130 libraries maintained in England and Wales and 153 in sixty-seven colonial and missionary dioceses; during the year two new libraries were founded and negro schools were maintained in Nova Scotia and the Bahama Islands. The total number of libraries founded in Great Britain and the colonies is over 500. About eighty of the total number were founded by Dr. Bray, exclusive of those established in America. A reorganization of the "Associates" was effected in 1905, and a division of the funds was made whereby the income of an endowment amounting to about -L-7,000 will be applied to the support of the schools; the remainder of the funds, amounting to about -L-4,500, will be used to establish, maintain, or augment theological libraries in Great Britain or elsewhere for the use of clergymen of the Church of England and students who are candidates for holy orders. Writings. While at Sheldon, Bray planned A Course of Lectures upon the Church Catechism, in 4 volumes, and completed vol. i, twenty-six lectures, On the Preliminary Questions and Answers (Oxford, 1696); the book proved popular, brought him upward of -L-700, extended his reputation to London, and helped to secure his appointment as commissary; vols. ii-iv were not completed. In connection with his library plans he published: Bibliotheca parochialis, or a scheme of such theological heads as are requisite to be studied by every pastor of a parish, with a catalogue of books (London, 1697; 2d ed., much changed, 1707); An Essay towards Promoting All Necessary and Useful Knowledge (1697), closing with a catalogue of sixty-three books "designed to lay the foundation of lending-libraries to be fixed in all the market-towns in England "; Bibliotheca catechetica, or the country curate's library (1702); and Primordia bibliothecaria (1726), in which he gives "several schemes of parochial libraries" and outlines a method "to proceed by a gradual progression from strength to strength, from a collection not much exceeding in value -L-1 to -L-100." Several Circular Letters to the Clergy of Maryland (1701) treats of the "work of catechising" and the "duty of preaching," with many practical directions for the use of books; a list for a "layman's library" is appended. Of interest as Americana are: a sermon on Apostolic Charity, preceded by A General View of the English Colonies in America with Respect to Religion (London, 1698); a sermon on The Necessity of an Early Religion, preached before the Assembly of Maryland (Annapolis, 1700; the earliest extant work printed in Maryland); The Acts of Dr. Bray's Visitation at Annapolis, May 23-25, 1700 (London, 1700; reprinted in F. L. Hawks's Contributions to the Ecclesiastical History of the United States, vol. ii, New York, 1839, pp. 497-523); A Memorial Representing the Present State of Religion on the Continent of North America (1700). He was a strong Anti-Romanist, and another noteworthy publication was Papal Usurpation and Persecution (1712), intended as a supplement to Fox's Book of Martyrs. The materials gathered for this volume and a continuation of it, which he did not complete, he left to Sion College, London. Bibliography: Bray's Life and Designs, written probably, by Richard Rawlinson (d. 1755) and preserved in manuscript in the Bodleian Library, has been made the basis of all subsequent accounts (such as Public Spirit Illustrated in the Life and Designs of the Rev. Thomas Bray, London, 1746, 2d ed., with notes and the report of the "Associates" for 1807, by Henry J. Todd, 1808), and has been printed in full, with valuable notes and Selected Works Relating to Maryland, by B. C. Steiner, Maryland Historical Society Fund Publication no. 37, Baltimore, 1901. An article by Mr. Steiner in The American Historical Review, ii (1897), 59-75, gives an account of Bray's American libraries. Some information concerning the fate of those in England may be found in the Transactions and Proceedings of the First Annual Meeting of the Library Association of the United Kingdom, pp. 51-53, 145-150, London, 1879. A paper by J. F. Hurst on Parochial Libraries in the Colonial Period, in Papers of the American Society of Church History, vol. ii, part 1, New York, 1890, deals with the Bray libraries. The "Associates" (address, 19 Delahay St., London, S. W.) publish an annual report which contains a brief Memoir of Dr. Bray. Brazil BRAZIL: A republic of eastern South America; area, 3,218,100 square miles; population, 15,000,000. Brazil became independent of Portugal by the creation of the Empire of Brazil in 1822, which was superseded without war in 1889 by the United States of Brazil, forming a republic with a new constitution framed in 1891. Each of twenty states sends representatives to the senate and house of deputies, but retains a large measure of self-government. It is expressly forbidden to "create, support, or prevent religious denominations," the basal principle being the free exercise of all religions, so far as they are not prejudicial to the public welfare. No religion, therefore, receives aid from the State, and civil marriage before a magistrate is legal, while instruction in the schools is required to be secular, the religious orders being suppressed. Simultaneously with the promulgation of this constitution, and partly in consequence of it, there was a rapid increase in immigration from Europe to Brazil, although for many years previously a considerable number of Italians had been coming to the country. This, however, made little change in religious conditions, although in more recent times the German immigration has somewhat increased, and a small number of North Americans has been added to the Italians, particularly in the cities; this increase, predominantly Protestant, is almost negligible in comparison with the numbers of Italians, Portuguese, and Spaniards. Non-German Protestant denominations are also represented, especially in the maritime towns, where there are English churches, which, however, do not always have permanent rectors. The Presbyterians, particularly from North America, have settled in considerable numbers in Sao Paulo, where they have established a college, and the American Seaman's Friend Society has an agent in the capital, Rio de Janeiro. In 1899 the Protestant Episcopal Church made the [508]Rev. Lucien Lee Kinsolving bishop of southern Brazil, with residence at Rio Grande do Sul (Sao Pedro). In 1907 his diocese was made an integral part of the American Episcopal Church. German Protestantism is represented over an extensive territory and has numerous centers, as is shown by the existence of two great ecclesiastical bodies, the "Evangelical German Synod," subject to the jurisdiction of the higher church council of Berlin since 1869, and the "Evangelical Synodical Union" of 1884. The latter receives its clergy not only from Berlin, but also through the missionary societies of Barmen and Basel, especially in view of the number of Swiss immigrants to Brazil. Many German evangelical communities, as well as scattered members of the Evangelical Church are found both in Rio de Janeiro itself and the state of the same name (including Petropolis) and the state of Espirito Santo (including Leopoldina), and especially in the four southern states of Sao Paulo, Parana, Santa Catharina, and Rio Grande do Sul. In the latter state there are forty congregations, while in Santa Catharina 7,500 Protestants live in the German city of Blumenau alone, and of the 100,000 Germans in the state about two-thirds are evangelical. All the districts with a German population are richly provided with schools, even though all branches of instruction are not as thorough as might be desired. Evangelical schools, however, are not infrequently replaced by interdenominational religious schools. In the Roman Catholic German communities careful provision is made for schools, and in a number of colonies the educational activity of the clergy is such that they receive salaries from the State. The Roman Catholic Church has two archdioceses in Brazil: (1) Bahia or Sao Salvador (founded as a bishopric in 1555, made an archbishopric in 1676), with the suffragan bishoprics of Alagoas (founded 1900; residence at Maceio), Amazon (1893; residence Manaos), Belem or Para (1719), Fortaleza or Ceara (1854), Goyaz (1826; residence Uberava), Sao Luiz (1677; residence Maranhao) Olinda (1676), Parahyba (1893), and Piauhy (1902; residence Therezina); and (2) Sao Sebastiao or Rio de Janeiro (1676; made an archbishopric 1893), with the suffragan bishoprics of Curitiba (1893), Cuyaba (1745), Diamantina (1854), Marianna (1745), Sao Paulo (1745), Petropolis (1893), Sao Pedro (1848; residence Porto Alegre), Pouso Alegre (1900), and Espirito Santo (1896; residence Vitoria). There is also the exempt prelature of Santarem (1903). While secular priests are chiefly employed in the service of the Church, they are lacking in many districts and their training is defective. Despite the suppression of the orders, therefore, many of the larger ones have numerous representatives. Although they have few stations, they are actively engaged in the conversion of the Indians, among whom the Jesuits worked with great success in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in the ranges of the Cordilleras and along the Upper Amazon. In 1767 the Portuguese expelled the Jesuits from Brazil. The aborigines in the interior of Brazil still remain uninfluenced by any missionary activity. Wilhelm Goetz. Bibliography: On the country and people consult: J. C. and D. P. Kidder, Brazil and the Brazilians, New York, 1896; [Miss M. R. Wright], The New Brazil, its Resources and Attractions, London, 1901; Santa-Anna Nery, The Land of the Amazons, New York, 1901; United States of Brazil: a Geographical Sketch, with special Reference to Economic Conditions and Prospects of Future Development, Bureau of Am. Republics, Washington, 1901; T. C. Dawson, The South American Republics, vol. i, New York, 1903. On religious matters consult: F. Badaro, Les Couvents au Bresil, Florence, 1897; H. P. Beach, Protestant Missions in South America, New York, 1900; J. S. Dennis, Centennial Survey of Foreign Missions, ib. 1902; H. C. Tucker, Bible in Brazil, ib. 1902. An exhaustive work of reference is A. L. Garraux, Bibliographie bresilienne, Paris, 1898. Bread and Baking BREAD AND BAKING: Bread was for the Hebrews the chief article of diet, as it is for modern Palestinian peasants. In early times it was made from barley, which was later displaced by wheat, except as it remained the staple for the poorer classes, though now it is not regarded as altogether wholesome. Primitive usage was to roast the ears of grain, which were so eaten especially at harvest time (Ruth ii, 14), and, thus prepared, still form a convenient food for travelers. In primitive preparation of grain for food, a sort of mortar was used to crush it into the coarser meal, a handmill for the flour. The latter, of primitive form, is still used in the East and consists of two stones, the lower one the harder, the middle surfaces not flat, but respectively concave and convex, the upper with a hole in the center in which the post of the lower is set and into which the grain is poured for grinding. The work of grinding fell to the women or to slaves, though the later and larger mills were turned by beasts. The preparation of meal or flour was a daily task, done as there was need for the product. The dough was mixed in a wooden kneading-trough, and in early times was unleavened, as is the case generally with the modern Bedouin. The dough was made up round, flat or disk-shaped, and baked on a layer of heated stones from which the coals were removed when the dough was placed upon the stones to bake and then replaced. Mention is made (Lev. ii, 5) of an iron plate or pan for baking. There came to be finally two forms of oven, both in common use among the modern peasantry, one of which is heated from the outside, the other from the inside. The art of baking was developed with the other arts till it became a handicraft or trade, and gave its name to a street in Jerusalem (Jer. xxxvii, 21; cf. Hos. vii, 4). Bread was used in sacred offerings at first either leavened or unleavened; later the former was excluded (Ex. xxiii, 18; Lev. ii, 11). (I. Benzinger.) Bibliography: An excellent account, perhaps the best, is to be found in DB, i, 315-319. Consult also: E. Robinson, Biblical Researches, ii, 416-417, New York, 1856; C. M. Doughty, Arabia Deserta, i, 131 and passim, London, 1888; Benzinger, Archaeologie, pp. 62-66, 2d ed.; H. Vogelstein, Die Landwirtschaft in Palaestina, Berlin, 1894; EB, i, 604-605. Breckinridge, John BRECKINRIDGE, JOHN: American Presbyterian; b. at Cabell's Dale, near Lexington, Ky., July 4, 1797; d. there Aug. 4, 1841. He studied at Princeton and was tutor there 1820-21; was chaplain of Congress 1822-23; was ordained Sept. 10, 1823, and was pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church, Lexington, Ky., 1823-26; of the Second Presbyterian Church, Baltimore, 1828-31; corresponding secretary of the Board of Education of the Presbyterian Church at Philadelphia 1831-36; professor of pastoral theology in Princeton Seminary 1836-38; secretary of the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions 1838-40. He was president of the American Colonization Society, and at the time of his death was president-elect of Oglethorp University, Georgia. He was a leader of the Old School party and an ardent controversialist. He published a discussion with Archbishop Hughes of New York under the title Roman Catholic Controversy (Philadelphia, 1836) and some minor controversial essays. Breckinridge, Robert Jefferson BRECKENRIDGE, ROBERT JEFFERSON: Presbyterian minister, brother of [509]John Breckinridge; b. at Cabell's Dale, near Lexington, Ky., Mar. 8, 1800; d. at Danville, Ky., Dec. 27, 1871. He was graduated at Union College, 1819; practised law in Kentucky, 1823-31, and was a member of the State legislature, 1825-29; studied theology at Princeton, 1831-32, was ordained Nov. 26, 1832, and was pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church, Baltimore, 1832-45; president of Jefferson College, Pennsylvania, 1845-47; pastor of the First Presbyterian Church, Lexington, Ky., and at the same time State superintendent of public instruction, 1847-53; professor of theology at Danville Seminary, 1853-89. He was a stanch Old School Presbyterian and the author of the "Act and Testimony" (1834), complaining of the prevalence of doctrinal errors, the relaxation of discipline, and the violation of church order, which played an important part in the disruption of the Presbyterian Church; he opposed the reunion in 1869. He was a bitter opponent of the Roman Catholic Church. During the Civil War he defended the Union cause and was president of the national Republican convention at Baltimore in 1864 which renominated Abraham Lincoln for the Presidency. During his residence in Baltimore he edited The Literary and Religions Magazine (1835-43), and The Danville Review at Danville (1861-65); his principal literary work is two volumes, The Knowledge of God, objectively and subjectively considered (New York, 1857-59). Breckling, Friedrich BRECKLING, FRIEDRICH: A forerunner of the Pietistic school; b. at Hanved near Flensburg, Sleswick, 1629; died at The Hague Mar. 16, 1711. He studied at Rostock, where he imbibed the theology of Arndt; then at Koenigsberg, where syncretism was dominant, at Helmstaedt, where his relation Calixtus then was, at Wittenberg, Leipsic, Jena, and Giessen. Here his thesis for the master's degree (1653) was criticized as savoring of Weigelianism, but he refused to alter it, and published it at Amsterdam under the title Mysterium magnum, Christus in nobis (1662). He became closely allied with Tackius, and went deeper into theosophy by the aid of Hermes Trismegistus, Paracelsus, and Boehme. Going to Hamburg, he read Betke's Antichristentum, and was much influenced by its conception of priestless Christianity. After some years of wandering in search of knowledge, he was ordained to be his father's assistant and ultimate successor; but violent attacks on the local clergy caused his deposition and imprisonment in 1660. Escaping, he went to Amsterdam and got a charge at Zwolle, where he spent eight years of comparative quiet, but was again deprived of his office, and lived in retirement at Zwolle (1668-72), Amsterdam (1672-90), and The Hague (1690-1711). He maintained a correspondence with Spener and with Gottfried Arnold, whom he helped in his church history, and was busily engaged as a writer. In spite of his weaknesses, he deserves remembrance as a link in the chain of mystical natures who prepared the way for Spener and the Pietistic movement. (F. Nielsen.) Bibliography: G. Arnold, Kirchen und Ketzergeschichte, iii, 148-149, iv, 1103-04, Frankfort, 1729; A. Ritschl, Geschichte des Pietismus, ii, 1, 128, 146, Bonn, 1884; L. J. Moltesen, F. Breckling, et Bidrag til Pietismens Udviklingshistorie, Copenhagen, 1893. Bredenkamp, Konrad Justus BREDENKAMP, KONRAD JUSTUS: German Lutheran; b. at Basbeck (a village near Stade, 22 m. w.n.w. of Hamburg) June 26, 1847; d. at Verden (21 m. s.e. of Bremen) Mar. 25, 1904. He was educated at the universities of Erlangen, Bonn, and Goettingen, and was pastor at Kuppentin, Mecklenburg, from 1872 to 1878. He then resided at Goettingen for a year, and from 1880 to 1883 was privat-docent at Erlangen. In the latter year he accepted a call to Greifswald as professor of theology, and remained there until 1889, after which he was honorary professor of Old Testament exegesis at Kiel until his death. He wrote Der Prophet Sacharja erklaert (Erlangen, 1879); Vaticinium quod de Immanuele edidit Jesaias (vii, 1-ix, 6) (1880); Gesetz und Propheten (1881); and Der Prophet Jesaia erlaeutert (1887). Breeches Bible BREECHES BIBLE. See [510]Bible Versions, B, IV, S: 9. Breed, David Riddle BREED, DAVID RIDDLE: Presbyterian; b. at Pittsburg, Pa., June 10,1848. He was educated at the Western University of Pennsylvania, Hamilton College (B.A., 1867), and Auburn Theological Seminary (1870), and was pastor of the House of Hope Presbyterian Church at St. Paul, Minn., from 1870 until 1885, when he organized the Church of the Covenant, Chicago, of which he was pastor until 1894. In the latter year he accepted a call to the First Presbyterian Church of Pittsburg, and since 1898 has been professor of practical theology in the Western Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Pa. In theology he is conservative. In addition to numerous pamphlets, he has written Abraham, the Typical Life of Faith (Chicago, 1886); History of the Preparation of the World for Christ (1891); Heresy and Heresy (1891); and The History and Use of Hymns and Hymn Tunes (1903). Breithaupt, Joachim Justus BREITHAUPT, br?it'haupt, JOACHIM JUSTUS: First professor of theology at Halle; b. at Nordheim (12 m. n. of Goettingen ), Hanover, Feb. 1658; d. at the monastery of Berge (Kloster Bergen, s. of Magdeburg; the site is now a public park) Mar. 16, 1732. He studied at Helmstaedt, became corector in Wolfenbuettel in 1680, and went thence to Kiel, where he continued theological studies under [511]Christian Kortholt and became privat-docent. Then he lived for some time in Frankfort and came completely under Spener's influence. He returned to Kiel as professor of homiletics; became court preacher at Meiningen in 1685, went to Erfurt in 1687 as preacher at the Dominican Church and became professor of theology in the university. His Pietistic tendencies aroused much opposition, and in 1691 he removed to Halle, where with [512]August Hermann Francke and [513]Paul Aston he gave the theological study of the new university its peculiar character and direction. In 1705 he added to his other duties those of superintendent of the duchy of Magdeburg and in 1709 was made abbot at the monastery of Berge (then transformed into a school). He was a man of much faith, prayerful, and took a deep interest in poor students. Besides minor writings, he published Institutiones theologicae (2 vols., Halle, 1694; 2d enlarged ed., 1723; vol. iii, Institutiones theologiae moralis, 1732); Theses credendorum et agendorum fundamentales (1700). He was not without poetic talent and published a collection of Poemata miscellanea (Magdeburg, 1720). Some of his hymns are still found in the German hymn-books. (Georg Mueller.) Bibliography: The Memorial, ed. G. A. Francke, Halle, 1736, contains the Lebensbeschreibung by C. P. Leporin and Baumgartens Memoria incomparabilis theologi J. J. Breithaupt. Consult also A. Ritschl, Geschichte des Pietismus, iii, 385 et passim, Bonn, 1884; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 169-170; W. Schrader, Geschichte der Friedrichs-Universitaet zu Halle, vol. i, passim, Halle, 1894; ADB, iii, 291. Breitinger, Johann Jakob BREITINGER, br?i'tin-ger, JOHANN JAKOB: Swiss theologian; b. at Zurich Apr. 19, 1575; d. there Apr. 1, 1645. Not until his seventeenth year did his spiritual gifts begin to manifest themselves, but from 1593 to 1598 he studied at Reformed seminaries in Germany and Holland, and in 1597 became a member of the clergy of his native city. His prominence during the pestilence of 1611 proved him worthy of the appointment of deacon to the church of St. Peter. Two years later he was made pastor of the Grossmuenster, thus becoming the most important clergyman in Zurich, and in 1614 he was appointed school-rector. His importance was not due, however, to his religious or theological originality, but rather to his political intelligence and practical skill in organization and execution, combining shrewd circumspection and patience with a versatile initiative. His sermons, though not deep, were characterized by warmth of feeling, clearness, pithiness, and charm. The most important of his works are his synodical addresses, in which he sought to exalt the position of the clergy. These sermons, delivered at the semiannual sessions of the synod and collected by him in the latter years of his life, are models of pastoral wisdom, and received practical application in Breitinger's own activity. The status of the preachers was revolutionized on the basis of two of his speeches before the council in 1628, and he secured the general adoption of music in the churches, which Zurich had lacked altogether until 1598. He likewise enriched the liturgy with sections which are still in use, as with the prayer for the dead and the morning prayer after the sermon of 1638. Breitinger also successfully urged the need of religious instruction of the young, as is shown by repeated ordinances of 1613, 1628, 1637-1638, and 1643. He was, likewise, the ultimate author of the custom by which the Swiss Confederations celebrate the days of thanksgiving, repentance, and prayer at the same time, and it was he who introduced the rule of making a public announcement of marriage. In 1634 he introduced into the churches of Zurich and eastern Switzerland the use of parochial registers, which were to be returned every three years to the head of the clergy and thus served as a sort of census-report. Four years later he instituted parochial visitations, and finally established the ecclesiastical archives of Zurich. Breitinger was deeply interested in education, and was also active is the establishment of scholarships for poor students. He was no less enthusiastic in his patronage of charity, and prepared statistics of the poor as early as 1621, while in 1623, at the request of the mayor, he published Gutachten der Bettler und Armen halber. Three years later, on the basis of further studies, Breitinger made noteworthy proposals for houses of correction for neglected youth, and was also active in the improvement of prisons and hospitals. Ever watchful over the morals of the people, he opposed lack of refinement and excess, and sought to obviate the evil influences of the war in the neighboring kingdom, in addition to restricting lavish expenditure in clothing (1616, 1628), and in weddings and funerals (1621, 1628, 1640), as well as the drinking of toasts (1632), and occasionally even the stage and the cultivation of art. A watchful opponent of the hopes and propaganda of Catholicism and Anabaptism, he refrained from excessive hostility, contenting himself with remaining a constant protector of the Reformed. His personal preeminence and his interest in his church frequently involved him in political problems, and during the Thirty Years' War he was the leader of a Swedish party in Zurich. The fortification of the city was due, strictly speaking, to him, and had he had his way, Switzerland would have been involved in the struggle. (Emil Egli.) Bibliography: The chief work is by J. C. Moerikofer, J. J. Breitinger und Zuerich, Leipsic, 1874. Consult also G. R. Zimmermann, Die Zuercher Kirche, pp. 143-184, Zurich, 1877-78. Bremen BREMEN: A free city and state of the German Empire. The city is situated on the Weser, about forty-six miles from its mouth and 215 miles by rail w.n.w. of Berlin. The state includes also the harbor-cities of Vegesack and Bremerhaven and about ninety-nine square miles of contiguous territory. The total population in 1900 was 224,697, of whom 163,292 belonged to the city of Bremen. Ninety-four per cent. are reported as Evangelical Protestants, 4.9 per cent. as Roman Catholics; the number of Jews is about 1,000. Of the Protestants nearly one-third are Reformed. The Protestants have no ecclesiastical organization, the government standing at the head of the Church and managing its affairs through a commission, which is also the school board. The various congregations are independent one of the other, but, individually, take a warm interest in missionary and benevolent work. Bibliography: W. von Bippen, Geschichte der Stadt Bremen, 2 vols., Bremen, 1892-98; Jahrbuch fuer bremische Statistik, ib. 1905. Bremen, Bishopric of BREMEN, BISHOPRIC OF: A former diocese of Germany, whose foundation belongs to the period of the missionary activity of [514]Willehad on the lower Weser. He was consecrated July 15, 787, at Worms, on Charlemagne's initiative, his jurisdiction being assigned to cover the Saxon territory on both sides of the Weser from the mouth of the Aller, northward to the Elbe and westward to the Hunte, and the Frisian territory for a certain distance from the mouth of the Weser. Willehad fixed his headquarters at Bremen, though the formal constitution of the bishopric took place only after the subjugation of the Saxons in 804 or 805, when Willehad's disciple, Willerich, was consecrated bishop of Bremen, with the same territory. The diocese was probably at that time ecclesiastically subject to Cologne. When, after the death of Bishop Leuderich (838-845), it was given to Ansgar, it lost its independence (see [515]Ansgar), and from that time was permanently united with Hamburg. The new combined see was regarded as the headquarters for missionary work in the north, and new sees to be erected were to be subject to its jurisdiction. Ansgar's successor, Rimbert, the "second apostle of the north," was troubled by onslaughts first of the Normans and then of the Wends, and by renewed claims on the part of Cologne. The see of Bremen attained its greatest prosperity and later had its deepest troubles under Adalbert (see [516]Adalbert of Hamburg-Bremen). The next two archbishops, Liemar and Humbert, were determined opponents of Gregory VII. Under the latter the archbishopric of [517]Lund was erected, and Bremen had suffragan sees only in name, the Wendish bishoprics having been destroyed. Schisms in Church and State marked the next two centuries, and in spite of the labors of the [518]Windesheim and [519]Bursfelde congregations, the way was prepared for the Reformation, which made rapid headway, partly owing to the fact that the last Roman Catholic archbishop, Christopher of Brunswick, was also bishop of Verden and resided there. By the time he died (1558), nothing was left of the old religion outside of a few monasteries and the districts served by them. The title of archbishop, with the secular jurisdiction, was borne for a time by Protestant princes. The Peace of Westphalia (1648) secularized it and made it (with Verden) a duchy and an appanage of the crown of Sweden. In 1712 it passed into the possession of Denmark, and three years later was sold to Hanover, to which it was restored in 1813 after the Napoleonic disturbances. Its former territory was distributed ecclesiastically at this time among the neighboring dioceses of Hildesheim, Osnabrueck, and Muenster, the imperial city of Bremen and the surrounding district being administered by the vicar-apostolic of the northern missions. Brendan, Saint, of Clonfert BRENDAN, SAINT, OF CLONFERT (called "the Navigator"); Irish saint; b. at Tralee (on Tralee Bay, west coast of Ireland, County Kerry) 484; d. at the monastery of his sister, Brigh, at Annadown (on the east shore of Lough Corrib, County Galway), 577. After studying with the most distinguished Irish masters, he was ordained presbyter, and then undertook the expedition or expeditions which form the basis of "The Navigation of St. Brendan," one of the most popular legends of the Middle Ages. In 552 or 553 (according to others in 556 or 557) he founded the monastery of Clonfert (in the barony of Longford, County Longford) and ruled it for twenty years, during which time it was the most famous school in West Ireland. He is said also to have founded a monastery in Brittany. A visit to Columba on Hinba Island, near Iona, is recorded, which must have been after 563, and he is last heard of in 570, when he acted as bard at the inauguration of the first Christian king of Cashel. According to an Irish life of St. Brendan, when he was ordained he pondered on the words in Luke xviii, 29-30, and determined to forsake country and brethren and seek a mysterious unknown land which he saw in visions. Under angelic guidance he set forth in a coracle of wicker work and hides, but after seven years was directed to return, as work was waiting for him at home. Some years later the impulse to travel again sent him forth, this time in a fine ship, fully equipped, and with a crew of sixty. "The whole story of the saint's adventures bears neither repetition nor criticism: but in the midst of much crude fiction we find occasional touches which have evidently, been derived from the reports of genuine voyagers. In the course of their seven years' adventures they visit the Isle of Sheep, a full fair island full of green pasture: another fair island, full of flowers, herbs, and trees, where they thank God of his good grace: a little island wherein were many vines full of grapes: they meet with great tempests, in which they are greatly troubled long time and sore forlaboured; at other times calm airs and water so clear that they might see all the fishes that were about them, whereof they are full sore aghast: again they behold an hill all of fire and a foul smoke and stink coming from thence: and finally reach an attemperate land, ne too hot ne too cold, the fairest country that any man might see, in which the trees are charged with ripe fruit and flowers. Here they walk forty days, but find no end thereof, and at length lade their ships with its fruits and return home" (E. J. Payne, History of the New World, i, Oxford, 1892, 106-107). The story was known in France, Spain, and Holland in the eleventh century, and was very popular with all classes. It exists in translation into eight languages. Some of its incidents are derived from classical sources; others resemble the Arabian Nights. An expedition to the Hebrides and northern islands may have furnished the basis of fact. Bibliography: Lanigan, Eccl. Hist., ii, 28-38; St. Brandan, a metrical and a prose life, in English; ed. T. Wright, in Percy Society Publications, vol. xiv, London, 1844; W. J. Rees, Lives of the Cambro-British Saints, pp. 251-254, 575-579, Llandovery, 1853; W. Reeves's Adamnan's Life of St. Columba, p. 221, Dublin, 1857; C. Schroeder, Sanct Brandon, ein lateinischer und drei deutsche Texte, Erlangen, 1871; A. P. Forbes, Kalendars of Scottish Saints, pp. 284-287, Edinburgh, 1872; F. Michel, Les voyages merveilleux de S. Brandan, Paris; 1878; J. Healy, Insula sanctorum et doctorum, pp. 209 sqq., Dublin, 1890: D. O'Donoghue, Brendaniana, Dublin, 1893;T. Olden, The Church of Ireland, pp. 63-64, London, 1895; C. Plummer, Some New Light on the Brandon Legend, in Zeitschrift fuer celtische Philologie, v (1904), 124-141; J. O'Hanlon, Lives of the Irish Saints, v, 389-472, Dublin, n.d. Brent, Charles Henry BRENT, CHARLES HENRY: Protestant Episcopal missionary bishop of the Philippines; b. at Newcastle, Ont., Apr. 9, 1862. He was graduated at Trinity College, Toronto, in 1884, and was ordered deacon in 1886 and priested in 1887. He was then curate of St. Paul's Cathedral, Buffalo, N. Y., 1887-88, and of St. John the Evangelist, Boston, 1888-91, and associate rector of St. Stephen's, in the same city, 1897-1901, being also a member of the editorial staff of The Churchman from 1897 to 1900. In 1901 he was consecrated first bishop of the missionary district of the Philippine Islands. On May 6,1908, he was elected bishop of the diocese of Washington. He has written With God in the World (New York, 1899); The Consolations of the Cross (1902); The Splendor of the Human Body (1904); and Liberty and Other Sermons (1906). Brenz, Johann BRENZ, JOHANN. Early Advocacy of the Reformation (S: 1). Activity in behalf of the New Movement (S: 2). Opposed by the Emperor (S: 3). Activity, 1550-53 (S: 4). Controversies (S: 5). Later Years (S: 6). 1. Early Advocacy of the Reformation. Johann Brenz, the German theologian and Swabian Reformer, was born at Weil (8 m, s. of Stuttgart) June 24, 1499; d. at Stuttgart Sept. 11, 1570. He received his education at Heidelberg, where, shortly after becoming magister and regent of the Realistenbursa in 1518, he delivered philological and philosophical lectures. He also lectured on the Gospel of Matthew, only to be prohibited on account of his popularity and his novel exegesis, especially as he had already been won over to the side of Luther, not only through his ninety-five theses, but still more by personal acquaintance with him at the disputation at Heidelberg in Apr., 1518. In 1522 Brenz was threatened with a trial for heresy, but escaped through a call to the pastorate of Hall. In the spring of 1524 he received a strong ally in his activity as a Reformer in [520]Johann Isenmann, who became pastor of the parish-church at Hall. The feast of corpus Christi was the first to be discarded, and in 1524 the monastery of the Discalced Friars was transformed into a school In the Peasants' War, on the other hand, Brenz deprecated the abuse of evangelical liberty by the peasants, pleading for mercy to the conquered and warning the magistracy of their duties. At Christmas the Lord's Supper was administered in both kinds, and at Easter of the following year the first regulations were framed for the church and the school. Brenz himself prepared in 1528 a larger and a smaller catechism for the young, both characterized by simplicity, warmth, and a childlike spirit. 2. Activity in behalf of the New Movement. He first attained wider recognition, however, when he published his Syngramma Suevicum on Oct. 21,1525, attacking OEcolampadius, and finding the explanation of the creative power of the word of Christ in the theory that the body and blood of Christ are actually present in the sacrament. Henceforth Brenz took part in all the important conferences on the religious situation. In Oct., 1529, he attended the Colloquy of Marburg, and in the following year, at the request of the Margrave George of Brandenburg, he was present at the diet in Augsburg, where he seconded Melanchthon in his efforts to reach an agreement with the adherents of the ancient faith, but refused all association with the followers of Zwingli. In 1532 he collaborated in the church-regulations of Brandenburg and Nuremberg, and furthered the Reformation in the margravate of Brandenburg-Ansbach, Dinkelsbuehl, and Heilbronn, while three years later Duke Ulrich of Wuerttemberg called him as an adviser in the framing of regulations for the church, visitations, and marriage. In Feb., 1537, he was at Schmalkald, and two months later undertook the difficult but successful task of the reformation of the University of Tuebingen. He likewise attended the conference on the use of images held at Urach, Sept., 1537, where he urged their abolition. Brenz returned to Hall in April of the following year, in June, 1540, attended the conference at Hagenau, was at Worms in the latter part of the same year, and in Jan., 1546, was at Regensburg, where he was obliged to deal with Cochlaeus, although, as he had foreseen, he was unsuccessful. He devoted himself with great zeal to his pastoral duties, and side by side with his sermons was evolved a valuable series of expositions of Biblical writings. 3. Opposed by the Emperor. After the last remnants of the ancient regulations of the church of Hall had been abolished, his new rules appeared in 1543. Calls to Leipsic in 1542, to Tuebingen in 1543, and to Strasburg in 1548 were declined in favor of his position at Hall. Brenz had long opposed the adherence of Hall and the margrave to the Schmalkald League, since he regarded resistance to the temporal authorities as inadmissible. Gradually, however, his views changed, through the hostile attitude of the emperor. In 1538 Hall entered the League, and after its defeat Charles V came to the city (Dec. 16, 1546), and obtained possession of papers, letters, and sermons of Brenz, who, despite the bitter cold, was obliged to flee, although he returned Jan. 4, 1547. The new Interim of the emperor (see [521]Interim), which Brenz called interitus ("ruin"), recalled him to the scene of action, and he earnestly opposed its adoption. The imperial chancellor, Granvella, demanded his surrender, and Brenz, warned by a note reading: "Flee, Brenz, quickly, more quickly, most quickly!" escaped on the evening of his forty-ninth birthday, June 24, 1548. He hastened to Duke Ulrich, who concealed him in the castle of Hohenwittlingen near Urach, where, under the pseudonym of Joannes Witlingius, he prepared an exposition of Ps. xciii and cxxx. As the emperor was everywhere searching for him, Ulrich sent him by way of Strasburg to Basel, where he was kindly received and found time to write an exposition of the prophecy of Isaiah. Duke Christopher called him to Moempelgard, where, in Jan., 1549, Brenz was notified of the death of his wife. The condition of his children induced him to go to Swabia, but owing to the pursuit of the emperor, he was often in great danger, and the duke sheltered him in the castle of Hornberg near Gutach. There he spent eighteen months under the name of Huldrich Engster (Encaustius), always active for the welfare of the Church, both by his advice to the duke and his theological labors. He declined calls to Magdeburg, Koenigsberg, and England. In Aug., 1549, he ventured to go to Urach, where his friend Isenmann was now minister, in order to take counsel with the duke, his advisers, and [522]Matthaeus Alber, regarding the restoration of the evangelical divine service. In the autumn of 1550 he married for his second wife Catherine, the oldest daughter of Isenmann. 4. Activity, 1550-53. After Ulrich's death Brenz was asked to prepare the confessio Wirtembergica for the Council of Trent, and with three other Wittenberg theologians and Johann Marbach of Strasburg, he went to Trent, Mar., 1552, to defend his creed (see [523]Beurlin, Jakob). Great was the surprise of the fathers of the council, but they refused to be instructed by those who were to obey them. The Interim was abolished. Brenz who had thus far lived at Stuttgart, Tuebingen, Ehningen, and Sindelfingen as counselor of the duke, was made provost of the Cathedral of Stuttgart, Sept. 24, 1554, and appointed ducal counselor for life. He was now the right hand of the duke in the reorganization of ecclesiastical and educational affairs in Wuerttemberg. The great church order of 1553-59, containing also the confessio Wirtembergica, in spite of its dogmatism, is distinguished by clearness, mildness, and consideration. In like manner, his Catechismus pia et utile explicatione illustratus (Frankfort, 1551) became a rich source of instruction for many generations and countries. The proposition made by Kaspar Leyser and Jakob Andreae, in 1554 to introduce a form of discipline after a Calvinistic model was opposed by Brenz, since he held that the minister should have charge of the preaching, the exhortation to repentance, and dissuasion from the Lord's Supper, whereas excommunication belonged to the whole church. At the instance of the duke, Brenz moved in 1553 to Neuburg, to arrange the church affairs of the Palatinate. 5. Controversies. The Osiandric controversy about the doctrine of justification, in 1551 and the following years, which caused a scandalous schism in Prussia, was a cause of much annoyance and defamation to Brenz, who saw in this controversy nothing but a war of words. In 1554-1555 the question of the Religious Peace of Augsburg occupied his mind; in 1556 the conference with Johannes a Lasco, in 1557 the Frankenthal conference with the Anabaptists and the Worms Colloquy; in 1558 the edict against Schwenckfeld and the Anabaptists, and the Frankfort Recess; in 1559 the plan for a synod of those who were related to the Augsburg Confession and the Stuttgart Synod, to protect Brenz's doctrine of the Lord's Supper against Calvinistic tendencies; in 1563 and 1569 the struggle against Calvinism in the Palatinate (Maulbronn Colloquy) and the crypto-Calvinistic controversies. The attack of the Dominican Peter a Soto upon the Wuerttemberg Confession in his Assertio fidei (Cologne, 1562) led Brenz to reply with his Apologia confessionis (Frankfort, 1555). In 1558 he was engaged in a controversy with Bishop Hosius of Ermland. The development of the Reformation in the Palatinate led the aged man to a vehement renewal of his negotiation with Bullinger, with whom he had been forced into close relation through the Interim. The question concerned the doctrine of the Lord's Supper and also involved a peculiar development of Christology, which was opposed by the Lutheran theologians outside of Wuerttemberg, since Brenz carried to its logical conclusion the concept of "personal union," thus favoring an absolute omnipresence (ubiquity) of the body of Christ, which did not begin with the ascension but with the incarnation. 6. Later Years. Brenz took a lively interest in the Waldensians and the French Protestants. But all efforts in behalf of the latter, the journey of the Wuerttemberg theologians to Paris to advise King Antony of Navarre in 1561 (see [524]Beurlin, Jakob), the meeting of the duke and Brenz with Cardinal Guise of Lorraine at Zabern, the correspondence and the sending of writings, all ended in bitter disappointment. The Protestants of Bavaria, who had to suffer under Albert, also had his full sympathy. To the citizens of Strasburg Brenz expressed his doubts as to the advisability of following the procession with the monstrance and advised them not to attend mass. He was also deeply interested in the Protestants in Austria, for whom the first Slavic books were then printed at Urach. His last Reformatory activity was the correspondence with Duke William of Juelich and Julius of Brunswick-Wolfenbuettel (1568-69). In addition to this he continued his exposition of the Psalms and other Biblical books, which he had commenced at Stuttgart. In 1569 he was paralyzed, and his strength was broken. He was buried beneath the pulpit of the cathedral; but the Jesuits demolished his grave. G. Bossert. Bibliography: An index of the works, printed and in MS., of Brenz, and of works about him is furnished in W. Koehler, Bibliographia Brentiana, Berlin, 1904. There is no complete ed. of Brenz's productions, though selected works, in 8 vols., were published, Tuebingen, 1576-90. The letters are given in T. Pressel, Anecdota Brentiana, ib. 1868, and in Beitraege zur bayerischen Kirchengeschichte, ed. T. Kolde, i, 273, ii. 34. The earliest sketch of his life is by J. Heerbrand, Oratio funebris, Tuebingen, 1570. For later accounts consult: J. Hartmann and C. Jaeger, Johann Brenz, 2 vols., Hamburg, 1840-42 (still the best account); J. Hartmann, Johann Brenz, Elberfeld, 1862; G. Bossert, Das Interim in Wuerttemberg, Halle, 1895; E. Schneider, Wuerttembergische Geschichte, Stuttgart, 1896. On the theology of Brenz consult: H. Schmid, Der Kampf der lutherischen Kirche um Luther's Lehre vom Abendmahl im Reformationszeitalter, Leipsic, 1868; A. Hegler, J. Brenz und die Reformation im Herzogtum Wirtemberg, Freiburg, 1899; C. W. Kuegelgen, Die Rechtfertigungslehre des J. Brenz, Leipsic, 1899; G. Traub, Beitrag zur Geschichte des Rechtfertigungsbegriffs, in TSK, lxxiii, 1900. Bres, Guy de (Guido de Bray) BRES, bre, GUY DE (Guido de Bray): Reformer in the Netherlands; b. at Mons 1522; executed at Valenciennes May 31, 1567. He was brought up strictly by his Roman Catholic mother, but before his twenty-fifth year had become a thorough Protestant. When persecution broke out in 1548, he fled to England, where he spent four years. Then he came back and settled at Ryssel (Liege), where he won great popularity as a preacher. In 1556 his congregation was dispersed by a fresh persecution, and he was obliged to flee, going apparently for a while to Ghent, then to Frankfort, and probably to Switzerland. Early in 1559 he returned to the southern Netherlands, with Tournai for his headquarters, but serving also Ryssel and Valenciennes, and visiting Antwerp and Mons in the cause of his religion, often in disguise for safety's sake. The public singing of Marot's psalms in Sept., 1561, gave rise to a judicial investigation, which exposed Bres to fresh danger. Undaunted, he undertook to secure justice for his comrades by laying before the authorities his confession of faith (known as the [525]Belgic Confession, in thirty-seven articles, on the model of that adopted by the French Reformed churches in 1559. This modest, sober, positive statement, which he hoped would show the authorities that his friends were not revolutionary Anabaptists, failed to stop the persecution; but the frequent editions of it show that it met with popular approval; it won thousands to the cause of the Reformation, and was soon recognized as a standard formula. Once known, however, as its author, the Reformer was obliged to escape from Tournai to Amiens, and thence possibly to Antwerp. In 1564 he was in Brussels for a conference with William of Orange, and took part in the negotiations at Metz for a union of the Lutherans and Calvinists. Then he found a refuge at Sedan with Henri Robert de la Marck, Sieur de Bouillon, but was called back to a post of danger in the summer of 1566 by the consistory of Antwerp. In August he settled at Valenciennes, where by this time more than two-thirds of the inhabitants were in sympathy with the Reformation. At first he preached in the open air, but after the iconoclastic outbreak of Aug. 24 took possession of St. John's church. The governor's attempts to suppress the movement led to the siege of the city in December, and its surrender in the following March. Once more Bres was forced to flee, but he and his fellow preachers were captured a few hours later at Saint-Amand, and sent as prisoners to Tournai and then back to Valenciennes. The letters which he wrote to comfort his wife and his aged mother give an insight into his faith and the nobility of his character. He was sentenced to be hanged in front of the town hall, and thus ended a life full of toil and peril, which is one of the glories of the Reformation in the southern Netherlands. (L. A. Van Langeraad.) Bibliography: L. A. van Langeraad, Guido de Bray; zyn leven en werken. Bydrage tot de geschiedenis van het zuid-Nederlandsche Protestantisme, Zieziksee, 1884; W. C. van Manen, Guy de Bray; opsteIler van de Belydenisse des geloofs der gereformeerde Kercken in Nederland, Amsterdam, 1885. Breslau, Bishopric of BRESLAU, BISHOPRIC OF: A diocese which is shown to be already in existence at the date of the foundation of the archbishopric of Gnesen (1000). Probably it was established not long before that date, presumably not by Otto III, but by Duke Boleslav Chrobry of Poland. The original extent of the diocese can not be determined, but in later times it was nearly coextensive with the present province of Silesia, including also the Meissen district on the western side of the Queis. (A. Hauck.) A line of unusually excellent bishops administered the see with success until the sixteenth century; but Jacob von Salza (1520-39) was too weak to stand against the rising tide of the Reformation, and his successor, Balthasar von Promnitz, was even inclined to Lutheran doctrines. From 1608 to 1664 the see was occupied by three archdukes of Austria and a prince of Poland, who had little care for religion, and when Silesia came under Frederick II of Prussia Protestantism was still more encouraged. In 1821 the diocese, which is now partly in Germany and partly in Austria and numbers about two million souls, was made an exempt bishopric. Brethren, Bohemian; Brethren of the Common Life BRETHREN, BOHEMIAN; BRETHREN OF THE COMMON LIFE, and similar titles. See [526]Bohemian Brethren; [527]Common Life, Brethern of the, etc. Bretschneider, Karl Gottlieb BRETSCHNEIDER, bret'shn?i''der, KARL GOTTLIEB: German theologian; b. at Gersdorf (40 m. e. of Dresden), Saxony, Feb. 11, 1776; d. at Gotha Jan. 22, 1848; studied at Leipsic; appointed minister at Schneeberg, 1807, superintendent at Annaberg, 1808, and superintendent-general at Gotha, 1816. Ha was a prolific writer and took an active part in controversies. Among, his principal works may be mentioned: Lexicon manuale Graeco-Latinum in libros Novi Testamenti (Leipsic, 1824; 3d ed., 1840); Systematische Entwickelung aller in der Dogmatik vorkommenden Begriffe (1805; 4th ed., 1841); Handbuch der Dogmatik (1814; 4th ed., 1838). He founded the series of reprints called the Corpus reformatorum (Halle, 1834 sqq.), in which the works of Melanchthon and Calvin have appeared, to which Zwingli will be added. His standpoint was that of the so-called rational supernaturalism--a rather untenable ground between rationalism and supernaturalism. Bibliography: K. G. Bretschneider, Aus meinem Leben; Selbstbiographie, ed. H. Bretschneider (his son), Gotha, 1852. Breviary BREVIARY: The name of the Roman Catholic service-book containing what is called the "divine office" or the services for the canonical hours, as distinguished from the missal, which contains the altar-service, and the ritual, which has the rites for the administration of the sacraments, etc. It is a practically arranged, well-divided collection of prayers with numerous brief extracts from Scripture, and the Fathers and ancient hymns. From the subdeacon upward every Roman cleric is bound to recite the whole office daily. The Canonical Hours. The breviary is based on the idea of realizing, in the spirit of the Church, at least symbolically, the apostolic command to "pray without ceasing"; the whole life of the Christian is to appear as a continuous prayer, not only in heart and works, but also in words; at all hours and places of the earth the prayer of the Church is to ascend to God. The custom of the synagogue (Dan. vi, 10, 13; Ps. iv, 18) in regard to morning and evening hours (I Chron. xxiv, 30) as well as other times of prayer (Ps. cxix, 62, 64) was taken as a standard. At first there were the three hours, the third, sixth, and ninth, or 9 A.M., noon, and 3 P.M. (cf. Acts ii, 15, 46; iii, 1; x, 9). To these were added midnight, the hour when Paul and Silas prayed in the prison (Acts xvi, 25), and the beginning of the day and the night. This arrangement of prayer is mentioned in Tertullian, Cyprian, Justin Martyr, Clement of Alexandria, and the Apostolic Constitutions. In the fourth century, Athanasius (De virginitate, xii-xx) knows of seven hours; Gregory Nazianzen speaks with approval of the nightly vigils and the antiphonal singing. All these hours were adopted in the monasteries especially, as Jerome (Epist., vii, cviii, cxxx), Basil, and Augustine attest. From the monasteries these hours of prayer (called canonical as a part of canonical life) spread to the cathedral and collegiate chapters. Benedict added the seventh (compline, completorium), and since the sixth century the order and number of hours have not varied. The day-hours are prime (normally at 6 A.M.), terce (9 A.M.), sext (noon), none (3 P.M.), and vespers (6 P.M.); nowadays compline and lauds are usually reckoned with them. (See the articles under these titles.) Matins, answering to the three Roman vigils, is divided into three nocturnes, and was originally followed by the present lauds. Sources and Revisions of the Breviary. The bulk of the prayers for all these hours was taken from the Psalms, to which antiphons were added, giving the psalms a special meaning appropriate to the occasion. Afterward collects were added, which were intended to prevent distraction and excite devotion, and are accordingly brief. The posture varied between standing, sitting, and kneeling. The whole structure was enriched and completed by the addition of other prayers, responsories, versicles, etc. The musical element was provided for by official books known as antiphonaries, especially that composed under Gregory I, and the so-called Micrologus (twelfth century). Cassian attests that each three psalms at matins were followed by three lessons, taken from Scripture, on Sunday only from the New Testament; later on the lives of the saints and exegetical passages from the most prominent teachers of the Church were inserted. The introduction of metrical hymns was long opposed (Council of Braga, 553), especially in Rome. So many arbitrary additions made the offices too long, and Gregory VII reduced them; other revisions were made under Gregory IX, Clement VII, who had the assistance of the Franciscan general, Cardinal (Quignonez (1536), Clement VIII (1602), and Urban VIII (1631). The late Vatican Council also introduced some changes. Contents of the Roman Breviary. At present the Roman breviary, which has at last succeeded in supplanting the many local or diocesan uses, consists of four parts, corresponding, to the four seasons of the year. Each part again has four divisions: (1) The psalter, or ordinary week-day service for each day and hour; (2) the "proper of the season," the service for the festivals of Christ and the Sundays of the various seasons; (3) the "proper of saints," the special service for the festivals of particular saints; and (4) the "common of saints," providing, under separate classes, services for those saints who have no special one. Appendices contain the office for the dead, the gradual and penitential psalms, prayers for the dying and for travelers, and grace before and after meals. The analogous service-book in the Greek Church is called Horologium. In the Evangelical Church a similar service was often retained in cathedral and collegiate chapters, for which Luther's suggestions of 1523 and 1526 furnished a basis. The matins and vespers were especially retained. Attempts have lately been made, with varying success, to restore the other hours; but the problem can not be considered as solved. The Anglican Church, in its Book of Common Prayer, has made skilful use of important portions from the ancient order. M. Herold. The calendar of the Roman breviary is a complicated affair, especially since the multiplication of festivals in the last two or three centuries. These are classed as double or simple. The simple form the lowest class, and have no second vespers. The double (so called from the antiphons being doubled, or recited entire both before and after the psalms and canticles at lauds and vespers) are classed in order of importance as doubles of the first class (with or without an octave), second class, greater, and lesser. Where two feasts occur, i.e., fall on the same day, or concur, i.e., the first vespers of one conflict with the second vespers of the other, the difficulty is met, according to detailed rules based on the rank of the feasts, either by "transferring" the less important to the first unoccupied day, or by "commemorating" it with the recitation of its chief antiphon, versicle and response, and collect, after the collect for the day at lauds and vespers. Bibliography: A complete Eng. transl. of the Roman Breviary was made by John Marquese of Bute, 2 vols., London, 1879. Consult also: C. H. Collette, The Roman Breviary, London, 1880; G. Schober, Explanatio critica . . . breviarii Romani, Regensburg, 1891; S. Baeumer, Geschichte des Breviers, Freiburg, 1895, Fr. transl., Paris, 1906; P. Batiffol, Histoire du breviaire Romain, Paris, 1893, Eng. transl., London, 1898; Bingham, Origines, book xiii, chap. 9; J. Baudot, Le Breviaire romain, ses origines, son histoire, Paris, 1906. On the Scripture reading consult E. Ranke, Das kirchliche Perikopensystem aus den aeltesten Urkunden der roemischen Liturgie, Berlin, 1847. On the hymns consult: F. Probst, Brevier und Breviergebst, Tuebingen, 1868; J. Kayser, Beitraege zur Geschichte und Erklaerung der alten Kirchenhymnen, 2 vols., Paderborn, 1881-86; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 170-181. A rich bibliography of Breviaries is to be found in the British Museum Catalogue, s.v. Liturgies. Brewer, Leigh Richmond BREWER, LEIGH RICHMOND: Protestant Episcopal bishop of Montana; b. at Berkshire, Vt., Jan. 20, 1839. He was educated at Hobart College (B.A., 1863) and the General Theological Seminary (1866), and was ordered deacon in 1866 and ordained priest in the following year. He was successively rector of Grace Church, Carthage, N. Y. (1866-72), and Trinity Church, Watertown, N. Y. (1872-80), and in 1880 was consecrated missionary bishop of Montana. Brewster, Chauncey Bunce BREWSTER, CHAUNCEY BUNCE: Protestant Episcopal bishop of Connecticut; b. at Windham, Conn., Sept. 5, 1848. He was educated at Yale College (B.A., 1868) and Berkeley Divinity School, Middletown, Conn. (1872). He was a tutor at Yale in 1870-71, was ordered deacon in 1872, and was advanced to the priesthood in the following year. He was curate of St. Andrew's, Meriden, Conn., in 1872, and was then rector in succession of Christ Church, Rye, N. Y. (1873-81), Christ Church, Detroit, Mich. (1881-85), Grace Church, Baltimore (1885-88), and Grace Church, Brooklyn Heights (1888-97). In 1897 he was consecrated bishop-coadjutor of Connecticut, and became bishop in 1899. His theological position is that of a High-churchman with liberal sympathies. He has written The Key of Life (New York, 1894); Aspects of Revelation (1901; the Baldwin lectures for 1900); and The Catholic Ideal of the Church (1904). Brewster, William BREWSTER, WILLIAM: Leader of the "Pilgrim Fathers"; b. of good family probably at Scrooby (37 m. s. of York), Nottinghamshire, England, 1560; d. at Plymouth, Mass., Apr. 10, 1644. He matriculated at Peterhouse, Cambridge, but apparently did not graduate. From 1584 till 1587 he was in the service of William Davison, ambassador to the Low Countries and afterward secretary of state. About 1587 he retired to Scrooby, where he lived in the manor-house and was keeper of the post, a position of considerable importance at that time. He was a prominent member of a separatist congregation of which [528]Richard Clifton was pastor, holding its meetings regularly at Brewster's house. Because of persecution in England they made an unsuccessful attempt to flee to Holland in 1607, and in 1608 escaped to Amsterdam with [529]John Robinson as "teacher" and Brewster as "elder." In 1609 they settled at Leyden, where Brewster, having exhausted his means, gave lessons in English and also set up a printing-press. He favored the emigration to America, was influential in securing a grant of land in 1619, and sailed with the first company in the Mayflower, Sept., 1620. He continued as elder of the congregation at Plymouth, and preached regularly until the first ordained minister, Ralph Smith, came in 1629, but as he was not ordained, he never administered the sacraments. See [530]Congregationalists, I, 1, S:S: 5-7; [531]4, S: 1. Bibliography: Memoir, written by his colleague, William Bradford, the governor and historian of the Plymouth colony (b. 1590; d. 1657), in Young's Chronicles of the Pilgrims, Boston, 1841, and in the Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, series 5, vol. iii; A. Steele, Chief of the Pilgrims. Life and Time of W. Brewster, Philadelphia, 1857; J. Savage, Genealogical Dictionary of the First Settlers of New England, 4 vols., Boston, 1860-62; W. Walker, History of Congregational Churches, pp. 56, 59, 61-74, 77, 227, New York, 1894; DNB, vi, 304-305. Breyfogel, Sylvanus Charles BREYFOGEL, br?i'fo-gel, SYLVANUS CHARLES: Bishop of the Evangelical Association; b. at Reading, Pa., July 20, 1851. He was ordained to the ministry of the Evangelical Association in 1873, was elected presiding elder of the same organization in 1886, and has been bishop since 1891. In this capacity he has made tours of inspection throughout the United States, Canada, and Europe, as well as China, and Japan. He is chancellor of the Correspondence College of the Evangelical Association at Reading, Pa., has lectured frequently before the Ocean Grove School of Theology, the Winona Assembly, and similar summer assemblies, and has written Landmarks of the Evangelical Association (Cleveland, 1887). Briconnet, Guillaume BRICONNET, bri''sen''ne', GUILLAUME: French prelate; b. at Paris 1470; d. at Esmans (near Montereau, 20 m. e.s.e. of Melun) Jan. 24, 1534. He was a descendant of a noble family of Touraine, and, after completing his theological studies at the college of Navarre, was appointed bishop of Lodeve and was also made abbot of St. Germain-des-Pres in 1507. Four years later he attended the Council of Pisa, and during his absence a spirit of licentiousness spread among his monks, whom he was unable to control. Francis I then appointed him bishop of Meaux and sent him on a mission to Rome, where he remained two years. On his return, he sought to improve the morals and customs of his diocese, and accordingly convoked several synods, and also extended invitations to a number of evangelical preachers, such as Lefevre, Roussel, and Farel, who preached in thirty-two different places in his diocese, and introduced French translations of the Gospels and Epistles. When Farel attacked Rome, however, Briconnet deprived him of his office and convoked two synods, the first condemning the teachings of Luther and forbidding the purchase or the reading of his works, and the second prohibiting all heterodox interpretations of the Gospel. Briconnet found himself between two factions; one turning against Rome by denying the authority of the pope, the worship of the Virgin and of the saints; and the other clinging to the old traditions. In his effort to avoid extremes, he published certain proclamations between Dec., 1524, and Jan., 1525, threatening to excommunicate those who had burned the bull of Clement VII and destroyed images of the Virgin. Notwithstanding this, he was charged by the Cordeliers before the Parliament of Paris with being in sympathy with the Lutherans (Mar., 1525-Oct., 1526), whereupon a commission ordered that Lefevre's translations be burned, and forbade evangelical preaching. The preachers accordingly fled to Strasburg, although Briconnet himself was acquitted. Taking advantage of the absence of Francis I, who was held captive in Madrid, the Cordeliers renewed their charges, and two of the new preachers, Jacobus Pauvan and Matthaeus Saunier, were convicted of heresy by the Sorbonne and burned at the stake. Briconnet wrote a letter of submission to the Parliament, and Francis quashed the case. His works were as follows: Synodalis oratio (Paris, 1520); Synodalis oratio (1552); and a correspondence with Margaret of Navarre, some of which, with other fragments, is contained in Genin, Lettres de Marguerite d'Angouleme (1841) and Nouvelles lettres de la reine de Navarre (1842), and Herminjard, Correspondance des reformateurs (Geneva, 1878). G. Bonet-Maury. Bibliography: G. Bretonneau, Histoire genealogique de la maison des Briconnet, Paris, 1620; M. T. C. Duplessis, Histoire de l'Eglise de Meaux, ib. 1731; V. Duruy, Histoire de France, i, 575 sqq., ib. 1856; A. L. Herminjard, Correspondance des reformateurs, vol. i, ib. 1878; E. and E. Haag, La France protestante, ed. H. L. Bordier, ib. 1877 sqq.; Lichtenberger, ESR, ii, 423-429; S. Berger, in Bulletin de la societe du protestantisme franc,ais, 1895. Brictinans BRICTINANS (Brittinans, Brittinians, so named from S. Blasius de Brictinis, a desolate region not far from Fano in Umbria): An Italian hermit-society founded during the pontificate of Gregory IX, who confirmed it in 1234 by an edict, enjoining upon the members the most rigorous asceticism, especially as to fasting and the total abstinence from flesh in any form between Sept. 14 and Easter of every year. Innocent IV sought, apparently with success, to merge them, as well as the anchorite orders of the [532]Williamites and [533]John-Bonites, in the new order of the [534]Augustinians. A bull of Alexander IV, however, dated in 1260 (Potthast, Regesta, no. 17,915), assures them the right of independent existence. O. Zoeckler. Bridaine (Brydaine), Jacques BRIDAINE (BRYDAINE), JACQUES: French Roman Catholic preacher; b. at Chusclan (15 m. n.n.w. of Avignon), Department of Gard, Mar. 21, 1701; d. at Roquemaure, near Avignon, Dec. 22, 1767. He studied at the Jesuit College and the Mission Seminary of St. Charles de la Croix in Avignon; visited as a missionary preacher or evangelist nearly every city and village of France, producing a profound impression by his somber and vehement sermons. He almost always preached extemporaneously, appealed to the emotions of his hearers, and sought to terrify them. He prepared a volume of Cantiques spirituels (Montpellier, 1748), which has passed through fifty editions. Certain works have been published from his manuscripts, including Lectures et meditations (Avignon, 1821); Reglement de vie pour une pieuse demoiselle (1821); and five volumes of sermons (1823). Bibliography: Abbe Carron, Le Modele des pretres, Paris, 1804. Bridel, Philippe Louis Justin BRIDEL, bri''del', PHILIPPE LOUIS JUSTIN: Swiss Protestant; b. at Lausanne Nov. 27,1852. He was educated at the Academy (now the University) of his native city and in the theological faculty of the Free Church of the same institution, being graduated from the former in 1870 and from the latter in 1876. He also studied at the University of Goettingen, and after the completion of his education held successive pastorates in the Canton of Vaud (1875-78), Paris (1879-87), and Lausanne (1887-94). Since 1894 he has been professor of philosophy and the history of theology in the theological faculty of the Free Church at Lausanne. He has been associate editor of the Revue de theologie et de philosophie since 1895 and of the Liberte chretienne since 1898. In theology he is, to a certain extent, a follower of C. Secretan and A. R. Vinet, and has written La Philosophie de la religion d'Immanuel Kant (Lausanne, 1876); La Palestine illustree (4 vols., 1888-91); Roger Holland, pasteur `a Paris (1902); and Charles Renouvier et la philosophie (1905). Bridge, William BRIDGE, WILLIAM: Puritan; b. in Cambridgeshire about 1600; d. at Clapham, near London, Mar. 12, 1670. He was a fellow of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and, as rector at Norwich, was silenced by Bishop Wren for nonconformity (1637), and excommunicated; he remained in Norwich, however, till the writ de excommunicato capiendo came out against him, when he fled to Holland and became pastor of the English Church at Rotterdam, succeeding Hugh Peters and associated with Jeremiah Burroughs; he returned to England in 1642 and was a member of the Westminster Assembly; was minister at Great Yarmouth till ejected in 1662, and spent the rest of his life at Clapham. He was an Independent (Congregationalist) and Calvinist, a learned man, and had a library rich in the Fathers and schoolmen. His collected works in three volumes were published at London, 1649, and, with memorial, in five volumes, 1845. Bridget (Brigit, Brigida, Bride), Saint, of Kildare BRIDGET (Brigit, Brigida, Bride), SAINT, OF KILDARE: Patron saint of Ireland; b. at Fochart (Faugher, 2 m. n. of Dundalk), Leinster, c. 453; d. at Kildare (30 m. w.s.w. of Dublin) Feb. 1, 523. She was the daughter of a certain Dubhthach and his bondmaid or concubine named Brotsech. At the age of fourteen she received the veil in Meath from the hand of Bishop Machille (Mel), and during a long life won renown for piety and benevolence, and as a founder of monasteries. Her first and most important foundation was Kildare (cill dara, so named from a large oak under which her cell was first placed), which was followed by Breagh in Meath, Hay in Connaught, Cliagh in Munster, and others. She was buried at Kildare, where the nuns of her monastery (the "fire-house") kept the so-called "St. Bridget's fire" continually burning in her honor till 1220, when the bishop of the time ordered it extinguished to make an end of the many superstitions connected with it. Thus far the notices of her life are well authenticated; but in very early times legend began to associate marvels of the wildest sort with her name--a tendency not unknown to her oldest biographers. An aged seer foretold her future greatness to her mother before she was born. While still a child Bridget prophesied her coming spiritual rule over Ireland by stretching her arms over the green fields and crying "it will be mine." As nun and monastery-head she performs numerous miracles of benevolence and love like those of Elijah at Zarephath and Jesus in feeding the multitude. The milk which she gives to a poor man, instead of making it into butter, is restored in a wondrous way; so likewise the bacon which she gives to a hungry dog instead of cooking it. She gives seven sheep, one after the other, to a beggar who comes to her in seven different forms, but the number of her flock is not diminished. She changes the water drawn from a spring for a sick man into a delicious liquor. She satisfies a whole company of episcopal guests with the milk of a single cow which had already been milked three times the same day. Some of her dream-miracles and visions are more credible; but here, on the one hand, a Roman-clerical tendency is easily recognized--as when she finds herself transported to Rome and hears a mass read there which awakens in her the desire to transplant the same to Ireland--and, on the other hand, we meet with characteristics of a benevolent nature-deity, which the legends mentioned above also indicate by ascribing to her manifold miracles connected with the giving of food and drink. It is thus not unlikely that the old heathen nature-goddess Ceridwen (the Ceres of the Celts), transformed into a Christian saint, survives in Bridget. The fire also which was kept burning in her honor at Kildare speaks for this supposition. It is said that the foundations of a temple of Ceridwen, with great vaults for the storing of fruits, have been found beneath the chapel of the monastery (cf. Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, iii, 1789, Ant., 75-85). In old Irish legend and song, Bridget is likened to the Virgin Mary, or even extolled as the Mary of the Irish by expressions such as "mother of Christ," "mother of the Lord," and the like. A hymn, attributed to Bishop Ultan (d. 656) and in any case very old, calls her "beloved queen of the true God," and the old Officium S. Brigidae (printed at Paris, 1622) speaks of her as "another Mary," "like to Mary," etc. The monasteries, churches, and villages named after her are almost without number. O. Zoeckler. Bibliography: The three oldest lives (by Brogar Cloen, Cogitosus, and Ultan), dating from the sixth and seventh centuries, with three later lives, from the ninth to the twelfth centuries, were published by J. Colgan in his Trias thaumaturga, pp. 515-626, Louvain, 1647; the ASB gives three of these lives with two others and a preface, Feb., i, 99-185. The life by Cogitosus is in MPL, lxxii. For later presentations consult J. Lanigan, Ecclesiastical History of Ireland, i, 68, 335, and chaps. viii and ix, passim, Dublin, 1829; J. H. Todd, The Book of Hymns of the Ancient Church of Ireland, i, 64-70, Dublin, 1855; idem, St. Patrick, pp. 10-26, Dublin, 1864; A. P. Forbes Kalendars of Scottish Saints, pp. 287-291, Edinburgh, 1872; J. Healy, Insula sanctorum, pp. 106-121, Dublin, 1890; T. Olden, The Church of Ireland, pp. 38-48, London, 1895; J. O'Hanlon, Lives of the Irish Saints, ii, 1-224, Dublin, n.d. Bridget, Saint, of Sweden and the Brigittine Order BRIDGET, SAINT, OF SWEDEN AND THE BRIGITTINE ORDER. Bridget's Early Life (S: 1). Bridget's Revelations and Later Life (S: 2). Her Works (S: 3). The Brigittine Order (S: 4). 1. Bridget's Early Life. Bridget, the famous Scandinavian mystic and monastic founder, was born probably at Finstad, not far from Upsala, in 1303; d. in Rome July 23, 1373. Her father, Birger Persson, was one of the principal landowners of the district, and charged with both administrative and judicial functions. Her family on both sides had been distinguished for religious devotion, and the child received a careful education in spiritual things. Her imagination, nourished on the lives of the saints, brought her her first vision at the age of seven. Others followed, the reality of which neither she nor her parents doubted. After her mother's death, Bridget was entrusted to an aunt at Aspanaes, whose strict discipline laid the foundation of her asceticism and strength of will. In 1316 she was married, in pursuance of her father's political plans, to Ulf, son of the governor of the province of Nerike, and took up her residence at Ulfaasa in that province, where she acquired great influence by the renown of her piety and unselfishness. By degrees she collected around her a group of devout and learned men--Nicolaus Hermanni, renowned as a Latin poet, and later bishop of Linkoeping, who was the instructor of her children; Matthias, her confessor, the foremost theologian of the time in Sweden; Prior Peter of Alvastra; and another Peter, who succeeded Matthias as her confessor. Through Matthias, who was the author of a commentary on Revelation, she gained an insight into the religious movements and the rich apocalyptic literature of the day. After King Magnus Ericsson's marriage with Blanche of Namur, Bridget became chief lady-in-waiting to the queen, and soon acquired a great influence at the court. 2. Bridget's Revelations and Later Life. No remarkable visions of revelations seem to have marked this period. When, however, she was approaching the age of forty (probably between 1341 and 1343), she and her husband made a pilgrimage to the shrine of St. James at Compostella (see [535]Compostella). On the way back, Ulf fell ill at Arras; and as she watched by his bedside, she thought she saw St. Denis, the protector of France, who told her that she was under the special care of heaven. Her husband's recovery, which was indicated as a sign of this, was only temporary. He died in 1344, and Bridget believed the last tie which bound her to earth had been broken. Not long afterward, she thought she saw Christ himself, who said to her: "Thou art my spouse, and the link between me and mankind; thou shall see and hear marvelous things, and my Spirit shall be upon thee all thy days." This was her first revelation, strictly so called. She and those around her were fully convinced of the reality and the divine origin of these revelations. She used to write or dictate them in Swedish; later they were somewhat freely put into Latin by Matthias, by Prior Peter, and after 1365 by the Spanish prelate Alphonsus, formerly bishop of Jaen. Bridget felt herself called to be a divine instrument for the religious and moral awakening of her age. Soon she was convinced that she should found a new order in honor of the Savior, and dictated to Peter the rules revealed to her. King and nobles joined in building and endowing a home for the order; the approval of the archbishop of Upsala was secured. To obtain that of the pope, Bridget undertook the long journey to Rome in 1349, arriving in the jubilee of the following year. Here she spent the rest of her life, except for pilgrimages, in works of mercy and in warning great and small against sin. She did not gain the papal sanction for her order until 1370, when her rule was confirmed by Urban V. A pilgrimage to Palestine in 1372 was the last notable event in her life. She was canonized by Boniface IX in 1391. The connection between Sweden and the South was much furthered by her fame and by the permanent use of her Roman house by monks from her convent of Vadstena (on the east shore of Lake Vettern, 110 m. s.w. of Stockholm); its head in the Reformation period was Peter Magnus, who, after his return to Sweden, consecrated the Lutheran bishops there, affording a basis for a claim to apostolic succession. 3. Her Works. The authorized edition of Bridget's works contains eight books of revelations, besides another of Revelationes extravagantes, or supplement, from the collection of Prior Peter, with his own notes; the rule of her order; and a collection of edifying readings for the community, with certain prayers (known as the Quattuor orationes). The works were first printed at Luebeck in 1492 from the official copy preserved at Vadstena; the Roman edition of 1628 is considered the best. The "Revelations" have been translated into most European languages and into Arabic. With much that is superstitious and fantastic, they contain a pure mysticism, rich in thought, and marked by deep insight into the inner mysteries of the devout life. Bridget's views are of course medieval and those of a submissive daughter of the Roman Catholic Church. None the less, they show traces of admirable anticipations of Reformation ideas. The conception of the universal priesthood appears here and there; in her personal devotion, she goes back to the eternal source of life and truth; and her rule commends the preaching of the Word to the people in the vernacular. 4. The Brigittine Order. The Brigittine Order (Ordo Sancti Augustini sancti Salvatoris nuncupatus) was intended by her as an instrument for spreading the Kingdom of God upon earth. Its convents (as, e.g., at Fontevraud) were for both monks and nuns, though their dwellings were separate. The age of entrance was twenty-five for men and eighteen for women. The convent was to be ruled by an abbess selected by the community. Originally the monks were governed by a prior independent of the abbess, but before long the pope subjected them also to her rule, the former prior being called only confessor-general. At the same time they were placed under immediate papal jurisdiction, though provision was made for a yearly visitation by the bishop. They were strictly cloistered; silence was observed, except at certain hours, but the rule of fasting was not rigorous. The monks were admitted to the nuns' convent only to administer the sacraments to the dying or to carry out the dead. The rich endowments of the convent of Vadstena, which remained the mother house, show the popularity of this national foundation among all classes. Not a few Brigittine convents, however, sprang up in other countries, prominent among which were Naadendal in Finland, Munkaliv near Bergen, Mariendal near Revel, Marienwald near Luebeck, Marienkron near Stralsund, and Sion House, Richmond, near London. The importance of the order during the later Middle Ages for the civilization of the North, and especially of Sweden, can hardly be overestimated. Vadstena has been called the first high-school of the North; on it and on its daughter house at Naadendal the literary life of Sweden before the Reformation depended. Vadstena had the largest library in Sweden; and here were made the first attempts toward a complete Swedish version of the Bible. In 1495 a printing-press was set up; but it was destroyed by fire the same year, and published nothing so far as known. The order was so deeply rooted in Sweden that it survived the Reformation, though with diminished strength. Not even Gustavus Vasa's hatred of the "popery" of the Brigittines could entirely destroy the devotion of all classes to them. During the sixteenth century his wife, sons, and daughters, and many others of the highest nobility, as well as numbers from other classes are found among the benefactors of Vadstena, which, however, was suppressed by Duke Charles in 1595. The Reformation abolished most of the houses outside of Sweden, but an attempt was made to revive it in the Counterreformation, to which period belong the Fratres novissimi Birgittini in Belgium, confirmed by Gregory XV, and the reformed order for women introduced only into Spain by the vision