_________________________________________________________________ Title: The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume 16 [Supplement] Creator(s): Herbermann, Charles George (1840-1916) Print Basis: 1907-1913 Rights: From online edition Copyright 2003 by K. Knight, used by permission CCEL Subjects: All; Reference LC Call no: BX841.C286 LC Subjects: Christian Denominations Roman Catholic Church Dictionaries. Encyclopedias _________________________________________________________________ THE CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA AN INTERNATIONAL WORK OF REFERENCE ON THE CONSTITUTION, DOCTRINE, DISCIPLINE, AND HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH EDITED BY CHARLES G. HERBERMANN, Ph.D., LL.D. EDWARD A. PACE, Ph.D., D.D. CONDE B PALLEN, Ph.D., LL.D. THOMAS J. SHAHAN, D.D. JOHN J. WYNNE, S.J. ASSISTED BY NUMEROUS COLLABORATORS IN FIFTEEN VOLUMES VOLUME 16 [Supplement] New York: ROBERT APPLETON COMPANY Imprimatur JOHN M. FARLEY ARCHBISHOP OF NEW YORK _________________________________________________________________ Ancient See of Aarhus in Denmark Ancient See of Aarhus in Denmark (ARUSIA, ARUSIENSIS). The diocese included the provinces (amter) of Aarhus and Randers, the islands of Samso and Tuno, and, after 1396, part of the province of Viborg. Frode, King of Jutland, built the church of the Holy Trinity at Aarhus about 900. In 948 Archbishop Adaldag of Hamburg consecrated Reginbrand as missionary Bishop of Aarhus. After the latter's death in 988 all Jutland was united in one diocese, with Ribe or Viborg as its centre. It was redivided in 1060, and one Christian was ordained Bishop of Aarhus by Adalbert I, Archbishop of Hamburg. Another bishop, Ulfketil (1102-34) planned the town of Aarhus. The warlike Svend Udsson (1166-91) founded the Cistercian abbey at Om. His successor, Peter Vagnsen, began in 1201 the Cathedral of St. Clement. Near it lay the wooden church built by Bishop Ulfketil in 1102 to contain the relics of St. Clement. About 1150 the Venerable Niels, Prince of Denmark, died and was buried in St. Clement's churchyard. The offerings at his tomb facilitated the commencement of the new stone cathedral. This was finished about 1263, but in 1330 the greater part of it was burnt down. Peter Jensen Lodeliat (1386-95) and Bo Magnussen (1395-1423) were the prelates mainly concerned in the erection of the fine building extant to-day. The last Catholic bishop, Ove Bilde (imprisoned 1536), and Paulus Heliae, prior of the Carmelite monastery at Elsinore, attempted in vain to stay the progress of the Reformation at Aarhus. There were in the diocese: a chapter with 34 prebendaries at Aarhus cathedral; Benedictines at Essenbeck, Voer, Alling, and Veirlov; Augustinian Canons at Tvilum, Cistercians at Om, who survived till 1560; and Carthusians at Aarhus. There were also Franciscans at Horsens and Randers, Dominicans at Aarhus, Horsens, and Randers, Carmelites and a hospital of the Holy Spirit at Aarhus. There were Hospitallers of St. John till 1568 at Horsens. Lastly there were Brigittines at Mariager from 1412 to 1592. At Aarhus there is now a Jesuits' college with a fine church, as well as a large hospital in charge of the Sisters of St. Joseph of Chambery, who also have hospitals at Horsens and Randers, which last two towns also contain Catholic churches. BAUDRILLART, Dictionnaire d'histoire ecclesiastique, I (Paris, 1909-12), coll. 3, 4; Scriptores rerum danicarum, V, 231-302; VI, 176-519; VII, 209-216; HOFFMEYER, Blade of Aarhus Bys Historie, I (Copenhagen, 1904-06). A.W. TAYLOR Adelard of Bath Adelard of Bath A twelfth-century Scholastic philosopher, b. about 1100. Adelard was probably an Englishman by birth; he seems to have studied at Tours and Laon and probably taught at Laon and at Paris. He was one of the first medieval scholars to seek knowledge by travelling in Greece and Asia Minor. It was these journeys that, apparently, brought him into contact with the learning of the Arabians, which he utilized especially in the discussion of physical and physiological problems. He wrote a translation of Euclid's geometry from the Arabic, and composed two original treatises entitled "De eodem et diverso" and "Quaestiones naturales". The former was edited in 1903 and printed in Baumker's "Beitrage"; the latter exists in an edition dated 1477. Adelard was a pronounced Platonist in psychology and metaphysics, while he opposed the Platonic doctrine of realism in his theory of universals. His position in regard to the latter question was that of Walter of Montagne, and the other Indifferentists. His most noteworthy contribution to psychology is his attempt to localize mental functions, in which he shows the influence of Galen and the Arabians. BAUMKER, Beitrage zur Gesch. der Phil. des Mittelalters, IV (Munster, 1903), 1; DE WULF, Hist. of Medieval Phil., tr. COFFEY (New York, 1909), 186; TURNER, History of Philosophy (Boston, 1903), 283 sqq. WILLIAM TURNER Pedro Antonio de Alarcon Pedro Antonio de Alarcón Novelist and poet, b. at Guadix, Spain, in 1833; d. at Valdemoro, near Madrid, in 1891. After having shown ability for journalism at his native place he went to Madrid where he came into prominence, especially when at the outbreak of the Revolution of July, 1854, he edited the republican journal "El Látigo". A year later, in 1855, he published "El final de Norma", a work written when he was only seventeen years old. As a volunteer he went in 1859 to the African war, where he wrote the most interesting and probably the most lasting of all his writings, "Diario de un testigo de la guerra de Africa" (1860). Some parts of this work, as "La batalla de Castillejos" and "La toma de Tetuán", have not been surpassed for vividness of description and grace of narrative by any Spanish writer. Similar to this work are Alarcon's historical sketches "Historietas nacionales", which perhaps will have a more lasting fame than his novels. "El sombrero de tres picos" (Madrid, 1874; tr. M. Springer, New York, 1899) is the novel that carried its author's name throughout Europe. The following year he published "El Escándalo", the publication of which created as much of a sensation as Coloma's "Pequeñeces". Better and more worthy of being known is the fantastic novel he wrote in the latter part of his life "El nino de la Bola" (Madrid, 1880; tr. M.J. Serrano, New York, 1892). His poetical qualities are revealed in "Poesías serias y humoristicas" and "Comedias escogidas" (1886), and particularly in the play "El hijo pródigo". He was all his life a practical Catholic. PLUMMER, Contemporary Spain as shown in her Novelists (New York, 1899); SPRINGER, The Three Crowned [sic, i.e., Cornered] Hat (New York, 1899), 3-15; BLANCO GARCIA, Historia de la literatura espagnola en el Siglo XIX, II (Madrid, 1891), 454; VALBUENA, La ciencia cristiana, XIII (Madrid, 1880), 551; NOCEDAL, Discursos de recepcion en la Real Academia (Madrid, 1877); FITZMAURICE-KELLY, History of Spanish Literature (New York, 1910). W. FURLONG Alvarus Pelagius Alvarus Pelagius (ALVARO PELAYO.) Celebrated writer, b. in Spain about 1280; d. at Seville, 25 Jan., 1352. Alvarus studied canon law at Bologna, but in 1304 resigned his benefices, and entered the Franciscan Order. He is said to have been a pupil of Duns Scotus and to have been tutor to the children of Don Pedro, Regent of Portugal. Certain it is that he became penitentiary to Pope John XXII at Avignon, that he enjoyed much favour with this pontiff, and was employed by him to refute the claims of the antipope Pietro Rainalducci of Corbario. In 1233 Alvarus became titular Bishop of Coron in Achaia, and two years later was appointed to the See of Sylves in Portugal. He also served as Apostolic nuncio in Portugal, but was not created cardinal, as some writers have asserted. He was buried in the Monastery of St. Clare at Seville. Alvarus is chiefly remarkable for his work "De planctu ecclesiae libri duo". This work, begun at Avignon in 1330, completed in 1332, corrected in 1335 and again in 1340 at Compostella, is notable not only for its extreme defence of ecclesiastical rights but still more, perhaps, for the freedom and force with which the author assails and rebukes the ecclesiastical abuses of his time. Alvarus has been reproached by St. Antoninus and others with having too far favoured the error of the Fraticelli about poverty, but, as Sbaralea shows, it is not difficult to justify him against this charge. On the then agitated question of poverty in the Franciscan Order he wrote with less passion and with more weight than Ubertino da Casale, although he addressed almost the same reproaches as the latter to the relaxed friars within the order. The "De planctu" was first published at Ulm in 1474. This edition is very rare, and is not free from error. Later editions appeared at Venice (1500) and at Lyons (1517). Besides the "De planctu", Wadding attributed to Alvarus the following: "Collyrium adversus haereses"; "Speculum regum" (one book); "Super sentent. libros 4"; "Apologia contra Marsilum Patav. et Guliel. Ocham"; and other unedited works. ARTHUR, Martyrologium franciscanum, 289; WADDING, Annales minorum ad ann. 1308, 1329, and 1340; IDEM, Script. ord. min. (1908), 14; SBARALEA, Supplementum (edit., 1908), Pt. I, 31-32; Speculum perfectionis, ed. SABATIER (1898), p. clxi; RENE, Hist. des spirituels dans l'ordre de S. Francois (1909), 94; OLIGER, Expositio regulae (1912), passim. PASCHAL ROBINSON Anastasius Bibliothecarius Anastasius Bibliothecarius Librarian of the Roman Church, b. about 810; d. 879. He was a nephew of Bishop Arsenius of Orta, who executed important commissions as papal legate. Anastasius learned Greek from Greek monks, and obtained an unusual education for his era, so that he appears to be the most learned ecclesiastic of Rome in the barbaric period of the ninth century. During the reign of Nicholas I (855-67) Anastasius was abbot of the monastery of the Virgin Mary on the farther side of the Tiber (in Trastevere), and he was employed by the pope in various matters. He was also active as an author, and translated Greek works into Latin, one of these being the biography of St. John the Almsgiver, which he dedicated to Nicholas I. The successor of Nicholas, Adrian II (867-72), appointed Anastasius librarian of the Roman Church, an important office which gave him much influence at the papal Court. In 869 he was sent by Emperor Louis II as envoy to Constantinople, with two men of high rank in the Frankish Empire, to negotiate a marriage between the oldest son of the Byzantine emperor and the daughter of the emperor in the West. When the envoys arrived at Constantinople, the Eighth Oecumenical Council was still in session, and Anastasius, who attended the last session (February, 870), zealously defended the papal cause and was of much service to the papal legates. On their way home the papal legates were robbed, and the "Acts" of the council were carried off. However, they had given most of the declarations of obedience of the Greek bishops to Anastasius, who also had a copy of the "Acts", and was thus able to bring these documents to the pope. At the pope's order he translated the "Acts" into Latin. The succeeding pope, John VIII (872-82), also esteemed Anastasius, confirmed him in the office of librarian, entrusted important affairs to him, and encouraged him to further literary work. Anastasius was in correspondence with the deposed Byzantine patriarch, Photius, and sought to mediate between the patriarch and the pope and also to assuage the controversy over the Holy Ghost by assuming that the Latins understood the procession (processio) of the Holy Ghost from the Son in the sense of transmission (missio). If a passage in the annals of Hincmar of Reims is genuine (Mon. Germ. Hist.: Scriptores, I, 447) and Hincmar has not confused two men, then the librarian Anastasius is identical with the Roman presbyter Anastasius who in 874 became titular priest of St. Marcellus, and in 848 fled from Rome, and resided in various cities. On account of his flight he was excommunicated by a Roman synod in 850, and, as he did not return, was anathematized and deposed by another synod in 853. After the death of Leo IV in 855 this Anastasius was elected as antipope by the imperial party, but the rightfully elected pope, Benedict III, gained the supremacy, and acted kindly towards the usurper. During the pontificate of Adrian II Anastasius became involved in serious difficulties, in 868 a near relative of his named Eleutherius forcibly carried off the daughter of the pope, and soon after killed both her and her mother. The murderer was executed and Anastasius, who was regarded as the instigator of the murder, was punished by excommunication and deposition. He lived at the imperial Court, and sought by the intervention of the emperor to exculpate himself before the pope. Hergenröther (Photius, II, 230-240) maintains, with good reason, that the librarian and the presbyter Anastasius (the antipope) were one and the same person, and weaves all the statements concerning the latter into the biography of Anastasius, while Langen (Geschichte der römischen Kirche, III, 270 sqq.) considers them different persons. In August, 879, Zacharias of Anagni appears as librarian of the Roman Church, so that Anastasius must have died shortly before this date. Anastasius translated from Greek into Latin the "Acts" of the Seventh and Eighth Ecumenical Councils, as well as several legends of saints, and other writings. He also compiled a historical work, "Chronographia tripartita", from the Greek writings of Theophanes, Nicephorus, and Syncellus, and made a collection of documents concerning the affairs of Pope Honorius. Several important letters written by him have been preserved. His writings are to be found in P.G., XXIX; P.L., LXXIII, CXXII, CXXIX. The "Liber Pontificalis", which was formerly ascribed to him, was not written by him; he seems to have shared in the revision of the "Life" of Nicholas I. LAPOTRE, De Anastasio Bibliothecario (Paris, 1884); KRUMBACHER, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur, 2nd ed., 344 sq.; FRIEDRICH, Ein Brief des Anastasius Bibliothecarius an den Bischof Gaudericus von Vellevri in Sitzungsber. der bayer. Akademie der Wiss. phil.-hist. Klasse (1892-93), 393 sqq.; D'AVRIL, La lettre d'Anastase le Bibliothecaire in Revue de l'Orient chretien (1896), 124 sqq. J.P. KIRSCH Andechs Andechs A Benedictine monastery and famous place of pilgrimage on a hill about two miles east of the Ammersee in Upper Bavaria. Its site was originally occupied by a castle belonging to the counts of Diessen and probably of Roman origin. Its fame as a place of pilgrimage dates back to 955, when the relics which St. Rasso, one of the counts of Diessen, had brought from Rome and the Orient to his monastery at Wörth (later called Grafath) were transferred hither to save them from the ravages of the Huns. In the twelfth century three Sacred Hosts, two of which are reputed to have been consecrated by Pope Gregory I (Joannes Diaconus, "Vita S. Gregorii", in P.L., LXXV, 103) the other by Pope Leo IX, were added to the relics of Andechs, which henceforth became popularly known as "Der heilige Berg". The earliest mention of these Hosts is found in a thirteenth-century missal of Andechs, now preserved at the state library of Munich (Cod. Lat. 3005). The collegiate church which Duke Ernest had erected in 1438 was changed into a Benedictine monastery by Duke Albert III in 1455, and colonized with monks from Tegernsee. In 1458 it was raised to an abbey, and thenceforth enjoyed a period of uninterrupted prosperity until its secularization in 1803. It was re-established in 1850 as a Benedictine priory, affiliated to the Abbey of St. Boniface in Munich. SATTLER, Chronik von Andechs (Donauworth, 1877); HEINDL, Der heilige Berg Andechs (Munich, 1895). MICHAEL OTT Juan Andres Juan Andrés Littérateur and historian, b. at Planes, Valencia, Spain, in 1740; d. in Rome in 1817. He entered the Society of Jesus in 1754. When the Jesuits were expelled from Spain in 1767 Andrés made his abode at Ferrara (Italy) and taught philosophy there. After the suppression of the Society in 1773 he travelled through Europe to collect matter for a history of universal literature; this work he wrote at intervals from 1782 to 1799, and published under the title "Dell'origine, progresso e stato attuale d'ogni letteratura". Under this title was included not only literature but also Holy Scripture, theology, philosophy, and the sciences. Mr. Hallam styles the work "an extraordinary performance, embracing both ancient and modern literature in its full extent" ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe", New York, 1842, I, 8). The inexactness of some of the statements and the superficiality of some of Andrés's criticisms are almost negligible when we consider the cleverness of the general surveys and the original remarks met with frequently in the course of his great work. His Italian style, according to Cian (Gesuiti spagnuoli letterati in Italia, p. 15), is not inferior to that of his contemporaries for charm and clearness. Andrés has been severely criticized for ascribing to the Arabs an extraordinary influence on modern poetry. He is also the author of "Saggio della filosofia del Galileo", an essay in which he shows the systematic philosophical ideas of the famous scientist. The volumes of his "Cartas familiares" evidence the versatile genius of their author, and are full of interesting reviews on literary topics. Joseph Bonaparte and Murat highly appreciated his talents. The former appointed him royal librarian. At the age of sixty-four Andrés re-entered the Society of Jesus shortly after its restoration in the Kingdom of Naples. MENENDEZ Y PELAYO, Revista critica de historia y literatura (January, 1896); Historia de las ideas esteticas en Espana, IV (Madrid, 1890); TICKNOR, History of Spanish Literature, III (New York, 1854), 374; PASTOR Y FUSTER, Biblioteca de escritores Valencianos, I (Valencia, 1827-30); CABALLERO, Bibliothecae scriptorum Societatis Jesu supplementa (Rome, 1814-1816); CIAN, L'immigrazione dei Gesuiti spagnuoli letterati in Italia (Turin, 1895); TIRABOSCHI, Istoria della letteratura italiana, VIII (Florence, 1812), 170 and passim; SOMMERVOGEL, Bibliotheque de la Compagnie de Jesus. W. FURLONG Aquileian Rite Aquileian Rite The See of Aquileia fell into schism during the quarrel of the Three Chapters (under Bishop Macedonius, 539-56) and became a schismatical patriarchate, which lasted till the year 700. A number of allusions tell us that Aquileia and certain of its suffragan sees had a special rite (generally called the "ritus patriarchinus"); but they do not give us any clear indication as to what this rite was. The earliest and most instructive document of the Patriarchine Rite is a capitulare of the eighth century added by a Lombard hand to the "Codex Richdigeranus" (sixth century). Dom G. Morin (Revue benedictine, 1902, p. 2 sq.) and H. F. Haase, who edited the Codex (Breslau, 1865), show reason to suppose that this capitulare represents the use of Aquileia. Supposing this, it gives us valuable information about the Aquileian Calendar for the time it covers (Advent to June). Advent had five Sundays; St. Stephen's Day is 27 Dec., as in the Rites of Jerusalem-Antioch and their descendants. There is no Septuagesima; two Sundays (Sexagesima and Quinquagesima) prepare for Lent. The "tradition of the symbol" is on the Sunday before Easter. It and Maundy Thursday have each two Masses, as in the Gallican Rites. There is a "Mid- Pentecost" feast, as in many Eastern Rites. We have then many indications of the divergence from Rome; this fragment of a calendar points to Gallican usages mixed with some from the East. If we accept the most probable theory that the Gallican Rite is Eastern (Antiochene) in origin, we may consider the local Aquileian Use as one more variant of the wide-spread Gallican family. For the rest we are reduced to mere conjecture about this liturgy. There are many theories, especially as to its relation to the rites of Milan, Ravenna, and the fragments in "De sacramentis", IV, 4-6. Dr. Buchwald defends the view that the prayers in "De Sacr." are Aquileian. Aquileia adopted them from Alexandria, under whose influence she stood (so a synod of Aquileia declared in 381; op. cit., 47). Rome then took her Canon from Aquileia about the fifth century (Weidenauer, Studien, I, 1906, pp. 21-56). If this be true, the influence of Aquileia on the Western liturgy has been enormous. Aquileia would be the gate by which our Roman Canon came to Europe. Baumstark ascribes "De sacr." to Ravenna. But he agrees that it came from Alexandria and that Aquileia used the same rite. The "ritus patriarchinus" then would be the same as the Rite of the Exarchate, which he defends ("Liturgia romana e liturgia dell'esarcato", Rome, 1904, pp. 168-73). We may accept as certain that Aquileia had from the time of the formation of separate rites (fourth century) its own use, that this use was not the same as that of Rome, that probably it was one more variant of the large group of Western Rites, connected by (Eastern?) origin, which we call Gallican, that it was probably really related to the old Milanese Rite and perhaps still more to that of Ravenna. In the later Middle Ages we hear of the "ritus patriarchinus" as yielding steadily to the Roman Rite. Ebner has published a very curious and important variant of our "Hanc igitur" prayer, in litany form, attributed to Paulinus of Aquileia (about 850). For the importance of this see the author's work, "The Mass" (London, 1912, pp. 149-150). De Rubeis in his "De sacris foroiuliensium ritibus" (Venice, 1754, pp. 228 sqq.) prints part of the Aquileian scrutiny of catechumens, of the ninth century. This is practically that of the contemporary Roman Ordines; so the Roman Rite was already replacing the other one (cf. Dom de Puniet, "L'année liturgique à Aquilée" in "Revue bénéd.", 1902, p. 1). Walafrid Strabo (ninth century) mentions "hymns" composed by Paulinus of Aquileia and used by him "in private Masses at the offering of the sacrifice" (de eccl. rerum ex. et increm. 25). In 1250 Peter IV, Bishop of Castello in the Aquileian province, desired to adopt the Roman Rite. In 1308 and again in 1418 an attempt was made to restore the Aquileian Use at Venice. But in 1456 Callistus III granted permission to the Patriarch of Grado and Aquileia to follow Rome. After the Council of Trent and Pius V's missal (1570) one after another of the cities which had kept the Aquileian Use conformed to Rome: Trieste in 1586, Udine in 1596. Como alone made an effort to keep the old local use. In 1565 and 1579 diocesan synods still insisted on this. But in 1597 Clement VIII insisted on Roman Use here too. Only the Church of St. Mark at Venice kept certain local peculiarities of ritual, which apparently descended from the "ritus patriarchinus", till the fall of the republic in 1807. But long before its final disappearance the Aquileian Rite in these local forms was already so romanized that little of its original character was left. Francis Bonomio, Bishop of Vercelli, who went to Como in 1579 to persuade its clergy to adopt the Roman Breviary, says that the local rite was almost the same as that of Rome "except in the order of some Sundays, and the feast of the Holy Trinity, which is transferred to another time". So the "Missale pro s. aquileyensis ecclesiae ritu", printed at Augsburg in 1494, breviaries and sacramentaries (rituals) printed for Aquileia, Venice, and Como in the fourteenth century, although still bearing the name of the "ritus patriarchinus" (or "patriarchalis"), are hardly more than local varieties of the Roman Rite (for all this, see Le Brun, op. cit., and Baumstark, "Liturgia romana", pp. 170-73). LE BRUN, Ancien rit d'Aquilee appele le Patriarchin in his Explication de la messe, III (Paris, 1777), 220 sqq.; BONA, Rerum litugicarum, II, ed. SALA (Turin, 1747), Appendix: De ritu antiquo Aquilejensis patriarchino nuncupato; DE RUBEIS, Monumenta ecclesiae Aquilejensis (Strasburg, 1740); ALTHAN, Iter liturgicum foroiuliense (Rome, 1749); BURN, Nicetas of Remesiana (Cambridge, 1905); DICHLICH, Rito veneto antico detto Patriarchino (Venice, 1823). ADRIAN FORTESCUE Archpriest Controversy Archpriest Controversy This controversy arose in England on the appointment of George Blackwell as archpriest with jurisdiction over the secular clergy of England and Scotland, by the Holy See on 7 March, 1598. The last member of the ancient hierarchy, Goldwell, Bishop of St. Asaph's, had died in 1585, and thenceforth Cardinal Allen exercised informal jurisdiction with the acquiescence of the pope and by common consent of the missionary priests, then numbering about three hundred. After Allen's death in 1594 the want of a superior made itself felt. For some years there had been trouble at the English College in Rome, resulting in difficulties between the Jesuits and the secular clergy, which were accentuated by the dissensions among the priests imprisoned at Wisbech. In 1597 Father Persons, who had general charge of the Jesuit mission in England, went to Rome, where the troubles at the English College had come to a head, and settled matters by becoming rector there himself. Some of the secular clergy, resenting the growing influence of the Society in the affairs of the English Catholics and distrusting the political views of Father Persons, drew up a memorial against the Jesuits to be presented to the pope. Others wished for concord with the Jesuits, and believed that the true solution of difficulties so deeply prejudicial to Catholic interests in England lay in the appointment of a bishop. Persons himself at first favoured the appointment of one or more bishops, preferably one to live and work in England and another to live in the Low Countries so as to organize and direct affairs while free from personal danger. But this plan was given up, the appointment of an archpriest being decided on and effected by Cardinal Cajetan, Cardinal-Protector of England. This absolutely new form of ecclesiastical government was actively resented by a small but influential body of secular priests, who claimed that they had the sympathy of a larger number of their brethren. Two of them, William Bishop and Robert Charnock, were sent to Rome to dispute the validity of the appointment and to explain their grievances, but on their arrival in December, 1598, they were arrested and confined as prisoners in the English College. On 6 April, 1599, a Brief was issued confirming the appointment of the archpriest, and the imprisoned priests were released and dismissed from Rome, but forbidden to return to England. In England Thomas Lister, a Jesuit, charged the appellant priests with schism, in a pamphlet which stirred up a controversy in which both sides employed unmeasured and violent language. Though the Brief confirming the archpriest was at once accepted by the secular clergy, Blackwell insisted that the appellant priests should make reparation for the guilt of schism. They denied that they were guilty of schism in appealing to the pope, and referred the question to the University of Paris, which decided in their favour. Blackwell issued a decree condemning this judgment, and renewed another decree which he had published in the previous January, forbidding the publication of any defence of the appellants' conduct under pain of suspension. On 17 November a formal appeal to Rome was signed by thirty-three priests. This they supported by various pamphlets, which had been published early in 1601. The English Government now knew of the trouble, and the Protestant Bishop of London entered into negotiations with Bluet, one of the imprisoned priests, with the result that Bluet was brought before the Privy Council and induced them to "banish" four of the appellant priests that they might prosecute their appeal. Bagshaw, Champney, Bluet, and Barneby were chosen, but finally Mush and Cecil took the places of Bagshaw and Barneby. Bagshaw published a violent work called the "True Relation", and Watson, a priest, issued extravagant tirades against Blackwell and the Jesuits. On 26 January, 1602, Blackwell published a Brief dated 17 August, 1601, which had been in his possession since Michaelmas. This again confirmed the appointment, but condemned the archpriest's irritating conduct, suppressed all publications about the controversy, refused to admit any appeal, and urged mutual charity. In Rome, however, the appellants succeeded with the help of the French ambassador in gaining a hearing, and on 5 October, 1602, a new Brief was issued (text in Tierney, op. cit. infra, III, clxxxi) which Tierney summarizes as "condemning the conduct of the archpriest, and justifying the appellants from the charges of schism and rebellion, which had been urged against them. . . . It limited his jurisdiction to the priests educated in the foreign seminaries; forbade him, in future and for the sake of peace, to communicate either with the superior of the Jesuits in England, or with the general of the Society in Rome on the concerns of his office; commanded him to supply the first three vacancies that should occur in the number of his assistants with persons selected from amongst the appellant priests, and having ordered him to receive and transmit all appeals to the Cardinal Protector, concluded by condemning the past, and prohibiting all future publications in any manner connected with the present controversy". On the other hand the appellants failed to secure episcopal government, or the prohibition, which they sought, to restrain priests, whether secular or regular, from provoking the Government by interference in political affairs. Nor did they obtain their request that all Catholics should be bound to manifest any designs against the queen or State of which they should learn. Elizabeth and her ministers were disappointed at the tenor of the Brief and retaliated by a proclamation (5 November, 1602) for the banishment of all Catholic missionaries. In reply to this thirteen of the appellants, including two future martyrs, drew up their famous address to the queen assuring her of their loyalty. (See Tierney, op. cit. infra, III, 55-56, and clxxxviii sqq.) The papal Brief of 5 October, 1602, finally settled the question, but an unfortunate legacy of mutual distrust and sore feeling remained behind and embittered the relations of the parties for many years to come. Government by archpriest never worked well, and the secular clergy became unanimous in their desire for a bishop. This was granted to them after the death of William Harrison, the third archpriest, in 1621, when the Holy See selected William Bishop, one of the leading appellants, to be the first Vicar Apostolic of England. TIERNEY, Dodd's Church History of England, III (London, 1840); LAW, The Archpriest Controversy (2 vols., Camden Society, 1896-98); IDEM, Jesuits and Seculars in the reign of Queen Elizabeth (London, 1889), with a bibliography of contemporary pamphlets; GERARD, The Archpriest Controversy in The Month (January, 1897). EDWIN BURTON Trancribed by Herman F. Holbrook For the Rev. David Martin, of the London Oratory. Aulne Abbey Aulne Abbey (Alna). A former Cistercian monastery near Landelies on the Sambre in the Diocese of Liège. Originally it was a Benedictine monastery, founded by Saint Landelinus about 656. Before 974 the Benedictines were replaced by secular clerics leading a common life, who, however, embraced the Rule of St. Augustine in 1144. At the instance of Bishop Hnery de Leyen of Liège it came into the hands of Cistercian monks from Clairvaux in 1147 with Franco de Morvaux as its first Cistercian abbot. Henceforth it flourished as a Cistercian monastery until the French burned it at the end of the eighteenth century, only a short time after it had been rebuilt in larger dimensions. The library, which contained 40,000 books and 5000 manuscripts, was also destroyed. BOULMONT, L'abbaye d'Aulne, ou origines, splendeurs, epreuves, et ruines de la perle monastique d'Entre-Sambre-et Meuse (Namur, 1898); CLOQUET, L'abbeye d'Aulne (Mons, 1904); LEBROCQUY, Histoire de l'abbaye d'Aulne (Paris, 1862). MICHAEL OTT Averbode Averbode A Premonstratensian abbey belonging to the circary of Brabant and situated near Diest in the Archdiocese of Malines. It was founded about 1132 by Count Arnold of Losen and continued without interruption till the general suppression of the Belgian monasteries in 1796. The abbey was restored in 1834, and comprises at present 82 priests, 20 clerics and novices, and 36 lay brothers. Of these, 27 priests and 21 lay brothers are labouring among the Indians in Brazil, where, at the request of Leo XIII, they established a missionary monastery at Pirapora in the Diocese of São Paulo, in 1896, and a college at Jaguarao in the Diocese of Sao Pedro do Rio Grande do Sul in 1901. Recently two priests and three lay brothers from Averbode opened a mission house at Veile in Denmark. HUGO, S. ordinis Premonstratensis annales, I (Nancy, 1734-6), 210-223; Catalogus generalis ordinis Praem. (Prague, 1900). MICHAEL OTT _________________________________________________________________ Alexis John Augustine Bachelot Alexis John Augustine Bachelot Prefect Apostolic of the Sandwich Islands, b. at Grand Beauchet, commune of St. Cyr (Orne), France, 22 Feb., 1796; d. at sea, 5 Dec., 1837. He entered the preparatory seminary of Picpus (Paris) at the age of ten, and made vows in the Congregation of the Sacred Hearts at Cahors on 2 Feb., 1813. At the completion of his theological studies in the Irish College at Paris, he was ordained priest in 1820, and forthwith appointed its rector. Four years later he was made superior of the preparatory seminary at Tours. When in 1825 the Propaganda entrusted the Picpus Fathers with the establishment of a mission in the Sandwich Islands, Father Bachelot was created the first prefect Apostolic of the new mission. On 20 Nov., 1826, he embarked at Bordeaux in company with Fathers Patrick Short and Abraham Armand and three lay brothers. They arrived off Honolulu, July, 1827, and though they were refused residence in the Islands, they landed while the matter was still under discussion by the chiefs. As matters remained in suspense for some time and no formal permission was forthcoming, the missionaries rented an enclosure containing three huts, removed their baggage from the vessel on 13 July, and Father Bachelot offered the first Mass in the Hawaiian Islands on the following morning. A fortnight after their arrival, La Plassard, captain of La Comete, was ordered before the queen, and commanded to re-embark the priests. This he refused to do, and departed before the missionaries could be forcibly put on board. The members of the Protestant mission which had been established in the Sandwich Islands seven years earlier saw with displeasure the arrival of the missionaries of a rival creed, and persuaded the chiefs to expel them. As a result Fathers Bachelot and Short (Father Armand having left for France in November, 1829) were forcibly embarked on the brig Waverly on 24 Dec., 1831. They landed at San Pedro Bay, California, on 21 Jan., 1832, and were received by the Franciscan Father then in charge of San Gabriel Mission. Father Short went to Monterey, where, conjointly with an English convert, Mr. Edw. Hartnell, he started a college; Father Bachelot remained at San Gabriel. After the death of the old Franciscan the Californian authorities offered Father Bachelot an annual net income of $3000 if he would consent to take charge of the mission. He agreed to remain, but refused the salary in order to be free to leave at any time. On 28 March, 1837, Father Bachelot, having received information which seemed to warrant a fresh attempt to return to the Sandwich Islands, embarked with Father Short for them, and landed unmolested at Honolulu, 17 April. The missionaries obtained a provisional permission from the governor, Kekuanaoa, to remain on shore for some time; but on 29 April the king issued a proclamation stating that he would not permit papal missionaries to remain in his dominions, and ordered them to depart on the same vessel on which they had come. Father Short left Honolulu for Valparaiso on 30 October. Father Bachelot remained behind, intending to embark on a schooner, the near arrival of which had been announced. Meantime another priest of the same society, Father Maigret, arrived off Honolulu. The authorities forbade his landing. The vessel for which Father Bachelot was waiting having failed to appear, it became imperative to extricate both Father Maigret and the captain, who brought him, from a difficult situation. Father Bachelot decided therefore to purchase a small schooner, then lying in port. They rechristened the vessel the Notre-Dame de Paix, and sailed on it on 23 November. Father Bachelot, who was very ill at the time of embarkation, died during the voyage. On 13 Dec., the vessel arrived off Ponape, and on the following day the remains of the first Apostle of the Sandwich Islands were interred in the little island of Na, near the mouth of Metalanim harbour. Father Bachelot is the author of an Hawaiian grammar and dictionary, "Notes grammaticales sur la langue sandwichoise suivies d'une collection de mots de la meme langue" (Paris, 1834), and two catechisms in the same language: "He Ninau ma ke Ao ana Kiritiano" (Catechism of the Christian Doctrine) and "He Ninauhoike no na Kakarema ahiku" (Catechism of the Seven Sacraments), both published at Macao in 1831; a second edition appeared at Paris, 1841. A prayer-book in the native tongue, printed together with this second edition and entitled, "Na Olelo Pule no ka Poe Kiritiano o ko Havaii Pae-aina" (Prayers for the Christians of the Hawaiian Archipelago), is also probably by the same author. Annals of the Propagation of the Faith, vol. I; Supplement to the Sandwich Island Mirror (15 Jan., 1840), reprinted by the Catholic Truth Society (San Francisco, 1897); BINGHAM, Sandwich Islands (Hartford, 1848). REGINALD YZENDOORN Antonio Ballerini Antonio Ballerini Born at Medicina, near Bologna, 10 October, 1805; died in Rome, 27 November, 1881. He entered the Society of Jesus, 13 October, 1826. He was professor of philosophy at Ferentino, of ecclesiastical history at Rome and at Fermo, of moral theology at the Roman College. He took a prominent part in the controversies on the writings of Rosmini, on the moral system of St. Alphonsus Liguori, and on the relations between the hierarchy and the religious orders, especially in England. He contributed valuable treatises to the discussion of the subject of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary. He assisted Boero in the compilation of the "Menology" of the Society, and published a valuable compendium of Gury, which was adapted for the seminaries of the United States by Sabetti and later by Barrett. His chief work, the commentary on Busenbaum's "Medulla", was completed and published by Palmieri (q.v.). His brother Francis, also a Jesuit (b. 5 April, 1805; d. in Rome 18 Aug., 1874), composed several devotional works. SOMMERVOGEL, Bibl. de la C. de Jesus, I (Brussels, 1890). JOHN J. WYNNE Blessed Baptista Varani Blessed Baptista Varani (Varano). An ascetical writer, b. at Camerino, in the March of Ancona, 9 Apr., 1458; d. there, 31 May, 1527. Her father, Julius Caesar Varano or de Varanis, Duke of Camerino, belonged to an illustrious family; her mother, Joanna Malatesta, was a daughter of Sigismund, Prince of Rimini. At baptism Baptista received the name of Camilla. Of the first ten and the last twenty-three years of her life little or nothing is known; our knowledge of the intervening years is derived almost entirely from her own writings. This revelation of herself was brought about through the influence of her confessor, Blessed Peter of Mogliano, provincial of the Franciscans in the Marches (1490). It seems to have been the eloquence of Mogliano that brought about the "conversion" of Baptista, who, for a time at least, appears to have been captivated by the glamour of the world. Her father did all in his power to force his daughter into a brilliant marriage, even to the extent of imprisoning her. But Baptista resisted his plans so firmly that after two years and a half he restored her to liberty, for fear, as he said, of drawing upon himself the Divine vengeance, and gave his consent to her becoming a nun. On 14 Nov., 1481, Baptista entered the monastery of the Poor Clares at Urbino. Not long afterwards her father founded a new monastery of that order at Camerino, and presented it to his daughter. Baptista introduced the primitive observance of the rule there, and thenceforth her vigorous and impressive personality found scope not only in the administration of this monastery, of which she became the first abbess, but also in the production of various literary works. These include the: "Recordationes et instructiones spirituales novem", which she wrote about 1491; "Opus de doloribus mentalibus D.N.J.C.", written during 1488-91 and first published at Camerino in 1630; "Liber suae conversionis", a story of her life, written in 1491, and first published at Macerata in 1624. These works have been edited by the Bollandists in connection with some of Baptista's letters. But most of her "Epistolae spirituales ad devotas personas" as well as her "Carmina pleraque latina et vulgaria" are still unpublished. As a whole the writings of Baptista are remarkable for originality of thought, striking spirituality, and vividly pictorial language. Both St. Philip Neri and St. Alphonsus have recorded their admiration for this gifted woman who wrote with equal facility in Latin and Italian, and who was accounted one of the most brilliant and accomplished scholars of her day. Baptista died on the feast of Corpus Christi, and was buried in the choir of her monastery. Thirty years later her body was exhumed and was found in a state of perfect preservation. It was reburied to be again exhumed in 1593. The flesh was then reduced to dust but the tongue still remained quite fresh and red. The immemorial cultus of Baptista was approved by Gregory XVI in 1843, and her feast is kept in the Franciscan Order on 2 June. Acta SS., May, VII (Antwerp, 1688), 476-514; WADDING, Annales Minorum ad annum 1509, n. 25; IDEM, Scriptores ord. Min. (3rd ed., 1906), 36; SBARALEA, Supplementum, pt. I (1908), 113-114; LEON DE CLARY, Lives of the Saints and Blessed of the Three Orders of St. Francis, II (Taunton, 1886), 315-48; DE RAMBUTEAU, La Bienheureuse Varani, Princesse de Camerino et religieuse franciscaine (Paris, 1906); JORGENSEN, I det Hoje (Copenhagen, 1908), German tr. in Excelsis (Kempten and Munich, 1911), which contains a charming sketch of Baptista and gives us a glimpse of her poetic talent. For an appreciation of her poetry see CRESCIMBENI, Storia della volgare poesia, I, lib. 2, cap. xiii. STANISLAUS WOYWOD Edward Barron Edward Barron A missionary, born at Waterford, Ireland, 1801; died at Savannah, Georgia, U.S.A., 12 Sept., 1854. His ecclesiastical studies were made at the Propaganda College, Rome, where he received the degree of Doctor of Divinity. Several years were then spent in Ireland, after which he volunteered for the missions in the United States, attaching himself to the Diocese of Philadelphia, where he became in time pastor of St. Mary's Church, Philadelphia, president of St. Charles Borromeo's Theological Seminary, and then vicar-general of the diocese. When in 1840 the Holy See requested the American bishops to care for the negro Catholics of Liberia, Africa, he offered his services with those of the Rev. John Kelly of New York, and left Baltimore, 21 Dec., 1841, for Cape Mesurado. The work there was successful at first, and so Barron returned to Europe and the United States for more help. While in Rome he was consecrated, 22 Jan., 1842, titular Bishop of Constantia and Vicar Apostolic of the two Guineas. He returned to Africa, 30 Nov., 1843, with several missionaries of the Society of the Sacred Heart of Jesus and continued his labours in the mission until 1845, when he was forced by fever he bad contracted to resign his vicariate and to return to the United States. Here, as far as his impaired health allowed, he again took up the duties of a missionary priest and assisted in the work of the episcopate in Philadelphia, St. Louis, and Florida. He died of yellow fever at Savannah while helping the bishop of that see during an epidemic. (See LIBERIA.) SHEA, Hist. Cath. Ch. in U. S. (New York, 1856); CLARKE, Lives Deceased Bishops, U. S., II (New York, 1872), appendix; KIRLIN, Catholicity in Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1909); FLYNN, Cath. Church in New Jersey (Morristown, 1904); Catholic Almanac, 1855; Freeman's Journal (New York, 1854 55), files. THOMAS F. MEEHAN Vincent Barzynski Vincent Barzynski Born at Sulislawice, Sandomir, Russian Poland, 1838; d. at Chicago, 2 May, 1899. The son of Joseph and Mary (Sroczynska) Barzynski, in baptism he received the name Michael, but during a grievous illness was placed under the protection of St. Vincent Ferrer and henceforth called Vincent. Because of frail health he was educated privately. In 1856 he entered the diocesan seminary at Lublin and was ordained priest, 28 Oct., 1861. After six months illness spent at the home of his father, he was appointed vicar at Horodlo, member of the chapter of the collegiate church of the Zamojscy, and later transferred to Tomaszew, which was the scene of great military activity during the uprising of 1863. As organizer, appointed by the secret Polish national Government, he provided the insurrectionists with military supplies. Compelled soon after to flee to Cracow, he found refuge with the Franciscan fathers in that city. After fifteen months of wandering he received his passport enabling him to leave for Paris in 1865. Here he fell under the influence of that remarkable band of mystics, Semenenko, Kajsewicz, Jelowicki, and Mickiewicz, the poet, who dreamed of Poland's resurrection through the spiritual regeneration of the Poles. Going to Rome, he joined the newly founded Congregation of the Resurrection and soon after receiving the special blessing of Pius IX set out for America (1866). After several years' labour in the Diocese of San Antonio, Texas, he was appointed pastor of St. Stanislaus parish, Chicago, in 1874. The parish then comprised about 450 families; in 1881 the number of baptisms was 988, and in 1887 reached 1700. Vincent Barzynski became the dominant influence throughout the most critical period of Polish immigration. He first gave the American Poles a class consciousness, amalgamated the various units into a compact working phalanx, and despite seemingly insurmountable difficulties crushed the forces that threatened the faith of Polish immigrants. Criticized for centralizing within his own person all authority, it must be recalled that he had to deal single-handed with every difficulty, that in large part the Polish American clergy of his day were deserving of little confidence, that the mass of Polish immigration was from the petty artisan and peasant class, and that the small number of brighter minds coming to America had left an unsavoury past behind them. It is clear that there was no alternative. The spirit of rebellion, "independence", schism was fanned by the Polish National Alliance, and this organization Father Barzynski so successfully combated that it was only after his death that the Alliance grew in members. St. Stanislaus parish, divided again and again, seemed never to decrease; Father Barzynski there organized nearly forty societies, confraternities, and sodalities. He assisted in the organization of nearly every Polish parish in Chicago established before his death. He built the magnificent St. Stanislaus Church and the great school (since destroyed by fire and rebuilt), where seventy nuns teach nearly five thousand children; gave the Poles an orphanage; founded St. Stanislaus College; introduced the Sisters of the Holy Family of Nazareth into the United States; formed with very raw material a corps of Polish teachers in his own school; interested the School Sisters of Notre Dame in Polish immigration. Largely due to his influence, 800 Polish women entered this community. He founded the first Polish Catholic paper, the "Gazeta Katolicka", his personal organ for many years, and established the first Polish daily Catholic paper in America, the "Dziennik Chicagoski", which for nearly twenty-five years has been a valiant defender of the Faith against the inroads of the liberal press, particularly the "Zgoda", the insincerely "neutral" organ of the Polish National Alliance. To him are due the first Polish American text-books, and the first Sunday-school papers. He saw the necessity of organizing the Poles along strictly Catholic lines, and founded the Polish Roman Catholic Union. His greatest enemies admit him to be the most commanding figure in the brief but dramatic history of the American Poles. Despite constant criticism from both clergy and laity, he remained indefatigable. He was a man of genuine piety and deep faith, strict with himself alone, considerate of others. He was humble, resourceful, daring, and patriotic and was possessed of real genius for organization. The noblest monument he has left is the faith that abides in three million Poles. FELIX THOMAS SEROCZYNSKI Alexander Baumgartner Alexander Baumgartner Poet and writer on the history of literature, b. at St. Gall, Switzerland, 27 June, 1841; d. at Luxemburg, 5 Sept., 1910. His father was Gallus Jakob Baumgartner, a prominent statesman. At the abbey school of Maria Einsiedeln in Switzerland, where Alexander when fourteen years old began his higher studies, a decisive influence was exercised over the impressionable spirit of the pupil by the well-known poet and scholar, Father Gall Morel. The intellectual bent there first developed was confirmed at the Jesuit school at Feldkirch, where the boy spent his last two gymnasial years. After passing an excellent examination he entered the Society of Jesus in 1860. After his studies in 1874 he was assigned to the editorial staff of the periodical "Stimmen aus Maria-Laach", which had been founded three years before. For thirty-six years he devoted his pen to this journal as a loyal collaborator, so that scarcely a number appeared without some article from him. Owing to the expulsion of the Jesuits from Germany, he repeatedly changed the place of publication of the periodical. He also took two long journeys. In 1883 he went to Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Scandinavia, and the provinces of the Baltic as far as St. Petersburg. Three years later he visited Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. Both tours are commemorated in the well-known books of travel, "Nordische Fahrten" (1889 and 1890). Other and shorter vacation trips had more for their object the physical and intellectual relaxation of the over-strained powers which, however, gave way at too early an age. He was buried in the cemetery at Luxemburg near his old friend and countryman, Father Joseph Spillman, S.J. Father Baumgartner was born with a poetic nature. His talent was best evidenced in his poems for special occasions. His best work of this kind is his "Festspiel zur Calderonfeier" (1881), which appeared first in the "Stimmen aus Maria-Laach", but was soon, owing to repeated requests, published in book form with a brief biography of the Spanish poet. A translation into Spanish by Orti y Lara of the artistic work soon followed. His "Lauretanische Litanei" in fifty-nine sonnets was also written for a special occasion and was printed for the first time in 1883 and translated into Dutch in 1890. His talent for poetry was shown no less brilliantly in his fine translations of foreign poetry. In 1884 appeared, as a small book, the translation of an Icelandic poem of the fourteenth century to the Virgin, "Die Lilie". Baumgartner's fame rests on his writings on the history of literature. His numerous articles in the "Stimmen aus Maria-Laach", which were collected and issued in 1912 as a supplementary volume to his "Geschichte der Weltliteratur", were all written with the intent that they should form part of his larger history and life work. In earlier years, as preparatory writings, he had issued "Lessings religiosen Entwicklungsgang" (1877), "Longfellow" (1887), an appreciation of the poems of the American poet which passed into a second edition ten years later, "Joost van den Vondel" (1882), a biography of the great Dutchman translated four years later into Dutch, and lastly the celebrated biography of Goethe in three volumes (1879). In addition he published two works as expressions of gratitude and piety: "Erinnerungen an Bischof Greith" (1884), and "Gallus Jakob Baumgartner" (1892). Two years previously he had issued the unfinished work of his father, "Die Geschichte des Kantons St. Gallen", in three volumes. The six volumes of his hitory of the literature of the world are well known: "Westasien und die Nillander" (1897); "Indien und Ostasien" (1897); "Die klassische Literatur der Griechen und Römer" (1900); "Die lateinische und griechische Literatur der christlichen Volker" (1900); "Die französische Literatur" (1905); and lastly "Die italienische Literatur" (1911), during the writing of which he died. It is hardly necessary to say that a man of such spirit was also a fine critic. The thoroughly Catholic point of view in all his works is also self-evident. His strong religious convictions led him to take part in the dispute over Catholic literature by the publication of the pamphlet "Die Stellung der deutschen Katholiken zur neueren Literatur". Father Baumgartner, however, was not contentious by nature; he was rather a lover of peace, although a harmless love of mischief showed itself a times in his writings. As a loyal son of his Order he always felt that with the pen he exercised a sacred office for the defence of truth and the honour of God. Stimmen aus Maria-Laach, LXXIX (1910), 349-372; SCHEID, Baumgartner, ein Gedenkblatt seines Lebens und Wirkens (Hamm, 1911). N. SCHEID Giovanni Battista Beccaria Giovanni Battista Beccaria A physicist, born at Mondovi, 3 October, 1716; died at Turin, 27 May, 1781. At the age of sixteen he entered the Order of Clerks Regular of St. Joseph Calasanctius, and successively taught in the Scuole Pie of Palermo and Rome. His ability as instructor being soon recognized, he was appointed by royal authority professor of physics in the University of Turin (1748). Here be ardently devoted himself to researches on atmospheric electricity, in which he made liberal use of kites, rockets, and iron wire for the purpose of exploring the electrical conditions of the atmosphere. Henley's pith-ball electroscope was his recording instrument. In broken or stormy weather, positive and negative electrification were detected; whereas in calm, serene weather "the excessive or positive was always found". The sinuous or forked character of lightning was attributed to the resistance of the air; and the rupture of the shoes of a man struck by a flash, to the "moisture of the feet flying into vapour". Beccaria confirmed the observation of Andrew Gordon that water evaporates more rapidly when electrified; also the conclusion of Abbés Nollet and Menon that animals (cats, pigeons, chaffinches) lose weight when subjected to prolonged electrification, the loss being ascribed to increased "transpiration" under electrical stimulus. He was also among the first to recognize and clearly state that the electrical charge on a conductor is confined to the surface. An experimental demonstration of this law of electrostatics was devised by Cavendish in 1775 and independently by Coulomb in 1788 and popularized in 1816 by Biot, whose name it usually bears. Beccaria adopted the two-fluid theory of Franklin as well as the views of the American philosopher on the preventive and protective functions of lightning conductors. In 1755 Beccaria was elected Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1766 he contributed a paper to the "Philosophical Transactions", in which he describes (in Latin) five of the more important of his experimental researches. In 1770 he contributed a second paper (also in Latin) in which he expounds five theorems followed by fifteen corollaries in electrostatics. His principal work is his treatise "Dell' elettricismo artificiale e naturale" (1753), which was translated into English in 1778. Other works are "Lettere sull' elettricismo" (1758); "Experimenta atque observationes quibus electricitas vindex late constituitur" (1769); and "Dell' elettricita terrestre atmosferica a cielo sereno" (1775). TANA, Elogio del P. Giov. Batta. Beccaria (1781); EANDI, Memorie storiche intorno agli studii del P. Beccaria (1783). BROTHER POTAMIAN Ancient See of Bergen in Norway Ancient See of Bergen in Norway (BERGA, BERGENSIS.) The diocese included the Provinces of Nordre and Sondre Bergenhus, and the district of Sondmor in the Province of Romsdal. The discovery at Selo in 996 of the supposed remains of St. Sunniva and her companions led King Olaf Trygveson to build a church there. It was not, however, till 1068 that a bishopric and a monastery were founded at Selo by King Olaf Kyrre. Bernard the Saxon was the first bishop, but later on he removed to the newly founded city of Bergen, where he died as its first bishop about 1090. In 1152 Bergen became a suffragan bishopric of the new metropolitan See of Trondhjem, and a cathedral chapter was set up there. Bishop Paul (1156-94) saw the completion of the Cathedral of Christ Church in time for the holding of a provincial council there and for the coronation of King Magnus Erlingsön, the first coronation of a Norwegian king, in 1164. In 1170 the relics of St. Sunniva were translated to the cathedral. During the episcopate of Bishop Arne (1226-56), namely on 29 July, 1247, Cardinal Wilhelm of Sabina crowned King Haakon Haakonssön. In 1271 the Royal Chapel of the Holy Apostles at Bergen was made collegiate. From 1275 to 1302 King Magnus built a great church (the finest in Norway), as his new royal chapel, to receive a relic of the Crown of Thorns. The dean took the title of Master of the (fourteen) Royal Chapels and was granted the right to use the episcopal ornaments. Bishop Arne Sigurdssön (1305-14) regarded the privileges of the Chapel Royal at Bergen as an encroachment upon the rights of his see. He could not, however, deprive the dean, Finn Haldorssön, of his semi-independent position, as the latter had the support of the Holy See. Arne also asserted in vain his claim that the bishops of the Færöe Islands should be chosen amongst the clergy of the Diocese of Bergen. He was, however, successful in compelling the German merchants at Bergen to pay tithe. Bishop Thorstein (1342-49) died of the Black Death, as did nearly all the Norwegian bishops. To his successor, the Englishman Gisbrith (1349-69), we owe the Bergen Manuscript (Björgynjar kálfskinn). Aslak Bolt, Bishop of Bergen from 1408, was translated to the See of Trondhjem in 1430. Bishop Thorleif Olafssön (1430-50), having joined Olaf Nilssön at the Brigittine Convent of Munkalif, was killed there by the Germans of the Hansa on 1 September, 1455. The last Catholic bishop, Olaf Thorkelssön (1523-35) allowed the Cathedral of Christ Church, the Royal Chapel of the Apostles, the Dominican convent, and other ecclesiastical buildings at Bergen to be destroyed, when the fortress of Bergenhus was enlarged. His successor, Geble Pederssön, became a Lutheran. Eighteen provincial councils were held at Bergen. The most important were the following: The council of 1164 confirmed arrangements made in 1152 by the legate Cardinal Nicholas Breakspear [afterwards Pope Adrian IV], with regard to the Norwegian Church. Their object was the establishment of the hierarchy by the following means: (1) the establishment on a firm basis of the Archbishopric of Trondhjem; (2) the foundation of cathedral chapters; (3) the assertion of the right of the Church to inherit property by will; (4) the enforcement of clerical celibacy. The council of 1190 decreed the excommunication of all of guilty sacrilege, violence towards clerks, rape, or of unlawful bearing arms in church and at public assemblies. King Sverre's Christian Law (Christenret) was published at this council. The council held in 1273 decided that parish churches in Iceland should belong to the bishop of the diocese and not to the landowners. A number of articles were also framed with a view to a reconciliation between Church and State, but they were never accepted either by pope or king. In 1280 many rules with regard to excommunication were made but not carried into effect, as the quarrel between Church and State broke out with renewed violence. At the council of 1320 a large number of regulations were made with regard to discipline. In 1327 the canons adopted at the provincial synod dealt with the relations between Church and State. The last provincial synod at Bergen was held in 1435. It dealt with the collection of money for the maintenance of the Council of Basle, the superstitious observance of Saturday, which was forbidden, and unauthorized begging on the part of religious. Among the religious institutions in the Diocese of Bergen before the Reformation, were the following: The cathedral with a chapter of 3 prelates and 12 canons, the Collegiate Church of the Apostles (Chapel Royal), 12 canons and a dean; priories of Dominicans (from at least 1240) and Franciscans (dating from the same period). There were also at St. Mary's, Bergen, Cistercian nuns from 1150- 1507 and Canons Regular of St. Anthony of Vienne from 1507-28. At St. John's, Bergen, there were Canons Regular of St. Augustine from about 1180 to 1489. The Hospitals of St. Catharine (for women) and of All Saints (for men) provided for the sick. Finally, the great Abbey of St. Michael's, Munkalif (Benedictine monks, 1108-1426; Brigittines, 1426-70 and 1479-1531; Cistercian nuns, 1470-79), lay close to Bergen. The city and its suburbs contained in all no less than 26 churches. Elsewhere there were the Cistercian Abbey of Lyse, colonized from Fountains Abbey, Yorkshire, in 1146, and the Hospital of the Holy Spirit at Halsnö (about 1200-1539). PENROSE, The Legend of St. Sunnefa in The Antiquary, V (London, 1882), 18-23; Diplomatarium norvegicum (Christiania, 1849-1903); Norges gamle Love (Christiania, 1846-1895); KEYSER, Den norske Kirkes Historie under Katholicismen (Christiania, 1856-8); NIELSEN, Bergen (Christiania, 1877); LANGE, De norske Klostres Historie i Middelalderen (Christiania, 1856); MUNCH, Registrum praediorum et redituum ad ecclesias diocesis bergensis saeculo p. C. XIVto pertinentium, Björgynjar Kálfskinn (Christiania, 1843); Codex diplomatarius monasterii St. Michaelis Bergensis (Munkalif) (Christiania, 1845). A.W. TAYLOR Gustav Bickell Gustav Bickell Orientalist, b. at Cassel, 7 July, 1838; d. at Vienna, 15 Jan., 1906. His father, Johann Wilhelm Bickell, was professor of canon law at the University of Marburg, and died (1848) as minister of justice of Hesse-Cassel. In 1862 Gustav became Privatdozent of Semitic and Indo-Germanic languages at Marburg, but the following year he went in the same capacity to the University of Giessen. The finding of a clear testimony in favour of the Immaculate Conception in the hymns of St. Ephraem, which he was transcribing in London, led him to enter the Catholic Church, 5 Nov., 1865. After his conversion he entered the seminary of Fulda, where he was ordained priest, 22 Sept., 1865. He then taught Oriental languages at the Academy of Münster, and in 1871 was appointed extraordinary professor. At this period he became widely known by his vigorous defence of papal infallibility. In 1874 he went to the University of Innsbruck as professor of Christian archaeology and Semitic languages, which position he held till 1891, when he was called to the chair of Semitic languages at the University of Vienna. He was an enthusiastic student and one of the foremost Semitic scholars of modern times. Besides numerous contributions to different reviews he published the following works: "De indole ac ratione versionis Alexandrinae in interpretando libri Jobi" (Marburg, 1862); "S. Ephraemi Syri Carmina Nisibena", with prolegomena fixing the laws of Syriac metre (Leipzig, 1866); "Grundriss der hebräischen Grammatik" (ib., 1869-70), translated into English by Sam. I. Curtiss under the title "Outlines of Hebrew Grammar" (ib., 1877); "Gründe für die Unfehlbarkeit des Kirchenoberhauptes" (Münster, 1870); "Conspectus rei Syrorum litterariæ" (ib., 1871); "Messe und Pascha" (Mainz, 1872), tr. W. F. Skene, "The Lord's Supper and the Passover" (Edinburgh, 1891); "Schriften und Gedichte syrischer Kirchenväter" (vols. 71 and 72 of the "Sammlung der Kirchenväter" of Kempten); "S. Isaaci Antiocheni opera omnia" (2 vols., Giessen, 1873-77); "Kalilag und Damnag" (Leipzig, 1876); "Metrices biblicae regulæ exemplis illustratae" (Innsbruck, 1879); "Synodi brixinenses saec. quindecimi" (ib., 1880); "Carmina V. T. metrice" (ib., 1882); "Dichtungen de Hebraer" (3 vols., ib., 1882-84); "Der Prediger (Koheleth) über den Wert des Dasiens" (ib., 1886); "Das Buch Job" (Vienna, 1894). F. BECHTEL Diocese of Bismarck Diocese of Bismarck (BISMARCKIENSIS). In North Dakota, this diocese was erected on 31 December, 1909, and is suffragan to the Archdiocese of St. Paul, Minnesota. It comprises the counties of Adams, Billings, Bowman, Burke, Burleigh Divide, Dunn, Emmons, Hettinger, McKenzie, McLean, Mercer, Morton, Mountrail, Oliver, Renville, Stark, Ward, and Williams, -- an area of 42,316 square miles. Mgr. Vincent Wehrle was elected its first bishop on 9 April, and was consecrated at St. Paul, 19 May, 1910. Born at Berg, Switzerland, 20 December, 1855, Bishop Wehrle made his profession at the Benedictine Monastery of Einsiedeln, 3 December, 1876, and was ordained priest on 23 April, 1882. Appointed to the American apostolate shortly afterwards, he founded numerous missions and parishes in North Dakota. In 1884 he erected the Priory of St. Gall, and in 1901 St. Mary's Abbey at Richardton, of which he was elected abbot in 1903. The diocese receives its name from the city of Bismarck (5443 inhabitants), the capital of the state. The early Catholic history of the territory has been treated in the article NORTH DAKOTA. According to the latest statistics the diocese contains: 1 bishop; 25 secular and 28 regular (Benedictine) priests; 34 churches with resident priests (3 for Indians); 53 missions with churches (5 for Indians); 43 stations without churches (2 for Indians); 8 parochial schools; 3 Catholic hospitals; 2 Catholic Indian boarding-schools; about 27,000 Catholics (1200 Indians). In 1911 there were 2596 confirmations and 1912 baptisms (83 of adults). The Sisters of St. Benedict (48 in all) have houses at Bismarck, Dickinson, Fort Yates, Glen Ullin, Richardton, and Elbow Woods. The Ursuline Sisters (11) have a convent at St. Anthony, and the Franciscan Sisters (4) have charge of the hospital at Minot. Catholic Directory (New York, 1912); and bibliography to NORTH DAKOTA. MOIRA K. COYLE Eugene Bore Eugène Boré Orientalist, b. at Angers, 15 Aug., 1809; d. at Paris, 3 May, 1878. From the college of Angers he went to the Collège Stanislas in Paris, where at eighteen he won the prize in philosophy in a competition of all the colleges of France, one rival being Alfred de Musset. After a year at law he devoted himself to the study of languages, In 1829 with his brother Léon, also a linguist and a noted translator, he joined the coterie of the Abbé Félicité de Lamennais, to which he introduced his college-mate, Maurice de Guérin. With Montalembert he tried to persude Lamennais to submit and did not give up hope of the latter's return to the Church until 1851. Member of the Asiatic Society in 1833, he won fame in the "Journal Asiatique". He was professor of Armenian (1833-34) at the Collège de France. Sent to Venice, he published the results of his literary labours there in the convent of the Mechitarists. Spending six months of 1837 in study at Constantinople, he went with Father Scaffi, C.M., to Erzerum in Armenia. At Tauris he started a school as an opening wedge for Christianity, whose service was always his chief concern. The Shah of Persia honoured him for the excellence of his school. In addition to many learned studies sent to France, his interesting letters were published as "The Correspondence of a Traveller in the Orient". In 1841 he secured Lazarist missioners for Persia. For services to France in that land he was given the cross of the Legion of Honour. Gregory XVI made him a Knight of the Golden Militia in 1842 and Knight of St. Gregory the Great in 1843. Knowing forty Oriental idioms, most of them thoroughly, he published in some of these tongues excellent controversial works. He was eager for the return of the schismatics to the Church and was aided in his apostolate by his wide acquaintance with the most learned and influential men of France and Italy. He published an illuminating report of the condition of the Holy Land whither he was sent by France to investigate in 1847. Entering the Congregation of the Mission in Jan., 1849, at Constantinople, he was ordained there, 7 April, 1850, and made his vows in Paris in Jan., 1851. Sent to Constantinople, as head of the College of Bebek, he remained fifteen years doing zealous work for the Mussulmans as well as Christians especially on the battlefield during the Crimean War. In Paris in 1866 he was made secretary general, and was elected superior general of the Congregation of the Mission, 11 Sept., 1874. His incumbency of the latter office was cut short at the end of four years by a sudden illness. DE LA RALLAYE, Eugene Bore et les origines de la question d'orient (Paris et Lyons, 1894); Eugene Bore: Notice biographique suivie d'extraits de son journal et de sa correspondance; Annals of the Cong. of the Mission, no. 68 (Emmitsburg, Md., 1910). B. RANDOLPH Ancient See of Borglum Ancient See of Börglum (BURGLANUM, BURGLANENSIS.) The ancient See of Börglum, in Denmark, embraced the ancient districts of Vendsyssel and Thy, that is, the whole of the extreme north of Jutland beyond the Limfjord. The see was first at Vestervig, the diocese having been formed out of that of Viborg, which then included the whole of Jutland, on the death of Bishop Val in 1059. Magnus, first Bishop of Vestervig, was drowned in the Elbe about 1060, when returning home after his consecration by Adalbert I, Archbishop of Hamburg. Albrik, Dean of Bremen, was the second bishop (1066-85). Vestervig was the residence of St. Thoger, a missionary from Thuringia and chaplain to St. Olaf. After that king's death in 1030 Thoger retired to Vestervig, where he built a church of thatch and wattle, and preached Christianity to the inhabitants of the surrounding district. He died on 24 June, 1067, and was canonized in spite of the opposition of King Svend Estridsen and Bishop Albrik. Eventually St. Thoger became the patron saint of the diocese. Albrik's successor, Bishop Henry, was chaplain to King St. Canute, and was with him during his stay in Vendsyssel in June, 1086. Bishop Sylvester (1134-36) transferred the see to the Premonstratensian Abbey of Börglum. It became the cathedral of the new diocese, and its canons formed the diocesan chapter with power to elect the bishop. The last two bishops led very inconsistent lives. Their names were Niels Stygge (Rosenkrantz) and his nephew, Stygge Krumpen. Niels Stygge (b. 1455) was Bishop of Börglum from 1486-1533. Stygge Krumpen became coadjutor bishop in 1519, and diocesan bishop in 1533. He made some efforts to stay the progress of Protestantism, but he was imprisoned from 1536 to 1542. He was then endowed with the property of the nunnery of Asmild near Viborg, though obliged to maintain the nuns; he died there in 1551. In the territory of the former diocese of Börglum there are fine old churches at Vestervig and Börglum, the former dating from the beginning of the twelfth century. Besides the Abbey of Börglum (founded 1128) the diocese contained the following Benedictine nunneries: Vreilef (1268-1554), Hundslund (1268-1536), and Oekloster (1160-1542). There were also the Abbey of Vestervig (Augustinian canons), which lasted from 1110 to 1526, the Commandery of the Knights of St. John at Dueholm (1351-1539), and the Carmelite Priory at Saeby (Maristed), which lasted from about 1460 to 1536. JORGENSEN, Den nordiske Kirkes Grundlaeggelse, II (Copenhagen, 1878); NIELSEN, Kirke-leksikon for Norden, I (Aarhus, 1900), 438-39; DAUGAARD, Danske Klostre (Copenhagen, 1830); TRAP, Danmark, IV (Copenhagen, 1902); Scriptores rerum Danicarum, VI (Copenhagen, 1786), 545-51; Aarboger for nordisk Oldkyndighed, XI (Copenhagen, 1876), 1-55; BRICKA, Dansk biografisk Leksikon (Copenhagen, 1887- 1905), IX, 555-57, XIV, 276, 277; GERTZ, Vitae sanctorum danorum, pt. I (Copenhagen, 1900), 1-26. A.W. TAYLOR Ulick Joseph Bourke Ulick Joseph Bourke Irish scholar and writer, b. 29 Dec., 1829, at Castlebar, Co. Mayo; d. there, 22 Nov., 1887; son of Ulick Bourke and Cecilia Sheridan, a cousin of John MacHale, Archbishop of Tuam. He was educated first at an academy in Castlebar by Matthew Archdeacon, the author of "Connaught in '98"; next at Errew Monastery near Castlebar, where he studied Irish under the eminent Irish scholar and historian, James Hardiman. He entered St. Jarlath's College, Tuam, in May, 1846, and Maynooth in 1849. He was ordained on 25 March, 1858, at Tuam by Archbishop MacHale. While a student at Maynooth he wrote the "College Irish Grammar" for his fellow students in that college and the students of the then recently founded Catholic University of Ireland. On leaving Maynooth he was appointed Professor of Irish, logic, and humanities at St. Jarlath's College, which subjects he continued to teach there from 1859 to 1877. He was President of St. Jarlath's from 1865 to 1877; was elected a member of the Royal Irish Academy in 1866; and was made a canon of the Cathedral of Tuam in 1872. During his stay at St. Jarlath's he acted for some time as private secretary to Archbishop MacHale. He was a member of the Society for the Preservation of the Irish Language, but seceded from it with its original founders, and in March, 1880, established the Gaelic Union, which afterwards developed into the Gaelic League. In 1878 he was named Parish Priest of Kilcolman (Claremorris). He was one of the Commissioners appointed to inquire into the alleged apparitions of the Blessed Virgin at Knock, Co. Mayo, 1879. Canon Bourke died at Castlebar, and was buried at Bearnacarrol, 25 Nov., 1887. His writings are as follows: "The College Irish Grammar" (Dublin, first edition, 1856; fifth edition, 1868); "Easy Lessons or Self-instruction in Irish", which appeared first in "The Nation", and was reprinted in book form (Dublin, 1860), and which went through seven or eight editions during the lifetime of the author; "The Bull Ineffabilis Deus" (The Definition of the Immaculate Conception) in four languages, Latin, Irish, French, and English, printed in parallel columns (Dublin, 1868), containing a dissertation on the art of illuminating in the past and present; "The Aryan Origin of the Gaelic Race and Language, containing Essays on the Round Towers, Brehon Laws, etc." (London, 1875; 2nd edition, 1876). In this work he defends the pagan origin of the Round Towers of Ireland; "Seventeen Sermons in Irish Gaelic by the Most Rev. James O'Gallagher, Bishop of Raphoe (1725-1737) and of Kildare (1737-1752), with an English translation and an Irish-English vocabulary" (edited, Dublin, 1877). This work contains a life of the bishop and an interesting account of the arrest and killing of the Rev. O'Hegarty, P. P. of Killygarran, 1734. "The Life and Labours of St. Augustin, Bishop of Hippo Regius, with an account of the Canons Regular and of the Augustinian Friars in Ireland" (Dublin, 1879); "The Doctrine of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary" (Dublin, 1880); "The Dignity, Sanctity and Intercessory Power of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Mother of God" (Dublin, 1881); "The Life and Times of the Most Rev. Dr. MacHale, Archbishop of Tuam" (Dublin, 1882); "Beatha Sheaghain Mhic Heil, Airdeaspoig Thuama" (Life of John MacHale, Archbishop of Tuam), edited for the Gaelic Union in the "Gaelic Journal", I, II (1882-1886). This Irish Life of Dr. MacHale is a different work from the English Life of the Archbishop. Nine chapters of it were written before the English Life was begun, but it was never completed. Only twenty-four chapters had appeared at the time of the author's death, and they were never published in book form; "A Plea for the Evicted Tenants of Mayo" (Dublin, 1883), addressed to William Ewart Gladstone; "Prechristian Ireland, a treatise on Early Irish History, Ethnology, the origin of the Round Towers, etc., with the Portrait of the Author" (Dublin, 1887); "A Complete Irish Dictionary", on which he was engaged for years, but it was not completed when his last illness came. The beginning of it was published in "The Nation." In 1868 Canon Bourke established the "Keltic Journal" at Manchester, under the editorship of James Ronan; only nine numbers of this periodical appeared. He brought out an edition of the catechism in Irish, and in collaboration with Father John Nolan and David Comyn wrote three elementary Irish grammatical works, published under the auspices of the Society for the Preservation of the Irish Language. He acted as editor of "The Last Monarch of Tara" (Dublin), and it was under his supervision that all the Irish works of Archbishop MacHale were published or republished. He also wrote a "Life of St. Jarlath", which appeared in the "Tuam News". Canon Bourke's works popularized the results of the philological researches of Continental scholars, such as Pictet, Bopp, Zeuss, and Ebel, and did much to keep alive the interest of Irish studies in Ireland. His "Easy Lessons" and "College Irish Grammar" are in some respects still the most complete handbooks of Modern Irish. Though several of his theories are now antiquated, his English works, written in an easy flowing style, still form a popular introduction to Irish philology and archaeology. Irish Catholic Directory (1860-1888); J. G[LYNN], a sketch in Dublin Journal (March, 1887), republished in the Tuam News (6 May, 1887); Catholic Fireside (London, January, 1888); Freeman's Journal (23-26, Nov., 1887), and the various works of the author, and information supplied by John Glynn, Esq., Tuam, Co. Galway. JOHN MACERLEAN Boycotting Boycotting The name of boycotting was first aplied to a practice which had its origin in Ireland during the most stirring days of the land agitation. It was comparatively easy to arouse popular enthusiasm, and to elicit a general readiness for self-sacrifice for a cause which touched the people so closely and so vitally. But the slightest remissness or backsliding would be fatal to the entire project. An insignificant number who refused to abide by the common understanding would be sufficient to render all the efforts of the Land League futile. If landlords could count on finding tenants for their vacant farms, they might afford to laugh at the schemes of agitators. And it was inevitable that a number of "grabbers" should appear on the scene at that time. The land hunger was always proverbially strong in Ireland, and the opportunity of acquiring farms on easy terms was a temptation too strong to be resisted by ambitious self-seekers such as are to be found in all classes of society. The difficulty of dealing with "grabbers", therefore, was acute from the very commencement of the Land League. Agrarian outrages had been well-known in Ireland for some years previously and there was serious danger of a more violent and widespread outbreak now. This the leaders of the new agitation knew and feared for various reasons. At a public meeting in 1880 Parnell put the question to his audience: "What are we to do with a tenant who bids for a farm from which his neighbour has been evicted?" The more violent spirits recommended shooting, but Parnell himself had a proposal to offer which he rightly believed could be made far more effective. He expounded it at length, clearly, and emphatically. In substance it was, that such a person should "be left severely alone, put into a moral Coventry, isolated from his kind as if he was a leper of old". This was the weapon which he put into the hands of the Land Leaguers, and which was destined to be used with such drastic effect throughout the various vicissitudes of the land agitation in Ireland and to be introduced into disputes that were not agrarian and into countries other than Ireland. It is pertinent to observe that from its first adoption, this severe isolation, this consignment to a moral Coventry affected not only the prime offender but equally anyone convicted of violating the common understanding of having no social intercourse with him. It was put in motion immediately against Captain Boycott of Connemara, agent of Lord Erne, who sent a process server to serve ejectment notices on a number of tenants for non-payment of rent. All his servants were induced to leave him, tradesmen were prevented from working for him, and shopkeepers from supplying him with goods. From this case the practice received the name of "boycotting" and immediately the word became current in the language. The practice spread rapidly through every part of the country. The Government found itself utterly unable to deal with organized boycotting. The powerlessness of the common law was demonstrated by the failure of the Government to convict a number of the leaders of the Land League for unlawful conspiracy, when in January, 1881, the jury declared themselves unable to agree and the defendants were acquitted. Thereupon followed a succession of coercion and special Crimes Acts, the only effect of which was to render the people more determined and more lawless. Violence and outrages increased or diminished with the hostility of the Government. After a temporary abatement disorder began to rage fiercely again in 1886, when the Plan of Campaign was established and met by a new Crimes Act. On 23 April, 1888, the Congregation of the Holy Office declared that it was not lawful to make use of the Plan of Campaign and boycotting. A short time afterwards the Plan of Campaign was perceived to be a failure and boycotting was gradually discontinued. It had a brief revival about the year 1899. In 1902 boycotting was practically destroyed in Ireland, when a number of defendants were convicted in a civil action and damages to the amont of £20,000 were given against them by a jury presided over by Chief Baron Pallas. Boycotting, therefore, in its strict, original sense, means a complete ostracism. It operates by leaving the obnoxious party severely alone and its effectiveness is increased enormously by the threat that anyone who violates its terms will be regarded as sharing in the offence and will be made to share also in the ostracism of the prime offender. In a wider, but still legitimate, sense of the word it is used of every attempt, through the denial of one or more of the advantages or amenities of ordinary social intercourse, to compel an individual or group of individuals to do something which they are legally entitled not to do, or to abstain from doing something which they are legally entitled to do. In this latter sense it may be used of the efforts of a trust, for instance, to compel a particular railroad to use only coal from a mine in which it is interested, by the threat that, unless this is done, this railroad will not be allowed any share in the business of carrying the trust's products. A combination or conspiracy is commonly assumed to be of the essence of boycotting. But, although it is true that boycotting generally operates through a combination, the combination does not appear to be at all essential to it. An iron trust or even an iron king may be as well able to exert pressure of the kind peculiar to boycotting as any combination of Irish tenant farmers. At present there is a growing tendency to use the word boycotting in a wider sense still. It is now very generally used of any discrimination in social or business matters against individuals or sects because of prejudice as to character, tenets, or practices. The lawlessness and outrages which accompanied boycotting in Ireland in the eighties seem to have impressed it with certain features which distinguish it from other forms of social ostracism, and these features coupled with the condemnation by the Holy Office have caused boycotting to be regarded as affected with a moral taint. For a long time to brand a practice as boycotting was tantamount to labelling it immoral. The ethics of boycotting was discussed at considerable length in a number of articles in "The Irish Theological Quarterly" in the years 1907 and 1908. The conclusions of the contributors of the articles differed very widely. As a result if may at least be safely held that boycotting cannot under all circumstances be pronounced immoral. The condemnation by the Holy Office may certainly be taken as applying only to the concrete situation as it existed at the time in Ireland. Since, therefore, we cannot declare off-hand that boycotting is either moral or immoral, and since moreover different instances of boycotting will be found to present very different moral considerations, in practice each case will have to be decided strictly on its merits according to the ordinary moral principles that are applicable to it. Mere discrimination in social or business matters, however much it may savour of bigotry or narrow-mindedness in certain circumstances, cannot be called immoral. It is only what everyone does to a certain extent; the most conscientious of men prefer to deal and dine with those whom he knows best or with whom he has most interests in common. As for the element of compulsion, the attempt to compel a person to do something in itself moral, which he is legally entitled not to do, that too, in certain circumstances, is perfectly lawful. It is constantly being done in everyday life by people whom no one thinks of accusing of immorality. But there are other points substantial in the matter of morality, the restraint put on the ordinary liberty of citizens, the use of combination for this purpose, and the liability of the practice to grave abuse. These must be considered in every case of boycotting; but they should be considered without prejudice, precisely as they are considered in understandings amongst business men or professional etiquette amongst lawyers and doctors. There is no denying that boycotting constitutes a grave menace to social equity and peace. It may sometimes be used to resist oppression, but unfortunately it is an instrument that may be made to cut more effectively in the other direction. It is moreover a most powerful instrument in the hands of discontented and vindictive demagogues for producing social turmoil and indulging private spleens. Although these facts do not make a particular case of boycotting immoral, where there is a good to be grained great enough to outweigh the evils and sufficient to justify the danger of abuses, still, from the point of view of public welfare, they might render it necessary for the legislature to prohibit the practice altogether. The boycotting that once prevailed in Ireland has now happily disappeared with the conditions in which it had its origin. It is not likely that any of the English-speaking Governments will be called on ever again to take action in connection with it. The undue advantage taken of their economic strength by certain trusts and companies is much more likely to produce inequity and to call for legislative action. O'BRIEN, The Life of Charles Stewart Parnell (London, 1898); MORLEY, The Life of William Ewart Gladstone (London, 1905); The Irish Theol. Quar., I, II (Dublin, 1907-08); LEMKUHL, Theol. mor. (Freiburg, 1910); VERMEERSCH, Questiones de Justitia (Bruges, 1901). JOHN KELLEHER Reform of the Roman Breviary Reform of the Roman Breviary By the Apostolic Constitution "Divino Afflatu" of Pius X (1 November, 1911), a change was made in the psalter of the Roman Breviary. Instead of printing, together with the psalms, those portions of the Office which specially require rubrics, such as the invitatory, hymns for the seasons, blessings, absolutions, chapters, suffrages, dominical prayers, Benedictus, Magnificat, Te Deum, etc., these are now all in due order printed by themselves under the title Ordinary. The psalms, under the title Psaltery, are printed together, so arranged that the entire psalter may be chanted or recited each week, and so distributed, or, when too long, divided, that approximately there may be the same number of verses for each day's Office. This change has been made with a view to restoring the original use of the liturgy, which provided for the chant or recitation of the entire Psaltery each week. It became necessary by the fact that as the saints' days, with common or special Offices, grew more numerous, the ordinary Sunday and week-day or ferial Offices, and consequently certain of the psalms, were rarely recited. In making the change, occasion was taken to facilitate the reading of the Office by the separation of the Ordinary and Psaltery proper, but chiefly by allotting about the same number of verses for each day. It is only a first step in the revision of the entire Breviary, as agreed upon at the Vatican Council. It was proposed by a committee of liturgists appointed by Pius X, adopted by the Congregation of Rites, and sanctioned by the pope to go into effect on 1 January, 1913, in accordance with the new rubrics regulating thenceforth the reading of the Divine Office. Each day, therefore, has its own psalms, as arranged in the new Psalter, except certain feast days, about 125 in number, viz., all those of Christ and their octaves, the Sundays within the octaves of the Nativity, Epiphany, Ascension, Corpus Christi, the vigil of the Epiphany, and the day after the octave of the Ascension, when the Office is of these days; the Vigil of the Nativity from Lauds to None and the Vigil of Pentecost; all the feasts of the Blessed Virgin, of the angels, St. John the Baptist, St. Joseph, and the Apostles, as well as doubles of the first and second class and their entire octaves. Theirs is the Office to be read as appointed either in the Breviary, or in the Ordo of a diocese or institute, the psalms for Lauds, the Hours and Complin to be taken from Sunday; those for Matins and Vespers from the Common of the Office, unless others specially be assigned. The Office for the last three days of Holy Week remains unchanged, except that the psalms for Lauds are from the corresponding days of the week in the Psalter, and for Complin those of Sunday. For all other feasts and for ferias in Paschal time the psalms are those of the new Psalter; the rest of the Office is from the Proper or Common. When a feast has special antiphons for any of the major hours, it retains them with its own psalms. Except for certain feasts the lessons of the first Nocturn are to be the current lessons from Scripture, though the responsories are to be taken from the Common or Proper. Any feast that has its own proper lessons retains them; for feasts with their own responsories, those with the common lessons are to be read. The criteria given to regulate the precedence of feasts are: gradation of rite, classification, as primary or secondary, personal dignity of the one honoured, external solemnity, local importance or privilege. Provision is made for the transfer of feasts that must make way for others more important occurring, whether occasionally or perpetually, on the same day, especially for the Sundays. The suffrages of the saints are now invoked in the one prayer "A cunctis". The Athanasian Creed is to be said only on Trinity Sunday and the Sundays after the Epiphany and Pentecost when the Office is of the Sunday; but even on these days, when there is a commemoration of a duplex, or of an octave or day within an octave, the suffrages, prayers and symbol and the third Collect are not to be said. The week-day and other votive Offices granted by the general indult of 5 July, 1883, are no longer allowed. Nor is there now the obligation of reciting in choir the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin, the Office of the Dead, the Gradual, and the Penitential Psalms. The feasts of the dedication of a church, of a cathedral, and of the patrons of dioceses, are to be observed as doubles of the first class, and the feast of the Lateran Basilica and its titular feast of the Transfiguration, as doubles of the second class. Directions are given for conforming the Missal with the Breviary, especially for the Masses of Sundays, Lenten ferias, Collects, and also for conventual Masses. On All Souls' Day, the Office and Mass of the current day are to be omitted, and the Office and Mass of the Dead only are to be recited; on All Saints' Day, the Vespers of the day, and of the Dead, are to be recited as hitherto. The members of the Revisory Commission were: Mgr. P. La Fontaine, titular Bishop of Carystos, Secretary of the Congregation of Rites (President), Mgr. Scipio Tecchi, Mgr. P. Piacenza, Mgr. J. Bressan (Private Secretary to the Pope), Mgr. A. Gasparri, Father P. Brugnani, O.M., Father L. Fonck, S.J., Father J. d'Isengard, C.M., and Rev. F. Brehm. The complete reform of the Breviary, committed to another commission, involves a reform of the calendar; the revision of the historical lessons; the omission of lessons not authenticated; the correction of texts; the new general rubric; the Common of certain classes of saints, as of confessors, holy women, and others, in order to commemorate them on one day instead of assigning a day for each. PIACENZA, In Constitutionem `Divino Afflatu' et in rubricas commentarium (Rome, 1912); IDEM, Guida practica per la recita del divino Officio (Rome, 1912); BURTON AND MYERS, The New Psalter and Its Use (London, 1912); BOUDINHON, Le Psalterium Breviarii Romani et les nouvelles rubriques (Paris, 1912); WELSH, The New Rubrics (Edinburgh, 1912); HETHERINGTON, Notes on the New Rubrics and the Use of the New Psalter (London, 1912); Am. Eccl. Rev. (February and April, 1912). JOHN J. WYNNE Institute of the Brigidines Institute of the Brigidines (SISTERS OF ST. BRIGID.) The Institute of the Brigidines was established by Most Rev. Dr. Delaney, Bishop of Kildare and Leighlin, at Tullow, Co. Carlow, Ireland, in 1807. Bishop Delaney, keenly alive to the lamentable state to which religion had been reduced by the Penal Laws and by the disastrous effects of the Rebellion of 1798, began to remedy the evil by applying himself to secure the proper observance of the Lord's Day, and the religious instruction of the children and adult women of his parish and diocese. He resided at Tullow, and to inaugurate his work there he formed catechism and reading classes to be held in the church on Sundays. To carry out this purpose he selected a number of exemplary young women to form a religious community. He allowed them to make vows, and thus laid the foundation of the Brigidine Institute, one of the first of the kind founded in Ireland since the Reformation. The sisters immediately opened schools for the poorer and higher classes of children in the neighbourhood. This work proving successful, a building was erected for the accommodation of boarders who presented themselves, but who had until then to lodge in the town. Soon many came to avail themselves of the advantages of religious and secular education afforded by the Brigidine Sisters. The institute, although several times sanctioned by the Holy See, continued a diocesan congregation until 1892, when Pope Leo XIII, on being solicited to place all the houses of the institute under a mother-general, issued a Decree approving of change in government for five years by way of experiment, and in 1907 Pope Pius X confirmed, in perpetuity, the constitution of the new regime. Before and since that date several foundations have been made in Australia and New Zealand, where there are at present fourteen houses of the institute. There are five convents in Ireland: at Tullow, Mountrath, Abbeyleix, Goresbridge, and Ballyroan, all in the Diocese of Kildare and Leighlin. The pupils of the Brigidines (boarding and benefit schools) are prepared for the Intermediate, University, Senior Oxford, and Kensington Examinations, for those of the Incorporated Society of Music, and the technical courses. MOTHER DE CHANTAL FENNELLY General Sir William Francis Butler General Sir William Francis Butler Born at Suirville, Co. Tipperary, Ireland, 31 October, 1838; died 7 June, 1910, was the son of Richard and Ellen Butler. His family had been settled on their estates in Tipperary since Thomas Butler, tenth Earl of Ormonde, had received grants of land from Queen Elizabeth after the suppression of the Desmond rebellion in 1584. The great famine of 1847 and scenes of suffering and eviction were amongst his earliest recollections. He was educated chiefly by the Jesuits at Tullabeg College, King's Co. In 1858 he received a commission in the 69th Regiment, which he joined at the depot at Fermoy, and after two years he was sent to Madras. The regiment returned to England in 1864, and on the way Butler visited the Island of St. Helena, led thither by his profound veneration for Napoleon. In 1867 he visited Canada for the first time, and went back there again after a brief visit to Ireland, with a mission from Colonel Wolseley to find out the true state of feeling in the Red River settlement. In October, 1870, he was intrusted with a fresh mission to report on the need of troops, the fur trade, the Indians etc., in Saskatchewan, following the course of the Saskatchewan River from Carlton to the Rocky Mountains. The story of this winter journey and his share in the Red River expedition is told in "The Great Lone Land", first published in 1872. Sir Garnet Wolseley made his famous expedition to Ashanti in West Africa in 1873. To Butler he entrusted the task of intercepting the Ashanti Army whilst retreating across the River Prah. This proved impossible, for though he induced 1400 Akims to move forward with him to within 20 miles of Coomassie they took alarm at the last moment and went home. The full story of his share in the Ashanti War is given in "Akim-foo, the History of a Failure" (London, 1875). Wolseley reported of him: "He has effected a most important diversion in favour of the main body and has detained before him all the forces of one of the most powerful Ashanti chiefs." He was now promoted major and made a Companion of the Bath. The opening months of 1875 saw him start for Natal on the staff of Sir Garnet Wolseley, who had been sent out as governor and high commissioner. Butler was named protector of Indian immigrants and had to report on the land system then existing in the colony. To the insight then gained into South African problems he attributes, to a great extent, the accuracy of certain warnings of his a quarter of a century later before the outbreak of the Boer War. At the close of 1875 he joined the staff of the War Office, and in 1877 he married Miss Elizabeth Thompson, the painter of the "Roll Call", "Quatre Bras", and other famous battle scenes. After the disaster of Isandula in the Zulu War, he was sent again to Natal, but through ill luck was kept at the base and saw no fighting. Promotion to lieutenant-colonel followed on his return to England, for services in Natal, and the Marquis of Ripon, Viceroy of India, proposed him for his private secretary, but Gladstone refused his sanction on the score of Butler's being a Catholic. In the Egyptian campaign of 1882 he saw much hard service, and was present at the engagements of El Magfar, Tel-e-Mahouta, Kassassin, and the night attack on the Egyptian lines at Tel-el-Kebir. After the campaign he returned to England and started once again for "the great prairies and the pine forests" of Canada. He visited many of the scenes of his earlier travels, but within a few months was back in London, and was discussing with Lord Wolseley the various routes by which the garrisons at Khartoum might be reached, and General Gordon saved. To Butler were entrusted, when at last the relief expedition was a certainty, the procuring of 400 boats, and the getting of these boats, with their troops and provisions, up the cataracts of the Nile. This was effected by almost superhuman efforts against time and the unfavourable state of the Nile, then rapidly falling. His task accomplished, he was sent on under General Earle, who led the river column of advance upon Khartoum. He took part in the heavy fighting at Kirbekam, and indeed the success of that action has always been attributed to his foresight. After the fall of Khartoum, he was left in command at Meroe, and brought the troops stationed there in safety to Dongola. In September, 1885, he was in command at Wady Halfa, and successfully kept the forces of the Mahdi at bay till re-enforcements arrived from England. He commanded the division of Gen. Stephenson's army engaged in the action at Ginniss and was mentioned in the highest terms in despatches. Finding no appointment open to him in England on his return, he betook himself to Brittany with his family, where he wrote "The Campaign of the Cataracts" (1887) and "The Life of General Gordon" (1889), and subsequently to Ireland, where he made the acquaintance of Parnell. During his stay in Brittany he was made K.C.B. (Knight Commander of the Bath) for his services in Egypt and the Sudan. In 1890 he returned to Egypt to take command at Alexandria, and was promoted major-general in 1892. During the intervals of leave from his duties at Alexandria he travelled a great deal, visiting, amongst other places, the sacred sites of Palestine, which had always had a deep interest and attraction for him. From 1893 to 1896 he commanded a brigade at Aldershot, being transferred in the latter year to the command of the South-Eastern district of England. In the autumn of 1898 he went to South Africa as commander-in-chief and high commissioner during the absence of Sir Alfred Milner. In the latter capacity he strove to avert a war which he saw was bound to result in calamity both for England and South Africa, and as commander-in-chief he tried to show the Government the inadequacy of their preparations and what a war with the Transvaal would really mean. His attitude did not find favour at home and he was severely criticised for having stated in his capacity as high commissioner that he considered South Africa in need of "no surgical operation". In September, 1899, he resigned his command and came home. He saw no active service during the war, remaining in command of the Western District of England. He also commanded at Aldershot and in the Southern District. In 1903 he headed the commission of enquiry into the scandals connected with stores and supplies during the war, and in October, 1905, having reached the age limit of sixty-seven, he was placed on the retired list. The few years of life which remained to him he spent in Ireland, devoted chiefly to the cause of education. He was a frequent lecturer both in Dublin and the provinces on historical, social, and economic questions. He was a member of the senate of the National University of Ireland, and a commissioner of the Board of National Education. In June, 1906, he was appointed Knight of the Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath, and in 1909 he was made a member of the Irish Privy Council. He died fortified by the rites of the Church, and was buried with full military honours at Killardrich, Co. Tipperary. Besides the books already mentioned, Sir William Butler was the author of several important works, chief among which are the military biographies of Sir Charles Napier (1890) and Sir George Colley (1899). The latter appeared a few months before the outbreak of the Boer War. He was working at the last chapters of his autobiography at the time of his death. Sir William Butler, an Autobiography (London, 1911); WOLSELEY, Story of a Soldier's Life (2 vols., London, 1906); COLVILLE, History of the Sudan Campaign (London, 1887). R. URBAN BUTLER _________________________________________________________________ Leopoldo Marco Antonio Caldani Leopoldo Marco Antonio Caldani Anatomist and physiologist, b. at Bologna, 21 Nov., 1725; d. at Padua, 20 Dec., 1813. He studied medicine in his native city, and received a medical degree there in 1750. He was appointed professor of practical medicine at Bologna in 1755 on condition that he was to study anatomy under Morgagni's direction for five years more. Caldani left Bologna apparently on account of enemies and went to Padua, where, as one of Morgagni's best pupils, he was later made professor of theoretical medicine, and in 1771, after Morgagni's death, was made professor of anatomy. He retained this latter professorship until he retired in 1805. Caldani was a zealous champion of Haller's theory of irritability; he is noted for his experimental studies on the function of the spinal cord and for the introduction of electricity in the physiology of the nerves. His most celebrated work is his anatomical atlas, in which he was aided by his nephew Floriano. His works are: "Sull' intensività et irritabilità di alune parti degli animali" (Bologna, 1757); "Lettera sopra l'irritabilità et insensività Halleriana" (Bologne, 1759); "Lettera sull'uso del muschio nella idrofobia" (Venice, 1767); "Esame del capitolo settimo dell'ultima opera di Antonio de Haen" (Padua, 1770); "Innesto felice del vajuolo" (Padua, 1768); "Institutiones pathologicae" (Padua, 1772, 1776; Leyden, 1784; Venice, 1786; Naples, 1787), translated into German by Reuss (1784), and issued at Prague (1793), in connection with "Institutiones physiologicae"; "Dialoghi di fisiologia e di pathologia" (Padua, 1778, 1793); "Institutiones physiologicae" (Padua, 1773, 1778; Leyden, 1784; Venice, 1786; Naples, 1787); "Institutiones semeioticae" (Padua, 1808); "Icones anatomicae" with 5 vols. of "Explicatio iconum" (Venice, 1801-13). WERNICH-HIRSCH, Biographisches Lexikon der Arzte, I, 643. LEOPOLD SENFELDER Diocese of Cali Diocese of Cali (Caliensis). Founded in Colombia, South America, on 7 July, 1910. Cali is a city, district, and province in the Department of Valle. The Province of Valle is bounded on the north by the Province of Arboleda, on the south by Santander (Department of Cauca), on the east by Palmira, and includes the districts of Cali, Jamundi, Pavas, Dagua, Vijes, and Yumbo. Its area is about 4175 square miles, and its chief products are gold, sugar, cacao, coffee, and cattle. The city of Cali, the seat of the new diocese, is situated on a small river of the same name, and possesses a population of about 35,000. It was founded by Captain Miguel Lopez Munoz by order of the Spanish conqueror Sebastian de Belalcazar on 25 July, 1536. Although many of its important buildings were destroyed by an earthquake in 1885, the city quickly recovered, and the recently built railroad connecting it with the port of Buenaventura and the Pacific Ocean has greatly increased its commercial importance and that of the surrounding country. The immense plantations of cacao and coffee, which encircle the city, and its charming suburbs render it a delightful place of residence. It celebrated the centenary of its national independence by an industrial and artistic exhibition on 20 July, 1910. Among its numerous modern buildings of importance the beautiful churches of San Francisco (Ionian style) and San Pedro call for special mention. Notable also are: the magnificent convent of the Franciscan Friars; the Colegio Superior de Santa Librada for women; the Presentation School for girls; the asylum for honest, indigent women; and a splendid hospital. The Catholic population of the new diocese is about 150,000. Mgr. Aladio Perlaza, formerly Vicar-General of Cali, was elected its first bishop on 11 August, 1911. MOIRA K. COYLE Tomas Camara y Castro Tomás Cámara y Castro Bishop of Salamanca, Spain, born at Torrecilla de Cameros, Logroño, 19 September, 1847; died at Villaharta, 17 May, 1904. His father, D. Leonardo Cámara, was a physician in this town. Tomás studied Humanities at Burgos, and at the age of fifteen took the habit of the Augustinians at Valladolid, where he finished his theology and was appointed professor in the college. His activity was inexhaustible, and among the many works which he accomplished during his episcopate were the foundation in Salamanca of the Colegio de Calatrava for the promotion of ecclesiastical courses, the erection of a handsome church to San Juan de Sahagún, patron of the city, and of six smaller churches in other cities. Bishop Cámara was primarily a polemicist and orator. His great learning, extraordinary talents, varied interests, and untiring activity made him one of the most prominent figures of the Spanish episcopate during the nineteenth century. No great work was undertaken for the Church in which he did not figure in the foremost rank, in posts of danger and enterprises of the greatest importance, making him beloved by the Catholics and feared by the enemies of the Church. In congresses, assemblies, the Senate, the press, and in every situation where noble and sacred interests were to be safeguarded, he was to be found. His Lenten conferences, preached in 1884 and 1885, were attended by a representative audience of the most distinguished men of letters, politics, sciences, and arts. Among the numerous works of Bishop Cámara the following are the most important: "Contestación á la historia del conflicto entre la religión y la ciencia de Juan Guillermo Draper" (3 editions); "Vida y escritos del Beato Alonso de Orozco, del Orden de San Agustín, Predicador de Felipe II"; "Conferencias y demás discursos hasta hoy publicados del Ilmo. P. Cámara, Obispo de Salamanca"; "Vida de S. Juan de Sahagún, del Orden de S. Agustín, Patrón de Salamanca"; "La Venerable Sacramento, Vizcondesa de Jorbalán, Fundadora de las Señoras Adoratrices." DEL MORAL, La Cuidad de Dios: Biografía del Exmo. é Ilmo. Sr. D. Fr. Tomás Cámara y Castro; MUIÑOS SAENZ, Semblanza del Ezmo. é Ilmc. Sr. D. Fr. Tomás Cámara y Castro. TEODORO RODRÍGUEZ James Campbell James Campbell Born at Philadelphia, 1 Sept., 1812; died there, 27 Jan., 1893. His father was Anthony Campbell, and his grandfather George Campbell, a native of Fintona, County Tyrone, Ireland. James was educated at the private school of Geraldus Stockdale, studied law with Hon. Robert D. Ingraham, was admitted to the Bar on 14 Sept., 1833, was made a commissioner of the district of Southwark the day after his admission, and served until his appointment to the board of education. He offered, 16 Apr., 1840, the resolution which established the Girls' High School of Philadelphia. He served on the board of education until 1840, when he was appointed, by Governor David R. Porter, judge of the courts of common pleas, orphan's court, and courts of oyer and terminer, which posi