ANDREW OF CARNIOLA: Archbishop of Carniola (Krain) in the fifteenth century. He was a Slavonian, and became a Dominican monk. Through the favor of the Emperor Frederick III. he was made archbishop of Carniola with residence at Laibach. He assumed the title " Cardinal of San Sisto." In 1482 he went to Switzerland and tried to get a general council convened at Basel. On July 21 he nailed a formal arraignment of Pope Sixtus IV. to the doors of the cathedral, accompanying it with a demand for a council. The pope excommunicated him, and the local authorities put him in prison, where he was found dead on Nov. 13, 1484, probably having committed suicide. His secretary, Peter Numagen of Treves, thought him crazy.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Peter Numagen, Gaeta archiepiscopi Craynensia, in J. H. Hottinger, Histories eccleaiasticw Novi Testamenti, iv. 347-804, Zurich, 1654; J. Burckhardt, Erzbiacho/ Andreas von %rain and der letzfe Conzilaversuch in Basel, 1182-Sb, Basel, 1852; E. Frantz, Sixtus IV. and die Republik Flarens, pp. 433 eqq., Regensburg, 1880.

ANDREW OF CRETE: Archbishop of Crete; b. at Damascus; d. not earlier than 726. He became a monk at Jerusalem (whence he is sometimes called Andrew of Jerusalem), and was sent by the Patriarch Theodore to the sixth general council (Constantinople, 680). Later he was made archbishop. He was inclined to Monothelitism, but was able to restore his reputation for orthodoxy by zeal for image-worship. He is commemorated as a saint in the Greek Church on July 7. Among Greek hymn-writers he occupies a prominent place as the inventor of the so-called canons (see CANON). His penitential canon (" the great canon ") of 250 strophes is especially famous. It is still sung on the Thursday before Palm Sunday and on some other days of Lent. Andrew was also the author of many homilies, some of them very long.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Andrew's works are in MPG, acvii.; Antholopia Grow, ad. W. Christ and M. Paranikae, 147-161, Leipsic, 1871; narWtasq d·da~OKn, pp. 330-331, Athens, 1890; A. Papadopoulos-Kerameus, Avbaacra srX, i. 1-14, St. Petersburg, 1891; A. Maltzew, Andachtabuch der orthodox-katholisden Ruche des Morgenlandes, 178-277. Berlin, 1895. A few stanzas of the Great Canon, with two or three other hymns are translated in J. M. Neale's Hymns of the Eastern Church, pp. 73-84, London, 1876, where a brief sketch of his life is given. Copsult Fabricius-Harles, BIbbliadMw Grow, xi. 82-64, 68-75, Hamburg, 1808; Analecta sacra, ed. J. B. Pitra, i. 626627, Paris, 1876; A. Ehrhard, in Krumbseher's Gesshiehte, p. 165; F. Diekamp, Hippolytos von Thsben,.p. 108, Monster. 1898.

Archbishop of Lund; b. at Knarthorp (3 m. n.w. of Copenhagen) about 1160; d. on the island of Iv6 (in Lake Ivd, near Lund) June 24, 1228. He came of the noble family of Hvide whose members filled the highest offices in Church and State. In 1182 he went to Paris, completed his studies there, and, returning in 1190, was made dean of the cathedral of Roeskilde, where his elder brother was bishop. Canute VI. made him at the same time courtchancellor. In 1194-96 he was on mission to Rome and Paris in regard to the repudiation, by Philip Augustus of France, of his wife Ingeborg, a sister of the Danish king. In 1201 Andrew succeeded

Absalon as archbishop of Lund, an office which carried with it the dignities of primate and papal legate.

Andrew was zealous in the suppression of concubinage among the priesthood, active in raising the standard of learning among them, and an enemy to the sale of indulgences. In 1206 he preached a crusade against the heathen inhabitants of the island of Oesel off the coast of Esthonia. When Albert of Riga (q.v.) was compelled to seek the aid of the Danes against the Russians and Eathoniane in 1218, he agreed to place the bishopric of Esthonia under the authority of the archbishop of Lund, and in the following year Andrew was engaged in regulating the affairs of that see. In 1223 he resigned his office and retired to the island of Iv6 in the lake of the same name, achieving a reputation for wonder-working sanctity. He was the author of Lex Scandice protrincialia (ed. P. G. Thorsen, Copenhagen, 1853) and Hexaferon (ed. M. C. Gertz, ib. 1892), a dogmatic poem in twelve books, expository of the theology of Peter Lombard.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. E. Maller, Vita Andrew Sunonis, Archiopiacopi Lundensis Copenhagen 1830 F. Hammerieh. En

ANDREW AND PHILIP, BROTHERHOOD OF: An interdenominational religious society for men of all ages. The sole object, as declared by the constitution, is to spread Christ's kingdom among men. The brotherhood was founded by the Rev. Rufus Wilder Miller, of the Reformed Church, who organized the first local chapter at Reading, Pa., May 4, 1888. Other chapters were formed in the same denomination, conventions began to be held, and the Brotherhood Star, the monthly bulletin of the association was established. At the convention of Reformed chapters at Bethlehem, Pa., in 1890, the formation of brotherhood chapters in other denominations was recommended, the chapters in each denomination to be under the control of that denomination, and all to be united in a federation of brotherhoods. In this way the work .was extended, until to-day there are 921 chapters in the United States, Canada, Japan, Australia, India, and other lands, with about 40,000 members, representing some twenty-three denominations; there are also fifty-eight brotherhoods for boys.

Each local chapter is subjected to the supervision and control of the pastor and governing body of the congregation, and chapters of each denomination are associated in a denominational executive council. From these councils representatives are elected to a body known as the federal col4ncii of the brotherhood of Andrew and Philip. It is through this larger body that the literature of the association is issued. Denominational Councils are now organized in the Baptist, Congregational, Methodist Episcopal, Presbyterian, and Reformed Churches.

The distinctive characteristic of the brotherhood is the emphasis it places upon personal work. There are two rules of prayer and service. The rule of service is to make personal efforts to bring men and boys within the hearing of the Gospel,

votians of Bishop Andrewes, Grtace et Latine, ed. H. Veale, 1895; The Private Devotions of Lancelot Andrewes, ed. E. Venables, 1883).

published 1850) and other notices, are collected in the Library of Anplo-Catholic Theology, 11 vole., Oxford, 184154. There are many later memoirs and essays, as: A. T. Russell, Memoirs of the Life and Works of L. Andrews, London. 1863; St. James's Lectures, 2d sir., Lecture 3, ib. 1876; DNB, i. 401-405; R. L. Ottley, Lancelot Andrewes, ib. 1894; A. Whyte, Lancelot Andrews and his Private Devotions, Edinburgh, 1896.

ANDREWS, EDWARD GAYER: Methodist Episcopal bishop; b. at New Hartford, N. Y., Aug. 7, 1825. He was educated at Cazenovia Seminary, Cazenovia, N. Y., and Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn. (B.A., 1847). He held various pastorates in Methodist Episcopal churches in Central New York from 1848 to 1854, when he was appointed teacher and principal in Cazenovia Seminary, where he remained until 1864. He was then pastor in Stamford, Conn., from 1864 to 1867 and in Brooklyn, N. Y., from 1867 to 1872. In the latter year he was elected bishop. He visited Methodist Episcopal missions in Europe and India in 1876-77, in Mexico in 1881, and in Japan, Korea, and China in 1889-90, while in 1894 he was a delegate to the British and Irish Methodist Conference. In theology he holds the faith of his denomination for essentials of doctrine, but with deference to the results of recent Biblical investigations.

ANDREWS, ELISHA BENJAMIN: Baptist; b. at Hinsdale, N. H., Jan. 10, 1844. He was educated at Brown University (B.A., 1870), Newton Theological Institution (1874), and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1879-80), and also studied in the universities of Berlin and Munich (1882-83). He served in the Union army in the Civil War, being promoted from private to second lieutenant. He was principal of the Connecticut Literary Institute, Suffield, Conn., 1870-72, and pastor of the First Baptist Church, Beverly, Mass., 1874-75. In the latter year he was appointed president of Denison University, Granville, Ill., and held this position until 1879, when he accepted a call to Newton Theological Institution as professor of homiletics and practical theology. In 1882 he became professor of history and political economy at Brown University, and in 1888 of political economy and finance at Comell. In 1889 he was chosen president of Brown University, where he remained until 1898. He then became superintendent of the Chicago schools until 1900, when he was made chancellor of the University of Nebraska, at Lincoln, a position which he still occupies. He was a member of the United States delegation to the Brussels International Monetary Commission in 1892, and is also a member of the Grand Army of the Republic, the Loyal Legion, and the American Economic Association. In theology he is a liberal evangelical Baptist. His works include Brie/ Institutes of Conatitudional Hisfory, English and American (New York, 1886); Brief inatitutea of General History (1887); Institutes of Economics (1889); The Problem of Cosmology (1891); Eternal Words (1893; a volume of sermons); Wealth and

ANDREWS, SAMUEL JAMES: Catholic Apostolic Church; b. at Danbury, Conn., July 30, 1817; d. at Hartford Oct. 11, 1906. He was educated at Williams College (B.A., 1839), and studied law in Hartford, Boston, and New York, being admitted to the Connecticut bar in 1842 and to the Ohio bar in 1844. In the following year, however, he gave up law and studied theology at Lane Theological Seminary, Cincinnati. He was licensed as a Congregational clergyman in Connecticut in 1846, and two years later was ordained pastor of the Congregational church at East Windsor, Conn. Loss of voice compelled him to retire from the ministry in 1855, although he still preached occasionally. In 1865 he was appointed an instructor in Trinity College, Hartford, and three years later took charge of a Catholic Apostolic (Irvingite) church in the same city. In theology he was a consistent follower of the creed which he professed. His chief writings were: Life of Our Lord Upon the Earth (New York, 1862); God's Revelations o f Himself to Man (1885); Christianity and Anti-Christianity in Their Final Conflict (1898); The Church and its Organic Ministries (1899); William Watson Andrews, a Religious Biography (1900; life, letters, and writings of his brother, William Watson Andrews, q.v.); and Man and the Incarnation (1905).

ANDREWS, WILLIAM WATSON: Catholic Apostolic Church, brother of Samuel James Andrews; b. at Windham, Conn., July 26, 1810; d. at Wethersfield, Conn., Oct. 17, 1897. He was graduated at Yale in 1831. During this year his attention was drawn to the religious movement then going on in England which culminated in the Catholic Apostolic Church. The point that seems at first to have interested him most was whether the gifts of the Spirit as originally given were or were not to abide in the Church, and his study of the Scriptures led him to the conclusion that ,they are a permanent endowment, and, if not still possessed, it was because of unbelief. Closely connected with the work of the Spirit in the Church was another question: Was the return of the Lord to be desired, and the Church to be ever praying and looking for it? Believing this return to be an object of hope, he was led to ask if any preparation was needed; and, if so, might not the work in England be the preparation? In 1833 he was licensed to preach, and in May, 1834, was ordained pastor of a Congregational church in Kent, Conn. Here he continued fifteen years, declining invitations to go to larger spheres of labor, preferring his quiet country life, which gave him time for study and reflection. In 1842, partly for his health, and partly to learn from personal observation the progress of the religious movement

which interested him, he went to England and became fully convinced that the movement was of God. He offered himself to its leaders as ready to take part in it, but was directed by them to return to his parish and continue his work there. This he did, but on the death of his wife in 1848, he was released from his charge by the North Association of Litchfield County, and soon entered the Apostolic communion. In 1849 he was appointed pastor of a small congregation at Potsdam, N. Y., and remained there for six years, doing some work elsewhere as an evangelist. In 1856 he left Potsdam and entered upon his evangelistic work in which he continued till his death. From 1858 his home was in Wethersfield, Conn.

The only book published by Mr. Andrews was The Miscellanies and Correspondence of Hon. John Cotton Smith (New York, 1847). Of his numerous addresses, articles, and pamphlets mention may be made of his sermon at Kent, May 1849, on withdrawing from the Congregational ministry; The True Constitution o f the Church, read before the North Association of Litchfield County, 1855; Review of Mrs. Oliphant's Life of Edward Irving, in The New Englander, 1863 (reprinted in Scotland, 1864 and 1900); Remarks on Dr. Bushnell's " Vicarious Sacrifice," published at the request of the Hartford Fourth Association, 1866; The Catholic Apostolic Church, in the Bibliotheca Sacra, 1866; The Catholic Apostolic Church, in Schaff's Creeds of Christendom, i., New York, 1884, 905-915; and an address at Kent, his old parish, on the sixtieth anniversary of his ordination, May 27, 1894,

BIBLIOGRAPHY: William Watson Andrews, a Religious Biography, with Extracts from his Letters and other Writings prepared by his Brother, Samuel J. Andrews, New York, 1900 (contains the sermon at Kent, May, 1849, and the address, 1894, mentioned above, pp. 206-265).

ARGARLiE: Certain taxes or services usually rendered on the Ember Days (q.v.), whence the name was transferred to the latter. Consult Du Cange, s.v.

The New Testament Conception not Different from the Old (§ 2).

Distinctions Among Angela. Cherubim and fieranhim. Fallen Angels (§ 4).

Functions, Duties, ate. (¢ 2). III. Development of the Scriptural Angelology.

The name " Angel" as a designation for spiritual beings of the supernatural world, has come into modern languages with Christianity from the Greek angeloa (°° messenger "), which is itself a rendering of the Hebrew mal'akh. The latter, in form an abstract noun (" mission," " message "), occurs only as a concrete (" messenger "), and acquired a special meaning, particularly in the singular, as the designation of a supernatural bearer of a divine

revelation. The transition was then easy to the sense of a generic name for the beings of the heavenly world, from whom the God of Israel is called " Yahweh, God of Hosts," or " Yahweh of Hosts." To distinguish angels from men, they are called "sons of God" (Gen. vi. 2, 4; Job i. 6, ii. 1, xxxviii. 7) or " sons of the mighty " (Ps. xxix. 1, margin, lxxxix. 6). A special connection with God is always implied, as well as a certain superiority over men (I Sam. xxix. 9; II Sam. xiv. 17, 20). This connection is emphasized by the epithet "holy" (A. V., " saints "; Job v. 1, xv. 15; Ps. lxxxix. 5, 7; Dan. viii. 13; Zech. xiv. 5). In I Kings xxii. 19-24 and Acts xxiii. 9 a distinction is made between angels and spirits, and in the Talmud the latter name is used for demons only. With reference to their duties angels are called " watchers " in Dan. iv. 13, 17, 23.

r. Biblical Conceptions: As concerns their function, it is not the Biblical conception that angels are the indispensable means of r. Angels communication between the higher are God's and lower worlds, nor are they a perServants. sonification of nature powers. Yet they are consistently represented as serving God's purposes in revelation and salvation, and are his " ministering spirits " (Heb. i. 14) from the appointment of the cherubim to guard Eden (Gen. iii. 24) to their activity at the second coming and the end of the world (Matt. xiii. 41, xxiv. 2931; cf. Gen. xxiv. 7, 40, xlviii. 16; Ex. xiv. 19, xxiii. 20, 23; Luke xvi. 22). Sometimes they appear in companies (Gen. xxviii. 12, xxxii. 1-2; II Kings vi. 16-17; Matt. xxv. 31; Luke ii. 13; Rev. xix. 14), but usually it is one angel who executes God's command; he is called the " angel of God " or " angel of Yahweh " (Gen. xvi. 7, 9-11, xxi. 17; Ex. iii. 2, xiv. 19; Judges vi. 20; and often). The relation of the " angel of Yahweh " to Yahweh himself is a difficult question. One of the three who appear in Gen. xviii. 2, 22 (cf. xix. 1) is evidently Yahweh, and Yahweh and his angel are both called the guide of Israel (Ex. xiii. 21, xiv. 19). Similar identification apparently occurs elsewhere, while in Zech. i. 9, 12-14, and other passages there is a sharp distinction.

In the New Testament the angel of the Lord occurs only when an angel has been previously mentioned (Matt. i. 24; Luke i. 11, x. The New 13, ii. 9, 10, 13; Acts xii. 7, 11, vii.

Testament 30, 38, Gk. text). There is no thought Conception of an identification of the angel with not Differ- the Lord. That the conception is eat from different from that of the Old Testathe Old. ment can not be proved, and such an assumption is not in accord with Stephen's references (Acts vii. 30-35) to the appearance in the burning bush (Ex. iii.). But the distinction between the angel and Yahweh does not hinder from making the angel speak as Yahweh or from speaking of the angel as of Yahweh. It follows that the distinction can not be a product of later times. The angel is not the Logos, the second person of the Trinity, as assumed .by the Greek Fathers, the older Lutheran dogmaticians, and Hengatenberg; nor is he merely a theophany

(Vatke, De Wette, Wellhausen, Kosters, and others). The former view is not consistent with the New Testament revelation, which makes it impossible to find in the Old Testament a knowledge of the threefold character of God; and the latter falls because a " mission," not an " appearance," of God is always spoken of. The true Biblical conception of the "angel of Yahweh" is that of a created being (Neh. ix. 6), belonging to the heavenly hosts (Augustine, Jerome, Hofmann, Riehm), who represents God, but is in no way identified with God. The fact, that in the New Testament the angel of Yahweh recedes, does not justify the assumption that he is a type of Christ. A realization of God's presence through angels and the communication of his revelation by them was as necessary in the old covenant as the revelation and presence of God in Christ or in the Holy Spirit are in the new (cf. Acts vii. 38; Gal. iii. 19; Heb. ii. 2). The angel has no more place in the new covenant because the first has been made old and is " ready to vanish away " (Heb. Viii 13).

From the beginning the appearance of an angel is looked upon as a sign of God's favor (Gen. xxiv.

Develop- that God's angels guard his servants meats. finds expression in the Psalms (Ps.

xxxiv. 7, xci. 11). From the unity of God arises the conception of a multiplicity of angels (Gen. xxviii. 12, xxxii. 2); and then it is only a step to that of Yahweh's hosts (Josh. v. 14-15), with which he comes to the help of Israel (Isa. xxxi. 4-5), which surround his throne, offering him praise and adoration (I Kings xxii. 19; Ps. cxlviii. 2), and constitute, in the language of the synagogue, " the family above." Apocalyptic literature develops the thought, depicting in symbolic narratives the part of the angels in the history of Israel (cf. the visions of Zechariah, Ezekiel, and Daniel). In the Book of Daniel (viii. 16, ix. 21, x. 13, xii. 1) two angels are named-Gabriel and Michael. The fact that names are given (cf. Judges xiii. 18) and the names themselves indicate Babylonian influence, which later tradition recognizes by ascribing the many angels' names which it knows to Babylon (Genesis, Rabbah xlviii.). What is said of these two angels does not contradict existing views, but is merely a development of them, influenced by contact with Babylonian and Persian ideas. The fantastic and bizarre conceptions of later Judaism, however, can not deny their origin from this heathenism (cf. Tobit iii. 17, v. 6, 21, vi. 4-17, viii. 2-3). That which is really new in the Book of Daniel concerns the participation of the angels in the sin of the world. In the New Testament the apocalyptic symbolism, appears in the Book of Revelation' only (cf. xii. 7 sqq.; Jude 9). All allusions to angels in New Testament history and in the Epistles can be explained as in full accord with Old Testament conceptions, and if new ideas are found by any it is only because of the desire to find them. It requires great art of eisegesis to ascribe to Paul (as does Everling) the angel doctrine of Jewish legend and rabbinic theology.

There are evidently distinctions among angels, based on differences of duties, not of rank. In this way passages like Dan. x. 13, 4. Distinc- xii. 1; I Thess. iv. 16; Jude 9 are to tions among be explained. The same observation

As concerns the origin of the Biblical conception of angels, the view that they represent the natural powers of old Semitic heathenism stands or falls with the representation of Deut. iv. 19 (also in Paul) that heathenism is an apostasy from the true God. It may be noted that angels never serve as an explanation of the events of nature, but appear only in connection with a divine revelation. The decision depends also on the question as to the reality of angels. That they, as well as Satan and the demons, actually exist is held to be indubitably proved by the words and conduct of Jesus. The upper world, to which we are striving, is full of life and needs not to be peopled by us, but is prepared for us with all that is proper to it, freed from the limitations of the present.

11. Judaic Notions: To the two names known to Daniel the Book of Tobit (iii. 17) adds that of

of angels (lxi. 10), namely, the cherubim, seraphim, ophanim, all the angels of power, principalities, the Elect One (Messiah), and the (elementary) powers of the earth and water. They have seven angelic virtues (Ixi. 11): the spirit of faith, of wisdom, of patience, of mercy, of judgment, of peace, and of goodness.

In the Slavonic Enoch and rabbinic literature, the further development of the heavenly hierarchy introduces the seven heavens, and tells of the food of angels, the hours at which they worship God, their language, and their knowledge. They mediate between God and man, carry prayers to the throne of God (Tobit xii. 12-15; Gk. Apoc. Baruch xi.), and accompany the dead on their departure from this world. Angels are also the guardians of the nations. In Enoch xxxix. 59 the seventy shepherds are the guardian angels of the seventy nations, over whom rules Michael, as Israel's angel-prince. With these God sits in council when holding judgment over the world, each angel pleading the cause of his nation.

`olam (Talmud, Yebamot 16b; Hullin 60a; Sanhedrin 94a), who is said to have composed Ps. xxxvii. 25, civ. 31, and, partly, Is&. xxiv. 16. Besides the guardian angels of the nations, sixtythree angels are mentioned as janitors of the seven heavens, and at each of these heavens stand other angels as seal-bearers. The head and chief of all these is Asriel. Angels protect the pious and help them in their transactions. Every man has a special guardian angel, and there are accompanying angels. Thus two angels-one good and one evilaccompany man as he leaves the synagogue on Sabbath eve. Three good angels receive the souls of the pious, and three evil angels those of the wicked, who testify for them (Talmud, Shabbat 119a; Iketubot 104,). Great as is the number and influence of the angels, yet in many respects they are inferior to man. Enoch (xv. 2) intercedes on behalf of the angels, instead of having them intercede for him; and none of the angels could see what he saw of God's glory (xiv. 21), or learn the secrets of God as he knew them (Slavonic Epoch xxiv. 3; Awenaio Isaice ix. 27-38). Adam was to be worshiped by the angels as the image of God (Vita Ads et Erow, p. 14; Gen. Rabbah viii.); before his fall his place was within the precincts of God's own majesty, where the angels can not stay (Gen. Rabboh xxi.). They were inferior in intelligence to Adam, when names were given to all things (Pirdce Rabbi ElVezer xiii.). Adam reclined in Paradise, and the ministering angels roasted meat and strained wine for him (Talmud, Sanhodrin 59b). Every man that does not practise magic enters a department of heaven to which even

the ministering angels have no access (Talmud, Nedarim 32a).

The essence of the angels is fire; they sustain themselves in fire; their fiery breath consumes men, and no man can endure the sound of their voices (Talmud, Shabbat 88b; ,Hagigafe. 14b). Another theory is that they are half fire and half water, and that God makes peace between the opposing elements (Jerusalem Talmud, Rosh ha-Shtr nah ii. 58a). According to one tradition, each angel was one-third of a world in size; according to another, 2,000 parasangs, his hand reaching from heaven to earth. The angels, numbering either 496,000 or 499,000, are said to have been created either on the first day (Book of Jubilees ii. 2), the second day (Slavonic Enoch), or on the fifth day (Gen. Rabbah iii.). Their food is manna, of which Adam and Eve ate before they sinned (Vita Adce et Evce, p. 4).

As a rule, the angels are represented as good, and as not subject to evil impulses (Gen. Rabbah xlviii. 14); nevertheless, two were expelled from heaven for 138 years on account of prematurely disclosing the decree of Sodom's destruction (ib.). Two .narratives are given in Enoch vi.-xv., of the fall of the angels. According to one, Azazel was the leader of the rebellion, and the chief debaucher of women; according to the other, Samiaza, or Shamhazai, was the chief seducer. Each has ,ten chieftains and 100 angels at his command. They are punished at the hands of Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, and Uriel (Enoch ix. 1, xl. 2).

The nature of Holy Scripture forbids any attempt to build upon its text a systematic angelology. The Bible covers a wide field of time, and, for anything save its main purpose, it is a book of imperfect record. Moreover, its evidence on this question is less apt to be direct than indirect. An elaborate angelology can therefore be derived from the Bible only by doing violence to sound exegesis. Yet it is possible to detect a general movement of thought and to deduce a conclusion, touching the weight to be given to the scriptural doctrine of angels.

The belief in angels is not an original element in the Scriptures; the Bible holds it in common with all the men of antiquity, who lacked a unifying conception of law and made the poet r. The and the theologian one and the same

Belief in person. So the mind instinctively AngelsCom- peopled space with personal forces mon to All both good and evil. The field of

tures are cones not a primary subordinate el

itself, the emph tion between t

Led, the doctrine in question is

ne; on the contrary, it is a

mt. To be true to the Bible

is must be put on the rela

belief in angels which the men

of the Bible inherited from antiquity and that saving knowledge of the divine unity which is the heart of God's word. The center of gravity and interest is not in angelology as such.

The central and controlling element in the Old Testament is the self-revelation of God in his holy and creative unity. The pith of

Hezateuch. himself in terms of the moral order in the experience of the chosen nation. It is significant, then, that in the Hexateuch the angels in their plurality play a small part (Gen. xix. 15, xxxii. 1). The "angel of Yahweh," " the angel of the presence," on the other hand, are constantly in evidence. The unity of God, dominating the religious consciousness, has given a monarchical turn to the angelology of antiquity.

But in Zechariah a new turn is taken. The angel of Yahweh appears incessantly. Moreover, the angels in their plurality appear (Zech. ii. 3). The apocalyptic tendency is becoming dominant. The moral passion of prophetism is declining. And from Zechariah's time on, there seems to be a steady increase in the amount of attention given to the angels. How far this is due to the influence of Parseeism and how far to the inherent tendency of Judaism, it may be impossible to determine with precision. But certain it is that as Judaism abounds in its own sense and its difference from prophetism develops, the angels play a larger and yet larger part. The climax is reached when the Essence impose upon those entering the order a terrible'oath not to betray the names of the angels (Josephus, War, II. viii. 7). At this point, Judaism comes close to Chaldean magic.

Davidson has said (DB, i., p. 97) that in the New Testament there is no advance. The statement is misleading. There is not nor can 4. The flew there be any advance beyond the Testament. Jewish angelology. The Jewish mystic knew a great deal about the angelic hosts, their hierarchical order, and their names. In truth, he knew more than there was to know. " Advance " in this direction would have meant a fuller exposition of unreality. But the New Testament is the literary product of a magnificent revival of Hebrew prophetiem. The

time a widow), to care for sick and reformed women. The members were to lead lives of angelic purity (whence the name) and self-denial, indicated by coarse clothing, a wooden cross on the breast, and a cord about the neck. The foundress placed them under the supervision of Antonia Maria Zaccaria, founder and director of the Barnabites (q.v.); and herself labored, under the monastic name of Paola Maria, as manager of the main convent of her society near Milan till her death (Oct. 29, 1569). The order was first confirmed by Paul III. (1534) with the rule of St. Augustine, with the provision that the Angelicals were to assist the Barnabites in their missionary work among women. The obligation to live in seclusion was adopted in 1557. Archbishop Borromeo of Milan subjected the statutes of the order to a stricter revision, which was confirmed by Urban VIII. (1625). The order never spread outside of Lombardy (especially Milan and Cremona) and was dissolved at the beginning of the nineteenth century. A branch, however, still exists, the Society of the Guastallinae founded by the same Countess Torelli, devoted to the education of girls of noble birth (the number being limited to 18); they occupy a building outside the Ports Romans at Milan, and are under the supervision of the Barnabites.

ANGELIS, an'je-lis, GIROLAMO, ji-roll-8m6: Jesuit missionary; b. at Castro Giovanni, Sicily, 1567; d. in Japan Dec. 24, 1623. He joined the Jesuits at the age of eighteen, and in 1602 went to Japan. When the Jesuits were expelled from the country in 1614, he assumed Japanese dress and remained for nine years without discovery. He was then imprisoned and burned alive with two other Jesuits and forty-two native Christians. He wrote Relazione del regno di lezo, printed with letters of other Jesuits at Rome in 1624, and separately the next year. He was canonized by Pius IX.

ANGELUS, an'je-lus: The ordinary name (taken from its opening word in Latin) of a Roman Catholic prayer, recited three times a day, when the church bells ring at 6 a.m., at noon, and at 6 p.m. It consists of three versicles and responses, each followed by a "Hail Mary 1" and a collect, which is the same as that for the Annunciation in the Anglican Prayer Book, the whole forming a devotion in honor of the incarnation of Christ. In its present form it dates from the middle of the sixteenth century, though the custom of ringing bells at certain times of the day to remind the

faithful of certain prayers is at least as old as the thirteenth.

ANGILBERT, an-gil'bert, or ENGELBERT (Fr. pron. dn"zhil-bar'), SAINT: Fiend and counselor of Charlemagne, whose daughter Bertha he is said to have married, and by her had two sons,

Harnid and Nithard (the historian); d. Feb. 19, 814. He enjoyed the confidence of Charlemagne till the end of the latter's life, and was employed

in many difficult negotiations. That he entered the monastery of Centula (the modern St. Riquier, about 25 m. n.w. of Amiens) in 790 is not probable; he was abbot of the monastery later, however, and rebuilt it with much splendor. He was named the " Homer " of the literary circle at Charlemagne's court, and a few Latin lyrics and a fragment of an epic ascribed to him are extant (in MPL, xcix. 82Frr854; MGH, Script., xv. 1, 1887, 173-181; Poeto Latini tevi cardini, i., 1881, 355-381).

Bishop of Metz 768, after 787 with the title of archbishop; d. 791. In 784 he was made court chaplain by Charlemagne, who obtained from the pope a dispensation freeing Angilram from the obligation of residing at the seat of his bishopric. Most codices of the pseudo-Isidorian decretals contain a minor collection of statutes, consisting of seventyone, seventy-two, or eighty chapters relating to suits against the clergy, especially bishops, and generally bearing the name Capitula Angilramni. In some manuscripts the superscription states that Angilram presented these edpitula to Pope Adrian; in others (the older and better) that the pope presented them to Angilram when he was in Rome in connection with his affair. In either version the story is improbable, and it is generally agreed that Angilram had nothing to do with these capitula. They were probably written by the author of the pseudo-Isidorian decretals (q.v.).

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Rettberg, XD, i. 501 sqq.; Hinschius, Doadates Pseudo-laidoriana, Leipsic, 1863; Richter-Dove, Lehrbuch des Kirchenrechts, p. 87, ib. 1886.

ANGLICAN CHURCH or COMMUNION: A comprehensive name for the Reformation churches of English origin, including the Church of England and its branches in Ireland, Scotland, the colonies, and India, with the various missionary jurisdictions, and the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States. The liturgy in all is the Book of Common Prayer with modifications (see COMMON PRAYER, BOOK OF), and the Thirty-nine Articles are accepted with changes necessary to fit local conditions (see THIRTY-NINE ARTICLES). All have episcopal organization and hold to the " historic episcopate " (see APosToLac SUCCESSION). The Lambeth Conference (q.v.) is a meeting of bishops of the Anglican communion intended to promote the unity and fellowship of its members. See ENGLAND, CHURCH OF; IRELAND; SCOTLAND; PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH.

ANGLO-SAXONS, CONVERSION OF THE: The Angles, Saxons, and kindred peoples who by the end of the sixth century were established in the east of Britain from the Forth southward and in the greater part of the south, in their Continental homes were all worshipers of WOden, whom they considered their ancestor. They dispossessed in England a fully Christianized people, but did not adopt their religion (see CELTIC CHURCH IN BRITAIN AND IRE LAND). The first Christiftn church among them was Prankish in origin and was established in Kent, whose king, Ethelbert (c. 560-816), married a Christian Princess, Bertha, daughter of Charibera king of Paris. She was granted full freedom of

religion in her new home, and brought with her to England a Christian chaplain, Liudhard by name. A ruined church near Canterbury, dating from Roman times (St. Martin's, three quarters of a mile east of the present cathedral), was repaired for her use. The real conversion of the AngloSaxons, however, is properly regarded as begun by

Pope Gregory the Great (590-$04). Gregory As the story goes (Bede, Hist. eccl., the Great ii. 1), while Gregory was still a deacon, Sends a either in 578 or 585, he saw one day Mission in the slave-market at Rome certain to gent. boys whose fair complexion, bright faces, and golden hair excited his admiration. Inquiring about them, he was told that they were Angles; whereupon he exclaimed " No wonder, for they have the faces of angels." Informed that they were heathen and from Deira, he remarked " From wrath [de ira] they must be saved and called to the mercy of Christ. Who is their king?" " Mlle," was the reply; and the pun-loving Italian concluded, " Alleluial the praises of God must be sung in those parts." Betaking himself to the pope, Gregory asked that he be allowed to go in person as missionary to the land of the captives, but the Romans would not permit him at that time to leave their city. When he became pope, Gregory remembered the beautiful captives. He tried to find English boys whom he could instruct at Reme and then send to their people; and in 596 he despatched a mission of monks to England under the lead of Augustine (see AUGUBTINE, SAINT, OF CANTERBURY). When Augustine died (604 or 605) Kent had been converted and the gospel had found entrance into Essex. Justus and Mellitus had been established as bishops at Rochester (for West Kent) and London (for the East-Saxons), respectively. With the consent of his witan, Ethelbert promulgated laws recognizing the Church as an institution and Christian obligations. A heathen reaction followed Ethelbert's death (616), which for a time checked further advances from Canterbury (see JUsTUs; LAURENCE; MELLITtTS).

AB in Kent, so in Northumbria the way for the introduction of Christianity was prepared by the

marriage (625) of the king, Edwin, Northum- with a Christian Princess, Ethelburga, bria and daughter of Ethelbert of Kent. She

Paulinus, who became first bishop of York and converted King Edwin and many of his people (see EDWIN; PAULINUS). The work was interrupted and many of its results destroyed in

633, when Penda, king of Aferoia, a heathen cham pion, in alliance with the Britons of Wales, overthrew and slew Edwin. It was resumed in 635 by Aidan supported by King Oswald, and was completed by their successors (see AIDAN, SALT;

West-Saxons were gained for Christianity by Bus (q.v.). The church of Aidan and Oswald, however, had no connection with Canterbury or Rome, but was organized as a part of the old British or Celtic Church, and continued such till the synod of Whitby in 664.

A marriage between Peada, son of Penda and under-king of the Middle-Angles, with a Northumbrian princess, daughter of Oswy, led to his conversion. He was baptized by Finan, Aidan's successor at Lindisfarne, in 653. Finan also baptized (probably at the same time) Sigbert, king of Essex, which had relapsed into heathenism after the time of Augustine. Peada's conversion was

followed by that of his people. Four Mercia and priests of the Northumbrian Church,

settled in his kingdom, and even Penda did not restrict their preaching. Penda, the last powerful pagan ruler, was slain in battle with Oswy of Northumbria in 655, and the complete Christianization of Mercia soon followed. Diuma was consecrated bishop of Mercia by Finan, probably in 656. His see was at Lichfield. About ten years later Diuma's third successor, Jaruman, supported by Wulfhere, king of Mercia, and Penda's son, completed the conversion of Essex, a part of whose people had a second time relapsed into heathenism.

Christianity was introduced into East Anglia from Kent; but the only result was that the king,

Redwald, set up Christian and heathen East altars side by side. An obscure story Anglia connected with the conversion of

Edwin of Northumbria (Beds, Hist. ecel., ii. 12) has led to the conjecture that Paulinus (q.v.) may have been sent on a mission to East Anglia before 616. Eorpwald, Redwald's son, became a Christian through the influence of Edwin in 627 or 628, but in the same year he was killed by a heathen. After three years his brother, Sigbert, who had accepted Christianity in Gaul, gained the throne, and with the help of Felix (q.v.), who became bishop of Dunwich in 631, evangelized the land.

Sussex received the Gospel through the labors of Wilfrid of York (q.v.) between 681 and 686,

although its king, Ethelwalh, had Sussez. been baptized earlier in Mercia and

had made some unsuccessful efforts to introduce the Gospel. Its first bishop was Eadbert (709).

The Anglo-Saxon Church, like all churches of the early Middle Ages, had in many respects a

national character. The wishes of The Anglo- the kings determined the appointment

rulers took part in synods, and bishops attended the councils of the rulers. Kings issued ecclesiastical orders. The Anglo-Saxon tongue was heard in divine service, and the baptismal formula also was Anglo-Saxon. The Old and New Testaments were read in Anglo-Saxon, and old homilies were translated into the vernactilar. Dioceses were formed according to political divisions and were named after peoples rather than towns.

ANHALT: Duchy of the German empire, surrounded, except for a short distance on the west, where it touches the duchy of Brunswick, by Prussian territory (government districts of Magdeburg, Potsdam, Merseburg). Its area is 906 square miles; population (1900), 316,000; capital, Dessau. Ninety-six per cent. of the people are Protestants; 31 per cent. are Roman Catholics; while the Jews

The Church is legally recognized as a distinct institution, independent of the secular government, and the management of its internal affairs is entrusted to the consistory, which reports directly to the duke. A synod, consisting of the superintendents of the five circles into which the land is divided, five members named by the duke, and twenty-nine members elected in the circles, meets every three years; it has a share in ecclesiastical legislation, considers church needs and conditions in general, and exercises a control over the funds under the administration and at the disposal of the consistory. Previous to 1874 the consistory had the chief direction and administration of the schools, but in that year a state board of education was created. The consistory, however, is represented in this board, and the local pastors are generally the inspectors of the lower schools. With very few exceptions the duke is patron of churches and livings.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Liber pontihcalia, ed. Duchesne, i. 58, 134, Paris. 1886; Bower. Popes, i. 13-14; Jaffd, Regesta, i. 9; J. B. Lightfoot, Apostolic Fathers, i. 201 sqq., London, 1890; A. Harnsek.inSiaunpaberichteder Berliner Akademie, pp. 617-658. 1892; idem, Liueratur, ii. 1, pp. 70 sqq.

ANIMALS: I. Regulations Respecting Their Use. 1. For Food: According to the lists (Lev. xi. 1-31, 46-47; Deut. xiv.1-19), the clean animals (i.e., those whose flesh might be eaten) were ruminant quadrupeds which parted the hoof, were clovenfooted, and chewed the cud; aquatic animals that had fins and scales; all birds except the nineteen species specified, which were birds of prey or carrion; only those flying insects which, like the grasshopper, have two long legs for leaping. No vermin was clean, nor was the carcass of any clean animal, if it had died naturally, or been torn to death. Everything was unclean that touched the unclean; so was the kid seethed in its mother's milk, and the heathen sacrifices in all their parts. See DIETARY LAws OF THE HEBREWS.

2. For Sacrifice: The general rule was, that only the clean animals could be offered; this dates back to the pre-Mosaic period (Gen. viii. 20). Asses, camels, and horses were not offered by the Hebrews. But only the tame among even the clean animals could be sacrificed; therefore, no animal of the chase. Doves were not regarded as wild. Every animal offered must be without blemish (Lev. xxii. 20), at least seven days old (verse 27; Ex. xxii. 30), because too young flesh is disgusting, and therefore unclean. Nor must it be too old; for bovines three years, for small cattle one, was usual (Ex. xxix. 38; Lev. ix. 3; Num. xxviii. 9; Lev. i. 5, " bullock," a young ox). What man might not eat, it was profanation to sacrifice. See DEFILEMENT AND PURIFICATION, CEREMONIAL.

II. The Emblematic Use of Animals: 1. the Old Testament: Locusts were used as the symbol of the divine judgments. The twelve oxen which bore the brazen sea in the court of the temple (I Kings vii. 25) were doubtless symbolic; the animal shapes which appeared in prophetic visions were also symbolic (Ezek. i. 5-14), and seem to be identified with the cherubim (Ezek. x. 1).

2. In the New Testament: Peter uses a lion as the emblem of Satan (I Pet. v. 8); on the other

hand, a lion is the emblem of Christ (Rev. v. 5). The ass symbolises peace (Matt. xxi. 5); the dove,

innocence and the Holy Ghost; the dog and swine, uncleanness and vulgarity (Matt. vii. 6; II Pet. ii. 22). But the emblematic use of beasts is much greater in Revelation than in all the other books of the Bible combined. Constant mention is made of the four living creatures (iv. 6, etc.) who were from the fifth century considered as symbolizing the four. evangelists. Christ is constantly called

the Lamb; the Devil, the dragon (xii. 3, etc.). There are, besides, a beast who comes out of the bottomless pit (xi. 7), horses (vi. 2, etc.), locusts (ix. 3), birds (xix. 17), and frogs (xvi. 13).

8. The Ecclesiastical Use of Animals: This was very varied. There was not only the lamb for Christ but also dolphins, hens, pelicans, apes, and centaurs. The old Gothic churches exhibit these fanciful and really heathen designs. Bernard of Clairvaux raised his voice against them. In the catacombs one finds the drawing of a fish to symbolize Christ, because the initials of the title of Christ (Gk. lesous Chri8tos Theou Uios Sow) spell the Greek word for °' fish " (ichthus) . See SYMBOLISM.

III. The Use of Emblematic Animals in Worship: Among the Hebrews there are two spoken of. The brazen serpent which Moses made, which was at last destroyed by Hezekiah, because it was worshiped (II Kings xviii. 4). The golden calf was not intended as a substitute for the Yahweh worship, but as an aid; but it became a snare to Israel in the wilderness before Sinai (Ex. xxxii.) and in the days of Jeroboam I. and his successors on the throne of Israel (I Kings xii. 28-30).

ANIMISM. See COMPARATIVE RELIGION, V., 1, a, §§ 1-4; HEATHENISM, §§ 2, 6.

ANNA: 1. Mother of the Virgin Mary. See ANNE, SAINT. 2. A "prophetess," mentioned in Luke ii. 36-38. See HANNAH.

ANNA COMNENA, cem-nf'na: A Byzantine princess of both literary and political importance, daughter of Alexius Comnenus (q.v.); b. Dec. 2, 1083; d. after 1148. Brought up in a circle of highly cultivated women, and betrothed in early youth to the heir-presumptive of the empire, the son of the last emperor of the house of Ducas, she seemed to have a brilliant future before her. But the prince died, and his place was taken later by Nicephorus Bryennius, the son of a conquered pretender. It became plain that the emperor intended to make Anna's brother John his heir, instead of his daughter or her husband. When Alexius died (1118), Anna was the soul of a conspiracy against John. It failed, and 'military rule suppressed the court cabals. Anna recovered her confiscated property; but on the death of her husband, ten years later, she fell gradually into disfavor at court and lived much alone, solacing herself by literary interests, her taste for which was the result of the brilliant literary epoch of which Michael Psellus was the chief representative. She wrote a remarkable history of her father's reign, with the title Aleziass, which professes to be a continuation of the unfinished history of the Comneni by her husband. Her style is typical of literary classicism, being full of quotations from standard authors, and affecting to despise the barbarisms of the living tongue. This affectation is carried so far that she apologizes for mentioning

barbarian names as for an offense against the customs of polite society. Allied to this is the haughty assertion of the primacy of Byzantium over all uncivilized foreigners, whether popes, Turks, or crusaders: Its strong personal bias,

its prejudice against the two successors of Alexius, and its constant revelation of the bitterness of disappointed ambition detract from the historical value of the work. Yet the wealth of information contained in it makes it the principal source for the history of Byzantium at the epoch of the first crusade. It is in MPG, cxxxi.; the best edition is by A. Reifferscheid, in the Bibliotheca Teubneriana (2 vols., Leipsic, 1884). (C. NEUMANN.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gibbon, Decline and Fall, vols. v. and vi., passim (by the only thorough student of Byzantine literature as a whole); H. von Sybei, Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges, pp. 460-468, Leipsic, 1881 (on the chronology of Anna Comnena); C. Neumann, Griechische Geechichb achreiber im 12 Jahrhundert, Leipsie, 1888; T. A. Archer and C. L. Kingsford, The Crusadee, pp. 49, 52, 191-192, 358, New York, 1895; Dieter, Zur Glaubenswardigkeit der Anna Komnena, in Bgzantinische Zeitschrift, iii. (1894) 386-390; Krumbacher, Geschichte, pp.274-279.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Josephus, Ant., XVIII. ii. 1-2, iv. 3, XX. ix. 1; Scharer, Geschichte, ii. 217, 221, Eng. transl. II. i. 182-183, 198, 202-204; DB, i. 99-100; EB, i. 171-172; JE, i. 610-611.

ANNATS (ANNATES). See TAXATION, ECCLESIASTICAL.

ANNE (ANNA), SAINT: Mother of the Virgin Mary. According to apocryphal tradition (Evongelium de natitritate Marite and Protevangelium Jacobi), she is said to have been born at Bethlehem, the daughter of the priest Matthan. She was married to the pious Joachim of the tribe of Judah, and for twenty years was childless. At her assiduous supplication, an angel foretold " that she should conceive and bring forth, and that her seed should be praised in the whole world." Joachim

A term designating broadly a large body of theories which unite in contending that human

beings pass, or are put, out of existr. Defini- ence altogether. These theories fall

tion of mortal, actually cease to exist at Theories. death; or that, souls being naturally

mortal, only those persist in life to which immortality is given by God; or that, though souls are naturally immortal and persist in existence unless destroyed by a force working upon them from without, wicked souls are actually thus destroyed. These three classes of theories may be conveniently called respectively, (1) pure mortalism, (2) conditional immortality, and (3) annihilationism proper.

The common contention of the theories which form the first of these classes is that human life

is bound up with the organism, and s. Pure that therefore the entire man passes Mortaliem. out of being with the dissolution of

the organism. The usual basis of this contention is either materialistic or pantheistic or at least pantheizing (e.g., realistic); the soul being conceived in the former case as but a function of organized matter and necessarily ceasing to exist with the dissolution of the organism, in the latter case as but the individualized manifestation of a much more extensive entity, back into which it sinks with the dissolution of the organism in connection with which the individualization takes place. Rarely, however, the contention in question is based on the notion that the soul, although a spiritual entity distinct from the material body, is incapable of maintaining its existence separate from the body. The promise of eternal life is too essential an element of Christianity for theories like these to thrive in a Christian atmosphere. It is even admitted now by Stade, Oort, Schwally, and others that the Old Testament, even in its oldest strata, presupposes the persistence of life after death,-which used to be very commonly denied. Nevertheless, the materialists (e.g., Feuerbach, Vogt, Moleschott, Bilchner, Hukel), and pantheists (Spinoza, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, Strauss; cf. S. Davidson, Doctrine of the Last Things, London, 1882, pp.132-133), still deny the possibility of immortality- and in exceedingly wide circles, even among those who would not wholly break with Christianity, men permit them. selves to cherish nothing more than a " hope °' of it (S. Hoekstra, De hoop der onstetfelijkheid, Amsterdam, 1867; L. W. E. Rauwenhoff, Wijabegeerte van den Godadienat, Leyden, 1887, p. 811; cf. the " Ingersoll Lectures ").

Already, however, in speaking of extinction we are passing beyond the limits of "conditionalism" pure and simple and entering the region 4. Annihila- of annihilationism proper. Whether we

a question of salvation by a gift of grace to everlasting life or of being left to the disintegrating effects of sin. The point of distinction between theories of this class and " conditionalism " is that these theories with more or less consistency or heartiness recognize what is called the " natural immortality of the soul," and are not tempted therefore to think of the soul as by nature passing out of being at death (or at any time), and yet teach that the actual punishment inflicted upon or suffered by the wicked results in extinction of being. They may differ among themselves, as to the time when this extinction takes place,whether at death, or at the general judgment,or as to the more or less extended or intense punishment accorded to the varying guilt of each soul. They may differ also as to the means by which the annihilation of the wicked soul is accomplished,whether by a mere act of divine power, cutting off the sinful life, or by the destructive fury of the punishment inflicted, or by the gradual enervating and sapping working of sin itself on the personality. They retain their common character as theories of annihilation proper so long as they conceive the extinction of the soul as an effect wrought on it to which it succumbs, rather than as the natural exit of the soul from a life which could be continued to it only by some operation upon it raising it to a higher than its natural potency.

It must be borne in mind that the adherents of these two classes of theories are not very careful to keep strictly within the logical limits of g. Mingling one of the classes. Convenient as it of Theories. is to approach their study with a definite schematization in hand, it is not always easy to assign individual writers with definiteness to one or the other of them. It has become usual, therefore, to speak of them all as annihilationists or of them all as conditionalists; annihilationists because they all agree that the souls of the wicked cease to exist; conditionalists because they all agree that therefore persistence in life is conditioned on a right relation to God. Perhaps the majority of those who call themselves conditionalists allow that the mortality of the soul, which is the prime postulate of the conditionalist theory, is in one way or another connected with sin; that the souls of the wicked persist in existence after death and even after the judgment, in order to receive the punishment due their sin; and that this punishment, whether it be conceived as infliction from without or as the simple consequence of sin, has much to do with their extinction. When so held, conditionalism certainly falls little short of annihilationism proper.

Some confusion has arisen, in tracing the history of the annihilationist theories, from confounding with them enunciations by the

the opening of the fourth century (cf. Salmond, pp. 473-474; Falke, pp. 27-28). It seemed to him impossible that beings such as men could either owe their being directly to God or persist in being without a special gift of God; the unrighteous must therefore be gradually consumed in the fires of Gehenna. A somewhat similar idea was announced by the Socinians in the sixteenth century (0. Fock, Der Socinianismus, Kiel, 1847, pp. 714 sqq.). On the positive side, Faustus Socinus himself thought that man is mortal by nature and attains immortality only by grace. On the negative side, his followers (Crell, Schwaltz, and especially Ernst Sohner) taught explicitly that the second death consists in annihilation, which takes place, however, only after the general resurrection, at the final judgment. From the Socinians this general view passed over to England where it was adopted, not merely, as might have been anticipated, by men like Locke (Reasonableness of Chris tianity, § 1), Hobbes (Leviathan), and Whiston, but also by Churchmen like Hammond and Warburton, and was at least played with by non-conformist leaders like Isaac Watts. The most remarkable example of its utilization in this age, however, is supplied by the non-juror Henry Dodwell (1706). Insisting that the " soul is a principle naturally mortal," Dodwell refused to allow the benefit of this mortality to any but those who lived and died without the limits of the proclamation of the Gospel; no " adult person whatever," he insisted, " living where Christianity is professed, and the motives of its credibility are sufficiently proposed, can hope for the benefit of actual mortality." Those living in Christian lands are therefore all immortalized, but in two classes: some " by the pleasure of God to punishment," some " to reward by their union with the divine baptismal Spirit." It was part of his contention that " none have the power of giving this divine immortalizing Spirit since the apostles but the bishops only," so that his book was rather a blast against the antiprelatists than a plea for annihilationism; and it was replied to as such by Samuel Clarke (1706), Richard Baxter (1707), and Daniel Whitby (1707). During the eighteenth century the theory was advocated also on the continent of Europe (e.g., E. J. E. Walter, Priifung einiger wichtigen Lehrentheologischesundphilosophisches I nhadts,Berlin,1782), and almost found a martyr in the Neuchatel pastor, Ferdinand Olivier Petitpierre, commonly spoken of by the nickname of " No Eternity,, (cf. C. Berthoud, Les Quatre Petitpiemes, Neuchatel, 1875). In the first half of the nineteenth century also it found sporadic adherents, as e.g., C. H. Weisse in Germany (TSK, ix., 1836, 271-340) and H. H. Dobney in England (Notes of Lectures on Future Punishment, London, 1844; new ed,, On the Scripture Doctrine of Future Punishment, 1846).

The real extension of the theory belongs, however, only to the second half of the nineteenth century. During this period it attained, chiefly through the able advocacy of it by C. F. Hudson and E. White, something like a popular vogue in English-speaking' lands. In French-speaking countries, while never

becoming really popular, it has commanded the attention of an influential circle of theologians and philosophers (as J. Rognon, L'Immortalite native et l'enseignement biblique, Paris, 1894, p. 7; but cf. A. Gretillat, Expos4 de theologiesyst4~matique,

IV., 1892, p. 602). In Germany, on 7. Nine- the other hand, it has met with less acteenth Cen- ceptance, although it is precisely there

ence of the most outstanding names. Before the opening of this half century in fact it had gained the great support of Richard Rothe's advocacy (Theologische Ethik, 2 vols., Wittenberg, 1845-47; 2d ed., 1867-72, §§ 470-472; Dogmatik, iii., Heidelberg, 1870, §§ 47-48, especially p. 158), and never since has it ceased to find adherents of mark, who base their acceptance of it sometimes on general grounds, but increasingly on the view that the Scriptures teach, not a doctrine of the immortality of the soul, but a reanimation by resurrection of God's people. The chief names in this series are C. H. Weisse (Philosophische Dogmatik, Leipsic, 1853-62, § 970); Hermann Schultz (Voraussetzungen der christlichen Lehre der Unsterblichkezt, Gottingen, 1861, p. 155; cf. Grundriss der evangelisehen Dogmatik, 1892, p. 154: " This condemnation of the second death may in itself, according to the Bible, be thought of as existence in torment, or as painful cessation of existence. Dogmatics without venturing to decide, will find the second conception the more probable, biblically and dogmatically "); H. Plitt (Evangeliaehe Glaubenslehre, Gotha, 1863); F. Brandes, (TSK, 1872, pp. 545, 550); A. SchAffer (Auf der Neige des Lebens, Gotha, 1884; Was ist Mick 9 1891, pp. 290-294); G. Runze (Unsterblichkeil and Auferstehung, i., Berlin, 1894, pp. 167, 204: " Christian Eschatology teaches not a natural immortality for the soul, but a reanimation by God's almighty power . . . . The Christian hope of reanimation makes the actualization of a future blessed existence depend entirely on faith in God "); L. Lemme (Endlosigkeit der Verddmmnis, Berlin; 1898, pp. 31-32, 60-61); cf. R. Kabisch (Die Eschatologie des Paulus, G6ttingen, 1893).

The same general standpoint has been occupied in Holland, e.g., by Jonker (Theologisehe Studien, i.). The first advocate of conditionalism in French was the Swiss pastor, E. Pdtavel-Olliff, whose first book, La. Fin du mal, appeared in 1872 (Paris), followed by many articles in the French theological journals and by Le ProbAme de l'immortalitk (1891; Eng. transl., London, 1892), and ThB EAiMion of Evil (Eng., 1889). In 1880 C. Byse issued a translation of E. White's chief book. The theory not only had already been presented by A. Bost, (LO Bart de- m&hants, 1861), but had been taken up by philosophers of such standing as C. Lambert (Systbme du monde moral 1862), P. Janet (RDM, 1863), and C. Renouvier (La Critiqw philaso,hique, 1878); and soon afterward Charles 8dcretan and C. Ribot (RT, 1885 no. 1) expressed their general adherence to it. Perhaps the more distinguished advocacy of it on French ground has come, however, from the two professors Sabatier, Auguste

and Armand, the one from the point of view of exegetical, the other from that of natural science. Says the one (L'Origine du pechk dans le syst&me thdologique de Paul, Paris, 1887, p. 38): " The impenitent sinner never emerges from the fleshly state, and consequently remains subject to the law of corruption and destruction, which rules fleshly beings; they perish and are as if they had never been." Says the other (Essai sur l'immortalitg au point de vue du naturalisme 6volutionniste, 2d ed., Pans, 1895, pp. 198, 229): "The immortality of man is not universal and necessary; it is subject to certain conditions, it is conditional, to use an established expression." " Ultratenrestrial immortality will be the exclusive lot of souls which have arrived at a sufficient degree of integrity and cohesion to escape absorption or disintegration."

The chief English advocate of conditional immortality has undoubtedly been Edward White whose Life in Christ was published first in 1846 (London), rewritten in 1875 (3d ed., 1878). His labors were seconded, however, not only by older works of similar tendency such as George Storrs's Are the Wicked Immortal? (21st ed., New York, 1852), but by later teaching from men of the standing of Archbishop Whately (Scripture Revelation Respecting the Future State, 8th ed., London, 1859), Bishop Hampden, J. B. Heard (The Tripartite Nature of Man, 5th ed., Edinburgh, 1852), Prebendary Constable (The Duration and Nature of Future Punishment, London, 1868), Prebendary Row (Future Retribution, London, 1887), J. M. Denniston (The Perishing Soul, 2d ed., London, 1874), S. Minton (The Glory of Christ, London,

1868), J. W. Barlow (Eternal Punish 8. English ment, Cambridge, 1865), and T. Davis Advocates. (Endless Suffering not the Doctrine

There is a particular form of conditionalism requiring special mention which seeks to avoid the difficulties of annihi]ationism, by teaching, not

the total extinction of the souls of the wicked, but rather, as it is commonly phrased, their" transformation " into impersonal beings incapable of moral action, or indeed of any feeling. This is the form of conditionalism which is suggested by James Martineau (A Study of Religion, ii., Oxford, 1888, p. 114) and by Horace Bushnell (Forgiveness and law, New York, 1874, p. 147, notes 5 and 6).

It is also hinted by Henry Drummond 9. Modiflca- (Natural Law in the Spiritual World, tions of the London, 1874), when he supposes

J. Fyfe, The Hereafter, Edinburgh, 188~Falke, Die Lehre von der euripen Verdamnias, pp. 25-38, Eisenaeh, 1892. On conditional immortality. consult W. R. Huntington, Conditional Immortality, New York, 1878; J. H. Pettingell, Theolopitai Tri-lemma, ib. 1878; idem, Life Everlasting. What is it I Whence is it t Who" is it f A Symposium, Philadelphia, 1882; E. White, Life and Death: A Reply to J. B Brown's Lectures on Conditional Immortality, London, 1877; idem, Life in Christ. A Study of the Scripture Doctrine on . . the Conditions of Human Immortality, New York, 1892. Further discussions may be found in the appropriate sections of most works on systematic theology and also in works on eschatology and future punishment See, besides the works mentioned in the text, the literature under lumORTALITt.

ANNIVERSARIUS (ac. dies), ANNIVERSARIUM: A day or service in memory of a deceased person. From the second century it was usual in Christian congregations to celebrate the death-days of their martyrs with divine service as they recurred annually. Families also used to commemorate their departed members on their death-days. From this custom arose the festivals of the martyrs and saints, as also those anniversaries for departed members of the congregations which are still held in the Roman Catholic Church, and consist in masses and alms provided for by special endowments.

ANNO: Archbishop of Cologne; b. probably 1010; d. at Cologne Dec. 4, 1075. He came of a noble Swabian family, received his education at Bamberg, and,-through the favor of Emperor Henry III., attained the dignities of dean of Goalar and archbishop of Cologne (1056). After the death of Henry III. (1056) and the accession of his infant son, Henry IV., under the regency of his mother Agnes of Poitou, Anno exercised considerable influence at court, and took part in the contest which broke out between the empire and Rome. The lack of capacity for the duties of government revealed by the queen-regent led to the formation of a conspiracy in 1062, under the leadership of Anno, who in the same year made himself master of the young king's person and thereby became virtual ruler of the empire. Desire for personal aggrandizement restrained him from making use of his power for the interests of Germany in the quarrel with the papacy, which now entered upon an acute phase. Upon the death of Pope Nicholas II. (1061) the party hostile to German influence, under the leadership of Hildebrand, had chosen as his successor Anselm of Lucca, who assumed the title of Alexander II. In opposition the imperial party had raised to the papal office Cadalus of Parma under the name of Honorius II. A synod at Augsburg, summoned in 1()62 to decide on the conflicting claims of the two candidates, rendered a temporary decision in favor of Alexander II.; and two years later a second synod, at Mantua, made formal acknowledgment of Alexander's rights. Anno, who was in complete control at Augsburg, was actuated in this course, so seemingly hostile to the welfare of the empire, by the desire to preserve in his hands the balance of power between the papal and imperial forces and thus to secure for himself the r81e of arbiter between the two. When the council of Mantua assembled, however, his influence had undergone serious diminution and he was unable to prevent the confirmation of the Italian pope. A strong rival for power now appeared in the person of Adalbert, archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen (see ADALBERT OF HAMBuRQ-BREMEN), With Whom AnnO Was compelled to share his authority over the young king (1063). Two years later the archbishop of Cologne found himself almost entirely superseded.

The fall of Adalbert in 1066 brought Anno once more to the front for a brief time, but he never again exercised the authority he had formerly possessed. The last years of his life were embittered by quarrels with Rome, by a rising of the

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources for biography are: Vita aancti Annonia, by a monk of Siegburg (c. 1100), in MGH, Script., xi. (1854) 465-514 and in MPL, exhii.; Vita manor sandi Annonis by another monk (c. 1186), ed. F. W. E. Roth in 1VA, xii. (1887) 208-215; a poem by an unknown author ed. J. Kehrein, Frankfort, 1865. Consult T. Lindner. Anno II. der Heilige, Leipsic, 1869; E. Steindorff, Jahrbucher des deutachen Reicha unter Heinrich lll., 2 vols., ib. 1874-81; W. von Giesebrecht, Geschichte der deutachen Kaiaerzeit, vol. hi., ib.1890; G. Meyer von Knonau, Jahrbticher des deutachen Reicha unter Heinrich IV., 2 vols., ib. 1890-94; Wattenbach, DGQ, ii. 107-109, 137, 140, 146, 183; Hauck, KD, vol. iii.

ANNOTATED BIBLES. See BIBLES, ANNOTATED. ANNULUS PISCATORIS, an'yu-Ivs pis-ka-to'ris: The official ring worn by the popes. Every Roman Catholic bishop wears a ring, which symbolizes that he is wedded to his diocese. This custom dates from very early times, and is mentioned by Isidore of Seville, who calls the ring signum port tiicalis honoris. The ring worn by a pope is engraved with a representation of St. Peter fishingwhence its special name-and with the title of the pontiff. From the fifteenth century papal briefs have been sealed with this ring, and are accordingly said to be given " under the seal of the fisherman." At the present time, instead of this seal, an imprint of the same device in red ink is more commonly used. The ring is given to the newly elected pontiff in the conclave by the cardinal camerlingo, and is broken on the death of the pope.

ANNUNCIATION, FEAST OF THE: A festival celebrated in the Greek, Roman Catholic, and Anglican churches on Mar. 25, in commemoration of the beginning of the incarnation (Luke i. 26-38). Though Augustine mentions the date of the event as nine months before Christmas, the earliest indisputable evidence for the celebration of the feast is furnished by Proclus, patriarch of Constantinople, who died before the middle of the fifth century. The probable date of its origin is about the end of the fourth century. The Council of Toledo (656) ordered its observance on Dec. 18, objecting to its celebration in the mournful season of Lent; and the church of Milan kept it on the fourth Sunday in Advent; but the Roman date finally prevailed throughout the West. The ancient Roman year having commenced with March, on the twentyfifth of which month the vernal equinox fell in the Julian calendar, it was natural for Christian countries to date their years from the feast which com-

memorated the initial step in the work of redemption; in some parts of England and the United States this date is still the legal term from which leases, etc. are reckoned.

ANIIUNCIATION, ORDERS OF THE (ANMMCIADES) : Five Roman Catholic congregations, two for men and three for women, have their name from the annunciation to the Virgin Mary (Luke i.

26-38). (1) The highest knightly order of the house of Savoy (now the ruling house of Italy): As the spiritual order of the " Knights of the Collar " it was founded by Count Amadeus VI. in 1362, and was specially favored by Amadeus VIII. (Pope Felix V.; d. 1451). In 1518 under Charles III. it was dedicated to Santa Maria Annunziata. Later it became a secular order of merit and nobility. (2) The " Archbrothers of the Annunciation ": Founded about 1460 by Cardinal Johannes de Turrecremata (Juan de Torquemada) in the Church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva at Rome; it had importance only for that church. (3) The " Annunciades of Santa Marcellina " (or of St. Ambrose): Founded in Genoa in 1408 for the care of the sick and the performance of like deeds of charity. Their most famous member was the ascetic and mystical writer Catharina Fieschi-Adorno who died in 1510 (see CATHARINE, SAINT, OF GENOA). (4) The " Blue Annunciades " (Annun tiatce colestes ; Italian, Turchine, from turchina, " turquoise"; so called from the color of their cloak): Founded in 1604 by the pious Maria Vittoria Fornari, a widow of Genoa. In the seventeenth century they had more than fifty convents, mostly in upper Italy. (5) The Religieuses Annonciades (known also as the " Order of the Ten Virtues of the Holy Virgin"): Founded about 1498 by Jeanne de Valois, Queen of France, and her confessor, Gilbert Nicolai. At one time they had forty-five convents in France and Belgium. The order was destroyed by the French Revolution.

ANNUS CARENTIE, au'us kd-ren'shi-i: The term during which a canon or other prebendary must renounce part of his revenues to the pope, the bishop, the church buildings or furniture, or for some other ecclesiastical purpose. In some countries a certain percentage is annually paid to an ecclesiastical fund.

ANNUS CLAUSTRALIS, cles-tralis: The first year in which a canon holds his benefice, and during which he is bound to be in strictest residence.

ANNUS DECRETORIUS, dec"re-to'ri-us: The year 1624, which by the peace of Westphalia (1648) was taken as the basis for the division between the Roman Catholic and the Protestant churches in German territory.

ANNUS DESERVITUS, des-er-vi'tvs, or ANNUS GRATL?E, gre'shi-i or -6: The term, varying in length in different countries, during which the heirs of an ecclesiastic are entitled to enjoy his revenues after his death.

ANNUS LUCTUS : The year of mourning, in some countries an obstacle to marriage (q.v.).

ANOMOIOS, ANOmOIANS (ANOM(EANS). See ARIAmIBM.

ANRICH, GUSTAV ADOLF: German Lutheran; b. at Runzenheim (a village of Lower Alsace) Dec. 2, 1867. He was educated at the universities of Strasburg, Marburg, and Berlin, and in 1894

became privat docent at Strasburg. He was pastor at Lingolsheim, Lower Alsace, from 1896 to 1901, when he became director. of the Theologischer Studienstift, Strasburg. Since 1903 he has been associate professor of church history at Strasburg. He has written Das antike Mysterientuesen in seinem Verhaltniss zum Christentum (Gottingen, 1894); Clemens and Origenes al4 Begriinder der Lehre vom Fege/euer (Tiibingen, 1902); and has edited Die Anfdnge des Heiligenkttlts in der christlichen Kirche of E. Lucius (1904).

ANSEGIS, an-s6'jis (abbreviated form of Ansegisil): 1. The Elder Ansegis: Abbot of Fontanella (St. Wandrille,15 m. n.n.w. of Rouen); b. in the latter part of the eighth century; d. at Fontanella July 20, 833. He received his first instruction in a cloister-school in the diocese of Lyons, became a monk in the monastery of Fontanella, and was made abbot of St. Germain de Flay, in the diocese of Beauvais, in 807. His energy and good management attracted the notice of Charlemagne, who called him to his court of Aix-laChapelle, and put him with Einhard in charge of his building operations. Louis the Pious also held him in great favor, and endowed him in 817 with the abbey of Luxeuil, and in 823 with that of Fontanella. Here he published his collection of Frankish laws, Libri, iv. eapitularium regum Francorum, which in 829 obtained official authority. Most of these capitularia can be compared with the original documents, and the comparison shows that Ansegis altered very little in the text; but Benedict of Mainz (Benedictus Levita), who, twenty years later, continued the work, made arbitrary, not to say fraudulent, alterations. In the ninth century the work was translated into German, and up to the thirteenth century the German kings took an oath on the book as containing the rights of the realm.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: Vita Sancri,Answisi, by an unknown contemporary, in MPL, cv.; of the Capitularium collertio the best edition is by A. Boretius in MGH, Leg., ii., Capitularia Regum Franeorum., i. (1883) 382-450. Consult H. Brunner, Deutacha Rechtepeschichte, i. 382-384, Leipsic, 1887.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. L. DOmmler, Geschichte des oat/rBBksecken Reichs i. 748, 767, 795, 837, 845 eqq , ii 40, 70, 81 122, Leipsic, 1862-65; P. Hineehius, KirchenrecAt, i. 597, Berlin, 1869.

ANSELM, SAINT, OF CANTERBURY: The father of medieval scholasticism and one of the most eminent of English prelates; b. at Aosta.

scholasticism, and has been called " the second Augustine." His mind was keen and logical, and his writings display profundity, originality, and masterly grasp of intellect. Of the two theological tendencies occupying the field in his timethe one, more free and rational, represented by Berengar of Tours; the other, confining itself more closely to the tradition of the Church, and represented by Lanfranc-he chose the latter; and he defines the object of scholastic theology to be the logical development and dialectic demonstration of the doctrines of the Church as handed down through the Fathers. The dogmas of the Church are .to him identical with revelation itself; and their truth surpasses the conceptions of reason so far that it is mere vanity to doubt a dogma on account of its unintelligibility. Credo ut intelligam, non qucero intelligere ut credam, is the principle on which he proceeds; and after him it has become the principle of all orthodox theology. As a metaphysician Anselm was a realist, and one of his earliest works, De fide Trinitatis, was an attack on the doctrine of the Trinity as expounded by the nominalist Roscelin. His most celebrated works are the Monologium and Proslogium, both aiming to prove the existence and nature of God; and the Cur deus homo, in which he develops views of atonement and satisfaction which are still held by orthodox theologians. The two first-named were written at Bee; the last was begun in England " in great tribulation of heart," and finished at Schiavi, a mountain village of Apulia, where Anselm enjoyed a few months of 'rest in 1098. His meditations and prayers are edifying and often highly impressive.

[In the Monotogium he argues that from the idea of being there follows the idea of a highest and absolute, i.e. self-existent Being, from which all other being derives its existencg-a revival of the ancient cosmological argument. In the Pros logium the idea of the perfect being-"than which nothing greater can be thought "-can not be separated from its reality as existing. For if the idea of the perfect Being, thus present in consciousness, lacked existence, a still more perfect Being could be thought, of which existence would be a necessary metaphysical predicate, and thus the most perfect Being would be the absolutely Real. The argument is significant, ,partly as showing the profound influence of Realism over Anselm's thought, and partly as revealing him to be the first to enter upon the perilous transcendent pathway of the ontological argument, to be followed by Descartes (Meditationes), Hegel and his school, and especially J. Caird (Philosophy of Religion, New York, 1881, pp. 153-159. For criticism of the ontological argument, cf. Kant, Critique of the Pure Reason, New York, 1881, pp. 500 sqq., Ueberweg, History of Philosophy, i., New York, 1873, pp. 383386).

The key to Anselm's theory of the Atonement (see·ATONEMENT) was the idea of "satisfaction." In justice .to himself and to the creation, God, whose honor had suffered injury by man's sin, must react against it either by punishing men, or, since he was merciful, by an equivalent satis-

how, transl. by $. N. Deane, with introduction,, bibliography, etc., Chicago, 1903.

The sources for Anselm's life are the Hietoria novorum and Vita Anselmi of his chaplain and friend, Eadmer, printed in Gerberon and Migne, ut sup, and edited for the Rolls Series by M. Rule, London, 1884; the Vita alia by John of Salisbury, in MPL, excix., and the Vita bravior, ib. clviii. Of modern works the following may be mentioned: R. W. Church, The Life of St. Anselm, London, 1870 (" masterly, accurate, vigorous "); F. R. Hasse, Anselm von Canterbury, 2 parts, part i., Leben, Leipsie, 1843, part ii., Lehre, ib. 1852, abridged Eng. tranel. by W . Turner, London; 1850: C. de Rdmusat, St. Anselme de Cantorbdry. Paris, 1868 (contains able criticism of Anselm's philosophy, with which cf. E. Baisset in Mdange d'hiatoire, de morale, et de critique, Paris, 1859); M. Rule, Life and Times of St. Anselm, 2 vols., London, 1883 (the result of long study, but marred by prejudice); DNB, ii. 10-30; P. Ragey, Hietoire de St. Anselme, Paris, 1889; J. M. W. Rigg, St. Aneelm of Canterbury, a Chapter in the His$. of Religion, London, 1896; A. C. Welch, Anaelm and his Work, London, 1901; E. A. Freeman, History of the Norman Conquest, passim; idem, History of the Reign of William Rufus, vol. i., chap. iv., and vol. ii., chap. vii. (valuable for references to authorities).

ANSELM OF HAVELBERG: Bishop of Havelberg, later archbishop of Ravenna; d. 1158. He took an active part in ecclesiastical and still more in political affairs under the emperors from Lothair III. to Frederick I. Having joined the Premonstrants he went to Magdeburg, probably influenced by Norbert, who consecrated him in 1129 bishop of Havelberg. As such he labored zealously for the order, to whose duties especially belonged the organization of the church in the Wendic countries, and founded a Premonstrant chapter in Havelberg. In 1135 Lothair III. sent him as ambassador to Constantinople in the hope of effecting a union against Roger of Sicily. He held a friendly conference on the principal points of controversy between the Eastern and the Western Churches, with the archbishop of Nicomedia, and afterward at the request of Pope Eugenius III. wrote three " Dialogues," descriptive of it. In 1147 he took part as papal legate in the crusade againAt the Wends, and then devoted several years to the affairs of his bishopric. The Emperox Frederick 1. employed him again on political missions; he sent him to Constantinople in 1154, when he wished to secure a Greek princess for his wife, and in 1155 caused him to be chosen archbishop of Ravenna. In the same year Anselm was successful in mediating between Frederick and the Pope (Giesebrecht, v.' 59, 64). His writings, besides the one mentioned above, treat especially of the relation between canons and monks, which was much discussed in his time. They are in MPL, clxxxviii.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: $pieker, Anaelm von Havelberg, in ZHT, vol.x.,part ii. (1840) 1-94; W. von Giesebrecht,Geerdichle der deutachen Kaiaerzeit, iv.-v., Brunswick, 1874; Hauck. KD, vol. iv. passim.

ANSELM OF LAON (Lat. Latulunensis; called also Scholasticua): Archdeacon of Laon; b. at

Laon about the middle of the eleventh century; d. there July 15, 1117. He enjoyed the instruction

of Anselm of Canterbury at Bee, and from 1076 was teacher of scholastic theology at Paris, where he gathered around him a number of prominent pupils. With the most notable of them, the genial William of Champeaux (q.v.), he laid the foundation of the later University of Paris. To-

faction, viz., the death of the God-man, which will more than compensate for the injury to his honor, on the ground of which he forgives sin. Incidental features of his theory are-sin as a violation of a private relation between God and man, the interaction of the divine righteousness and grace, and the necessity of a representative suffering. In the Reformed doctrine, sin and the Atonement took on more of a public character, the active obedience of Christ was also emphasized, and the representative relation of Christ to the law brought to the front. In the seventeenth century the forensic and penal justice of God came into prominence; Christ was conceived of as suffering the punishment of our sin,-a complete equivalent of the punishment which we must have suffered,-on the ground of which our guilt and punishment are pardoned. In the following century, Owen (Works, ix. 253-254) held that the sufferings of Christ for sinners were not tantidem but idem. In more recent discussions along this line, Hodge (Systematic Theology, ii. 480-495) maintains that Christ suffered neither the kind nor degree of that which sinners must have suffered, but any kind and degree of suffering which is judicially inflicted in satisfaction of justice and law. There has indeed been no theory of the work of Christ which has not conceived of it as a satisfaction; even the so-called moral influence theories center in this idea (cf . W. N. Clarke, Outline of Christian Theology, New York, 1898, pp. 348, 349). It is therefore evident how fundamental is the idea of satisfaction presented by Anselm. Only it must be observed first that in the evolution of the Christian doctrine of salvation the particular way in which the satisfaction was realized has been differently conceived; and secondly, if the forgiveness of sin in Jesus Christ takes place only when the ethical nature of God is satisfied, the special form in which the satisfaction is accomplished is of subordinate importance. In one class of views-the representative or juridical-the satisfaction was conditioned on a unique and isolated divine-human deed-the death or the life and death of Christ; in the other theories, the satisfaction is threefoldin the expression of the divine good-will, through the life and death of Christ, in the initial response of sinners to forgiving grace, and in the final bringing of all souls to perfect union with the Father. Cf. C. A. Beckwith, Realities of Christian Theology, Boston, 1906, pp. 226-229. For criticism of Anselxn on the Atonement, cf. Harnack, Dogmengeschichte, iii., Freiburg, 1890, pp. 351-358, Eng.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The best edition of Anselm'a works is by G. Gerberon, a monk of the Congregation of Bt. Maur, Paris, 1675 (2d ed., 1721; reprinted at Venice, 1744, and, with corrections and additions, in MPL, elviii.-elix.). The Monologium and Proalogium were published by C. Haas, Tdbingen, 1863· the Cur dew how, by H. L&mmer, Berlin, 1857, and by O. F. Fritzsche (3d ed., Zurich, 1893). The Monologium and Proslogium were translated into French by H. Bouehitt_, Le Rationalieme chrEtien, Paris, 1842; the Cur dew homo, into German by B. 8chirlitz, Quedlinburg, 1861. In English are: The Cur deus how, with selections from his letters, London, 1889; his Book of Meditations and Prayers, with preface by Cardinal Manning, 1872; and the Proelogium, Monolopium, and Cur deua

Matilda, by Bardo, a priest who had been his close associate, is in MPL, exlviii. and, with extracts from some of his works, ed. R. Wilmans, in MGH, Script., xu. (1856) 1-35. Consult A. Overmann, Die vita Anselmi Lucansis epieeopi des Rangerius, in NA, vol. xxi., 1896; W. von Giesebreeht, Geschichte der deutachen Kaiserseit, vol. iii., Leipsic, 1890; J. Langen, G eschichte der r6mischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bit Innocent 111., Bonn, 1893; C. Mirbt, Die Publisietik im ZeitalterGregora VII., Leipsie, 1894; W. Martens, Gregor VII., 2 vols., ib. 1894; G. Meyer von Knonau, Jahrbacher des deutachen Reichs unter Heinrich IV. and Heinrich V., vol. ii., ib. 1894; Wattenbach, DGQ, ii. (1894).

ANSGAR or ANSKAR (Aasgejr, Osgejr, " God's Spear"; the modern Oscar): The apostle of Scandinavia, first archbishop of Hamburg (8318fi5); b. of prominent Frankish parents near the monastery of Corbie (9 m. e. of Amiens), probably in 801; d. at Bremen Feb. 3, 865. After his mother's early death he was brought up at Corbie, and made rapid progress in the learning of the time. In 822 he was one of a colony sent to found the abbey of Corvey (New Corbie) in Westphalia, and became there a teacher and preacher. When, four years later, Harold, king of Denmark, made an alliance with the Franks which included the acceptance of their religion, Ansgar was among those chosen to accompany the king to Denmark to evangelize the people. He and his companion Autbert founded a school at Harold's court after the Frankish model, but their work had to be abandoned on account of the downfall of Harold (827) and the illness and death of Autbert. In the autumn of 829, probably, Swedish ambassadors appeared at the imperial court and asked that Christian missionaries be sent to their country. Again Ansgar was selected, and with him, Witmar, his former colleague in the abbey-school at Corvey. After a perilous journey, they reached Sweden and were allowed to preach freely, with considerable success, at Bj6rk6 (Birka) on an island in Lake Mglar.

Anagar spent two years in Sweden, returning home in 831 to report to the emperor. The time was now ripe for the accomplishment of a plan of great importance for the northern missions, which Charlemagne had had in mind, and for which his son had now found the right man, viz., the establishment of a bishopric of Hamburg. Besides a diocese formed from those of Bremen and Verden, the new metropolitan was to have the right to send missions into all the northern lands and to consecrate bishops for them. Ansgar was consecrated in Nov., 831, and, the arrangements having been at once approved by Gregory IV., went to Rome to receive the pallium directly at the hands of the pope and to be named legate for the northern lands. This commission had previously been bestowed upon Ebo, archbishop of Reims; but an amicable agreement was reached by which the jurisdiction was divided, Ebo retaining Sweden for himself. For a time Ansgar devoted himself to the needs of his own diocese, which was still missionary territory with but a few churches. He founded in Hamburg a monastery and a school; the latter was to serve the Danish mission, but accomplished little.

After the death of Louis le DSbonnaire (840), Ansgar lost the abbey of Turholt, which had been given as an endownient for his work, and in 845

ANTHONISTS. See ANTHONY, SAINT, ORDERS OF.

ANTHONY, ALFRED WILLIAMS: Free Baptist; b. at Providence, R. I., Jan. 13, 1860. He was educated at Brown University (B.A., 1883), Cobb Divinity School (1883-86), and the University of Berlin (1888-90), and was pastor of the Essex Street Free Baptist Church, Bangor, Me., from 1885 to 1888. On his return from Germany he was appointed professor of New Testament exegesis at Cobb Divinity School, a position which he still holds. He is also a member of the conference board of the General Conference of Free Baptists, the chairman of the Free Baptist committee of conference on union with other bodies, a member of the Interdenominational Commission of Maine Since its organization in 1891 and secretary since 1904, trustee and secretary of the board of the Maine Industrial School for Girls since 1899, and member of the school committee of Lewiston since 1906. Among the societies to which he belongs are the American Philological Association, the American Institute of Sacred Literature, the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis, and the Maine Academy of Medicine and Science. In theology he is a moderate progressive. He has written: An Introduction to the Life of Jesus (New York, 1896); The Method of Jesus (1899); The SundaySchool-Its Progress in Method and Scope (1899); and The Higher Criticism in the New Testament (1901); and has edited Preachers and Preaching (1900), and New Wine Skins (1901).

ANTHONY, SAINT, THE HERMIT. See MONASTICISM.

ANTHONY, SAINT, ORDERS OF: The oldest and most important of the religious orders named after St. Anthony, the father of monasticism, is that of the Hospitalers of St. Anthony, founded about the time of the first crusade (1095-99) by a nobleman of St. Didier la Mothe in Dauphin, Gaston by name. According to the traditions of the order, Gaston's son, Gu6rin, was cured of the disease known as St. Anthony's fire (morbus sacer), whereupon the father founded a hospital for those suffering from this and similar maladies, near the great church of St. Didier, and, with his son and eight knightly comrades, undertook the part of nurses in the institution. St. Anthony appeared to the founder, gave him his staff (shaped like the letter " T "), and encouraged him in the work. Urban II. is said to have confirmed the order at the synod at Clermont in 1095. Calixtus II. in 1118 dedicated the church belonging to the Benedictine monastery Mons Major at St. Didier to St. Anthony, and so made it the chief sanctuary of the order, which was subject to the Benedictines. From the end of the twelfth century the order spread through the foundation of many houses (as at Rome in 1194; at Acco in 1208; and many in central and north Germany), and it acquired considerable wealth through the persistent zeal of its almsgatherers. They wore a black robe

BIRmOGRAPRY: Heimbucher, Orden and Kongrepationen, i. 401-402; Helyot, Ordres monastiques ii. 108-114; Seifart, Die Tonnesherm and der ehrsame Rat in Hildesheim, in Zeitschrift ftir deutsche Culturpeschichte, 1872, pp. 121, 384; G. Uhlhorn, Die chriatliche LieUsA3tigkeit im fib telalter, pp. 178, 432, 478, Stuttgart, 1884.

ANTHONY, SAINT, OF PADUA: The most celebrated of the followers of St. Francis of Assisi; b. at Lisbon, of a distinguished, knightly family, about 1195; d. at Padua June 13, 1231. When fifteen years of age he joined the Augustinian canons at Lisbon. Afterward he went to Coimbra and by zealous study made himself master of the theology of his time. The translation of the bones of the first martyred Franciscans from Morocco to Coimbra awakened in Anthony a desire for martyrdom; to accomplish his purpose in 1220 he joined the Minorites and sailed to Africa; being confined to his bed by sickness throughout the winter, he resolved to return home. On the way he was driven to Messina and with the brethren there went to the chapter at Assisi in 1221, where he was taken to a hermitage in the Romagna. By accident his oratorical gifts became known when he was ordained priest at Forli; and he was made preacher of the order. Of his public activity, which now commenced, very little is known. For a time he acted as lector to the Minorites at Bologna, although Francis of Assisi, influenced by Elias of Cortona, who wished to introduce scientific study into the order, gave his permission very reluctantly. Anthony next went to France, and was guardian at Puy and custos in Limousin. As in the Romagna, he showed himself an indefatigable persecutor of heretics in the struggle with the Cathari. At Rimini he converted some of them by his persuasive powers, and he united the converts at Padua into a brotherhood of penitents. Finally he was made provincial, and in 1229 went to Padua.

In 1230 Anthony took part in the general chapter at Assisi, and he was released from his office as provincial in order that he might devote himself entirely to preaching. He, however, took a prominent part in the controversy of the parties which developed among the Minorites. He sided with Elias and was among the delegates sent to Rome to have the differences decided by the pope, who accordingly issued the bull Quo elongati, Sept. 28, 1230 (see FRANCIS, SAINT, OF Assisi, AND THE FRANCISCAN ORDER). L-13

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Of the works ascribed to Anthony only the sermons preserved at Padua are certainly genuine. Those which r have been published will be found in A. Pagi, Sermottes S. Antonii Paduani de Sauctis, Avignon, 1684; A. Joss. Legenda seu vita et miracula S. Antonii de Padua, Bologna, 1883; idem, Sermonea, Padua, 1885. The edition (Padua,-1895 sqq.) begun by A. M. Locatelli (d. 1902) does not state what MSS. are followed. Other collections are not genuine or very doubtful. The sources and most important literature for Anthony are gathered in Leon de Kerval, S. Antonii de Padua vitd duos, etc., in Collection d'etudea et des documents sur l'histoire religieuae et litleraire du moyen doe, vol. v., Paris. 1904. For his life: E. de Asevedo, Vita del qlorioso taumaturgo portophew sant' Antonio di Padova, Bologna, 1790, last ed., Venice, 1865; H. J. Coleridge, S. J., The Chronicle of St. Antony of Padua, London, 1876; E. Lempp, in ZKG, xi. (1890) 177-211, 503-538, xii. (1891), 414-451, xiii. (1892) 1-46; J. Rigauld, La Vie de Saint Antoine de Padua .... publi6e pour la premillre foil avec une introduction tur Us sources . . . par Ferdinand-Marie d'Amules, Bordeaux, 1899; Mrs. A. Bell, Saint Antony of Padua; Seven fullpage Reproductions from Old Masters of Scenes in the Lafe of St. Antony, London, 1900; A. Lepitre, Antoine de Padoue (in the Joly series), Paris. 1901, Eng. transl. by Edith Guest, London, 1902.

ANTHROPOMORPHISM and ANTHROPOPATHISM (Gk. anthrbpos, " man," + m orphe, " form," and pathos, " passion, suffering"): Terms designating views of God which represent him as possessed of a human form or members, human attributes, or human passions. Such views arise from the natural tendency or necessity of man to conceive of higher beings by analogy with himself, and are incidental to all religions at a certain stage of their development. Many passages of the Bible easily lend themselves to an anthropomorphic interpretation. The Audians (q.v.) of the fourth and fifth centuries taught that all references to God's hands, ears, eyes, etc., are to be interpreted literally. Some philosophers believe the conception of God as a personal spirit to be anthropomorphic. Scholars who accept the compilatory theory of the origin of the Pentateuch consider anthropomorphism a marked characteristic of the Elohist, usually cited as E. Others maintain that the Scriptures, rightly interpreted, lend no support to such views. See COMPARATIVE RELIGION, VI., 1, a,§3.

Anthropomorphism is inseparable from any conception of supernatural powers or God. This fact has received two interpretations. (1) Religion never outgrows the essential characteristics of its origin, whether this is conceived of as mythological (Comte), animistic (Tylor), or through dreams (Spencer). In the lower stages of religion, the gods are only larger men. According to Feuerbach, following Xenophanes and Lucretius (De rerun nalura, v. 121), man creates God in his own image (cf. Feuerbach, Wesen des Christenthums, chap. 1, § 2). In the progress from polytheism to monotheism, the human qualities are indefinitely enlarged, concentrated, and united in one being, but the being is still human. Between the mode of human intelligence and omniscience, the human will and omnipotence, between human goodness and divine perfection, between personality and the Infinite is not only an immeasurable but an irreconcilable difference. The result for thought is either that there is no God (Comte), or, if such a being exists, we are compelled to distrust all anthropomorphic notions and take refuge in the Unknown and the Unknowable (Spencer, First Principles, New York, 1892, pp. 108-123). The latter alternative leaves room for the religious sentiments, but only in the form of awe. To rid the idea of God of every trace of anthropomorphism, however, simply abolishes the idea itself. (2) According to the second view-which is met with under many variations-religious ideas are not only incurably anthropomorphic, but they share this property with all other ideas. They contain objective truth, even if this is lacking in scientific accuracy of expression. Either rational and moral qualities are to be ascribed to God, on the ground that these are essential to the perfection of personality (S. Harris, The Self-Revelation of God, New York, 1887, pp. 433-440), or, since they are derived from the human consciousness and the region of the finite, they may be interpreted only analogically and symbolically; e.g., force, cause, energy, the eternal, the infinite, the power not ourselves that makes for righteousness, even personality and fatherhood have a real meaning for religious feeling and thought, although their full significance transcends both definition and comprehension. The Scriptures, which are marked by definite stages of anthropomorphic representations of God, contain a corrective for an undue reliance on this mode of conception. C. A. BECKWrrH.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: John Fiske, Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy, part 1, chap. vii., part 3, chap ii., Boston, 1891; idem,ldea of God, pp. 111-118, Boston, 1886; F. Paulsen, Einleitunp in die Philoaophie, pp. 275-281, Berlin, 1895, Eng. tranal., pp. 252-256, New York, 1898.

The Idea Possibly of Babylonian Origin (1 1). Old Testament Conceptions (1 2).

Later Hellenistic Jewish Literature (¢ 3). In the New Testament (§ 4).

The name "Antichrist" is first found in the Epistles of John (I. ii. 18, 22, iv. 3; II. 7). The idea, however, is in earlier New Testament writings, and its roots are in the Old Testament. According to a modern supposition they are

even to be sought in the Babylonian chaos-myth,a native myth of the springtime, which narrates how Tiamat, the ruler over the deeps of dark-

ness and the waters, aided by her r. The Idea powers, rebelled against the upper Possibly of gods, but was overcome by Marduk, Babylonian the son of the gods, who had been

created the heavenly lights. It has been supposed that the Old Testament writings indicate that this myth migrated to Canaan in very ancient times, was transferred by the Israelites to the latter end of the world, and was applied in various forms also to political enemies of the people; and herein is sought the origin of the Old Testament idea of a rise and conquest of evil powers, which preceded the establishment of the kingdom of God (Gunkel, Schop fang tend Chaos, G6ttingen, 1895, pp. 221 sqq.). But influence of old Oriental thoughts upon the figurative style of Biblical writings can be admitted only in a very limited degree.

Neither the sources of the eschatological ideas which meet in the notion of Antichrist, nor the

characteristic features of their devela. Old Tes- opment can be traced back to extratament Biblical elements. The belief in the

Gradually the last enemy of the kingdom of God came to be thought of as the antitype of the Messiah;

at least such is the representation of 3. Later the later Hellenistic Jewish literature Hellenistic (cf. Num. xxiv. 7, LXX.; Sibyllines, Jewish iii. 652 sqq.). In the extant pre-

persons, according to the clear statement of the epistles (I John ii. 22; II John 7), the idea and the character of the Antichrist are realized.

and in the woman after the manner of Cleopatra Church. appears (,Sibyllines, iii. 77, v. 18, viii. 200); oftener that of an imperial Roman anti-Messiah. In later times Antichrist was represented in Jewish theology as victor over the suffering Messiah, and was called Romulus, also Armfflus. In the Christian Church of the first centuries the main types of the Biblical Antichrist reappear. Origen identified the notion in an abstract sense with that of false doctrine. Certain contemporaneous representatives of heretical teaching were called by the name, without thereby excluding the expectation of an Antichrist as a future individual (cf. Didache, xvi.). Very often the latter was thought of as a false Jewish Messiah -hence circumcised and compelling circumcisionand it was expected that he would come from the tribe of Dan and from the East. The connection of Antichrist with Nero in the Apocalypse of John was also developed by representing .him as the resuscitated Nero (Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum, ii.; Jerome, on Dan, xi. 17; Augustine, De civitate Dei, xx. 13). Both conceptions were strangely fused (Victorinus, Comment. ad Apoc.) or outwardly connected with each other into.the notion of a double Antichrist, a Western (Roman) and an Eastern, appearing in Jerusalem. In relation to Satan, the Antichrist was thought of as a man working his will, as his son, and even as his incarnation.

As Boussbt (Antichrist) has so convincingly shown, a tradition was evidently current in Jewish thought which underlay the teaching both of Paul and the Apocalypse concerning the Antichrist. The tradition appears to have contained the following features. The coming of Antichrist was prevented by the Roman power. When this power shouid fall, the Antichrist, not of foreign birth but a Jewish false Messiah, would establish himself in the temple at Jerusalem and require men to worship him. His reign would last for three and one-half years. By means of his miraculous power he would convert the world to .his side. Later, his real character would be exposed; the

BIBLIOGRAPHY: McClintock and Strong, Cyclopradia, i. 254281 (able historical review, but omits survey of the Pseudepigrapha, a lack supplied in R. F. Charles, Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life, London, 1899); J. G. Welch, Bibliotheca theolopua, ii. 217 sqq., 4 vole., Jena, 1757-88 (gives bibliography of controversy between Protestants and Catholics); T. Malvenda, De Antichristo, Rome, 1604; J. H. Newman, The Protestant ldea,of Anti-Christ, in his Critical and Historical Es says, ii. 112-185, London, 1871; DCB, i.120-122; S. Huntingford, The Apocalypse . . . and as Antichrist of St. Paul and St. John, London, 1881; Computation of 666 . the Coming of Anti-Christ, ib. 1891; w. Bousset, Der

Antichrist in der Ueberlieferung des Judenthuma, des Neuen Testaments and der alten Kirche, GSttingen, 1895, Eng. transl., London, 1898; H. Gunkel, Schnpfung and Chaos, Gottingen, 1895; E. Wadstein, Antichrist, in ZWT, xxxviii.-xxxix. (new series, iii.-iv., 1895-98), 79-157, 251293; M. Friedliinder, Der Antichrist in den vorehriatlichen iiidiechen Quellen, Gbttingen, 1901.

ANTIMENSIUM, an"ti-men'si-um: A name applied in the Greek Church to a linen cloth spread upon the altar before the beginning of the eucharistic service, and considered as making it an altar ready for the sacrifice. Since the Greek Church, like the Roman Catholic, holds that the eucharistic sacrifice may be offered only on a consecrated altar, and since this consecration can be performed only by the bishop (taking place usually at the

L Antinomianism in General: The name antinomianism is a comparatively modern designation of several types of ethical thought in which hostility to the Mosaic law (including the decalogue) and to the principles therein embodied has led to immoral teaching and practise. Traces of such thought are evident in the New Testament. The spiritualization of the law into the one precept of love to God taught and exemplified by Jesus encouraged some overenthusiastic devotees to believe that they had been exalted to such a height of spirituality and such an overmastering love to God that they needed to have no regard to moral precepts or to outward conduct; i. New Tes- while Paul's insistence on the goodness,

tament holiness, and spirituality of the law Antino- did not suffice to convince all of those

Many Gnostics objected to the Mosaic law as being too formal and not sufficiently spiritual, on the one hand, and as giving too much place to carnal indulgence, on the other (see GNosmclsm). Holding the flesh in contempt as an evil product of the

petuated in some of the parties of the Reformation time.

The pantheistic sect of the " Libertines," who appeared in the Netherlands about 1525 and thence spread into France and were combated by Calvin (see LIBERTINES, 3; LoisTs) were Antinomians. They disregarded the Mosaic law and law in general as inapplicable to the spiritual man and felt free to lie, steal, and indulge the passions. David Joris (q.v.), the mystic, was accused by his opponents of antinomian teachings, but

apparently without sufficient reason. 4. Of the It would be easy to point out anti-

Siateenth nomian tendencies in a number of and Seven- continental parties of the sixteenth

The hyper-Calvinistic (supralapsariap) teaching of men like Piscator (d. 1625) and Gomar (d. 1641) in the Netherlands, as that " sins take place, God procuring and himself willing that they take place, nay, absolutely so willing " and that in giving the law and commanding its observance He made its observance absolutely impossible, really struck at the root of human responsibility and discouraged any effort to control the natural impulses. So, too, the Jesuit casuists of the more reckless type in substituting for the Mosaic law the Canon Law and in making the violation of the latter easy by their doctrines of " philosophical sin," " direction of attention," " mental reservation," and " probabilism," etc., were constructively antinomian. Mystics of the later time, so far as they pantheistically identified themselves with God and supposed that by virtue of such spiritual exaltation they were subject to no ordinances human or divine, were antinomian in the sense in which the Brethren of the Free Spirit were.

Of special importance in this connection, because of the wide-spread influence exerted by his teachings on English and American thought and life, is Hendrik Niklaes, founder of the Familists (q.v.). In 1577 several of his works were published in English and called forth a considerable body of polemical literature. At this time there are said to have been one thousand Familists in England,

and they were making an active and g. In successful propaganda. To counterEngland. act their influence the privy council

issued a form of abjuration to be applied to members of the party arraigned for heresy. Their principles were too nearly identical with those of the Brethren of the Free Spirit not to be subversive of morality as well as of Scriptural authority and historical Christianity, and their errors were all the more insidious because of the fact that they allowed themselves to conform outwardly to any required ecclesiastical or civil usages, and by the use of ambiguous language to profess the acceptance of any doctrine.

During the Civil War and Commonwealth times almost every imaginable type of religious propagandise went forward with astonishing zeal and success. Familism (with other important influ ences) produced a relatively pure and evangelical mysticism in the Society of Friends and a grosser

1. That the Moral Law is of no use at all to a believer, nor a rule for him to walk in, nor to examine his life by, and that Christians are free from the mandatory power of it: whence one of them [Antinomians] cried out in the pulpit, " Away with the Law, which cuts off a mans !egs and then bids him walk." 2. That it is as possible for Christ to stn as for a child of God to sin. 3. That the child of God need not nor ought not to ask pardon for sin, and that it is no less than blasphemy for him so to do. 4. That God doth not chasten any of his children for sin, nor is it for the sins of God's people that the land is punished. 5. That if a man know himself to be in a state of grace, though he be drunk, or commit murder, God sees no sin in him. 6. That when Abraham denied his wife, and in outward appearance seemed to lie in his distrust, lying, dissembling, and equivocating that his wife was his sister, yea, then all his thoughts, words, and deeds were perfectly holy and righteous from all spot of sin in the eyes of God.

By far the most unattractive of the sectaries of this time are the Ranters, who seem to have been almost identical in doctrine and

6. The practise with the Brethren of the Ranters. Free Spirit and who, by ~ their enthusiastic propagandism, seduced multitudes from the fellowship of the evangelical denominations. According to Samuel Fisher (Baby Baptism Mere Babism, London, 1653), " Some Ranters are not ashamed to say that they are Christ and God, and there is no other God than they, and what's in them, and such like blasphemies." They denied the existence of the devil, heaven, and hell. Moses they declared to be a conjurer and Christ a deceiver of the people. Prayer is useless. Preaching and lying are all one. The Scriptures they regarded as cast-off fables, and when they condescended to use them at all they practised the most absurd allegorizing. They claimed that nothing is sin but what a man thinks to be so. Their practise is represented as corresponding with their immoral teaching.

A large proportion of the Particular Baptists of England during the latter half of the eighteenth century, by way of reaction against Socinianism and the missionary movement, became

involved in a hyper-Calvinistic (supralapsarian) type of thought that involved making God responsible for evil, complete denial of

7. Later human initiative or part in salvation Phases of and conduct, renunciation of the law Antinomi- as a rule of life, and the disowning of

1. Of the German Reformation: Antinomian doctrines were vigorously discussed in Germany during the Reformation period until the Formula of Concord made a final adjustment of the matter in 1577. Luther had held that the Mosaic law, as an ancient code devised under special conditions for a particular people, was superseded by the civil law of modern states, and no longer possessed for Christians a juridical or ceremonial force.' Furthermore, the whole law, even the decalogue included, was in no wise to be employed by Christians in the spirit of justification by I. Luther's works, since that involved a super-

Earlier ficial and mercenary idea of divine Teachings justice. There was, however, need to about the preach the law from a spiritual stand-

I In combating the legalistic element in medieval Roman Catholic teaching and in the radical religious parties of the early Reformation time, Luther allowed himself to use language in disparagement of the Mosaic law so strong and unqualified as to give great encouragement to those that were eager for fleshly freedom. A few sentences should be quoted: " Christ is not harsh, severe, biting as Moses . . . . Therefore, away with Moses forever, who shall not terrify deluded hearts." Again: " The gospel is heavenly and divine, the law earthly and human; the righteousness of the gospel is just as distinct from that of the law as heaven from earth, as light from darkness. The gospel is light ana day, the law darkness and night." In his polemic " against the Heavenly Prophets " (En. ed., xxix. 150) he says: " We will take our stand on the right ground and say that these sin-teachers and Mosaic prophets shall leave us unconfounded by Moses; we will neither see nor hear Moses. How does this please you, dear revolutionists 7 And we say further that all such Mosaic. teachers [i.e., the Zwickau prophets, q.v.] deny the gospel, banish Christ, and overthrow the whole New Testament. I speak now as a Christian and for Christians, since Moses was given to the Jewish people alone and has nothing to do with us Gentiles and Christians. We have our gospel and New Tests ment; if they will prove from this that pictures are to be done away with, we will gladly follow them. But if they wish by means of Moses to make Jews of us, we will not suffer it." Of course, he did not mean utterly to repudiate Moses, but rather by a tour de force to repudiate what he

either hypocrisy or despair. In his emphasis on justification by faith, Luther asserted that true repentance proceeded from a realizing sense of the work of Christ. The preaching of faith was to take precedence of all else, since, faith having been attained, contrition and consolation spontaneously followed. Nevertheless, more frequently and in entire consistency with the formal definition of his position in 1520, the process of salvation was described by him as beginning with the operation of the law upon the soul, which in repentance casts about for aid and is met with the promise of remission of sins through Christ.

The antinomian controversy was preluded by the complaints preferred in Bohemia in 1524 against one Dominicus Beyer, who strictly adhered to Luther's doctrine, but was accused by some of reversion to the Roman view in preaching, as it was said, the approach to faith through works of merit. Luther, Melanchthon, and Bugenhagen completely exonerated Beyer and clearly enunciated the Wittenberg position. Later Melanch-

thon's Articuli de quibus egerunt per z. Agricola's visitdtores (1527; CR, xxvi. 7 sqq.) Controversy placed the preaching of the law at

with Me- the portal of Christian instruction, lanchthon, asserting that it led to repentance,

and without which the preaching of the gospel was unintelligible. Johann Agricola, who had eagerly emphasized Luther's earlier statements of repentance as a consequence of the gospel of divine grace, chose to regard Melanchthon's declaration as a personal affront. After addressing to Luther several memorials on the subject, he made specific complaints and circulated in manuscript a censure of Melanchthon's teaching. In a conference at Torgau (Nov. 26-28, 1527) an adjustment was finally effected by Luther, who distinguished between faith in the general sense (fides generalis), as indeed antedating repentance, and the justifying faith which, impelled by conscience, apprehends divine grace.

Agricola, though professing satisfaction, nevertheless continued in his antinomian position; repentance, consciousness of sin, and the fear of God were to be based upon the gospel and not upon the law. He began even to gather a party about himself as the Paul of the Reformation, who must set right Peter (Luther). Reports to this effect having gained currency, three published discourses of his were examined and found to contain antinomian views. In July, 1537, and again in Septem-

3. Agric- though without mention of Agricola, ola's Con- declaring in the latter instance that troversy the gospel could no more be preached with Luther, independently of the law than could

thereupon forbade its completion, and determined upon an unsparing conflict. He published some antinomian theses of Agricola which had been privately circulated, and on Dec. 18 held his first disputation against them.' Agricola did not put in an appearance, and Luther accordingly challenged him to a second disputation (Jan. 12, 1538), at which a solemn reconciliation took place. Agricola even authorized Luther to draw up a retraction in his name, which the latter did in damaging fashion in a letter to Caspar Gfittel of Eisleben. The conflict seemed over, and in Feb., 1539, Agricola was appointed to the Wittenberg consistory. The dispute was, however, revived through reflections made against Luther by Agricola in a disputation at the University. Luther responded, and proceeded to vigorous attacks on the antinomians. He considered even the excommunication of Agricola. The latter, on his side, thought himself calumniated and collected material for his justification. In Mar., 1540, he submitted his complaints to the Elector. To these complaints Luther responded that what Agricola termed calumnies were but conclusions inevitably to be drawn from the latter's propositions. The Elector instituted formal proceedings against Agricola, who, though under pledge not to leave Wittenberg, withdrew

I The more important of Agricola's eighteen propositions are: i. Repentance is to be taught not from the decalogue or any law of Moses, but from the suffering and death of the Son through the gospel. ii. For Christ says in the last chapter of Luke: " Thus it behooved Christ to die and in this manner to enter into his glory, that repentance and remission of sins might be preached in his name." iii. And Christ, in John, says that the Spirit, not the law, convicts the world of sin. iv. The last discourse of Christ teaches the same thing: ' Go, preach the gospel to every creature." vii. Without anything whatever the Holy Spirit is given and men are justified: this thing [the law] is not necessary to be taught either for the beginning, the middle, or the end of justification. viii. But the Holy Spirit having been given of old is also given perpetually, and men are justified without the law through the gospel ecncerning Christ alone. xiii. Wherefore, for conserving purity of doctrine we must resist those who teach that the gospel is not to be preached except to those who have been crushed and made contrite through the law. xvi. The law only convicts of sin and that, too, without the Holy Spirit; therefore it convicts unto damnation. xvii. But there is need of a doctrine that not only with great efficacy condemns, but also at the same time saves: but that is the gospel, which teaches conjointly repentance and remission of sins. xviii. For the gospel of Christ teaches the wrath from heaven and at the same time the justice of God, Rom. i. For it is the preaching of repentance joined to a promise which reason does not naturally apprehend, but which comes through divine revelation.

Luther added to these acknowledged articles of Agricola several other statements of doubtful authenticity which Agricola was supposed to have made: The law is not worthy to be called the word of God. Art thou a harlot, a knave, an adulterer, or any other sort of sinner if thou believest thou art in the way of salvation. The decalogue belongs to the town hall, and not to the pulpit. All who go about with Moses must go to the devil. To the gallows with Moses 1 To hear the word and live accordingly is the consequence of the law. To hear the word and feel it in the heart is the proper consequence of the gospel. Peter knew nothing about Christian freedom. His declaration " making your calling sure through good works " is good for nothing. As soon as thou thinkest it must go thus and so in Christendom, everybody is to be refined, honorable, discreet, holy. and chaste, thou hast already prostituted the gospel. Agricola disowned the most manifestly immoral of these propositions, and there is no reason to believe that he praotised or approved of the immorality that seems involved in

After Agricola it was especially Jakob Schenk, court-preacher of Duke Henry and the Reformer of Freiberg, who came under suspicion of Antinomianism; he is said to have declared that " all who preached the law were possessed with the devil; . . . do what you will, if you only believe, you are saved," and "to the gallows with Moses !" An inquiry instituted against him (June, 1538)

ended in his being called by the Elector 4· Jakob to Weimar as court-preacher. In 1541

as preacher and university lecturer, but council, clergy, and theological faculty were all strongly opposed to him. Objection was made to the publication of his sermons, and they were found in several points to be at variance with the Augsburg Confession. In the indictment appears the old charge of antinomian doctrine, resting, indeed, on very slight foundations. In 1543 he finally left the duchy. The contents of his published writings furnish no adequate basis for calling him an Antinomian. But there is no doubt that his sermons erred repeatedly in that direction.

In connection with the Majoristic dispute over the necessity of good works, Luther's pupils, Andreas Poach of Erfurt and Anton Otho (Otto) of Nordhausen denied that the law had any

significance whatever for believers, 5. Later and thus arose the dispute de tertio

thon, though the latter had merely repeated Luther's statements. Against Otho and those of similar views arose several leaders, in particular MBrhn and Wigand. On the other hand, Melanchthon and his more immediate school was accused of antinomian doctrine in declaring the gospel to be the proclamation of repentance.

The Formula of Concord fixed the terminology of the whole matter by deciding that the law was a

special revelation teaching what is 6. Settle- just and pleasing in the sight of God,

ment of the and refuting whatever is opposed to Controversy. the divine will; while the gospel, on

2. The Antinomian Controversy in New England: The Puritans of New England, following in the footsteps of Calvin and Knox, were theocratic in their ideas of Christianity and were in-

clined to make the legalistic system of the Old Testament their model. The enforcement of rigorous regulations pertaining to every department of life (strict observance of Sunday as Sabbath, regular attendance at church, avoidance of every form of frivolity in dress or demeanor) provoked reaction here as it had done in Geneva. Mrs. Anne (Marbury) Hutchinson (b. in Lincolnshire 1590 or 1591; married about 1612 to William Hutchinson of Alford, Lincolnshire), who had been under the ministry of John Cotton (q.v.) at Boston, Lincolnshire, had imbibed antinomian views, probably from Familists, and, on her arrival in New England (whither she followed her eldest son, Edward, arriving in Sept., 1634), while she continued to enjoy the ministrations of Cotton, now pastor of the Boston (Mass.) church, soon began to express in strong language her aversion to the preaching of a " covenant of works " in contradistinction to a " covenant of grace," by most of the Massachusetts preachers. She regarded Cotton as a preacher of a " covenant of grace," and he was no doubt considerably influenced by her views; when the agitation of the question seemed likely to wreck the colony, he found difficulty in convincing the dominant party of the soundness of his opinions. Rev. John Wheelwright, Mrs. Hutchinson's brotherin-law, a Cambridge graduate (arrived in New England May, 1636), accepted her views. Sir Henry Vane (arrived Oct., 1635; chosen governor May, 1636; see VANE, Sig HExay) became a zealous advocate of the " covenant of grace." Mrs. Hutchinson expounded her views to large gatherings of women, who twice a week resorted to her house, and thus propagated them widely. She claimed that after a year of prayer it had been revealed to her that she had trusted in a covenant of works; under like divine impulse she had come to New England, there being no one in England that she durst hear. She was the daughter of an English clergyman and combined considerable theological information and argumentative effectiveness with a steadfastness and persistence worthy of a better cause. Like most religious reformers of the time she had wrought herself into the conviction that the few dogmas she held represented the whole truth and that all other teaching was diabolical and abominable. The chief opponents of Mrs. Hutchinson were John Wilson, pastor of the Charlestown church, Hugh Peters, pastor of the Salem church, and John Winthrop (qq.v.). In Dec., 1636, the ministers censured Vane as responsible for the hurtful agitation, and sought to convince Mrs. Hutchinson of her errors. The Boston church of which Vane was a member undertook to censure Wilson, but could not secure the required unanimity, and Cotton was content publicly to admonish him. In Jan., 1637, Wheelwright, in a sermon, denounced the " covenant of works " people as " antichrists " and thus added fuel to the flames. In March the Court by a majority vote censured Wheelwright, and, in the gubernatorial election in May, Vane was defeated and Winthrop was elected. Coercive measures soon removed the disturbing element from Massachusetts. Vane returned to England. Wheelwright founded the town of

Geeetzea and z ur Geachichts des eptiteren Antinomismus, Rostoek, 1887; T. Kolde, Martin Luther, ii. 463 sqq., Gotha, 1893; F. Loofs, Dogmengeachichte, Halle, 1893; J. KSetlin, Martin Luther, if. 125, 134, 413, 438, 448-452 et passim, Berlin, 1903.

On the later English and American Antinomlanism consult: Story of the Rise, Reign, and Ruins of the Antinomiana, Pamilists and Libertines that infected the Churches of New England, London, 1644; Tobias Crisp, Works, ib. 1690; John Fletcher, Checks to Antinomianism, in Works, vole. ii.-vi., 8 vols., ib. 1803; D. Bogus, History of Dissenters, 4 vols., ib. 18(18-12; W. Orme, Life o/ Baxter, ii. 232 and chap. ix., ib. 1830; D. Neal, History of Puritans, 2 vole., New York, 1848; C. F. Adams, Three Episodes of Massachusetts . . History, . . . the Antinomian Controversy, Boston, 1892; B. Adams, The Emancipation of Massachusetts, ib. 1887 (on Puritanism and the various conflicts of New England); and further the works of Wesley and Andrew Fuller.