РПаЎ±б>юя zЌ<Џ<<<<<<<<<<<<<<< <!<"<#<$<%<&<'<(<)<*<+<,<-<.</<0<1<2<3<4<5<6<7<8<9<:<;<<<=<><?<@<A<B<C<D<E<F<G<H<I<J<K<L<M<N<O<P<Q<R<S<T<U<V<W<X<Y<Z<[<\<]<^<_<`<a<b<c<d<e<f<g<h<i<j<k<l<m<n<o<p<q<r<s<t<u<v<w<x<y<z<{<|<}<~<<мҐБ#` рїt>rbjbjЎЎ 4@rГГEfяяяяяя¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤`”шгшгшгшгФ Модфpw¶јјјјј— — — ѓC…C…C…C…C…C…C$&xhЋzJ©CЃ3¤— — — — — ©C¤¤јјЫ*wУ У У — ¤ј¤јѓCУ — ѓCУ У ¤¤У ј°ђѓ–eЅґЗшг§ У п ”9@w0pwУ Шz· ШzУ Шz¤У — — У — — — — — ©C©C· — — — pw— — — — фффМшгфффшгёd@\¤¤¤¤¤¤яяяяA Dictionary of the Bible A Dictionary of the Bible DEALING WITH ITS LANGUAGE, LITERATURE, AND CONTENTS INCLUDING THE BIBLICAL THEOLOGY EDITED BY JAMES HASTINGS, M.A., D.D. WITH THE ASSISTANCE 0* JOHN A. SELBIE, M.A. AND, CHIEFLY IN THE REVISION OP THE PROOFS, OF A. B. DAVIDSON, D.D., LL.D. S. E. DEIVER, D.D., Lrrr.D. PROFESSOR OF HEBREW, NEW COLLEGE, EDINBURGH RESITS PROFESSOR OF HEBREW, OXFORD H. B. SWETE, D.D., Litt.D. REGIUS PROFESSOR OF DIVINITY, CAMBRIDGE VOLUME II FEIGN KINSMAN NEW YOEK %? CHAELES SCRIBNER'S SONS Edinburgh: T. & T. CLARK 1902 Copyright, i8g9, by CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS The Rights of Translation and of Reproduction are reserved PREFACE ' Give heed to . . , teaching.1 Perhaps the Church of Christ has never given sufficient heed to teaching since the earliest and happiest days. In our own day the importance of teaching, or, as we sometimes call it, expository preaching, has been pressed home through causes that are various yet never accidental; and1 it is probable that in the near future more heed will be given by the Church to teaching than has ever been given before. As a contribution towards the furnishing of the Church for that great work, this Dictionaey of THE Bible is published. It is a Dictionary of the Old and New Testaments, together with the Old Testament Apocrypha, according to the Authorized and Revised English Versions, and with constant reference to the original tongues. Every effort has been used to make the information it contains reasonably full, reliable, and accessible. As to fulness. In a Dictionary of the Bible one expects that the words occurring in the Bible, which do not explain themselves, will receive some explanation. The present Dictionary more nearly meets that expectation than any Dictionary that has hitherto been published. Articles have been written on the names of all Persons and Places, on the Antiquities and Archeology of the Bible, on its Ethnology, Geology, and Natural History, on Biblical Theology and Ethic, and even on the obsolete or archaic words occurring in the English Versions. The greater number of the articles are of small compass, for care has been exercised to exclude vague generalities as well as unaccepted idiosyncrasies; but there are many articles which deal with important and difficult subjects, and extend to considerable length. Such, for example, is the article in the first volume on the Chronology of the New Testament, and the article in the present volume on Jesus Christ. As to reliability. The names of the authors are appended to their articles, except where the article is very brief or of minor importance; and these names are the best guarantee that the work may be relied on. So far as could be ascertained, those authors were chosen for each particular subject who had made a special study of that subject, and might be able to speak with authority upon it. Then, in addition to the work of the Editor and his Assistant, every sheet has passed through the hands of the three distinguished scholars whose names are found on the title-page. Those scholars are not responsible for errors of any kind, if such should be dis- r/ vni . PKEFACE covered in the Dictionary, but the time and care they have spent upon it may be taken as a good assurance that the work as a whole is reliable and authoritative. As to accessibility. While all the articles have been written expressly for this work, so they have been arranged under the headings one would most naturally turn to. In a very few cases it has been found necessary to group allied subjects together. But even then, the careful system of black-lettering and cross-reference adopted should enable the reader to find the subject wanted without delay. And so important has it seemed to the Editor that each subject should be found under its own natural title, that he has allowed a little repetition here and there (though not in identical terms) rather than distress the reader by sending him from one article to another in search of the information he desires. The Proper Names will be found under the spelling adopted in the Eevised Version, and in a few very familiar instances the spelling of the Authorized Version is also given, with a cross-reference to the other. On the Proper Names generally, and particularly on the very difficult and unsettled questions of their derivation, reference may be made to the article Names (Pkopeb), which will be found in the third volume. The Hebrew, and (where it seemed to be of consequence for the identification of the name) the Greek of the Septuagint, have been given for all proper and many common names. It was found impracticable to record all the variety of spelling discovered in different manuscripts of the Septuagint; and it was considered unnecessary, in view of the great Edition now in preparation in Cambridge, and the Concordance of Proper Names about to be published at the Clarendon Press. The Abbreviations, considering the size and scope of the work, will be seen to be few and easily mastered. A list of them, together with a simple and uniform scheme of transliterating Hebrew and Arabic words, will be found on the following pages. The Editor has pleasure in recording his thanks to many friends and willing fellow-workers, including the authors of the various articles. In especial, after those whose names are given on the title-page, he desires to thank the Eev, W. Sakday, D.D., LL.D., Lady Margaret Professor of Divinity in the University of Oxford, who has again read many of the articles and given valuable assistance in other ways; next, the Rev. G. M. Mackie, M.A., of Beyrout, whose knowledge of modern Syrian life is both intimate and sympathetic; also Professor Mahapf? of Dublin, who kindly read some articles in proof; Professor Eyle of Cambridge; Principal SALMON0 of Aberdeen; Principal Stewart of St. Andrews; and Principal Fairbairn and Mr. J. Vernok Babtlet, M.A., of Mansfield College, Oxford. The Editor regrets to have to record the death, since the issue of the first volume, of Dr. D. Shearer and the Eev. H. A. White, M.A., New College, Oxford. %* Messrs. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, hare the sole right of publication of this Dictionary of the Bible in the United States and Canada. SCHEME OF TEANSLITEEATION ARABIC.HEBREW.i1Nbh1tgthd1ihnhc %»khcztdhndhttorJj. y %«z;kB1shAmO§ndDt<?PDttz2ShkPfi-Jr-1kJs, shtoll?ktn1Jm(*nhu, wi. yLIST OF ABBKEYIATIOtfS I. General Alex. = Alexandrian. Apoc. = Apocalypse. Apocr. = Apocrypha. Aq. =Aquila. Arab. =Arabic. Aram. = Aramaic. Assyr. = Assyrian. Bab. = Babylonian. c.= circa, about. Can. = Canaanite. cf. = compare. ct. = contrast. D = Deuteronomist. E = Elohist. edd. = editions or editors. Egyp.= Egyptian. Eng. = English. Eth. = Etluopic. f. =and following verse or page; as Ac 1034'1 ff. =and following verses or pages; as Mt il28flr- Gr. = Greek. H = Law of Holiness. Heb. = Hebrew. Hel. = Hellenistic. Hex. = Hexateuch. Isr. = Israelite. J=Jahwist. J"=Jehovah. Jems. = Jerusalem. Jos. =Josephus. LXX = SeptuaginL MSS = Manuscripts. MT=Massoretic Text. n. =note. NT = New Testament. Onk. = Onkelos. OT = Old Testament. P = Priestly Narrative. Pal. = Palestine, Palestinian, Pent. = Pentateuch. Pers. = Persian. Phil. = Philistine. Phoen. = Phoenician. Pr. Bk.= Prayer Book. R = Redactor. Rom. = Roman. Sam, = Samaritan. Sem. = Semitic. Sept. = Septuaginfc, Sin. = Sinai tic. Symm. = Symmachua. Syr. = Syriac. T'alm. = Talmud. Targ. =Targum. Theod. =Theodotion. TR=Textus Receptus. tr. = translate or translation YSS = Versions. Vulg. = Vulgate. WH = VVestcott and Hort's text. II. Books op the Old Testament. Ca=Canticles. Is = Isaiah. Jer=Jereniiah. La == Lamentations. Ezk = Ezekiel. • Dn=Daniel. Jl = Joel. Gn = Genesis. Ex = Exodus. Lv=Leviticus. Ntt= Numbers. Dt=Deuteronomy. Jos=Joshua. Jg = Judges. Ru = Ruth. 1 S, 2 S = 1 and 2 Samuel. Am = Amos. 1 K, 2 K = 1 and 2 Kings. Ob = Obadiah. 1 Ch, 2 Ch = 1 and 2 Jon = Jonah. Chronicles. Mic = Micah. Ezr=Ezra. Nah = Nahum. Neh = Nehemiah. Hab = Habakkuk. Est=Esther. , Zeph = Zephaniah. Job. ; Hag = Haggai. Ps = Psalms. Zec = Zechariah. Pr=Proverbs. Mal=Malachi. Ec = Ecclesiastes. Apocrypha. . 1 Es, 2 Es=l and 2 To = Tobit. EsJras. Jth = Judith. Ad. Est = Additions to Sus=Suaanna. Esther. Bel = Bel and the "VVis=Wisdom. Dragon. Sir = Sirach or Ecclesi- Pr. Man = Prayer of asticus. Manasses. Bar = Baruch. 1 Mac, 2 Mac = l and 2 Three = Song of the Maccabees. Three Children. New Testament. Mt = Matthew. 1 Th, 2 Th = l and 2 Mk = Mark. Thessalonians. Lk = Luke. 1 Ti, 2 Ti = 1 and 2 Jn = John. Timothy. Ac = Acts. Tit=Titus. Ro = Romans. . Philem = Philemon. 1 Co, 2 Co = 1 and 2 He = Hebrews. Corinthians. Ja=James. Gal = Galatians. 1 P, 2 P=l and 2 Peter. F.ph = Ephesians. 1 Jn, 2 Jn, 3 Jn = l, 2, Ph = Philippiiiii!i. and 3 John. Col = Colo=si.ms. Jude. Re v = Revelation. LIST OF ABBEEVIATIOJSTS zi IIL English Versions Wyc.=Wyclif's Bible (NT e. 1380, OT c. 1382, Purvey's Revision e. 1388). Tind. = Tindale's NT 1526 and 1534, Pent. 1530. Cov. = Coverdale's Bible 1535. Matt, or Rog. = Matthew's (i.e. prob. Rogers') Bible 1537. Cran. or Great=Cranmer's 'Great' Bible 1539. Tav.=Taverner's Bible 1539. Gen.=Geneva NT 1557, Bible 1560. Bish.= Bishops' Bible 1568. Tom.=Tomson's NT 1576. Rhem. = Rhemish NT 1582. Dou. = Douay OT 1609. AV=Authorized Version 1611. AVm=Authorized Version margin. RV = Revised Version NT 1881, OT 1885. RVm = Revised Version margin. EV=Auth. and Rev. Versions. IV. Fob tiie Literature AHT= Ancient Hebrew Tradition. ^r=Altes Testament. -B2/=Bampton Lecture. BM= British Museum. BEP=Biblical Researches in Palestine. OIG=Corpus Inscriptionum Grrecarum. CIL = Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. CIS=Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum. C0T= Cuneiform Inscriptions and the OT. DB=Dictionary of the Bible. EHH= Early History of the Hebrews. Cr.4P=Geographie des alten Paliistina. G(r.4 = Gottingische Gelehrte Anzeigen. GGN= Nachrichten der kb'nigl. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Gottingen. G VI= Geschichte des Volkes Israel. IICM= Higher Criticism and the Monuments. //.S=Historia Ecclesiastica. HGHL = Historical Geog. of Holy Land. HI= History of Israel. HJP=History of the Jewish People. HPM= History, Prophecy, and the Monuments. IJG=Israelitische und Jiidische Gescliiuhte. JBL=Journal of Biblical Literature. JDTh=Jahrbiicher fiir deutsche Theologie. JQB=Jewish Quarterly Review. JItAS= Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. JUL = Jewish Religious Life after the Exile. ^T^T=Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Test. KIB=Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek. ZCBJ=Literarisches Centralblatt. XO.T=Introd. to the Literature of the Old Test. iVirfF.B=Neuhebraiscb.es Worterbuch. NTZG = Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte. 0^= Otium Norvicense. OTJC=The Old Test, in the Jewish Church. PB=Polychrome Bible. PEF= Palestine Exploration Fund. PEFSt=Quarterly Statement of the same. PSBA = Proceedings of Soc. of Bibl. Archaeology. P.B.E=Real-Encyclopadie fiir protest. Theologie und Kirche. QPB = Queen's Printers' Bible. EEJ— Revue des Etudes Juives. ItP=Records of the Past. RS= Religion of the Semites. SB0T=Sacred Books of Old Test. SK= Studien und Kritiken. SP=Sinai and Palestine. Ј WP=Memoirs of the Survey of W. Palestine. ThL or TAX^=Theol. Literaturzeitung. 2%r=Theol. Tijdschrift. TSBA = Transactions of Soc. of Bibl. Archasology. TЈ/=Texte und Untersuchungen. WAI= Western Asiatic Inscriptions. WZKM= Wiener Zeitschrift fur Kunde des Morgenlandes. ZA = Zeitschrift fiir Assyriologie. ZAW or ZATW= Zeitschrift fur die Alttest Wissenschaft. ZDMG = Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgen- landischen Gesellschaft. ZDPV= Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palastina- Vereins. ZKSF=Zeitachriit fur Keilschriftforschung. ZKW= Zeitschrift fiir kirchliche Wissenschaft. A small superior number designates the particular edition of the work referred to, as KAT2, LOT*. MAPS IN VOLUME II The Kingdoms of Jitdah and Israel Jerusalem .... /acini; page 1 „ GOO •A r'7 AUTHORS OF ARTICLES IN VOL. II Rev. Walter F. Adeney, M.A., Professor of New Testament Exegesis in the New College, London. Ven. A. S. Aglen, M.A., D.D., Archdeacon of St. Andrews. Kev. Willoughby C. Allen, M.A., Chaplain, Fellow, and Lecturer, in Theology and Hebrew, Exeter College, Oxford. Kev. Benjamin Wisner Bacon, M.A., D.D., Professor of New Testament Criticism and Interpretation in Yale University, New Haven. Eev. John S. Banks, Professor of Systematic Theology in the Headingley College, Leeds. Kev. W. Emery Barnes, M.A., D.D., Fellow of Peterhouse, Cambridge. James Vernon Bartlet, M.A., Lecturer in Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Rev. Llewellyn J. M. Bebb, M.A., Principal of St. David's College, Lampeter; formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Rev. Willis Jddson Beecher, D.D., Professor of Hebrew Language and Literature in Auburn Theological Seminary, New York. Rev. William Hknry Bennett, M.A., Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in Hackney and New Colleges, London; sometime Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge. Uev. John Henry Bernard, D.D., Fellow of Trinity College, and Archbishop King's Lecturer in Divinity in the University of Dublin. Rev. J. F. Bethune-Baker, M.A., Fellow and Dean of Pembroke College, Cambridge. Frederick J. Bliss, B.A., Ph.D., of the Palestine Exploration Fund in Jerusalem. Rev. Alexander Balmain Bruce, M.A., D.D., Professor of Apologetics and New Testament Exegesis in the Free Church College, Glasgow. Rev. Charles Fox Burxey, II.A., Lecturer in Hebrew, and Fellow of St. John Baptist's College, Oxford. Rev. Winfrid O. Burrows, M.A., Principal of Leeds Clergy School. Rev. George G. Cameron, M.A., D.D., Professor of Hebrew in the Free Church College, Aberdeen. xiii The late Rev. James S. Candlish, M.A., D.D., Professor of Systematic Theology in the Free Church College, Glasgow. Rev. William Carslaw, M.A., M.D., of the Lebanon Schools, Beyrout, Syria. Rev. Arthur Thomas Chapman, M.A., Fellow, Tutor, and Hebrew Lecturer, Emmanuel College, Cambridge. Rev. Robert Henry Charles, D.D., Professor of Biblical Greek in the University of Dublin. Rev. Frederic Henry Chase, M.A., D.D., Fellow and Lecturer in Theology, Christ's College, and Principal of the Clergy Sohool, Cambridge. Lieut.-Col. Claude Regnier Conder, R.E., LL.D., M.R.A.S. Fred. C. Conybeare, M.A:, late Fellow of University College, Oxford. Rev. G. A. Cooke, M.A., Rector of Beacons-field, Bucks, and late Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Rev. Henry Cowan, M.A., D.D., Professor of Church History in the University of Aberdeen. W. E. Ceum, M.A., of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Rev. Edward Lewis Curtis, Ph.D.f D.D., Professor of Hebrew Language and Literature in the Divinity School, New Haven. Rev. Andrew Bruce Davidson, D.D., LL.D., Professor of Hebrew in the New College, Edinburgh. Rev. T. Witton Davies, B.A., Ph.D., M.R.A.S., Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Literature in the_ Baptist College, Banjjor, and Lecturer in Semitic Languages in University College, Bangor. Rev. W. T. Davison, M.A., D.D., Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in the Handsworth Theological College, Birmingham. Rev. James Denney, M.A., D.D., Professor of Systematic Theology in the Free Church College, Glasgow. Rev. Marcus Dods, M.A., DD., Professor of Exegetical Theology in the New College, Edinburgh. Rev. Samuel Rolles Driver, D.D., LittD., Canon of Christ Church, and Regius Professor of Hebrew in the University of Oxford. r 4 7 XIV AUTHORS OF ARTICLES IN VOL. II Rev. David Eaton, M.A., Glasgow. Rev William K. Eddy, of the American Mission, Sidon, Syiia. Rev. William Ewing, M.A., Glasgow, formerly of Tiberias, Palestine. Rev. George Fekries, M.A., D.D., Cluny, Aber-deenshire. Rev. Alfred Ernest Gap.vie, M.A., B.D., Mon-trose; Examiner in Biblical Languages in the Congregational Hall, Edinburgh. G. Buchanan Gray, M.A., Lecturer in Mansfield College, Oxford. Rev. Alexandee Geievk, M.A., Ph.D., Forfar. Francis El'ewellyn Griffith", M.A.," F.S.A.j of the British Museum ; Superintendent of the Archaeological Survey of Egypt. Rev. G. Harford - Battersby, M.A., Balliol College, Oxford; Vicar of Mossley Hill, Liverpool. J. Rendel Harris, M.A., LittiD., Fellow and Librarian of Clare College, and Lecturer : in Palaeography in the University of Cambridge. Rev. Arthur Cayley Headlam, M.A., B.D., Rector of Welwyn, Herts; formerly Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Fritz Hommel, Ph:D., LL.D., Ord. Professor of Semitic Languages in the University of Munich. Edward Hull, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., late Director of the Geological Survey of Ireland, and Professor of Geology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. Frank Byron Jevons, M.A., Litt.D., Principal of Bishop Hatlield's Hall, Durham. Rev. Archibald R. S. Kennedy, M.A., D.D., Professor of Hebrew and Semitic Languages in the University of Edinburgh. Rev. James Houghton Kennedy, M.A., D.D., Assislant Lecturer in the Divinity School of Dublin University. Eduard Konig, Ph.D., D.D., Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in the University of Rostock. Rev. John Laidlaw, M.A., D.D., Professor of Systematic Theology in the New College, Edinburgh. Rev. Walter Lock, M.A., D.D., Warden of Keble College, and Dean Ireland's Professor of New Testament Exegesis in the University of Oxford. Alexander Macalister, LL.D., M.D., F.R.S., F.S.A., Fellow of St. John's College, and Professor of Anatomy in the University of Cambridge. Rev. J. A. M'Clymont, M.A., D.D., Aberdeen. Rtr. George M. Mackie, M.A., Chaplain to the Church of Scotland at Beyrout, Syria. Rev. John Macpherson, M.A., Findhorn, Morayshire. D. S. Margoliouth, M.A., Fellow of New College, and Laudian Professor of Arabic in the University of Oxford. Rev. John Turner Marshall, M.A., Principal of the Baptist College, Manchester. Rev. Alexander Martin, M.A., D.D., Professor of Apologetic Theology in the New College Edinburgh JOHN Massie, M.A., Yates Professor of New Testament Exegesis in Mansfield College, Oxford; formerly Scholar of St. John's College, Cambridge. Joseph Bickersteth Mayor, M.A., Litt.D., Emeritus Professor of King's College, London, and Hon. Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge. Rev. Selah Merrill, D.D., LL.D., U.S. Consul at Jerusalem. Rev. James Millar, M.A., B.D., New Cumnock. Rev. George Milligan, M.A., B.D., Caputh, Perthshire. Rev. R. Waddy MOSS, Professor of jCiassics in the Didsbury College, Manchester. ,. Rev. William Muir, M.A., B.D., B.L., Blair-go wrie. .-"Max Muller, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Archaeology in the University of Pennsylvania. Rev. J. ,0. .F. Murray, M.A., Fellow oЈ Emmanuel College, Cambridge. Eberhard Nestle, Ph.D., D.D., Professor at Maulbronn. . Rev. THOMAS NlCOL, M.A., D.D., Edinburgh. Rev. James Ore, M.A., D.D., Professor of Churoh History in the United Presbyterian Hall, Edinburgh. Rev. Robert Lawrence Ottley, M.A., successively Student of Christ Church and Fellow of Magdalen College; sometime Principal of the Pusey House, Oxford. Rev. WiLLrAM P. Paterson, M.A., D.D., Professor of Systematic Theology in the University of Aberdeen. % Rev. James Patrick, M. A., B. D., B. Sc., Examiner for Degrees in Divinity in the University of St. Andrews. Arthur S. Peake, M.A., Professor in the Primitive Methodist College, Manchester, and Lecturer in Lancashire Independent College; sometime Fellow of Merton and Lecturer in Mansfield College, Oxford. i W. Flinders Petrie, M.A., D.C.L., Professor of Egyptology in University College, London. I. A. Pinches, Sippar House, London. ' Theophilus Goldridge Pinches, M.R-A.S., of the Egyptian and Assyrian Department in the British Museum. < % . % . j Rev. Alfred Plummer, M.A., D.D., Master of University College, Durham. Rev. Frank C. Porter, M.A., D.D., Professor of Biblical Theology in Yale University, New Haven. Rev. George Post, M.D., F.L.S., Professor in the American College, Beyrout. Ira M. Price, M.A., Ph.D., B.D., Associate Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures in the University of Chicago. Rev. Cyril Henry Prichard, M. A., late Classical Scholar of Magdalen College, Cambridge. ; Rev. GEORGE T. PURVES, D.D., LL.D., Professor of New Testament Literature and Exegesis in Princeton Theological Seminary, N'ew Jersey. William M. Ramsay, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., Professor of Humanity in the University 6f Aberdeen, Honorary Fellow of Exeter and Lincoln Colleges, Oxford. AUTHORS OF ARTICLES IN VOL. II The late Rev. Henry Robert Reynolds, D.D., Principal of Cheshunt College, Herts. Rev. Archibald Robertson, M.A., D.D., Principal of King's College, London, late Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford. Rev. J. Armitage Robinson, M.A., Ph.D., D.D., Canon of Westminster. Rev. Herbert Edward Ryle, M.A., D.D., President of Queens' College, and Hulsean Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge. Rev. Stewart Dingwall Fordyce Salmond, M.A., D.D., F.E.I.S., Principal and Professor of Systematic Theology in the Free Church College, Aberdeen. Rev. William Sanday, D.D., LL.D., Lady Margaret Professor of Divinity, and Canon of Christ Church, Oxford. Rev. Archibald Henry Sayce, M.A., LL.D., Fellow of Queen's College, and Professor of Assyriology in the University of Oxford. Rev. John A. SELBIE, M.A., Maryculter, Kin-cardineshire. Rev. David W. Simon, M.A., D.D., Principal of the United College, Bradford. Rev. John Skinner, M.A., D.D., Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis in the Presbyterian College, London. Rev. George Adam Smith, M.A., D.D., LL.D., Professor of Hebrew in the Free Church College, Glasgow. Rev. Vincent Henry Stanton, M.A., D.D., Fellow of Trinity College, and Ely Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge. JOHN F. Stennino, M.A., Fellow and Lecturer in Hebrew and Theology, Wadham College, Oxford. Rev. George B. Stevens, Ph.D., D.D., Professor of Systematic Theology in Yale University. Rev. Alexander Stewart, M.A., D.D., Principal of St. Mary's College, and ProfeRsor of Systematic Theology in the University of St. Andrews. Rev. James Stkachan, M.A., St. Fergus. Rev. Thomas B. Strong, B.D., Student and Censoj of Christ Church, Oxford, and Examining Chaplain to the Bishop of Durham. Rev. Henry Barclay Swete, M.A., D.D., Litt.D., Regius Professor of Divinity, Cambridge. Rev. John Taylor, M.A., Litt.D., Vicar of Winchcombe. Henry St. John Thackeray, M.A., Examiner in the Education Department, formerly Divinity Lecturer in Selwyn College, Cambridge. Rev. G. W. THATCHER, M.A., B.D., Hebrew Tutor and Lecturer on Old Testament History and Literature in Mansfield College, Oxford. Rev. Joseph Henky Thayer, M.A., D.D., Bussey Professor of New Testament Criticism and Interpretation in the Divinity School of Harvard University. Rev. Geerhardus Vos, D.D., Professor of Biblical Theology in Princeton Theological Seminary, New Jersey. Rev. Geoege Walker, M.A., B.D., Callander. Col. Sir Charles Warren, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.S., Royal Engineers. Rev. Adam C. Welch, M.A., B.D., Helensburgh. The late Rev. Henry Alcock White, M. A., Tutor in the University of Durham, and formerly Fellow of New College, Oxford. Rev. Newport J. D.White,M.A., B.D., Librarian of Archbishop Marsh's Library, and Assistant Lecturer in Divinity and Hebrew in the University of Dublin. Rev. Owen C. Whitehouse, M.A., Principal and Professor of Biblical Exegesis and Theology, Cheshunt College, Herts. Rev. A. Lukyn Williams, M.A., Vicar of Guilden Moid en, late Tyrwhitt and Crosse Scholar of the University of Cambridge. Major-General Sir Charles William Wilson, R.E., K.C.B., K.C.M.G., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. Rev. Francis Henry Woods, M.A., B.D., Vicar of Chalfont St. Peter, Bucks, and late Fellow and Theological Lecturer of St. Joluvs College, Oxford. Rev. John Woktabet, M.A., M.D., Uejrout, Syria. VOL.11. Map 5. THE KINGDOMS OF JTOAH & ISRAEL EngUshJ&Us 5 5 20 so so DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE FEIGN (Lat. finglre, to mould, invent; Old Fr. feindre, ptcp. feignant).—1. To devise, invent: Nell 68 'There are no such things done as thou sayest, but thou feignest them out of thine own heart' (in?, only here and 1K 1233 EV 'devise'); 2 1' 2s' And through covetousness shall they with feigned words make merchandise of you' (irKaarois Xfy l h i NTSld ' d y( fys, only here in NT; Salmond ' made up or craftly constructed speeches'). Cf. Lk 2411 Tind. ' their wordes seemed vnto them fayned thinges'; and Knox, Hist. p. 177, ' Which reports are all (Uod knoweth) most vain, fained, and untrue.' 2. To put on an appearance, pretend: IK 146 ' she shall feign herself to be another woman' (nTWp9); so 14"; IS 21a 'he changed his behaviour before them, and feigned himself mad ia their hands' (tyip;); 2S 14s 'feign thyself to ^jxirin); Ps 171 ' give ear unto t t f fid li' be a mourner(j^j); g my prayer, that goeth not out of feigned lips' (mj-|? <$&, lit. 'lips of guileJ). Cf. Knox, Hist. 101, ' yet was every head so fully answered, and especially one. . . . To wit, That Paul at the commandment of James, and of the Elders of Jerusalem, passed to the Temple, and fained himself to pay his vow with others'; and Elyot, The Governour, ii. 432, ' Unto euery man disclose nat thy Iiai-te, leest perauenture he wyl gyue to the a fained thanke, and after reporte rebukefully of the'; Barlowe, Dialogue, ed. 1897, p. 48, 'Then beganne ho [Luther] stoutly to fortefy his fayned fay tii voyde of good workes'; Tindale, Works, i. 94, 'lor where rijjht faitli is, there bringeth she forth good works; if there follow not good works, it is (no doubt) but a dream and an opinion or feigned faith'; also Tind. Expositions, 163, 'And for them that would not receive such pardons feigned they purgatory, and for them tliat received them feigned they pardon, turning binding and loosing, with preaching God's word, unto buying: and selling sin for money.' Feignedly = with pretence, deceitfully: Jer 310 'Judah hath not turned unto me with her whole heart, but feignedly' ("li??? ' in falsehood,' as AVm); 2 Es S*8'4 Think not upon those that nave walked feignedly before thee' (false con-versati sunt). So Tindale, Works, i. 177, ' the children of the devil, in time of adversity, fly from Christ, whom they followed feignedly.' J. Hastings. FELIX, Antonius, procurator of Judaea (Ac 23a>'--24s7) at the time of St. Paul's last visit to Jerusalem and arrest there. The military tribune Claudius Lvsias sends Paul under escort to Ctfsarea, %with a letter to Felix reciting, in a light favour- VOL. II. I able to his own conduct, the circumstances of the arrest. Arrived at Cajsarea, the apostle, after a purely formal interview, is remanded by Felix for trial, and detained in the government house (proe-torium), originally a palace of Herod the Great, until the arrival of his accusers. On the fifth day the proceedings begin. The case against the prisoner is opened by an advocate (see Tertullus). Evidence is given by the Jews, and, upon a sign from the procurator, Paul makes a speech in defence. Felix, perhaps interested in the matter by his Jewish wife (Ac 24s2), then adjourns the trial till the arrival of Lysias, and Paul is again remanded as a prisoner, but under lenient conditions. We hear nothing of any resumption of the trial. But after some days Felix, accompanied by Drusilla (and, according to some authorities for the Western text, at Tier special request), sends for Paul and gives him audience concerning the belief' in Christ' (or 'Jesus as Christ'). The apostle (taking, as usual, common ground with his hearer) addresses him upon broad moral truths, and the judgment (looked for by heathens as well as Jews) after death. Felix becomes alarmed, and sends him away till a future occasion. He sends for him ('secretly,'Gig.)' somewhat of ten' for further conversation, excited mainly by the hope of a bribe (cf. Ramsay, St. Paul the frav. p. 310ft'.). Two years after St. Paul's arrest Felix is recalled, and, to ingratiate himself with the Jews (or, according to some Western sources, for the sake of Drusilla), leaves Paul a prisoner. The dubious light in which the character of Felix appears in the NT narrative is bright compared with that shed upon it by the other histories of the tinie. Felix was the (apparently) younger brother of Pallas, the well-known and all-powerful favourite of Claudius. That Antonius, not Claudius, was the nomen borne by Felix (Tac. Hist. v. 9; the nomen Claudius for Felix is based on a probably corrupt reading in Suidas, s.v.) suggests that Felix was a freedman of Antonia, mother of Claudius (so also probably Pallas; see Jos. Ant. XVIII. vi. 6 ; cf. Schiirer, HJP I. ii. 175). The brothers claimed descent, as Tacitus ironically mentions, from ancient kings of Arcadia (Ann. xii. 53). We first hear of Felix in connexion with the disorders in Samaria under his predecessor Ven-tidius Cumanus. The latter refusing to punish the Samaritans for the murder of some GaKlffian pilgrimf, the Zealots massacred many Samaritans, and were in turn massacred by Cumanus. Both sides appealed to Ummidius Quadratus, legate ot FELLOW FELLOW Syria, who intervened with great severity and sent Cumanus to Rome (Jos. BJII. xii. 3 ft".; Ant. XX. vi. 1-3). According to Josephus, Felix was now, at the request of the high priest Jonathan, who had been sent to Rome with Cum anus, sent as successor to the latter ; and Jos. proceeds to relate how, upon completing his twelfth year (Jan. 24, A.D. 53), Claudius gave certain territories to Agrippa. Coupled with the fact that Tacitus places the deposition of Cumanus in the year 52, this fairly fixes Felix' appointment to the latter year. A difficulty arises, however, from the fact that Tacitus, in his account (Anp. xii. 54) of what led to the deposition of Cumanus, speaks of Felix as ' iam pridem Iudaeae impositus . , . nt [Cumano] Galilaeorum natio, Felici Samaritae parerent.' It has been attempted to combine the latter statement with the 'many years' of Ac 2410 by the hypothesis that before his appointment as procurator Felix had held some subordinate appointment in Samaria. But Josephus clearly intimates that Felix waa first appointed to the province on this occasion; and on the whole, in spite of the authority of Mommsen and the arguments of Blass (Act. Apost. p. 21), we join SchUrer in following Josephus here, as likely to be the better informed. Felix received from his patron the (for a freed-man) unprecedented honour of military command as well as civil jurisdiction (' cahortibus et alis pro-uinciaeque"... Suet. Claud. 28). His character as governor was that of a man raised from a low origin to unfitting eminence *—' per omnem saeuitiam et libidinem ius regium seruili ingenio exercuit' (Tac. Hist. v. 9). The general results of his rule are aptly summed up by the same writer, 'intem-pestiuis remediis delicta accendebat' (Ann. xii. 54, and see Tekttjllus). His ferocity against the ' Zealots' and their supposed partisans gave birth, or new strength, to the Sicarii,—a more numerous and extreme class of fanatics,—who were in turn used by fanatical rebels (cf. Ac 2138) until half the nation was in the wildest disaffection. St. Paul probably came into contact with Felix as stated above from two to four years after the accession of Nero (54), by whom Felix must have been confirmed in office. The iro\X& &tj of Ac 2410 are hardly, therefore (as Harnack, Chron. 253, contends), compatible with a date earlier than the last named. jDuring the last two years of Felix' tenure of office, and therefore during Paul's imprisonment at Ctesarea, fall the serious riots between the Jewish and Syrian inhabitants of the latter town about laoiroXnela. Felix, whose customary methods had failed to quell the disturbances, sent the heads of both parties to Rome for the emperor to decide the case. But before any final decision Felix was recalled. The violence with which he had interfered in this matter partly explains his anxiety to do the Jews a parting favour (Ac 2427; see Jos BJ II. xiii. 7 ; Ant. XX. viii. 7). The Jews, however (Jos. Ant. XX. viii. 9), lodged an indictment against him, which failed only through the influence of Pallas. Of Felix' later history nothing is known (see Schurer, HJP I. ii. 174 ft"., and the authorities cited by him. For the chronological questions involved, see Festus, and art. Chronology of NT, p. 417 f.). A. Robertson. FELLOW (from /1, ' pestilent fellows,' 1 Mac 106f above). The Amer. RV prefers ' base fellow' to AV ' son (man) of Belial,' and 'base fellows' to sons (men, children) of Belial.' See Belial. In composition 'fellow' always means partner or companion. The foil, compounds occur in AV: (1) FeJ&wrcitizen (» 2449, Col 1' 47 (=' fellow.worker' in Col), Rev 6" 1910 229. (8) Fellowsoldier (TR .), 1 P 51 (AV 'also an elder'). (13) Fellow-member of the body (TR, aiaawiun, edd. ffiWw/tos), Eph 3" (AV 'of the same body'). (14) Fellow-partaker (avndroxos, T. WH, evv/i.), Eph 3a (AV 'partaker'). For Fellowship, see Communion. J. Hastings. FENCE.—This Eng. word is not used in NT. In AV of OT it translates various Hebrew words. In the case of three of these, the tr. is a mistake, and is changed in RV (Is 5a, 2 S 23', Job 10"). The words from the stems ziir and bdzar, -m and %«?, denote fortifications or fortified places (e.g. 2 Ch 8° ll^iDt 34etc») Those from the stem g&dar, -nj, denote a stone wall (Ps 62s, Job 19$ RV tr. the words of this stem by 'fence' in many places where we find ' wall' or ' hedge' in AV. A fence ii properly that which fends or defends. The fence described in the Heb. words of this group is ordinarily the enclosure defending a field or vineyard or sheepfold. See HEDGE. W. J. Beechee. FENCED CITIES (ipo tj, properly 'cut off' from outside, and hence inaccessible ; RV generally substitutes_ 'fortified' for 'fenced').—Collections of houses in ancient times may be classed under three heads: (1) Cities, walled or fenced. (2) Unwalled towns and villages, with towers for resort of villagers in times of danger. (3) Un-walled towns and villages. The number or size of the houses did not affect the, question. A city might be of very small extent. Grf 19*9 ' Behold now, this city is near to flee unto, and it is a little one : Oh ! let me escape thither (is it not a little one ?) and my soul shall live.' On the "other hand, the suburbs of a city might become so extensive that it became equivalent to a town without walls. Zee 2^ ' Jerusalem shall be inhabited as villages without walls, for the multitude of men and cattle therein.' Towns and villages that were without walls were a prey to any hostile foraging party, and were considered of no account. Lv Wa-3l ' If a man sell a dwelling-house in a walled city, then he may redeem it. ... But the houses of the villages, which have no wall round about them, shall be reckoned with the fields of the coun try.' As a village or town prospered and more solid houses were built, they would for purposes of defence be joined together, and the town would thus buconie a walled city. Towns and villages appear to have been dependent upon fenced cities both for administrative purposes and for protection of the inhabitants. Jos 1547 'Ashdod with her towns and her villages; Gaza with her towns and her villages.' As an indication of absolute security, a land of safety is pictured as 'a land of un walled villages . . . dwelling without walls, and having neither bars nor gates' (Ezk 38"). The suburbs of the cities were occupied by cattle (Jos 144 2!2). The villages, however, were not wholly without protection. The Israelites could not drive out the inhabitants of the valley or low country because they had chariots of iron (Jg I19, Jos IT"). Both at Jericho and Damascus houses were built on the city walls (Jos 2", 2 Co II33). Sufficient still exists of the remains of the ancient cities of Palestine, together with the historical accounts, to give us a clear idea of the positions and the general configuration of their walls. They were built in commanding positions both in the hill-country and the plains, and on the seashore they were generally on promontories. In many cases most inaccessible positions were taken advantage of, so that the battering-ram might be of no avail. Dt I3"' The cities are great, and fenced up to heaven.' Cisterns were cut in the rock for the supply of rain-water, so as to be independent of water from without (2 Ch 2610, Neh 9*, Jos. BJ V. iv. 3, vn. viii. 3). There are many remains of ancient cities still exposed to view in various parts of Palestine, inhabited by nomadic tribes, where the system of defence can yet be observed: as an example, Masada, built by Jonathan Maccabseus, and strengthened by Herod the Great, may be mentioned. None of the remains, however, can be accurately ascribed to the time of Joshua, though the sites may not have changed, and it is doubtful whether at that early date the walls of fenced cities were of the same solid type as that which necessarily obtained when the battering - rain came into use. Some of the fenced cities mentioned in the Book of Joshua were taken by stratagem, but others were taken by assault by a nation which did not possess the mechanical contrivances required for the capture of cities with strong walls. From what remains of the ruins of Jericho (assumed to be near 'Ain es-Sultan), it may be inferred that these walls were built from the earliest date of sun-burnt bricks; and from the knowledge we now possess of the walls about Jerusalem, it may be considered that at the time of the capture of the city by Joab the walls were built of small stones. The stones of the ancient towers and walls of Jerusalem still existing are of considerable size, some of those in the wall of the temple enclosure weighing nearly 90 tons. At Baalbek the great temple stands on a massive wall, with courses of stone averaging 3 ft. 9 in. in height. Thirty feet in advance of this, N., S., and W., is a protecting wall, 10 ft. thick, of monoliths weighing 600 to 8$Q tons each, three of them being estimated to weigh over 1000 tons each. The bulwarks of the fenced cities of Palestine, so far back as the time of the Jewish kings, appear to have consisted of a solid masonry wall of cut stone, with parapets and battlements, and with towers at intervals from which the foot of the wall could be seen (2 Ch 32", Jer 3138). In the walls wer« FERRET FESTUS •watchmen (2 K 9", 2 S 18M, Is 62"). Within the city was usually a citadel or acropolis (Jg 951), and •without were walls, outworks, and towers (2Ch 147 ' Let us build these cities, and make about them walls and towers, gates and bars' j 2 S 2O1S, Is 26\ Nah 3s, 2 Ch 26"). The protracted resistance offered by many of the fenced cities of Palestine may have been due as much to the strength of their position as to their walls; Samaria resisted the king of Assyria for three years, and Jerusalem successfully resisted the power of Rome, and only fell before Titus owing to the internal dissensions of the Jewish leaders. The whole subject connected with the attack and defence of cities and fortified places is treated of under War, and special cases for reference will be found under JERUSALEM, SAMARIA, JERICHO, Gatii, Gaza, and other strongholds of Philistia. See also Gate. C. Warren. FERKET (njp.;R 'ttn&kah, Lv 11*> AV).—The ferret is not found in Palestine or Syria, and cannot be the animal intended. It is probably, as in RV, the gecko. See Gecko. G. E. Post. FERVENCY, FERYENT. — Fervency is found only in Jth 49 ' every man of Israel cried to God with great fervency (iKriveia. [B -fa], which in the same verse is trd ' vehemency,' an it is tr"1 in 2 Mac 1438. jjv always 'earnestness.' The Gr. word occurs also 3 Mac 641, and in NT Ac 267 iv iKTevetq., AV 'instantly,' RV 'earnestly'). Knox {Hist. 132) says that after the martyrdom of Walter Mill 'began a new fervency among the whole people'; and Works (ed. Laing, iii. 289), ' Peter, in a fervencie, firste left his bote, and yet after feared.' The adj. fervent is twice applied literally in the sense of ' intense,' 2 P 310 ' the elements shall melt with fervent heat' (mwoii/Kra \vd-fi16), that to hand over a man unheard was * not customary with Romans' (whatever it might be for Jews), has a touch of disdainful dignity. Endeavouring to induce Paul to consent to a trial at Jerusalem, he provokes and allows the appeal to Csesar. Then follows the hearing before Festus and Agrippa, the latter of whom is there as an expert assessor. The attitude of Festus is throughout (2519 26«-31) one of official impartiality, touched with good-natured indifference to the technicalities of Jewish controversies. The gens Porcia is not otherwise known to have comprised a family of Festi, nor is this Festus known to us apart from the NT and Josephus. According to the latter, the first important event of Festus' governorship was the decision of the emperor in favour of the Syrians at CVsarea (Felix, sub fin.). This was effected liy Beryllus (so all MSS in Jos. Ant. XX. viii. 9; vulgo ' Burrus'), Greek secretary to the emperor, whom the Syrians had won by corruption. This decision provoked the Jews to riots, in which Josephus sees the first simmerings of the war of 66. This point must not be forgotten when we come to the question of dates. The other principal occurrences of Festns' tenure of office mentioned by Josephus were, firstly, the putting down of the Sicarii, and especially of one dangerous rebel, similar to the one of Ac 21*J [Ant. XX. viii. 10 ; cf. BJII. xiv. 1); sccindlyi the disturbances at Jerusalem in consequence of the wall erected at the temple to intercept the view from the new wing of Agrippa's palace. Festus took the side of Agrippa, but allowed the priests to appeal to Rome. Before the result of this appeal was known Festus died. The important question connected with the name of Festus is that of chronology (see art. Chronology of NT, p. 417 ff.). According to Eusebins and. Jerome (Eus. Chron., Schone ii. 148 f.; Hier. de vir. illustr.), Felix became procurator in the eleventh year of Claudius (51), Festus in the second year of Nero (56), Albinus succeeded Festus in the sixth or seventh year of Nero (60 or 61), and the Acts bring us (so Euthal, Praef. in epp. Paidi) to the fourth year of Nero (58). There has been a tendency lately, e.g. on the part of Blass and Har-nack, to revert to this chronology. But apart from the fact that had Festus governed Judaea for four or five years, Josephus would surely have had more to tell us in connexion with his procurator-ship, the authority of Eusebius in this matter is more than precarious. Eusebius, doubtless, made use of Julius Africanus, who in turn used Justus of Tiberias, who stated the death-year of Agrippa II. But that Justus stated the years of the pro-ouratorships there is not a word of evidence to prove. Eusebius may be as far from the truth here as when he places the outbreak of the Neronian persecution in 67-68. At the same time the question is worth reconsidering, and the recent discussion of Harnack (Chronol. d. altchr. Lit. p. 233 ff.) deserves more minute discussion than the limits of this article allow. The chronology of Eusebius has the merit, be it what it may, of fitting in with Clemen's date for St. Paul's arrest, namely, a.d. 54 (1 Corinthians, § 6). But that the rule of Festus was a short one, everything goes to prove ; and, as we saw above, the disturbances which then began were viewed by Josephus as the first mutterings of the great storm of the jear 66. But it would help us much if we could fix the date of the arrival of Albinus, which was separated by only a few stormy months from the death of Festus. Unfortunately, we have only the terminus ad quern, firmly fixed, namely, the summer of 62 (Schurer, HJP I. ii. 183, note 47). That his successor Gessius Florus was procurator only from 64-66 m^y be taken as proved (ib. note 58). But we have only inferential evidence, though it amounts to high probability, that the rule of Albinus was short, Perhaps the date furnished by Aeetas, with which Harnack fails to deal satisfactorily, coupled with the general data of St. Paul's life (1 Corinthians, § 6, small print), may suffice to make us pause before putting the arrival of Festus anything like as early as 56. On the other hand, as Albinus cannot have arrived later than 62, and the events of Festus' procuratorship, together with those which follow his death and precede the arrival of Albinus, though insufficient to fill five years, are yet too many for one year, it is hardly possible to place the arrival of Festus later than 60. The system adopted s.v. Chronology may be right in going back two years further (60 to 58). On the whole this variation may be taken, upon a full review of all our materials, as the most probable limij; of doubt as regards this important date. It may be remarked that if Festu* arrived in 60, the Sterta 8\y of Ac 2830 ends about February 63; between this and the Neronian persecution of midsummer 64, to which Harnack would again bring back St. Paul's death, there is sufficient though hardly ample time for the events Sresupposeu in the Epp. to Timothy and Titus (see chiirer, as quoted above, esp. note 38 ; Harnack, as quoted above; Blass, Aeta Apost. Ed. Phitol. p. 23, and the authorities for Cuhonology of NT). A. Robertson. FETCH.—To fetch is to cause to come, as Fuller, Holy Wai-re, 230, ' If they should say the Templars were burned wrongfully, they may be fetched over the coals themselves fur charging his Holinesse so deeply'; and this meaning is easily seen in most of its phrases. 1. Fetch up, 1 S 6S171. So Shaks. Ant. and Cleop. IV. xv. 35— 1 Had I great Juno's power, The strong-wing'd Mercury should fetch thee up, And set thee by Jove's side.' 2. Fetch again, i. e. cause to come back|see AGAIN): 1 Es 4**' Swift is the sun in his course, for lie com-pisseth the heavens round about, and fetehoth his course again to his own place in one day' {vd\ir ivorp^xei). Cf. Bunyan, Holy Citie, 252, ' ltevivings that {like Aquavitro) do fetch again, and chear up the soul'; and Tindale, Expositions, 1C5, ' He will return again unto his mercy, and fetch his power home again, which he lent to vex thee.1 3. Fetch about: 2 S 1420 ' To fetch abont this form of speech hath thy servant Joab done this thing' (ajp -ktj^; i3;n ',)5niN, lit. 'for the purpose of bringing round the face of the business, or as RV '.to change the face of the matter'). See About, and cf. Shaks., K. John, IV. ii. 24— ' Like a shifted wind unto a sail, It makes the course of thoughts to fetch about.' Bacon, Essays, ' Of Cunning' (Gold. Treas. ed. p. 95, 1. 5), ' It is strange, how long some men will he in wait, to speake somewhat they desire to say: and how farre about they will fetch; and how many other Matters they will beat over to come near it.' 4. Fetch a compass, i.e. 'make a circuit,' instead of going in a straight line. Thus Fuller, Pisgah Sight, IV. ii. 43, ' Wicked men may for a time retard, not finally obstruct our access to happiness. It is but fetching a compass, making two steps for one ; a little more pains and patience will do the deed.' The Heb. is simply the verb 33P sdbhabh, which means to make a turning or a circuit. KV gives ' turn about' in Nu 346, Jos 15s, and 'make a circuit' in 2 S 523, 2K 39. The Gr. is xepitpxo/jiai, go round about, Ac 2813 (RV 'make a circuit').* In 'fetch a compass' as in 'fetch about' the idea of the circuitous route is not in the verb, but in its complement, t See COMPASS. Similar phrases are found, as T. Adams, // Peter, 54, ' Merchants would give much to know a short cut to those remote places of traffic, without passing straits or fetching bouts'; Fuller, Holy Warre, p. 29, ' As if sensible of his sad fate, and desirous to deferre what he cannot avoid, he [the Jordan] fetcheth many turnings and windings, but all will not excuse him from falling into the Dead sea.' 5. Fetch a stroke, Dt 196 'his hand fetcheth a stroke with the axe.' So Fuller, Holy Warre, 219, ' Being about to fetch another stroke, the Prince with his foot gaue him such a blow that he felled him to the ground' j and Bunyan, Holy * Lightfoot (Freeh Revision* 193) says, 'We have heard how the inquiring schoolboy has been perplexed at reading that St. Paul and his companions "fetched a compass" when they set sail from Syracuse (Ac 28!3), not being able to reconcile this statement with the date given for the invention of this instrument.' • t Fuller, Holy Warre, p. 119, says, 'His navie he sent about by Spain'; then on p. 120, ' behold his navie there safely arriving, which with much dilHcultie and danger had fetched a ccmpass about Spain.' War (Clar. Press ed. p. 47, 1. 20), ' If I fetch my blow, Mansoul, down you go.' 6. Fetch ones breath, Sir 3118 'he fetcheth not his wind short upon his bed' (o6k doSfmleei, RV 'he doth not breathe hard'). Cf. Shaks. 1 Henry IV. n. iv. 579, ' Hark, how hard, he fetches breath. Search his pockets'; and Troilus, ill. ii. 23, ' She does so blush, and fetches her wind so short, as if she were frayed with a sprite: I'll fetch her. It is the prettiest villain: she fetches her breath so short as a new-ta'en sparrow.' In Old English there were two distinct verbs, fet and /etch. Fet seems to have been the older of the two. Indeed, Bradley (Ox/. Eng. Diet. s.v. 'Fetch') believes that Platt and Sievers are right in deriving fetch from fet by a singular series of changes. The i of the oldest form /eti-an became a consonantal y, then this ty being sounded as cc became written so, and cc easily passed into the spelling ch. Cf. ort-yeard, in Old Eng. orceard, now orchard. Fet and Fetch were synonymous in meaning, as we may see from Tindale, whose tm (1534)of Mt 2417-18 i5) -And let him which Is on the housse toppe not come downe to fet (Јf*i) eny thinge out of his housse. Nether let him which is in the felde returne backe to fetche (xpxi) his clothes.' Fet gradually gave way to fetch. In the Geneva version of 1560 it is found in the imperat., 1 S 20s! ' wherefore now send and fet him vnto me, fo* he shal surely dye,' and in the indie, Dt 19'2 ' Then the Elders of his citie shal send and fet him thence.' And even in AV of 1611 the infin. is once employed, Jer 8621 ' So the king sent Iehudi to fet the roule.' But after the Old Eng. period, the word was used chiefly in the past tense and pastptcp., as an alternative with'fetcht" or'fetched,'and that is its use elsewhere in AV. In the 1611 ed. of AV ' fet' occurs 9 times (2 S 95 1127,1 K 7" 928, 2 K u4 2 Ch 12", Jer 2623 3621, Ac 2S>3); ' fetcht' 6 times (Gn 18?, 1 S 71, 2 S 142, 2 K 39, 2 Ch li?); and ' fetched' 6 times (Gn 18« 27", Jos 153, jg isis, l s 1022, 2 S 46). In course of time, chiefly through the influence of Dr. Paris (1762) and Dr. Blayney (1769), 'fet' was banished from AV. In his Camb. Paragraph Bible of 1873, Scrivener restored it to all its original places, and Scrivener's text is used in the Camb, Bible /or Schools and Colleges. But the Camb. and Oxf. Parallel Bibles do not use it once. They use even ' fetcht' only once, Gn 18'; elsewhere always ' fetched.' J. HASTINGS. FETTEB.—Three Heb. words are translated fetter. 1. n^nj, Arab. naMs, copper. In La 37 this word is rendered chain, in Jer 397 52" (RV) fetters, also in Jg 16a, 2S3S1,2K 257,2 Ch 33" 36". In the Arab. tr. by Van Dyck, o:fif nj is rendered sildsil nahds, copper chains, or silsilatain win nah&s, two chains of copper. It is still the custom in Syria to attach a chain to each of the rings put round a prisoner's ankles, the middle of the chain being fastened to his girdle. A prisoner is thus, according to the Arabic way of speaking, bound with two chains. 2. ^, Syr. kebel (a late word borrowed from Aramaic. The Arab, kabal is probably a loan-word from the Aramaic). There are two passages in which this word is used, both referring to fetters of iron, Ps 10518 and Ps 1498. 3. pi, D'gi (Is 45", Nah 310 fetters of captives, Job 368 fig.). Horses and other animals are usually tethered by ropes fastened to the fore foot and the hind foot on one side. W. CAKSLAW. FEYER.—See Medicine. FIELD.—See Agbiculture. FIERY SERPENT.—See SeraphimandSEEPENT. FIGS (D'jjj? te'Sntm, the fruit of the fig tree, which is njw-i ti'inah; in NT o-vktj is the fig tree, and (tvkov the fig).—The fig tree, Ficus Carica, L., is cultivated everywhere in the Holy Land, and also grows spontaneously in many places. It is a tree of moderate size, seldom attaining a height of 15 ft., but its spreading branches often cover a circle with a diameter of 25 to 30 ft. Fig trees are habitually planted near houses, and the people sit in their shade, and that of the vines which grow over the trellises. This familiar sight did not fail to be noted in OT and Apocr. as an emblem of peace and prosperity (1 K 4s", Mic 44. Zee 310, 6 FIGS FIGURE 1 Mac 141S). There are numerous varieties of figs cultivated, some of which bear a tart, blackish fruit, others a sweet, greenish or whitish one. The branches are straggling and naked in winter, but when the rains are nearly or quite over, small green knobs appear at the ends of the twigs. They are the young fruits, js pag, ' green figs (Ca 21S). The leaf-bud now expands, and the new pale green leaves soon more or Jess overshadow the little figs. This is a familiar sign of early summer (Mt 2#J). Hence a fig tree with leaves must already have young fruits, or it will be barren for the season. The first figs ripen late in May or early in June. They are called in Heb. .ryss bikktir&h, in Arab. Mkurah, that is, first ripe, Is 284 (AV hasty fruit), Jer 242, Hos 910, Mic 71. When our Lord came to the fig tree near Bethany (Mk II13), just before the passover, i.e. from late in March to the middle of April, 'the time of figs was not yet,' that is, the season for ripe figs had not come. Among the various explanations of Christ's action which may be given, the only ones which seem to us worthy of consideration are the following: (1) That being hungry, and seeing from a distance that the tree had leaves, and therefore was not dead, he came, not to find new figs, but to find and eat any tigs of the last season which might have remained over on the tree. The expression 'if haply he might find anything thereon' implies that he did not expect to find much. One or two figs will often stay an empty stomach marvellously. According to this opinion, the offence of the fig tree was the fact of not haying what must have been a very Exceptional relic of a former harvest. (2) That, inding leaves, he knew that there should be young fruit, and hoped that there might, even at that early period, be_ 'the first ripe figs,' bilcktir&h. According to this interpretation, the fault of the fig tree was in not having a precocious lig or two before the time, ' for the time of figs was not yet.' We will not dispute the possibility of finding a winter fig or two on a tree (although during a residence of thirty-three years in Syria we have searched and inquired in vain for them), or of the exceptionally early maturing of some variety of figs, perhaps not now cultivated. Neither of these theories, however, accords with our conception of Christ's justice. In neither case would the tig tree be blameworthy. We are not held accountable for extraordinary attainments in religion. (3) Christ was at the moment hungry. Orientals do not eat early in the morning. Labourers and artificers come fasting to their work, and often toil an hour or two before eating. So it is presumable that our Saviour, in his morning walk of two miles from Bethany to Jerus., had not broken his fast. The physical sensation of hunger as a basis gave direction to his thoughts, as he happened to see a most familiar spectacle, a fig tree, at a distance, with fresh, youn<» foliage. The fact that it is mentioned that ' the "time of figs was not yet' (AV), or 'it was not the season of figs' (RV), would seem to prove that Christ would not have thought it strange had he not found winter figs or precocious first fruits. It is hardly conceivable that he could have condemned the tree for that. But, when he arrived, he found no fruit at all. Immediately the disappointment of unsatisfied hunger vwi lost in the moral lesson which flashed across his mini A fig tree with leaves should have at least green fruit. This one had none. There was pretension, which, in the moral sphere, is hypocrisy. Having leaves and no fruit, it was a deceiver. The ripeness of the fruit is not the point. If it had had unripe fruit, it would not have been condemned. It was condemned because it had nothing but leaves. The failure of the fig and vine was a sign of great distress (Jer 5" 813, Jl I7-13, Hab 317-IS). Figs were dried and pressed into cakes for food (1S 251*). These were used as poultices (2 K 207, Is 3831)-Fig leaves are thick, palmately lobed, and often a span or more across. There is no good reason to doubt the identity of the leaves which Adam and Eve used to make aprons (Gn 37). G. E. Post. FIGURE.—1. Dt 416' Lest ye corrupt yourselves, and make you a graven image, the similitude of any figure' (bz$ shnel, Driver 'statue.' The'word is found also 2 Ch 337-15 EV 'idol,' and Ezk 83-° EV ' image.' The meaning 'statue' is confirmed by the Phcen. inscriptions. See Driver on Dt 4ia and Davidson on Ezk 8s). The Eng. word seems to be used in the obsolete sense of the distinctive shape or appearance of a person or thing. The Gen. version has ' a graven image or representation of anie figure'; the Bishops', ' a graven image and picture of any maner of figure.' Cf. Chaucer, Monk's Tale, 232— ' And th&nne had god of him [Nebuchadnezzar] compassioun, And him restored his regne and hia figure'— i.e. his proper shape as a man. So Shaks. Hamlet, I. i. 41— ' In the same figure, like the king that's dead.' 2. 1 K 6"' he carved all the walls of the house round about with carved figures of cherubims' (riij^j?!? mikla'Sth occurs only in this ch. and the next: 618 EV 'was carved,' i.e. 'was carvingof'; 632 EV 'carvings'; 731 EV 'gK&vings'). These ' carved figures' (as the single Heb. word is here tr4) were representations of cherubim cut in relief on the wood of the doors. See Carvino. For this use of the Eng. word, cf. Caxton, Cato, A iii. b, ' to adoure the ymages and other f ygures humayn'; and Milton, Lycidas, 105— ' Next Camus, reverend sire, went footing slow, His mantle hairy, and his bonnet sedge, Inwrought with figures dim." 3. Is 4413 ' The carpenter . . . maketh it [the image] after the figure of a man' (ivjsn tabhnith). The Heb. is frequent for the outward appearance of a person or thing. It occurs along with simel (above) in Dt 4*° and is tr"1 ' likeness. The Eng. word is used in the same sense as 1 above. Cf. He Is Wye. 'he is the schynynge of glorie, and figure of his substaunce'; and Mk 1612 Tind. ' After that, he appered unto two of them in a straunge figure.' 4. Ac la ' figures which ye made to worship them'; and Ro 514' who is the figure of him that was to come' (riiiros). Sanday-Headlam's note on the Greek word is as follows— ritni (nn>): (1) the • impression' left by a sharp blow (tJ» two» tSv <]/u<», ' the print of the nails,' Jn 2Cp3), in particular the ' stamp' struck by a die; (2) inasmuch as such a stamp bears the figure on the face of the die, • copy,'' figure,' or' representation '; (3) by a common transition from effect to cause,' mould,' 'pattern, 'exemplar'; (4) hence in the special sense of the word type which we have adop;ted from the Greek of NT, ' an event or person in history corresponding in certain character, istic features to another event or person. In Ac 74S the meaning is 'representations' or 'images of gods' (the second meaning above); in Ro 5°4 it is 'type' (the fourth meaning above). 5. He 9M 'Christ is not entered into the holy places made with hands, which are the figures of the true ; but into heaven itself' (ivrlrvtra tQv &Xrj6ivav, RV ' like in pattern to the true'); and 1 P 3al ' The like figure whereunto even baptism doth also now save us' (8 ko! fyms ivTlrvvov vvv aii^i (3diri07ia, RV ' which also after a true likeness doth now save you [reading i/w.s with edd.], even baptism,' RVm 'in the antitype'). The antitype (ro ivTirvTrw) is the event or person in history that corresponds with the type (6 Ttfrros) — see Sanday-Headlam above. The one that occurs first rape*— in history is the type, the second the antitype. Hence in He 9s" heaven is the type, the holy place in the tabernacle the antitype; but in 1 P 321 the water of the deluge is the type, of which baptism is the antitype. See Typk, and cf. Cart-wright, Cert. Belig. (1651) i. 222, 'The Rock . . . was a Type and a Figure of Christ.' 6. He 99 ' a figure for the time then present,' and II19 'Accounting that God uxts able to raise him up, even from the dead; from whence also he received him in a figure' {wapapoX-fi, RV' parable,' in both). The meaning of 09 is clear, but II19 is much disputed. There are two favourite Interpretations: (1) 'As a parable,' •ft. of the resurrection. Wyclif ('in to a parable') ami the Khemish ('for a parable') decline to commit themselves.* Tind. in ed. of 1531 translates 'for an ensample,' and is followed by Coverdale; but in 1528 ed. he had boldly 'as an ensample of the resurrection," and this was adopted by Cranmer, and very nearly by the Bishops (' in a certaim similitude of the resurrection'). This tr» gives a well-recognized sen-e to x*p*l3e>.r,. The objection felt against it is that Isaac was actually not raised from the dead. Hence the favourite interpretation at present is that of AV ' in a figure," i.e. figuratively; Isaac was not really dead, but he was as good as dead, and so figuratively was raised from the dead (see Westcott, ad 1m.). Of. Geneva ' in a sort." The objection is that m/m^oKi has not elsewhere this meaning. 7. 1 Co 4' 'And these things, brethren, I have in a figure transferred to myself and to Apollos' (/MT«rxj;,u4T«ra). The Gf. verb tr* 'in a figure transferred' elsewhere means to change one's form or appearance (<ra.i); Col I24 ' Who now rejoice in my sufferings for you, and fill up that which is behind of the afflictions of Christ in my flesh for his body's sake, which is the church' (ivravaTKripCi, RV 'nil up on my part,' which is Lightfoot's tr.) t; Mt 91* ' No man putteth a piece of new cloth unto an old garment, tor that which is put in to fill-it up taketh from the, garment, and the rent is made worse' (to v:\iipwiia airrov, lit. ' its tilling'; RV ' that which should fill it up'); so Mk 221; Rev 151 'in them is filled up the wrath of God ' {ireXiaB-it, RV 'is finished'). Cf. Shaks. 1 Henry IV. III. ii. 116— •To fill the mouth of deep defiance up And shake the peace and safety of our throne." J. Hastings. FILLET.—Two words are tra so: (1) Bin Mt, Jer 5221 of that which would ' compass' the pillars which kin" Solomon had made in the house of the Lord, and which the Chaldfeans brake to carry the brass away; AVm ' thread'; RV ' line,' which is the translation in 1 K 715 of both AV and RV. See Pillar and Temple. The same word is used for the scarlet 'thread' which Rahab placed in her window (Jos218), and for the threefold 'cord' which cannot be broken of Ec 4". (2) [pibij] h&shtik, only found in plu. and with suffixes, Ex 2710-" 36^ 3810- "• "• "•», of that which clasped the pillars in the tabernacle, those of the pillars of the court being overlaid with silver, those of the pillars at the door with gold. See Pillar and Tabernacle. The verb p^n hishshak, to furnish with fillets, is tr<» ' fillet' where it occurs, Ex 27" ' the pillars . . . shall be filleted with silver,' 3818 'the pillars . . . were filleted with silver,' Zti* '[Bezalel] filleted them' (RV 'made fillets for them'). A fillet is a little thread (Lat. fllum, a thread, Fr. fit, dim. filet). Its oldest and commonest application is to a ribbon for binding the hair. Thus Spenser, FQ I. iii. 4— ' From her faire head her fillet she undight' i and Fuller, Holy Warre, 125, • They pleaded that the Crown was tied on Guy's head with a woman's fillet.' But it came to be used early, and is still in use, for any narrow strip of binding material. J. Hastings. FINE. — For the subst. Fine see Crimes and Punishments. The adj. 'fine' is of frequent occurrence, but only in a few cases does it represent a Heb. or Gr. word. These are: (1) aio tobh, 2Ch 38-8 'fine gold,' Ezr S" 'fino copper,' La 41 ' most fine gold' (in Gn 212 it is tr* ' good,' its usual tr", ' the gold of that land is good'). Aram. ap idbh, Dn 2*1 ' line gold.' (2) p'tV s&rik, Is 19» ' fine flax,' lit. ' combed flax,' as RV. (3) t? pdz, Ca 5U ' most fine gold,' Ges.' refined gold.' (4) J}n « Cf. Shaks. K. John, n. i. 659— ' I trust we shall, If not fill up the measure of her will, Yet in some measure satisfy her.' t This is the only occurrence of the particular compound i*r> xm-triyiu in biblical Greek. Lightfoot gives classical quotations, in order to bring out that the special force of «vt/ is * from another quarter.' That is what is sought to be expressed by ' on my part." But T. K. Abbott (' Intern. Orit. Com.' in loc.) points out that A»«MrXti/K« itself, in the two instances where in NT it is used with irrifniM (1 Co 16", Ph 230), expresses a supply coming from a different quarter from the deficiency. He finds the idea of balance in the otvrl, and hopes it is not an over-reflnement to suggest that 4»T*»«er*u/>«« is more unassuming than i.txTXr,pioi,' since part of the force of the word is thrown on the idea of correspondence.' Christ's afflictions are incomplete till Paul brings his quota of affliction to add to them. And every Christian must bring his quota of affliction to add to them before they are complete. For the afflictions are not the afflictions of the Redeemer, but of His Body the Church They are His afflictions just because the Church is His Body. Mlebh, Ps81M 147" 'the finest of the wheat,' lit. as AVm and KVm ' fat of wheat': the fuller phrase ' kidney-fat of wheat' is found in Dt 3214. (5) KaBapSs, Jth 10s 'fine bread' (RVm 'pjire'). In all other cases ' fine' goes with its subst. in order to bring out the full meaning of the subst. in the Heb. or Greek. It is used (1) along with linen for «W sMsh, Gn 4142, Ex 254 etc., Ezk 1610-13 27'; lor pa buz, 1 Ch 421 1527, 2 Ch 2" 3", Est I6 8", Ezk 2718; for \'i<} sadhfn, Pr 3124 (RV 'linen garments'), Is 3P; for |;bn 'Stdn, Pr 716 (RV 'linen of the yarn'); for pioaos, Lk 1619, Rev 1812; for (adj.) §v<r<nvm, 1 Es 38, Rev 1816 19s"!1*; and for aivSiir, Mk 1546 (RV 'a linen cloth'). (2) With flour for rhb sdteth, Lv 21 etc., Nu 615 etc., 1 K 428, 2 K 71-16-&, 1 Ch 9s9 23» Ezk 1613-19 46"; and for acfUSoKis, Sir 352 38", Bels, 2 Mac I8 1539, Rev 1813. (3) With gold for 19 pAz, Job 28", Ps 1910 119127, Pr 819, Ca 515, Is 1312, La 42; for cinj kethem, Job 3124, Pr 25la, Dn 105 (RV 'pure gold'); and for niri h&ruz Pr 314, Zee 93. (4) With brass for XaX«M. /Saray [-os], Rev 11B 218 (RV ' burnished'). Thus the adj., which was introduced to mark a distinction in the Heb. and Greek words, has been used so freely as to obliterate any distinction, and RV has done little to restore it. ' Fine' means 'finished' (Lat. finitus, Old Fr. fin), and hence of superior quality, and that is its meaning in all those places. RV, however, has introduced the word in the sense of 'broken small,' 'of minute particles,' Dt921 'as fine as dust' (i?jA pj, AV 'small as dust'). The verb to fine (mod. 'refine') is derived from the adj., and signifies to make pure. It occurs only Job 281 ' Surely there is a vein for silver, and a place for gold where they fine it' (if>i;, RV ' which they refine'). ' Fining' is used twice, Pr 173 ' the fining pot is for silver' (<)"J?D, Amer. RV 'refining pot'), so 2721. ' Finer' occurs only Pr 254 ' a vessel for the finer' (3 ; in Dn occurs Aram. «:; in NT jrCp, also irvpd, 0&) denotes primarily the ordinary process of combustion, with its accompaniments of light and heat. The Scripture references to it are too numerous to classify exhaustively. Those which deserve special attention fall into two groups, according as the word is used in a literal or in a figurative sense. I. Literal Usage.—Here we may distinguish —1. Fire accompanying God's presence. Besides numerous metaphorical allusions in connexion with theophanies, there are several references to fire as a pliysical phenomenon appearing on such occasions. See Gn 15", Ex 32 (the burning bush), Ex 1918, Dt 4s6 (Mt. Sinai), Ex 4038, Nu 915, Dt I33, Ps 78" 105s9 (the guiding pillar). 2. Sacrificial fire, (a) Sacrifice by fire was a primitive mode of worship (Gn 8s0 226). [b) Under the Mosaic law fire was a most important means of oiiering the various prescribed sacrifices, which are described as 'offerings made by fire unto J".' For this pur-pose a fire was kept continually burning on the altar of burnt-offering (Lv 613, 1 Es 624). Accord- ing to Lv 9M it had a miraculous origin, and it was similarly rekindled in Solomon's temple (2 Ch 71'3). Some find a reference to this perpetual fire in Is 31" (but see Cheyne, Delitzsch, in loc), and in the name Ariel (the hearth of God?) applied to Jerus. in Is 29"-2-7. In 2 Mac I18"22 there is a legend about the hiding of the sacred lire at the fall of Jerus., and its discovery by Nehemiah after the Exile. For the story of a later rekindling see 2 Mac 103. (c) Mention is made of special answers by fire when sacrifices were offered elsewhere than at the regular sanctuary, as in the cases of Gideon (Jg 621), Elijah (1 K 1838), and David (1 Ch 2128). (d) Fire was used for offering incense. It was carried in censers (Lv 1612-13), or placed on the altar of incense (Ex 307'8), and the incense sprinkled upon it. To use any other than the sacred fire for this purpose was to offer 'strange fire,' the offence for which Nadab and Abiliu perished (Lv 101, Nu 34 2661). (e) Human sacrifice, especially child sacrifice, by fire was practised by certain of Israel's neighbours (Dt 1231, 2 K 1731). It was strictly forbidden in the law (Lv 1821, Dt 18">), but is repeatedly mentioned as a sin of Israel (2 K 1717, Jer 731 19' 32s5, Ezk 1621 2026-31), being carried on in particular by Ahaz (2 K163,2 Ch 283) and Manasseh (2 K 216, 2 Ch 33"). The scene of these rites was Topheth in the valley of Hinnom (Jer 731). See W. R. Smith, SS, pp. 352, 353, and Driver, Dent. p. 222. 3. Lightning. In such expressions as 'fire from heaven,' 'the fire of God,' etc., which describe at times a destructive agency (Lv 103, 2 K I10-12, Job I16), and at times the token by which sacrifice was approved (2 c, above), some such phenomenon as lightning is evidently to be understood, as also when ' fire and hail' are mentioned together (Ex 923-24, Ps 10532 148s). 4. Fire for domestic purposes. Its use in this respect was twofold, (n) For the preparation of food, as for roasting flesh (Ex 12s, 2 Ch 3513, Is 441", 1 Es I12), for broiling fish (Jn 21"), for baking (1 K 1712, Jer 718). (b) For warmth, as in Is 4410, Jer 3(i33, Mk 14M, Lk 22M, Jn 1818, Ac 282. In Pal. fire is only occasionally used for heating, and there are no regular fireplaces except in kitchens, but portable braziers or 'lire-pans' are employed. The larger houses have special ' winter rooms' (Jer S622, Am 310). In these a cavity is made in the middle of the floor, in which the ' stove' (nx) is placed. When the fire has burnt out a wooden frame is placed over it, and this is covered with a carpet so as to retain the heat (Keil, Bib. Arch. ii. 107; Nowack, Heb. Arch. 141 ; Benzinger, Heb. Arch. 124). The Arabs in the desert use as a hearth a hole lined with stones (Niebuhr, Travels in Arabia, i. 209). The use of fire on the Sabbath for domestic purposes was forbidden in the law (Ex 353; Jos. Wars, II. viii. 9). S. Fire in metallurgy. Fire has been employed from the earliest times for refining, casting, and forging metals. Among the Scripture allusions to this use are Ex 3224 (the golden calf), the various references to 'molten images,' and also Is 44la 5416, 2 Es 1673, Sir 25, 1 P I7. 6. Fire as a destroying agent. Among the effects of fire destruction is naturally prominent. Death by fire (or possibly burn ing after execution by another method) was the penalty for certain offences (Lv 2014 219, Jos 715 *"), and was also a mode of inflicting vengeance (2S1231 [?], Jer 2922,Dn 311-15, 2 Mac 7s). Conquerors burned the idols of vanquished nations (2 K 1918, Is 3719), and the Israelites were specially enjoined so to destroy those of the Canaanites (Dt 75, 1 Mac 568). Fire was a common means of destroying cities and property taken in war; and hence 'a fire shall go forth, ' I will send (or kindle) a fire,' are formulae which occur frequently in the prophetical books. Setting a crop on fire was one way of provoking a quarrel (Jg 154 5, 2 S 14s0), 10 FIREBRAND FIRST-FRUITS \ and provision was made in the law (Ex 22s) for making good the damage done by fire accidentally raised. Fire was a convenient method of destroying obnoxious writings (Jer 36a, 1 Mac Is8). The disposal of human bodies by burning was quite exceptional among the Hebrews (1 S 3112, Am 610), but the refuse of the bodies of animals used in sacrifice was destroyed by fire (Lv 4la 630 1627, He 13"). Garments infected by 'leprosy' were to be burnt (Lv 1363-67), and it was also common to burn rubbish of various kinds, as stubble (Is 5s4), chaff (Mt 312, Lk 3"), and tares (Mt 13s0). Topheth (2 e, above) is said to have become in later times a receptacle arid burning-place of rubbish. (This is doubted by Robinson; see BRF* i. 274.) Fire is contemplated as the means by which the visible universe is to be destroyed (2 r 37'12). 7. Fire as a purifying agent. This use arises from the previous one in cases where impurities are of a combustible nature while the material to be purified is not so (NU3123). IT. Metaphorical Usage.—Many of the foregoing properties and uses of fire have suggested fig. applications of the word. Thus we find it employed as a symbol—1. Of God Himself, (a) Of His glory, in such visions as those described in Ezk I4-13 10'-', Dn 79 106. (6) Of His protecting presence (2 K 6", Zee 2s). (c) Of His holiness (Dt 424, He 1229). 2. Of God's righteous judgment, which tests the deeds of men (Zee 138, Mai is2, 1 Co 3"). 3. Of God's wrath against sin (Is 6613-16, Jer 44 21", La 23-4, Ezk 2131 2221, Am 58 74 etc.) i. Of the punishment of the wicked (Ps 68* 973, Is 4714, Ezk 2818, Mt 1342-60, 2 Th I8). Topheth oi Gehenna (I. 6 above) suggests the language in Is 66", Jth 16", Sir 7", Mt 189, Mk Q43'48. Fire is the emblem of the danger which the saved escape (Zee 32, Jude <*>). ' Eternal fire' and ' the lake of fire' are images of the punishment of the lost (Mt 2541, Jude 7, Rev 1920 2010- "•15 218). 8. Of sin (Is 918 655), and particularly of lust (Hos 7", Sir 231"), and of the mischief of the tongue (Pr 1627, Ja 36). 6. Of trouble and affliction (Ps 6612, Is 432, Jer 5188, Hab 213). 7. Of religious emotion (Ps 393), and especially of prophetic inspiration, as' the word of the Lord' (Jer 5" 209 2329). 8. Of the law (2 Es 1338). 9. Of the Holy Spirit (Mt 3", Lk 318, Ac 23). Reference is apparently made in 2 Mac 10s to the method of procuring fire by striking steel against flint. With regard to fuel, the material used for the sacrificial tire, both in primitive and in later times, was wood (Gn 223-8, Lv 612). Special arrangements were made for supplying the altar fire. The Gibeonites were made ' liewers of wood' for the house of the Lord (Jos 9s3), and after the Exile a special wood-ottering was appointed for the temple (Neh 1034 1331). It is called by Josephus the festival of Xylophoria (Wars, II. xvii. 6). For ordinary purposes the staple fuel was charcoal (see Coal), but other materials were also used, such as thorns (Ps 589 11812, Ec 78, Is 3312) and grass (Mt &», Lk 1228). The asphaltum found near the Dead Sea is combustible, as is also the ' stink-stone' found in the same neighbourhood, which is burnt along with camel's dung (Burck-hardt. Travels in Syria, p. 394). The last mentioned, as well as other kinds of dung (Ezk 41S), is also used alone as fuel (Niebuhr, Travels in Arabia, ii. 232; Wright, Palmyra and Zenobia, p. 369). James Patrick. FIREBRAND. —See Brand. FIREPAN. —See Censer. FIRKIN.—See Weights and Measures. FIRMAMENT.—See Cosmogony. FIRSTBORN.—See Family. FIRST-FRUITS (onw?, in Lv 23a» C-J33, LXX trpwrofyevviiMTa ; n'pici faapxh)- — The custom oi offering first-fruits was shared by the Isr. with many other ancient nations, and it is also found in many savage religions. Frazer {Golden Bough, ii. 68-90) cites many examples to show that tha new corn was eaten sacramentally in order that the worshippers might share in the divine life of the corn-spirit, with which it was assumed that the grain was instinct. The eating of the first-fruits is, then, similar to the earliest form of animal sacrifice, in which the victim was regarded as divine, and the essence of the sacrifice lies in the communal feast and the participation of all the worshippers in the divine life. T?he two still remain separated by an important difference. The divine animal probably belonged to the kin of the worshippers, and the sacrificial meal strengthened the bond of kinship by a distribution of the common life. There is no reason for assuming this in the case of the corn-spirit. He gives, further, several instances of the offering of the first-fruits to the deity, in which the sacramental idea is absent {Golden Bough, ii. 373-384). The offering is in these cases of the nature of tribute or thank-offering. It is considered unsafe to eat of the new crops till the god has received his share, and the rite thus falls into the same category as numerous others familiar to the student of ritual and custom. The ottering of the first-fruits does not sanctify the rest of the crop, but it makes it lawful food (W. R. Smith, iJS,2 241). The Heb. first-fruits belong to the latter class; tL.ey are tribute, not the staple of a sacramental meal. The history is not in all points clear, partly owing to the shifting sense ot the terminology. It is essential, if confusion is to be avoided, to keep the regulations of the codes distinct, and take them in their chronological order. (a) In the oldest legislation (JE) the first-fruits of the harvest are required (Ex 2318 34M). Twice the curious phrase occurs, 'the first of the first-fruits' (mo? nVtn Ex 2319 3423, so in Ezk 4430). This is taken by some to mean the first-ripe, by others the choicest, of the first-fruits. But probably 'of the first-fruits' is added to explain 'the first,' the first, that is, the first-fruits. It seems probable that in Ex 2229 first-fruits are referred to in the words ij^ii i^jjij (lit- ' tny fulness and thy tear,' paraphrased in RV as ' the abundance , of thy fruits and of thy liquors'), on .account of the mention of the firstborn in ths parallel clause. If so, the first-fruits can hardly be confined to cereals, but will include wine and oil (' thy liquors'). The LXX gives &Tapxai SKavos xol XijcoO (' first-fruits of thy threshing-floor and winepress'). A feast was connected with the offering, ' the feast of harvest, the first-fruits of thy labour' (Ex 2316), 'the feast of weeks, even of the first-fruits of wheat harvest' (Ex 3422). The amount to be offered is not stated ; it seems to have been left to the discretion of the offerer. It is inter, esting to observe that a man brought Elislia as a gift' bread of the first-fruits, twenty loaves of barley, and fresh ears of corn' (2 K 443). (6) In Deuteronomy (D) the Isr. is ordered to bring of his first-fruits in a basket to the central sanctuary and present it to the priest, with a profession of gratitude to God for deliverance from Egyp. bondage and the possession of the fruitful land of Palestine. A feast then follows, in which the Levite and the stranger are to share the offerer's hospitality (Dt 261"11). According to 184 the priest is to receive the first-fruits of corn, wine, and oil, and the first of the fleece^ The two regulations seem to be in conflict, and it has been supposed that 184 is a later addition. Possibly there is no discrepancy. The basket of first-fruits FIRST-FRUITS FISH 11 may be only a portion, and this may be the first-fruits meant in 18J, the rest being kept for the feast, or it may be the whole and the feast not made of the first-fruits at all. (See Driver, Dent. p. 290. He decides for the latter alternative.) It is not clear what was the relation of the first-fruits to the Tithe. Several scholars regard them as really identical, but this is not certain. See Tithe. (c) As Dt 18* claims the first - fruits for the Lovitical priests, so J^zekiel, w,lipse legislation forms the transition to the Priestly Code, claims for the priests {i.e. the sons of Zadok) ' the first of all the first-fruits of everything,'and, in addition, the first of the dough (4430). (d) In the small code known as the Law of Holiness (H) it is enjoined that on the day after the Sabbath a sheaf of the first-fruits of the harvest should be brought to the priest, who should wave it before the Lord. A burnt-offering and a meal-offering are to accompany this ceremony, and, till it is accomplished, no bread, parched corn, or fresh ears must be eaten (Lv 2310'14). Seven weeks later two wave loaves of two-tenths of an ephah of fine flour and leavened are to be offered as first-fruits (Lv 2317. The additional regulations in 2318"*' are for the most part a later insertion interpolated from Nu 2S27"23). (e) In the Priestly Code (P) the rishith and the bikktirtm seem to "be distinguished. In Nu 18la the best of the corn, wine, and oil, that is, the rSshith, belongs to the priest. In the next verse thvbikk&rim of all that is in their land also belong to the priest. Probably, the bikkHrim should be interpreted as the first ripe raw fruits, while the rSshith will be the prepared oil and wine and corn. (So Wellhausen, Nowack, and 14V.) Accordingly, we find in Neh 1035 that the bi/cMrtm of the ground and of the fruit trees were brought into the house of the Lord, while the rishith of dough, heave-offerings, fruit, wine, and oil were brought into the store-rooms of the temple (10s712^). The distinction is observed in LXX and by Philo and Josephus. In Nu 15*1'al it is enacted that the ffrst of the dough also shall be given as a heave-offering. According to Lv 2la leaven and honey might be included in the first-fruits, though they could not be part of any offering made by fire. The meal-offering of first-fruits consisted of parched corn in the ear with oil and frankincense. Part of the corn and oil with all the frankincense was to be burnt (Lv 214"16). An interesting law, which rests on the same principle as the law of first-fruits, is that of Lv 1923'26, which ordains that the fruit of a tree shall not be used for the first three years after it is planted ('three years shall they be as uncircumcised unto you'), and shall be consecrated to God in the fourth year. In the fifth year it may be eaten. (/) In the later period a distinction was made between the bikkurtm and the UrAmCth (ntenfi oblations) ; the^fullest treatment of the subject is in the two tracts of the Mishna which bear these names. The bikktirtm were taken from wheat, barley, grapes, figs, pomegranates, olives, and honey. The fruits were ottered fresh by those who dwelt near Jerus., and dried by those who came from a distance. The companies came in ii procession beaded by the ox for the sacrifice, and marched to the music of pipes. They were met in Jerus. by the chief priests. The offerers then carried their wreathed baskets on their shoulders to the temple courts, and were welcomed by the Levites with the singing of Ps 30. Then the baskets were given to the priests, and the formula pt 265"10) was repeated. The Urti-m6th were a tax for the support of the priests, and used only by them, and were levied on every kind of fruit of the ground and of trees. The choicest of the fruits were to be given ; not more than -fa or less than fa of the crop was expected. There was also the jfcUlah (nfa), which was the first of the dough, ^ of the whole piece in the case of private individuals, and jV in that of public bakers. Literature.—Nowack, Heb. Archiiol. ii. pp. 255-257; 'Wellhausen, 1'rolegom. pp. '157, 158; Schurer, HJP n. i. 237-242. See also Philo, Defetto cophini and De prcemiit sacerdotum. A. S. PEAKE. FIRSTLING.—A firstling * is the first (in time) of its kind, Pr 3* Cov. ' Honoure the Lorde withfthy substaunce, and with the lirstlinges of all thine encrease.' In Macbeth, IV. i. 147, Shaks. uses the word of the first thoughts of the heart and the first acts of the hand— ' From this moment The very firstlings of my heart shall be The firstlings of my hand.' In EV it is used only of the firstborn of beasts, though the Heb. words so trd (niaj or Tjtoj, and -ibj) are used also of the firstborn of women. FISH.—Fishes are very abundant in the inland waters of Pal. and Syria, except the Dead Sea, as well as in the adjacent Mediter. and the Nile. Even the intensely salt springs by the Dead Sea swarm with certain kinds of fish, while the water of that sea, which contains a large percentage of chloride of magnesium, is fatal to all animal life. Thousands of fish are borne by the rapid current of the Jordan into that sea, and, as soon as they reach its waters, are stupefied, and fall a prey to cormorants and kingfishers, or their bodies are washed up on the shore and feed the ravens and vultures. Tristram mentions forty-three species of fish found in inland waters. Of these the large number of twenty-two are peculiar to Pal. and Syria, and of this number fourteen are peculiar to the Jordan Valley and one to the mountain lake of Yamuni, S.E. of the cedars, and three inhabit only the Damascus lakes. Many of the species swarm in immense shoals in the Sea of Galilee and in the warm fountains by its shores, as well as in the Jordan and its affluents, the Leontes, the Orontes, and the lakes of Antioch, Hems, etc. Fresh-water fishes are also very abundant in all the perennial streams which flow into the Mediter., often ascending long distances, and not infrequently leaping up the rapids and cascades to reach their spawning places. The adjacent Mediter. is also well stocked with a large number of species of fish. The large number and great fecundity of fish is expressed in the Heb. name n dag, from njj to multiply abundantly. They were taken from the earliest times, and many of them used as food (Gn 9213). Not a few of them are highly specialized in form and aspect; yet, while a considerable number of land animals and birds and even insects had names in Heb., not a single species of 6sh ia named in the Scriptures. The only attempt at classification was into clean and unclean (Lv U9-w). The former comprised those which had fins and scales; the latter, all others. This distinction was recognized in ancient Egypt (Wilkinson, Anc. Egyp. iii. 58, 59), and under el-Hftkim, who prohibited the sale of unclean fish (Lane, Mod. Egyp. i. 132). The good and bad fish (Mt 13**) may have referred to this distinction, or to some other standard of excellence. The writer has seen a fisherman on the Mediter. coast in his anger beat to a jelly the head of a fish to which he objected. * From first and ling a suffix with varying force but generally dimin., seen also in changeling, darling, fatling, fondling, foundling, gosling, hireling, inkling, nestling, nurseling, seedling stripjing, starveling, underling, worldling. 12 FISHEP FISHING At other times they east them away on the shore, or back into the water. The Hebrews seem to have classified together all creatures living in the waters, whether 'whales' AV, or 'sea-monsters' RV (Gn I21; Heb. tan-ninlm), or ' great fish' (Jon 1" Vnj w dag gddhOl), or the 'living creature that moveth' (Gn I21), or %fish'(v.28). The fish was an object of idolatry in all the ancient world. The Philistines worshipped Dagon, the Fish-god (1 S 54), who was represented with the body of a man and the tail of a fish (but see Daoon, p. 544"). Hence it was forbidden to make an image of a fish (Dt 418), which to the Heb. included, as before said, all living creatures in the water (Ex 204). G. E. Post. FISHER.—Fisher, says Bradley (Oxf. Eng. Diet.), is now archaic, being superseded in ordinary use by ' fisherman.' AV has followed previous versions in giving 'fisher' in Is 198, Jer 1618, Ezk 4710 (% only plu.), Mt 418-19, Mk I18-" (aXteus), though "it has ' fisherman' after Tind. and the others (except Wye. and Rhem.) in Lk 52 (&\ieiis). For the ' fisher's coat' of Jn 217 see COAT. FISHING__The natural history of Palestine fish has been little studied. Along the coast there are the usual Mediterranean varieties, with an undue proportion of mullet. Some 33 varieties of fresh-water fish have been counted in the Jordan Valley, where fish swarm in Galilee as remarked by Tristram, and in the waters of Merom one may see tons taken in one day by a drag-net. The fact that the fish of this basin resemble African species was first observed by Josephus. ' There are several kinds of fish in it (Galilee), different both to the taste and sight from those elsewhere.' Also he says of the Capharnaum fountain, ' it produces the Coracin fish' {BJ III. x. 8). Several Nilotic species abound. The Chromides, carp-like, are called by the Arabs 'combs,' from their flat shape and projecting spines. Of the Siluridse, sheat fish (Clarias Macracan-thus, Arab. Berboot) grows to the size of 3 or 4 ft.; its flesh is much prized. Most abundant are the barbel and bream, while dace, bleak, and loaches are found. Eels are in many streams, and swarm in the Orontes. Near Tripoli is a pool full of sacred fish. Fossil fish, beautifully preserved in the Lebanon limestone, are of existing genera. While not strictly fish, we may mention that along the coast are dolphins, seals, and whales—the two latter very rare. The 'badger skins'(AV Ex 2614) were probably of the Red Sea dugong, a marine mammal, whose skin is used now ; and the Hebrew term »to corresponds to Arab, tuhas, which includes this animal. Fishes technically are not mentioned in the creative acts of the fifth period except as included in the terms \-$, lit. 'swarmer' (AV 'moving creature'), and cruise! cj'jpn (AV 'great whales/ RV ' great sea-monsters'). The first of these terms occurs more specifically Lv II10 nv»n y-w. The dominion of man, however, it is interesting to note, is given over fish, n;n >;i (Gn 12S, renewed Gn 9a, cf. Ps 88). Fish were a staple article of diet in Egypt, and their loss part of the plague (Ex 718-21). The Israelites murmured, 'we remember the fish we did eat freely' (Nu II5). The ceremonial law declared all that had not 'fins and scales' an 'abomination' (Lv II9"12). The repeated prohibition of worship of anything ' that is in the water under the earth' (Ex 204), 'the likeness of any fish that is in the waters beneath the earth' (Dt 418), was needed, for the Philistines worshipped Dagon = 'little fish' (1S5!; but see art. Dagon). It has also be jn alleged (but see Baethgen, Rel.-ges. 60) that ' Sldon was the fish goddess of Phoenicia' (Tristram). This cult existed both in Assyria and India. Solomon, in his wisdom, 'spake of the fishes' (IK 4s3). In the time of Nehemiah, fish, probably cured, were brought by the Tyrians to Jerusalem (Neh 1318), where we know there was a ' Fish-gate.' See Jkrusalem. The ' great fish (SVij in Jon I17) prepared' for Jonah has been supposed to be a shark or whale. Both AV and RV tr. ktjtos in Mt 1240' whale' (RVm 'sea-monster'). The fact that a killer-whale, 21 .ft. long, can swallow porpoises and seals would imply that a much larger whale might swallow a man. Part of the skeleton of a whale, 43 ft. long, is in the museum of the Syr. Prot. College, Beirut. The carcass of this whale was cast by a storm on the coast near Tyre. As a type of restoration, Ezk 479- Io tells us that in the Dead Sea ' shall be a very great multitude of fish.' ' These fish shall be according to their kinds, as the fish of the great sea, exceeding many.' Fish in NT brought a livelihood to the apostles; they are one of the 'good gifts' (Mt 71") twice miraculously multiplied to the multitudes (Mt 1717a1. i534ff.j. Broiled fish was eaten by our Saviour (Lk 2442) and given by Him to the disciples (Jn 219-IS). The discrimination between good and bad fish is used as a type of final separation of classes of men (Mt 1348). To the early Christians the fish became a sacred symbol, the Greek word l%Sit being formed by the initial letters of the four Gr. words used in the confession, 'Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour' ('I?j (Mt 4M etc.), diiQipXyirTpov (Mt 41S, Mk I16). This is very commonly employed still. The present writer has watched its use at Tabigha (probably Bethsaida), where fish gather at the outlet of streams into the lake. (2) The seine, rrpy) (Is 198) or n-v?;p (Hab I10), vay/jvTi. This was used in two ways—either let down into the deep and drawn together in a narrowing circle and then drawn into the boat or boats (Lk 54"9), or as a semicircle drawn to the shore (Mt 1348). Both these methods are seen daily. (3) The hook, nsn (Is 198, Job 411), njv, yd (Am 42), dyKurrpov (Mt 1727). This was used with a line, h^n, but no mention is made of a rod, as fly-fishing is unknown. Hab I16 mentions all the three methods we have described. (4) The harpoon or spear (Job 417), EV ' barbed irons' (rfoto), 'fish spears' (d'ji Vs^f). This is a method depicted on Egyptian and Assyrian monuments. At present it is practised only at night by torchlight. In spite of the mistranslations 'fish pools' (Ca 74 AV), 'ponds for fish' (Is 1910 AV), there is no evidence that the pools of the Bible were use 1 for fish culture. The Turkish Government now taxes fishing as an occupation, and also takes 20 per cent, of the price of the fish sold in the seaports, and collects this again if the fish are taken to another port. The fisheries of Merom and Galilee are farmed out to contractors, who forbid all others to engage in the trade. As an occupation fishing has been honoured by the selection of its followers as apostles ; by being the object of Jesus' special favour on two occasions (Lk 5lff>, Jn 21); and chosen as the type of earnest, skilful soul-saving (Mk 1", Lk 510). W. K. Eddy. FISH-GATE.—See Jerusalem. FISH-POOL occurs in AV of Ca 74 ' Thine eyes are [like] the fish-pools of Heshbon,' but the exact translation is simply ' pools' (so KV ; Heb. reuif, LXX Xf/tl'oi). See Hitzig, ad loc, and art. HESH- tbl i th itdti /) g, , eon. > Equally unwarrantable is the introduction of ' fish' in Is 1910, where AV, following Ibn Ezra, tr. B^'pjN -c^ 'Pir^J ' all that make sluices [and] ponds for iish.' The passage is obscure (see Skinner, ad loc), but probably the correct tr" is that of RV, ' all they that work for hire shall be grieved in soul.' * It is possible that the elsewhere unexampled v?jn (for "pjs) was a play suggested by the employment of the ' workers for hire' in the construction of water-tanks (d'sjn ; so Del. quoting Ehrentreu, ad loc.). The LXX, while agreeing with this tr" of tfjJ-'P^K (\vT-q6icrovTai ko! tAj if/vx&* woviaovaiv), gives ' manufacturers of strong drink' (iroiowrej rbv $ij6ov),\ instead of ' workers for hire.' They must have read i;?' for •&$. J. A. Selbie. FITCHES.—AV gives fitches in the text in two places. 1. Ezk 49. Here the Heb. is rrqs kussemeth, tr3 in AVm and RV spelt. We believe the plant intended is the kirseneh or kirsenneh of the Arabs, Vicia Ervilia, L. The same Heb. word is used in two other places (Ex 033, Is 2825), where AV has rye and RV spelt (see Rye). 2. Is 2S25-27. Here the Heb. is rsg kezah. This is the nutmeg flower, Nigella sativa, L., a Ranunculaceous plant, cultivated everywhere in the East for its Dlack seeds, which are used as a condiment and a medicine. It is called in Arab. sMniz, or shihntz, and habbat el-barakah, i.e. the seed of blessing, or el-habbat es-sauda, i.e. the black seed. An Arab, proverb says, 'in the black seed is the medicine tor every disease.' Avicenna recommends it in dyspepsia, and for bronchial and other affections. Orientals often put a pinch of the seeds on the middle of the upper surface of the flat loaves of bread before baking. In baking they adhere. Pliny alludes to their use by bakers {Nat. Hist. xix. 52). They are believed to assist digestion. They have a warm aromatic flavour and carminative properties. Like other seeds produced in small quantities, as cummin, they are often beaten out with a stick, as mentioned in Is 28s7, instead of being threshed out with the mGrag. G. E. Post. FLAG.—Two Heb. words are trd hy flag. 1. ?nx ('dhu; &xel [in LXX of Sir 4016 this was supposed till 1896 to represent the Heb. 'dhfi] poiro/jLov) occurs in three connexions, (a) Where the kine feed in an 'dim (Gn 412-"!). (6).Where Bildad asks, ' Can the rush (K~'a, irdirvpos) grow up without mire? can the flag (m$, floOro/iov) grow without water?' (Job 8U). (c) In a passage (Hos 1315) where both AV and RV, following the LXX, give brethren for B"ii$ 'dhim, which the Oxf. Heb. Lex. regards as a plural of m%, abbreviated from D'lng 'dhdwtm, the context seeming to point to a water plant, withering before the E. wind, which dries up its spring. In the passage in Job the g&me and the 'dhu occur in the two members of a parallelism. RVm gives for gome ' papyrus,' and for 'dhu 'reed-grass' (cf. Ebers, Egypten u. die Biicher Moses, 338 f.). The latter is no more definite than flag, and therefore only confuses the question of identity by another term. We *Rashi has 'ponds of rest,' where the waters rest and are retained I Ibn Ezra gives ' where are the souls of the fish'; this is also adopted by Kiinchi in his Lexicon (' pools in which they hunt flsh 0; in his Camm.' he mentions it, but he himself offers the same explanation as the EV. t Properly ' beer,' which was a favourite Egyptian beverage. have the authority of the LXX that the gdmt was the wdirvpos, papyrus, and the 'Ahii, f3o6ro/i.oy, which some believe to be Cyperus csculentus, L., the edible galingale, and others Butomus umbel-latus, L., the flowering rush, both swamp plants. ?n$ ((in 412-ls) should he rendered ' in the flowering rushes,' or 'in the sedges,' or 'in the fens.' Similarly, the doubtful n-^'d^m (Hos 131S). The same indefiniteness is found in the Arab, term rabi', which means literally 'spring,' and refers to 'spring herbage,' and half, which refers to Graminece and Cyperacece in general. It is also found in the English 'grass.' 2. <]iD (suph, ?\os, carectum) is used (a) of the sedgy or reedy plants on a river's bank (Ex 2S>5, Is 196); (b) of weeds (Jn 2s), meaning sea-weeds. From the presence of these, and perhaps of other marine growths, as of coral, the Red Sea was named >]1d"d: {yam-sdph). G. Ј. Post. FLAGON occurs five times in AV, but in only one of these instances is the trn retained by RV, namely Is 22s84, where both VSS tr. D'^sn >^ by ' vessels of flagons.' ^j or i>jj (when not used foi a musical instrument) generally means a leather pitcher. Here it is perhaps an earthenware bottle. On the other hand, RV introduces ' flagons' in two instances where it is not found in AV, namely Ex 25s9 371S (in both rrtpp). This tr" is probably correct (see Cup), although RV gives ' cups' for the same Heb. word in Nu 47. In all these three passages AV has' covers.' In the remaining four instances where AV gives ' flagons,' the Heb. is n^'tfs (2 S 619, 1 Ch 163, Hos 31 [D'jjj; V'vti], Ca 2s [nitfvH] j cf. n$nn Tp '#v^ ' the raisin-cakes [AV ' foundations '] of Kir-hareseth,' Is 16'). The meaning of this word is a 'pressed cake . . . composed of meal, oil, and dibs' (W. R. Smith, OTJC1 434 n. 7). Hence in 2 S 619, 1 Ch 163, RV gives 'cake of raisins'.for AV 'flagon [of wine],' in Hos 31 ' cakes of raisins' for ' flagons of wine,3 and in Ca 25 ' raisins' (RVm ' cakes of raisins') for 'flagons.' The LXX has in 2S 6"> \&yavov diro TYiydrov, in 1 Ch 163 iftopelni, in Hos 31 ir^/A/tara fieri. B, tr. in 2 S 619 and 1 Ch 16s ein Nossel Wein, and in Hos 31 eine Kanne Weins. In Ca 2s he has Blumen. In Kautzsch's AT we find for 2 S 619 and 1 Ch 1(33 Rosinenkuchen, and for Hos 31 and Ca 2s Traubenkuchen. See further under Food, p. 32b. J. A. Selbik. FLAX (n^? pishtdh, \lvov, linum).—1h% Heb. and its equivalents in Gr., Lat., and Eng. are used (1) for the growing plant (Ex 931); (2) for the stalks when cut (Jos 2° fjm 'fif?, \ivokoKo.ii.t), stipules lini); (3) for a ivick made of the fibres (Is 42» 4317, AV ' tow,' RV ' flax,' marg. ' a wick'). The root form n?f pisheth, with suffix 'fly? pishti, LXX 6dl>vid pov, is also used for the flax fibres (Hos 2S>8). The plural of the same, D'Hy?pishttm, is used for the hackled fibres (Pr 311S, Is 19"); these are twisted into cords (Jg 15") or woven into stuff (Dt 22"). The shorter fibres are called nnjn n&'Oreth = tow (Jg 16", Is I31). The plural pishttm is also used for linen (Lv 1348-sa), as well as for linen garments (vv.47-69, LXX l/xari^ anv-vvlvif, Ezk 4417 cToXcls Xtvas). Flax, Linum sativum, L., is a plant of the order Linacew, which has been cultivated from the earliest periods of the world's history. It is a perennial, with slender stalks, 2 to 3 ft. high, linear-lanceolate leaves, and showy blue flowers. Its stalks produce the strong fibres out of which linen is manufactured. These stalks were dried on the flat roofs of the houses (Jos 2"), then steeped in water to cause the decay of the pulp, H FLAYING FLESH then hackled (Is 19°) to straighten tbe fibres and comb out the shorter ones, which are tow (Jg 16", Is I81). It was regarded as a crop of importance (Ex 931, Hos 2°). Linen garments were used by the priests, etc. (Lv 1347-"); the material is usually spoken of as vy sMsh (a name still retained in the Arab, sli&sh, which is used for the grade of cotton cloth known in English as cheese-cloth). The mummies of Egypt were swathed in linen bandages. G. E. Post. FLAYING.—See Crimes and Punishments. FLEA (wjris par'Csh, fCWos, jmlex).—An insect, Pviex irritans, L., universal m warm climates, and a great pest to man and the animals which it infests. Insignificant as it is, its bite is very irritating, often causing considerable swelling and intolerable itching, which robs its victim of many an hour of sleep, and makes him ridiculous in his frequently vain efforts to catch his tormentor. The habit of the natives of the East of sleeping in the same clothes which they wear by day, and spreading their beds on the mats on which they sit, contributes much to the multiplication of the insect in their houses and camps. Fleas swarm esp. in the filthy tents of the Bedawtn, and in stables and dog kennels. The flea is mentioned by David (1 S 2414),* who compares himself to this contemptible insect, in order to ridicule the insensate character of Saul's persecution by likening it to the vain hunt above alluded to. In Ex 8irRVm has 'fleas' for ' lice' (wh. see). G. E. Post. FLESH, represented by -i'y?, -tsj in OT, and by ffdpf and Kpiat in NT. ~i#4 occurs very seldom in comp. with the constant word i^, but seems to cover some of the same meanings, particularly llesh for food, and flesh of consanguinity. Cf. Ps 73-1" 7820.27> pr i li7> jer 5i35) lv 25*. K^as is only used twice in NT, and each time in the phrase npia (payelv, Ro 1421, 1 Co 813. It is impossible to do % justice to the biblical uses of this term Flesh without clearly distinguishing at least the following live meanings: 1. Substance of an animal body, whether of beast or of man (e.g. Gn 412, Lv 4", Job 3131, 1 Co 1539). For this use of the term in its application to Food and to Sacrifices, see nnder these words. It denotes the living human body in such places as Ex 4', Lv 1310 I7H Indeed, through a great part of OT flesh is equivalent to the whole human Body, on the principle mentioned s.v., in which application, it is to be noted, that the LXX often renders "fpj (sing.), in accordance with Gr. idiom, by the plural crdpices (e.g. Gn 4019, Nu 1212, Job 3225), and even by is due to corruption in MT (see Driver, Wellh., Budde, ad lm.y confound it with the Greek antithesis between material and immaterial. Further, though finite and creaturely weakness is implied in it, there is not necessarily any moral disparagement, e.g. ' all flesh' is used for the 'whole human race' in connexions that are most honourable, e.g. Ps 65a 14521, Is 405, Jl 2s8. Conclusive as to this is the use of ' flesh' for the human nature of our Lord (Jn I14, Ko Is 9s, I Ti 316). In the same line with this stands the more expanded phrase ' flesh and blood' for human nature on its earthly side in contrast with something greater than itself (Mt 16", 1 Co 15M, Gal I16, Eph 612, He 214, to which should perhaps be added Jn I13). This phrase is peculiar to tlie' NT, though germane to theOT idea ' the life of the flesh is in the blood,' and the beginning of the usage can be traced to the OT Apocr. writers (cf. Sir 1418 1731). It is common in Rabbinical literature. This whote bibliqal u«e-of the term ' flesh' in application to man means that he is so called from his creaturely nature, or from his nature on its creaturely side. i. As one constituent of human nature (the corporeal) combined or contrasted with the others. OT usage presents a variety of such combinations. The whole of man is expressed as 'flesh' and ' soul' in Ps 631, Job 1314 1*° ; as ' flesh' and 'heart' in Ps7336, Ezk 447-9, Ec II10, Pr 14:t°; as 'flesh,' 'heart,' and 'soul,' Ps 842, in all which a duality of outer and inner, or lower and higher in man, is plainly intended. But so far is 'flesh' from being despised in these contrasts that it is joined with the higher elements in the relation of the whole man to God and to his future (?) hopes, as in Ps 63116" 842, Job 1928. In the NT its use in this sense for the lower element in man, without any ethical disparagement, though not very frequent, is still clear. In a sufficient number of passages it occurs coupled with ' spirit,' in the Pauline writings as well as others, to show that these two are the natural elements of which man is made up, exactly as 'flesh' and 'soul,' 'flesh' and 'heart' are in the OT (e.g. Mt 2641, Ro 2s- », 1 Co 55). ' Flesh' is used by St. Paul of corporeal presence, cognizable by the senses, in contrast to fellowship in ' spirit' (2 Co 518, Col 21-8), indeed of man's earthly or bodily life without moral qualification (Gal 220, Ph. I22). Even when man s sinful state is the topic, the dual nature is sometimes expressed in the usual terms; ' desires of the flesh and of the mind' (Eph 2s), 'defilement of the flesh and spirit' (2 Co 71), seem to mean that man's nature, in both its constituent parts, is affected by sin. There is a use of this antithesis, between flesh and spirit, in application to Christ, which points to lower and higher elements in His personality quite peculiar to Himself (e.g. Ko I3-*, 1 Ti 3V1P318). 5. Its ethical or doctrinal sense. Besides the morally indifferent applications of flesh already discussed, there is in the NT, and esp. in the Pauline writings, a use of it which is charged with ethical or doctrinal content. It is thus used once in contrast with ' mind' (Ro 72S), more frequently with 'spirit' (Ro s4-5-6-'^8-9-1213, Gal o*"85 6s). In the same manner the adjectives 'fleshly,' ' carnal' are contrasted with ' spiritual' in Ro IV, 1 Co31!)<, 2 Co I12, Col 218 'fleshly mind,' orig. 'mind of the flesh.'* That in ire connexions cited above flesh with its adjective has reference to the principle of sin and its seat in man's fallen nature, while ' spirit' and ' spiritual' refer to the principle of the regenerate or divine life in man, * There occurs in the same writings a quite unethical use of ' carnal' as equivalent to ' corporeal' or ' earthly,' eg. Ro 15*?, 1 Co 9", 2 Co 33 10-», He 718; for the complications both of reading and rendering in these passages, created by the use of i ipjaw, gee Trench, N.T. Svwwim*. s.v. FLESH-HOOK FLOCK will hardly be questioned. But various have been the accounts given of the rationale of this metaphorical or indirect use of flesh and 'fleshly' in a theological or doctrinal sense. Writers like Hol-sten, Pfleiderer, Schenkel make strenuous efforts, without much success, to derive this peculiarly Pauline application of the term from the older sense of it as denoting the weakness and frailty of man's nature. The only account which seems to satisfy all the ideas involved is that the ' carnal' denotes the sinful element in man's nature, because that element entering his nature now in the ordinary course of human production is an inherit-ance;»fisheflesh; whereas the ' spiritual' is that which comes into it from above, or is given in the New Birth. This explanation is confirmed by our Lord's words, reported in Jn 38. For some further remarks on this question and on the possible connexion of all the meanings of flesh here noted, see Psychology. J. Laidlaw. FLESH-HOOK.—See Food. FLESHLY, FLESHY.—Modern editions of AV have retained the distinction between 'fleshly'and 'fleshy' of 1611. Fleshly is that which belongs to the flesh and not the spirit, carnal. It occurs in NT 2 Go lla, 1 P2» (crapmos), Col 218 'fleshly mind' (vovt- rrjt aapx6s, ' mind of the flesh'). In Ad. Est 1410 the meaning is apparently simply mortal (vdpiavos). Fleshy is that which is made of flesh (and not of stone), soft, tender, Sir 1710, 2 Co 33 (aapmms). The distinction did not appear in the earlier versions: Wye. Tind. Gen. Bish. have ' fleshly' in 2 Co 38, Cov. has ' fleshy.' Nor was it olwerved by Eng. writers of the day: T. Wright (1604), Passions, V. iv. 212, says, 'Fleshy concupiscence deserveth rather the name of Mercenarie Lust then Love,'and Culpepper and Cole, Anat. I. xvii. 45, 'Such as are given to fleshy desires have larger Kidneys tlwn ordinary.' But once made it is well worth maintaining. J. Hastings. FLESH-POT.—See Food. FLIES.—See Fly and Plague. FLINT (in OT tf'ljfo &Kp&ro/ios, eij I2- 16b-17- a*as s21"-3*- °-12-ub- 2°-22, to p (59-22 >J6.11. lt-lda. 18-21 724a_g'ia g3b-5. 13a. 14-19 Ql-17 /Qn 78> 9 see below). It will be sufficient to notice that in P we find the minute directions regarding the construction and size of the ark, the blessing of Noah, the laws against murder and eating blood, the covenant of the rainbow ; in J only we have the picturesque narrative of sending out the raven and the dove, and the sacrifice of Noah, which so pleased J" that He determined never again to curse the ground. In some respects the acconnts of J and P contradict each other, (a) According to P one pair of every kind of animals is to be selected (6"'20), according to J seven pairs of clean and two of unclean (72- 3). But in 7* 9, where the actual entry is made, a reviser has, it would seem, combined the statements of J and P so as to agree with P. As it stands, the distinction between clean and unclean animals in that verse is purposeless, and indeed has the effect of emphasizing what appears like an act of disobedience on Noah's part, who took only one instead of seven pairs of clean animals as directed in 72. In J this verse must have run much as follows: ' Of clean beasts, seven and seven, of unclean beasts, two and two, went unto Noah into the ark.' In P the statement was probably, ' Of the fowl after its kind, and of the cattle after its kind, and of everything that creepeth upon the ground after its kind, two of every (sort) did he bring into the ark, as God commanded Noah.' (6) According to P it was 150 days before the waters began to subside (83), and it was 8 months and 13 days before the tops of the mountains were visible (cf. 7U and 8B), and a whole year and 10 days before the earth was perfectly dry (814). According to J the duration of the Flood was only 40 days (712 86), and even before this the water had considerably abated (82b- ^ 6"10-12-l3b). (c). What is in P a covenant with Noah that the waters should ' no more become a flood to lestroy all flesh' (9"), is in J the self-deliberation of J" in consequence of Noah's sweet-smelling sacrifice (821-**). See Hexateuch. I. Historicity op the Flood.—Until comparatively recent times the belief in a deluge covering the whole world and destroying all men and animals except those providentially preserved in the ark was practically universal among Christians. The fossil remains of marine animals, and the Flood traditions common to people in so many different parts of the world, were confidently appealed to as establishing the truth of the Bible story. Our increased knowledge of geology on the one hand and of comparative mythology on the other have now shown the little value or such evidence, and on these and other grounds this belief has been now surrendered by most biblical scholars as untenable, (a) It has been frequently pointed out that the whole quantityof moisture contained in the world, whether in an aqueous or vaporous form, if all reduced to water, would not be nearly enough to cover the highest mountains, supposing that the earth's surface was in anything like its present condition. But there is no evidence or scientific probability that the whole surface was ever so contracted or so levelled as to admit such a possibility. (6) Again, a thorough examination and a comparison of the numerous Flood myths make it impossible to refer them all to one single event, (c). Anthropological science points in the same direction. The diversity of the human race and of language alike makes it extremely improbable that men were derived from a single pair, and this, together with what we know of the early civilization of man, makes it impossible that a universal Flood should have occurred within at least many centuries of the time assigned by biblical chronology. The early relics of primitive man found in caves, ancient graves, etc., all over the world, point to an unbroken succession of human beings, their advance in civilization developing by gradual stages, and the whole extending over many thousands of years. (tf) But, after all, the most obvious difficulties are those which lie on the surface in the narrative itself, supposing that it describes a flood extending over the whole world as we now know it. Noah is said to have collected together animals of every kind, one pair at least of each. Let us try to imagine the long journeys necessary to different parts of the world, including the Tropics and the Arctic Regions, and that in an age when the difficulties and dangers of travelling must have made it almost impossible, and the difficulty of capturing and bringing home the animals when captured. How many years will it still take the Royal Zoological Society, with all the resources of modern civilization, to collect even single specimens of all the known larger animals of the World, to say nothing of the hundreds of species still unknown, nothing; of the myriads of insects, Crustacea, etc., included in the 'creeping things' of the Bible ! Again, the dimensions of the ark could not possibly have allowed room for the housing of all the creatures; for, supposing that they were shut up in separate cells (' nests,' Gn 614 RVm), almost as much space would have been required for passages to get at them as for the cells themselves. We have also to take into account the immense amount of room required for the storage of food, especially that needed for the larger animals, such as hay for the elephants, and animals of different sorts for the carnivores, besides all the food necessary for some time after the Flood, before revived vegetation should make fresh food procurable. Even if we could suppose that the dimensions of the ark permitted all this, how would it have been possible to keep all these animals alive? The polar bear would have re- FLOOD quired very different conditions from the tiger or the boa-constrictor. How, again, is it conceivable that eight persons should have been sufficient to attend to the wants of all these animals, as well as to their own ? But besides all this, there is no provision for making the ark seaworthy. It is merely a huge wooden box liable to capsize, and quite in-eaoable of weathering a storm. The difficulties here pointed out readily suggest the true answer. The Flood was not in the writer's view universal, »p we should understand a universal Flood, simply becaase the world he is writing of is a totally different world from ours. It is a very little world. Men and animals are all living within easy reach of each other. Man is still the lord of creation. He can gather together the animals to be saved, whether beast of the field or fowl of the air, at his will. No difficulties, even such as would have occurred in the writer's own day, have any place in that ideal world of the distant past, where holy men walked with God, and there was no need of miracles, because everything was of course so different. That the writers and compilers of Genesis sincerely believed the storv we need have no doubt, but in the light of scientific and historical criticism it must be frankly recognized as one of those many stories or legends which are found in the folk-lo;-e and early literature of all peoples. II. The Relation of the Bible Flood Stokies to similar Stories of other Peoples.—It was formerly supposed that the many Flood stories found in different parts of the world were all traditions of the Bible Deluge brought by various peoples from the ancient cradle of the human race. A comparison, however, of the stories with one another and with the Bible narrative makes it quite clear that they stand severally in a very different relation to the latter, and are due to many different causes. We may roughly divide these stories, according to their resemblance to the Flood story of Genesis, into the following classes:— i. First and foremost stands the Babylonian or Accadian account of the Deluge. This is so like the Bible story, both in its general drift and many of its details, that it cannot be other than a different version of the same. The Babylonian legend itself exists in two forms. One is contained in the fragments of Berosus, an Egyptian priest of the 3rd cent. B.C., who wrote a history of Babylon. The second is contained in a cuneiform inscription on tablets preserved in the British Museum, and first deciphered by George Smith in 1872. (a) Of these the first is very short and of comparatively little importance, except that some differences of detail in comparison with the other prove that the Babylonian story had a wide currency. The main differences are the clay which Xisuthros, the hero of the Flood, finds on the legs of the birds when they return for the second time, and the translation of Xisuthros' daughter and the pilot of the ship, as well as that of Xisuthros himself and his wife. presumes to build a house whose top is to reach to heaven, whereupon the great Spirit sends his thunder and destroys the building. This evident borrowing from the Tower of Babel story makes us suspect that his sending out the jaclial after the Flood to see how far the land extended, originated in the sending forth of birds from Noah's ark. In one of the Mexican legends, current in the neighbourhood of Cholulu, an artificial mountain, raised as a memento of the mountain in the caves of which the seven giants were saved from the Flood, threatened to reach to heaven, whereupon the gods sent down fire and destroyed several of the builders. This legend, connected with a half-finished pyramid, shows how readily Bible stories found their way among the aborigines of Mexico, and explains why features of the Bible Flood so often occur in the Flood myths of various Mexican tribes. In the story of the Mandari, above referred to as giving special prominence to the Bible feature of the rainbow, the creation of man out of earth stands in close connexion with the Flood. Similarly, the Flood story of the Macoushi (near British Guiana) relates how the first man found, on waking out of a deep sleep, a woman standing by his side. After this we can feel very little confidence in the originality of the statement that after the Flood the rat sent out by a survivor returned with an ear of maize in its mouth. This is evidently nothing else but a local adaptation of the dove and the olive branch: (e) The stories of the Papagos nnd Macoushi give another ground for suspecting biblical influence, namely, where some well-known features of a class of Flood legends appear so changed as to agree with the Noachian Deluge. The object of the sending forth of animals in the Indian stories is, as a rule, to obtain earth to create dry ground for the survivors. A rat is sent forth as well as other animals for this purpose in the legend of the Ojibways and the Chippewas, a fish in those of the Sac and Fox Indians. But in the stories of the Papagos and Macoashi the object 20 FLOOD FLOOD Is, as in the Bible, to discover the extent of dry land. In some cases, however, the appearance of biblical details may be after all a mere coincidence. The likelihood of such coincidence becomes far greater than we might have thought when we take into account the very large number of Flood stories and the singular variety of detail. The following is an attempt to give as shortly as is practicable some idea of the extraordinary extent of this variety. III. Variety of Details in different Flood Legends.—(1) The Beings destroyed by the Flood are often;described as strange or unnatural beings, such as banefill monsters (Persian Bundehesh); ape-like men (Thibet); descendants of a primeval man and woman, who were drowned in the sea and became a whale and a crab; the descendants appear, however, to have been human in form, at any rate capable of religious and moral delinquency (Andamanese); giants (later Scandinavian Edda) ; men, one tribe of whom consisted only of women, another of men with dog-like tails (Fiji islanders); gods of the earth upon whom the Flood was sent at the request of the nether gods (the Sac and Fox Indians); a demigod (Ojibways, see above); imperfect men (Quiche Indians of Guatemala); the descendants of gods and men (Miztecs of Mexico, cf. Gn 61"4). (2) The reasons for the Flood are differently given. Very frequently to get rid of these monstrous forms of life (in the Bundehesh a second Flood is necessary to purify the world of the poison which the monsters still left behind them) ; as in the *Bible, to punish men for their wickedness (Andamanese) ; or, more frequently, for some definite crime or offence, as the refusal to wash and work (Mandari); killing and eating a huge serpent (Dyaks of Borneo); cooking a fish in violation of a sacred promise (Gipsies of the Sieben Gebirge); the crime of the demigod Menaboshu against the water-serpents in killing their king and three sons in revenge for the destruction of his little pet wolf (Ojibways); the inhospitality of a local S. African chieftain towards a woman who, in consequence, brought about a local flood through her incantation (Dilolo Lake); the insult perpetrated on a sea-god by a fisherman who fished in sacred waters and caught the god by his hair (Leeward Islands); the injury done to the raven by ' the wise man,' who had punished it by throwing it into the fire (Hare Indians, North America). In one case, as already noticed, the Flood is the result of a quarrel between the gods of the nether and upper world (the Sac and Fox Indians). (S) The direct cause of the Flood is usually the rise and overflow of the sea, or of some river or lake; rather less frequently a prodigious storm and rainfall. An exceptional case is the melting of the winter snow (Chippewas, see above, II. 2 B c). Once it is occasioned by the blood flowing from a slaughtered giant (later Edda). Occasionally, the Flood consists of hot water (Finns). In the legend of the Quiche there is a second Flood of resin after one of water, and occasionally fire takes the place of water (so with the Yuracares in Bolivia, among whom a legend of this sort has many parallels with, the Flood stories of other peoples). In an Eskimo story the people are destroyed by heat as well as by the water. In one case the Flood is caused by the accidental breaking of a jar (examined through curiosity) containing the waters of the ocean (Haiti fsland). Similarly, a flood is caused by an inquisitive ape taking away the mat placed in a hollow tree to stop up the water which communicated with the water beneath the earth (Acawoio, Britic h Guiana). (4) The Flood generally seems to have come unexpectedly; but sometimes the survivors were forewarned, as a rule by a god, but occasionally through the medium of Animals. In the sacred books of India it is the fish, which is no other than the incarnate Vishnu, or, in one form of the legend, even the great Brahma himself. In the legend of the Cherokee Indians (N. America) it is a dog which tells his master, having first attracted his attention by standing up to his neck in the water and refusing to stir. In one of the Peruvian stories it is the llamas %which warn their shepherd. He had noticed that they looked sad and gazed at the stars, upon which he inquired the cause, and was told of the coming Flood. * " (5) The Flood is generally represented as universal, though originating in some definite place; but sometimes it is purely local. (6) Men are usually drowned, but in one legend some of them are devoured by sea-monsters (Algon-quins). In several of the Peruvian Flood stories they are changed into fish, and in one instance the dead bodies become salmon and frogs (Maidu, near Sacramento). (7) The number of survivors varies very greatly in the different stories. Where the inhabitants of the world are monsters, they are, of course, all destroyed. Sometimes even men are all destroyed, and a new set of men created. Sometimes, on the other hand, they appear to have all escaped (Kabadi, a south-east district of New Guinea). As a rule, the survivors are very few, most frequently a single family, or even less; in several cases only one man or woman. Once it is only the coyote (prairie-wolf) of all living beings (Wappo, California) ; in another story it is the coy.ote and the demigod Montezuma (Papagos); in another the raven and his mother (Thlitikeets, Indian tribe of N. America, see below, III. 9). (8) The reason why the particular survivors were permitted to escape is generally left unexplained. But when it is explained, it is usually, of course, because they had no part in the cause for which the Flood was sent. Thus in the Gipsy legend (see above, III. 2), while the wife who cooked the fish is struck by the first lightning flash of the storm which preceded the Flood, the husband, who was faithful to his promise, was saved. In the legend of the Leeward Islands (see above, III. 2), however, by a strange want of poetic justice, the penitent fisherman succeeds in appeasing the wrath of the god, and he and his family alone escape. (9) The methods of escape exhibit also great variety. In many cases it is by fleeing to & mountain or an island, the latter generally being left unimmersed by the rising water, not so much from its elevation as from its sacred character (Algon-quins, Victoria, Leeward Islands, Greece, etc.). Sometimes the place of refuge is the top of a tree (Karens in Burmah, Tupi in Brazil, Acawoio in British Guiana), or underneath (!) a tree (Mandari), or in caves (Mexicans of Cholula); once in the hole of a huge crawfish in a rice field (Uraus, a branch of Kohls) ; in a tower expressly built for the purpose (Mandans, see above, IL' iii. c). The most usual method of escape, however, is by a boat or raft of some kind. In one of the Fiji stories, two gods themselves come in a boat, and fish the drowning bodies out of the water. The raft or ship is usually allowed to drift, but sometimes, as in the Accadian story, it is regularly steered. In the legends of India it is towed by the god-fish with a rope tied to his horn. Sometimes, to prevent its drifting away, it is secured by a rope, fastened either to a stone acting as an anchor (Kamtschatka), or, more frequently, to a tree (Pelew islanders, Twanas of Puget Sound, Washington Territory). Occasionally, as in the Bible story, the means of escape is a floating ches'; (Banar in Cambodia); in one legend FLOOD FLOOD 21 ft tint-shell, which conveniently fell from a god, who was eating nuts in heaven during the Flood, on to the topmost peak of a mountain, whither men had fled for refuge (Lithuanians). Usually, as in the Accadian and Bible stories, the ark lands on a mountain; but, curiously enough, in some of the Persian legends the mountain of refuge itself floats like a boat. Other means of escape are still more quaint. In one legend the raven and his mother, presumably in a pre-raven state of existence, put on birds' skins and fly np to heaven, which the former, in his impetuosity, hits so violently that his "beakf gets ?sttfck. In thls^pre-dicament he is obliged to wait till the waters reach him (Thlinkeets). In another the single surviving maiden succeeds in catching hold of a bird, which flies up with her to a- rock of safety {Crees). % " (10) The Flood usually disappears by subsidence or evaporation; but, in isolated instances, it flows away down a hole (Deucalion's Flood, Tinney Indians), or into a rift in a mountain, and so finds its way into the sea (Maidu). (11) The survivors in several legends send out animals from their various retreats, usually to dive down into the waters, that they may get earth, out of which new land is created. Of this we have a characteristic example in the story of the Ojibways, in which the surviving Menaboshu, after having stood on the topmost peak of a mountain for five days, with the water up to his mouth, in despair prays a passing sea-gull to dive down and discover whether the land has been entirely washed away. After the gull has dived several times to no purpose, Menaboshu sees the stiffened body of a musk-rat floating by. Having restored it to life, he sends it down on a similar quest. After a long while the dead body of the musk-rat appears on the surface with a few grains of sand in its claws. These Menaboshu throws on the water, and they become little islands, which grow and join together until they form habitable earth. In the stories of the Sac and Fox Indians, it is a fish which returns with its huge mouth full of earth; in that of the Chippewas, the beaver, otter, musk-rat, and northern diver, all dive down, and the last returns with mud in its webbed feet. Sometimes, as in the' Bible, and presumably the Accadian stories, the animals are sent forth to discover whether or where the land is dry (Papagos, etc., see above, II. iii. e). «.. (12) The survivors, hard put to it for food, sometimes feed on fish, which they either cook by putting them under their armpits (!) (Tolowa in California), or with fire procured by rubbing sticks together, at which the god is angry, and turns the fish into dogs (an old Mexican story in the Codex Chimalpopoca). Fire is obtained in a similar way in the legend of the Dyaks of Borneo. In the Andamanesian story an arctic bird sends down a firebrand from heaven. In one of the Peruvian legends, meals are provided for the two surviving brothers by two parrots, (13) There is a very curious variety with regard to the methods by which the world was re-peopled aftirthe Deluge. When all Hire inhabitants were destroyed, there was, of necessity, a new creation. Most frequently, as in the Bible, the new men were simply the, offspring of the few survivors, but in several legends they appear as propagated in some strange and miraculous manner, as by stones thrown over the survivors' heads (Deucalion's Flood, Acawoio and other Indian tribes on the Upper Orinoco). In one story cocoa-nuts are thrown with a similar result (Maypuri and neighbouring tribes of S. America). In the Lithuanian story men come into being by the survivors leaping over the bones of the earth. According to the Pelew islanders, it wis by intercourse of the gods with a woman whose dead body was brought to life, and indwelt for a time by a goddess. Another legend ascribes it to the union between the single surviving maiden and a great eagle (Crees). Still mora curious is the legend of the Wappo, who ascribe the re-peopling of the world to the coyote, which planted the tail feathers of various birds in the places where wigwams formerly stood. According to the Tinney Indians, it was brought about by the gods changing animals into men. (14) The deification of Xisuthros after the Flood in the Accadian story has hardly a parallel in,the myths of other peoples. Sometimes the survivor is already a sort of god (Papagos). In the story of the Pelew islanders the gods wish to deify the last woman, whom they had already restored to life, but'are prevented by the malice of the bird Tariit (Ballus pectoralis). If we now examine these legends in connexion with their locality, we shall find that features which repeat themselves (leaving out of consideration what has been borrowed from the Bible story) in several legends are of two kinds : (a) those which characterize the legends of neighbouring or related tribes; and (b) those which appear sporadically, so to speak, in far separated peoples. As examples of the first we may notice, generally, the tendency to combine Flood stories with animal fables common to almost all tribes of American Indians, and more especially the fables of the coyote, the jackal, and the raven, each of which marks off a definite group of tribes. We may instance also the floating mountain, which is confined to the neighbourhood of Peru. In many cases the second class belongs to the form which the legend would be most likely to take. It is more likely that men would escape a flood by going up into a mountain, or by means of a boat or raft, than in any other way, and therefore we find this to be most frequently the case. But when we consider the great multiplicity of stories, it is not at all surprising that, in a few isolated cases, the imagination of different peoples should independently hit upon the same idea. Where so many methods of escape suggested themselves, it might easily have occurred to more {ihan one people that the boat of safety was like a chest, or, again, that the boat was tied by a rope. In the same way we may account for the really far stranger incident, the subsequent creation of men out of stones. It is of the greatest importance to notice that this second class of similarities is by no means confined to features contained in the Bible story. Those who argue for the truth of the latter on the ground that several of its details are confirmed by other legends, are in danger of proving too much. The same argument makes equally for the truth of other details not found in the Bible. If all these stories are reallj the traditions of one single event, does not the evidence point to a boat rather than an ark, if indeed the survivors did not merely ascend: a mountain; and is not the statement of the boat being moored by a rope, which appears in legends, so widely scattered, at least as: probaWefig^ that df'the sending out of animals, on the presence of which, in different legends, so much stress is often laid ? For, as a matter of fact, the storjj&t which contain this feature are often liable to the suspicion of a Christian colouring on the grounds above given, and indeed it is just this picturesque touch which would inevitably most strike the imagination, and most easily find its way into the popular stories of a people. It must also be borne in mind that there is a vast difference between sending out animals to ascertain how fat the waters were dry, and begging them to dive down under the water to obtain earth for making dry land. The clay on the feet of the buds in the •22 FLOOD tfLOOD Babylonian story is connected with the first, that on the feet of the diver in the story of the Chippewas with the second. In a word, all that the multifarious Flood stories really can be said to PTovfe'is, that there was among a very large number of ancient peoples the belief in a Flood, and often, thougji by no means so frequently, in a universal Delude; Dut this alone does not prove tiKat tMy all describe one real event, still less that the one true account of that event is the Bible Flood. It is rather the case that a thorough study and comparison of these stories make both these hypotheses extremely improbable. IV. The Cause of thk Accadi an Flood Story. —Four theories as to the origin of the Flood story are possible. That it was originally (1) a mere product of the fancy, (2) a nature myth, (3) a cosmogonic fable, (4) the poetical presentation of some natural occurrence. The first is contrary to the analogy of similar legends among all peoples, and hardly needs serious discussion. The second has in its favour the connexion of the Flood story with Aquarius, and possibly, perhaps, the location of Sit-napisti at the mouth of the Euphrates ; but, on the other hand, this watery subject, supposing the story to be already in existence, was specially suited for this particular zodiacal sign; and the mouth of the Euphrates might be deemed a fitting place for the deihed hero of the Flood. The third finds some analogy among the Flood legends of other nations, but the analogy of the great majority of Flood stories is strongly in favour of the fourth, and there can be no doubt that it is correct. The question then arises, 'What event is likely to have given rise to the Accadian story ?' (as) That it was a universal Deluge is, for reasons already given, quite out of the question. (6) Writers have, however, still maintained (and founded their arguments on scientific grounds) that this Flood was much more than a local flood, and really covered a very considerable area. Among these is the late Professor Prestwich, a man who, on account of his geological researches, is entitled to the highest respect (see Literature). He maintains the view, that long after the appearance of palaeolithic man there was a submergence of the crust ol the earth, chiefly in Western Europe, but extending to the N.W. of Africa, though probably not as far as Egypt, causing a great inundation of the sea, •which rose (relatively speaking) at its highest to about 1500 ft. on the Continent, and 1000 ft. in England. It seems to have risen suddenly and to have subsided soon ; that is to say, the inundation did not probably last more than a year or two at most. It destroyed a vast amount of animal and some human life, so that some species of animals became extinct iff regions which they formerly inhabited : for example, the lion, panther, spotted hytena, caffir cat, hippopotamus, African elephant in Europe and N. Africa, and all the then existing mammalia in Malta. The proofs of this inundation are: (1) the various forms of what the Professor calls distinctively Bubble Drift (distinct in character from the Glacial Drift in its various forms of breccia, etc.), and (2) a sedimentary deposit (loess) found on mountains (distinct from all valley deposits left by rivers). It seems probable to liim that, when the Flood rose, animals of all sorts were driven to the mountains, where some escaped, from which the submerged districts were again re-stocked after the Flood. In one instance (at Palermo) it would appear that the light-footed animals, which would have had little difficulty in making their escape, survived, whereas the hippopotamus became extinct. Without attempting to call in question the geological arguments on which this view is maintained, it will be readily seen that it is extremely difficult to make it square with the evidence of the Flood traditions of different peoples, to which Professor Prestwich himself appeals to fortify his case. Had this view been correct, we should certainly have expected to find wide recollections of the Flood throughout the , region where it occurred, and more faint traditions in other parts. But this is by no means the case, and the district of Babylonia, from which tliemost important and graphic Flood story originates, is, according to onr present knowledge, wanting in those geological phenomena on which the Professor depends (indeed they have not yet been discovered even in the east of Europe), and therefore is apparently beyond the region of the supposed Deluge. On the other hand, in Europe Flood legends are comparatively scarce, and usually of a very mythical type (Edda, Lithuanians, etc.); in N.W. Africa they are altogether absent. Again, they are most frequent by far in Northern and Central America, regions far removed from the supposed locality of the Flood. The same objection, though not to the same extent, lies to the view that the Accadian Flood story is to be referred to geological changes in Thibet, by which what was once a great inland sea became a plain (see above. II. 2 B*). Judging from the genesis of similar legends, this Accadian story is far more likely to have originated in Babylonia itself, and to be due to some local cause. The same analogy, if we take also into account the character of the country, suggests that our choice lies between a great overflow of the Tigris and Euphrates caused by an extraordinary rainfall, and the incursion of a tidal wave through an earthquake somewhere in the south. Edward Suss, whose views are mentioned by Andree, is inclined to think that both these causes were at work. He argues from the description of the Accadian story, which speaks not only of the earth trembling, and the breaking out of the floods below the earth, and the waves of the storm-god reaching up to heaven—expressions which point to an earthquake accompanied by a tidal wave—but also of the whirlwind, and the thunder, and the overflow of the canals. Del. (Gen. 1887, p. 164), Haupt (Amer. Journ. Philol. ix. 423 f.), and esp. Huxley (Essays on Controverted Questions, 586 ft., 619), agree with Suss, and Dillm. (Gen* p. 175) inclines to the same view. Andree gives several instances, recorded in history, showing to what an enormous distance an earthquake affects the movement of the sea. For example, an earthquake which took place in Peru on the 13th of August 1868, caused a great wave which struck the Sandwich Islands on the following day, and on the day after washed the cpastlands of Australia and New Zealand. How terrible the destruction wrought by a local inundation may be, is shown by th« cyclone which struck the coast of India on Nov. 1st, 1864, and involved the loss of 60,000 lives. It is not so very surprising that in Babylonia, as in many other countries, such a flood should by lone oral tradition have been magnified into a universal Deluge, from which only a few survived. It has been necessary in this article to lay considerable stress on points of resemblance between the Flood story of the Bible and the numerous Flood legends of other peoples. We have shown that, looked at from a merely historical point of view, they stand on a similar footing, and, in fact, that the Bible story is merely a later variant of one of them. Here, however, the resemblance ends. In tone and- religious character the Bible story is immeasurably above all others. It is true, indeed, that the God of the Flood, Who took pleasure in the sweet'smell of Koalas sacrifice, stands fal below the God of the psalmist, Who delighted not in burnt-offerings and sacrifice, but in a broken and FLOOD FLOOD 24 troubled spirit. But for all that, it is a God who hated iniquity, transgression, and sin as utterly unworthy of His own creation, not a deity avenging a merely personal insult, far less, as in the original story, a troop of gods wrangling with each other in jealous rivalry. Even though it be true that the Israelites found this Flood story handed down from the religious mists of a far distant past, a religious student of Scripture will hive no difficulty in recognizing that divinely guided religious feeling and insight by which an ancient legend became the vehicle of religious and spiritual truth. Literature.—George Smith, TheChdldean Account of Genesis, new ed. by Sayce; KA T 2, 56-79; Sayoe, HCM, 107 fl.; J. Prest-wich, On Certain Phenomena belonging to the close of the last Geological Period, and on their bearing upon the Tradition of the Flood, Macmillan, 1895; Andree, Die Flutsagen, ethno-graphisch betrachtet, Brunswick, 1891,—an excellent work giving a summary of the Flood legends of a large number of races, and made much use of in this article; Charles Hard-wick, Christ and other Masters, Cambridge, contains some Flood legends, see esp. pt. 11. iii. 3, pt. ill. li. pp. 162-164 ; F. Lenormant, Origines de I'histoire d'apres la Bible, Paris; see also in this DB the art. Babylonia, p. 221. F. H. Woods. FLOOD.—A flood is a, flow of water. In early Eng. (as in late) it is used of the flow of the tide, as Trin. Coll. Horn,. (1200) 177, 'For swiche node, and for swich ebbinge the prophete nemmeth this woreld se.' But in the earliest quotation in Oxf. Eng. Diet, it is applied to a stream,—an application which has long since dropped out of prose, though it is still in use poetically. In this sense ' flood' is of frequent occurrence in AV. The following is a complete list of the passages in which the word is found. 1. A stream : Job 14" {ndhdr, usual word for • river,' EV ' river '); 20" ' the floods, the brooks of honey and butter' {n&hdr,-RV 'the flowing streams'); 28" ' he bindeth the floods from overflowing' {ndhdr, RV ' the streams that they trickle not,' RVm ' Heb. from weeping,' the allusion is to the use of lime or clay to prevent water percolating into the mine—IJavidson); Ps 988 {ndhdr); Job 284 ' the flood breaketh out from the inhabitant' (nakal, usual word for 'brook,'here understood of the miner's ' shaft,' KV"« lie breaketh open a shaft away from where men sojourn'); Ps 7416 'Thou didst cleave the fountain and the flood' (nahal, in ref. to the stream from the rock in the wilderness); Is 443 ' I will pour water upon him that is thirsty, and floods upon the dry ground' (nOzellm, ptcp. of ndzal, to flow, RV 'streams'). In Apoer., 2 Es 16B0 (flumen, RV 'river'), Ad. Est II10 ' a great flood' (iroraiibs fityas, distinguished from /xiKpa irrryfl, ' a little fountain'; RV ' river '); Sir 2113 3922 (kotokXw^js). This meaning is found in Shaks., but more rarely: Much Ado, 1. i. 318— ' What need the bridge much broader than the flood ?' 2. A special river: (a) The Euphrates, Jos 242 ' Your fathers dwelt on the other side of the flood in old time' (-nip -15x3, RV 'beyond the River'): so243 ("9K? ' from,'etc.), 24"-16. In Apocr., 2 Es 13" 'the most High . . . held still the flood, till they were passed over' {statuit venas flaminis, RV ' stayed the springs of the River'); 1 Mac 78 ' Bacchides . . . who ruled beyond the flood' (ir rip iripav tov irora/iov, RV ' in the country beyond the river'). Cf. Rev 9" Wye. 'Vnbynde foure aungels, that ben bounde in the great flood Eufrates'; Milton, PL i. 419— 1 With these came they who from the bordering flood Of old Euphrates to the brook that parts Egypt from Syrian ground, had general names Of Baalim and Ashtaroth.' (6) The Nile: Ps 78« (&r!?i:, RV ' their streams'); Am 88Ms 9*.*"; the Heb. is ye'or, the. word for the Nile, the Biver, as RV ; in 88b and 9s1' Mizraim ' of Egypt' is added, but that is quite exceptional. Sometimes RV translates boldly by 'Nile,' Is 197 'er-8 (AV ' brook '), 233-10 (AV ' river'), Jer 46'- • (AV 'flood'), Zee 10" (AV 'river'). Cf. Ac 7al Wye. ' whanne he was put out in the flood, the daughter of Farao took hym up.' (c) The Jordan: Ps 666 ' they went through the flood on foot' {ndhdr, RV 'river'). Cf. Pr. Bk. 1549, 'by the Baptism of thy well-beloved Son Jesus Christ, thou didst sanctify the flood Jordan/and all other waters, to this mystical washing away of sin' (so 1552, 1559, and Scot. Liturgy, 1604; but in 1662 changed to ' the river Jordan ). 3. An overflow of water, a torrent: Job 22" ' whose foundation was overthrown with a flood' (lit., as Dav., 'was poured away and became a flood,' RV 'was poured out as a stream,' Heb. ndhdr); Ps 32s' in the floods of great waters' (i9i?j> D'3"3 0:5, RV ' when the great waters overflow'); 69a (nSsp shibboleth, the word which baffled the Ephraimites to pronounce, see Shibboleth) ; 691' ' waterflood' ($h%bb6Uth mayim, 1611' water flood'); 90s ' Thou earnest them away as with a flood' (01J91I, lit., as Cheyne,' thou stormest upon them'); Is 28a 'a flood of mighty waters overflowing' (zerem, properly a flood of rain, a downpour; RV ' tempest'); Jer 473' an overflowing flood' [nahal, RV 'stream,' Cheyne 'torrent,' who says, 'It is in autumn-time that the torrents of Palestine become dangerous, and water - courses, dry or almost dry in summer, become filled with a furiously rushing stream'); Dn 926 lla2, Nah 1" {shiteph). In Apocr., Wis Sa 'the floods shall cruelly drown them' (7roTa/ios, RV' the rivers shall sternly overwhelm them'). In NT,. Mt I'*-*1 (Trora/ujl), Lk 648 {ir'Klifi./x.vpa, fr. root of irt/Air\ri/u, to fill); Rev 1215-Ie (jrora^os, RV ' river'); and 12'5 'that he might cause her to be carried away of the flood' (jrora/ioipriTop, RV 'carried away by the stream'). 4. Noah's flood is always designated in Heb. mabbill, in LXX KctTcucXwr/tus, and in Vulg. diluvium (whence Eng. ' deluge'). The reft', in OT are Gn 61776.7.10.179111*,. i6.28i0i. 32 uio|p829w; in Apocr., 2 Es 39-10, Wis 104, Sir 4010* 44"-18; and in NT, Mt 24s8-n, Lk 1727, 2 P 2s. See preceding article. The only doubtful ref. is Ps 2910 'The Lobd sitteth upon th« flood' (3«>; ^a?1?), RV 'sat as king at the Flood'). The majority of recent commentators take it with RV to be a ref. to Noah's Flood. ' The storm,' says Kirkpatrick,' reminds the poet of the great typical example of judgment and mercy, in which Jehovah's judicial severity was exhibited.' The chief argument in favour is the use of the word (observe that it has the article 'the Flood'). Against is the unexpectedness of the reference to the Flood, and the prep. (?) ' at,' ' to,' or ' on.' Kirkpatrick says of the prep.: ' we may render, Sat for the Flood; with His seat on His throne in order to execute that memorable judgment (Ps 9').' The tm of AV (which is that of Geneva Bible) makes the ref. to be to a flood of water in the storm itself. This is clear from the note in the Gen. Bible. Johnson (Speaker's Com.) agrees. But the storm is a storm of wind, not of water; of rain there is no mention jn the psalm,- > although it may be argued that it is presupposed. Cheyne carries the psalmist's mind beyond the Noachic Flood to the original meaning of the word. That is ' destruction'; ' a wasting flood' being only secondary. He therefore boldly ignores the Flood and any ref. to water, and tr. ' At the storm Jehovah sat enthroned' (Book of Psalms, p. 81, and Crit. Note on p. 880). t 5. It is only in poetic parallelism that 'flood' is used of the sea : Ps 243— ' He hath founded it {the earth] upon the seas, And established it upon the floods'; Ps933 '«•, Jon 2:i (all ndhdr); and Ex 158 (nCz<m, of the waters of the Red Sea). In Apocr., 2 Es 415.17.19.21 (fluctus, RV ' waves'). * So plainly in AV, since the marg. ref. is to Gn 7"; and thi Gr. is xoLTxx>.tjr/Aos: but RV omits the ref., and prints 'floyu,' not ' Flood'; and the recently discovered Heb. text gives ' river' (Cowley and Neubauer), t This cancels the ' Parchment' tr" ' Jehovah has seated himself above the flood,' and its note, ' either the deluge or the heavenly ocean already referred to in v.V 6. Finally, the word is thrice used metaphorically : 2 S 225 = Ps 184 ' the floods of ungodly men made me afraid' (^je^i 'ijnj, lit.' streams of Belial'; RV ' floods of ungodliness'; see Selbie, Cheyne, and Hommel in Expos, Times, viii. [1897] 360, 423, 472; and Baudissin, Cheyne, Jensen, ib. ix. 40, 91, 283, 332). Cf. Shaks. Timon of Athens, I. i. 42— * You see this conference, this great flood of visitors.' Also 1 Mac 611 'a flood of misery' (iroro^ij, RV simply ' a flood'). Cf. Milton, On Time, 13— (And joy shall overtake us as a flood.' J. Hastings. FLOOR.—The word ' floor' is now most familiar as the part we tread on in a room ; but it once as readily suggested the platform on which corn was threshed. Hence in AV (after earlier VSS) 'floor' stands as the trn of p,5 gOren, fourteen times, which elsewhere is mostly tr4 ' threshing-floor.' The Heb. word occurs altogether 36 times : it is tr* 'threshing-floor' (1611 two sep. words) 19 times (Gn 5010, Nu 1520 1827-30, Eu 32,18 23!, 2 8 66 2418.21.24 1 Oh 139 2116-18.21-22. 2S 2 Ch 81, Jer 5133), and 'floor' 11 times (Gn SO", Dt 15", Jg637, Eu 33- 6.14, Is 2110, Hos 92 133, Jl 2«, Mic 412). EV gives 'threshing-floor' everywhere except Gn 50H, Is 2110, and Jl 224, retaining ' floor' in these places. Elsewhere gdren is trd ' barn-floor' 2K 627 (1611 'barn floor'; RV ' threshing - floor1), ' threshingplace' 2 S 2416 (1611 ' threshing place,'RV 'threshing-floor') ; 'a void place' 1 K 22^=2 Oh 189 (KV 'an open place'), 'barn1 Job 3912(EV 'threshing-floor'), 'corn' Dt 1613 (' after that thou hast gathered in thy corn and thy wine,' EV ' after that thou hast gathered in from thy threshing-floor and from thy wine-press'), and in Hos 91 [all] the fuller phrase kol-gorndth ddgdn is tr* ' cornfloor•'. (1611' corn floor'). The only other OT word is nix 'iddar, which occurs only Dn 23S and is tr* ' threshing floor' , EV 'summer threshing-floors'). In NT occurs only Mt 312, Lk 3" and is trd 'floor,' KV 'threshing-floor.' In Apocr. area is tr"1 'floor' 2Es 432 (so RV), 4s5-8» (RV 'threshing-floor'). See Agricultuee. For the floor of a room see House. J. Hastings. _ FLOTE—The timber for the temple, being cut in Lebanon, was conveyed by sea to Joppa in flotes: 1 K 59 (iVrrjM, RV 'rafts'), 2 Ch 216 (nms-i). The logs themselves would form the raft; hence in 1 Es 5M it is said that for the building of the second temple the timber was brought to the haven of Joppa, not ' feyTafts' (AV, as if $os; RV 'put forth flowers'). 2. To shoot up quickly, or grow vigorously, again said literally of plants and metaphorically of persons and things. Thus Ezk 1724 in the Wyclifite version of 1388 is ' Y made the drie tree to brynge forth boowis,' lm% the earlier version has ' Y made the drye tree for to florisshe,' which is retained in AV. In this sense are all the reniaining instances of the word, the Heb. being some part of m?, or (in Ps 9214) the adj. Jjn (Aram, ]}}-} Dn 44); the Greek &rugdXkeu>, Sir I'8 II32 4612 49'10, Ph 410; and the Lat. flhrere, 2 Es 62a. J. Hastings. FLOWERS.—Visitors to Palestine unite in their enthusiasm over the flowers. Everywhere they brighten the landscape with their brilliant colours, white, yellow, blue, violet, purple, maroon, crimson, scarlet, brown, and even black. Fields, many acres in extent, are aglow with anemones, ranun-cnli, poppies, chorisporas, silenes, clovers, milk vetches, cnamomiles, groundsels, crocuses, colchi-cums, irises, ixiolirions, gladioli, and tulips. The hedges are gay with their wealth of broom, roses, and brambles. The sandstone is clothed with pink and white rock-roses, and dainty little heaths. The hillsides are adorned with the lavish blossoms of the styrax, the redbud, the arbutus, and the myrtle. Even the bleak shingle of alpine Lebanon, 10,000 ft. above the sea, is covered with large patches of Vicia canescens, Lab., and V. gregana, Boiss. et Held., with their beautiful racemes of blue and white flowers. The tableland of Moab is gorgeous with deep purple irises. Finally, the deserts have a rich and varied flora, numbering over 400 species, not found in other localities. Flowers are an emblem of beauty (Mt &m-), butat the same time of frailty and instability (Job 142, Ps 10315, Is 28l 406, Ja I10 etc.). The coming of flowers is a sign of spring (Ca 212). ' The flower of her age' is the bloom of a maiden's youth (1 Co 738). G. E. Post. FLOWERS in Lv 1521-»»signifies tbe menstrual discharge (n'jj, RV ' impurity'). So Andrew, Bruns-wyke's Distyll- Waters, A hi.' the same water . . . causeth women to have her flowers, named menstruum.' In the same sense Vx.fleurs ; but both are now obsolete. FLUE-NET.—In Hab l15m 'flue-net' is given as an alternative for 'drag' of the text (Heb. rri;r;p). The form_/?« is found in French, and fluwe for a fishing-net in Dutch. The flue (together with the ' trammel or hooped net whatsoever') is forbidden to river fishermen in early laws. The word is still in occasional use, as Three in Norway (1882), vi. 44, 'Seven boats . . . were out with a huge flue net.' Coyerdale has ' yarne' in this and the foil, verse, and is followed by the Geneva and Bishops' Bibles. FLUTE.—See Music. FLUX.—Ac 288 ' the father of Publius lay sick of a fever and of a bloody flux,' i.e. lit. a flow of blood (from fluxus, ptep. of fluere, to flow, through Vt.JIux; the spelling in 1611 is 'flixe' ['bloody -flixe'], a spelling derived from the Fr. pronunciation with u—Bradley); Qx.Svacvrepla in TR, but edd. prefer the later form Svaevriptov ; RV 'dysentery.' The AV tr» comes from Wyclif, who in ed. 1380 has ' Sothli it befel, the fadir of Puplius for to liggp trauelid with feueres and dissenterie, or flix,' thu i g 'Јix' without the adj., for it often stood alone in early Eng. as a synonym for dysentery. But the ed. of 1388 has ' blodi flux.' So in Mt 920 Wyclif (1380) gives ' And loo ! a womman that Buttride the mx, or rennynge of blood (Gr. ai/wppooHaa) twelve yeer, cam to byhynde and touchide the hemme of his clothe,' but ed. 1388 ' the blodi flux.' And so T. Fuller, Holy Warre (ed. 1640), p. 216, ' The siege was no sooner begun but the plague seised on the Christian armie : whereof thousands died; amongst others, Tristram, King Lewis his sonne: And he himself of a flux followed after.'JBut p. 94, ' King AJjnerjck himself, wearied %with whole volleys of miseries, ended his life of a bloudy flux.' See Medicine. J. Hastings. FLY. In 1 S 1432 (reading oyi with Kere, for Kethibh to) and 15W (dhsi) AV gives (and EV retains) ' fly upon the spoil,' a more forcible rendering than that of the previous versions' turn to' (the Bishops' have 'gate them to' in 1432). In 1 S 2514 ' flew upon' (AV ' railed on') is used figuratively: b;h ' bird of prey' comes from the same root. In Lv li21-23 occurs the curious combination 'flying creeping thing' (ntyn p§>). As Driver points out (art. Creeping Things, see also Com. on Dt 1419 where the phrase is 'every creeping thing that flieth '), the Heb. word here used does jiot describe creeping but swarming creatures ; so that the tr" should be ' winged swarming things,' not as in RV ' winged creeping things,' the reference being to insects like the locust. PLY, FLIES.—Two Hebrew words are translated fly:—1. aoj z&bh&bh, fwia, musca. This word is found only in two places (Ec 101, Is 718). It corresponds to the Arab, dhubdb, which is specially applied to house flies, but is also understood in the general sense of insects resembling them. It is used in Arab, as an emblem of weakness, ' he is more frail than the fly'; and of contemptibleness, ' he is more contemptible to me than the buzzing of the fly.' ' The refuge of the fly' is a proverb, applied to him who is protected by his ignobleness. ' The father of the fly' signifies a person with a stinking breath (cf. Ec 101). It is also said of such a person that he is ' more stinking in breath than the father of the fly.' From these qualities dhubdb has .come to signify evil or mischief. An unlucky man is ' a fly man.' The same expression is also used to denote demoniacal possession, or insanity, or ignorance. More or fewer of these various significations in the Arab, may have obtained also in the Heb. word, which would account for the god of Ekron being called Baal-zebub (2 K I2), ' the god of flies.' See Baal-Zebub. 2. yr>i 'drGbh, kwo/avlo., omne genus muscarum, EV Ex 821"31 swarms of flies, AV Ps 18a 10531 divers sorts of flies, IIV swarms of flies. In all three passages LXX gives Kwb^via, dog-fly, a word the significance of which in Greek is not clear. The Rabbins interpret 'drObh as referring to a mixture of noxious insects, as if from mjf 'drab, to mix. Some have argued from Ex 831 'there remained not one,' that the fly referred to must be a definite Bpecies,v which was sent; as a'plague, and totally destroyed at its close. But even if the expression ' not one' is to be pressed to its literal interpretation, it would not necessarily imply that the swarms were all of one kind. They might have been 'divers sorts.' The fact that the swarms of flies ' devoured' the Egyptians, has been supposed to imply that they were flies that bit them. But, apart from the fact that a biting fly could hardly be said to devour its victim, the true interpretation is to be sought in the comparison of the two members of the parallelism, 'flies which devoured them, and frogs which destroyed them.' Both are strong expressions of the ruinous naturt of the plague, and in both the reference is probably more to the corruption of their food and drink than to the destruction of their bodies. As it is impossible to determine whether a particular insect, or a mixture of insects, is intended, we may accept swarms of flies as conveying the essential meaning in the passages in question. See PLAGUE. A resident in the cooler parts of Europe and America can hardly realize the number and persistence of the flies which swarm in Egypt and Syria. They not only defile food, but convey contagion, particularly that of ophthalmia, diphtheria, and, one kind of fly, that of malignant pustule. They also deposit their eggs in wounds and sores, and sometimes in the nose and ears of filthy people, and their larva; hatch out, and fill these cavities, to the great distress and injury of the unfortunate patient. G. E. Post. FODDER occurs only once in AV (Job 65 as tr" of S'^3, strictly mixed food, farrago [see Oxf. Heb. Lex.]). RV not only retains the term here, but introduces it in Jg 1921, where the denom. vb. tyy (' give fodder,' AV ' give provender') occurs. The same Heb. word ^'?? occurs in Job 246, but here RV has 'provender' (AV 'corn'), and in Is 3024 (AV and RV ' provender'). This last term (see Provender) is more frequently the tr" of Kispp Gn 2426-32 42" 43a4, Jg 1919. See further under Agriculture. FOLD.— (A) IN OT.—1. rrnj (only in plur.), properly the walls or fences erected to shelter and defend the flock, Nu 3218-3J-», Zeph 2s. 2. -91 Is 5" Mic 212 prob. means ' pasture' (so RV), but both the text and the meaning of this passage are doubtful (see Nowack. ad loc.). 3. nSji?, a tran-scriptional error for »ojp (from xb^ ' shut up') in Hab 3". The correct form appears in Ps 508 78"!. i. ny 'farm' or 'homestead1 (2 S 78), including both farm-house and lands; often used,in connexion with sheep and shepherds (Is 6510, .ijjer 33la), and also poetical for ' habitation,' whether of men or flocks (Is 2320, Jer 3123 of Jems.; Pr 3s3 of the righteous ; Ex 151S, 2 S 1526 of J"). 3. [n$:J only in pi. const, nta} ' pastures' (Jl 2°, Ps 6512, Jer 2310, Am I2, where see Driver's note). 6. ojesy, which in AV of, Ps 6813 is- tr4.' pots,' prob. means ' sheep-folds ' (so RV), like 7. D;n?fp Gn 4914 (of Issachar ' couching between the sheepfolds' [RV], ' between two burdens'[AV]), Jg516(of Reuben; see Moore's note). 8. In Is 1320 where AV has ' neither shall the shepherds make their fold there,' it is a verb that is used, j"3>7, which RV accurately tr. ' make their flocks to lie down.' 9. In2 Ch 32ai rtnis^ mji cannot mean as in RV 'flocks in folds'; tiie Ay 'cotes for flocks' is prob. correct, although this involves a transposition and the reading dh-j^ niniK (see Kittel in SBOT, ad loc). (B) IN NT.—1. a6\i}, the enclosed space or court within which the sheep were penned, Jn 10'- w. 2. iroiiurlj. In Jn 1018 AV has ' there shall be onefold,' a mistranslation which suggests an erroneous doctrine of the Church. The meaning is correctly given by RV ' they shall become one flock' (cf. Mt 26S\ Lk 2», 1 Co 9*). ' Folds were used mainly as a protection at night from wild beasts (cf. Gn 3139, 1 S 1734). They consisted of an enclosure surrounded by a stone wall (Nu 3216), by preference near a well (Ex 216'-, Ps 232), and had often the extra protection of a tower (Gn 35al (?), 2 Ch 26W, Mic 4»). The flocks were carefully counted as they passed in and out (Jer 3313). Sometimes a number of flocks might be kept in one fold under the charge of a ' porter' (6vpap6s), who opened to each shepherd as he came to reclaim his flock (Jn 103). See further under SHEEl'. Shepherd. J. A. Selbie. 26 FOLDEJST FOLLOW, FOLLOWER FOLDEN.—This earlier ptcp. of the verb to fold is found in Nah I10' while they be folden together as thorns' (EV ' like tangled [Amer. RV entangled] thorns'). The meaning is that the thorns are intertwined so as to form an impenetrable hedge. The trn comes from the Geneva Bible, ' For he shall come as unto thornes folden one in another,' with, the marginal gloss, ' Thogh the Assyrians thinke them selves like thornes that pricke on all sides, yet the Lord wil set fyre on them.' For this sense of the verb to fold cf. Mt 27* Wye. ' thei foldynge a crowne of thornis,' and Ca 76 Cov. ' The hayre of thy heade is like the kynges purple folden up in plates.' The Heb. (n-jnp) is used in Job 8" of roots entwined round a heap of stones, EV ' His roots are wrapped about the heap.' J. Hastings. FOLK was at one time used as equivalent to ' nation'(Ger. Yolk). Thus Ac 1085 Wye. 'in eehe folk he that dredith God and worchith rightwisnesse is accepte to hym'; Ps 3312 Cov. 'Blessed are the people that holde the Lorde for their God, and blessed are the folke whom he hath chosen to be his heritage' (a tr" preferred by ' Four Friends': see Psalms Chron. Arranged, 1891, p. 387); 2Es 520 Cov. ' Amonge all ye multitudes of folkes thou hast gotten the one people.' So in AV Jer 5168 'the people shall labour in vain, and the folk in the fhV (D'px); RV 'the nations for the fire'). So in Pr 3026 the meaning is ' nation,' though the application is to the 'conies,' after Cov. 'the conyes are but a feeble folk' (Heb. oh). But in Gn 3315 (oh) the word is used of a chieftain's followers or retainers, a special sense which is now only Scottish.* Cf. G. Pettie (3581), Tr" of Guazzo's Civ. Conv. iii. 170, ' The maister of the house . . . ought . . . to shewe himselfe more seuere towards his owne folke, then towards others.' In NT the word is thrice used for people or persons indefinitely (Mk 6s, Jn 53, Ac 516), and there is no corresponding Greek word. In the last passage a plural form is employed ('sieke folkes' in 1611), which is now used only of relatives, esp. in the phrase ' young folks,' the word ' folk' being itself collective. See Kinsfolk. J. Hastings. FOLLOW, FOLLOWER__In the OT 'follow' is sometimes the trn of the adv. i-* ahar (often in plur. constr. 'inx), after, with some verb meaning to go or walk, thrice with n;n to be (Ex 232, 2S 21U, 1 K 1621). This verb is often omitted, however, a pregnant Heb. idiom being the result, as 1 S 137 ' all the people followed him trembling' (v-iriK niij, literally, as AVm ' trembled after him'); Am 7" ' the Lord took me as I followed the flock' ("in*? jfe, lit. as AVm 'from behind the flock,' RV ' from following'). Still more idiomatically, the verb 'to till' is used with this adv., and then the Eng. is ' follow fully' or 'wholly,' as Dt I36 'he hath wholly followed the Lord ' (mrr nqfc: nVd, lit. ' he hath filled up after the Lord,' or as AVm 'fulfilled [to go] after'). Occasionally, the meaning is to follow bo as to overtake, to pursue, when the Heb. is ^71, as Ps 3820 'I follow the thing that good is.' Then the Eng. is most often 'follow after,' as Gn 444 ' Up, follow after the men; and when thou dost overtake them, say unto them.' The force of these passages is probably lost to the modern Eng. reader. Thus in Is 5" ' Woe unto them that rise op early in the morning, that they may follow * Cf. Kethe'8 version of Ps 100* (as it first appeared in Dave's Psalter, 1560-61)- ' The Lord ye know is God in dede with out our aide, he did us make : We are his folck, he doth us fede, and for his shepe, he doth us take.' Modem editors have altered ' folck,' which represents ' people' in the prose versions, into ' flock,' which represents nothing. strong drink,' though RV retains ' follow,' the word conveys the sense of determined pursuit (LXX Siiixuv, Vulg. sectari, Luther sich befleissigen). Cf. Shaks. Coriol. IV. v. 104— ' Since I have ever followed thee with hate.' In Ps 236 'Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of niy life,' the Heb. is the same ('par]:), but the Eng. is probably rather 'accompany me,' as 1 Co 1013 Tind. ' There hath none other temptacion taken you, but soche as foloweth the nature of men.' To the Heb. text \srn, i.e. 'pursue' of Jg 3® (EV 'Follow afterme'), MooreT>refersTT), i.e. 'follow down,'after LXX Kotii-/Ssjti ix'.eu [mv, and the Heb. of the next clause. Another Heb. phrase tr* 'follow' is lit. 'at the feet of,' as Jg 86 ' the people that follow me' ("hns, lit. 'at my feet'); so Ex ll8, 1 S 25", 1 K 20"!, 2K39. Finally, the Heb. verb pj? to cleave to is occasionally translated 'follow close after,' Jer 42IS, or ' f. hard after,' Ps 638 (and in Hiph. 1 S 1422, 2 S Is, 1 Ch 102): or 'f. hard upon,' 1 S 312 (Hiph.) ' And the Philistines followed hard upon Saul and upon his sons.' Cf. Job IS* Cov. 'Wilt thou be so cruell and extreme unto a flyenge leaf, and folowe upon drye stubble?' and "Bingham (1623), Xenophon, 115, 'They dare and will be readie to follow upon us if we retire.' RV adds Jg 20*1 ' the battle followed hard after them' (AV ' overtook them'). In 2 Mac 44S rpoayopetiw in its solitary occurrence in bibl. Greek is fa" in AV 'followed the matter' (oi irporrr/opfiaavTes, RV 'they that were spokesmen'). The word is common enough in class. Greek in the sense here intended, viz. to speak for, or claim a right, in public. The Eng. of AV means to pursue the matter to its accomplishment, to prosecute the affair; for which cf. Hum. Town (1693), i. 30, ' giving his lawyer double Fees, that his Cause may be well followed'; and Shaks. 2 Henry IV. 1. i. 21— • 01 such a day, So fought, so followed, and so faitly won, Came not till now to dignify the times, Since Caesar's fortunes.' No other obsolete or unusual expression seems to be used in the Apoor. which is not represented in OT or NT. But the variety of words trd in AV * follow' is instructive. The foil are found: i/ulnUm, Jth 15is, Sir 2828 (RV omits), 2 Mac 4" 838, i{«*»X»t;0i», Sir 52, Three18; immXM/ffiai, Ad. Est 15», Sir 468; x*t*xq\cv6s», Jth 116 ; xupxxeteul)lu,!2Mac8n ; iiaxi, Sir 1110(RV ' pursue') 278 2919 (Gr. imxuv ifynXm^iicis, AV ' he that under-taketh and followeth o.ther men's business for gain,' RV % under-taketh contracts for work') 31» 342; MT«J<i*», Sir 27" (RV abridgement,' RV' and again having no strength [marg.' making no effort'] to fill in [marg. ' enlarge on'] the outlines of our abridgement'); llspyouMt inrie-iu, 1 Mac 227 (RV come forth after'); fivc/ix, yt ' on the day following'; and in 2 Es sequor & %» His, subsequor 7®>. In NT the most frequent word is the simple verb dicoXouWw, which is used 77 times in the Gospels of following Jjesus, and only once otherwise (Mk 14U) of following the man with the pitcher of water. We find also 5 of its compounds tr* either ' follow' or ' follow after': (1) 4Јa.Ko\ov6ta, to follpw out or to the end, 2 P I16 22-I8 ; (2) 04w, >to follow close upon, Mk 1620, 1 Ti 510 (EV 'diligently followed'), 5M ('Some men's sins are open beforehand, going before to judgment; and some men they follow aftei," i.e. may be undetected by man, but follow them hard to God's judgment-seat), 1 P 2al; (3) KaraKoXovBiu, to follow behind, used only ol women in NT, Lk 23M, Ac 16" ; (4) vapa.Ko\ov0iw, to follow close, to follow up, tr* ' follow' in AV only in ' Mk' 16" ' these signs shall follow thum that believe,' but the same vb. is used in Lk 1* of following up the details of a narrative (AV ' having had understanding,' RV 'having traced the course'), also in 1 Ti 4" of closely following Paul's teaching, so as t© teach alike (A V ' good doctrine whereunto thou hast attained,' EV ' which thou hast followed until,now),- and in 2 Ti 310 sp, as to practise it (AV ' hast fully;known my doctrine,' Rv 'didst follow my teaching'); (5) awuKo\ov6Јu, to follow by one's side, to accompany a leader, Mk 5s7 1481, Lk 2340. As radhaph in OT is almost invariably tx^ by Subicu in LXX, so SiiiKW itself is sometimes tr*1 in NT by 'follow,' He 12" 'Follow peace with all men,' 1 Th 516 ' f. that which is good,' 2 Ti 2-8 ' f. righteousness,' and Lk 1713; or 'follow after,' Ro 9s0-81 1419, 1 Co U\ Ph 312, 1 Ti 6". RV has ' follow after' throughout, except Ph 312 'press on.' The compound /caraSici/cw is used in Mk I86, its only occurrence, and tr"1 in EV ' followed after'; but, as Gould says, that trn is inadequate, since the tcari gives the idea of hard, persistent search, as in our phrase ' to hunt down,' hence rather ' pursued him closely.' In all those passages, however, the Eng. ' follow,' even with the addition of ' after,' is now inadequate. In the tr" of some of the compounds of i.Ko\ov04u the sense of ' follow' is very nearly ' imitate.' This is unmistakably the meaning where the Gr. is lupcuretu, 2Th 3*-", He 137, 3 Jn u. Thus in He 13' 'whose faith follow.' RV has always 'imitate.' Cf. T. Adams (1615), Spirit. Navig. 41, 'Glasse among ptones is as a foole amongst men; for it fol'owns precious stones in colour, not in virtue.' So ^./tirn)s in all its occurrences (1 Co 416 II1, Eph 5:, 1 Th I8 2", He f) is rendered by ' follower' in AV, by ' imitator' in RV ; and (Tyv/uixifrfy, Ph 317, is in AV 'followers together,' in RV 'imitators together.' Cf. Burke (1781), Corresp. ii. 437, ' We, who ought to have taken the lead in so noble a work, are but ill followers even of the examples which are set to us.' In 1 P 313 the edd. prefer &/u»"!,' after the beat MSS to fu/j.r,Txi of TR, hence ' zealous' in RV for AV ' followers.' J. Hastings. POLLY. See Fool. FOOD. I. The material eaten for the sustenance of the body is often mentioned in the Bible, in AV most commonly as bread, but often as meat, occasionally as food or victuals. ^Jlj5 ma'dkhal, or victual in general, is used about 29 times, always in its literal sense; uif> lehem, literally bread, is used for food in general about 230 times, and is often used figuratively (see Bread). ^j« 'okhel is used 42 times for food or victuals in the literal sense, and the cognate 'okhlah is used by Essekje} for fuel, |n the sense of food for the fire. In the ]NT Pp&im is the word used 17 times, and rp'otpi/i 16 times, ppweis is used 4 times by St. John and 5 times in the Epistles, often in a metaphorical sense. The commonest metaphorical uses are (1) that which refreshes the soul, doing the will of God, Jn 432; and in a cognate sense Christ our Saviour is the food of the soul, Jn 6M; (2) advanced doctrinal teaching, 1 Co 3a, He514; (3) mere ceremonial observances, He 91013" (for other uses see Bread). II. Food-stuffs.—Accordingto Gn l^the original food of mankind consisted of fruits and seeds which the earth produced naturally. In this respect man resembled those of the higher mammals which arc most nearly allied to him in structure, which arc for the most part herbivorous and frugivorous. After the prinjary dispersion the spoils of the chase were a'dded to ;the primitive dietary even from the earliest times, for the broken bones of wild animals and the shells of molluscs which had served as food are among the earliest traces of primeval man as yet discovered. There were mighty hunters even before Nimrod (Gn 611 10"), and implements of the chase were among the first of man s inventions. In process of time, as agricultural and pastoral industries developed, the produce of the tilled field and of the herd and flock supplied men with additional food-stuffs (Gn-42-8- %"" *). The expression of the divine sanction for these additions, recorded in Gn 93, seems to have for its special object the injunction of the taboo concerning the eating of blood. A. The inhabitants of the Bible lands lived chieflv on vegetable food. At the present day, bread", olives and oil, butter, milk, and cheese, fruit and vegetables, with meat on special occasions, or in particularly wealthy households, make up the dietary of most of their descendants in the East (Thomson, i. 98). The staff of life was, and is, bread made of cereal grains, especially wheat, millet, dhurah, and barley, to which is now added rice, unknown in Bible times (see Bread). (a) Parched corn is 5 times mentioned as an article of diet, and is coupled with bread in Lv 2314. One form of this, called '7P {kail), was made of the common, nearly ripe wheat by heating the grain on an iron 'girdle'(Lane, i. 251; Robinson, ii. 50), or by binding the ears into wisps and roasting them over the fire (ib. iii. 393). In Arabic kali means anything done in the frying-pan, and the material of the parched corn may be meal, or polenta, or flour, or else the unground grain. It is a common food of labourers (Ru 214), and is sold ready prepared in Eastern towns as a convenient food for travellers. David brought 3 pecks of it to his brethren at Elan (1 S 1717); and Abigail brought 5 pecks to David's men (1 S 2518). In Lv 214 ' green ears of corn dried by the fire' are mentioned, and in Lv 23" these are coupled with parched corn. This form is made, according to Abu'l Walid, of finer garden wheat, which is called Vktjs karmel (2 K i4i). In RV thi? is called ' bruised corn of the fresh ear,' alluding to its being beaten in a mortar (Pr 2722). When this bruised corn was dried in the sun it was called nian riphOth (Pr 2723, 2 S 1719), Grain of this kind was used to cover the well in which Ahimaaz and Jonathan were hidden at Bahurim (LXX &patj>iJ>6, Vulg. skcans ptimna). The flour and parched corn of 2 S1728 is called SXevpov koX SXtpirov, flour and polenta or meal in LXX (see Herod, vii. 119). A\<)ktov is used in Homer for barley-meal only, but Hippocrates uses this word for meal in general. For classic and Hebrew usage of polenta see Gniner, de ohlatione Primitiarum, in Ugolini, vol. xvii. Royle has contended that kali is not corn, but some leguminous plant, as kalee is the Hindi for pulse ; but R. Salomon in his Commentary on Aboda Zara says that there are two kinds—one of corn and one of cicer or lentiles. For mention of parched peas see Plautus, Bacch. iv. 5. 7, and Horace, de art. poet. 249. Robinson speaks of n variety of this parched, corn which is first boiled, then bruised in a mill to take off the husk, then dried; this is named burgoul (ii. 394). According to Burckhardt, burgoul is wheat boiled with leaven and dried in the sun, cooked by being boiled with butter and oil. It is the common dish with all classes in Syria (Notes, i. 59). (b) The leguminous plants, beans and lentiles, form an important part of the diet of the Western Asiatics. These were probably included in the D'jnt zerS'tm, or pulse of Dn I12, which was despised but sufficient nourishment (v.10-li!) j in Theoa. the word is ivipjw.Ta (LXX tattpia, RVm herbs), which meant any vegetable fo6d; see the name of the herbseller in Aristoph. Lyrist. 457. In 2 S1728 the word pulse is not in the Hebrew. Lentiles {dv^A, 'Adashim, LXX 4*xk6s), the seeds of Ervum lens, which is still, as formerly (2 S 23"), cultivated in Palestine, and used as food (Thomson, i. 253 ; Burckhardt, Arabia, i. 65). There are two varieties, one pale red the other dark brown, and the pottage made by boilmg either of these is savoury (Gn 25M), pleasant to the taste, and red, hence Esau called it ' the red, this red' (see incident in Diog. Laert. vii. 3). In Egypt lentiles were called ariana (Pap. Anastasi, iv. 15), and in Assyria a'ssu. In Greece they were used as food by the poor (Aristoph. Plutus, 1004-5; and Pherecrates, ap. Athen. iv. p. 159). The Romans regarded lentiles as an Egyptian plant (Virg.' Georg; i.' 228; and Martial, Epig. xiii. 9), and they were sometimes used as a bread-stuff (Athenoeus, Deipnos, iv. 158 ; see also Ezk 49). An allied species of yicia is used as a camel-food by the Arabs, and called kersmna (Robinson, ii. 83). Lentile flour is sold in this country under the name ' revalenta.' Lentiles were brought by Barzillai to David in exile (2 S 1728). Pottage is sometimes made by boiling the lentiles with meat, more commonly a little suet is added to the water when boiling (Kitto). Beans (bSs pol, LXX /cifajtios), the seeds of the common bean, Faba vulgaris, are also used in Palestine for food, especially by the poor. The bean is originally a native of Persia, and was sometimes used as a bread-stuff, as it is still in Savoy and other parts of Europe (Ezk 49; Pliny, xviii. 12); it is sometimes eaten parched or roasted (Theocritus, Id. 7. 65 ; Robinson, iii. 87). Food of this kind was brought to David in exile (2 S 1728, but LXX omits the parched pulse). More commonly, beans are boiled in oil with garlic (Shaw, Travels, i. 257) or in water, and made into pottage, with or without meat; sometimes they are eaten with butter and pepper. Robinson describes raw beans, soaked in water until they sprout, as part of the Lenten fare of the monks at Mount Sinai (i. 259). In Egypt beans were used, and have been found sometimes in mummy eases; they were called hat'a, ari, and sometimes pir, but the last was probably the bean of the Nelumbium lotus, and kat'a is tr. by Lieblein the Opuntia fruit. Birch and Eisenlohr tr. khep in the Harris papyrus as ' bean'; if so, they formed a part of the offering to Ptah; although Herodotus says,that they were not eaten in Egypt, ahdiwere accounted impure (ii. 37). For similar prejudices against beans, see Porphyry, de Absti-nentia, i. 26 ; Diog. Laert. viii. 19 ; Clement Alex. Strom, iii., and other authors. The high priest was forbidden to eat beans and lentiles on the day before the great Day of Atonement (Gemara, Joma, i. § 4), and the Flamen Dialis was forbidden to eat them also, as they were thought to dull the senses and cause disturbing dreams. For other superstitions concerning beans see Pliny, xviii. 12. Husks (xepdna) in the parable of the Prodigal Son (Lk 1518) are the dark purple horn-like pods of Ceratonia siliqua, the charrub tree of the Arabs and of the Talmud. This is a large handsome spreading tree common in Mediterranean.countries, whose sweet, fleshy pods, the caroba beans of the Italians, are used as food by the poor (Robinson, ii. 350). In Greece and Italy they were used by the Stoics as a disciplinary food for youths (Persius, iii. 55; Juv. xi. 58), -and Horaces reference, Ep. II. i. 123, is well known. In Palestine, where the tree is fairly common, the beans are used as cattle food (Shabbath, xxiv. § 2), and are occasionally mentioned in the Talmud (see Mairnon. in Dema'i, ii. § 1, and Buxtorf,s.v.). Pliny refers to their use in feeding swine (xv. 24; see Coluniella, vii. 9), and in Italy they are thought to give a sweet taste to the animal's flesh. They are imported into this country, and are sometimes called 'locust-beans' or St. John's bread, from a mistaken notion that they were the dxpides of Mt 34. Steeped in water they are used to make a pleasant, sweetish drink (see Pliny, xiii. 16 and xxiii. 8). Fitches in Ezk 49 (kussemoth) were cereal grains, probably spelt (see Bread). The same word in AV of Is 28^--' is in Heb. nsj? ke?ah, LXX /teXd^ioc, and signifies the black cummin, which is the seed of a ranunculaceous plant, Nigella sativa, a native of the Eastern Mediterranean countries. These seeds are beaten out of the pod-like follicles with a matteh or staff, and sprinkled on bread as a carminative, as we use caraway seeds (Pliny, xix. 7). They have a hot but not unpleasant taste. The plant is called kistah by the Arabs and' kuzoCtu "An the Assyr. plant list, and in Vulg. is named git. For references to the use of these seeds, see Plautus, lindens, v. 2, 39 ; Ausonius, 344, 8 ; Dioscorides, iii. 83; Pliny, xix. 8,'xx. 17; etc. " >" % % ' »" > (c) Of cucurbitaceous plants, melons, cucumbers, and gourds are mentioned in the Bible. The two former are fruits much relished in Egypt (Null"). Cucumbers (Q'ij^p Kshshu'im, LXX o-Ikvoi) are the fruit of Cucumis chate (the khata of the Arabs) and C. sativus, the common cucumber. Both species grow freely in Egypt (Nu II5) and in Palestine, and, according to Kitto, are eaten by all classes to an extent that would scarcely be credible in this country; and Forskal says this is the commonest fruit in Egypt [Fl. JEgypt. 168). Finn speaks or Arabs eating cucumbers by the wayside for refreshment (Byeways in Palestine, 2). Robinson saw fields of them (iii. 344), and Thomson describes a garden of cucumbers with a booth for a watchman (Is I8). As birds do not eat them, a scarecrow is useless in such a place (Bar 670). In Assyr. they are called kissu and in Egyptian skheptn. Hippocrates speaks of them as eaten when green (de Viet. Ratione, ii.). The fruit of the chati is longer and greener than the common cucumber. They are often eaten with vinegar or bread, or filled with mince-meat and spices. Tristram notes Arab children bringing to school as their dinner barley-bread and cucumber, which they ate rind and all. Forskal describes the method whereby a delicipos drink is made from its juice. Melons ( o'rrajg 'abattihim, LXX w^iroves, Nu 11'), called by the Arabs baftikh, are grown and used abundantly both in Egypt and Palestine. Both the water-melon (Citrullus milg'aris) and the flesh-melon (Cucumis melo) are cultivated, and both were probably included under this nine. The Talmudists distinguish these, calling the former melapepon and the latter 'dtbattihim (Maaseroth, i. § 4; Terumoth, viii. § 6; Chilaim, i. § 2), but in Arueh they are both known by their Heb. name. It is singular that in Coptic they are called by their Greek name. Wild Gourd (n^s), in plural ptkatm, 1 K 618 724, or pakkuOth, 2 K 4", tr. in former passage ' knops,' in the latter ' wild gourd,' is the fruit of the vine-like Citnillus colocynthis, which is common in the Jordan Valley. 'To human nature it is of so mortal bitterness that little indeed, and even the leaf, is a most vehement purgative. They say:.that it will leave a man half dead, and he niay only recover his strength by eating flesh meat' (Doughty, i., 132). It is very rare in the hill-country of Epbraim, hence the son of the prophet who gathered it did not know the plant, but mistook it for the non-poisonous Cucumis prophetarum or globe cucumber common in Samaria. In an Arabic version of La 316 the text is rendered 'he hath sated me with colocynth,' so proverbial is its bitterness. Its elegant shape suggested its imitation in the ornamenting of the carved panelling of the temple and of the edge of the molten sea. in Assyr. it is pikkuti. Jonah's Gourd ({Vg'p ktkayCn, LXX was supposed from the likeness of the name to the Egyptian kiki (Herod, ii. 94) to be the Ricinus communis, the Pulma Chrisli or castor-oil plant, a rapidly-growing herb which Pliny describes as becoming almost tree - like and capable of afford-ing shade ; even in our gardens its growth under favourable conditions is extraordinarily rapid. It is not quite clear what the kiki of the hieroglyphic texts was, as ricinus is in Coptic called jismis, which represents the ancient form kesmes or kesbet. Maimonides in Shabbath, ii. 1, says, however, the oil of kik is from a plant called by the Arabs khefya, which is ricinus. Tristram objects to this identification, as the ricinus is not a dim bing plant, butsthe passage in Jon 4° does not describe itas such; he supposes the plant to have been the roof- % gourd or Lagenaria vulgaris of which Pliny states that' shooting upwards with the greatest rapidity it soon covers the arched roofs of houses and trellises' (xix. 24). The Vulg. renders it hedera or ivy, and this occasioned a controversy between Jerome and Augustine (see Hieron. in Jon 48 and Epist. 89). In early Christian art the plant is є%fancifully represented as a trailing melon-like plant covering a trellis-work, as on the sarcophagus in the Lateran from St. Peter's crypt (Parker's Photog. No. 2905; see also Bellorius, de Antiq. Lucernis, pi. iii. fig. 30, for a representation on a lamp). An undetermined species of climbing plant in Assyrian was called kakulla. (d) Of alliaceous vegetables there are three mentioned as favourite foods of the Israelites in Egypt—onions, leeks, and garlic (Nu 115). All these are still much cultivated in Bible lands, and are in constant use among, Orientals either raw or cooked. Onions (a'^f bemlim, LXX Kp6fifi.voi>), the bulbs of Allium cepa. These are commonly eaten raw as a relish with bread, or boiled with meal (Robinson, ii. 211), or with lentiles (Terumoth, x. 1; Martial, Epig. iii. 376), or with beef (Apicius, 224). By the Assyrians the onion was called sursu, and by the Egyptians het (Copt, mejol). Herodotus tells that on the casing of the great pyramid was inscribed the value of the onions, garlic, and radishes eaten by the builders (ii. 25). The later Latin writers say that the onion was deified by the Egyptians (Juv. xv. 9; Plut. de hide, 353). Pliny (xix. 6) says that garlic and onions are invoked by them when taking an oath ; and Lucian (Jup. Trag. 42) says that the inhabitants of Pelusium were especially devoted to this cultus. There is, however, no native evidence for this. Among the Greeks onions were highly esteemed, and Homer speaks of Hecamede giving Patroclus an onion as a relish (II. xi. 630); but Lucian describes them as food for the poor (Dial. Mer. 14. 2; Ep. Sat. 28). Leeks (txij hazir, LXX rpdo-a). The Heb. name used in Nu 11s literally means 'green herb,' and is rendered grass, hay, or green herb in 15 other passages; but as these are not human food, the translators have here followed the LXX, leeks being supposed to resemble grass in habit and colour. Leeks are eaten raw with bread, or sliced and put into vinegar, or boiled in pottage (Arte-inidorus, i. 67). Nero is said to have on stated days fed only on leeks and oil to improve his voice (Pliny, xix. 6). The Egyptian leek was particularly esteemed by the Romans. It was known as aga (Copt, egi), while the Assyrians called it ezallu usiiratti. Ludolf translates hazir 'lettuce,' and Scheuchzer says that it probably means the Nelumbium lotus; but the balance of evidence is in favour of the common leek (Allium porrum). Garlic (ow shdm, LXX aKopSov). The cloves or bulbs of Allium sativum were so commonly used as flavouring that the Jews were reproached for their liking for these strongly-scented herbs. In Shabbat Jehuda they are said to smell foully of garlic; and Salomon Levi defends their taste it Theriac. Jud. i. § 20. In Egypt this plant was, and is still, much used (Herod, ii. 125; Wilkinson, i. 169; Lane, i. 257). Garlic was supposed to have the power of neutralizing the poison of the asp, and its use by penitent criminals was believed to purify them and absolve them of guilt. In Maaser sheni, v, § 8, garlic is called the 'Lordof tears.' At the present day it is much prized in the East aa a remedy for many ailments and as an antidote for many poisons; Pliny enumerates 61 ways in which it was recommended medicinally, and Prudentius spejfrjjfs of an-rtltar to the garlic as being erected at Pelusium. The 'Egyptians called it sesen (Copt. sesen). i fitter Herbs (onh? m&rorim, LXX nxplSes, Vulg. lactucm agrestes) are mentioned in Ex 128, Nu 9U, and referred to in La 315 (EV ' bitterness'). Bitter salads are often eaten with meat in Egypt, Syria, and elsewhere, the commonest plant used for this purpose being the lettuce (Lactuca sativa), the afa of the Egyptians, called by the Hebrews hazereth (probably the Assyrian haserottu). According to the rabbinical writers (Pcsachim, ii. § 6), there were five bitter herbs which might be eaten with the paschal lamb: the endive (Lactuca endivia) was the second of these, called by them vlshin (probably the Assyr. harussu); it also is common in Egypt. The third is called thamkah, described by Maimonides as a garden endive, the cichorium of Pliny (xix. 6), but said in Aruch to be a carduus, in the Gemara to be a gingidium, probably the Artedia squamataoi botanists, a bitter aromatic umbelliferous plant. In Zematt David it is said to be a kind of helminthia which grows near date palma. The fourth, harhabina, was probably marrubium, or the horehound, but according to Lightfoot the beet; and the fifth, maror, is called in Aruch a pot-herb, possibly Inula ffelenium or Elecampane, which was a plant highly esteemed as a stomachic in the Regimen sanitatis of Salernum. Maimonides says it was a bitter coriander, which, according to Varro, was often pounded, mixed with vinegar, and sprinkled over meat; but Lightfoot thinks that maror is horehound (Ministerium Templi, Xiil. v. 2). It is probable that the words of the ordinance of the passover were not meant to specify any particular bitter herb. According to Pesachim, ii. § 6, the herbs might be eaten fresh or dried, but must not be soaked, stewed, or boiled. Delitzsch gives mqrru and muraru as the names of bitter garden plants (Assyr. ffdndworterbuch, 427). For Mandrakes see Medicine. (e) The fruits mentioned in the Bible are not very numerous. Almonds (w sh&ked, LXX icdpvov) are mentioned in Gn 4311 as part of the present sent by Jacob to the Egyptian viceroy. They are said not to be common in Egypt, and the I%yptian name of the fruit is doubtful. Brugsch believes it to be the tree called net'; but the Coptic uses the Greek name, which means any nut. According to Heracleon, Epicharmos, and Philyllius, K&pvov is specially used for the almond, the bitter almond being distinguished in Greek as Kdpva irwpd- or dfivydd\a (see Athenoeus, Deipnos, ii. 38). The alnWnd was supposed to prevent the intoxicating effect of wine, and was consequently taken at wine banquets (Pliny, xxiii. 8 ; Plutarch, Qucest. C'onviv. vi. 4). This tree grows wild on Carmel and in Moab, and is cultivated extensively in Palestine. The Heb. name means 'hastener' in reference to its early blossoming, hence the paronomasia in Jer I12. The blossoms, which look white at a distance, are compared to grey hair in Eu 125, ana their shape was the pattern from which the cups of the seven-branched candlestick were made (hx 25s3). Aaron's rod was probably an almond branch (Nu 17s); but there was an old tradition that it wa« of storax wood, and that its bearing almonds was miraculous (see the verses falsely attributed to Tertullian, contra Marcion. iv. 117). In Gn 30s7 the almond tree is named 11S lUz, the word from which the old name of Bethel was derived. Kobin-son notes a sweetmeat made of a mixture of almonds and dates as a present given to distinguished guests (i. 115). The ancient Medes mixed almonds with their bread. Apples (rjiss tappHah, LXX m\ov), mentioned in Ca 23-8 78 8!i, Pr 25", Jl I12, cannot be the fruit to which we give this name, as it does not grow freely in Palestine, of which country it is not a native (see H. C. Hart, PEFSt, 1885,282). Thomson says that he has seen it growing luxuriantly (i. 172), but Tristram believes that he has mistaken the tree {N.H. of Bible, 334). Robertson SmitL. on philological grounds, has defended the claims of the common apple (Pyrus mnlns) to be identified with the tapp-dah, but its scarcity renders this very improbable (Journal of Philology, xiii. 1885, p. 65). Kitto believed it to be the citron, which now grows freely in Palestine, and is described in Jos. (Ant. xm. xiii. § 5) as one of the trees whose boughs were used at the feast of Tabernacles; but the citron is a native of N. India and China, and was probably of late introduction. Tristram has claimed the apricot as the apple of Canticles. It is a very widely cultivated tree, but is a native of Armenia (hence called by Dioscorides irij\oy 'ApitevtaKov, HP i. 160), and is probably also a late import. The characteristics suggested by the texts are—(1) a shady tree, (2) with golden coloured fruit, (3) which is fragrant, (4) and pleasant to taste, (5) and which is the symbol of love. All these conditions are fulfilled by the quince. The tree is not .very large, but it is one under whose shade one could si$ or lie, as in the texts, and it is as suitable for this purpose as the vine or fig tree. Its fruit is extremely fragrant, and some varieties might he caJ'.ed golden by contrast if gathered in a silver filigree basket it'r 25U). It is pre-eminently the fruit of love (sets the mass of evidence on this gathered in Celsius' Hie.ro-botanicon, i. 255if.). The quince is called ih dji b f th , ) q hj without any adjective by some of the Greek authors (see, however, H. ix. 542, where the /mJXoc tree is called tall), and is the first of the apples described by Pliny (xxiii. 6). In the light of the description in the passage in Ca 85 the weight of evidence is in favour of regarding this tree as the quince,which, thoughunpleasing to the tasteof most Europeans, is yet eaten with relish by many in the East, and esteemed most wholesome. Athenoeus says that full ripe quinces are better food than any other kind of apple (Deipnos, iii. 20). For a discussion on the nature of the tapp&ah, see Houghton, PSBA, 1889, 42. The quince has a special name in the Talmud, parish (see Kelaim, i. 4), and in Arabic, which forms the basis of Robertson Smith's argument; but in Jerus. Talmud, according to Abu'l Walid, parishim means asparagus; see Guisius,"in loco, Chilaim (I. iii.). A common tradition identifies the quince with the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Dates, the fruit of the date-palm, Phrenix dacty-lifera, though given in the AVm 2 Ch 316 as a possible translation of vji dlbash (elsewhere rendered ' honey'), are not otherwise mentioned in the Bible. This is remarkable considering how frequently palms are referred to, and it has been supposed that the word honey in the phrase so often used in the Pentateuch descriptive of Palestine may refer to dibs or date-honey made by boiling down the fruit. This sweetmeat was made in Babylonia where palms abounded (Herodotus, i. 193), and was also made at Jericho (Jos. BJlv. viii. § 3). LXX translates p.9 in 2 S 16l and ripens at the end of November. These sometimes hang on the tree when the leaves are shed, unless the tree be exposed to frost. Figs are liable to disease, both from parasitic fungi and from insects. There are several species of both, which attack the fruit and cause it to be shed prematurely, or to shrivel and become uneatable (Jer 248 29"). For reflections on this vision see Hieron. Comment, in Jer., on 524. Sycomore Figs (n?i?ss', pi. shikmim or shikmCth in Ps 7847) are the small fig of the Ficvs sycomoru.1, a bluish-purple fruit eaten by the poorer classes, but considered unwholesome and indigestible (Dioscor. 1. 182). The tree grows to a large size, and is found in Palestine in the lower lands from Joppa to Egypt (1 K 1027, 2 Ch 1IS; see Bartenora in Shebiith, ix. 2). Jerome notes that they are easily killed by frost, and so they were destroyed by the "torm-plague in Egypt (Ps 7847). As in the hollow receptacle the flowers which bear stamens are at Jie upper and those bearing pistils at the lower part, it ensures fertilization to pinch or incise them, thereby facilitating the entrance of the insects whose movements in the plant promote fertilization; this is known as caprihcation (Pliny, xiii. 14; Theophrastus, iv. 2). Amos calls himself a ob\3 bole?, or scratcher of sycomore fruit, in allusion to this (LXX kvI^uv cvKifuva, RV ' dresser of sycomore trees'). The superintendence of this was probably the function of Bsial-hanan (1 Ch 272S). This tree is abundant in Egypt, and of its wood most mummy coffins are made; as its branches generally arise from the trunk low down, it is easily climbed (Lk 194). The fruit was free from tithing among the Jews (Demai, i. 1). Mulberries (n?| baca, LXX o-vKd/uvos) are not mentioned as fruit; but as the tree is common in Palestine, and as the berries are now eaten freely, they were probably used in Bible times. The trees are named in 2 S 5s3'- and 1 Ch 1413, and the place named from them 'Baca's vale' in Ps 84s. Our Lord refers to the tree under the name sycamine in His lesson on faith (Lk 17"). For a description of the marvels of this tree see Pliny, xvi. 41, where it is described as being as remarkable as a creature possessed of animation (see also xxiii. 7). Nuts (a')q$ bo(ntm, LXX reptfltvOos) are the fruit of the Plstacia vera. This tree is a native of Syria, although not very abundant, and was brought into Europe by the Romans. The nut is the stone in the centre of the greenish drupe, and its kernel is oily, soft, and not unpleasant to taste. It is mentioned only in Gn 4311. The tree is often mentioned, but its name nbtt 'eldh or 'elun is translated oak or teil tree, as la 613 (KV terebinth tree). Olives (n:j zayith, LXX i\aCa), the same name for both tree and fruit. These are often mentioned in Scripture (37 times in OT and 18 in NT), and the Olea JEuropcea is a native of Palestine, and much cultivated for the sake of the oil extracted from its drupes. In Egypt the tree was called degam, and was esteemed in early days as a specific for all ailments (see Papyrus Ebers, p. 47; in the Harris Pap. it is called aegetu). The tree is small, slow of growth, and irregularly branched. Its wood is hard and fine-grained, and its leaves like those of a large privet, but whitish beneath. It has a small white flower growing in racemes, and its fruit is well known. The wild plants of the olive are sometimes used as stocks on which to graft cultivated varieties with larger fruit (Ro II17). The low size of the tree made the olive leaf brought by the dove to Noah significant (Gn 8U). These trees are cultivated in orchards or olive yards (Ex 23"); when ripe they are beaten (Dt 24s0) in order to strike off the fruit (in Is 17° and 24M badly tr.' shaken'), and the fruit is brought to the oil mills, which consist of circular stone basins in which the drupes are crushed by a heavy stone wheel that is rolled over them. The mass is then put into small wicker baskets, which are piled over each other in a m'agerah or handpress, in which they are squeezed either by means of a long lever or a screw. The ancient presses were all lever presses. After the first pressing the pulp is put into copper pans, sprinkled with water and heated, and then pressed again. Where there is water-power the press is larger, and the mill is called a mutr&f; in this the olives are pressed in a stone cylinder, within which an iron-shod shaft rotates. In old presses the pressure of the level was supplemented by heavy stones (Thomson, i. 286). llie oil is allowed to stand until the sediment subsides, and it is then poured off; sometimes salt is used to clarify it. Among those who have no oil presses the pulp is put in hot water and the oil skimmed off. The fruit is sometimes kept until soft and black before crushing. It is possible that in this state it may sometimes have been trodden by the feet, but that is never done now (Mic 615). The oil is kept in cisterns of stone or cement (1 Ch 2728), or in jars (khawabies) kept in cellars. For a description of the oil presses see Kobinson, BRP iii. 365; and Thomson, Land and Book, ii. 286 ff. Gethsemane means an oil press. The oil of the olive was one of the most important products of the Holy Land: corn, wine, and oil were its three staple crops. ' Certe oleo et vino gaudebat Palaestina prse iEgypto' (Reland, Palces-tina, ccclvii.). The oil is used in cookery (Lv 2*), and is spread on bread (Ex 2923), or burnt in lamps for lighting (Ex 256), or used externally for anointing. This use is referred to in Jotham's parable (Jg 99). • The excessive use of oil was a luxury which brought men to poverty (Pr 2117). Olive oil is called n;; ]-$ shemeti zayith ; the finer oil which runs out of pounded olives without compression is distinguished as n'n? kathUh (Ex 2720, Lv 243 etc.). Olive oil was one of the exports from Judah to Tyre (Ezk 2717). Oil was occasionally carried as a part of their provisions by travellers (Lk 1034). The olive tree is liable to a parasitic mould disease, a mildew which causes it to cast its fruit or makes its flower to shrivel (Dt 2840, Job 15s3). It is also liable to be attacked by insects (Am 49). The olive tree is used as a type of heavenly favour (Ps 52s, Hos 14s, Jer II16), and of family prosperity (Ps 1283). Oil is used metaphorically as expressive of divine grace (see ANOINTING); or the salutary reproof of the righteous (Ps 141s). The oil of joy is spoken of in Is613, see Erman, p. 231. The oil tree, 'e? shemen of Neh 815, 1 K 6s3, Is 4119, is generally believed to be the zackum or Balanites sEgyptiaca, a native of the Jordan Valley, and one whose oil is esteemed as a useful medicine. Pomegranates (pan rimmun, LXX /5<5o), used both for the tree and the fruit. This is also an abundant fruit in Palestine, of which it is a native, and is mentioned 32 times in the Bible. Pomegranates were among the fruits brought back by the spies from Eshcol (Nu 1323). The tree {Punica granatum) grows to about 20 ft. in height, and has myrtle-like leaves and scarlet flowers, which come out early in the spring (Ca 611). The fruit is well known, and was a favourite with the Jews ; its bright colour is referred to in Ca 43. Its sour juice was, and is, used in cookery (Russell, i. 85; Thomson, i. 283) and in making cooling sherbet, as we use lemons. The juice is sometimes fermented (Dioscorides, v. 34), but the wine is rather tasteless unless spiced (Ca 82). ' In this fruit Nature has shown to us a grape, and indeed not must, but wine ready made' (Pliny, xxiii. 6). The pomegranate supplied a pattern for ornament (1 K 7M, Ex 2S33. In RV 'pomegranates' in 1 K 7'8is tr. 'pillars'). Vines ([^a gephen; in Nu 64, Jg 1314 J'.'.o [pj gephen hayyayin, the wine-vine). The Vitis vinifera was the fruit tree most abundantly cultivated in Palestine and Egypt in ancient times. It is a native of the hilly countries north of Syria, but early spread along the shores of the Mediterranean. Grape kernels have been found in mummy cases of the 11th dynasty in Egypt, dating from about B.C. 2000. A special variety with dark red grapes is called pip sdrek (Is 52, Jer 281, Gn 4911); these grapes have very small kernels. Figuratively, the unpruned vine in the sabbatic year and jubilee is called Tt) nazir, being compared to the untriinmed hair of the Nazirite. The colocynth plant in 2 K Vs is called gephen sadeh, a vine of the fields. A wild grape-vine bearing worthless grapes is called gephen nokn in Jer 221, ' the degenerate plant of a strange vine.' Palestine, especially in its hilly parts, is well suited for vine-growing—' Apertos Bacchus amat colles' (Virgil, Georg. ii. 113). The valley of Eshcol, named from its bunches of grapes, produced the great cluster which the two spies carried home between them on a staff, Nu 1324 (see Wagenseil, Sota, 709a). Modern travellers have seen bunches of 10 to 12 lb. in weight; still larger bunehes up to 19 lb. have been grown in this country under glass. The hills about J'ezreel, where Naboth's vineyard Svas situated, were famous for their vines, as were the grapes of Ephraim (Jg 82). The Moabite hills of Sibmah (Is Its8-», Jer 48"), and those of Heshbon and Elealeh, were also renowned, and those of Engedi (Ca I14) in Judah. It was in the hill-country of Judah that the sGrek grew (Gn 49U), and the valleys of Sorek and Eshcol were named from these, as was Beth-haccherem, ' the house of vines,' near Tekoa (Jer 61). A bottle of Bethlehem wine was a present fit for a king (1 S 1620). The wines of Lebanon (Hos 14') and of Helbon (Aleppo*) (one of the exports from Syria to Tyre, Ezk 2718) are also named (Robinson, BBP iii. 472). In preparing the vineyard, the stones had to be gathered out of the soil (Is 52). This is noticed by ato (De Be Bustica, 46), who says that the vineyard should be 'bipalio delapidato.' It needed also to be fenced with a hedge (Mt 2133), a stone wall (Nu 22s4), or a diteh, to protect it from the wild beasts, such as jackals (Ca 216, Ezk 134), boars (Ps 8013), and from robbers (Jer 49s). The favourite site was a hillside (Is 51, Jer 31B, Am 913), and the plants are set about three paces from each other in rows (Robinson, ii. 80 f.). When the vines grew up they were sustained on stout stakes, over which the branches were trained (Ezk 19U-12). This was also the practice in Egypt; see Lepsius, Denkmdler, ii. 53, 61. All these conditions may be observed to this day, although the Mohammedan rule has discouraged viticulture in Palestine. There is usually a tower {rjfrpyos) in a large vineyard, as described in Mt 2133, in which the watchers of the vineyard stay. Vineyards were called in Heb. cri? kerem. In Am 511 this is coupled with i-n hemed, ' pleasant,' in Is 272 with "i~n hemer, ' of wine,' but Targ. reads hemed here also, and LXX ko\4s. The towers in the vineyards for the keepers or vine-dressers (o'tns) (Ca I6) are mentioned in Ckilaim, v. § 3, but in smaller vineyards they lived in booths (Is Is). The vineyard must not be sown with two kinds of seed, else the whole produce was forfeited as a eh'p kodesh, or sanctified thing (Dt 229); but trees of other sorts, as fi" trees, might be planted in a vineyard (Lk 138, Mic 44). Ramses in. had olive trees in his large vineyard, which was called the ' spirit of Egypt,' Pap. Harris, i. 8. 7. The vine-buds appear in March, and send out new branches, which are called Q'jnj' sarigim. These are not tendrils, for in Gn 4010 they are described as bearing fruit; when living, these new branches are green, but when the Burface is eaten by locusts the skeleton branch looks white (Jl I7). The. tendrils are called n'Vih zalzalllm in Is 18', or salsilldth in Jer 6" (see Basket)'.' The flowers appear in early April, and have a slight fragrance (Ca 2U-18). This was the time when the vines were pruned, hence it is said in the passage that in the spring-time the period of the td; or pruning of vines (RVm) has come (so LXX, Aq. Symm. Targ. Vulg.). AV follows Parcjion and Kimchi in rendering it ' the time of the singing of birds is come.' The reference to the pruning of vines in Jn 159 is familiar. • But Schroder (COTS ii. 121) disputes the identification. The grape (ajy 'endb) grows in clusters, which are named Sif $ 'eshkfil, LXX (rraqbuXi). The fruit-bearing branch is in Nu 1323 called n-jio; z&mprah, which is the word used in the phrase descriptive oi the worship of the sun in Ezk 8" ' they put the branch to the nose,' usually taken as referring to an old Persian custom of holding a bundle of vine-rods, called barsom, before the face of the priest when praying to the unextinguished fire of the Pyrsetheia (Strabo, ed. Casaubon, xv. 733). For a different meaning see Tract Joma, 77". The ripening grapes are called ids baser in Is 186, and nearly the same word is used in Job 1533. These are sour and set the teeth on edge (Ezk 182). Sickly vines sometinjes drop their grapes in this stage (as in Job 1533), the result of a blight. In June or July the early grapes are ripe (Is 185), and in September the vintage (n'ii? baztr) begins. This is a season of rejoicing, and during the grape-harvest the people live in booths in the midst of the vineyards. It has been conjectured that the ordinance of the Feast of Tabernacles was a mode of turning this custom to the service of religion. This vintage season was celebrated at Shechem (Jg 9'-"). The grapes are cut with a n-1510 mazmerAh, or pruning hook (Is 24, Jl 310), which is called S55 maggdl, or sickle in Jl 313, and are collected in baskets. There was no vine-harvest in the sabbatic or jubilee year. For particulars on viticulture see Thomson, The Grape Vine; and Barron, Vine Culture. The best grapes were dried in the sun into raisins, which were compressed into pi^v zimmtik, or cakes (Kimchi). Abigail brought 100 such cakes to David (1 S 2518), arid David refreshed the fainting Egyptian with two such cakes (1 S 3012). Similar cakes were brought by Ziba to David (2 S 161; see also 1 Ch 1240). These raisins, as well as fresh grapes, were forbidden to the Nazirite while under his vow. To him all that comes of the grape, from the D'js-m harznnnim, or kernels, to the at zag, or husks, was taboo (see Jg 1314). The nw'tfg 'dsht-shCth, given by David to those who accompanied him in bringing the ark to Jerusalem (2 S 6", 1 Ch 163), and tr. in AV 'flagons of wine,' were probably cakes of raisins, as in RV, which has made a similar change in Ca 25. The reading in the AV is supported On Talmudic authority, but this rests on a very doubtful etymology. For the use of these fruit-cakes by travellers see Russell, i. 82. Cakes of this kind were used as offerings to Baal (Hos 31). The grape gatherers were forbidden to glean, the nh^'v 'GlelGth or gleanings being left for the stranger, the widow, and the fatherless. In the prophetic picture of rebellious Jerusalem as a vine, the fruit is described as being completely gleaned, the gatherer turning his hand back into the tendrils of the vine (Jer 69 ; see also Jer 499). A portion of the grape-harvest is used in making artificial honey or dibs, the juice expressed from the grape being boiled into a syrup, ' dulcis musti Vulcano decoquit humorem, et foliis undam trepidi despumat aheni' (Virg. Georg. i. 295). The Heb. name is viy. dibash, or honey, and it was an aiticle of commerce exported from Palestine to Tyre (Ezk 27"), and sent by Jacob to Egypt (Gn 4311). (See Dates, above.) Dibs forms 'a part of the food of the present inhabitants of Palestine' (Thomson, i. 279; Russell, i. 82). It was, and is, the ordinary sweetener of cakes and pastry (Lv 2°, Robinson, iii. 381). Most of the crop was carried in baskets by girls and children to the wine-presses (see description of the shield of Achilles, II. xviii. 562ft'.). These were cavities either hollowed out of the rock or built on the ground, and lined with masonry and cement (Mt 2133). Each press, callec1 n3 gath, LXX \rivit, was made of two parts. The upper was the rrjis pdrdh (LXX TcpoMiviov), or winepress proper (Is 633 52)* From the bottom of this a pipe, ity zinndr, leads into the lower receptacle or 3R yzkeb (LXX WoMpiw, the 'fat' or vat of Jl 2*1 and 313 as in Mk 12l AV, wine-press KV). The names yekeb or gath are used, however, for the whole wine-press. In Hag 216 the pHrAh is called the press-fat (AV) or wine-fat (KV, see Aboda Zara, iv. 8). In these presses the grapes were trodden. The whole process is shown in several Egyptian pictures (Lepsius, ii. 13, 53, 96, iii. 11"; Wilkinson, i. 385), in one of which the treaders are represented holding by cords from the roof over the pdrdh. Sometimes flat stones are put over the grapes to assist the treading. The garments and feet of those treading are dyed with the 'blood of the grape' (Dt 32", Is 633). As they trod they shouted (Jer 48s3) and sang their vintage songs (Is 1610). It has been supposed that there is a line of one of these preserved in Is 658 (see Smith, OTJC2 209). The same customs are still observed wherever wine is made in the East (Iiobinson, i. 431 and ii. 81). The wine-press is a favourite figure with theprophets, typifying God's judgments on sin (Is 633, La I15, Kev 1420). The first part of the juice which entered the yekeb was the first-fruits (Ex 22s9), and was offered to God. In Egypt the residuum from the press is put into a sack and squeezed by wringing; see Lepsius, ii. 53. There is no mention in the Bible of the subsequent processes of wine-making, but probably the expressed juice was left in the 'fats' until fermentation had set in (Hag 2s), or put, as represented in the Egyptian picture (Wilkinson, i. 385), into jars, or, when fermented, it was transferred for storage to large ox-skins. These at the present day are kept ranged around the storehouse or cellar, which is called in 1 Ch 2727 jrffl ti\x 'ozar % hayyayin. Bruce speaks of ox-skins capable of holding 60 gallons, and greased on the outside to prevent evaporation (Travels, iv. 334; see Athenseus, ii. 28. Herodotus speaks of camel-skin vessels, iii. 9). When the deposit of the tartarous matter or lees (ones' shemartm, LXX rpuytas, 5bЈa, or 0\ayfia) had taken place, the clear supernatant wine was poured off into a new vessel (Jer 48"), and this is the well-refined wine of Is 256. In this passage shemarim is used in alliteration with shemanim, ' fat things,' in the earlier clause. Drinking the lees is used allegorically in the sense of the bitter penal consequences of sin (Ps 75a; see also Zeph I12, Jer 48"). Wine is known by nine names in the OT, but these do not necessarily mean different kinds. The varieties of wines are named from the locality of their production. Thus we read of the wines of Kerotim, Tolim, Bethrima, Bethlaba, and Signa as those suited for the service of the sanctuary {Menachoth, viii. 6). Other well-known wines were those of En-gedi, Acco, and Gaza. In Egypt the wines of Bubastis (Herod, ii. 126), of Sebennytus, and of Mareotis (Strabo, xvii. 779; Athenseus, i. 33) were highly esteemed. Saronitic wine was so strong that it needed two parts of water to dilute it (Shabbath, lxxvii. 1), and Babylonian wine needed also to be diluted (Berachoth, i.). See Kimchi (Comm. on Hos 14s). The commonest word used for wine is [;; yayin, a loan word from a non-Semitic root. This occurs 143 times, being first mentioned in connexion with Noah's drunkenness. It is the word used for wine in the blessing of Jacob (Gn 49Ui 12); it is said to cheer God and man (Jg 913), and to make glad the heart of man (Ps 10416). Repentant and returning Israel is to be rewarded by again drinking the wine of her vineyards (Am 9"), as she had done before (Ec 97). It was to be given to them of heavy vol. ii.—3 heart (Pr 316), but its use had to be limited, for it was intoxicating, as in the cases of Nabal (1 S 25s7), Lot (Gn 1932), Amnon (2 S 1328), the drunkards of Ephraim (Is 281). It was the wine used by Job's family (Job I13); but king Lemuel was dissuaded from its use, because it is said to prevent judgment (Pr 316), and to cause vomiting (Is 287 5U, Hos 75). It is called a mocker (Pr 201; see also Jer 23'). It was this form of wine with which Melchizedek welcomed Abraham's return (Gn 1418). It is usually rendered otvos by LXX. In general, this word is used when wine is spoken of as a beverage. piTfi tirdsh occurs 38 times, and is rendered by LXX by olvos, fait. (Is 658). ov iU$vjfi egel (Is 2710); an 'egel marbek or fatted calf was killed for Saul by the witch (1 S 2824); see also Gn 187 (where the calf is ben bakar, 'the son of-the herd') and 0 crirevr&s fifoxos of Lk 1530. w shЈr (LXX n6 i")n hargdl, LXX 6, Vulg. phiala, only used in Ezr I9 and tr. ' charger,' was a gold bowl or basin, said by Ibn Ezra to be the same as that called Mizr&k. jax 'aggdn, LXX Kpar^p, used in Ex 246 for a wash-vessel or basin for sacrificial blood, made of gold, silver, or brass. Its plural is tr. cups in Is 2231; see also Ca 72. TDK 'astik, an oil vessel 2 K 42 tr. ' pot,' after Kimchi, but more probably a flask or bottle. if]8 'argdz, a cotter or box, which could be slung to the side of a cart, such as that in which the votive offerings of the Philistines were sent (1 S 611). paps bakbufy, a wide-mouthed bottle or cruse for carrying honey (1 K 143). It was of earthenware, and so was easily broken (Jer 191-10); LXX renders it /3ik6s, which is the name given by Herodotus to the Babylonian casks of palm wine (i. 194). Athenseus uses it for a drinking vessel (784 D). In Maltese a large vessel of this kind is called bakbyka. !2'33 gabta', wine bowls (as Jer 35s, LXX icep&iuov), of earthenware, from which wine was poured into goblets. A silver cup used for drinking and divination Gn 442; LXX kovSv, said to be a Persian word. It is used for the pots of wine out of which Jeremiah filled the kdsuth for the Rechabites, Jer 355. rhi qull&h, LXX ffTpeirrliv 6.v94/uov, a round vessel for holding oil in a lamp Zee 4s, the golden cruse of Ec 128, used also for the rounded bowls above the capitals of the temple-pillars in 1 K 74> and 2 Ch 412-13, possibly volutes such as those shown on the tablet of Samas in the Brit. Museum. 13 kad, a pail or barrel to hold meal 1 K1714, or water 1K1833. This name is given to Rebekah's pitcher Gn 2414-l5ff>, and to Gideon's men's pitchers Jg 716; see also Ec 126. "'pa keli, a vessel in general, of gold and silver Gn 246S, or of clay Lv II33, apparently so called irrespective of shape, used for the vessels of the temple Is o2", Ezr 1?, Nu 415. ois kOs, a wine cup as in Gn 4011-1S- a. Pharaoh'a wine chalice, the cup which passed around the circle at a meal 2 S 12s. See also Pr 2331, used metaphorically Ps II611613, Is 511'"22, Hab 2le etc. is and ap. were vessels of measurement, the former about 8 bushels, the latter about 4 pints. riKi?, also a measure, nearly equals the English peck, and is a little greater than the /*66ios or ' Dushel' oi Mt 515. See Weights and Measures. %i'ib? kephOr, a deep cup or chalice as 1 Ch 2817, Ezr I10, and 827, probably a cup with a cover. njEjij mahttbath, a Hat plate (?) for frying or baking bread Lv 614 79, 1 Ch 2329, Ezk 43. See Bbead. hAh fi 2 K 216 i , , qf mahtAh, a firepan 2 K 2516, or an incense bowl Lv 1612, a coalpan Ex 273 2538, LXX irvpeiov. n;pit? menakkiydh, a sacrificial dish Ex 25^ 3716, Nu 47, Jer 5219, probably a libation vessel. njnp medok&h, a mortar in which e.». the manna was beaten before being baked Nu 11". piip a bowl; of these Hiram made a hundred 2 Ch' 48, 1 K 7«-4S. See Ex 25i9, 1 Ch 28"-17, Nu 713, Zee 915. For the numbers of these 0idXai and o-irov8eia see Jos. Ant. vm. iii. 7, 8. It is a sacrificial bowl for dashing (pi)) the blood in a volume against the altar (see Driver's note on Am 66). iiii'ndd, a skin bottle, see above under Wine. !??} nebel, a skin of wine 1 S I2410s, 2 S 161; this word is also used for an earthen vessel as in Is 2224 3014. It is also the name of a musical instrument, a lute (RV) or psaltery or viol Is 512. ID saph, a basin or bowl for blood Ex 1222, Jer 5218, for wine Is 5117, Zee 122. b?t) sephel, a bowl Jg 5* 638; LXX XeK&rn; also inl K'7Mand2K 1213. 115 pak, a vial or flask of oil 1 S JO1, 2 K' 91"3; LXX p|, nj>ps, m^p?, S>?P, ^o, ni^P (the root 7D3 means possibly ' to be thick, plump, sluggish'). 3. ^;!S, 'i'ljf, nb\tt (root-conception possibly the same as in the preceding), i. ^?ino, nMi.i, mhbin (from a root suggesting the idea of wild frantic folly). S. bs®, foaii (from a root ' to be insipid'), only in Job I22 2412, Jer 2313. 6. n^ (supposed by Dillm. to be connected with 5th. tahala, ' to err'), Job 418. _ All these terms denote something distinct from imbecility, on the one hand and insanity on the other hand. It is in the forms under Ј only that the notions of 'folly' and 'madness' come together (cf. Job 12", Is 442S with 1 S 2113, Jer 2516). As a rule, different words (derivatives from vw) are used for 'madman' and 'madness.' The OT idea of ' folly' can be best understood from the antithesis it forms to ' wisdom.' Wisdom is not a theoretical or abstractly scientific apprehension of things, but such a practical immediate insight into their reality and manner of action as enables one to use them to advantage. Correspondingly, a fool is not one who is deficient in the power of logical thought, but one who lacks the natural discernment and tact required for success in life. Both wisdom and folly are teleological conceptions, and rest on the principle of adjustment to a higher law for some practical purpose. This general idea is, however, applied with considerable variety as to particular shades of meaning. (a) In the widest sense folly is lack of common-sense in ordinary affairs (Gn 3128, 1 S 2525 ["pgj, n1?}!], 2621 [>?prr], 2 S 1531 [>sp]). Here the element of'unreasonableness and inexpediency is most prominent. (b) A moral and religious element enters into the conception where it expresses flagrantly sinful conduct such as offends against the fundamental principles of natural law and usage. In this sense tools are great sinners—impious, reprobate people. But the original idea is retained in so far as the thought of sudden divine retribution lies in the background, it being considered the height of folly, by violating the elementary rules of religion and morality, to expose ode's self to the untimely end which frequently befalls the fool (Jos 716, 2 S 3* (cf. Driver, in loco), Job 210 308 52-3 [all ^.;, ffo}], Ps 107" |>!S]). A profounder and more spiritualized turn is given to this idea in some of the psalms, where it is applied to sin as such (Ps 385 69* [ni^x], cf. 2 S 24'° P>jpj]). This whole usage, with* 'its identification of what is sensible and right, bespeaks a high development of the popular moral sense in Israel. (c) A special usage connected with the foregoing characterizes as folly sexual sins of various kinds (Gn 347, Dt 2221, Jg 1922-2S-M 206-10, Jer 2923). The standing phrase is 'folly in Israel,' ' which ought not to be done,' the implication being that such offences go against all reason in undermining the foundations of society as well as destroying the holiness of Israel, ^jj and nVaj are regularly used in this meaning; a synonym is nji ' le>ydness'; cf. further the sense of m^l! in Hos 212, and of the verb in passages like Jer 14ai, Mic 76, Nah 38j further, n^j in Job 42s. (d) Inasmuch as in the Mosaic law a special norm has been given for the wise guidance of Israel's life, disregard of this law is equivalent to foolishness. Apostate Israel is 'a foolish (^j) people and unwise' (Dt 326); the Gentiles, not possessed of such a revelation, are 'a foolish nation,' 'a no-people ' (Dt 3221; cf. Dt 46, Jer 4a2 fop]). The heathen diviners stand revealed as fools when the divinely-guided course of history foretold to Israel mocks their prognostications (Is 19U> 13 44iS, Ezk 13:1). Especially the higher classes among Israel might be expected to have profited by this wisdom (Jer 54). (e) A more specialized meaning is assumed l>y the term ' fool' in the so-called Hokhma-literature of the OT (Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and some psalms and prophetic passages). Here also foolishness is the opposite of wisdom. But wisdom has developed, out of the unreflecting instinctive gift of seeing right and doing right, into the conscious art of successfully ordering the whole of individual life and conduct in harmony with the teleological principles of the divine government of the world, especially as embodied in the revealed law. Hence wisdom and folly are here introduced as personifications ; and the divine wisdom, as the archetypal source of every teleological arrangement, is distinguished from unman wisdom. Wisdom in this sense is ' practical virtuosity in the entire domain of ethics' (Riehm); it is equivalent to methodically applied religion and morality, as appears from the frequent interchange between it and the terms denoting piety and righteousness. Folly, as its contrast, is presented under two aspects, being either confined to a simple disregard of the rules of wisdom, or proceeding to open denial of the principle of divine government on which these rules are based. In the former character the fool is elaborately depicted in Proverbs. While wisdom consists primarily in circumspect behaviour, self-control, self-restraint, and teachableness, the fool is he who lets his undisciplined nature have free play—the self-reliant, self-pleased, arrogant, indocile, hasty with words, contentious, envious, quick to anger, intemperate, credulous, sluggish, given to pursuit of vain things, unable to conceal his own folly and shame. As easily seduced, he is called 719 ' simple,' as unreceptive of instruction either by counsel or experience Vpsi, as by nature stupid 1J23, as insensible to the claims of God or man "753; cf. the definition of ^i in Is 326 (in Pr •??} occurs only 177-21 3(P, S'l.s 19t., 'j'd? 491.). Folly, in the most advanced sense of a systematically conceived and applied theory of life opposed to that of wisdom, is equivalent to practical atheism. The fool C?5j) is he who has said in his heart, ' There is no God '; by which, not a theoretical denial of the divine existence, but a practical negation of God's moral government is meant (Ps U1 531 39s, Is 9"). Synonymous with b?j in this meaning is f1? ' mocker.' B. In NT. Analogies for most of the above meanings may be found in NT, usually with a somewhat larger admixture of the intellectual element. (a) Foolishness appears as the lack of common-sense perception of the reality of things natural and spiritual, or as the imprudent ordering of one's life in regard to salvation ; S.puv, luapos, dxdi)Tos (Mt 726 2317 252ff-, Lk II401220 24s6, Gal 31-s). (6) The QT *??5 as a moral reprobate reappears in the /iuai of Mt 5r®, a term of opprobrium distinguished by its ethical import from the Aramaic 'Paicd, occurring in the same verse and expressing merely intellectual imbecility. (c) Of the natural foolishness belonging to the heathen mind, the only remedy for which lies in the wisdom supplied by revelation, we read in Ko 220, Tit 33. The counterpart of the OT idea of the law as an institution for the wise guidance of Israel is furnished by St. Paul, who represents the gospel as a teleological arrangement in which the liighes.t wisdom is manifested and recognized by the believer (Bo II33). Inasmuch, however, as the Gentile mind sustains a radically wrong relation to the moral world, it fails to see this marvellous adaptation and decries the gospel as foolishness. Even the converted Greek is under temptation to justify its reasonableness from the worldly point of view by such a presentation as will materially alter its character. Hence the sharp antithesis, 1 Co I21"25 214 318-23 410, the wisdom of the world is foolishness to God, the foolishness of Christ crucified is the wisdom of God. (ri e"n 'ish ragli (Jg 202, 2 S 84, 1 Ch 1841918). The Greek is mostly ire^ol (1 Es 851, Jth I4 26-19- *> 720 97, 2 Mac II4132), but we also find ivSpis 1 Mac 9", 0d\a7{ 1 Mac 1082, Svvd-nets 1 Mac 1249, and irefrnol (n1 -i}) 1 Mac 165. Footmen probably composed the whole of the Isr. forces (1 S 410154) before the time of David. From Solomon's day onwards Israel certainly possessed also, chariots and cavalry (IK 4" EV). See Army. The Eng. word is used freely in old writers in this sense, as Malory, Morte Darthur, I. ix. ' And when he came to the sea he sent home the footmen again, and took no more with him but ten thousand men on horseback'; I. xiv. ' ever in saving of one of the footmen we lose ten horsemen for him.' 2. A runner on foot: 1 S 22" ' And the king said unto the footmen that stood about him, Turn, and slay the priests of the LORD' (D'jn razim; AVm 'or guard, Heb. runners'; RV 'guard,' RVm 'Heb. runners'). 'Runners' would be the literal, and at the same time the most appropriate trn. The king had a body of runners about him, not so much to guard his person as to run his errands and do his bidding. They formed a recognized part of the royal state (1 S 8U, 2 S 151); they served as executioners (1 S 22", 2 K 1026); and, accompanying the king or his general into battle, they brought back official tidings of its progress or event (2 S 1819, and see Ahimaaz). Out of this running messenger the Persian kings developed a regular postal system (Est 313, and see POST). Runners were at one time in England an essential part of a nobleman's train. Thus Prior (1718), Alma, i. 58— 'Like Footmen running before Coaches To tell the Inn what Lord approaches.' But the Bee (1791) says 'their assistance was often wanted to support the coach on each side, to * In modern Syria, where level irrigated ground like that ol Egypt is planted with vegetables or mulberry trees in rows, the field or patch is laid out in shallow drills, and, as each receives its sufficiency of water, a little earth is taken from the end of the next drill and patted by the naked foot into a dam, 80 that the water may pass to the drill next in order. prevent it from being overturned.' The modern footman has a different function, but he is tha lineal descendant of the 'running footman,' as he came to be called, of an earlier day. In Jer 125 both the Heb. (ofyi) and the Eng. (footmen) seem* to be used in the more general sense of racers on foot: ' If thou hast run with the footmen, and they have wearied thee, then how canst thou contend with horses?' Cf. Webster (1(354), Appius and Virg. I. i.— ' I have heard of cunning footmen that have worn Shoes made of lead, some ten days 'fore a race, To give them nimble and more active feet.' J. Hastings. FOOTSTOOL.—Although this word occurs repeatedly in the Bible, it is remarkable that only twice at most is it used in its literal sense. In OT it appears in 2 Ch 918 as trn of »j| (fr. e*jj ' tread under foot'), the golden footstool of Solomon's throne, but here Kittel (see his note in Haupt's OT) would read b}3 ' lamb.' The one clear reference to a literal footstool is in Ja 2s ' sit under my footstool' (liTowdStiv /xov). Everywhere else, both in OT (1 Ch 282, Is 66\ La 21, Ps 995 110> 1327, in all of which it is tr° of D^rn niq, the word Din being poet, or late) and NT (Mt 5s5, Mk 1236, Lk 2043,' Ac 2s5 749, He I13 1013, all i^on-ooW tSiv ttoSuw, trd by RV with strict accuracy ' footstool of my [thy, his] feet' instead of AV 'my [thy, his] footstool'),* it is used metaphorically. Originally 'r\ airi, spoken of God, seems to have designated the ark, 1 Ch 282, but was naturally extended to include the whole of the temple, La 21 (see notes of Thenius and L6hr), Ps 995 1327 (cf. Is 6013, Ezk 437). In Ps HO1 the vanquished foes of the Messianic King are put as a footstool under His feet. In Is 661 earth is the footstool of Him whose throne is heaven. J. A. Selbie. FOR.—Both as prep, and as conj. ' for' has some archaic or obscure uses that deserve attention. 1. When the meaning is on account of, as Gn 20s ' Behold thou art but a dead man, for the woman which thou hast taken' (^b, RV 'because of). The RV has changed 'for' into 'because of in Ezk 6U (Heb. HO; Gn 203, Est 9-16, Hos 916 (Heb. !?K); Lv 1634, La 413, Dn 519 (Heb m); 2 S IP (Heb. in,/?); 2K 1618, Jer 97 38a (Heb. , RV 'in the stead of); Nu 1831 (^o, RV 'in return for'). Cf. Philem 16 Wye. 'now not as a servaunt, but for a servaunt a most dere brother.' 3. For is occasionally equivalents as: Is 43s 'I gave Egypt for thy ransom' (1"!??, RV ' as thy ransom'); Mt 2146 ' they took him for a prophet' (ws); 1 P 216 ' not using your liberty for a cloTce of maliciousness' (iis). Cf. Merlin (E.E.T.S.), iii. 642, 'Thei clayme Bretaigne for thiers, and I clayme Rome for myne'; Defoe, Hob. Crusoe (Gold Treas. ed. p. 522), ' I was never pursued for a Thief before.' 4. For, as a conj., is used to introduce the cause or reason. Sometimes modern usage would prefer 'because' or' seeing that,' as in Wychf, Select Works, iii. 105, ' And for God made alle thinges to help of mankynde, therfore we sholde axe thes thynges of God'; and p. 110, 'And ones they reprovede Crist, for his disciples wesche nought here hondes whanne they sholde eete, as here custome was'; and Tindale's tr" of 1 Jn 312 in Expositions, 191, ' And wherefore slew he him ? For his deeds were evil, and his brother's righteous' (in edd. of NT 1526 and 1534 'because'). So in some places of AV, as Jn II47 'What do we? for this man doeth many miracles.' In the foil, passages RV changes ' for! into ' because': Nu 217 27" 3212, Dt 147,1S 924, Job' 1525 3216, Jer 2011 51U, Ezk 3618, Dn 91!), Mt 2313, Lk I13 441 648 2128, Ac 2218, Eph 530, Ph I29, 1 P 414, 1 Jn 39, Rev 1212: to which Amer. RV adds Jer 321, 1 Jn 320. Some of those changes, however, are due to a change in the construction of the sentence, especially Ezk 36IS. There is, indeed, no glaringly obsolete example of ' for' in this sense in AV, such as we find so often in Shaks. Cf. Tempest, I. ii. 272- ' And, for thou wast a spirit too delicate To act her earthy and abhorred commands, Refusing her grand hests, she did confine thee, Into a cloven pine.' 5. The foil, phrases are archaic or obsolete: (1) For all, Ps 783;! 'For all this they sinned still' (nsir^j?); Jn 2111 ' for all there were so many, yet was not the net broken' (roa-o&rav 6vtwv). Cf. Chaucer, Knightes Tale, 1162— ' The sowe freten the child right in the cradel; The cook y-scalded, for al his longe ladel.' (2) For because, Gn 2216 ' By myself have I sworn, saith the Lord, for because thou hast done this thing . . . that in blessing I will bless thee' (IT '3 T $), Ro512(e0' $), Ja 415 ' For that ye ought to say' ( or 'endurance' than by 'long-suffering.' A real parallel to this use is found in 1 Mac 84, where we are told how the Romans subdued all Spain by their counsel and their fiaKpodvpia ; where the word evidently means their stubborn persistence, that quality in virtue of which, though sometimes defeated in battle, they were always victorious in war. But though this sense of no.Kpo9vii.la: is represented in NT, the prevailing one is that which is akin, not. to endurance but to forbearance; it is a slowness, like that of God, in avenging wrongs, a restraint of anger, a gentleness and meekness in dealing with those who treat us unjustly. The synonymous word in this direction is rather irpn6rj;s than viro/Mrf). There is a difficult passage about God's long-suffering in Lk 187. If we compare Sir 32s2 6 /ciipios ou /tfy Ppadivy oi8i /tf) iiaKpodyixijtm iir' atirois, $ws av avvrplifi-g 6ff(j>bv avekernibvwv, it can hardly seem doubtful that the evangelist meant by his last words, 'though he shows long indulgence to them,' i.e. to the enemies of the elect; if, however, iir' avrois must refer to the elect, then there seems no clear meaning to be got but by confining the force of the ov to the first clause, and saying that God surely does not exercise long-suffering (this would be the effect of the interrogative ,iMj) where the interests of His elect are at stake, but avenges them speedily. But whatever we make of this case, there is no doubt that long-suffering and forbearance are characteristically and conspicuously qualities both of the divine and of the Christian character. As distinguished from each other, &vox[i suggests that it is merely a temporary restraint that is being practised; this may be the case with [MKpo$viua also, indeed it is the case, and hence such warnings as we have in Ro 241-, but it is not suggested by the word itself. J. Denney. FORBID.—To forbid is to order one not to do a thing, and the proper construction is a personal object and an iniin., as 1 Th 216 ' Forbidding us to speak to the Gentiles that they might be saved.' But custom allows the omission of the person, as Lk 232' We found this fellow perverting the nation, and forbidding to give tribute to Cassar'; or of the infin., as Nu II28 ' My lord Moses, forbid them,' Mt 314 ' But John forbad him.' But when ' forbid' is found with an impers. object and that alone, the construction is quite irregular. There are two instances, 2 P 2'6 'a dumb ass speaking with man's voice forbad the madness of the prophet' (RV ' stayed'),* and Ac 1047 ' Can any man forbid water that these should not be baptized?' In both cases the Greek verb (KuXiieic) is that usually translated ' forbid,' and in Greek writers it has the meanings of ' restrain' (as 2 P 216) and ' refuse' (as Ac 1047), but the Eng. verb ' forbid' has not properly these meanings, and should not have been used. In both places ' forbid' is as old as Wyclif, who, following the Vulg. prohibere, used the word very freely : compare its use in Ac II17' Who was Y, that myghte forbeede the Lord, that he gyue not the Hooli Goost to hem that bileueden in the name of Jhesu Crist ?' From Wyclif also comes God forbid, the strong and striking translation of n?'bn hdlildh and of jtj4* ua [i Hsis] 2 S 2020 Ms 2317,1 Oh 1119; by Јi? KifM 1 S 14*>; and by «.« pun tin Job 27'. The Vulg. is more uniform, rendering by Absit (hoc) a me (te, etc.) in all places except Gn IS251* nequaquam, 44? where abxU of Old Lat. may have dropped out, 1 S 14** Hoe nefas eet, and Propitius sit mihi Dcminus in 1 S 248 26H, 2 S 23", 1 K 2W. Wyclif followed the Vulgate, the later version having ' Fer be it fro me, thee,' etc., wherever Vulg. has Absit (hoc) a me, te, etc., and ' The Lord be merciful to me' in 1 S 246 26U, 2 S 2317, IK 213; while Gn 447 is ' Whi speketh oure Lord so,' and 1 S 1445 ( This is unleueful.* The earlier version is less uniform, thus Jos 2229 % God shilde fro us this hidows gilt,' 1 Ch 1119 ' God sheelde,' 1 S 14*6 ' that is felony.' So, wherever pi yivure occurs in NT the earlier Wye. vers. has ' Fer be it,' but the later has always 'God forbede.' And this phrase was accepted by Tindale, and after him by nearly all the Versions both in OT for h&ltt&h and in NT for «} %yimro. AV and EV translate hdlildh by 'God forbid' ('The Lord forbid' 1 S 246 26U, 1 K 213, an(j < My God forbid it me' 1 Ch llis>) everywhere except Gn 1825 Ms, 1 S 230 209 2215, 2 S 202»6«s 23", where the Wyclifite phrase ' Far be it from' or ' Be it far from' has been retained. This phrase Amer. EV prefers throughout OT. As we have seen, tin yhotra is only one of the renderings of frdlffldh in LXX. Of the others jtwjSa/*^ occurs twice in NT, Ac 10" II8 (EV 'Not so, Lord'), and "hubs tru once, Mt 1622 (EV ' Be it far from thee, Lord'). But iA %yittna is found fifteen times, all but Lk 2016 being in St. Paul's Epistles, and in twelve of St. Paul's fourteen instances it is used to express the apostle's abhorrence of an inference which he fears may be falsely drawn from his argument. See Burton, NT Moods and Tenses^, p. 79. EV translates everywhere by ' God forbid,' a phrase which Is undoubtedly more forcible than the original, and for which Lightfoot suggests ' Nay, verily,' or ' Away with the thought.' ' God forbid' occurs also in Apocr., 1 Mac 22i ' God forbid that we should forsake the law and the ordinances' ("I).Јa»? vjimv xaiaXitnuv, EV 'Heaven forbid,' RVm 'Gr. May he be propitious. Cf. 2 S 23" Sept.'); 910 'Then Judas said, God forbid that I should do this thing' (Mi) iaoi yiyoira xoiytrou, EV ' Let it not be so that I should do this thing'). J, HASTINGS. FORCE.—The subst. 'force' has become restricted in meaning since 1611. It then signified a man's personal might, as Jer 2310 'their course is evil, and their force is not right' (niu?, Cheyne 'their might or heroism'); even physical strength, as Dt 347' his eye was not dim, nor his natural force abated' (nb, only here, but adj. rA is moist, fresh, of fruit, Nu 63, or of growing or freshly-cut wood, Ezk 1724, Gn 3037, hence ' neither had his freshness fled '—Driver) ; Job 4016 ' his force is in the navel (RV muscles) of his belly' (|i«, here of behemoth, in 187-12 of man's strength); Am 214 ' the strong shall not strengthen his force' (IP). Cf. Ps 10223 (Sternhold and Hopkins)— ' My wonted strength and force he hath abated in the way.' Force as a personal attribute is now restricted to strength in action or application, as it is in Ezk 344 ' with force and with cruelty have ye ruled them' (rtijiri); and in the phrase ' take by force,' which in Mt II12, Jn 615, Ac 2310 is the trn of the single verb apr&tei-v, to seize. The phrase ' of force' is now replaced by ' in force.' It occurs He 9" 'a testament is of force after men are dead' (/S^Scuos); and in a slightly different sense, 2 Es 7s6 ' the good deeds shall be of force, and wicked deeds shall bear no rule' (iustitioz vigilabunt, RV 'shall awake'): cf. 937 ' the law perisheth not, but remaineth in his force' (permansit in suo honore, RV 'in its honour'). The phrase was also used in the sense of ' by com- pulsion,' as we still use ' perforce'; so often iv Shaks. as / Henry IV, II. iii.120— ' Will this content you, Kate ? It must, of force'; Jul. Cm. IV. iii. 203— ' Good reasons must, of force, give place to better'; Milton, PL iv. 813— ' No falsehood can endure Touch of celestial temper, but returns Of force to its own likeness'; and i. 144— ' Our conqueror (whom I now Of force believe almighty)'— though Craik thinks ' of force' in the last passage may mean ' in power.' lor Force, Forces = military strength, see Army. J. Hastings. FORD (i?y,o, rnjyi?. In Jg 125-6 AV needlessly substitutes ' passages' for ' fords'; in 2 S 15-8 17*8 RV has 'fords' (ni-nj>) where AV has 'plains' (Jims). See Driver's note, ad loc).—Fords were important landmarks in early OT times, when there were no bridges across rivers. There seem to have been two principal fords across the Jordan—(1) that opposite Jericho (Jos 27, Jg 3®, 2 S 1913), used to this day for crossing from Pal. into Moab, except in early summer when the river is in flood (Jos 315); (2) Bethabara (the reading of TR and AV, but WH and RV have Bethany) where John baptized (Jn 12S). The site has been identified by the officers of the Ordnance Survey, and described by Conder as the spot called 'Abdrah, where the Jalfid river, flowing down the Valley of' Jezreel, debouches into the Jordan (Tent Work in Pal. p. 229). Some of the fords of the Jordan, of which about forty were identified by the Pal. Survey, are impassable in spring or early summer, as the waters, swollen by the melting of the snows of the Lebanon and adjoining regions, rise and overflow their banks, covering the alluvial plains on either side. Such was the case when the Isr. under Joshua crossed on dry ground by command of J" to besiege Jericho (Jos 316). Amongst the other fords mentioned in Scripture are those of the Jabbok (Gn 3222) and the Arnon, a river descending from the tableland on the east of the Jordan Valley, and at the time of the Isr. invasion forming the boundary between the Moabites and the Amorites (Nu 2113), also referred to in Is 162. The Romans were probably the first great bridge-builders over the streams of Palestine. (See, further, G. A. Smith, Hist. Geog. 286, 337 n.; Moore, Judges, 102 f. 214; Driver, Text of Sam. 245, 257.) E. Hull. FORECAST.—In the phrase • forecast devices,' Dn II24-25 (n^riD atfij, RV 'devise devices'), the meaning is ' contrive beforehand,' as Golding (1587), Be Mornay, xiii. 203, ' At the first sight the thing which was forecast by good order, seemeth to happen by adventure.' In Wis 17" the word occurs in the sense of ' think beforehand,' ' for-bode': ' Wickedness . . . alwaj'S forecasteth grievous things' (Kc-a irpoel\Tiy 'front.' It is used in AV as trn of (1) u^ face, 2 K 1614, Ezk 4019Ms 471; (2) D'# W> overagainst thi face, Ex 269 28s', Lv 89, 2 S II15; (3) j» tooth, FOKEGO FOKEIGNER 1 S 14"; (4) «Mn head, 2 Ch 2027; and Tpbauvov face, 1 Mac 4s7. KV changes Lv 89 ' upon the mitre, even upon his forefront,' into ' upon the mitre, in front'; and 1 S 14s' The forefront of the one was situate northward' into ' The one crag rose up on the north.' BV also adds Jos 2211 'in the forefront of the land of Canaan' (^d-^, AV 'over against'); and Ezk 4015 his ' And from the forefront of the gate at the entrance unto the forefront of the inner porch' (dS>x \}?^ finx'S is»!g 'i?'i% AV ' from the face . . . unto the face'). FOREGO.—Sir 718' Forego not a wise and good woman: for her grace is above gold' (fir/ dH dij |j?xi).' For Lv 13<"ff- (' forehead bald') see Baldness. J. A. Selbie. FOREIGNER occurs four times in AV. It is the trn in Ex 1246'of apin (BV more accurately 'sojourner '), in Dt 15a and Ob" of n?j, and in Eph 219 of vdpotKos (BV 'sojourner').' BV sub-stitutes 'foreigner' for AV 'stranger' as trn of. %or;? in Lv 2325, and of ' %>?} in Dt 17" 2320 29s2.; Amer. BV makes the same change in Bu 210, 2 S, 1519, where the Heb. word is the same. ;. A cognate term is alien(s), which occurs in AV; of Ex 183.as trn of i: (BV correctly 'sojourner'), of i?j ri? in Is 61", and of hjj in Dt 1421 (BV 'foreigner'), Job 1915, Ps 698, La 53. BV adds Ex 12", Ezk 447-9, Pr 510, where AV has 'stranger,'. and Ps 1447-", where AV has ' strange children' (Heb. in all these njj '.43). Strangers is the favourite rendering in AV, nor only of npj or npj->| and %>; (see below), but also of 1J and ajf'iA The latter circumstance is specially unfortunate, because it obscures to the Eng. reader the distinction between the foreigner and the gir, which in Heb. is marked clearly enough, and on which not a little depends for the understanding of many passages. The gir is indeed a foreigner by birth, Jbut he resides in Israel and is protected by the community;. whereas the foreigner proper (*ijj) is not only an alien by birth, but nas neither home nor rights in Israel. It would have been well if BV had uniformly, instead of occasionally, substituted 'sojourner' for 'stranger' as the trn of 13, and left 'stranger,' 'foreigner,' 'alien' to represent such words as *ijj and it. We.shall now examine the linguistic usage of the last two Heb. words and their equivalents in LXX and NT. (a) II (zdr) in its root meaning appears scarcely to differ from ge"r, although ultimately the two words have very different connotations. The orig. sense of both is one who turns asicus from the way (sc. to lodge somewhere). It is easy to connect this with the idea of a stranger or alien. Amongst other applications II is used to designate one who is not of a priestly family, Ex 29* 30*1, Nu 310-38 187 (all P), Lv 22N>-12-13 (H), or who does not belong to the tribe of Levi, Nu l»l 184 (P). The plur. D1*!! is a frequent designation of foreign (generally hostile) % peoples in contrast to Israel, Hos 7' 87, Is 17, Ezk 721, Jl 3", Ob 11 etc. The LXX equivalents are »XK6Tptag and b f hih t if Ob etc. Th qts pg yi;, the former of which occurs not infrequently in NT, the latter only once (Lk 1718 of the Samaritan leper). (b) nj: (nokhri) or ipi"?? (ben-nlkhdr). If the root idea here is strangeness, perhaps 'stranger' might with advantage be reserved as the special trn of these two equivalent terms, '"l^ is II nbi 'exile' in 2S 1519 (of Ittai the Gittite); it is opposed to a 'brother' (nx), i.e. a fellow-Israelite, in Dt 153 1715; it i8 used of the stranger who directs his prayer towards the temple of Israel's God, 1 K 8« = 2 Ch &®; of the foreign wives (ni-pj), Ezr 102; of foreign garb (njj W37O perhaps referring to the uniform of the foreign body-guard), Zeph is (cf. "l?,!'^? 'everything foreign,' Neh 1330), The commonest LXX equivalent is xxMt/hk (cf. Ac 7', He 119-M). «aa»>*m5? also occurs (e.g. Gn 1727, Ex 12^, Lv 2225, is 603-6) an Elimelech Slid his family, 2 K 8lff- the Shunam-mite), blood-feud (Gn 416' Cain, Ex 215 Moses, 2 S 13s4 Absalom) or political reasons (1 S 272 David, 1 K II40 Jeroboam, 11" Hadad). There were, however, three circumstances that helped to mitigate the lot of the stranger in a strange land,—(1) The hospitality to strangers, which is one of the noblest virtues of ancient peoples : ' the stranger did not lodge in the street, but I opened my doors to the traveller' (Job 3133; cf. Gn 18. 19. 24. 43, Jg 13. 19, 2 S 124, 1 K 17). Public inns in the modern sense (the Eastern khan is something quite different) were unknown and unneeded. In Lk 1034 we first hear of an inn (iravSox^iev) where the host (iravSox^ii) takes payment for accommodating travellers. While spies naturally received no consideration (Gn 429, Jos 23ff-), the narratives of Gn 19 and Jg 19 show how scrupulously the old Israelites guarded their guests. In an age when the altar was universally an asylum (see Altab, p. 76b), the helpless stranger was frequently considered to be under the special protection of the god of the land, hence the 'fear of God' (Gn 2011 4218) was an extra safeguard to him. (2) The alliances with other nations of which we read must have exercised a considerable influence upon Israel's attitude towards foreigners (1 K 15'8ff- Asa with Benhadad, 2 K 16" Is V Pekah with Rezin, 2 K 168 Ahaz with Tiglath-pileser, 2 K 174 Hosea with So, 2 K 2012ff- Is 39 Hezekiah with Merodach-baladan, Ezk 1716 Zede-kiah with Egypt). Those who had fought shoulder to shoulder against a common foe would not be strangers in each other's country. One of the most familiar results of this intercourse is seen in the syncretism in religious matters, against which the prophets protest (Is 1710, Ezk 87ff- etc.). (3) Israel's own trading enterprises, which carried her citizens beyond the confines of Palestine (Ezk 2711 to Tyre, 'lK 928 10u 22« to Ophir, 2034 to Damascus), taught the Israelites to sympathize with the feelings of a stranger who came to sojourn in their land (Ex 239). In Israel, as in most Oriental nations, the king encouraged the presence of foreigners at his court, and depended upon their fidelity more than upon that of his own subjects (1 S 217 229 Doeg the Edomite, 2S 1518 207 IK I38-44 Cherethites and Pelethites, 2 S 1519 Ittai the Gittite, 2 K II4-19 Car-ites). By foreign marriages the Isr. king also sought to strengthen his position. Amongst David's wives were Abigail a Ralibbite, Maacah a Geshur-ite (1S 2542,2 S 3s), while his sister was married to Ithra an Ishmaelite (1 Ch2", not Israelite 2 S 1725). Solomon's harem included, besides Pharaoh's daughter, Moabites, Ammonites, Edomites, Zidon-ians, and Hittites (IK II1). The wife of Ahab was Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal king of the Zidonians (1 K 1631). Intermarriages with the Can. are forbidden in Ex 34I5t- (JE), and there were doubtless many in Israel who disliked mixed marriages (Gn 29» 243;37, Nu 121, Jg 143) ; yet these must have been quite common. Unfortunately, the story of Dinah and Shechem (Gn 34), which is of composite origin (Wellh. Cornp. 47 f., 312 f.; Kuenen, Abhandl. 255ft'.; see alsoartt. Shechem, Simeon), has been so often worked over that it is impossible to draw inferences from it with certainty, but Jg 35fr- doubtless gives a true picture of the condition of things (cf. Gn 382, Jg 8», 1 K 714). It was really more through amalgamation than by war that the Can. were subdued. The tribe of Judah confessedly contained a large admixture of Can. elements (see CALEB), and Ed. Meyer goes the length of maintaining (ZAW, 1886, pp. Iff.) that Joseph was originally a Can. tribe. It is this process of amalgamation that helps to account for the rapid increase in the number of Israel's warriors between the time of the judges and the early days of the monarchy (cf. Jg 5s with 2 S 249). Besides foreign traders and resident gSrim, there must always have been in Israel a number of foreign slaves, either taken captive in war, or bought from Phoen. or other traders (Gn 1712, Lv 25«S Nu 3V«ff-). See Slaves. (ft) The Period of the Deuteronomie Legislation.— To protest against religious syncretism had always been a chief part of the prophet's work. The worship of the Tyrian Baal, and the corrupting influences of foreign civilization, were specially dis- FOKEIGNEK FOREKNOWLEDGE 51 tastef al to Elijah, whose feelings were shared by Elisha and the usurper Jehu (2 K 9. 10). It is significant that Jehonadab the son of Reohab is associated with Jehu (2 K 1015ff-), for the whole raison d'Mre of the Eechabite movement lay in opposition to Can. civilization and in attachment to the primitive simplicity, alike in religious and secular matters (Jer 35, cf. W. R. Smith, Proph. of Isr, 84 f.). The attitude of the prophets who have left us their writings is equally clear (Am 211 31« 6U.S5 68 85( Hos 219 gl4 910 10}3 12-ff. U4) gpeci. ally noteworthy is Hos 91 ' Rejoice not, O Israel, like the peoples,' where already' peoples' is almost = ' heathen. The same disinclination to foreigners appears in Is 281041710 2816 301'5 (protest against foreign alliances), Zeph I8-", Jer 2"!- 1029 (although this last may be a late interpolation) 35lff- 376'-. These feelings find expression in the highest degree in the Deuteronomic 'law-book' of Josiah's reign (2 K 22). Israel is a ' holy people' (Dt 76), and the land must not be ' denied' (2123) or ' caused to sin' (244). The relation of Israelites to non-Israelites is henceforth determined by law. The watchword is separation. The old injunction of Ex 2331'- (JE) is repeated in much stronger terms in Dt 71-B 2016'18 (where the present aversion takes the form of a past command to exterminate the Can.), and special stress is laid upon the prohibition of intermarriages with Can. (Dt 7s, Jos 2312). Further, in Dt 15s and 2320, the foreigner (nokhri) is expressly excluded from participation in two of the Israelite s privileges—that of having a creditor's claims waived, every seventh year, and that of borrowing without having to pay interest. In Dt 1421 he is allowed to use for food the flesh of an animal that has died of itself, a concession which, although made in the same passage to the gir, is ultimately withdrawn from the latter, and pronounced to be improper for any dweller in the land of Israel (Lv 1716). See Ger. It is well to remember that nniversalism as well (.8 particularism may be traced in the conduct and the teaching of the early prophets (cf. 1 K 178ff' Elijah and the widow of Zarephath, 2 K 5 Elisha and Naaman, Is 22"4=Mic 41"" the oracle of the mountain of the Lord's house). This element found expression, however, in the direction of proselytizing the gir, not in that of cultivating friendly relations with foreigners proper. For the development, of this subject see Ger. (c) The Exilic and Posi-Exitic Periods.—If an approximation of gir to Israelite was fostered by the Deut. legislation, and grew as time went on, upon the other hand the gulf between Israelite and foreigner became always wider. Even in the ' unclean' land of their exile (Ezk 413f>), where sacrifice could not be offered, Israel could cling to her Sabbaths and to circumcision, and probably meetings akin t6 those of the later synagogue contributed to the maintaining of her separate existence and manner of life. The legislative programme of Ezekiel is specially instructive for our subject. The uncircumcised foreigners who kept guard in the temple (2 K ll4ff>). and probably performed other services (see Cherethites), are henceforward to be strictly excluded (Ezk 446"10), and snSh functions are to be discharged by the Levites (cf. 4422 priests to marry only virgins of the seed of the house of Israel or the widow of a priest). The exiles who returned from Babylon had to solve the problem of their relations with the-other inhabitants of Judaea and with their neighbours. A large number of the original inhabitants had never been carried captive at all, Edomites and others had taken possession of unoccupied settlements, and the colonists planted by the Assyr. king in Samaria (2 K 17248'-) had probably also encroached on Judaea. The majority of the old inhabitants, and a section of the returned exiles, were quite willing to coalesce with their neighbours (Neh 1324, Mai 211), but, thanks to the fiery zeal of Ezra and Nehemiah, such an incorporating union was prevented. The unsparing rigour with which the two reformers carried out their work is matter of history. See Ezra, Nehemiah. It was a veritable crisis. Weapons of various kinds were used on both sides. It may be that literature was pressed into the service. If Dt 234"6 be, as Well-nausen and Cornill think, a later interpolation, it may date from this period, while the Book of Ruth may have been a manifesto issued by the party of toleration. The triumph of the puritan party was completed when the covenant was sealed (Neh 10s0), 1 that we would not give our daughters unto 1ihe peoples of the land, nor take their daughters for our sons,' and when the Torah (P) was accepted as the norm of Israel's conduct (Neh 8). The ideal of P, even more than of D, is a holy people dwelling in a holy land, and serving God according to the prescriptions of His law (Nu 3534, cf. Lv 192"-31). The narrative portions of P carefully omit or modify what does not tally with this conception (e.g. no mention of Moses' sojourn in Midian, or his relations with the priest of that people; Balaam, again, could not be a prophet of J", but becomes a Midianite counsellor, by whose instrumentality Israel was led into immorality). In accordance with the above conceptions, Ezra deliberately sought to erect a hedge, not only around the law, but around Israel, and thus to prevent all contact, except what was absolutely unavoidable, with those outside the pale of Judaism. If the gir had become the proselyte to be welcomed, the nokhri had become the heathen to be shunned. For the further development of the subject see Gentiles, Heathen. Literature.—Bertholet's monograph, Die Stettung d. Isr. «. d. Jud. zu d. Fremden (to which the above article has special obligations); Driver, Deut. xxxif., 98, 289; W. R. Smith, OTJC* 279, 364 (.; Cheyne, Jeremiah, 67; Schurer, HJP n. i. 51-56; Benzinger, Heb. Arch. 339 f., 350, 479; Thayer, NT Lex., and Cremer, Bib.-Theol. Lex. s. *kk*ys*4i;, kMJrrpw. J. A. SELBIE. FOREKNOW, FOREORDAIN.—Both these words translate the same Greek verb Tpoyivdxriceiv, the former in Ro 829, the latter in 1 P I20. ' Foreordain' does not appear before 1611, but Tindale introduced 'ordain before' in 1 P Is0, which was the more surprising that in Ro S29 he translated both Verbs correctly, oOs vpoiyvu koX irpotbpurev, ' those which he knewe before, he also ordeyned before.' Both verbs are rare in English, the earliest certain example of ' foreordain ' found by Oxf. Eng. Diet. being Norton's trn of Calvin's Institutes (1561), iii. 202, ' Some to be foreordeined to saluation, other some to destruction,' though the ptcp. is found in the Prol. to Wyclif's Mark (1420), 'The for-ordenede John.' RV tr. 1 P I2" correctly ' wan foreknown,' and retains ' foreordain' for vpoopifev wherever it occurs, Ac 428 (A V ' determine before'), Ro829-w (AV ' predestinate'), 1 Co27 (AV 'ordain'), Eph I5-ll (AV ' predestinate'). FOREKNOWLEDGE__As an attribute of God, foreknowledge is simply a special case or aspect of omniscience. God knows all things, therefore not only the present and the past, but the future also, must lie open to His sight. This is implied in all His promises, whether they refer to the individual only, as where offspring is promised to Abraham (Gn 1814), or are on a national scale, as when the glory of Abraham's descendants is foretold (Gn 1818). It is implied also in the warnings which God gives, or causes to be given, as in the story of Lot and Sodom (Gn 19), or in that of Moses before Pharaoh (Ex 8-11). To an earlier Pharaoh God shows in a dream ' what he is about to do' (Gn 4188), and FOKEKNOWLEDGE FOKEKNOWLEDGE similarly, at a later period, to Nebuchadnezzar «what shall be in the latter days' (Dn 228- »). In all such cases, however, it may be objected that they are less examples of foreknowledge than declarations regarding His own future action on the part of One who has full power of doing what He wills ; that they illustrate therefore .omnipotence rather than omniscience. This close association of the two attributes must always be allowed for in the usage of Scripture. Where all events are referred to the direct action of the Deity, it is not strange that He should know and foretell what He is about to do. It may be the sense that thus to foreknow and bring about events demonstrates ths existence and activity of the divine, or it may be that the course of the world was already regarded as possessing a relative independence, which forms the ground of the appeal to the foreknowledge of God as proving His superiority to the idols of the nations. Such an appeal occurs more than once in Deutero-Isaiah,e.gr. Is429 'Behold, the former things are come to pass, and new things do I declare; before they spring forth I tell you of them'; 4610 ' Declaring the end from the beginning, and from ancient times things that are hot yet done; saying, My counsel shall stand'; cf. also 446"8 483- 5- 6. In the NT Jesus asserts foreknowledge on the part of God of what is yet hidden even from the Son (Mk 1332); and St. James (Ac 1518), quoting the words of Amos (911-12), substitutes for ' the Lord that doeth this,' ' the Lord who maketh these things known from the beginning of the world.' All the references, indeed, to the fulfilment of prophecy, which are so frequently found in the NT, are intelligible only on the assumption that they are taken as evidencing the foreknowledge of God. It is, however, in its application, not to events generally, but to salvation, and that both of the individual and of the community, that the question of the divine foreknowledge has arrested the attention, engaged the thoughts, and sometimes tried the hearts of men. True piety refers all things to God, and rejoices to see in the individual life of faith and love the manifestation of divine activity. It seems to it that, were the case otherwise, tnere could be no assurance of salvation, and the peace which is the most priceless possession of God s children would be impossible to them. It is argued that, as God is both able and willing to bring about the salvation of the individual, He must know beforehand, not only His purpose to do so, but its fulfilment. We refer salvation, along with all other events, to the Divine Will; but, as God is not only Supreme Will but Supreme Intelligence, before, or accompanying the forthputting of that will there must be an act of knowledge. Thus foreknowledge comes to be associated with Election and Predestination (which see) as a constitutive element in the ultimate ground of the salvation made known in Christ. But in proportion as this conclusion removes difficulties on the one .side, it raises them on the other. While theoretically admitting the determinative influence of the divine action upon the course of events in general, we recognize that to us they are contingent, and we are not perplexed by a difficulty which we scarcely feel. But with the question of personal salvation it is different. Foreknowledge here implies a determinative action which seems to leave no room for choice, or moral freedom. Further, experience shows that there are gradations in the extent of spiritual privileges accorded, and infinite variations in the degree to which men avail themselves of these. Are we then to argue a limitation of the divine power, or of the divine will, to save ? The interests of piety and morality, the facts of religion and experience, seem incompatible here, the one demanding an absoluteness of determination which the other cannot admit. It is the difficulty which has divided schools of earnest men and powerful thinkers, like the Augustinian and the Pelagian, the Calvinist and the Arminian, which in various forms and degrees enters into and moulds men's whole conception of the religious life. Into its later phases we cannot here enter; we must confine ourselves to stating the data of the problem as they are presented in Scfipttare.- In the OT the question in this special form scarcely occurs. The prophets regard Israel as having been chosen from among the peoples of the earth to be God's special heritage (Dt V"8, Neh 9'-» Is 418- • 441-2); but the thought of a decree affecting the eternal destiny of individuals could not present itself to those who had only a dim conception of the future life, and who regarded religious blessings as coming to the individual only through his membership of the elect nation. In the NT the difficulty is for the most part not acutely felt, the two sides of the problem being in turn referred to without any apparent sense of antagonism or incompatibility. Thus Jesus recognizes the Father's action in revealing to babes what is hidden from the wise and prudent (Mt II25-26), declares that to some it is given to know the mysteries of the kingdom of heaven, while from others it is withheld (Mt 1311"16), says that many are called, but few chosen (Mt 22i4; cf. Jn 6*1 124°). On the other hand, He preaches the gospel of repentance (Mt 417), and laments over Jerusalem for neglecting or abusing her opportunities (Mt 23s7). Nowhere is it made an excuse for the rejection of salvation that any one has not been included in the saving purpose of God. { %_ It is in connexion with certain passages in the writings of St. Paul that the questions in regard to foreknowledge definitely arise. These are two. How far does foreknowledge imply predestination, decision of the fate of an individual anterior to his personal existence and therefore to his own moral choice ? and, What is the relation of foreknowledge to the ground of salvation ; is there anything foreknown which accounts for the saving choice falling upon one and passing by another ? In Ro 8>w- ^ we read: 'For whom he foreknew (oOs irpoiyvw), he also foreordained (AV did predestinate) to be conformed to the image of his Son, . . . and whom he foreordained, them he also called ; and whom he called, them he also justified; and whom he justified, them he also glorified.' Here the process of salvation is represented as a chain, as a succession of stages, of which the origin was a divine purpose based upon a divine foreknowledge. The word irpoyivdia-KW in its ordinary classical use means simply ' to know previously,' ' to have knowledge of beforehand,' and hence, since 'all demonstration depends on previously existing knowledge' (4jc TrporyivwGKOfxiviav Tra/ra 5i5ao-oplfciv the first active step to its fulfilment has been taken, but the foreknowledge of God implies His own adoption of the plan. It thus, as Cremer remarks, ideally precedes even the 4K\tyeo-0ai of Eph I4-5 'Even as he chose (lЈeX^Јaro) us in him before the foundation of the world . . . having foreordained (rrpoopttras) us unto adoption as sons,' 4K\4yetrSat expressing ' a determination directed to the objects of the fellowship ' into which God has resolved to enter with His people. Xlpiypwns thus ' denotes the foreordained fellowship between God and the objects of His saving counsels, God's self-determination to enter into such fellowship preceding the realization thereof.' This definition establishes the place of foreknowledge in the order of the saving acts, but does not free it of the difficulty which its connexion with that order involves. In the self-determination of God to save, if this has an individual application, the whole problem is raised. It is evident that the apostle, anxious to establish the Christian's faith upon a sure foundation, overlooks for the moment the bearing of his explanation upon the question of moral choice. There is no reason to think that he would ignore the latter. His Epistles are full of appeals which recognize the moral nature and responsibilities of man. But the key to his attitude is probably to. be found in that personal experience which he describes in Gal I16, where, as Lightfoot remarks, he heaps up words to emphasize the point he is maintaining (' the sole agency of God as distinct from his own efforts'), ' the good pleasure of God, who separated me (set me apart, devoted me to a special purpose), even from my mother's womb, and called me through his grace.' As he felt that he had been destined and was being prepared for his high office, even when he had been unconscious of it, and had been making in the opposite direction, so it was with humanity in general; man was moving towards the goal prepared for him, and God's purpose in spite of human recalcitrancy was being realized. But neither in the one case nor in the other did the leadings of Providence mean that the human will was being set aside. But now, turning to the other question, has the irpoiyva of Ro 829 II2 any special qualitative import ? God knows, foreknows, His people—what constitutes them His people, is there anything in them or about them which accounts for foreknowledge becoming f oreordination, which explains the ground of election ? Here opinions differ, and it is probable that each exegete will read into the word what agrees with his general doctrinal standpoint. Thus, to take one or two examples, Cremer appears to think there is no such import, the conception being complete in itself, and the word not indicating ' a decision come to concerning any one'; Grimm (NT Lex., Thayer's ed.) holds the meaning to be that ' God foreknew that they would love him, or (with reference to what follows) he foreknew them to be fit to be conformed to the likeness of his Son.' This explanation (that of foreseen love) is adopted also by Weiss [NT Theology, § 88), while Godet (Romans, Eng. tr. ii. 109) takes ' faith' to be the other object of foreknowledge, the condition of salvation which God foreknew that His people would fulfil. It is doubtful, however, whether St. Paul had followed out his thought on this side into a definite form. He wa3 concerned with the purpose of God, not with the ground of that purpose. Both in Gal I15, as we have seen, in reference to himself, and in Eph I5- u in reference to the Church, he lays stress upon the fact that God's action is ' according to the good pleasure of his will, to the .praise of the, glory of his grace'—' according to the purpose of him who worketh all things after the counsel of his own will.' To these indications from the Pauline writings, the occurrences of vpoyivtiaKeiv and Kpiyvoxns in other parts of NT (Ac SJ23 265, 1 V I2-20, 2P 3") add nothing in regard to the questions we have been considering. St. Paul founds upon election, as the method appointed by Providence for the education of humanity, his religious philosophy of history. Some are set apart for special privilege, but have also laid upon them special duty. The Jews are set aside until the Gentiles be come in ; salvation is extended to the Gentiles in order that the Jews might come to share its blessings; but 'God does not cast off his people which he foreknew '; His purpose is not abandoned, but worked out according to the dictates of infinite wisdom and perfect love. It has been suggested (Plumptre, Epp. of St. Peter, in ' Cambridge Bible for Schools ) that in the words ' the foreknowledge of God the Father' (1 P I2)' we find, perhaps, the secret of their (the apostles') acceptance of this aspect of the divine government. The choice and the knowledge were not those of an arbitrary sovereign will, capricious as are the sovereigns of earth, in its favours and' antipathies, seeking only to manifest its power, but of a Father whose tender mercies were over all His works, and who sought to manifest His love to all His children.' ' In what way,' says the same writer, 'the thought of man's freedom to will was reconcilable with that of God's electing purpose, the writers of NT did not care to discuss. They felt, we may believe, instinctively, half-unconsciously, that the problem was insoluble, and were content to accept the two beliefs, which cannot logically be reconciled.' In this condition of unsolved antinomy the Bible leaves all such doctrines as those of grace and election, a heritage of discussion and speculation to age after age of the Church; yet, however difficult to the intellect, constantly receiving its practical solution and reconciliation in the Christian experience of the soul, which is at once conscious of its own moral responsibility and of its dependence upon God. Literature.—In addition to the authorities cited above, see Sanday-Headlam, Romans, ll.cc. ; the Biblical Theologies of Beyschlag, Bovon, and Schmid ; Cunningham, Historical Theology, ii. 441 ff.; K. Muller, Die gottliche Zuvorersehung und Erwiihlung ; Bruce, Providential Order of the World (1897), Lect. x.; and the Literature at end of articles Election, Predestination. A. STEWART. FOREPART.—The forepart (always one word in 1611) is either the front portion of a thing (Heb. D-j? face), Ex 2827 3980 (of the ' ephod'), 1 K 62» (of the 'oracle'), Ezk 427 (of the 'chambers' of Ezekiel's temple, RV 'before'); or specifically the prow or bow of a vessel (irpiipa), Ac 2741, where it is opposed to the 'hinder part' (so 1611) or stern (irpifiva). RV gives ' foreship' in the last passage, so as to correspond with v.30 (the only other occurrence of the Gr. word), where AV and RV have 'foreship.' The Oxf. Eng. Diet, queries if ' forepart' is obsolete in this sense ; it has found part,' meaning generally the front, takeT. Adams, // Peter, on I2 ' There is a helmet for the head, a corselet for the'breast, a shield for the foreparts ; but no guard, no regard for the back' ; and Bunyan, Holy War (Clar. Pr. ed. p. 224, 1. 35), ' Every door also was filled with persons who had adorned every one their fore-part against theij FORERUNNER FORETELL house with something of variety and singular excellency, to entertain him withal as he passed in the streets,' where the ' fore-part' is explained by the editor as ' the space lying between a house and the public street or highway, the plot of ground forming a garden or fore-court.' J. Hastings. FORERUNNER (Trp6Spo/nos) occurs once in Apocr. and once in NT. Wis 128' Thou sentest hornets as forerunners of thy host'; He 620 ' whither as a forerunner Jesus entered for us.' The meaning of both these passages is illustrated by the classical usage of TTp&8pofj.os as a military term (Herod, i. 60, iv. 121,122 ; ^Esch. Theb. 80 ; Thuc. ii. 22, etc.). It was applied especially to the light-armed soldiers who were sent in advance of an army as scouts. A special corps of irpbSpoixoi was attached to the Macedonian army (Arrian, Anab. i. 12; Diod. xvii. 17). When a king was to travel, a forerunner was sent to see that the way was in good order (Is 403ff-; cf. Mai 31). Both these OT passages are applied in NT to John the Baptist as the forerunner of Jesus (Mt II1", Mk I2, Lk 727). In Lk 9M Jesus sends ' messengers before his face to make ready for him.' Cf. Jn 142 ' I go to prepare a place for you.' The kings of Israel had runners before their chariots (1 S 8U); Doeg the Edomite was the mightiest of Saul's runners (1 S 21', reading D'VT for D'jn); Absalom and Adonijah prepared fifty men to run before them (2 S 151, IK Is); Elijah ran before the chariot of Ahab (1 K 1846). See further under GUARD, RUNNERS. J. A. Selbie. FORESHIP__In AV, Ac 2730 only, ' under colour as though they would have cast anchors out of the foreship' (1611 ' fore-ship,' Gr. irpJipa, the bow of a ship). RV adds v.41. See Forepart. It was Tindale that gave ' forshippe ' as the trn of irpibpa in v.30 and ' foore parte' in v.41. The translators of AV retained the variety according to their precept, ' that nicenesse in wordes was alwayes counted the next step to trifling' (The Translators to the Header). 'Foreship' is still in use. For the anchorage of ships see Smith, Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul, 132, and art. SHIP. FORESKIN.—See Circumcision. FOREST—There are five Heb. words for collections of trees and shrubs:—1. i%: ya'ar, 3pvf*.6s. This word, which is by far the most common, is tr. sometimes forest (Jer 46s3, Mic 312), more frequently ivood (Dt 195 RV 'forest,' 2K 224, Ps 96" etc.). Its Arab, equivalent, wa'r, signifies difficult, and is used for rugged and stony regions, whether wooded or not. The expression ' thickets of the forest' (Is 918) refers to a forest with tangled undergrowth. 2. v~p horesh is used twice for collections of trees :—(a) Wood(l S 2315 etc.), where (reading inn) LXX has the proper name Kalvy. RV text has wood, marg. the proper name Jloresh (wh. see, and cf. Driver, Text of Samuel, ad loc). Many believe that the reference here is to a town and not to a forest, (b) Forest (2 Ch 274), where it is tra in LXX by 8pv/i6s. The same word is used for dense foliage (Ezk 313 'shadowing shroud'). It is also used for a ' bough' (RV ' wood') Is 179. The LXX here tr. 'of the Amorites and the Hivites,' and this is probably correct. In every instance of the genuine occurrence of this word, the proper meaning appears to be 'wooded height.' 3. 330 s&bhak, thicket (Is 918 1034, Jer 47). This word is given as a proper name in LXX (Gn 2213 Zaptic). It is also tr^ by Spv/iis, Ps 745 (AV ' thick trees,' RV ' a thicket of trees'). 1. D'jj; 'dbhim, &\, whence RV 'they also told of these days'). [VoorarayyAAu is accepted by edd. in Ac 3» (AV 'God before had shewed,' RV ' God foreshewed'), and 7M (EV ' shewed before ')]. J. Hastings. FOREWARD.—In 1 Mac 9" it is said of the army of Bacchides, 'they that marched in the fore ward were all mighty men.' The Gr. for ' they that marched in the fore ward' is ol irpon-ayavurral, whence conies our 'protagonist.' The same word occurs in 2 Mac 1530, where Judas is called 6 irpwTayojjfi(TT7]s bir&p r&v ttoKitwv, AV ' the chief defender of the citizens,' RV ' the foremost champion of his fellow-citizens.' It signified first the principal actor in a play, and then the person taking a leading part in any enterprise, the one who 'plays first fiddle,' in fact, as Liddell and Scott suggest. The Eng. phrase 'in the fore-ward ' comes from Geneva, ' they that foght in the forewarde were all valiant men.' The fore-ward ( = 'front-guard') was the foremost line of an army, its vanguard ; thus Caxton (1489), Sonnes of Aymon, i. 41, ' Fyrste of alle came the forewarde wyth the Oryflame'; and Shaks. Rich. III. V. iii. 293— ' My foreward shall he drawn out all in length, Consisting equally of horse and foot.' RV translates, ' the mighty men that fought in the front of the battle '; which is almost a return to Wyclif (1382), 'the first of the bateil al the mighty.' J. Hastings. FORFEIT.—From Old French forfait or forfet after late Latin forisfactum, a trespass, or fine (Lat. fpris without, and faeere to do), a ' forfeit' was originally an act outside of righteousness, and 'to forfeit' was to act unrighteously, to sin. Thus Berners, Froissart, I. ccccxxxi. ' Sir, ye know well the Flemings that be yonder have done us no forfeit'; and Chaucer, Parsones Tale, 275 (Student's ed. p. 682"), ' And al this suffred Jesu Crist, that neuere forfeited.' From this the meaning passed early into the expression of a penalty due for transgression, a fine; and the verb came to signify to lose, or lose the right to, something, a meaning in which both subst. and vb. are still used. But in its only occurrence in AV the yb. 'forfeit' (the subst. is not found) is used with direct reference to the authority or executive power to confiscate; and in that sense it is marked by Oxf. Eng. Diet, as obsolete: Ezr 108 'And that whosoever would not come within three days, according to the counsel of the princes and the elders, all his substance should be forfeited' (Din;, AVm and RVm 'devoted'). Cf. Dn 26 Wye. (1382), ' your housis shuln be maad commoun or forfetid.' RV introduces 'forfeit' into Dt 229 ' Thou shalt not sow thy vineyard with two kinds of seed; lest the whole fruit be forfeited' (bNj??, AV 'defiled,' RVm 'consecrated'; Driver, 'lit. become holy or sacred, i.e. be forfeited to the sanctuary'); Mt 1626, Mk 830 'forfeit his life' (fOij rijv ^ux^v airoO, AV 'lose his own soul'); and Lk 9s5 'and lose or forfeit his own self ( Si &TTo\4CKo%evlo.s /ti) imXavffdveo-ffe, RV 'Forget not to show love unto strangers'). 'A forgetful hearer' (Ja I26) is more modern, but RV prefers ' a hearer that forgetteth' (ducpoariis iTnX-qiTfi.ovijs, lit. 'a hearer of forgetful-ness,' as in 24 'judges of evil thoughts' = evil-thoughted judges'). In Sir 23'4 the meaning is again, probably, heedless and so unmannerly, 'Bemember thy father and thy mother, when thou sittest among great men. Be not forgetful before them, and so thou by thy custom become a fool' (u-i srore gfnAafot). . But the passage is obscure. Wyclif has it_J Lest perauenture God forgete thee in the sighte of hem,' alter Vulg. Me forte obliviscatur te Deus in eonspectu illorum; and he (or the Vulg.) is followed by Rogers', Coverdale's, the Bishops', and the Douay versions; the Geneva has ' lest thou be forgotten in their sight.' EV slightly alters the construction of the sentence, and so gets a new meaning— ' Remember thy father and thy mother, For thou sittest in the midst of great men ; That thou be not forgetful before them, And become a fool by thy custom.' explains, 'Low language reflects upon one's upbringing.' Forgetfulness occurs in Ps 8812 'Shall Dhy wonders be known in the dark? and thy righteousness in the land of forgetfulness?' (nyj piN), where ' forgetfulness' is not the condition of losing all recollection, but of being forgotten, oblivion,—-a meaning which Bradley (Oxf. Eng. Diet.) marks as probably obsolete. The condition of losing recollection might be represented as a blessed one, as in Shaks. IIHenry IV. in. L,8— ' O sleep ! 0 gentle sleep ! Nature's soft nurse, how have I frighted thee, That thou no more wilt weigh my eyelids down, And steep my senses in forgetfulness?' But the Psalmist's thought is rather as in Norton (1561), Calvin's Inst. iv. xviii. 704, 'This Masse FORGIVENESS FORGIVENESS . . . shamefully . . . putteth his death in forget-fulnesse'; and Gray, Elegy, 1. 85— ' For who, to dumb Forgetfulness a prey, This pleasing anxious being e'er resigned, Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day, Nor cast one longing ling'ring look behind ?• This is the meaning also of Wis 17s 'they were scattered under a dark vail of forgetfulness' (d^eyyei Xijflijs irapaKaXifyt/iaTi, Vulg. tenebroso ob-livionis velamentoj); but in 142S 16U, Sir II25, the %word is used in its usual sense of a tendency to forget. J. Hastings. FORfilYENESS. In OT three words especially are used to express the idea of forgiveness—ij?* 'cover' or 'pacify'; rht} (root meaning unknown); H|pj 'lift up* or 'away.' AV and RV render all three usually ' forgive,' sometimes ' pardon.' The first and second are always used of divine forgiveness—the first, rarely (Ps 7833, Jer 1823, Dt 218, 2 Ch 3O1S), the second, frequently {e.g. 1 K S30'-, Lv 420*-) ; the third is in common use of ordinary human forgiveness as well (e.g. Gn 5017, Ex 10", 1S 1525 2528). In nearly all instances the context implies repentance for the offence, and an intention to avoid a repetition of it, as a condition of the forgiveness; and as a result of it, that the offender is placed again in the position which he occupied before the offence, in the old covenant relation to God, or in the same friendly relation as before to.the person affected. Under the sacrificial system the repentance and the amends are represented by the sacrifice which is offered by the offender through the priest (see Oehler, Theology of the OT, § 139); but in other cases in the Psalms and the Prophets there is no suggestion of more than acknowledgment of sin, repentance, and that intention of amendment which is expressed by the phrase 'turning to the Lord.' Forgiveness is a free act on the part of God or of man; it restores the offender to the state in which there is no obstacle to his communion with him from whom he has been alienated; it gives peace of mind (Ps 32), a consciousness of the divine mercy (Ps 103); it removes the fear of punishment and quickens love (28 1213, Job 3328, Ps 1032). Nor is it only an individual matter; the whole nation may be alienated from God through neglect of his will, and may by forgiveness be restored,—such is the burden of many a prophetic exhortation. ' It has been said that 'no permanent state of reconciliation' was established under the old covenant ; that there was only such forgiveness for the past as might enable men to begin again to seek justification through the works of the law. It has also been maintained that the old covenant furnished only a ' passing over' of sin, a ' closing the eyes' to it on the part of God—by which, though satisfaction was not made, though there was no real remission of sin, punishment was forgone. The consideration of these questions . involves the whole subject of Atonement (wh. see); but it may be stated here that neither the national and individual experiences recorded in the OT, nor the words and general language used, seem to suggest any fundamental difference in the idea of forgiveness from that which we find in the NT. When St. Paul in a particular passage (Ro 325) uses, with reference to sins committed by men living under the old covenant, a word (itA/dco-is) different from that (de(f«70<« ten times) which has the special sense 'confer a favour on,' ' be gracious to —of men towards one another and of Christ in relation to them (2 Co 27> 10 1213, Eph 432, Col 213 313). St. Luke has this word twice (Lk 742-43), each time of a debt (AV ' frankly forgave'), and twice he has also a word (d7roXi5w, 637 H'), meaning to 'loose from,' 'release,' 'set at liberty.' In the Apocalypse the nearest equivalent is found probably in the idea of the blood ' loosing' from sin and 'cleansing' (e.g. Bev I5 7"; cf. UnV»)- The teaching of the NT as to forgiveness is sufficiently represented by (1) the sayings of Christ which led up to St. Peter's question and the answer to it (Lk 173- 4, Mt 1815"17 and 18s1-22), and the Parables of the Prodigal and of the great Debtor (Lk 15""32, Mt 1823"35); (2) the clause in the Lord's Prayer (with the comment which is added Mt 61J- 15, cf. Mk II25- 26); and (3) the allusion to blasphemy against the Holy Spirit (Mt 1231 and parallels), and St. John's mention of sin ' unto death' (1 Jn 517). (1) The teaching is given much more fully in Mt than in Lk, but the full essence of it is in the words of Lk,' If thy brother trespass against thee, rebuke him; and if he repent, forgive him. And if he trespass against thee seven times in a day, and seven times in a day turn again to thee, saying, I repent; thou shalt forgive him.' It is clear at once that, if certain conditions are satisfied, the teaching of Christ admits of no limitations to the law of forgiveness. The account in Mt more vividly enforces this point. It represents Christ as at first only enunciating the general principle. St. Peter seeks for further guidance, wishing to reduce the principle to the compass of a definite rule, and asking, ' Lord, how oft shall my brother sin against me, and I forgive him ? till seven times ?' and it is in answer to his question that the words are elicited which raise the duty out of the sphere of mere numerical calculation—' I say not unto thee, Until seven times: but, Until seventy times seven.' There is to be no limit whatever to the readiness of a follower of Christ to forgive. On the other hand, it is equally clear that something is required on the part of the oftender before he can be the recipient of forgiveness. ' If thy brother . . . turn again to thee, saying, I repent' —this is the condition : there must be the consciousness of sin, the free avowal of error (cf. Lk 1521), the recognition of wrong-doing and the turning away from it, and, it seems, the willingness to make amends (cf. Lk 198). That there must be such repentance * (change of mind, acceptance of a new ideal of life) is still more plainly shown in the account of Mt: the Christian is not to remain passive till the oftender of his own accord cWies to him penitent and begging reconciliation—he is, on the contrary, to adopt all rational means he can to bring home to him the error and evil of his conduct; and should he still remain inpenitent and obdurate, there is no forgiveness for him—he places himself outside the pale of Christian life— 'Let him be unto thee as a heathen man and a publican.' The Parable of the Prodigal Son shows the same relation between forgiveness and repentance. The wish to leave the father—the revolt against his will, his plan of life—was the sin: the return is in itself sufficient proof of repentance, even though it was prompted by the sense of failure and physical hunger; the father recognizes it as such, and hastens to meet and welcome the offender, and forgives him before he has had time to put into words his confession of sin ; the son is in that moment restored to the position in hia father's household which he had forfeited. (The teaching of the apostles as described in Ac lays similar emphasis on repentance as a first condition of salvation {e.g. Ac S38], baptism being from one point of view the outward mark of repentance). So, too, the publican goes down to his house 'justified' because penitent (Lk 18"). Similarly, a readiness to forgive others is laid down as a condition for a man's own forgiveness (cf. Mt 612, Mk II25- 26, Mt 57). The Parable of the great Debtor shows that the absence of a forgiving spirit in men prevents their being themselves forgiven. (2) The instances of Christ's teaching which have been cited might be interpreted as having reference only to relations between men, though it is scarcely conceivable that the parables are not intended to be significant of the relations of mankind as sons to God the Father, the ideal of character. The clause in the Lord's Prayer (Mt 612, Lk II4) makes it evident that human forgiveness and divine forgiveness are represented as strictly. analogous. There is indeed n,o indication of any fundamental difference between the forgiveness which the Christian wins from God and that which he in turn bestows upon his 'brother.' It is the same phrase which is used throughout—a phrase denoting actual ' remission' of sin; and it is used by Christ of his own action, and alike of God's and of man's part in the mysterious process. If it were not so, it would be mockery to offer up the petition, ' Forgive us our.trespass, as we forgive them that trespass against us.' The comment on the clause, which Mt appends to the Prayer, and the similar saying, which Mk introduces in connexion with the exhortation to faith in praying, forbid any differentiation (cf. Col 313). The statements are quite general. Forgiveness is to be won by repentance and confession, whatever the nature of the offence, whoever the persons concerned may be. (In view of the indisputably general application of the Parable of the Prodigal Son and the other references to forgiveness, it seems impossible to accept the interpretation of Mt 1815"17 which would limit its teaching to relations between Christians). (3) There are, however, .two references which seem to set a limit to the possibility of divine forgiveness. One is the case of the blasphemy against the Holy Spirit; the other is St. John's * Two words are used which imply change of mind (involving regret for the course pursued and change of conduct for the future) Mt 417, Mk li», Lk 157- io, and change of will Mt 21^ (on the question whether the distinction holds or not, see Trench, Synonyms, § lxix.); and there are also words which mean ' turning' or ' conversion,' Lk 2232, Mt 183. 58 FORGIVENESS FORM allusion to 'sin unto death.' The first of these references declares that there is a supreme sin for which no man can ever hope to be forgiven— 'All their sins shall be forgiven unto the sons of men, and their blasphemies wherewith soever they shall blaspheme' (Mk 3s8); but with these sins and blasphemies there is pointedly contrasted one—'Whosoever shall blaspheme against the Holy Spirit hath never forgiveness, but is guilty of an eternal sin,' and it ' shall not be forgiven him, neither in this world, nor in that which is to come' (Mt 1232). All that can be said with certainty as to the nature of this sin is that the opposition of the scribes and Pharisees to Christ was a sign and indication of it, and that the Pharisaic charge that it was by the powers of evil that he was enabled to perform his works of healing, was the immediate occasion of his denunciation of it. Augustine regarded the sin as deliberate persistence in evil (for other interpretations see Westcott, note on 1 Jn 517). It would appear from the rest of Christ's teaching on forgiveness that it was in any case of such a character as to deaden and destroy the spiritual sense in him who yielded himself up to its influence, so that repentance would become impossible to him. The idea of unpardonable sin is further suggested by St. John's exception of ' sin unto death' from the subjects of intercessory prayer (1 Jn 5ie). To one who thus sins the way of forgiveness is closed; at least it is not to be opened through the intercession of his brethren, which in other cases would avail. There remains to be considered the problem of the significance of Christ's cry from the Cross, ' Father, forgive them; for they know not what they do' (Lk 2334). It is evident that it is a prayer for the forgiveness of those who have not repented, who have not even come to knowledge of their guilt. It cannot, however, be regarded as limited in its scope to the Roman soldiers, and excluding any reference to the share in the final tragedy taken by the party of the scribes and Pharisees. The soldiers could not be thought of as in any real sense needing forgiveness for carrying out their orders in what they could only consider an ordinary execution: even Pilate was treated as comparatively guiltless. The cry must therefore be the supreme expression of the human sympathy and love of Christ, of the great principle which he had always inculcated. The sin embodied in the conduct of the Pharisaic party he had condemned in burning words; towards it there could not be any change of feeling ; but they might be brought to repentance late though it was, and the words which are under consideration are a prayer for that result, a loving hope for the enlightenment of those blind leaders of the blind. It may be a hope against hope, but the cry does not constitute an exception to the principles and conditions of forgiveness which are to be drawn from other parts of the NT. It is a crowning example of ' forgivingness,' if so be that the divine mercy may transcend the usual conditions of the bestowal of the boon. Such a spirit of ' forgivingness' may be present (it has been noticed that it is required in all cases from the individual who has been in-juried), whether ' forgiven-ness' (the remission of the offence as regards the person who has offended) ensues or not. The word ' forgiveness' is capable of the active and of the passive sense. In the active sense it is clear that it is an ordinary Christian duty ; in the passive sense, before it can be realized the conditions which have been elicited must be fulfilled. Literature.—Oehler, Theol. of OT; Schmid, Bib. Theol. of NT; Martensen, Christian Ethics; Seeley, Ecce Homo ; Dorner, System of Christian Doctrine. See alBo Literature under arts. Atonbubnt, Propitiatioh. J. F. BethUNE-Baker. FORM. — Numerous as are the Hab. and Gr. words trd 'form,' the meanings of the word in AV and RV may be reduced to the following: 1. Shape, as an orderly arrangement of parts, Gn I2 'The earth was without form' (inh, RV 'waste'; so in Jer 42S); Wis II17 'thy Almighty hand, that made the world of matter without form' (i| d/i6povBXijs, RV 'out of formless matter'). Cf. Shaks. K. John, III. i. 253— ' All form is formless, order orderless.* 2. Such orderly arrangement as produces beauty, comeliness, Is 5214 53a ' ne hath no form nor comeliness' (ixri); Wis 156 'they desire the form of a dead image, that hath no breath' (eZSos; Farrar, ' he yearns for the unbreathing beauty of a dead image'). For this meaning see Shaks. Mids. Night's Dream, I. ii. 233— ' Things base and vile, holding no quantity, Love can transpose to form and dignity.' 3. The special or characteristic shape of a person or thing, Ezk 8s 'And he put forth the form of an hand, and took me by a lock of mine head' (n'3?B ; so 108); Dn 319 ' Then was Nebuchadnezzar full of fury, and the form of his visage was changed' (d^) ; Mk 1612, Ph 28'7 (mo/*M, the characteristic form of the Son of God and His characteristic form as the Son of Man; see Giftbrd, The Incarnation, p. 22 ff. ; and art. FASHION). Cf. Shaks. Com. of Errors, II. ii. 200— * Thou hast thine own form. No, I am an ape. If thou art changed to aught, 'tis to an ass.' Milton, Comus, 1. 70— • Their human countenance, Th' express resemblance of the gods, is chang'd Into some brutish form of wolf or bear.' And Par. Reg. iv. 599— ' True image of the Father, whether thron'd In the bosom of bliss, and light of light Conceiving, or remote from Heav'n, enshrin'd In fleshly tabernacle, and human form, Wand'ring the wilderness.' i. The representation or pattern of anything, Ezk 8"> 'And behold, every form of creeping things . . . pourtrayed upon the wall round about' (n'jae); 2 Ch 47 ' he made ten candlesticks of gold according to their form' (t3$siD, RV 'according to the ordinance concerning them'); Ezk 4311 iuaier (n-j?s); Ro 617 ' that form of doctrine which was delivered you' {Tiros, RVm ' pattern'); 2 Ti I13' Hold fast the form of sound words which thou hast heard of me' (inroTviruo-is, RV 'pattern'). So Wyclif's tr. of 1 Th I7 ' so that ye ben maad fourme, or ensaumple, to alle men bileuynge'; and Locke, Human Underst. III. iii. 230, ' To make abstract general Ideas, and set them up in the Mind, with Names annexed to them, aa Patterns, or Forms (for in that sense the word Form has a very proper signification).' S. Outward aspect (a); often the mere outward appearance as opposed to the inner reality (6): Thus (a) Job 416 ' It stood still, but I could not discern the form thereof (n^i?, RV 'appearance'); 1 S 28U 'And the woman said unto Saul, I saw gods ascending out of the earth. And he said unto her, What form is he of?' (ixh); Dn 231 3s5 (n, RV 'aspect'). So Shaks. Coriol. III. iii. 109— ' Art thou a man ? thy form cries out thou art'; and Henry V. III. vi. 72, ' Why, 'tis a gull, a fool, a rogue: that now and then goes to the wars, to grace himself at his return unto London under the form of a soldier.' (b) 2 S 1420 ' To fetch about this form of speech hath thy servant Joab done this thing' (-i?"! <j«>, RV 'to change the face of the matter'); Ro 220, 2 Ti 35 'Having a form of godliness, but denying the power thereof (both FORMER FORTH 59 ;fy0s, winch is not so purely as oxvim the mere outward form, but seems to be so used in both these passages, esp. 2 Ti 35, and that is clearly the meaning of AV. See Sanday-Headlam on Ro 220). In illustration, take again Shaks., Henry V. II. ii. 116— • And other devils that suggest by treasons, Do botch and bungle up damnation With patches, colours, and with forms, being fetch'd From glistering semblances of piety'; and Othello, II. i. 243, ' a knave very voluble, no further conscionable than in putting on the mere form of civil and humane seeming, for the better compassing of his salt and most hidden - loose affection.' The word 'form' has been occasionally introduced into RV when it is not in AV. It is used to tr. (1) Heb. njffip in all its occurrences except one, either for AV 'likeness' (Ex 204, Dt 4K>-26 68), or 'similitude' (Nu 128, Dt 412-is. 16), br 'image' (Job 4'8). The exception is Ps 1713 ' I shall be satisfied when I awake with thy likeness,' where RV gives 'form' in marg., Amer. RV in text. (2) 3X% in 1 K 625 737 for AV 'size'; but not in the only other occurrence of that word Jon 28 (EV ' bottom'—' I went down to the bottoms of the mountains,' AVm ' Heb. cuttings off'). (3) siS« Lk 322, Jn 53? (AV ' shape'), 1 Th 522 (AV ' appearance'). (4) -Hans Ac 2325 (AV ' manner'). J. Hastings. FORMER.—This comparative adj. was at one time freely used to express the more advanced of two positions. Thus Wyclif (1388), after saying that Jacob 'departide (1382 'dyuydide') the puple that was with hym ... in to twei cumpenyes,' adds (Gn 32"), ' And he comaundide to the formere (1382 'forther'), and seide, If thou schalt mete my brothir Esau,' etc.; and Knox, Hist. 88, ' Fiftie horse and men of the first rank lay dead at once, without any hurt done to the Scottish Armie, except that the Speares of the former two rankes were broken.' In this way ' former' is used in Zee 148' Living waters shall go out from Jerusalem; half of them toward the former sea, and half of. them toward the hinder sea' ('jto-ign n;o, AVm and RV 'the eastern sea'); the 'eastern' sea being the Dead Sea, and the ' hinder' or ' western' sea (jhqNn d;h) the Mediterranean. FORNICATION. — See Crimes aud Punishments. FORSOMUCH. —Wis 1215 'Forsomuch then as ohou art righteous thyself' (Sficcuos Sk &v, KV ' But being righteous') ; and Lk 19s 'forsomuch as he also is a son of Abraham' (ko.0Sti, RV ' forasmuch as'). The form is rare. Far more common is ' forasmuch,' which occurs forty - three times in AV, and was introduced generally by Tindale (it does not seem to occur in the Wyclitite versions). Tindale always keeps the parts of the word distinct, ' for as moche'; AV always presents an undivided word. It is Rogers [Matthew's Bible) that gives ' for so much' in Wis 1215; but in Lk 199 AV is the first to use that form (perhaps by a slip of the pen or the printer), Tindale and others having ' lor as moche. FORSWEAR.—To 'forswear' is to undo one's swearing, in accordance with the meaning of for (see under Forego). In AV it is always used reflexively, 'to forswear oneself,' with the meaning to swear falsely, to perjure oneself: 1 Es I48 ' And after that king Nabuchodonosor had made him to swear by the name of the Lord, he forswore himself, and rebelled' [i^aopic^iras airt ra^ws); and Mt 5s3 ' Thou shalt not forswear thyself, but shalt perform unto the Lord thine oaths' (oti/c &riop/oj ' He brought me forth also into a large place'; Nu 246 ' As the valleys are they spread forth'; 2 S II1 ' at the time when kings go forth to war.' This meaning is also expressed by ' abroad.' When ' forth' is used, it is always with a verb of motion; never as in Shaks. Comedy of Errors, II. ii. 212— ' Sirrah, if any ask for your master, Say, he dines forth, and let no creature enter.' Then ' forth' expresses generally movement away from a place, as Gn 323' God sent him forth from the garden' ; and more particularly movement onwards from a given point, as Jos 1811 ' the coast of their lot came forth between the children of Judah and the children of Joseph' (RV ' the border of their lot went out'); Mt 99 ' Jesus passed forth from thence' (RV ' by'); Ph 313 ' forgetting those things which are behind, and reaching forth unto those things which are before' (RV ' stretching forward'). Cf. Ezk 614 Cov. ' from the wildernesse offDeblat forth'; and Ps 72s (Stern, and Hopk.) ' His large and great dominion shall from sea to sea extend : it from the river shall reach forth unto earth's utmost end.' It is in this last sense only—'forward from a given point'—that ' forth' is used with expressions of time. These are: (1) 'from this time forth' ( 18 2182) 'f tht i fth' () (jj Ps 113-11518 1218); (2) 'from that time forth' (a\'Tr\n NWD Neh 416 ; N'iin nj;n-p 1331 ; cbrd rire, Mt 16-1 [RV omits ' forth']); and (3) ' from that day forth' (d?r' ipov is a transliteration of the Lat., which has been taken directly into English. Wyclif translated the word: ' the cheping of Appius' ; so did the Geneva translators, 'the Market of Appius,' whom RV follows. But the other versions present various forms of the Lat. : Tind. ' Apipliorum' (though he translates the other name 'the thre taverns'), so the Great Bible ; Cov. ' Apiforum ' ; the Rhemish 'Apij-forum'; Matthew's Bible, the Bishops' Bible, and AV ' Appii forum.' See Appius (Market of). FORWARD, FORWARDNESS__Forward is used both as adj. ani as adv. in AV, but the adj., though independent in early Eng., seems to hav« been lost, and afterwards re-formed from the advei b. So the adv. properly comes first. As an adv. ' forward' means ' towards the front,' as opposed to ' backward,' as Job 238 ' Behold I go forward, but he is not there ; and backward, but I cannot perceive him,' and Nu 3219 ' For we will not inherit with them on yonder side Jordan, or forward, because our inheritance has fallen to ua on this side Jordan eastward' ("!J>n, ' further on,' as 1 S 2022 ' the arrows are beyond thee,' nxj>ni s|>f>D, lit. ' from thee and onwards'). So Berners, Frois-sart, I. xvii. 18, 'All his barones went out of the cite, and the first nyght they lodged vi. mjrle for-warde.' In the same sense it is applied to time, as Ezk 392a 'from that day and forward'; 4327 'upon the eighth day, and so forward.' Cf. Stubbes, Anat. Abus. ii. 34, •' If sixtie would serue, they must have an hundred, and so forward.' A bold expression is found in 2 Es 3s ' before ever the earth came forward,' that is, into existence (antequam terra adventaret), a trn retained in RV, though it is perhaps unique in Eng. literature. When used figuratively with certain verbs ' forward ' has the meaning of ' advance the interests of, help the progress of an undertaking.' The verbs in AV are (1) set, 1 Ch 23J ' to set forward the work of the house of the Lord ' (rtJfjS, RV as AVm ' to oversee': so in Ezr 38- 9 RV changes AV ' set forward' into ' have the oversight,' though in 2 Ch 3412' to set it forward' is accepted for the same * Heb. with RVm ' to preside over it'; and in 3413 ' overseers' of AV is changed into ' set forward,' for Heb. D'nyjc). The phrase is applied to evil works as well as to good, Job 3013 ' they set forward my calamity^' (\Vjt); Wis 1418' the singular diligence of the artificer did help to set forward the ignorant to more superstition ' (irpoeTptyaTo, RV ' urged forward by the ambition of the artificer'). To those examples RV adds 1 Co 168' that ye may set me forward on my journey,' and 2 Co I16, 3 Jn 6 (all irpo-vijiirui), where the meaning is somewhat different, to start one upon a journey. Shakespeare often uses the phrase intransitively (never trans, as here), as I Henry IV. II. iii. 38,' We are prepared. I will set forward to-night.' The expression 'set forward' in this literal sense is also found in AV, but only in Nu, where it occurs 15 times of the marching of the Israelites in the Wilderness. (2) Help, only Zee I15 'they helped forward the affliction' (njjf TinS RVm 'helped the evil'), that is, the heathen not only acted as God's instruments in chastising Israel, but went further. (3) Haste, only 1 Es I27 ' the Lord is with me hasting me forward' (in- 19, its only occurrences, where it refers to the polluting of running water. J. Hastings. FOUNDATION.—In the OT the words 'found' and ' foundation' are for the most part trn of ip; and its derivatives, which are freely used in a metaphorical as well as a literal sense. The foundation stones of some of Solomon's buildings are described as huge and costly (1 K 7la). In connexion with the laying of the foundation stone various superstitious rites were widely practised, the bftering of a human victim being a not infrequent accompaniment of the ceremony (see Trumbull, Threshold Covenant, 22, 51, 55; Strack. Der Blutaberglaube, 68). It is possible that tht record of sucn an incident was embodied in the original form of the tradition preserved about Hiel the Bethelite, ' He laid the foundation [of Jericho] on (? 3) Abiram his. firstborn, and set up the gates thereof on his youngest son Segub' (1 K 1634). In NT 'foundation' is used in two distinct senses, an active and a passive. In the former sense it represents KarapoMi (properly ' founding'), which (except in He II11 /cara/JoX^ triripharos, used of Sarah) is confined to the collocation narafloX^ Kba^ov, ' the foundation of the world,' Mt 1385 2584, Lk IIs0, Jn 1724, Eph I4, He 43 9s6, 1 P I20, Rev 13817s. In the passive sense 'the foundations of the earth' (fjj< npiD, once Job 388 &?}# ' pedestals,' once Ps 1045 ntotop 'bases') frequently appears in OT, Mic 63, Is 24W 4021, Jer 31s7, Ps 825, Pr 8*>. The passive sense of the word is in NT represented by fc/a-Xios (both literal and metaphorical). This word is used, e.g., in our Lord's simile.of the two buildings (Lk 6**), as well as in St. Paul's simile of the building tested by fire (1 Co 3uff-). In 1 Co 3U the Church b foundation is Christ, in Eph 220 she is built upon the foundation of (the gospel of) the apostles and (NT) prophets, Jesus, Christ being the chief corner-stone. In Jer 50'5, where AV has ' foundations,' th« 62 FOUNTAIN FOUNTAIN meaning of nV?!>< is prob. 'bulwarks' (RV) or ' buttresses' (see Oxf. Heb. Lex.). In Is 167' raisin-cakes' seems to be the meaning, not' foundations' (see Flagon). The ' gate of the foundation' (isw %tiD-n) in 2 Ch 236 is obscure. Perhaps /we should read -no 'v ' the gate Sur,' as in 2 K 11°, or d'qibci V ' the horse gate' (see Oxf. Heb. Lex. s. -to). In 2 Ch 33 for AV ' these are the things -wherein Solomon -was instructed,' KV substitutes 'these are the foundations which Sol. laid' (taking iC'fi as Hoph. infin. of no;). RV further gives ' foundations ' for ' posts' in Is 64 as tr. of mass, a derivative from ds in metaph. sense. Finally, in two instances (Ps 89" 972) where AV tr. pa ' habitation,' RV gives the correct sense ' foundation.' J. A. Selbje. FOUNTAIN.—1. A fountain is a natural outflow, or spring, of water, and is in this way distinguished from a well of artificial construction (see Well). Palestine, owing to its physical structure, is especially rich in fine springs of water. Remarkably appropriate is the statement (Dt 87),' For the Lord thy God bringeth thee into a good land, a land of brooks of water, of fountains (ni:;i) and depths springing forth in valleys and hills.' 2. The Cretaceous limestone of which W. Palestine is mainly composed being open and porous, the rain (or snow) which falls during the winter months percolates downwards and forms underground reservoirs in the strata, which burst forth along the sides of the Jordan depression, as also on the western flanks of the central table-land.* Equally favourable is the geological structure of the eastern sides of the Jordanic depression for the production of springs; for the heavy falls of snow which coyer the Lebanon and fleruion ranges in winter give rise to copious fountains which supply the head waters of the Litany, the Jordan, and the rivers of Damascus. Not less remarkable are some of the fountains of the region of Trachonitis and the Peraea, which have their sources in the volcanic mountains of the Hauran, and their outlets into the Jordan by the Hieromax and the Jabbok. Fine springs are also numerous along the western shore of the L. of Tiberias, scattering verdure and fertility along their course. Amongst the Edomite mountains and those of the Sinaitic peninsula the most important fountains are those of the Wady Musa, which flows down through the city of Petra; the 'Ain Abu Werideh (or el - Weibeh), and 'Ain Ghurundel in the Atabah ; the "Wady el-Ain at the entrance to the grand gorge of es-j5uk, between Jebel Musa and ' Akabah ; t and those which descend from the flanks of Jebel Musa (Mount Sinai) itself. The spring of 'Ain IЈadis, which issues forth at the base of a limestone cliff in the Badiet et-Tlh (Wilderness of Paran), has been identified, with much probability, as the site of Kadesh-Barnea.tf 3. Thermal Springs.—Many of the springs which flow directly into the Dead Sea and the lower waters of the Jordan have a high temperature, due partly to the existence of volcanic rocks (basalt), still highly heated, with which the waters come in contact; and partly to the depth below the. surface to which the underground waters descend before issuing forth into day. The following are the most important thermal springs §:— 1. Hammam (or Hammath), situated on the W. * The average rainfall at Jerus. is about 30 inches, nearly the whole of which falls between Nov. and Feb.; in the Lebanon it is probably considerably greater. See Glaisher,' Meteorological Observations at Jerus.' in PEFSt, 1887-98. t Described by Ruppell, Hiss Martineau, Dean Stanley, and Major Kitchener (.Mount Seir, App. 208). t This*>untain was discovered by Rowlands, and his identification of it with Kadesh-Barnea has been supported by Holland and Trumbull after personal inspection of the spot (.Kadesh-Barnea, 1884). § Some ol the Jordan Valley springs appear to burst forth side of the Sea of Tiberias, near to which Herod the tetrarch built the city of that name.* Temp. H3'33 Fahr., water sulphurous.t 2. Yarmuk, N. of Umm Keis (Gadara). Temp. 109° Fahr., water sulphur-ous.J 3. Zerka Ma'in (Callirrhoe), ten principal warm and sulphurous springs, of which the lowest reaches a temperature of 143° Fahr.§ Here Herod the Great bathed during his last illness.U i. 'Ain Zara enters the Dead Sea on the E. side. Temp. 109° Fahr.1T S. 'Ain es-Sultdn, in the Plain of Jericho (el-Gh&r), W. of the Jordan. Temp. 71° Fahr. (See Arabah, Jericho.) 6:'Ain el-Beida enters the Wady el-Jeib S. of Jebel Usdum. Temp 91° Fahr. 1. 'Ain el-Khubarah, W. of the Dead Sea, water sulphurous. Temp. 88-93° Fahr.** 8. 'Ain Feshkhah, W. of the Dead Sea. Temp. 82° Fahr.tt 9. The springs of JEnon ('Ainun) near to Salim in Samaria, where John baptized (Jn 3s3). According to Conder the head springs issue from an open valley, surrounded by desolate hills ; but the water gushes forth over a stony bed and rapidly produces a fine perennial stream surrounded by oleanders. Jtf 10. Kishon. The springs forming the head waters of the Kishon are remarkable for their copiousness. Stanley describes them as ' full-grown from their birth.' They rise at the foot of Mt. Tabor and form a chain of pools and springs, together with quagmires and swamps, which were fatal to many of Sisera'a army§§ (Jg 5*1). The river enters the Mediterranean at the northern base of Mt. Carmel. 11. Bani&s. The springs at the head of the Jordan at Banias (Csesarea Philippi) issue from a cavern above the town, constituting the ' upper sources,' and are augmented by a still larger fountain below, which is known as ' the lower springs'; so that the Jordan is full-grown from its birth.HH 12. The Jerusalem fountains. Jerus. in former times was supplied from several sources ; but we are here concerned only with the natural fountains. Of these the most remarkable are the Upper Springs of Gihon,'^ which are intermittent, and break out underground in the Kidron Valley (Wady en-Nar), forming the chief source of this stream, from whence the water is carried by an underground conduit to a pool, now known as the ' Fountain of the Virgin' ('Ain Umm ed-Deraj), to the west side of the City of David. This conduit, 1760 feet (or 1200 cubits) in length, was constructed by Hezekiah on the approach of the Assyrian army (2 K 20?°, 2 Ch 32?°). In 1880 a pupil of Schick observed an inscription which was afterwards deciphered by Sayce and Guthe. It contains in old Heb. characters a record of the construction.*** This fount is the only natural spring of water at Jerusalem, and is the chief source of supply of pure water at the present day. The pools of Solomon, near Bethlehem, were formerly the chief sources of supply for Jerus., and were conducted into the city by an upper and lower conduit hewn in stone, now fallen into disuse. The pools are supplied by a fine spring which issues along the line of the great ' fault,' by which the valley is traversed. (See Arabah.) * Jos. Ant. xvm. ii. 8. t Lynch, Off. Rep. p. 202. $ Robinson, Phys. Geog. Boly Land, 24. § Tristram, Land ofiloab, xui.247; Conder, Beth and Moab, 145,149. II Jos. Ant. xyii. vi. 6. This spring is also supposed to be that called ' En-eglaim' (spring of the calves), Ezk 4710. t Lartet, Vay. oVExplor. 291. ** Tristram, Land.of Israel, 305. tt to. pp. 252-255. tj Tent-Work in Palestine, p. 50. 8§ to. pp. 69, 97. II || The springs rise at a level of about 1000 feet ahove the Mediterranean, and are joined by the waters of the Hasbany coming down from the western slopes of Hermon (Conder, Tent-Work, 215; Tristram, Land of Israel, B84). ^H[ Explored by Robinson in 1838, and by Warren and Oonder, SWP pt. n. 846 (1886), also Recovery of Jerusalem, 257. *•* Generally known as the Siloam Tablet; SWP ii. 846 (1886); Recovery of Jerusalem, 257 ; ZDMG (1882), pp. 725-750; Sayce, BCM 377 fl.; Driver, Beb. Text of Sam. xv.; Richer, PSBA, xix. 165 ft. FOUNTAIN GATE FOWL 63 forth from the limestone rock above the upper pool. The water is still carried by a conduit to Bethlehem, and also fertilizes ' the gardens of Solomon' in the valley below. E. HULL. FOUNTAIN GATE.—See Gate and Jerusalem. FOUR.—See Number. ' FOURSQUARE.—Now that 'square' is confined to that which has four equal sides, ' foursquare' is looked upon as redundant, though writers like Euskin, steeped in biblical phrase "'oery, ase it still. Formerly 'square' meant simply equal-sided, and the number of sides had to be expressed. Thus 'fivesquare,' 1 K 631m, taken from the text of the Geneva Bible, ' the upper poste and side postes were flue square.' ' Foursquai'e' is used of the altar of burnt-oft'ering (Ex 271 381), of the incense-altar (Ex 303 3725), and of the high priest's breastplate (2816 399), the meaning being clearly expressed in 302 'A cubit shall be the length thereof, and a cubit the breadth thereof; foursquare shall it be' (yai). It is also used of the borders of the brazen bases in Solomon's temple (1 K 731 vyia); of the inner court of Ezekiel's temple (Ezk 4047) and of the' holy oblation' (4820); and, finally, of the holy city, new Jerusalem (Kev 2118, rerp&ywvos). FOWL.—The word ' fowl,' now restricted to the domestic cock and hen, 'the barn-door fowl,' was formerly applied to all feathered animals, and occasionally even to all winged creatures. Thus Sir II3 in Wyclif's tra of 1382 is ' Short in foules (Vulg. in volatilibus) is a bee,' though Purvey's Revision of 1388 gives, 'A bee is litil among briddis.' Indeed, when Wyclif has to make a distinction between feathered and unfeathered creatures that 3y, he uses ' fowl' of the latter : Ezk 3917 ' Saye thou to eche bryd, and to alle foulis' (iji^I i'13*? "&*> Vulg. die omni volucri et universis avibus), though Rogers and Coverdale reverse the order, ' Speake unto alle the foules and euery byrde.' * And AV uses 'fowls' of unfeathered winged creatures in Lv II20 'All fowls that creep, going upon all four, shall be an abomination unto you' (<]iyrt p$ bh). This is Wyclif's tr" 'Alle of foules (1388, 'Al thing of foulis') that goth on foure feete',- after Vulg. Omne de volucribus quod graditur super quatuor pedes; and Tindale's, ' all foules that art. Cheeping Things).t T. Adams (Works, i. 13) distinguishes ' fowls' from ' flies' : ' the eagles hunt no flies so long as there be fowls in the air.' He thus uses ' fowls' exactly as we now use ' birds,' and that was its commonest use by far. Thus Bacon, Essays (Gold. Treas. ed. p. 181, 1. 22), 'Why, doe you not think me as wise, as some Fowle are, that ever change their Aboad towards the Winter ?' RV accepts the AV rendering 'fowl' or ' fowls' throughout OT, except Lv II20, Ezk 3917, already noted, and in the three passages in which the Heb. is B'X 'ayit, a bird of prey : Gn 15U (RV ' birds of prey'), Job 287 (RV ' bird of prey'), Is 186 (RV • ravenous birds'). Cf. Bacon, Essays (p. 240, 1. 2), ' But now, if a Man can tame this Monster, and bring her to feed at the hand, and govern her, • The Geneva Bible of 1560 translated more accurately (as LXX E'triv mari Ifnoi xtrutS), ' Speake unto euerie leathered foule.' This was accepted by AV, with marg. 'to the fowl ol every wing.' EV has 'Speak unto the birds of every sort'; Siegfried, Sprich zu den mannigfach beschwingten Vogeln. t This use was either unknown to or ignored by Shakespeare when he wrote, Comedy of Enort, in. i. 79— 'I pray thee, let me in. Ay, when fowls have no feathers, and fish have no fin.' and with her fly other ravening Fowle, and kill them, it is somewhat worth'; and Milton, PL x. 274— ' A flock of ravenous fowl.' In 'Wis 19U ' a new generation of fowls' {riav ytveaiv ipviwv) is changed into 'a new race of birds.' In NT the Gr. (always plu.) is either ISpveov (Rev 19"-21) or reravdy (Mt 6a6 134, Mk 44-32, Lk 85 1224 131^ Ac 1012 II6), and, except in the two places in Ac, RV changes into ' birds. J. Hastings. FOWL. — Neither in AV nor in RV has any system been followed in the rendering of the various words for birds in the Heb. original. These words are—1. >]iy '6ph. This word signifies collectively birds or winged creatures, It is often in the construct state with nytfo the sides. It corresponds with the Arab, fair, the root of which seems to signify to fly. It ought to be tt* everywhere birds. It is, however, more generally tr1 fowl, but also often birds (Jer 4s5). It is usually collective (Ezk 316-18), but sometimes singular (?) (Gn I21-so, Lv 1713). It is sometimes used for carrion birds (2 S 2110). 2. d:h 'ayit, usually collective (in Is 4611 singular, applied to Cyrus) for birds of prey, is, however, trd in AV fowls (Gn 15"), RV birds of prey; also AV fowls (Job 287, Is 18"), RV birds of prey and ravenous birds, AV and RV lisy B'j ravenous birds (Ezk 394). 3. ~i\S!t zippfir is in many places a collective term for birds, from the root is? zdphar, to ' twitter,' or ' chirp,' or ' whistle' (cf, Arab, safar, to ' whistle'). It is used collectively, Gn 15", Lv 144'53, Dt 14", etc., where it is tr" AVand RV 'birds'; Dt 4", Neh 518, Ps 8s, where it is trd EV 'fowl.' It is sometimes in construct state with i-;|"^|> (Ezk 1723 etc.), at others with >)j? (Ps 14810). ZippSr, like its Arab, equivalent 'usfur, is also used for the smaller twittering birds, particularly the sparrow (Ps 84s etc.). The zippor is said to nest in the cedar (Ps 104"), to flee to the mountains (Ps II1), to be taken in nets and snares (Ps 1247, Pr 6s, Am 35). Four different ways of taking animals and birds are alluded to in a single passage (Job 188'10). In all there are seven different Heb. words for the various sorts of traps. The ' cage full of birds' (Jer S27) may refer to the custom of hanging cages of birds on the trees, on which birdlime or snares are placed, or near which the sportsman lies concealed, to entice the birds by the singing of the captives (but see CAGE). The voice of the zippCr (Ec 124) is the morning song, announcing the dawn. 4. "HI '^513 ba'al-kdndph (Pr I17), the 'possessor of a wing,' is a figurative expression for a bird. 5. In NT (and Sir 4314) ireravd (or rb, t.) is general for birds, by which it is trd in RV, while AV gives fowls (Mt 134, Lk 1319). When birds of prey are intended 6pvea is used (Rev 1917). Birds are divided into clean and unclean (Dt 14H-2U) lv gives the list only of the unclean birds (II13-20). The 'fowls that creep' or 'creeping thing that flieth,' RV 'winged creeping things' (Lv II20- *, Dt 1419), may refer to such as the bats, and the insects that do not leap as well as fly (see full discussion in art. Creeping Things). The birds allowed in sacrifice were turtle-doves and pigeons (Lv I14"17), and zipporim (Lv 144"53). The last were prob. any twitterers or clean birds except the two above mentioned. Among the birds mentioned as having been used as food are quails, partridges, fatted fowls (barburtm, 1 K 413, see Cock), and fowl (zippdr, Neh 518). The last may refer to small birds. It is prob. that the sparrows, sold two for a farthing and five for two farthings (Mt 1029, Lk 126), were for food. They and other small birds are caught and- sold in immense numbers FOWLER FKAME at this day, and at prices similar to those of our Saviour's day. Cocks and hens are mentioned in NT, and were doubtless used for food. The migrations of birds are especially noteworthy in the Holy Land, as a country midway between the tropics and cooler regions of the north. They are noted in Scripture (Ca 2U-la, Jer 87). Their singing is also alluded to (Ec 124, Ps 10412), and their flight (Ex 194, Dt 3211-12). Eggs were eaten (Lk II12). The eggs of wild birds, on which the hen was sitting, could be taken, but not the hen at the same time (Dt 22s). Ostrich eggs are mentioned (Job 3914, see Ostrich). 'Eggs that are left' (Is 1014) may refer to the supplementary eggs of the ostrich or to the nests that have been deserted owing to fright of the parent birds. Eggs of serpents are alluded to (Is 595). For the expression ' sitteth on eggs' (Jer 17" RV, AVm ' gatherethyoung'), see PARTRIDGE. Birds' nests are often found in places of worship (Ps 84s). For general subject of birds, their habits, etc., see Natural History. G. E. Post. FOWLER is marked by the Oxf: Eng. Diet, as ' now rare,' the more commonplace ' bird-catcher' being its substitute. It is found in AV, Ps 124' (tfpv, ptcp. of [K»jT] to lay snares) ; Hos 98 (wp; [all]); Ps 913, Pr 66 (wip;, found also in Jer 526, AV ' he that setteth snares' ; RV ' fowlers,' which is Wyclif's word). Shaks. has the word but once— Mids. Night's Dream, in. ii. 20— • As wild geese that the creeping fowler eye.' For Fowling see under Hunting. FOX (Sj;?e> shtidl, dXciir^, vulpes).—There can be no,doubt that shu'dl meant both jackal and fox. It is used in the sing, only once in OT (Neh 43), where the intention is doubtless to refer to a small animal, and fox is more likely to be meant than jackal. The plural shu'dlim is used in a number of places in OT. AV has trd it in all of them} foxes. In two of these (Jg 154, Ps 6310) the context makes it pretty certain that the jackal is intended. In the first passage Samson is said to have caught 300 shu'dlim. This would be well-nigh impossible in the case of foxes, which are shy, solitary animals, but not difficult in that of jackals, which are gregarious. In the second the expression ' they shall be a portion for foxes' implies a carrion-eater. Foxes may sometimes join other animals in feasting on the slain, but it is jackals that share with vultures the carrion of a battlefield. In the other passages of OT shu'dlim may mean either animal, though the context points rather to the habits of the fox than to those of the jackal. Thus La 518 represents sh&'dlim as walking on the ruins of Zion, and Ezk 134 ' shu'dlim, in the deserts' (RV 'waste places'), and Ca215 speaks of ' the foxes, the little foxes that spoil the vines' (RV 'vineyards'). A special word for jackals occurs in OT d"1.* (see Dragon under d'jb, and Jackal). The Gr. AXdir^ means the fox only. In NT the sing, occurs once (Lk 1332), where Herod is spoken of as a fox. Here the reference is to the well-known cunning of this animal. It occurs twice in the plu. (Mt 820, Lk 958) ' foxes have holes." The fox of Syria does not differ essentially froni the common fox of Europe, Vulpes_ vulgaris, L. Its body is about 14 in. long, and its bushy tail almost as long. It is of a grey colour, has a long pointed snout, and small cunning eyes. It is a nocturnal animal, prowling about houses and encampments. It captures poultry, and small birds and animals. It is also very fond of grapes, and both it and the jackal do much mischief in vineyards. G. E. Post. FRAGMENT.—The word Kk&apa. (from KKieiv, to break) is used in the plu. (sXetir/iaTa) of the remains of the loaves and fishes in the account of the Feeding of the Five Thousand (Mt 1420, Mk 643, Lk 917, Jn 612-I3), the Four Thousand (Mt 1537, Mk 88), and in the reference to these miracles (Mk gw. 20); an(j ^ js uged nowhere else in NT.* T vari Mk ' gobbets' in Mt 1420 and Mk 6**, elsewhere ' broken meate * (1526 ed. in Mk 820 'levinges'). Rogers (Matthew's Bible) everywhere except Mk 6*3' broken peces.' The Great Bible offers ' fragments' as a new tr» (Mt 1420), and ' leauinges' (Mk 820), says simply ' baskettes full ther of' in Mk e43, and for the rest has ' broken meate.' The Geneva and Bishops' Bibles follow the Great Bible in all places except Mk 6^ ' fragments," and (Gen. 1560 only) Mt 153? ' fragments' again. The Rhemisb NT prefers 'fragments' everywhere except Mt U20 'leauings.' AV accepts ' fragments' in all but the two passages which refer to the miracle of the Four Thousand, where it falls back on the rendering 'broken meat.' RV chooses 'broken pieces* (which has appeared only once before, Mk 6^3 Cov.), and uses it consistently throughout. Why were the Revisers not content with AV ' fragments' 2 ' For some mysterious reason,' says Sir Edmund Beckett (Should the Revised New Test, be Authorised? 1882, p. 91), 'they prefer "broken pieces" to "fragments that remained over" of the two sets of loaves and fishes. We have all heard of " broken victuals" ; but the victuals were once whole, and had been broken. Each piece of bread or fish is a piece, and not broken, though broken off, if they will be so precise. But a fragment is a piece broken off. So here is another miserable bit of pedantry of some kind, and for some unknown reason, which only turns right into wrong for nothing ; for the AV is certainly quite as accurate a translation : indeed the Durham Greek professor said more so.' But there are two good reasons. In the first place the word ' fragment' carries, and has always carried, a sense of contempt. Shaks. uses the word seven times, and this is always present, mostly prominent. The aptest instance is perhaps Troil. and Cress, v. ii. 159— ' The fragments, scraps, the bits, and greasy reliques Of her o'er-eaten faith, are bound to Diomed.' Cf. T. Fuller, Holy Warn, iv. 16 (p. 195), 'Yea, now full willingly would the Christians have accepted the terms formerly offered them; and now their hungrie stomachs would make dainties of those conditions which before, when full of pride, they threw away as fragments.' In the second place the 'broken pieces' were not fragments of larger pieces ; all that the disciples gave to the multitude were ' broken pieces,' and these which were gathered up were the broken pieces that were in excess of the requirements. J. Hastings. FRAME.—To ' frame' (from Old Eng. framian, to profit, succeed) is primarily to make good progress, to prosper, as Melville, Diary, p. 272, ' The Bischope haid lurked a yeir or twa fyk a tod in his holl, a