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IllTHE  CALVIN TRANSLATION SOCIETY,INSTITUTED IN  MAT M.DCCC.XLIII.FOE THE PUBLICATION OP TEANSLATIONS OF THE WOEKS   OF JOHN CALVIN.COMMENTARIESTHE FOUR LAST BOOKS OF MOSESARRANGEDIN THE FORM OF A HARMONYBY JOHN CAIYINTRANSLATED FROM THE ORIGINAL LATIN, AND COMPARED WITH THE FRENCH EDITION ;  WITH ANNOTATIONS, ETC.BY THE REV. CHARLES WILLIAM BINGHAM, M.A.RECTOR OP  MELCOMBE-HOR8ET,  DORSET,  AND FORMERLY  FELLOW  OP NEW  COLLEGE,  OXFORDVOLUME   THIRDurn urnBAKER BOOK HOUSEGrand Rapids, Michigan 49516Calvin's Commentaries22-Volume Set ISBN: 0-8010-2440-4Originally printed for theCalvin Translation SocietyEdinburgh, ScotlandReprinted 1993 byBaker Book House CompanyP.O. Box 6287, Grand Rapids, MI 49516-6287Printed in the United States of AmericaTHE FOUR LAST BOOKS OF MOSESARRANGED IN  THE  FOKM  OFA HARMONY, WITH COMMENTARIES.THE SECOND TABLE OF THE LAW: THE FIRST COMMANDMENT OF WHICH IS THE FIFTH OF THE LAW.Cf)e jftftj) Cmrnnattimtent.EXODUS, CHAPTER XX.12. Honour thy father and thy 12. Honora patrem tuum et ma-mother ; that thy days may be long   trem tuam, ut prorogentur dies upon the land which the Lord thy   tui super terrain quam Jehova Deus God giveth thee.                              tuus dat tibi.ITS REPETITION FROM DEUTERONOMY V.16. Honour thy father and thy 16. Honora patrem tuum et ma-mother, as the Lord thy God hath   trem tuam, quemadmodum prsecepit commanded thee; that thy days may   tibi Jehova, Deus tuus: ut proro-be prolonged, and that it may go   gentur dies tui et ut bene sit tibi well with thee, in the land which   super terrain quam Jehova Deus the Lord thy God giveth thee.           tuus dat tibi.I am not ignorant that the Tables of the Law are usually divided in a different manner j1 for those, who make only one of the first two Commandments, are obliged finally to mangle1 See Becon's Catechism, part iii., (Parker Society's edition,) p. 60, et seq. See also Bullinger's Decades, (Parker Society,) vol. i. p. 212; and Hooper's Early Writings, (Parker Society,) pages 349-351; and Calvin's Institutes, lib. ii. cap. 8, з 12. It appears that this error may be traced to Augustine, (Quaest. in Exod. 71, and Ep. ad. Jan. 119,) who, without omitting the Second Commandment, divided the precepts of the First Table into three, on the supposition that their number was allusive to the Trinity. He, however, contradicts himself elsewhere, (Qusest. Vet. et Novi Test., lib. i. 7;) but Peter Lomb._ adopts his erroneous division, and separates the Tenth Commandment into two parts. (Lib. iii., Distinct. 37 and 40.)6                calvin's harmony of the four       exod. xx. 12.the last. Thus the prohibition of God to covet either our neighbour's wife or his house, is foolishly separated into two parts, whereas it is quite clear that only one thing is treated of, as we gather from the words of Paul, who quotes them as a single Commandment. (Rom. vii. 7.) There is, however, no need of a lengthened discussion here, since the fact itself explains how one error has grown out of another; for, when they had improperly hidden the Second Commandment under the First, and consequently did not find the right number, they were forced to divide into two parts what was one and indivisible. A frivolous reason is assigned by Augustine why they comprised the First Table in three commandments, viz., that believers might learn to worship God in the Trinity, and thus to adore one God in three persons. By inconsiderately trifling with such subtleties, they have exposed God's law to the mockeries of the ungodly. Jose-phus1 indeed rightly enumerates the Commandments themselves in their proper order, but improperly attributes five Commandments to each Table ; as if God had had regard to arithmetic rather than to instruct His people separately in the duties of charity, after having laid down for them the rules of piety. For up to this point the rule of rightly serving God has been delivered, i.e., the First Table embraces a summary of piety ; and now the Law will begin to shew how men ought to live with each other, otherwise one Table would have been enough, nor would God have divided His Law without a purpose. But whereas piety2 and justice comprise the perfect rule for the direction of our lives, it was necessary to distinguish these two parts, that the people might understand the object of the Law, of which we shall again speak hereafter.Exod. xx. 12. Honour thy father. Although charity (as being " the bond of perfectness," Col. iii. 14) contains the╗ See Jewish Antiq., book iii. chap. v. з 5. In sect. 8 it is added: " When he had said this he shewed them two tables, with the ten commandments engraven upon them, five upon each table; and the writing was by the hand of God."2 " La piete que nous devons a Dieu, et l'equite que nous devons a nos prochains;" the piety which we owe to God, and the equity which we owe to our neighbours.ЧFr.OTH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.               7sum of the Second Table, still, mutual obligation does not prevent either parents or others, who are in authority, from retaining their proper position. Nay, human society cannot be maintained in its integrity, unless children modestly submit themselves to their parents, and unless those, who are set over others by God's ordinance, are even reverently honoured. But inasmuch as the reverence which children pay to their parents is accounted a sort of piety, some have therefore foolishly placed this precept in the First Table. Nor are they supported in this by Paul, though he does not enumerate this Commandment, where he collects the sum of the Second Table, (Rom. xiii. 9 ;) for he does this designedly, because he is there expressly teaching that obedience is to be paid to the authority of kings and magistrates. Christ, however, puts an end to the whole controversy, where, among the precepts of the Second Table, He enumerates this, that children should honour their parents. (Matt, xix. 19.)The name of the mothers is expressly introduced, lest their sex .should render them contemptible to their male children.It will be now well to ascertain what is the force of the word "honour," not as to its grammatical meaning, (for "QD, cabad, is nothing else but to pay due honour to God, and to men who are in authority,) but as to its essential signification. Surely, since God would not have His servants comply with external ceremonies only, it cannot be doubted but that all the duties of piety towards parents are here comprised, to which children are laid under obligation by natural reason itself; and these may be reduced to three heads, i.e., that they should regard them with reverence ; that they should obediently comply with their commands, and allow themselves to be governed by them ; and that they should endeavour to repay what they owe to them, and thus heartily devote to them themselves and their services. Since, therefore, the name of Father is a sacred one, and is transferred to men by the peculiar goodness of God, the dishonouring of parents redounds to the dishonour of God Himself, nor can any one despise his father without being8                calvin's habmony op the four       exod. xx. 12.guilty of an offence against God, (sacrilegium.) If any should object that there are many ungodly and wicked fathers whom their children cannot regard with honour without destroying the distinction between good and evil, the reply is easy, that the perpetual law of nature is not subverted by the sins of men ; and therefore, however unworthy of honour a father may be, that he still retains, inasmuch as he is a father, his right over his children, provided it does not in anywise derogate from the judgment of God ; for it is too absurd to think of absolving under any pretext the sins which are condemned by His Law ; nay, it would be a base profanation to misuse the name of father for the covering of sins. In condemning, therefore, the vices of a father, a truly pious son will subscribe to God's Law ; and still, whatsoever he may be, will acknowledge that he is to be honoured, as being the father given him by God.Obedience comes next, which is also circumscribed by certain limits. Paul is a faithful interpreter of this Commandment, where he bids " children obey their parents." (Eph. vi. 1 ; Col. iii. 20.) Honour, therefore, comprises subjection ; so that he who shakes off the yoke of his father, and does not allow himself to be governed by his authority, is justly said to despise his father ; and it will more clearly appear from other passages, that those who are not obedient to their parents are deemed to despise them. Still, the power of a father is so limited as that God, on whom all relationships depend, should have the rule over fathers as well as children ; for parents govern their children only under the supreme authority of God. Paul, therefore, does not simply exhort children to obey their parents, but adds the restriction, " in the Lord;" whereby he indicates that, if a father enjoins anything unrighteous, obedience is freely to be denied him. Immoderate strictness, moroseness, and even cruelty must be borne, so long as a mortal man, by wickedly demanding what is not lawful, does not endeavour to rob God of His right. In a word, the Law so subjects children to their parents, as that God's right may, remain uninfringed. An objection here arises in the shape of this question: It may sometimes happen that a son may holdOTH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.             9the office of a magistrate, but that the father may be a private person, and that thus the son cannot discharge his private duty without violating public order. The point is easily solved : that all things may be so tempered by their mutual moderation as that, whilst the father submits himself to the government of his son,1 yet he may not be at all defrauded of his honour, and that the son, although his superior in power, may still modestly reverence his father.The third head of honour is, that children should take care of their parents, and be ready and diligent in all their duties towards them. This kind of piety the Greeks call avrmekap-<yla,2 because storks supply food to their parents when they are feeble and worn out with old age, and are thus our instructors in gratitude. Hence the barbarity of those is all the more base and detestable, who either grudge or neglect1  There is a delightful illustration of this point, which will occur to many, related in Move's Life of Sir Thomas More, ch. vi. з 5,Ч"Now^it was a comfortable thing for anie man to beholde how two great roomes of Westminster-hall were taken up, one with the sonne, the other with the father, which hath as yet never bene heard of before or since, the sonne to be Lord Chancellor, and the father, Sir John More, to be one of the ancientest Judges of the King's Bench, if not the eldest of all; for now he was neare 90 yeare old.    Yea, what a gratefull spectacle was it, to see the sonne aske the father's blessing everie day upon his knees, before he sat in his own seate, a thing expressing rare humilitie, exemplar obedience, and submissive pietie."2  " Let us consider what is meant by the Gentiles' anwiXx^yth, which is to requite one good turn with another; and especially to nourish and cherish them, by whom thou thyself in thy youth wast brought up and tendered.    There is among the Gentiles a law extant, worthy to be called the mistress of piety, whereby it is enacted that the children shbuld either nourish their parents or else lie fast fettered in prison.    This law many men do carelessly neglect, which the stork alone, among all living creatures, doth keep most precisely.   For other creatures do hard, and scarcely know or look upon their parents, if peradventure they need their aid to nourish them; whereas the stork doth mutually nourish  tLem, being stricken in age, and bear them on her shoulders, when for feebleness they cannot fly."ЧBullinger's Second Decade, Serm. v., Parker Society's edit., vol. i. p. 272.    See also Hooper's Early Writings, Parker Society's edit., p.  359.     "Follow the nature of the cicone, that in her youth nourisheth the old days of her parents."ЧPlin., lib. x. cap. 23, Nat. Hist.The Fr. concludes the sentence thus: " et ainsi nous sont comme mais-tresses pour nous apprendre a recognoistre le bien que nous avons receu de ceux qui nous ont mis au monde et elevez;" and so are, as it were, our mistresses to teach us to repay the benefits of those who have brought us into the world and reared us.10              calvin's harmony of the four        exod. xx. 12.to relieve the poverty of their parents, and to aid their necessities.Now, although the parental name ought, by its own sweetness, sufficiently to attract children to ready submission, still a promise is added as a stimulus, in order that they may more cheerfully bestir themselves to pay the honour which is enjoined upon them. Paul, therefore, that children may be more willing to obey their parents, reminds us that this " is the first commandment with promise," (Eph. vi. 2 ;) for although a promise is annexed to the Second Commandment, yet it is not a special one, as we perceive this to be. The reward, that the days of children who have behaved themselves piously to their parents shall be prolonged, aptly corresponds with the observance of the commandment, since in this manner God gives us a proof of His favour in this life, when we have been grateful to those to whom we are indebted for it; whilst it is by no means just that they should greatly prolong their life who despise those progenitors by whom they have been brought into it. Here the question arises, since this earthly life is exposed to so many cares, and pains, and troubles, how can God account its prolongation to be a blessing ? But whereas all cares spring from the curse of God, it is manifest that they are accidental ; and thus, if life be regarded in itself, it does not cease to be a proof of God's favour. Besides, all this multitude of miseries does not destroy the chief blessing of life, viz., that men are created and preserved unto the hope of a happy immortality ; for God now manifests Himself to them as a Father, that hereafter they may enjoy His eternal inheritance. The knowledge of this, like a lighted lamp, causes God's grace to 3hine forth in the midst of darkness. Whence it follows, that those had not tasted the main thing in life,1 who have said that the best thing was not to be1 This famous sentiment of antiquity is found in the Elegies of Theognis, some 500 years B.C.,ЧIltzvT&iv [tiv fib tpdvcci'Pvvra S' otrats ^Ki^a, vvXas didaat irigt.fxiKai x$7tr&ai vo\X.9lv yrti ivafttjffoifiivov----425-428.It is also reported by Plutarch, in his n^x/tv^nnxis v^s aлxa.╗╗hv, byOTH COMMANDMENT.     LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.            11born, and the next best thing to be cut off as soon as possible; whereas God rather so exercises men by various afflictions, as that it should be good for them nevertheless to be created in His image, and to be accounted His children. A clearer explanation also is added in Deuteronomy, not only that they should live, but that it may go well with them; so that not only is length of life promised them, but other accessories also. And in fact, many who have been ungrateful and unkind to their parents only prolong their life as a punishment, whilst the reward of their inhuman conduct is repaid them by their children and descendants. But inasmuch as long life is not vouchsafed to all who have discharged the duties of piety towards their parents, it must be remembered that, with respect to temporal rewards, an infallible law is by no means laid down ; and still, where God works variously and unequally, His promises are not made void, because a better compensation is secured in heaven for believers, who have been deprived on earth of transitory blessings. Truly experience in all ages has shewn that God has not in vain promised long life to all who have faithfully discharged the duties of true piety towards their parents. Still, from the principle already stated, it is to be understood that this Commandment extends further than the words imply; and this we infer from the following sound argument, viz., that otherwise God's Law would be imperfect, and would not instruct us in the perfect rule of a just and holy life.The natural sense itself dictates to us that we should obey rulers. If servants obey not their masters, the society of the human race is subverted altogether. It is not, therefore, the least essential part of righteousness1 that the peoplewhom, as well as by Cicero, it is called the reply of Silenus to Midas,Ч " Affertur etiam de Sileno fabella qusedam: qui cum a Mida captus esset, hoc ei muneris pro sua missione dedisse scribitur: docuisse regem, non nasci homini longe optimum esse; proximum autem, quamprimum mori." ЧTusc. Qucest. i. 48. "Ex quo intelligi licet, non nasci longe optimum esse, nee in hos scopulos incidere vitse; proximum autem, si natus sis, quamprimum mori, et tanquam ex incendio effugere fortunse. Sileni qua; fertur fabula, etc."ЧConsolatio. Lactantius refers to the latter passage, De falsa sapientia, з 19.    " Hinc nata est inepta ilia sententia, etc."1 " Pars justicire non postrema."Чhat. " Une partie de la justice, qui nous devons tous garder;" a part of righteousness which we ought all to observe.ЧFr.12                calvin's harmony of the four        lev. xix. 3.should willingly submit themselves to the command of magistrates, and that servants should obey their masters ; and, consequently, it would be very absurd if it were omitted in the Law of God. In this commandment, then, as in the others, God by synecdoche embraces, under a specific rule, a general principle, viz., that lawful commands should obtain due reverence from us. But that all things should not be distinctly expressed, first of all brevity itself readily accounts for; and, besides, another reason is to be noticed, i.e., that God designedly used a homely style in addressing a rude people, because He saw its expediency. If He had said generally, that all superiors were to be obeyed, since pride is natural to all, it would not have been easy to incline the greater part of men to pay submission to a few. Nay, since subjection is naturally disagreeable, many would have kicked against it. God, therefore, propounds a specific kind of subjection, which it would have been gross barbarism to refuse, that thus, their ferocity being gradually subdued, He might accustom men to bear the yoke. Hence the exhortations are derived, that people should " honour the king ;" that " every soul should be subject unto the higher powers;" that " servants should obey their masters, even the froward and morose." (Prov. xxiv. 21; 1 Pet. ii. 13; Rom. xiii. 1 ; Eph. vi. 5 ; 1 Pet. ii. 14, 18.) ^position of tfje CommanOntent.LEVITICUS, CHAPTER XIX.3. Ye shall fear every man his 3. Unusquisque patrem suum et mother and his father.                       matrem suam timeat.Since this passage unquestionably relates to the explanation of the Fifth Commandment, it confirms what I have before shewn, that the honour which God-commands to be paid to parents, does not consist in reverence only, but also embraces obedience. For the reverence which He now prescribes will render children submissive and compliant. Now, then, we more clearly understand how parents are to5TH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.           13be honoured, when God exhorts their children to beware of offending them ; for this is, in a word, the true manifestation of filial piety, calmly to bear the yoke of subjection, and to prove by acts a sincere desire to obey. of tijc jFtftlj ConmtattBtittttt.EXODUS, CHAPTER XXI.15. And he that smiteth his father       15. Qui percusserit patrem suumor his mother shall be surely put to   aut matrem, morte moriatur. death.17. And he that curseth his father       17. Qui maledixerit patri suo velor his mother shall surely be put to   matri suae, morte moriatur. death.Lev. xx. 9. For every one that       9. Qui maledixerit patri suo autcurseth his father or his mother shall   matri su╗   morte moriatur:   quibe surely put to death: he hath   patri suo et matri sure maledixit,cursed his father or his mother; his   sanguis ejus super eum. blood shall be upon him.The commandment is now sanctioned by the denunciation of capital punishment for its violation, yet not so as to comprehend all who have in any respect sinned against their parents, but sufficient to shew that the rights of parents are sacred, and not to be violated without the greatest criminality. We know that parricides,1 as being the most detestable of all men, were formerly sewn up in a leathern sack and cast into the water; but God proceeds further, when He commands all those to be exterminated who have laid violent hands on their parents,2 or addressed them in abusive language. For to smite does not only mean to kill, but refers to any violence, although no wound may have been inflicted. If, then, any one had struck his father or mother with his fist, or with a stick, the punishment of such an act of madness was the same as for murder. And, assuredly, it is an abominable and monstrous thing for a son not to1 By the Roman law parricides were sewn up in a leathern sack with a dog, a cock, a viper, and a monkey, and cast into the sea, or the nearest river.ЧVide Cicero pro Rose. Amer., ii. 25, 26.* "Oeux qui auront outrage pere ou mere, soit de faict, soit de parole;" those who shall have outraged father or mother either by act or word.ЧFr.14                 CALVIN'S HARMONY OF THE FOUR           DECT. XXI. 18.hesitate to assault those from whom he has received his life ; nor can it be but that impunity accorded to so foul a crime must straightway produce cruel barbarism. The second law avenges not only violence done to parents, but also abusive words, which soon proceed to grosser insults and atrocious contempt. Still, if any one should have lightly let drop some slight reproach, as is often the case in a quarrel, this severe punishment was not to be inflicted upon such an inconsiderate piece of impertinence: and the word 77p, kalal, from which the participle used by Moses is derived, not only means to reproach, but also to curse, as well as to esteem lightly, and to despise. Whilst, therefore, not every insult, whereby the reverence due to parents was violated, received the punishment of death, still God would have that impious pride, which would subvert the first principles of nature, held in abhorrence. But, inasmuch as it might seem hard that a word,1 however unworthy of a dutiful son, should be the cause of death; this objection is met, by what is added by God in Leviticus, " his blood shall be upon him, because he hath cursed his father or mother :" as if He would put a stop to what men might otherwise presume to allege in mitigation of the severity of the punishment.DEUTERONOMY, CHAPTER XXI.18.  If a man have a stubborn and       18. Quum  quis habuerit filium rebellious son, which will not obey   perversum et rebellem, non obedi-the voice of his father, or the voice   enteni voci patris sui et matris sure, of his mother, and that, when they   et castigaverint ilium, nee paruerit have chastened him, will not hearken   illis:unto them;19.  Then shall his father and his       19. Turn apprehendent eum pater mother lay hold on him, and bring   eius et mater eius, educentque ad him out unto the elders of his city,    seniores urbis sure et portam loci and unto the gate of his place:          sui:20.  And they shall say unto the       20. Dicentque senioribus  urbis, elders of his city, This our son is   Pilius iste  noster perversus et re-stubborn and rebellious, he will not    bellis est, non obediens voci nostrre, obey our voice; he is a glutton and   epulo est ac comessator.a drunkard.21.  And all the men of his city       21. Tune lapidabunt eum omnes1 " Une injure verbale;" a verbal injury.ЧFr.5TH COMMANDMENT.     LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.              10shall stone him with stones, that lie   homines urbis suee lapidibus, et mo-die : so shalt thou put evil away   rietur: atque ita auferes malum e from among you; and all Israel   medio tui, uuiYersusque Israel au-shall hear, and fear.                         diet, et timebit.18. If a man have a stubborn. What God had previously adverted to in two clauses, He now embraces in a general law, for it cannot be doubted but that by rebellious children all are designated who are abusive or insulting to their father and mother. For if it be a capital crime to be disobedient to parents, much more is it to strike, or beat them, and to assail them with reproachful words. In sum, Moses declares that those are deserving of death who are of such a stubborn and intractable disposition as to reject the authority of their father and mother, and to hold them in contempt. Whence also we infer what it is to honour our father and mother, for the punishment is only denounced for the transgression of the Commandment. When, therefore, the law delivers over to death all who contumaciously rebel against the discipline of their parents, it follows that they have refused them their due honour. An admirable means, however, of moderating the severity of the law is introduced, when God requires the case to be decided on the evidence of the father and mother; and commands that it should be publicly heard, so that none may be condemned at the will of private individuals. By the Roman law the power of life and death over his children1 was given to the father, because it was not probable that fathers would be carried away by such senseless inhumanity as to deal cruelly with their own bowels; but, since sometimes fathers are found who are not unlike wild beasts, and examples shew us that many, blinded by hate or avarice, have not spared their own children, this concession of the Roman law is justly to be repudiated. I allow, indeed, that those who desired to inflict punishment on their children called their friends into council; but,1 " A father among the Romans had the power of life and death over his children. He could not only expose them when infants, but, even when his children were grown up, he might imprison, scourge, send them bound to work in the country, and also put them to death by any punishment he pleased, if they deserved it. Sail. Cat., 39.; Liv., ii. 41; viii. 7 ; Dionys., viii. 79."ЧAdam's Rom. Antiq.16                   CALVIN'S HARMONY OF THE FOUR           DEDT.XXI.18.whereas, the walls of a private dwelling conceal many disgraceful things, God imposed a much better restraint on parents when He did not suffer them to go further than to lay the information and to give their testimony. For, although He would have credit given to their testimony, still, when the children were brought to the tribunal of the judges, a legal trial undoubtedly ensued ; and this form of proceeding is prescribed, viz., that the father and mother should bring their son and make their complaint before the judges of his incorrigible stubbornness. It is true that the sentence is immediately subjoined ; yet we must infer, nevertheless, that the judges pronounced it before the criminal was stoned, else it would have been ridiculous that they should sit there like cyphers. The very mention of a trial, therefore, implies that the son was heard in his defence, so as to clear himself of the crime, if he was not guilty of it: for, suppose the moroseness of the father and mother were notorious ; or that the father accused the son by the instigation of a stepmother; or that any unworthy spite were discovered ; or that the father and mother had conspired to destroy their son in a fit of passion: the defence of the cause is, therefore, implied in the adverb then,1 for it would have been more than absurd that the son should be condemned without being heard. Especially, when he was to be stoned by the whole people, it was necessary that he should be first convicted; and on this ground he was brought forth publicly, that he might be allowed to plead his cause. But although those were condemned who were addicted to other vices also, yet Moses expressly mentions gluttons and drunkards, to shew that, although no capital crime were alleged, still, dissolute profligacy was sufficient, if the son could not be corrected by his parents ; for it is plain that those are in a desperate state who have so cast away submissiveness and shame as to receive no profit from the admonitions of their parents. From the end of the verse we gather what was the twofold object of the punishmentЧ that the earth should be purged of the sins whereby it was1 The particle 1 sometimes has this force, but is here translated in A. V. and.5th commandment,    last books of the pentatettoh.         ] 7in a manner, polluted, and that the death of him who had transgressed might be an example to all.EXODUS, CHAPTER XXII.28. Thou shalt not revile the gods,       28. Diis non detrahes, etprincipinor curse the ruler of thy people.       populi tui non maledices.Lev. xix. 32. Thou shalt rise up       32. Ante canitiem assurge, et ho-before the hoary head, and honour   nora faciem senis, metueque Deumthe face of the old man, and fear   tuum: ego Jehova. thy God : I am the Lord.Dbijt. xvi. 18. Judges and offi-        18. Judices et prsefectos consti-cers shalt thou make thee in all   tues tibi intra omnes portas tuasthy gates, which the Lord thy God   quas Jehova Deus tuus dabit tibigivetb thee, throughout thy tribes:    per tribus tuas, qui judicent popu-and they shall judge the people with   lum judicio justitiaB, hoc est recto, just judgment.Deut. xx.  9. And it  shall be,       9. Quum finem fecerint prscfectiwhen the officers have made an end   militares loquendi ad populum, con-of speaking unto the people, that   stituentprincipesturmarumincapitethey shall make  captains of the   populi. armies to lead the people.Exod. xxii. 28. Thou shalt not revile the gods. These four passages confirm what I have said, that in the Fifth Commandment are comprised by synecdoche all superiors in authority. For it was not the design of God to add to the Two Tables, as if something better and more perfect had afterwards come into His mind; which it is sinful to suppose. He was therefore content with the rule once laid down, although He afterwards spoke in a more explanatory manner. But the precepts here given would be unconnected with the Law, if they were not an adjunct, and therefore a part, of the Fifth Commandment.First of all, He commands that we should think and speak reverently of judges, and others, who exercise the office of magistrate: nor is it to be questioned.that, in the ordinary idiom of the Hebrew language, He repeats the same thing twice over ; and consequently that the same persons are called "gods," and "rulers of the people." The name of God is, figuratively indeed, but most reasonably, applied to magistrates, upon whom, as the ministers of His authority, He has inscribed a mark of His glory.   For, as we have seen18                 calvin's harmony of the four     lev. xix. 32.that honour is due to fathers, because God has associated them with Himself in the possession of the name, so also here His own dignity is claimed for judges, in order that the people may reverence them, because they are God's representatives, as His lieutenants, and vicars. And so Christ, the surest expositor, explains it, when He quotes the passage from Psalm lxxxii. 6, " I have said, Ye are gods, and all of you are children of the Most High," (John x. 34,) viz., " that they are called gods, unto whom the word of God came," which is to be understood not of the general instruction addressed to all God's children, but of the special command to rule.It is a signal exaltation of magistrates, that God should not only count them in the place of parents, but present them to us dignified by His own name; whence also it clearly appears that they are not to be obeyed only from fear of punishment, " but also for conscience sake," (Rom. xiii. 5,) and to be reverently honoured, lest God should be despised in them. If any should object, that it would be wrong to praise the vices of those whom we perceive to abuse their power; the answer is easy, that although judges are to be borne with even if they be not the best,1 still that the ho n o u r   w i t h   а%w h i c h   t h e y   a r e   i n v e s t e d ,   i s   n o t   a   c o v e r i n g   f o r   v i c e .   N o r   d o e s   G o d   c o m m a n d   u s   t o   a p p l a u d   t h e i r   f a u l t s ,   b u t   t h a t   t h e   p e o p l e   s h o u l d   r a t h e r   d e p l o r e   t h e m   i n   s i l e n t   s o r r o w ,   t h a n   r a i s e   d i s t u r b a n c e s   i n   a   l i c e n t i o u s   a n d   s e d i t i o u s   s p i r i t ,   a n d   s o   s u b v e r t   political government.Lev. xix. 32. Thou shalt rise up before the hoary head. God teaches us that some sparks of His majesty shine forth in old men, whereby they approach to the honour of parents. It is not my purpose to gather quotations from profane authors in reference to the honour due to the old; let it suffice that what God here commands is dictated by nature itself. This appeared at Athens,2 when an old man had come into the theatre, and found no place among his fellow-citizens ; but, when at length he was admitted with honour1  " Encore qu'ils ne sont pas tels qu'ils devroyent;" even though they be not what they should.ЧFr.2  Cicero, de Senectute, xviii; and Val. Max., lib. iv. 5.OTH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.            19by the Spartan ambassador, (because old age is greatly reverenced among the Lacedemonians,) applause was raised on all sides; and then the Lacedemonian exclaimed, that " the Athenians knew what was right, but would not do it." It was surely manifested by this universal consent of the people that it is a natural law in the hearts of all to reverence and honour old men. Many old men, indeed, either by their levity, or lewdness, or sloth, subvert their own dignity ; yet, although grey hairs may not always be accompanied by courteous wisdom, still, in itself, age is venerable, according to God's command.Deut. xvi. 18. Judges and officers shalt thou make. I have placed this passage among the Supplements of the Fifth Commandment, for, if it pleases God that judges should be appointed for ruling the people, it follows that their laws and edicts should be obeyed ; and thus the parental authority extends also to them. But, in order that the people may more readily submit themselves to judges, God reminds them that the human race could not otherwise be preserved. Public utility, therefore, renders the authority of magistrates pleasant and agreeable, though it would else be hateful. But, although it be not conceded to all to elect their judges, because God honoured His chosen people with this prerogative, still he here recommends in general a regular government, since He signifies that human society cannot hold together unless the lawful rulers have authority to execute justice. Whether, then, magistrates are appointed by the suffrages of the people, or imposed in any other way, let us learn that they are the necessary ministers of God, to confine all men under the yoke of the laws. The latter passage, which I have annexed from Deuteronomy vii., refers to the same thing, viz., that even in war discipline is necessary, lest all things should be thrown into confusion. Now, if it pleases God that certain superior officers should have the command, it follows that they must be obeyed; for it would be ridiculous to appoint governors, if it were lawful to despise them with impunity. When, therefore, God sets military commanders over the people, He enforces the duty of humble submission.20                  calvin's harmony of the four    exod. xx. IS.Cj)e CommantmtentEXODUS, CHAPTER XX.13. Thou shalt not kill.                     13. Non occides.THE REPETITION OF THE SAME COMMANDMENT. Deut. v. 17. Thou shalt not kill.        17. Non occides.The sum of this Commandment is, that we should not unjustly do violence to any one. In order, however, that God may the better restrain us from all injury of others, He propounds one particular form of it, from which men's natural sense is abhorrent; for we all detest murder, so as to recoil from those whose hands are polluted with blood, as if they carried contagion with them. Undoubtedly God would have the remains of His image, which still shine forth in men, to continue in some estimation, so that all might feel that every homicide is an offence against Him, (sacrilegium.) He does not, indeed, here express the reason, whereby He elsewhere deters men from murder, i.e., by asserting that thus His image is violated, (Gen. ix. 6;) yet, however precisely and authoritatively He may speak as a Legislator, He would still have us consider, what might natural]}' occur to everybody's mind, such as the statement of Isaiah, (Iviii. 7,) that man is our " own flesh." In order, then, that believers may more diligently beware of inflicting injuries, He condemns a crime, which all spontaneously confess to be insufferable. It will, however, more clearly appear hereafter, that under the word kill is included by synecdoche all violence, smiting, and aggression. Besides, another principle is also to be remembered, that in negative precepts, as they are called, the opposite affirmation is also to be understood ; else it would not be by any means consistent, that a person would satisfy God's Law by merely abstaining from doing injury to others. Suppose, for example, that one of a cowardly disposition, and not daring to assail even a child,6TH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEFCH.            21should not move a finger to injure his neighbours, would he therefore have discharged the duties of humanity as regards the Sixth Commandment ? Nay, natural common sense demands more than that we should abstain from wrongdoing. And, not to say more on this point, it will plainly appear from the summary of the Second Table, that God not only forbids us to be murderers, but also prescribes that every one should study faithfully to defend the life of his neighbour, and practically to declare that it is dear to him ; for in that summary no mere negative phrase is used, but the words expressly set forth that our neighbours are to be loved. It is unquestionable, then, that of those whom God there commands to be loved, He here commends the lives to our care. There are, consequently, two parts in the Commandment,Чfirst, that we should not vex, or oppress, or be at enmity with any; and, secondly, that we should not only live at peace with men, without exciting quarrels, but also should aid, as far as we can, the miserable who are unjustly oppressed, and should endeavour to resist the wicked, lest they should injure men as they list. Christ, therefore, in expounding the genuine sense of the Law, not only pronounces those transgressors who have committed murder, but also that " he shall be in danger of the judgment who is angry with his brother without a cause; and whosoever shall say to his brother, Raca, shall be in danger of the council; but whosoever shall say, Thou fool, shall be in danger of hell-fire." (Matt. v. 22.) For He does not there, as some have ignorantly supposed, frame a new law, as if to cast blame upon His Father; but shews the folly and perversity of those interpreters of the Law who only insist on the external appearance, and husk of things, as is vulgarly said; since the doctrine of God must rather be estimated from a due consideration of His nature. Before earthly judges, if a man have carried a weapon for the purpose of killing a man, he is found guilty of violence; and God, who is a spiritual Lawgiver, goes even further. With Him, therefore, anger is accounted murder; yea, inasmuch as He pierces even to the most secret feelings, He holds even concealed hatred to be murder ; for so we must understand22                   calvin's haemony of the four    lev. xix. ] 7.John's words, " Whosoever hateth his brother is a murderer," (1 John iii. 15 ;) i.e., hatred conceived in the heart is sufficient for his condemnation, although it may not openly appear. й^position of Hjc йommantunent.LEVITICUS, CHAPTER XIX.17. Thou shalt not hate thy 17. Ne oderis fratrem tuum in brother in thine heart.                      corde tuo.I doubt not but that this part of the verse should be taken separately, nor do I approve of the introduction of the adversative particle bat, by which translators1 connect it with what follows. We know that we are not always to trust to the division of verses; and, since it is clear that whatever precepts we meet with in the writings of Moses for the regulation of our lives depend on the Decalogue, this sentence sufficiently proves that murder was foi-bidden, not only in order that none should slay his brother by his hand, or by a weapon, but also that he should not indulge in wrong-doing, by cherishing in himself hatred and ill-will. Hence the statement of Paul is confirmed, that " the Law is spiritual/' (Rom. vii. 14;) and their folly is refuted who pretend that Mose3 was an earthly lawgiver to the Jews, like Lycurgus or Solon, since he thus penetrates even to the secret affections. It is also probable that John derived from this passage his saying, " He that hateth his brother is a murderer," (1 John iii. 15;) for the word heart is here used emphatically ; since, although no outward signs of hatred may appear, yet the internal feeling is accounted murder before God.1 So in V. " Non oderis fratrem tuum in corde tuo, sed publice argue eum," &c.6TH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.             23LEVITICUS, CHAPTER XIX.18. Thou shalt not avenge, nor       18. Ne ulciscaris te, neque servesbear any grudge against the children   odium contra filios populi tui: sedof thy people ; but thou shalt love   diliges proxiraum tuura sicut teip-thy neighbour as thyself: I am the   sum: ego Jehova. Lord.Hence it clearly appears that God had a further object than that men should not kill each other, for He not only restrains their hands, but requires their hearts to be pure from all hatred. For, since the desire of vengeance is the fountain and cause of enmities, it follows that under the word kill is condensed whatever is opposed to brotherly love. And this is confirmed by the antithesis, that none should hate his brother, but rather love him as himself. We need, then, seek for no other expositor of the Commandment but God Himself, who pronounces those to be guilty of murder who are affected with any malevolence, and not only those who, when offended, desire to return evil for evil, but those who do not sincerely love their neighbours, even when with justice they deem them to be their enemies. Wherefore, in order that God may absolve us from spiritual murder, let us learn to purify our hearts from all desire of vengeance, and, laying aside hatred, to cultivate fraternal affection with all men.Although the latter part of the verse embraces the sum of the whole Second Table, yet, because love is contrasted with vengeance, I have not thought fit to separate things which are so properly connected with each other, especially when one depends on the other. The precept is indeed only given with reference to the children of Abraham, because the crime of vengeance would be more atrocious between those who were bound together by fraternal rights ; yet it is not to be doubted but that God generally condemns the vice. In the schools1 this sentence was grossly corrupted; for, since1 Fr., "Les Theologiens de la Papaute." O. refers elsewhere to this scholastic maxim: " Nor is the argument worth a straw. That the thing regulated must always be inferior to the rule. The Lord did not make self-love the rule, as if love towards others was subordinate to it; but whereas, through natural pravity, the feeling of love usually rests on ourselves, He24              calvin's harmony of the four        lev. xix. 14.the rule (as they say) is superior to what is regulated by it, they have invented a preposterous precept, that every one should love himself first, and then his neighbours ; of which subject I will treat more fully elsewhere. The word *)tD3, natar, meaning to guard, when used without any addition, is equivalent to bearing an injury in mind ; as we also say-in French : " garder une injure."^LEVITICUS, CHAPTER XIX.14. Thou shalt not curse the deaf,       14. Surdo non maledices, et co-nor put a stumblingblock before the   ram cseco non pones offendiculum,blind, but shalt fear thy God: I am   sed timebis a Deo tuo: ego Jehova. the Lord.Since the Law comprehends under the word murder, all the wrongs whereby men are unjustly injured, that cruelty was especially to be condemned by which those wretched persons are afflicted, whose calamity ought rather to conciliate our compassion. For, if any particle of humanity exists in us, when we meet a blind man we shall be solicitous lest he should stumble or fall, and, if he goes astray, we shall stretch out our hands to him and try to bring him back into the way; we shall also spare the deaf, for to insult them is no less absurd or barbarous than to assail stones with reproaches. It is, therefore, gross brutality to increase the ills of those whom our natural sense impels us to relieve, and who are already troubled more than enough. Let us, then, learn from these words, that the weaker people are, the more secure ought they to be from all oppression or injury, and that, when we attack the defenceless, the crime of cruelty is greatly aggravated, whilst any insult against the calamitous is altogether intolerable to God.shews that it ought to diffuse itself in another directionЧthat is, should be prepared to do good to our neighbour with no less alacrity, ardour, and solicitude, than to ourselves."ЧInst., book ii., viii., з 54. " Again, when Moses commanded us to love our neighbours as ourselves, he did not intend to put the love of ourselves in the first place, so that a man may first love himself and then love his neighbours: as the sophists of the Sorbonne are wont to cavil, that the rule must always go before what it regulates."Ч Harm, of the Evangelists, (0. Society's Trans.,) vol. iii. p. 59.i Addition in Fr., " Et pourtant il faut suppleer ou injure ou rancune;" and, therefore, injury or grudge must be supplied.6TH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.25 Grotttonfal Swjpjtenmrts of tfje CoinmanSinent.DEUTERONOMY, CHAPTER XXI.1.  If one be found slain in the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee to possess it, lying in the field, and it be not known who hath slain him;2.  Then thy elders and thy judges shall come forth,  and they  shall measure unto the cities which are round about him that is slain.3.  And it shall be, that the city which is next unto the slain man, even the elders of that city shall take an heifer, which hath not been wrought with, and which hath not drawn in the yoke;4.  And the elders of that city shall bring down the heifer unto a rough valley, which is neither eared nor sown, and shall strike off the heifer's neck there in the valley:5.  And the priests, the  sons of Levi, shall come near; (for them the Lord thy God hath chosen to minister unto him, and to bless in the name of the Lord;) and by their word  shall every controversy and every stroke be tried.6.  And all the elders of that city, that are next unto the slain man, shall  wash their   hands   over  the heifer that is beheaded in the valley:7.  And they shall answer and say, Our hands have not shed this blood, neither have our eyes seen it.8.  Be merciful, O Lord, unto thy people Israel, whom thou hast redeemed, and lay not innocent blood unto thy people of Israel's charge. And the blood shall be forgiven them.9.  So shalt thou put away the guilt of innocent blood from among you, when thou shalt do that which is right in the sight of the Lord,1.   Quum inventura fuerit cadaver hominis occisi in terra quam Jehova Deus tuus dabit tibi ut pos-sideas earn, prostratum in agro, nee cognitum   fuerit   quis   percusserit eum:2.  Tune egredientur seniores tui, et judices tui, et metientur usque ad civitates quse sunt in circuitibus cadaveris hominis illius occisi.3. Et seniores urbis, propinquioris urbis illi  cadaveri occiso,  capient vitulam de armento qua nemo usus fuerit, et quse non traxerit jugum.4.  Et adducent seniores ejus urbis vitulam ad   vallem   asperam, qua; nunquam fuerit arata, neque semi-nata, et prsscident cervicem vitulse illic in valle.5.   Et   accedent  sacerdotes  fllii Levi (eos enim elegit Jehova Deus tuus ut ministrent ipsi, et ad bene-dicendum  in  nomine Jehovae: et juxta quorum sermonem erit omnis lis atque omnis plaga.)6.  Et omnes seniores ejus urbis ubi accesserint ad cadaver hominis occisi, lavabunt manus suas super vitulam percussam in valle.7.  Et testificabuntur, ac dicent, Manus nostree non effuderunt san-guinem istum, neque oculi nostri viderunt.8.   Expia populum tuum Israel quern redemisti Jehova, et ne imputes sanguinem innocentem in me-Sio populi tui Israel: et expiabitur ab eis sanguis.9.  Tu autem auferes sanguinem innocentem e medio tui, quum feceris quod rectum est in oculis Jehovse.26                   calvin's haemony of the four     deut.xxi. 1.1. If one he found slain in the land. This Supplement is of a mixed character, relating partly to the civil, and partly to the criminal law. We are informed by it how precious to God is the life of man ; for, if a murder had been committed by some unknown person, He requires an expiation to be made, whereby the neighbouring cities should purge themselves from the pollution of the crime. Whence it appears that the earth is so polluted by human blood, that those who encourage murder by impunity, implicate themselves in the guilt. The question here is as'to a secret crime, the guilt of which attaches to the neighbouring cities, until, by the institution of a diligent inquiry, they can testify that the author is not discovered; how much less excusable, then, will they be, if they allow a murderer to escape with impunity ? The rite prescribed is, that the elders of the nearest city should take a heifer which had not drawn in a yoke, and bring it into a stony and barren valley, cut off its neck with the assistance of the priests, wash their hands, and bear witness that their hands as well as their eyes are pure, as not being cognizant of the criminal. God chose a heifer that had not borne a yoke, in order that the satisfaction made by innocent blood might be represented in a more lively manner; whilst it was to be killed in a desert place, that the pollution might be removed from the cultivated lands. For, if the blood of the heifer had been shed in the middle of the market-place of the city, or in any inhabited spot, the familiarity with the sight of blood would have hardened their minds in inhumanity. For the purpose, therefore, of awakening horror, it was drawn out into a solitary and uncultivated spot, that they might be thus accustomed to detest cruelty. But although, properly speaking, this was not a sacrifice which could be offered nowhere except in the sanctuary, still it nearly approached to the nature of a sacrifice, because the Levites were in attendance, and a solemn deprecation was made ; nevertheless, they were not only employed as ministers of the altar, but also as judges, for their office is expressed in the words, that they were " chosen to minister to God, to bless the people, and to pronounce sentence as to every stroke."6TH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.           276. And all the elders of that city. The washing of their hands had the effect of stirring them up the more, so that they should not inconsiderately protest in that solemn rite that they were pure and guiltless ; for it was just as if they had presented the corpse of the dead man before God, and had stood themselves opposite to it to purge away the crime. At the same time, also, they ask for pardon, because it might have been through their carelessness that the man was smitten; and again, since, by the sacrilege of Achan alone the whole people were contaminated, it was to be feared lest the vengeance of God should extend more widely on account of the offence committed. And thus they were again taught how greatly God abominates murders, when the people pray that they may be pardoned for the crime of another, as if, by the very looking upon it, they had contracted guilt. God at length declares that He will not impute it to them, when they have duly performed this rite of expiation ; not because the heifer was the price of satisfaction to propitiate God, but because in this way they humbly reconciled themselves to Him, and shut the door against murders for the time to come. On this account it is saidЧ" Thou shalt put away the blood from among you ;" for if the murder be passed over without observation, there remains a blot upon the people, and the earth itself, in a manner, stinks before God.DEUTERONOMY, CHAPTER XII.15.  Notwithstanding thou mayest       15.  Pro omni desiderio  animre kill and eat flesh in all thy gates,   tuse   mactabis,  et  comedes carnes whatsoever thy soul lusteth  after,   secundum   benedictionem   Jehovse according to the blessing   of  the   Dei  tui,  quam  dederit  tibi  intra Lord thy God which he hath given   omnes portas tuas :   immundus et thee: the unclean and the clean may   mundus comedet eas, sicut capream eat thereof, as of the roe-buck, and   et cervum.as of the hart.16.   Only ye shall not eat  the       16. Tantummodo sanguinem non blood; ye shall pour it upon  the   comedetis, super terram effundetis earth as water.                                 ilium instar aquse.20. When the Lord thy God shall       20.   Quum    dilataverit   Jehovaenlarge thy border, as he hath pro-    Deus tuus terminum tuum, quem-mised thee, and thou shalt say, 1   admodum    loquutus   est   tibi,   etwill   eat flesh,  (because thy  soul   dixeris,   Comedam   carnem,   quodlongeth to eat flesh,) thou mayest   concupiscat anima tua vesci carni-28CALVIN S HARMONY OF THE FOUR1)EUT. XIT.eat flesh, whatsoever thy soul lust-eth after.21.  If the place which the Lord thy God hath chosen to put hia name there be too far from thee, then thou shalt kill of thy herd, and of thy flock, which the Lord hath given thee, as I have commanded thee, and  thou  shalt  eat  in  thy gates whatsoever thy soul lusteth after.22.  Even as the roe-buck and the hart is eaten, so thou shalt eat them; the unclean and the clean shall eat of them alike.23.  Only be sure that thou eat not the blood: for the blood is the life; and thou mayest not eat the life with the flesh.24.   Thou shalt not eat it; thou shalt pour it upon the earth as water.25.  Thou shalt not eat it; that it may go well with thee, and with thy children after thee, when thou shalt do that which is right in the sight of the Lord.Lev. xvii. 10. And whatsoever man there be of the house of Israel, or of the strangers that sojourn among you, that eateth any manner of blood; I will even set my face against that soul that eateth blood, and will cut him off from among his people.11.  For the life of the flesh is in the blood; and I have given it to you upon  the altar,  to  make an atonement for your souls: for it is the blood that maketh an atonement for the soul.12.   Therefore I said unto  the children of Israel, No soul of you shall eat blood,  neither shall any stranger that sojourneth among you eat blood.13.  And whatsoever man there be of the children of Israel, or of the strangers that sojourn among you, which hunteth  and  catcheth  any beast or fowl that may be eaten; he shall even pour out the blood thereof, and cover it with dust.14.  For it is the life of all flesh ;bus : juxta omne desiderium animce tuse comedes carnes.21.   Quum longinquus a te fuerit locus   quern  elegerit Jehova Deus tuus ut ponat nomen suum ibi, mac-tabis de bobus tuis et de pecudibus tuis quas dederit Jehova tibi: quem-admodum prsecepi tibi, et vesceris in portis tuis secundum omne desiderium animse tuse.22.   Certe quemadmodum come-ditur caprea et cervus, sic comedes illas: immundus pariter et mundus vescentur illis.23.   Tantum   roborare   ut   non comedas sanguinem : quia sanguis est anima, et non comedes animam una cum came.24.   Non comedes ilium, sed in terrain effundes ilium instar aquse.25.  Non vesceris illo, ut bene sit tibi, et flliis tuis post te, quum fe-ceris  quod   rectum  est   in   oculis Jehovre.10. Q.uicunque e domo Israel, et e peregrinis qui peregrinantur in medio eorum, comederit ullum san-guinem, ponam faciem meam in animam quse comederit sanguinem, et excidam earn e medio populi sui.11.  Quia anima carnis in sanguine est:   ego autem dedi   ilium vobis super altare ad expiandum animas vestras, quia   sanguis animam ex-piabit.12.  Ideo dixi flliis Israel, Nulla anima ex vobis comedet sanguinem, et   peregrinus   qui pregrinatur  in medio vestri non comedet sanguinem.13.  Et quicunque e filiis Israel, et e peregrinis qui  peregrinantur in medio eorum, venatus fuerit ve-nationem bestise vel avis quse come-ditur, effundet  sanguinem  ejus et cooperiet pulvere.14.  Quia anima cujusque carnis,6lU COMMANDMENT.     LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.            29the blood of it is for the life thereof:    sanguis ejus est in anima: dixiquetherefore I said unto the children of   flliis Israel, Sanguinem cujuscunqueIsrael, Ye shall eat the blood of no   carnis non comedetis, quia animamanner of flesh: for the life of all   cujusque carnis est  sanguis ejus:flesh is the blood thereof; whosoever   quicunque   comederit   ilium, exci-eateth it shall be cut off.                   detur.Lev. vii. 26. Moreover, ye shall       26. Nullum sanguinem comedetiseat no manner of blood, whether it be   in   cunctis   habitationibus  vestris,of fowl or of beast, in any of your   tarn de avibus quam dejumentis. dwellings.27. Whatsoever soul it be that       27. Oinnis anima quas comederiteateth any manner of blood, even   ullum sanguinem, excidetur animathat soul shall be cut off from his   ilia e populis suis. people.Lev. xix. 26. Ye shall not eat 26. Non comedetis cum san-any thing with the blood.                  guine.Deut. xii. 15. Notwithstanding thou mayest kill. What precedes I have introduced in its proper place, viz., that they should not kill the sacrifices anywhere but in the sanctuary, of which there was only one in Judea. Here the permission to eat meat is given, provided that they do not offer the animals to God, but eat of them as of wild beasts. By way of example, two kinds are mentioned, the roe-buck and the hart, of which no offering was made. They are, therefore, freely allowed to eat meat wheresoever they pleased, with this exception, that they should not taste the blood ; for, although this was observed by their forefathers before the giving of the Law, God ratifies it anew when He would gather a peculiar people to Himself. We know that immediately after the deluge, Noah and his posterity were commanded to abstain from blood ; but, inasmuch as the greater part of mankind soon degenerated, it is probable that all nations neglected God's command, and permitted to themselves a universal license on this point; and it is even questionable whether this observance, which was everywhere fallen into desuetude, prevailed among the family of Shem. Certainly it may be conjectured from the renewed promulgation of the law, that it was altogether obsolete ; at any rate, God would have His chosen people distinguished by this mark of sejiaration from heathen nations.The reason of the prohibition which is now mentioned30                calvin's harmony or the four      deut.xii. 23.had already been declared,1 viz., because the blood is the seat of life. But although it was allowable to kill an animal for food, yet, was it a useful restraint to prevent inhumanity, that they should not touch the blood ; for if they abstained from the blood of beasts, much more necessary was it to spare human blood. After God, therefore, has forbidden blood to be eaten, He immediately proceeds to speak of men themselves : " Whoso sheddeth man's blood, by man shall his blood be shed: for in the image of God made he man."2 (Gen. ix. 4-6.) Hence I have deemed it appropriate to annex all the passages in which God commands the people to abstain from blood, to the Sixth Commandment. In itself, indeed, the eating of blood was a thing of no great importance : since, therefore, God so often inculcates a point of so little weight, it may be inferred that the law has some further object. To this may be added the severity of the punishment, for surely it was not a crime worthy of death to taste the blood of some little bird ; and hence, also, it is manifested that the prohibition had another meaning, viz., that cruelty might be abhorred. And the words of Moses shew that the eating of blood is not forbidden because it infected man with its uncleanness, but that they might account the life of man to be precious ; for it is said, " the blood is the life," which, in the opinion of Augustine,3 is equivalent to its being " the sign of life;" but Moses rather means that animal life is contained in the blood. "Wherefore, blood, which represents the life, was not interdicted vvithout reason, nor was it only sinful to eat the blood by itself, but also together with the flesh, as is expressly declared both in Deuteronomy and in the last passage from Leviticus.23. Only be* sure that thou eat not. It is not without cause that he earnestly exhorts them to inflexible firmness, because it was both a matter trifling in appearance, and its observa-1 See on Lev. iii. 17, vol. ii. p. 335, whence, however, he refers to Gen. ix. 4.    C. Society's edition, vol. i. p. 293.3  Lat. " Qui efi'uderit sanguinera hominis in homine;" he who shall have shed the blood of man in man__Vide C. in loco.8 Qusest. in Leviticum, lvii. з 2. " Illud appellatur anima, quod sig-nificat animam."ЧEdit. Benedict, torn. iii. p. i. pag. 516.4  Lett., "Roborare."    Margin, A. V., " Heb., Be strong."6tH COMMANDMENT.       LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH,           31tion troublesome, whilst it was easy to decline from it on account of the universal example of the Gentiles. For if they considered within themselves that it contributed not to holiness that they should not touch blood, hence a snare to indulgence might easily have arisen.Lev. xvii. 10. And whatsoever man there be of the house of Israel. God here not only condemns to death whosoever shall have polluted themselves by eating of blood, but declares that He will Himself take vengeance on them, though they may escape from the hands of the judges ; for He not only prescribes to the judges what it is right for them to do, but asserts for Himself the office of inflicting the punishment. Nor, if we consider the intention of the Law, is there anything to surprise us in this; for although it be not consistent that the blood of a brute should be compensated for by the death of a man, still we must remember that this mode of instruction1 was necessary for a rude people, lest they should speedily lapse into barbarism. But, lest they should complain that no use remained for the blood, He reminds them that since it was given for atonement, they would be very ungrateful if they were not content with so great a blessing; and surely, since it was the price they were to pay for appeasing God, this was an employment of it far to be preferred to food. If, then, they desired to exchange into ordinary food the blood, which was destined to the altar for the reconciliation of God, Moses indirectly reproves their-ingratitude; for when God took away the right of eating it, He left them something better, which should have abundantly satisfied them. But we have elsewhere2 seen in what manner blood atones for souls, i.e., in a sacramental manner, upon which it must be observed that what properly belongs to Christ is thus transferred by metonomy to figures and symbols, yet in such a way that the similitude should neither be empty nor inefficacious ; for in so far as the fathers apprehended Christ in the external sacrifices, atonement was truly exhibited in them. In this passage also, I do not understand  " the strangers" to be all such visitors as may1  " Hanc piedagogiatn."ЧLat.    " Ceste doctrine puerile."ЧFr.2  See on Exod. xii. 21, ante vol. i. p. 221.32                calvin's harmony of the four     lkv. xvii. 10.have journeyed amongst them on matters of business, but those who had devoted themselves to the worship of God; for many foreigners, abandoning their superstitions, were circumcised, and it behoved that such as these should be expressly laid under the bonds of the Law, lest, if it had not referred to them, they should have withdrawn themselves from obeying it. This point must, therefore, be briefly adverted to, lest we should suppose that heathen sojourners were prohibited from the eating of blood, whereas they were allowed to buy for food1 even flesh that had been torn by beasts.Since, however, the Patriarchs before the Law had abstained from blood, and its prohibition had no reference to the First Table or the legal service, hence it came to pass that when the Apostles abrogated the ceremonial law, they did not dare to allow immediately the free eating of blood, lest great scandal should arise from this new and unwonted thing. (Acts xv. 20.) Wherefore, lest so trifling a matter should cause deadly schisms in the Churches, they commanded the Gentiles not to eat of blood; adding as the reason, that those who were accustomed to read the writings of Moses, would be disturbed at this innovation ; yet this was only observed for a short period, as we gather from Paul.2 It was, not without superstition and misplaced zeal, retained by some even to the days of Tertullian.1 See on Deut. xiv. 21, ante vol. ii. p. 69.a There is no reference here in the Latin, but the Fr. is, " comme il se peut recueillir par ce que Sainct Paul en escrit aux Corinthiens;" as may be gathered from what St. Paul writes respecting it to the Corinthians. In C.'s Commentary on the Acts, xv. 28, he says, " We know that this law was foredone by Paul, so soon as the tumult and contention was once ended, when he teacheth that nothing is unclean, (Rom. xiv. 14,) and when he granteth liberty to eat all manner of meats, yea, even such as were sacrificed to idols. (1 Cor. x. 25.)"ЧC. Society's edit., vol. ii. p. 79. Tertullian, Apol., cap. 9, speaks as follows; "Erubescat error vester Christianis, qui ne animalium quidem sanguinem in epulis esculentas habemus, qui propterea quoque suffocatis et morticinis abstinemus, ne quo modo sanguine contaminemur, vel intra viscera sepulto." See Bingham, book xvii. ch. v. sec. xx. " But on the other hand, because it was the custom of the Catholic Church, almost to the time of St. Austin, to abstain from eating of blood, in compliance with the rule given by the Apostles to the Gentile converts; therefore, by the most ancient laws of the Church, all clergymen were obliged to abstain from it under pain of degradation.    This is evident from the Apostolical Canons, and those of6th COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS  O F   T H E   P E N T A T E U C H .  O T j c   p o l i t i c a l   S u p p l e m e n t s   o f   t i j e   S t e t i j   м o л t m a n D m e n t .  L E V I T I C U S ,   C H A P T E R   X X I Y .  1 7 .     A n d   h e   t h a t   k i l l e t h   a n y   m a n   s h a l l   s u r e l y   b e   p u t   t o   d e a t h .  1 9 .     A n d   i f   a   m a n   c a u s e   a   b l e m i s h   i n   h i s   n e i g h b o u r ;   a s   h e   h a t h   d o n e ,   s o   s h a l l   i t   b e   d o n e   t o   him;20.   Breach for breach, eye for eye, tooth for tooth:  as  he  hath caused a blemish in a man, so shall it be done to him again.21.  And he that killeth a beast, he shall restore it; and he that killeth a man, he shall be put to death.22.  Ye shall have one manner of law, as well for the stranger, as for one of your own country: for I am the Lord your God.Exod. xxi. 12. He that smiteth a man, so that he die, shall be surely put to death.13.  And if a man lie not in wait, but God deliver him into his hand; then I will appoint thee a place whither he shall flee.14.  But if a man come presumptuously upon his neighbour, to slay him with guile; thou shalt take him from mine altar, that he may die.18.  And if men strive together, and one smite another with a stone, or with his fist, and he die not, but keepeth Ms bed;19.  If he rise again, and walk abroad upon his staff, then shall he that smote him be quit:   only he shall pay for the loss of his time, and shall cause him to be thoroughly healed.20.  And if a man smite his servant, or his maid, with a rod, and17.  Qui percusserit animam ho-minis, morte moriatur.19.   Vir qui intulerit maculam proximo suo, secundum quod fecit sic fiat ei.20.  Fracturam pro fractura, ocu-lum pro oculo, dentem pro dente : sicut intulerit maculam hominis, sic inferetur ei.21.  Qui percusserit animal reddet illud: qui vero percusserit hominem, moriatur.22.   Judicium umim erit vobis, sicut peregrinus sic et indigena erit: quia ego Jehova Deus vester.12.    Qui  percusserit   virum ad mortem, morte moriatur.13.  At qui non insidiatus fuerit ei, sed tradiderit ilium Deus in manus ejus, tune dabo  locum  ad  quern fugiet.14.  Sin vero insultando se extu-lerit quispiam in proximum suum, ut occidat eum malitiose, ab altari meo tolles eum ut moriatur.18.  Quod si rixati fuerint aliqui, et percusserit alter proximum suum lapide vel pugno, nee mortuus fuerit, sed jacuerit in lecto:19.  Si surrexerit, et ambulaverit foris super baculum suum, tune in-nocens erit   qui  percussit, tantum cessationem ejus pensabit: et me-dendo medicandum curabit20.  Quum percusserit  quispiam servum suum vel ancillam suam ba-Gangra, and the second Council of Orleans, and the Council of Trullo. But as this was looked upon by some only as a temporary injunction, so it appears from St. Austin that it was of no force in the African Church. (Contra Faust., lib. xxxii. c. xiii.) He that would see more about it may consult Curcellseus, who has written a large dissertation upon the subject."calvin's haemony of the four    lev. xxiv. 17.he die under his hand; he shall be surely punished.21.  Notwithstanding, if he continue a day or two, he shall not be punished: for he лs his money.22.  If men  strive, and hurt a woman with child, so that her fruit depart from her, and yet no mischief follow:  he  shall  be   surely punished, according as the woman's husband will lay upon him; and he shall pay as the judges determine.23.  And if any mischief follow, then thou shalt give life for life,24.  Eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot,25.  Burning for burning, wound for wound, stripe for stripe.26.  And if a man smite the eye of his servant, or the eye of his maid, that it perish; he shall let him go free for his eye's sake.27.  And if he smite out his manservant's   tooth, or   his maid-servant's tooth; he shall let him go free for his tooth's sake.28.  If an ox gore a man or a woman, that they die: then the ox shall be surely stoned, and his flesh shall not be eaten; but the owner of the ox shall be quit.29.  But if the ox were wont to push with his horn in time past, and it hath been testified to his owner, and he hath not kept him in, but that he hath killed a man or a woman ; the ox shall be stoned, and his owner also shall be put to death.30.  If there be laid on him a sum of money, then he shall give, for the ransom of his life, whatsoever is laid upon him.31.  Whether he have gored a son, or have gored a daughter, according to this judgment shall it be done unto him.32.  If the ox shall push a manservant, or maid-servant; he shall give unto their master thirty shekels of silver, and the ox shall be stoned.culo, et mortuus fuerit sub manu ejus, vindicando vindicabitur.21.  Veruntamen si per diem vel duos dies steterit, non vindicabitur, quia pecunia ejus est.22.   Quum autem rixati fuerint viri, et percusserint mulierem prseg-nantem ut egrediatur foetus ejus, nee tamen sequatur mors, puniendo punietur quemadmodum imposuerit ei maritus mulieris, et solvet apud judices.23.   Quod si mors fuerit, tune dabis animam pro anima,24.  Oculum pro oculo, dentem pro dente, manum pro manu, pedem pro pede,25.   Adustionem pro adustione, vulnus  pro  vulnere,  livorem   pro livore.26.  Quum autem percusserit quis-piam oculum servi sui, vel oculum ancillse   sure,   et   corruperit   eum, liberum dimittet eum pro oculo ejus.27.  Quod si dentem servi sui, vel dentem   ancillse   suse   excusserit : liberum dimittet eum pro dente ejus.28.  Si cornu petierit bos virum aut mulierem ut moriatur, lapidando lapidabitur  bop, neque  comedetur caro ejus: dominus autem bovis erit innocens.29.   Quod si bos cornupeta fuerit ab heri et nudiustertius, et contes-tatio facta fuerit domino ejus, nee custodierit  eum,  occidendo  autem occiderit virum vel mulierem, bos lapidabitur, et dominus quoque ejus morietur.30.  Si pretium redemptionis im-positum fuerit ei,  tune dabit re-demptionem anima;   SU8B  quantum impositum fuerit ei.31.   Sive filium   cornu  petierit, sive filiam, secundum judicium hoc net ei.32.  Si servum bos cornu petierit, vel ancillam, argenti triginta siclos dabit domino ejus, et bos ille lapidabitur.Lev. xxiv. 17. And he that killeth any man.    We now6TH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.            35proceed to the confirmation of the Sixth Commandment afforded by the Judicial Law; and first, the punishment of death is awarded to murderers. To "smite the life"1 is equivalent to wounding mortally, so that death ensues, as Moses more clearly explains himself in Exodus. But although he speaks briefly, like a legislator, there is no doubt but that he would have those whom he adjudges to die put to death by the sentence of the judges ; the manner of executing the punishment we shall see in its proper place. Now although God did not carry out to absolute perfection the laws which He enacted, yet in their principle He desired that a clear and unreserved approval of His Commandments should appear. And this was the reason why I commenced with this passage, because it directly corresponds with the Sixth Commandment.219. And if a man cause a blemish in his neighbour. He now also subjects to punishment those who shall have mutilated the body of their neighbour by blows ; and this was necessary, because otherwise every very great villain, who might be accomplished in the art of inflicting injury, would have broken his brother's leg or arm, and then would not only have laughed at the poor man himself, but also at God and His Law. If, therefore, a person had injured a member of another, the law of retaliation is enacted, which has also been in use among other nations.3    But God thus1  See margin of A. V.2  Lot., "quia prsecepto respondet quasi л╗r;Vf╗pлj."s " This is the earliest account we have of the Lex Talionis, or law of like for like, which afterwards prevailed among the Greeks and Romans. Among the latter it constituted a part of the Twelve Tables, so famous in antiquity; but the punishment was afterwards changed to a pecuniary fine, to be levied at the discretion of the Prfetor. It prevails less or more in most civilized countries, and is fully acted upon in the Canon Law in reference to all calumniators : " Calumniator, si in accusatione defecerit, talionem recipiat." Nothing, however, of this kind was left to private revenge; the magistrate awarded the punishment when the fact was proved. Otherwise the Lex Talionis would have utterly destroyed the peace of society, and have sowed the seeds of hatred, revenge, and all un-charitableness."ЧAdam Clarke on Exod. xxi. 24.The enactment of the Twelve Tables to this effect appears from Pestus to have been the following: " Si membrum rupsit, (ruperit,) ni cum eo pacit, (paciscetur,) talio est;" presenting a singular coincidence with the Mosaic provision. See Aul, Gell., lib. xx. c. 1, where the words are given somewhat differently, as in C.'s text.    The objection of Favorinus is that36                calvin's harmony of the four     exod.xxi. 12.distinctly prescribes when and how the injury was to be retaliated, that the law might not be open at all to the foolish cavils with which Favorinus attacks the law of the Twelve Tables in Gellius. And certainly the words of the Decemvirs were too obscure, "Si membrum fregeris meum, eoopacto talio est." (If you have broken my limb; without agreement made, there must be retaliation.) But God does not command an eye to be plucked out for an eye, or a tooth for a tooth, till He has set forth that this was only to be the case if any one had knowingly and wilfully inflicted the injury ; thus, He does not bring to justice accidental blows, but only a premeditated crime. It is vain to object that the members of different persons can hardly be broken with exact equality, for the intention of God was none other than that, being alarmed by the severity of the punishment, men should abstain from injuring others ; and therefore these two things were connected together, If one killeth a man, let him die, and if one hath taken away a part of life, let him suffer a similar privation. And the same is the tendency of the distinction, that the loss of an animal may be repaid, but that if a man be killed, there could be no just compensation made by money.22. Ye shall have one manner of law. That the people of Israel, with their usual arrogance, might not suppose the race of Abraham only to be privileged, the Law is extended also to foreigners ; and thus God shews that the whole body of the human race are under His care, so that He would not have those that are farthest off exposed to the licentious violence of the ungodly. In other points He provided special privileges for His elect people; but here, because He created all men without exception after His own image, He takes them under His care and protection, so that none might injure them with impunity.Exod. xxi. 12. He that smiteth a man, so that he die. This passage, as I have said, more clearly explains the de-it was impossible to be kept; for if the like were inflicted for the like, as one wound for another, they must take care that the like wound in every respect should be made, neither longer nor deeper; if it were, then a new retaliation must arise, and so ad infinitum.6TH COMMANDMENT.     LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.            37tails, and first makes a distinction between voluntary and accidental homicide; for, if a stone or an axe1 may have slipped from a man unintentionally, and struck anybody, He would not have it accounted a capital crime. And for this purpose the cities of refuge were given, of which brief mention is here made, and whose rights will be presently more fully spoken of, and where also the mode of distinguishing between design and ignorance will be laid down. But it must be remarked, that Moses declares that accidental homicide, as it is commonly called, does not happen by chance or accident, but according to the will of God, as if He himself led out the person, who is killed, to death. By whatever kind of death, therefore, men are taken away, it is certain that we live or die only at His pleasure ; and surely, if not even a sparrow can fall to the ground except by His will, (Matt. x. 29,) it would be very absurd that men created in His image should be abandoned to the blind impulses of fortune. Wherefore it must be concluded, as Scripture elsewhere teaches, that the term of each man's life is appointed,2 with which another passage corresponds, " Thou turnest man to destruction, and sayest, Return, ye children of men." (Ps. xc. 3.) It is true, indeed, that whatever has no apparent cause or necessity seems to us to be fortuitous ; and thus, whatever, according to nature, might happen otherwise we call accidents, (contingentia;) yet in the meantime it must be remembered, that what might else incline either way is governed by God's secret counsel, so that nothing is done without His arrangement and decree. In this way we do not suppose a^ fate3 such as the Stoics invented; for it is a different thing to say that things which of themselves incline to various and doubtful events, are directed by the hand of God whithersoever He will, and to say that necessity governs them in accordance with the perpetual complication of causes,4 and that this happens with God's con-i Deut. xix. 5.3 No reference is here given, but it is probably to Job xiv. 5,Ч" Thou hast appointed his bounds that he cannot pass."3  л Une necessity fatale."Ч Fr.4  " Une necessite confuse selon des causes entortillees;" a confused necessity according to complicated causes.ЧFr.38                 calvin's harmony of the fouk,   exod. xxi. 14.nivance ; nay, nothing can be more opposite than that God should be drawn and carried away by a fatal motive power, or that He tempers all things as He sees fit.There is no reason to follow the Jews here in philosophizing more deeply, that none are delivered to death but those in whom God finds cause for it. It is indeed certain, that with God there always exists the best reason for His acts; but it is wrong to elicit from thence that those who by His guidance meet with death must be guilty of some offence. Nor even if God should take away an innocent man, would it be lawful to murmur against Him ; as if His justice were nought, because it is concealed from us, and indeed incomprehensible.] 4. But if a man come presumptuously upon his neighbour. He expresses the same thing in different ways ; for although there is a wide difference between slaying a man presumptuously1 and with guile, yet Moses applies them both to a wilful murder ; for by guile he means a wicked disposition to injure, and by the word presumptuous he designates a violent assault, when a man in hate wantonly falls upon another. And surely truculence, and violence, and all cruelty is presumptuous, (superba;) for unless a man despised his brother, he would not assail him as an enemy.Lest by overlooking murders they should defile the land, God commands that murderers should be torn away even from His altar, whereby He signifies that they are as unworthy of divine as of human aid. For1, although the sanctity of the altar might afford an asylum for the protection of those who had transgressed through imprudence, or .error, yet it would have been wrong that impunity for crimes should have been derived from hence; because the sanctuary would have been thus converted into a den of thieves, and religion would have been subjected to gross profanation. Wherefore, although criminals embracing the altar should implore God's aid, the Law commands them to be torn away from thence to punishment, because it would have been disgraceful to abuse God's sacred name as affording license for sin. Hence it appears how great was the folly of old in supposing that1 " Superbire, et insidiari longe differunt."ЧLat. " Ruer sur quelqu'un par fierte et malice, et I'aguetter."ЧFr.6th commandment,    last books or the pentateuch.         39churches were honoured when they were made asylums for the encouragement of evil deeds. This, indeed, was derived from the ordinary custom of the heathen ; but it was a foolish imitation thus to mix up God with idols in a spurious worship ; although in this respect the Gentiles served their idols more purely and virtuously than the Christians1 served God; for they refused the right of asylum to the sacrilegious and impure, so that the temple of the Samothracians was no secure hiding-place even to Perseus,2 the king of Macedon. Livy records the following words, as having been spoken by a heathen,Ч" Since, at the commencement of all our sacrifices, those whose hands are not pure are enjoined to retire, will ye suffer your sanctuaries to be contaminated by the blood-stained person of a robber V Let us, then, be ashamed of polluting our temples under the pretext of reverence for them.18. And if men strive together. The punishment here enacted for wounds and blows is so slight, that it might have served as a provocative to the mischievousness of the ill-disposed. Since the Law of the Twelve Tables only inflicted a fine of twenty-five asses upon a man who had beaten another unjustly, there was a certain Lucius Veratius,3 who, in mere wanton sport, did not hesitate to box the ears of any one he met, and then to command one of his slaves to pay the amount of the fine, so that it was at length thought better that the law should fall into desuetude, than to suffer it to be thus ridiculously abused. The same thing might easily happen among the Jews, since a person, who had so beaten his neighbour as that he should lie in bed, only had to pay what the unhappy man had expended on his cure. For who would not willingly enjoy the pleasure of knocking down his enemies on this condition, of providing for their subsistence whilst they lay in bed ? But we must remember the declaration of Christ, that on account of the perverse nature of the Jews, many things were allowed them " because1  " Ceux qui se glorifioyent du titre de Chrestiente;" those who prided themselves in the name of Christians.ЧFr.2  See Livy, lib. xlv. 5.    The words quoted are from an address of a certain L. Atilius to the popular assembly of Samothracia.8 Aul. Gellius. Noct. Attic, xx. 1.40                calvin's harmony of the tour    exod. xxi. 20,of the hardness of their hearts," (Matt. xix. 8, and Mark x, 5,) amongst which this indulgent provision is to be reckoned. Still God seems to have dealt more leniently with the man who had struck the blow, that He might also chastise the other, who, though of inferior strength, had rashly engaged in the conflict; for both were to be alike punished for the violence unjustly inflicted. Equal lenity seems, therefore, to have been shewn to both, since compensation is only made to the person struck for his private loss.1 But the fact, that God did not carry out the political laws to their perfection, shews that by this leniency He wished to reprove the people's perverseness, which could not even bear to obey so mild a law. Whenever, therefore, God seems to pardon too easily, and with too much clemency, let us recollect that He designedly deviated from the more perfect rule, because He had to do with an intractable people.20. And if a man smite his servant. Although in civil matters there was a wide distinction between slaves and free-men, still, that God may shew how dear and precious men's lives are to Him, He has no respect to persons with regard to murder; but avenges the death of a slave and a free-man in the same way, if he should die immediately of his wound. Indeed, it was a proof of gross barbarism amongst the Romans and other nations, to give to masters the power of life and death; for men are bound together by a more sacred tie, than that it should be permitted to a master to kill with impunity his wretched slave; nor are some men so set over others, as that they should exercise tyranny, or robbery, neither does reason permit that any private individual should usurp to himself the power of the sword. But, although unjust cruelty was not prohibited, as it should have been, by the laws of Rome, yet they2 confessed that slaves should be used like hired servants. The exception, which immediately follows, does not seem very consistent, for, if1 " Ainsi il semble bien que tous deux ont este supportez quant au delict public, quand il n'y a que le dommage particulier qui soit recompense;" thus it plainly appears that both were set free, as regarded the public offence, since it was only the private injury for which compensation was made.ЧFr.a "lies gens prudens;" their wise men.ЧFr.6TH COMMANDMENT.     LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.            41the slave should die after some time, the penalty of murder is remitted; whereas it would often be preferable to die at once of a single wound, than to perish by a lingering illness; and it might happen that the slave should be so bruised and maimed by blows, as to die some time afterwards. In this case, the cruelty of the master would be surely greater than if he had committed the murder under the impulse of burning anger: wherefore the enactment appears to be a very unjust one. But it must be remarked, that the murder of those slaves, who had been obliged to take to their bed from their wounds, was not unpunished. Whence we gather, that it was not allowable for cruel and truculent masters to wound their slaves severely ; and this is what the words expressly imply, for the smiter is only exempted from punishment when he shall have so restrained himself as that the marks of his cruelty should not appear. For that the slaves should " stand for one or two days,"] is equivalent to saying, that they were perfect and sound in all their members; but if a wound had been inflicted, or there was any mutilation, the smiter was guilty of murder. None, therefore, is absolved but he who only meant to chastise his slave; and where no injury appears, it is probable that there was no intention to kill him. "Whilst, then, this law prohibits bloodthirsty assaults, it by no means gives greater license to murder. The reason, which is added, must be restricted to the private loss; because a murderer would never be absolved on the pretext that he had purchased his slave with money, since the life of a man cannot be so estimated.22. If men strive, and hurt a woman. This passage at first sight is ambiguous, for if the word death2 only applies to the pregnant woman, it would not have been a capital crime to put an end to the foetus, which would be a great absurdity; for the foetus, though enclosed in the womb of its1 A. V.," continue for a day or two." Ainsworth, in loco: " Heb., stand, which the Greek translateth live."a It will be seen that the word |1DS? in the text is translated by C, nwrs; in A. V., mischief. " The Chaldee expounds it, (says Ainsworth,) no death; but it implieth less also than death, as the words following manifest. The Greek refers it to the child; translating, if it be not figured, (ilu*mr/iirn,') i.e., have not the shape and proportion."42                 calvin's harmony of the four   bxod. xxi. 22.mother, is already a human being, (homo,) and it is almost a monstrous crime to rob it of the life which it has not yet begun to enjoy. If it seems more horrible to kill a man in his own house than in a field, because a man's house is his place of most secure refuge, it ought surely to be deemed more atrocious to destroy a foetus in the womb before it has come to light. On these grounds I am led to conclude, without hesitation, that the words, " if death should follow," must be applied to the foetus as well as to the mother. Besides, it would be by no means reasonable that a father should sell for a set sum the life of his son or daughter. Wherefore this, in my opinion, is the meaning of the law, that it would be a crime punishable with death, not only when the mother died from the effects of the abortion, but also if the infant should be killed; whether it should die from the wound abortively, or soon after its birth. But, since it could not fail but that premature confinement would weaken both the mother and her offspring, the husband is allowed to demand before the judges a money-payment, at their discretion, in compensation for his loss ; for although God's command is only that the money should be paid before the judges,1 still He thus appoints them to settle the amount as arbitrators, if the husband should chance to be too exorbitant. "We plainly perceive, by the repetition of the lex talionis, that a just proportion is to be observed, and that the amount of punishment is to be equally regulated, whether as to a tooth, or an eye, or life itself, so that the compensation should correspond with the injury done; and therefore (what is first said of the life2) is correctly applied also to the several parts, so that he who has plucked out his brother's eye, or cut off his hand, or broken his leg, should lose his own eye, or hand, or leg. In fine, for the purpose of preventing all violence, a compensation is to be paid in proportion to the injury. But although God commands punishment to be inflicted on the guilty, still, if a man be injured, he ought not to seek for vengeance; for God does not con-1 The word determine is added by our translators.    Ainsworth's literal rendering is, " and he shall give by the judges." л Added from Fr.6TH COMMANDMENT.     LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.            43tradict Himself, who so often exhorts His children not only to endure injuries patiently, but even to overcome evil with good. The murderer is to be punished, or he who has maimed a member of his brother; but it is not therefore lawful, if you have unjustly suffered violence, to indulge in wrath or hatred, so as to render evil for evil. Since this error was rife among the Jews, our Lord refutes it, and teaches that the punishment, which is publicly awarded to the wrong-doer, is not subservient to every man's private passion, so that he who is offended should make haste to retaliate. (Matt. v. 38.) Nor indeed are these words addressed to them in order to inflame or excite the desire of vengeance, but all violence is restrained by the fear of punishment.26. And if a man smite the eye. Since, in the sight of God, there is neither slave nor free-man, it is clear that he sins as greatly who smites a slave, as if he had struck a free-man. Still, a distinction is made as regards the civil law and human justice, especially if any one have inflicted a wound on his own slave. For here a tooth for a tooth, or an eye for an eye, is not required, but the superiority, which he has improperly abused, is taken from the master; and in compensation for the injury, liberty, which is almost half their life, is given to the male or female slave. Thus, in consideration that it was his slave, the master is treated more leniently, when the severity of the punishment is thus mitigated; whilst, in compensation for his dislocation or fracture, the slave receives what is more advantageous to him, viz., that, being set free, he should not be exposed to another's cruelty.28. If an ox gore a man. Moses now descends even to the brute animals, so that, if they injured any one, by their punishment men may be more and more deterred from shedding blood. If, therefore, a goring ox have killed a man, he commands that it should be stoned, and that its carcase should be thrown away as abominable. Though censorious persons mock at this law, as if it were childish to punish a wretched animal, in which there is no criminality, their insolence requires but a brief refutation. For, since oxen were created for man's good, so we need not wonder that their44                 calvin's harmony of the four    exod.xxi.31.death, as well as their life, should be made to contribute to the public advantage.    If, then, an ox that had tilled a man should be kept, men would undoubtedly grow hardened in cruelty by beholding it; and to eat its flesh, would be almost the same thing as eating the flesh of man.    The cruelty of men, therefore, could not better be restrained, so that they should hold the murder of each other in abhorrence, than by thus avenging a man's death.   In the second place, God proceeds further, condemning the master of the ox himself to death, if he had been previously admonished to beware; for such a warning takes away the pretext of ignorance ; nor should the punishment seem to be severe for gross neglect, because to give free outlet to dangerous beasts is equivalent to compassing men's death.    He who knowingly and wilfully exposes the life of his brother to peril, is justly accounted his murderer.    The exception which is finally added, at first sight contains a kind of contradiction, because it was forbidden by the Law to compound with a murderer for money.    But inasmuch as a delinquency (delictum) differs from a crime, although it was unlawful to covenant with murderers for the remission of their punishment, still the judges were permitted on their hearing of the case, to mitigate it, if a man were excused by his unconsciousness or inadvertency.   This, then, is a special exception, which permits the judges to distinguish between the nature of offences ; viz., that, if they discovered a man not to be worthy of death, they should still punish his negligence by a pecuniary fine. 31.  Whether he have gored a son.  I know not whether they are correct who refer this to age, as if any young persons of either sex were meant by the words son and daughter; but I do not reject this opinion.    Still Moses seems to extend the law, as if, in case a butting ox had killed its owner's son, the father himself should be subject to the punishment, for not having taken more care of his children.    It might, however, be doubted, whether it would be just to condemn to death a father already weighed down by the loss of his child ; still it affords a useful example, that parents should not escape with impunity, if their sons or daughters should die by their fault.6TH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.            4532. If the ox shall push a man-servant. It is not unreasonable that the punishment for the death of a slave should now be set at less than for that of a free-man. As regarded the crime of voluntary murder, there was no distinction between slaves and masters ; but in a case of mischance (delicto) the severity might in some degree be mitigated; especially when the stoning of the ox sufficiently availed for bringing murder into detestation. God, therefore, shewed admirable moderation in condemning the negligence of the master to be punished by the payment of thirty shekels ; whilst He proposed the ox as an example, and reminded all by its death, how very precious in His sight is human blood.DEUTERONOMY, CHAPTER XVII.6. At the mouth of two witnesses,       6. In ore duorum vel trium testi-or three witnesses, shall he that is   um interficietur qui moriturus est,worthy of death be put to death;   non interficietur in ore unius tes-but at the mouth of one witness he   tis. shall not be put to death.Deht. xix. 15. One witness shall       15. Non stabit testis unus contranot rise up against a man for any   quenquam   in   quacunque   iniqui-iniquity, or for any sin, in any sin   tate, et in quocunque peccato quodthat he sinneth: at the mouth of   peccaverit: in ore duorum testiumtwo witnesses, or at the mouth of   vel in ore trium testium stabit ver-three witnesses, shall the matter be   bum. established.As His severity in exacting punishment, where murder has been unquestionably committed, shews how highly God rates the life of men, so the qualification, which we find here, declares, that he takes equal care for the preservation of innocent blood. For, since too great credulity would often impel the judges to condemn the guiltless, He here applies a remedy to this evil, forbidding that the crime should be punished unless proved by sure testimony. Although He has naturally inscribed this law upon every heart, yet He would have it written down, that its observance amongst the Israelites might be more sacred; for nothing is more dangerous than to expose men's lives to the tongue of a single individual; but, where the consent of two or three is carefully weighed, any lurking falsehood is for the most part detected.46                   calvin's harmony of the four   deut.xxiv.7.Lest, therefore, any one should be rashly condemned, and so innocence should be oppressed by any light conjectures, or insufficient accusations, or unjust prejudices, God here interferes, and does not allow any to be harshly dealt with, unless duly convicted.DEUTERONOMY, CHAPTER XXII.8. When thou buildest a new      8. Si sedificaveris domum no-house, then thou shalt make a bat-   vara, fades tabulatum per circuitum tlement for thy roof, that thou bring   in tecto tuo: nee pones sanguinem not blood upon thine house, if any   in domo tua, si quispiam ceciderit man fall from thence.                      ex eo.This precept also has reference to the preservation of human life. We know that the roofs of the Jewish houses were flat, so that they might freely walk upon them. If there were no railings round them, a fall would have been fatal; and every house would have often been a house of mourning. God, therefore, commands the edge to be fortified with battlements, or railings, or other inclosure, and accompanies the injunction with a severe denunciation; for He declares that the houses would be defiled with blood, if any one should fall from an uninclosed roof. Now, if guilt were thus contracted by mere incautiousness, it hence appears how greatly He abominates deliberate cruelty ; and, if it behoved everybody to be thus solicitous as to the lives of their brethren, it shew3 how criminal it is to injure them purposely and in enmity.DEUTERONOMY, CHAPTER XXIV.7. If a man be found stealing any of his       7. Si quis furatus fue-brethren of the children of Israel, and mak-   rit   animam   e   fratribuseth merchandise of him, or selleth him; then   suis e flliis Israel, et ven-that thief shall die: and thou shalt put evil   diderit: morieturvirille,etaway from among you.                                    auferes malum e medio tui.The same punishment is here deservedly denounced against man-stealers as against murderers ; for, so wretched was the condition of slaves, that liberty was more than half of life ; and hence to deprive a man of such a great blessing, was almost to destroy him.   Besides, it is not man-stealing only6th COMMANDMENT.     LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.            47which is here condemned, but the accompanying evils of cruelty and fraud, i.e., if he, who had stolen a man, had likewise sold him. Now, such a sale could hardly be made among the people themselves, without the crime being immediately detected ; and nothing could be more hateful than that God's children should be alienated from the Church, and delivered over to heathen nations.DEUTERONOMY, CHAPTER XXL22.   And if a man have commit-       22. Quum fuerit in aliquo pec-ted a sin worthy of death, and he be   catum ad judicium mortis, et inter-to be put to death, and thou hang   nciendus fuerit, et suspenderis ilium him on a tree;                                 in ligno :23.  His body shall not remain all       23. Non pernoctabit cadaver ejus night upon the tree, but thou shalt in   in ligno, sed sepeliendo sepelies eo-any wise bury Mm that day; (for he   dem die:   quia maledictio est Dei that is hanged is accursed of God ;)    qui suspenditur, et non contamina-that thy land be not defiled, which   bis terrain tuam quam Jehova Deus the Lord thy God giveth thee for   tuus dat tibi in heereditatem.an inheritance.The object of this precept was to banish inhumanity and barbarism from the chosen people, and also to impress upon them horror even of a just execution. And surely the body of a man suspended on a cross is a sad and hideous spectacle ; for the rights of sepulture are ordained for man, both as a pledge and symbol of the resurrection, and also to spare the eyes of the living, lest they should be defiled by the sight of so horrible a thing. Moses does not here speak generally, but only of those malefactors who are unworthy of the honour of burial; yet the public good is regarded in the burial even of such as these, lest men should grow accustomed to cruelty, and thus become more ready to commit murder. Moreover, that they may take more careful heed in this matter, he declares that the land would be defiled, if the corpse should be left hanging on the cross, since such inhumanity pollutes and disgraces the land. And this was more intolerable in Judea, which God had given as an inheritance to his elect people, that he might be there worshipped reverentially, and purely, every profanation being excluded. The man so hanged is called1 " the curse of 1 See margin, A. V.48                   calvin's harmony of the four   deut. xxv. 1.God," because this kind of punishment is detestable in itself. God, indeed, does not forbid criminals to be crucified, or hanged on a gallows, but rather gives His sanction to this mode of punishment; He only, by His own example, exhorts the Israelites to abhor all atrocity. Although, therefore, He does not disapprove of the punishment, He still says that He abominates those that are hanged on a tree, that the scandal may be immediately removed ; nor does He call them accursed, as if their salvation was to be despaired of, but because the hanging was a mark of His curse. This passage Paul applies to Christ, to teach' us that He was made Kardpa (a curse) for us, that He might deliver us from the curse of the Law. (Gal. iii. 13.) For, since all are guilty of transgression, and thus the whole race of mankind is implicated in the curse, there was no other mode of deliverance, except that Christ should substitute Himself in our place. Nor was God unmindful of His sentence, when He suffered His only-begotten Son to be crucified. Hence it follows that He submitted Himself to our condition, in orderJ that we might receive God's blessing; since He was " made sin for us, that we might be made the righteousness of God in Him." (2 Cor. v. 21.)DEUTERONOMY, CHAPTER XXV.1.  If there be a controversy be-        1. Si fuerit lis inter aliquos, et tween men,  and  they come   unto    accesserint ad judicium, et judica-judgment, that the judges may judge   verint eos: justificaverintque justum, them; then they shall justify the   et impium condemnaverint: righteous, and condemn the wicked.2.  And it shall be, if the wicked       2. Si quidem csedendus fuerit im-man be worthy to be beaten, that   pius, tune prosternet eum judex, et the judge shall cause him to lie down,   csedere    jubebit    ilium   coram    se and to be beaten before his face,   secundum iniquitatem ejus ad nu-aecording to his fault, by a certain   merum.number.3.  Forty stripes he may give him,        3. Quadraginta plagis casdere ju-and not exceed: lest, if he should   bebit ilium, non addet: ne forte si exceed, and beat him above these   addat csedere eum ultra plagis mul-with many stripes, then thy brother   tis, vilescat frater   tuus  in  oculis should seem vile unto thee.                tuis.Inasmuch as moderation and humanity are here enjoined, it6th commandment,   last books of the pentatettch.         49is a Supplement of the Sixth Commandment. The sum is, that, if any one is judicially condemned to be beaten with stripes, the chastisement should not be excessive. The question, however, is as to a punishment, which by lawyers is called a moderate correction,1 and which ought to be such, as that the body torn by the whip should not be maimed or disfigured. Since, therefore, God has so far spared the guilty, as to repress even just severity, much more would He have regard paid to innocent blood ; and since He prohibits the judge from using too great rigour, much less will He tolerate the violence of a private individual, if he shall employ it against his brother. But it was necessary that zeal should be thus restrained, because judges, in other respects not unjust, are often as severe against lesser offences (delicta) as against crimes. An equal measure of punishment is not indeed prescribed, as if all were to be beaten alike ; it is only prohibited that the judges should order more than forty stripes in all to be inflicted for an offence. Thus the culprits were beaten deliberately, and not in such an indiscriminate manner as when it was not requisite to count the stripes; besides, they were not so injured for the future as to be deprived of the use of any of their limbs. With the same intent God would have the judges themselves to be present, that by their authority they may prevent any excess : and the reason is added, lest " thy brother should seem vile unto thee," because he had been beaten immoderately. This may be explained in two ways, either, lest his body should be disfigured by the blows, and so he should be rendered unsightly; or, lest, being stained for ever with ignominy and disgrace, he should be discouraged in mind; for we know how grievous and bitter it is to be mocked and insulted. A third sense,2 which some prefer, is too far-fetched, viz., lest he should die like some vile and contemptible beast; for God only provides that the wretched man should be improved by his chastisement, and not that he should grow callous from his infamy. As the Jews were always ostentatious of their zeal in trifling matters, they invented a childish1   " Ce que les jurisconsultes appellent une reprimandemoyenne."ЧFr. * This exposition is attributed to Vatablus in Poole's Synopsis.50               calvin's harmony of the four   detjt. xxiv. 16.precaution, in order that they might more strictly observe this law ; for they were scrupulous in not proceeding to the fortieth stripe, but, by deducting one, they sought after an empty reputation for clemency, as if they were wiser than God Himself, and superior to Him in kindness. Into such folly do men fall, when they dare out of their own heads to invent anything in opposition to God's word! This superstition already prevailed in Paul's time, as we gather from his words, where he reports that " five times he received forty stripes save one."    (2 Cor. xi. 24.)DEUTERONOMY, CHAPTER XXIV.16. The fathers shall not be put        16. Non interficientur patres proto  death for the children, neither   filiis, neque filii  interficientur proshall the children be put to death   patribus :   quisque  in peccato suofor the fathers: every man shall be   morietur. put to death for his own sin.Here also God manifests how great is His regard for human life, so that blood should not be shed indiscriminately, when he forbids that children should be involved in the punishment of their parents. Nor was this Law by any means supererogatory, because on account of one man's crime his whole race was often severely dealt with. It is not without cause, therefore, that God interposes for the protection of the innocent, and does not allow the punishment to travel further than where the crime exists. And surely our natural common sense dictates that it is an act of barbarous madness to put children to death out of hatred to their father. If any should object, what we have already seen, that God avenges "unto the third and fourth generation," the reply is easy, that He is a law unto Himself, and that He does not rush by a blind impulse to the exercise of vengeance, so as to confound the innocent with the reprobate, but that He so visits the iniquity of the fathers upon their children, as to temper extreme severity with the greatest equity. Moreover, He has not so bound Himself by an inflexible rule as not to be free, if it so pleases Him, to depart from the Law; as,6TH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.51for example, He commanded the whole race of Canaan to be rooted out, because the land would not be purged except by the extermination of their defilements ; and, since they were all reprobate, the children, no less than their fathers, were doomed to just destruction. Nay, we read that, after Saul's death, his guilt was expiated by the death of his children, (2 Sam. xxi.;) still, by this special exception, the Supreme Lawgiver did not abrogate what He had commanded; but would have His own admirable wisdom acquiesced in, which is the fountain from whence all laws proceed.DEUTERONOMY, CHAPTER XX.10.  When thou comest nigh unto a city to fight against it, then proclaim peace unto it.11.  And it shall be, if itmakethee answer of peace, and open unto thee, then it shall be, that all the people that is found therein shall be tributaries unto thee, and they shall serve thee.12.  And if it will make no peace with thee, but will make war against thee, then thou shalt besiege it:13.  And when the Lord thy God hath delivered it into thine hands, thou shalt smite every male thereof with the edge of the sword:14. But the women, and the little ones, and the cattle, and all that is in the city, even all the spoil thereof, shalt thou take unto thyself:  and thou shalt'eat the spoil of thine enemies, which the Lord thy God hath given thee.15.  Thus shalt thou do unto all the cities which are very far off from thee, which are not of the cities of these nations.16.  But of the cities of these people, which the Lord thy God doth give thee for an inheritance, thou shalt save alive nothing that breath-eth.17. But thou shalt utterly destroy them; namely, the Hittites, and the Amorites, the Canaanites, and the10.  Quum accesseris ad urbem ut expugnes illam,  clamabis  ad  earn pacem.11.  Et erit, si pacem respondent tibi, et aperuit tibi, universus popu-lus qui fuerit repertus in ea, erunt tibi tributarii, servientque tibi.12.  Si vero  pacem  non  fecerit tecum, sed  faciat tecum prselium, obsederisque earn;13.  Et dederit earn Jehova Deus tuus in manu tua:   tune percuties omnem masculum ejus acie gladii.14.  Tantum mulieres, et parvulos, et animalia, et quicquid  fuerit in urbe, omnia spolia ejus prsedaberis tibi: comedesque spolia inimicorum tuorum,  quos  dederit  tibi Jehova Deus tuus.15.   Sic facies omnibus  urbibus longinquis a te valde, quse non sunt de urbibus gentium istarum.16. Tantum de urbibus populorum istorum quos Jehova Deus tuus dat tibi in hsereditatem, non vivificabis ullam animam :17.    Sed   perdendo   perdes   eos, Hitthseum,    Amorrhseum,    Chana-naeum et Perisseum, Hivseum, et Je-52                      calvin's harmony of the four    deut. xx. 10.Perizzites, the Hivites, and the Je-   busseum,  quemadmodum   prrecepitbusites, as the Lord thy God hath   tibi Jehova Deus tuus: commanded thee:18. That they teach you not to do       18. Ne doceant vos facere secun-after all their abominations, which   dum abominationes suas quas faciuntthey have done unto their gods; so   diis suis:  et peccetis in Jehovamshould ye sin against the Lord your   Deum vestrum. God.10. When thou goest forth to war. He now teaches that, even in lawful wars, cruelty is to be repressed, and bloodshed to be abstained from as much as possible. He therefore commands that, when they shall have come to take a city, they should first of all exhort its inhabitants to obtain peace by capitulating; and if they should do so, to keep them alive, and to be content with imposing a tribute on them. This principle of equity was naturally implanted in all nations; hence heralds took their rise,1 nor did they commence a just war without a solemn proclamation. Besides, inasmuch as the word hostis (an enemy) formerly signified a foreigner (peregrinum,) the Romans mitigated by its mildness the sadness of the reality. On this ground they deemed that faith was to be kept with an enemy ; and that sentiment of Cicero is worthy of praise, " that wars must not be undertaken except that we may live in unmolested peace."But if God would have His people mindful of humanity in the very midst of the din of arms, we may hence infer now greatly displeasing to Him is human bloodshed. Even those whom He has armed with His authority, He would still have disposed to clemency, and He represses their ardour, lest they should stain with blood the swords given them by His per-1 " Feciales."ЧLat. " Les herauts d'armes."ЧFr. " The Romans never carried on any war without solemnly proclaiming it. This was done by a set of priests called Feciales. When the Romans thought themselves injured by any nation, they sent one or more of these Feciales to demand redress, {ad res repetundas,') Liv. iv. 30, xxxviii. 45. Varro, L.L. iv. 15. Dionys. ii. 72; and, if it was not immediately given, thirty-three days were granted to consider the matter, after which war might be justly declared. Then the Feciales again went to their confines, and having thrown a bloody spear into them, formally declared war against that nation, Liv. i. 32."ЧAdam's Rom. Antiq.The references in the two following sentences are to Cicero, de Off. i. 12, and 11, and 13.6th commandment,   last books of the pentatjsuch.         53mission. How, then, shall it be lawful for a private person to assume the sword for the purpose of killing his brother ? We now understand the object of the instructions here given, and how appropriately they are connected with the Sixth Commandment.12. And if he will make no peace. The permission here given seems to confer too great a license; for, since heathen writers1 command even the conquered to be spared, and enjoin that those should be admitted to mercy who lay down their arms, and cast themselves on the good faith of the General, although the battering-ram may have actually made a breach in the wall, how does God, the Father of mercies, give His sanction to indiscriminate bloodshed ? It has already been stated, that more was conceded to the Jews on account of their hardness of heart, than was justly lawful for them. Unquestionably, by the law of charity, even armed men should be spared, if, casting away the sword, they crave for mercy; at any rate it was not lawful to kill any but those who were taken in arms, and sword in hand. This permission, therefore, to slaughter, which is extended to all the males, is far distant from perfections But, although in their ferocity the Jews would have hardly suffered the perfection of equity to be prescribed to them, still God would at least restrain their excessive violence from proceeding to the extremity of cruelty. The question is as to cities taken by force, where it sometimes happens that there is no distinction of sex or age regarded; this inhumanity is here mitigated, since they might not kill either women or children.15. Thus shalt thou do unto all the cities. An exception is introduced, that the Jews should not apply the common laws of war to the Canaanitish nations, with respect to whose extermination the sentence had passed.3 For God had not only armed the Jews to carry on war with them, but had appointed1 " Bt cum iis, quos vi deviceris, consulendum est; turn ii, qui, armis positis, ad imperatorum fidem confugient, quamvis murum aries percus-serit, recipiendi sunt."ЧCie. de Off. i. 11.3 Addition in Fr., "et equite qui doit estre en tous enfans de Dieu;" and from the equity which ought to be in all God's children.' Addition in Fr., " et l'execution commise aux enfans d'Israel;" and its execution committed to the children of Israel.54               calvin's harmony of the four   detjt. xxiii. 15.them to be the ministers and executioners of His vengeance. We have elsewhere explained that there were just causes why He would have their race and memory radically destroyed ; especially since He had borne with them for four hundred years, whilst in their wicked obstinacy they had not ceased to grow worse and worse, from whence their desperate impiety was manifest. What had been said before is here, however, repeated, i.e., that since that land was consecrated to God's service, its inhabitants were to be exterminated, who could do nothing but contaminate it; and therefore this would be profitable for the Israelites, lest by their wiles they should be attracted to false superstitions.DEUTERONOMY, CHAPTER XXIII.15.  Thou shalt not deliver unto       15. Non  trades servum domino his   master   the  servant which  is   suo, qui se ad te eripuerit a domino escaped from his master unto thee :    suo.16.  He shall dwell with thee, even       16. Tecum habitabit in medio tui, among you, in that place which he   in loco quern elegerit in una urbium shall choose in one of thy gates,   tuarum   prout placuerit, nee vim where it liketh him best: thou shalt   inferes ei.not oppress him.Although this Law has a tendency to humanity and kindness, it still does not appear to be altogether just. Since many masters oppressed their slaves with tyrannical arrogance, their wickedness rendered it necessary to afford some alleviation to the poor creatures. Thus slaves were permitted to take refuge in temples, and at Rome at the statues of the Caesars, so that if they proved themselves to have been treated with injustice and inhumanity, they might, when their case was proved, be transferred by sale to merciful masters. This, indeed, was endurable, but the refuge which is here granted to slaves defrauds their masters of their just right; since, without their case being heard, they have liberty given them to reside in the land of Canaan; thus, too, the law of nations is violated, since the land is opened to every fugitive. Besides, since runaway slaves are generally wicked and criminal, whatever place may be their6TH COMMANDMENT.     LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.            55asylum, it will be filled with many sources of infection. I know not whether there is sufficient foundation for the opinion of some who think that the slaves were exempted by privilege from their former servitude,1 in order that they might give themselves up to God's service, and that thus true religion might be propagated. It certainly does not seem consistent that filth and refuse of every sort should be received into the Church, because, in the end, it would have been filled with all kinds of corruptions; and besides, it was by no means decorous that whatever crime had been elsewhere committed should be sheltered under God's name. For, suppose a thief, or an adulterer, or a murderer, should leave his master, and seek for an asylum in the Holy Land, what else would it have been to receive and protect such guests, but to overthrow law and justice, and to set up a state of foul barbarism ? I think, therefore, that more is to be understood than the words express, viz., that, if it should be found that the slaves had not fled in consequence of their own evil doings, but on account of the excessive cruelty of their masters, the people should not drive them away, which would have been tantamount to giving them up to butchery. And, in fact, it may be inferred that judicial proceedings were to be instituted, because a choice is given as to the city in which they prefer to dwell.Religion, indeed, stood them in some stead, because those who sought a place and home in the land of Canaan, were obliged to dedicate themselves to God, and to be initiated in His worship; still, God would never have allowed His name to be profaned by the reception of wicked persons without discrimination. Wherefore, as I briefly stated before, God inculcates humanity upon His people, lest, by the extradition of fugitive slaves, they should be accessary to the cruelty of others; because their masters would have been their executioners; and, since He forbids the people from ill-treating them, He implies, by these words, that He only1 л The Chaldee addeth, a servant of the peoples, i.e., of the Gentiles, who for the religion of God cotneth from his master to the Church of Israel. This servant that fleeth to the land (of Israel) he is a righteous stranger, (that is, a proselyte come unto the faith and covenant of God,) saith Maimony."ЧAinsworth in loco.56                       CALVIN'S HARMONY OF THE FOUR     DETJT. XXII. 6.so far provides for the safety of these wretched beings, as to allow them to defend their innocence in a court of justice; wherefore I have thought fit to place this law amongst the Supplements of the Sixth Commandment.DEUTERONOMY, CHAPTER XXII.6.  If a bird's nest chance to be       6.  Quum occurrerit   tibi   nidus before thee in the way in any tree,   avium in via in quavis arbore, aut or on the ground, whether they be   super terrain ubi pulli vel ova, et young ones or eggs, and the dam    mater cubet super pullos aut super sitting upon the young, or upon the   ova:   non   accipies   matrem   cum eggs, thou shalt not take the dam   filiis:with the young:7. But thou shalt in any wise let the       7. Sed dimittendo dimittes madam go, and take the young to thee;   trem, pullos  autem capies tibi, ut that it may be well with thee, and   bene sit tibi et producas dies.that thou mayest prolong thy days.Since by this precept God instructed His people in the law of kindness, it is a Supplement to the Sixth Commandment. Regard was had, indeed, to the preservation of the breed ; but, besides, when birds are sitting, as being very lean, it is certain that they are not wholesome food; still there is no question but that it was God's intention to accustom His people to study humanity. For, if there be one drop of compassion in us, it will never enter into our minds to kill an unhappy little bird, which so burns either with the desire of offspring, or with love towards its little ones, as to be heedless of its life, and to prefer endangering itself to the desertion of its eggs, or its brood. Wherefore, it is not to be doubted but that, in this elementary lesson, God prohibited His people from savageness and cruelty.EXODUS, CHAPTER XXIII.5. If thou  see the ass of him       6. Si videris asinum inimici tuithat hateth thee lying under his   decumbentem sub onere suo, et ces-burden, and wouldest forbear to help   saveris ab auxiliando ei, auxiliandohim; thou shalt surely help with   auxiliaberis cum eo. him.Deut. xxii.   4.  Thou shalt not       4. Non videbis asinum fratris tuisee thy brother's ass or his ox fall   aut boves ejus jacentes in via, et ab-down by the way, and hide thyself   scondes te ab eis: erigendo erigesfrom them; thou shalt surely help   cum eo. him to lift them up again.6THCOMMANDMENT.     LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.             57By this law also, God exhorts His people to exercise the duties of humanity towards brute animals, in order that they may be the more disposed, to assist their brethren; for we must bear in memory what Paul teaches, where God commands oxen to be kindly treated, viz., that He does not care so much for them in this, as for mankind. (1 Cor. ix. 9.) God prescribes elsewhere, that if any should see the ox or ass of his brother, or even of his enemy, going astray, lie should catch it, and restore it to its master, (Deut. xxii. ]-3, and Exod. xxiii. 4 ;) but here He had another intention, i.e., that believers should testify their forgiveness of their enemies, by being merciful to their animals. If it had been simply said, that our enemies were to be helped, and that we must contend with them by acts of kindness, to overcome their ill-will, all cruelty would have been sufficiently condemned ; but when God commands us not only to succour our enemies, to point out their way to those who are straying, and to lift up those who are fallen, but would also have us exercise these kindnesses to their very beasts, He more emphatically and strongly expresses how very far removed from hatred and the desire of vengeance He desires His children to be. Wherefore we see that what Christ afterwards taught His disciples is taught also in the Law, that we should love our enemies. (Matt. v. 44.) Nor is it merely the desire of vengeance which is here restrained, but something more is required, viz., that believers should conquer the ill-will of their enemies by kindnesses : since to bring back a straying ox or ass is a proof of sincere affection. But, in these two passages, what relates to the Sixth Commandment is represented in a more striking manner, viz., that assistance should be rendered to an ox or an ass, weighed down by its burden. Interpreters1 are not agreed as to the meaning of the words, and Jerome has departed most widely from them. But others, who desire to translate them more accurately,  read them  interrogatively,ЧIf thou  shalt see ani Margin A. V., Exod. xxiii. 5, " Wilt thou cease to help him ? or, and wouldest thou cease to leave thy business for him; thou shalt surely leave it to join with him." The Vulg. translation is, " Si videris asinum odientis te jacere sub onere, non pertransibis, sed sublevabis cum eo:" and this precisely accords with LXX., >i wajixbo-j) abri.58                calvin's harmony of the four       numb.xxxv.animal fall under its burden, &c, wilt thou hesitate to help ? The other sense seems more appropriate,ЧIf thou shalt have seen and have hesitated to help, still do thou help: for in this way God anticipates a person, if, perchance, impelled at first by hatred, he should dislike to help his enemy, and then commands him to correct his guilty thought. The meaning, therefore, will be,Чif the sight of thine enemy should delay thee from aiding his beast, lay aside thine ill-will, and unite thyself with him, that you may together be humane and merciful to the wretched animal. Thus an opportunity was given to enemies for their mutual reconciliation. There is another difficulty in the word yCS,1 gnazdb, which, although it means to leave, still, in my judgment, is used for to assist, or to give help : although it is not translated amiss, to let go, or to loose: or, if it be preferred, to strengthen; in which sense it is sometimes found.NUMBERS, CHAPTER XXXV.9.  And the Lord spake unto Mo-       9. Et locutus est Jehova ad Moses, saying,                                      sen dicendo:10.   Speak unto the children of       10. Alloquere filios Israel, et dicas Israel, and say unto them, When ye   eis, Quum transieritis Jordanem in be come over Jordan into the land   terra Chanaan,of Canaan,11.   Then ye shall appoint you       11. Constituetis vobis urbes: ur-cities to be cities of refuge for you;    bes autem refugii erunt vobis, quo that  the  slayer may flee [thither,   fugiet homicida qui percusserit ali-whichkilleth any person at unawares,   quem pererrorem.12.  And they shall be unto you       12.  Et erunt vobis urbes illse in cities for refuge from the avenger;    refugium a propinquo, et non mori-that the manslayer die not, until he    etur homicida,  donee steterit ipse stand before the   congregation in   ante congregationem adjudicium. judgment.13.  And of these cities which ye       13. Et ex urbibus quas dabitis, shall give, six cities shall ye have for   sex urbes refugii erunt vobis. refuge.1 Exod. xxiii. 5. 3TJ>, in its primary and most usual sense, signifies to leave; but a thing may be left from dislike or weariness; hence it signifies (2) to forsake. On the other hand, it may be left, because it has been brought into that state, in which it needs no further help or security ; and hence (3) it sometimes signifies to complete a defence, as Nehem. iii. 8; iv. 2; to relieve from a difficulty, as in this place.ЧW. The whole of this criticism is omitted, not only in the French translation, but also in the Latin edition of 1563, pp. 390, 391.6TH COMMANDMENT.     LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.5914.  Ye shall give three cities on this side Jordan, and three cities shall ye give in the land of Canaan, which shall be cities of refuge.15.  These six cities shall be a refuge, both for the children of Israel, and for the stranger, and for the so-journer among them; that every one that killeth any person unawares may flee thither.16.  And if he smite him with an instrument of iron, so that he die, he is a murderer: the murderer shall surely be put to death.17.  And if he smite him with throwing a stone, wherewith he may die, and he die, he is a murderer: the murderer shall surely be put to death.18.   Or if he smite him with an hand-weapon of wood, wherewith he may die, and he die, he is a murderer : the murderer shall surely be put to death.19.  The revenger of blood himself shall slay the murderer: when he meeteth him, he shall slay him.20.  But if he thrust him of hatred, or hurl at him by laying of wait, that he die;21.   Or in enmity smite him with his hand, that he die: he that smote him shall surely be put to death; for he is a murderer: the revenger of blood shall  slay  the   murderer when he meeteth him.22.  But if he thrust him suddenly without enmity, or have cast upon him any thing without laying  of wait;23.   Or with any stone, wherewith a man may die, seeing him not, and cast it upon him, that he die, and was not his enemy, neither sought his harm;24.  Then the congregation'shall judge between the slayer and the revenger of blood according to these judgments:25.   And the congregation  shall deliver the slayer out of the hand of the revenger of blood, and the congregation shall restore him to the city of his refuge, whither he14.  Tres urbes dabitis citra Jor-danem, et tres urbes dabitis in terra Chanaan : urbes refugii erunt.15.  Filiis Israel, et peregrino, et incolse in medio eorum, erunt  sex urbes illse refugium, ut fugiat illuc quicunque percusserit aliquem per16.   Si instrumento ferreo percusserit eum, et mortuus fuerit, homi-cida est: moriendo morietur homi-cida.17.   Si vero lapide   manus, quo moriatur, percusserit eum, et mortuus fuerit, homicida est: moriendo morietur homicida.18.   Aut instrumento ligneo manus, quo moriatur, percusserit eum, et mortuus fuerit, homicida est: moriendo morietur homicida.19.  Propinquus sanguinis ipse in-terficiet homicidam : quum ipse ob-viaverit illi, ipse interficiet eum.20.   Si per odium, inquam, impu-lerit eum, aut projecerit aliquid in eum per insidias, et mortuus fuerit.21.  Aut per inimicitiam percusserit eum manu sua, mortuusque fuerit: moriendo morietur percussor, homicida est: propinquus sanguinis interficiet homicidam quum ipse oc-currerit illi.22.  Si autem casu absque inimici-tiis impulerit eum, vel projecerit in eum quodvis instrumentum absque insidiis.23. Aut quemvis lapidem quo moriatur quern prius non videbat, et cadere fecerit super ilium, mortuusque fuerit, et ipse non erat inimicus, neque quserebat malum ejus ;24. Tune judicabit congregatio inter percussorem et propinquum sanguinis secundum judicia ista.25.  Et eruet  congregatio homicidam e manu propinqui sanguinis, et reverti faciet eum  congregatio ad urbem refugii sui ad quam con-fugerat: habitabitque in ea donee60CALVIN S HARMONY OF THE FOUBDEUT.XIX.was fled; and he shall abide in it unto the death of the high priest, which was anointed with the holy oil.26.  But if the slayer shall at any time come without the border of the city of his refuge, whither he was fled ;27.  And the revenger of blood find him without the borders of the city of his refuge, and the revenger of blood kill the slayer; he shall not be guilty of blood :28.  Because he should have remained in the city of his refuge until the death of the high priest: but after the death of the high priest the slayer shall return into the land of his possession.29.   So these things shall be for a statute  of judgment  unto   you throughout your generations, in all your dwellings.30. Whoso killeth any person, the murderer shall be put to death by the mouth of witnesses:   but one witness shall not testify against any person to cause him to die.31.  Moreover, ye  shall take no satisfaction for the life of a murderer, which is guilty of death; but he shall be surely put to death.32.  And ye shall take no satisfaction for him that is fled to the city of his refuge, that he should come again to dwell in the land, until the death of the priest.33.   So ye shall not pollute the land wherein ye are ; for blood it defileth the land: and the land cannot be cleansed of the blood that is shed therein, but by the blood of him that shed it.34.  Defile not therefore the land which ye shall inhabit, wherein  I dwell: for I the Lord dwell among the children of Israel.Deut. xix. 1. When the Lord thy God hath cut off the nations, whose land the Lord thy God giveth thee, and thou succeedest them, and dwellest in their cities, and in their houses ;moriatur sacerdos magnus qui unctus est oleo sanctitatis.26. Quod si egrediendo egressus fuerit homicida terminum urbis re-fugii sui ad quam confugerat:27- Et invenerit eum propinquus sanguinis extra terminum urbis re-fugii sui, atque occiderit propinquus ille homicidam: non erit obnoxius morti.28.  In civitate enim refugii sui habitabit donee moriatur sacerdos magnus:  posteaquam autem mor-tuus fuerit sacerdos magnus, rever-tetur homicida   in terrain posses-sionis suai.29.  Et erunt ista vobis in statu-tum judicii per generationes vestras, in omnibus habitationibus vestris.30.    Quicunque  percusserit   ali-quem, ad verbum testium occidet homicidam : solus enim testis non tes-tificabitur in animam ut moriatur.31.  Neque accipietis pretium pro anima homicides qui est sceleratus, ut moriatur: sed moriendo morie-tur.32.  Sed nee accipietis pretium ut fugiat ad urbem refugii sui, ut re-vertatur habitare in ea terra donee moriatur sacerdos.33. Et non polluetis terram in qua fueritis,  quia sanguis iste polluet terram:   neque   terra   expiabitur propter sanguinem qui effusus est in ea nisi per sanguinem illius qui effu-dit ilium.34.  Ne ergo polluatis terram in qua habitatis, et in cujus medio ego habito: ego enim Jehova habito in medio nliorum Israel.1. Quum exciderit Jehova Deus tuus gentes quarum ipse Jehova Deus tuus dat tibi terram, et posse-deris eas, habitaverisque in urbibus earum et in domibus earum.6THCOMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OP THE PENTATEUCH.612.  Thou shalt separate three cities for thee in the midst of thy land, which the Lord thy God giveth thee to possess it.3.  Thou shalt prepare thee a way, and divide the coasts of thy land, which the Lord thy God giveth thee to  inherit,  into  three parts, that every slayer may flee thither.4. And this is the case of the slayer which shall flee thither, that he may live: Whoso killeth his neighbour ignorantly, whom he hated not in time past;5.  As when a man goeth into the wood with his neighbour to hew wood, and his hand fetcheth a stroke with the axe to cut down the tree, and the head slippeth from the helve, and lighteth upon his neighbour, that he die; he shall flee unto one of those cities, and live:6.  Lest the avenger of the blood pursue the slayer, while his heart is hot, and overtake him, because the way is long, and slay him ; whereas he was not worthy of death, inasmuch as he hated him not in time past.7.  Wherefore I command thee, saying, Thou shalt separate three cities for thee.8. And if the Lord thy God enlarge thy coast, as he hath sworn unto thy fathers, and give thee all the land which he promised to give unto thy fathers;9.  If thou shalt keep all these commandments to do them, which I command thee this day, to love the Lord thy God, and to walk ever in his ways; then shalt thou add three cities more for thee, besides these three:10.   That innocent blood be not shed in thy land, which the Lord thy God giveth thee for an inheritance, and so blood be upon thee.11. But if any man hate his neighbour, and lie in wait for him, and rise up against him, and smite him mortally that he die, and fleeth into one of these cities;2. Tres urbes separabis tibi in me-dio terrse tua; quam Jehova Deus tuus dat tibi ut possideas earn.3.  Prseparabis tibi itinera, et in tres partes divides terminum terrse tuse, quam in hsereditatem daturus est tibi Jehova Deus tuus: eritque ut fugiat illuc omnis homicida.4. Hsec autemestres homicidsequi fugiet illuc, et vivet: qui percusse-rit proximum suum ignoranter, ne-que oderat eum ab heri et nudius-tertius.5. Quicunque abierit cum proximo suo in silvam ad caedenda ligna, et impulsa fuerit nianus ejus in  se-curim ad csedendum lignum, elap-sum autem fuerit ferrum e ligno, inveneritque  proximum   suum,  et moriatur :   is fugiet ad unam  ur-bium istarum, et vivet:6.   Ne   persequatur   propinquus sanguinis homicidam ilium,  quum incaluerit cor  ejus,  et   assequatur eum, quod  longior fuerit  via:   et percutiat eum anima, quum tamen non sit reus mortis, quod non odisset eum ab heri et nudiustertius :7.  Idcirco ego prsecipio tibi, di-cendo:    Tres   civitates    separabis tibi.8. Quod si dilataverit Jehova Deus tuus terminum tuum quemadmodum juravit patribus tuis, et dederit tibi universam terram quam dixit patribus tuis se daturum:9.  Quum custodieris omnia prse-cepta  ista, ut  facias ea  quse  ego prsecipio tibi hodie, nempe ut dili-gas Jehovam Deum tuum, et ambu-les in viis ejus omnibus diebus : tune addes tibi adhuc tres urbes ultra tres istas:10.  Ut  non  effundatur sanguis innocens in medio terrse tuse quam Jehova Deus tuus dat tibi in hseredi-tatem, neve sint super te sanguines.11.  At quum fuerit quispiam qui oderit proximum suum, et insidiatus fuerit ei, insurrexeritque in eum, et percusserit eum anima, et mor-tuus fuerit, fugerit autem ad unam urbium istarum.62                calvin's harmony of the four    numb. xxxv. 16.12.  Then the elders of his city       12. Tune  mittent seniores urbis shall send and fetch him thence, and   illius, et abstrahent eum inde, da-deliver him into the hand of the   buntque eum in manu propinqui avenger of blood, that he may die.      sanguinis, et morietur.13.  Thine eye shall not pity him:       13. Nonparcet oculus tuus ei, et but thou shalt put away the guilt of   auferes  sanguinem innocentem  ex innocent blood from Israel, that it    Israele, et bene erit tibi.may go well with thee.Numb. xxxv. 10. Speak unto the children of Israel. God appointed the cities of refuge, not only to make distinction between sins of malice and error, but also lest innocent blood should be rashly shed. Thus far wre have seen how severely He would have murder punished : but, inasmuch as it would have been by no means just that he, who had not wilfully but accidentally killed his neighbour, should be hurried away to the same punishment, to which wilful murderers were subjected, an exception is added here, in order that he might escape who had killed another ignorantly, and unintentionally. Although, as has been said, God had a further object, viz., lest murder upon murder should be committed, and the land should thus be polluted. Let us now examine the details in order. Although at the outset He only mentions the cities on the other side of Jordan, still we gather from what follows, that six cities were chosen for this purpose, of which three were on this side Jordan. He would have them so situated, that every part of the country should have one of them in its neighbourhood, lest the exile of the unhappy persons, who were guiltless, should be rendered more painful by the distance they would have to travel. We have already briefly pointed out1 that these cities were to be in the portions of Levi, in order that the dignity of the priesthood might the better protect the exiles, and also, because it was probable that there would be more prudence and serious feeling in the Levites, so that the refuge accorded to the innocent should not also shield the guilty.16. And if he smite him with an instrument of iron. God appears to contradict Himself, when, a little further on, He absolves involuntary murderers, although they may have inflicted the wound with iron or with a stone; whilst here He absolutely declares that whosoever shall smite another 1 See vol. ii. p. 251, on Numbers xxxv. 6.6TH COMMANDMENT.     LAST BOOKS OP THE PENTATEUCH.             63with wood, or iron, or a stone, shall be guilty of death ; but this is easily explained if we consider his meaning ; for; after having pardoned the unintentional act {errori,) lest1 any should misconstrue this as affording impunity for crime, He at once anticipates them, and again inculcates what has been said before. By the express mention of iron, wood, and stone, He more clearly explains that no voluntary murders are to be pardoned; else, as laws are wont to be evaded by various subtleties, they would have endeavoured, perhaps, to limit what had been said respecting the punishment of murderers to one single species of murder, viz., when a person had been slain with a sword. It is not, then, without cause that God condemns to death every kind of murderer, whether he have committed the crime with a weapon (of iron,) or by throwing a stone, or with a club ; since it is sufficient for his condemnation that he had conceived the intention to do the evil act. It is well known that2 by the Lex Cornelia, whosoever had carried a weapon with the intention of killing a man was guilty ; and Martianus cites the reply of Adrian,ЧHe who has killed a man, if he did it not with the intention of killing him, may be absolved; and he who has not killed a man, but has wounded him with intention to kill him, is to be condemned as a murderer ; as Paulus also teaches, that in the said Lex Cornelia, the evil1  " De peur que cela ne tirast trop longue queue, et que les crimi-nels en fissent couverture d'impunite, il exprime notamment les facons de tuer plus communes, quand on y va de guet-a-pens.    Ainsi en nommant les instrumens, qui sont destinez, ou qu'on applique a mal faire," &c.; for fear this should be carried too far, and that criminals should make it a ground for impunity, he expressly mentions the more ordinary kinds of deliberate murder.    Thus, by naming the instruments, which are intended, or used for inflicting injuries, &c.ЧFr.2  Vide Digest, xlviii. tit.  viii.    In legem Corneliam de Sicariis, et Veneflciis, i. | 3.   " Divus Hadrianus rescripsit, eum, qui hominem occi-dit, si non occidendi animo hoc admisit, absolvi posse: et qui hominem non occidit, sed vulneravit ut occidat, pro homicida damnandum: et ex re constituendum hoc."ЧIbid., xi.    " Ulpianus, lib. viii., ad legem Juliam, et Papiam.    Nihil interest, occidat quis, an causam  mortis prsebeat." Vide item, JuliiPauli Recept. Sentent., lib. v., tit. xxiii., з 2.   " Qui hominem occiderit, aliquando absolvitur.    Et qui non occidit, in homicida damnatur.    Consilium enim uniuscujusque, non factum puniendum est. Ideoque qui cum velit occidere, id casu aliquo perpetrare non potuerit, ut homicida punietur.    Et is, qui casu jactu teli hominem imprudenter occiderit, absolvitur."64-                 calvin's hakmony of the Hnm   NtMB.xxxv.19.intention (dolus) is taken for the deed. Another reply of Adrian is very true, That in crimes, the will and not the result must be regarded. Whence that saying of Ulpian, That there is no difference between the man who kills, and him who causes the death of another. Here, therefore, God had no other object than to cut off from murderers all handles for subterfuge, if they should be convicted of a wicked intention, especially when it resulted in an actual attempt; since there was no difference whether they had made use of a sword, or a mallet, or a stone.19. The revenger1 of blood himself. When God commanded that murderers should suffer death, He required that they should be condemned by the judges after due trial; but it seems to savour somewhat of barbarism, that he should now permit the relative of the dead man to take vengeance ; for it is a very bad precedent to give the power of the sword to private individuals, and this too in their own cause. It was indeed formerly permitted, as we shall see in its proper place, to put to death robbers by night, as also it was lawful for the husband, or the father, of a ravished woman to kill the adulterer caught in the fact; but it is absurd that the law should allow a person to avenge the death of his brother. But it is not to be supposed that this license was ever accorded by God, that a man might neglect the public authorities, and inflict punishment on his brother's murderer, wherever he should meet him ; for this would have been to give the reins to sudden anger, so that blood would be added to blood. Wherefore it is probable that the danger of this is here denounced, rather than the gate opened to private vengeance ; as if it had been said, that unless a provision were made for the innocent, the fury of those whose kindred had been slain, could hardly be restrained ; not because it was lawful for them to render violence for violence, but because they would not consider it a crime, and impunity would prove a stimulus even to them, if their just indignation should be pardoned. It must be understood, then, that when a man had been maliciously and wilfully killed, a death inflicted by his relative in vengeance was not punished ; 1 " Propinquus sanguinis."ЧLat.6TH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OP THE PENTATEUCH.            65because it was hard that a man should be capitally condemned as a criminal, who had only slain a murderer already exposed to capital punishment, under the impulse of that love towards his own blood, which is naturally implanted in all. This, however, was tolerated, and not approved of, because, as I have already said, punishments are to be inflicted by public judgment, and not by private will. But, since this indulgence was conceded on account of the people's hardness of heart, God here reminds them how needful it was to provide an asylum for the innocent, because all murderers would else have been indiscriminately attacked. In short, a comparison is made between the guilty and the innocent, for, unless a just distinction had been drawn, all alike would have been exposed to death. The murderer, he says, is worthy of death, if, perchance, he is met by the kinsman of the man murdered. A remedy is, therefore, to be provided, lest one who is not criminal should accidentally receive the same punishment. Hence, at length it is gathered that a distinction is made between one and the other, by a lawful trial. The mode of procedure is also prescribed, viz., that the congregation should acquit the man who has killed another unwittingly. But because there is some perplexity in the words, it must be observed, that as soon as a person had slain another, he immediately betook himself to the place of refuge, and there declared that he sought shelter. After this declaration, it was open for the relatives of the dead man to lay their accusation, and then, after both parties were heard, judgment was pronounced. Otherwise there is a manifest contradiction in the context, since it is presently added; they " shall restore him to the city of his refuge, whither he was fled," whence it appears that, after the exile had presented himself to state his case, and to clear himself, it was usual that a day should be appointed, upon which his accusers should come forward. The sum is, that the murderer should nowhere find refuge, except he were acquitted of his crime. This was an excellent precaution, lest the same punishment should be inflicted upon mischance and criminality, whilst,1 at the same time, by the temporary 1 The Fr. gives a different turn to this sentence ; " que pour obvier a66               calvin's harmony of the foue   numb. xxxv. 30.banishment it was testified how carefully bloodshed was to be avoided. God likewise spared the eyes of those whose brother had been killed, lest their grief should be kept alive by continually beholding (the person who had killed him ;a) and this we gather from verse 26, where impunity is conceded to the relations, if they had caught and killed out of the boundaries of his refuge the man, whose duty it was to withdraw himself; not because the fury of their indignation was excused before God, but because it would else have been difficult to restrain the strong desire of vengeance proceeding from the feelings of human nature.28. Because he should have remained in the city of his refuge. The period of banishment is prescribed, " until the death of the high-priest," because it would have been anything but humane that all hopes of restoration should have been cut off from the unhappy exile; and, when a new priest succeeded to reconcile the people to God, this renewal of grace was to propitiate all offences. Wherefore it was not unreasonable that God should entirely restore those who were only punished for inadvertency.30. Whoso killeth any person. He now returns to wilful murderers, whom He will not have spared, but yet not given over to punishment unless convicted by legal proofs. Literally it is, Whoso smiteth a soul, at the mouth of witnesses he shall slay him that slayeth : and this sentence is obscure from its brevity, unless a noun be supplied before the second verb; and this may be understood either of the judges or the accuser. In the substance, however, there is no ambiguity, viz., that no one should be condemned unless he be lawfully convicted. Moreover, He declares that one witness would be insufficient, inasmuch as it would be most unjust that a man's life should be at the mercy of a single tongue. I have already adduced a similar passage,2 in which Moses gave instructions that no capital causes was to be decided except at the mouth of two or three witnesses : and, becauseun nouveau meurtre en bannissant pour un temps celuy, qui avoit tue quelqu'un par erreur;" as well as to prevent a fresh murder, by banishing, for a time, the person who had killed another unintentionally.1  Added from Fr.2  Deut. xvii. 6.    See ante, p. 45.6TH COMMANDMENT.     LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.              67such declarations are of general application, I have purposely assigned to them a separate place. Now again, in referring to the condemnation of murderers, he takes occasion to state that two witnesses are required, since nothing is more likely to occur than that the innocent should be overwhelmed by calumnies and perjury, if it depended on the testimony of any single individual. But, when two are brought forward, it may be discovered in many ways, as has been said, whether there is any falsehood; for, if examined separately, they will scarcely accord in all particulars. But, whilst sure proof is required, in order to the punishment of guilt, so, when the murder is proved, God sternly requires, and commands that it should not remain unpunished. He expressly forbids that the right of refuge should be purchasable, since it would else have been in danger of being a shield for many crimes. When, therefore, He forbids a satisfaction to be taken from any one, who would betake himself to a city of refuge, His object is, that no one should enjoy this benefit, until his innocence was fully established ; lest the mercy, whereby the innocent were succoured, should be open to bribery.S3. $o ye shall not pollute the land. In this concluding sentence, He again reminds them that, unless they should exercise severe justice against murderers, they would be guilty of sin against God; because the land stained with human blood is polluted, and lying under His curse, until expiation has been made. Again, since God dwells in the land of Canaan, having chosen His abode among the children of Israel, His sanctity is also profaned. The sum is, that, in every respect, care should be taken lest the land, which is sacred to God, should be contaminated by bloodshed.Deut. xix. 1. When the Lord thy God hath cut off the nations. Moses repeats the same precepts which we have just been considering, that, in regard to murders, the people should distinguish between inadvertency and crime. With this view, he assigns six cities, wherein those who have proved their innocence before the judges should rest in peace and concealment. In one word, however, he defines who is to be exempt from punishment, viz., he who has killed his68                  calvin's harmony of the four    exod. xx. 14neighbour ignorantly, as we have previously seen ; and this is just, because the will is the sole source and cause of criminality, and therefore, where there is no malicious feeling, there is no crime. But, lest under the pretext of inadvertency those who are actually guilty should escape, a mark of distinction is added, i.e., that no hatred should have preceded ; and of this an instance is given, if two friends should have gone out together into a wood, and, without any quarrel or wrangling, the head of the axe should slip out of the hand of one of them, and strike the other. God, therefore, justly commands that the motive of the crime should be investigated, and shews how it is to be ascertained, viz., if there had been any previous animosity, or if any contention should have arisen. For it is incredible that any one should be so wicked as gratuitously to rush into so abominable a sin. It must be observed, however, that there was no room for this conjecture, except in a doubtful matter; for if any should stab his neighbour with a drawn sword, or should hurl a dart into his bosom, the inquiry would be superfluous, because the guilty intention would be abundantly manifest.CJje CommandmentEXODUS, CHAPTER XX.14. Thou shalt not commit adultery.     14. Non committes adulterium. THE REPETITION OF THE COMMANDMENT.Deut. v. 18. Neither shalt. thou com- 18. Non committes adulterium. mit adultery.Although one kind of impurity is alone referred to, it is sufficiently plain, from the principle laid down, that believers are generally exhorted to chastity ; for, if the Law be a perfect rule of holy living, it would be more than absurd to give a license for fornication, adultery alone being excepted. Furthermore, it is incontrovertible that God will by no means approve or excuse before His tribunal, what the common7TH COMMANDMENT.     LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.             69sense of mankind declares to be obscene; for, although lewd-ness has everywhere been rampant in every age, still the opinion could never be utterly extinguished, that fornication is a scandal and a sin. Unquestionably what Paul teaches has been prevalently received from the beginning, that a good life consists of three parts, soberness, righteousness, and godliness, (Tit. ii. 12;) and the soberness which he commands differs not from chastity. Besides, when Christ or the Apostles are treating of a perfect life, they always refer believers to the Law ; for, as it had been said of old by Moses, " This is the way, walk ye in it j"1 Christ confirms this, " If thou wilt enter into life, keep the commandments," (Matt. xix. 17 ;) and Paul corroborates it, " He that loveth another hath fulfilled the Law/' (Rom. xiii. 8,) whilst they constantly pronounce a curse against all fornicators. It is not worth while to quote the particular passages in which they do so. Now, if Christ and the Apostles, who are the best interpreters of the Law, declare that God's Law is violated no less by fornication than by theft, we assuredly infer, that in this Commandment the whole genus is comprehended under a single species. Wherefore, those have done nothing but betray their disgraceful ignorance, who have sought to be praised for their acuteness on the score of their ridiculous subtlety, when they admitted that fornication is indeed condemned with sufficient clearness and frequency in the New Testament, but not in the Law. For, if they had reasoned justly, inasmuch as God is declared to have blessed marriage, it must at once be concluded, on the contrary, that the connexion of male and female, except in marriage, is accursed. This is the argument of the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, where he contrasts two opposite things; " Marriage (he says) is honourable in all, and the bed undefiled; but whoremongers and adulterers God will judge." (Heb. xiii. 4.) So also, when God forbids the priest to marry a harlot, (Lev. xxi. 14,) the manifest impropriety of fornication is declared; and, if it was unlawful for the daughters of Israel to be harlots, (Deut. xxiii. 17,)1 The quotation is not from the writings of Moses, but an accommodation from Is. xxx. 21.70                  calvin's harmony of thk four      dkut. v. 18.the same reasoning applies necessarily to males. Nor has Hosea taken that reproof from anywhere else but the Law ? "Whoredom and wine take away the heart." (Hos. iv. 11.) Thus, when the Prophets metaphorically condemn the corruptions of their nation, they do not always use the same word as Moses here does, S]N3, naaph, hut compare them to fornications, whereas, if fornication were lawful in itself, this metaphor would be altogether inappropriate. Hosea was commanded to take a harlot for a wife, (Hos. i. 2 ;) no mention is made of adultery, and still the shame and baseness of the people is thus condemned. Who, then, would say that fornication is free from sin, since God brands it with no ordinary mark of ignominy ? But if any should pertinaciously contest this, let him accuse Paul of error, who beai's witness that an example is set before us in the Law, that we should not " commit fornication as some of them committed, and fell in one day three-and-twenty thousand." (Numb. xxv. 9; 1 Cor. x. 8.) Surely, if they had not transgressed the Law, so horrible a vengeance would not have overwhelmed them. If any should object that the crime of idolatry was mixed up with it, still the declaration of Paul remains untouched, that God was the avenger of fornication in this infliction of punishment, which would not accord, unless it were a transgression of the Law. And in truth, where, as recorded by Luke, (Acts xv. 20,) the Apostles in their decree prohibit fornication amongst the Gentiles, the reason is at the same time added, that " Moses is read in the synagogues." Now, if it were not a vice opposed to the Law, no offence would have hence arisen.We have already explained why, under this word adultery, every impure lust was condemned. We know how unbridled was the licentiousness of the Gentiles; for, although God never suffered all shame to be extinguished together with their purity, still respect for what was right was in a manner stifled, so that they evaded the grossness of the sin by ribaldry and scurrilous jests. At any rate, the doctrine of Paul was by no means understood, that those who indulge in whoredom " sin against their own body."    (1 Cor. vi. 18.)Since, then, the minds of all men were stupified by in-7TH COMMANDMENT.     LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.             71diligence, it was needful to arouse them by declaring the atrocity of the sin, that they might learn to beware of all pollution. Nor are unbridled lusts only here condemned, but God instructs His people to cherish modesty and chastity. The sum is, that those who desire to approve themselves to God, should be pure " from all filthiness of the flesh and spirit," (2 Cor. vii. 1;) nor can we doubt but that Paul in these words would interpret the law, as he elsewhere exhorts, " that every one should possess his vessel in sanc-tification and honour; not in the lust of concupiscence, even as the Gentiles which know not God."    (1 Thess. iv. 4, 5.)LEVITICUS, CHAPTER XVIII.20. Moreover, thon shalt not lie 20. Uxori proximi tui non dabis carnally with thy neighbour's wife, concubitum tuum in semine, ut pol-to defile thyself with her.                  luaris cum ea.The object of this passage is the same as that of the foregoing ones. For, whilst all fornication pollutes a man, there is grosser impurity in adultery, because the sanctity of marriage is violated, and by the commingling of seed a spurious and illegitimate offspring is derived. Wherefore, God has justly enumerated this crime amongst the abominations of the Gentiles, as may be more clearly seen from the exordium of the chapter from whence this passage is taken.Supplements of t^e Sctottti) йommanUment.LEVITICUS, CHAPTER XVIII.22.  Thou shalt not lie with man-       22. Cum masculo ne concumbas kind as  with   womankind:   it   is    concubitu mulieris: abominatio est. abomination.23.  Neither shalt thou lie with       23. Cum animali non coibis ut any beast, to defile thyself there-   polluaris cum eo: nee mulier prosti-with; neither shall any woman stand   tuet se animali ut coeat cum  eo: before a beast to lie down thereto :    turpitudo est.it is confusion.24.   Defile not ye yourselves in       24. Ne polluamini in omnibus his: any of these things: for in all these   nam in his omnibus polluerunt se the nations are defiled which I cast   gentes quas ego   ejiciam   a   facie out before you.                                 vestra.72CALVIN S HAKMONY OF THE FOUREXOD. XXII.25.  And the land is defiled: therefore I do visit the iniquity thereof upon it, and the land itself vomiteth out her inhabitants.26.  Ye shall therefore keep my statutes   and  my judgments,   and shall not commit any of these abominations ; neither any of your own nation, nor any stranger that so-journeth among you;27.  (For all these abominations have the men of the land done which were before you, and the land is defiled ;)28.  That the land spue not you out also, when ye defile it, as it spued out the nations that were before you.29.  For whosoever shall commit any of these abominations, even the souls that commit them shall be cut off from among their people.30.  Therefore shall ye keep mine ordinance, that ye commit not any one of these abominable customs, which were committed before you, and that ye defile not yourselves therein: I am the Lord your God.25.  Polluta fuit terra, et visitavi iniquitatem  ejus super earn, evo-muitque terra habitatores suos.26.   Vos ergo  custodite  statuta mea, et judicia mea: et ne faciatis ex omnibus abominationibus istis,in-digena, vel peregrinus qui peregri-natur in medio vestri.27.   Omnes enim abominationes istas fecerunt  homines  terrse  qui fuerunt ante vos, et polluta fuit terra.28.   Ne evomat vos terra quod contaminetis   earn, quemadmodum evomuit gentem quse fuit ante vos.29.   Quisquis enim fecerit ex omnibus abominationibus istis, animse quse  fecerint  excidentur e medio populi sui.30.  Custodite custodias meas, nee facietis e statutis   abominationum quse facta sunt ante vos, neque pol-luatis vos in illis: ego Jehova Deus vester.EXODUS, CHAPTER XXII.19. Whosoever lieth with a beast shall surely be put to death.Lev. xx. 13. If a man also lie with mankind, as he lieth with a woman, both of them have committed an abomination : they shall surely be put to death; their blood shall be upon them.15.  And if a man lie with a beast, he shall surely be put to death; and ye shall slay the beast.16.   And if a woman  approach unto any beast, and lie down thereto, thou shalt kill the woman and the beast: they shall surely be put to death; their blood shall be upon them.19. Quisquis concubuerit cum ani-mali, morte moriatur.13. Quicunque coierit cum mas-culo coitu mulieris, abominationem fecerunt ambo: morte morientur, sanguis eorum super eos.15.   Si quis intulerit coitum suum in brutum, moriendo morietur, et jutnentum occidetis.16.  Si mulier accesserit ad unum animal ad coeundum cum eo, occides mulierem et animal, moriendo morientur, sanguis eorum super eos.1 Omitted in Fr.7TH COMMANDMENT.     LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.            73tWe learn from these passages that the people were not only prohibited from adultery, but also from all sins1 which are repugnant to the modesty of nature itself. In order that all impurity may be the more detestable, He enumerates two species of unnatural lust, from whence it is evident that when men indulge themselves in this respect, they are carried away by an impulse, which is more than beastly, to defile themselves by shameful wickedness. The beasts are satisfied with natural connexion ; it is therefore a gross enormity that this distinction should be confounded by man endowed with reason ; for what is the use of our judgment and intelligent faculties if it be not that greater self-restraint should exist in us than in the brute animals ? It is plain, therefore, that they must be blinded in a horrible manner who so shamefully defile themselves, as Paul says. (Rom. i. 28.) The madness of lust has, however, invented several monstrous vices, whose names it would be better to bury, if God had not chosen that these shameful monuments should exist, to inspire us with fear and horror. It has at length advanced to such excesses, that men created in God's image, both male and female, have had connexion with brutes.Lev. xviii. 24. Defile not yourselves in any of these things. An old proverb2 says, that good laws have sprung from evil habits ; and God reminds us that for this reason He has been induced expressly to advert to these disgusting and wicked things; for the monstrosities which He mentions would have been concealed in eternal silence had not necessity compelled Him to bring them to light. But since the Canaanitish nations had advanced to such a pitch of licentiousness, that the prodigious sins, which else would have been better concealed, had been but too familiarly known from their wicked habits, God warns His people to beware of their fatal examples. First, when He says that these abominations prevailed amongst the Gentiles, He indicates that evil habits by no means avail as an excuse ; nay, that public consent is in vain alleged in defence of vice. But the better to deter them from imitating them, He sets before1 " Toutes dissolutions vilenes."ЧFr. ' See vol. ii. p. 281, and note.74                   calvin's harmony of the four     lev. xx. 13.their eyes the vengeance He is about to take. It is true, indeed, that the nations of Canaan were destroyed for other reasons, but it is not without cause that He sets forth this amongst the rest, for undoubtedly God was offended by such pollutions.26. Ye shall therefore keep my statutes. He here contrasts His Law with the abominations of the Gentiles. The exhibition of His severity, which He had referred to, might indeed have sufficed for the instruction of His people ; but in order to influence them more strongly, He at the same time adduces the way pointed out to them in the Law, which would not suffer them to go astray, if only they refused not to follow God. For that the Gentiles, who were destitute of light, should have been drawn aside in every direction was not surprising ; but whilst they thus proved their blindness, it behoved true believers, on the contrary, to testify that they were not children of darkness, but of light. And to this Paul seems to allude, when he exhorts believers not to walk, like the Gentiles, " in the vanity of their mind." (Eph. iv. 17.) On this account God not only commends to them His precepts and statutes, but also His ordinances (custodias,) because He had omitted nothing in the Law which would be useful for the direction of men's lives. The sum is, that unless they order themselves constantly by the doctrine which enlightens them, the same destruction awaited them also which was about to overwhelm the (Canaanitish) nations.Lev. xx. 13. If a man also.1 God had hitherto taught what was right, in order to restrain the people from sin, not only from fear of punishment, but for conscience' sake. But whereas all do not voluntarily dispose themselves to obedience, He awards severe punishments to those wicked de-spisers in whom there is no effort to be religious. And it is astonishing that almost all the Gentiles have so sunk into stupid and brutal folly, that they have tolerated with little1 The Supplements of the Seventh Commandment are differently divided in the Fr. There is no such heading as " Judicial Supplements," and this passage, as well as several others, is removed into a separate class, headed " Political Supplements."7TH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.           75less than impunity unnatural crimes, detestable in their very name.I admit that even the wickedest of them were ashamed to justify so gross a crime ; but although it was practised with impunity, it was a common reproach to make even against the very public tribunals, that it ought to be more severely punished than other crimes, which they did not spare.Both of the offending parties were subjected to the same punishment, because it is a pollution which ought by no means to be borne. Nay, if a man or woman offend with a beast, in order that all may the more abhor and beware of the unnatural crime, the penalty is extended even to the harmless animal; as we have before seen that a goring ox is condemned to death if it had killed a man. Hence we infer how greatly displeasing to God is this kind of crime, since its iniquity is confirmed by the death of guiltless animals.LEVITICUS, CHAPTER XIX.29. Do not prostitute thy daughter,       29.  -Non pollues filiam tuamto cause her to be a whore; lest the   prostituendo earn:   neque scor-land fall to whoredom, and the land   tetur   terra,   et   impleatur ipsabecome full of wickedness.                     scelere.This passage more clearly proves that all unlicensed connexions1 were always unlawful in God's sight. It is a tame and forced interpretation to apply what is here said to spiritual fornication; and those also, who suppose that public stews only are forbidden, restrict the law too much, whereas God rather gives a general injunction that parents should preserve their daughters by means of a pure and chaste education. But even although we admit that nothing else is prohibited but that parents should be the panders of their daughters, still we gather from the word pollute* (for some render the word 77H, chalal, too tamely to make common) that they are contaminated by their whoredom, and the reason given abundantly confirms the fact, that all whoredom is hateful to God, " lest the land fall to whoredom, (He says,)1 " Toute compagnie d'homme et de femme hors le mariage."ЧFr. 1 Margin A.V., "profane."76               calvin's harmony of the fotjb    deut.xxiii.17.and the land become full of wickedness." It is plain that adultery is not in question here ; but God declares it to be criminal if a man and woman have connexion out of wedlock. Consequently, the people are taught in the Seventh Commandment to beware of all unchastity.DEUTERONOMY, CHAPTER XXIII.17. There shall be no whore of 17. Non erit meretrix e filiabus the daughters of Israel, nor a sodom- Israel, neque erit scortum mascu-ite of the sons of Israel.                     him e flliis Israel.This passage is akin to the foregoing; for in the first clause He forbids that girls should be prostituted. Some think that a whore is called in Hebrew flEJHp, kedeshah, because she is exposed to, and prepared for sin j1 but her pollution, the opposite of sanctity, seems rather to be expressed by antiphrasis. At any rate, a precept of chastity is given, that it should not be lawful for unmarried girls to have connexion with men. In the second clause there is some ambiguity, " There shall be no г^*lp, kadesh, of the sons of Israel;" for in other passages it is clearly used for a catamite, or male harlot, but there is no reason why it should not be rendered a fornicator. In this sense the word seems to be used in the Book of Job : " The hypocrites shall die in youth, (or in the flower of their age,) and their life is among the O*E?*lp, kedeshim," which is equivalent to their being infamous and shameful in life. (Job xxxvi. 14.) But if it be preferred to apply it to sodomy, all impurity is condemned by synecdoche.LEVITICUS, CHAPTER XX.210. And the man that committeth 10. Vir qui adulterium commiserit adultery with another man's wife, cum uxore alterius, qui adulterium even he that committeth adultery   commiserit cum uxore proximi sui1 The Hebrew verb BHp has the double signification of sanctum esse and prceparare, (Taylor's Concordance,) though only, it would appear, to prepare by sanctifying.> These passages are also considered in the Fr. subsequently to some that follow.7TH COMMANDMENT.       LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.with his neighbour's wife, the adulterer and the adulteress shall surely be put to death.Deut. xxii. 22. If a man be found lying with a woman married to an husband, then they shall both of them die, both the man that lay with the woman, and the woman: so shalt thou put away evil from Israel.23.  If a damsel that is a virgin be betrothed unto an husband, and a man find her in the city, and lie with her;24.   Then ye shall bring  them both out unto the gate of that city, and ye shall stone them with stones that they die; the damsel, because she cried not, being in the city; and the man, because he hath humbled his neighbour's wife: so thou shalt put away evil from among you.25.  But if a man find a betrothed damsel in the field, and the man force her, and lie with her: then the man only that lay with her shall die:26.   But unto the  damsel thou shalt do nothing; there is in the damsel no sin worthy of death: for as when a man riseth against his neighbour, and slayeth him, even so is this matter:27.  For he found her in the field, and the betrothed damsel cried, and there was none to save her.moriendo morientur adulter et adul-tera.22.    Si quis  deprehensus fuerit coiisse cum muliere conjugata marito, morientur etiam ambo ipsi, vir qui coierit cum muliere, et mulier ipsa: atque auferes malum ex Israele.23.  Quum fuerit puella virgo de-sponsata viro, et invenerit earn aliquis in urbe, coieritque cum ea:24. Adducetis utrunque ad portam urbis ejus, et lapidabitis eos lapidi-bus, ac morientur : puellam quidem, quod non clamaverit in urbe: et virum, propterea quod afflixit uxorem proximi sui: atque ita auferes malum e medio tui.25.  At si in agro invenerit vir puellam desponsatam, et apprehen-derit earn vir ille, et coierit cum ea, morietur   vir  qui coierit  cum  ea solus.26.  Puellse vero non facies quic-quam:   non  est puellse peccatum mortis: nam quemadmodum insurgit quis in proximum suum, et occidit eum anima, sic se habet res ista.27.  In agro invenit earn, clamavit puella desponsata, et nemo adfuit qui servaret earn.Deut. xxii. 22. If a man be found lying with. A Political Supplement, whereby it appears how greatly God abominates adultery, since He denounces capital punishment against it. And assuredly, since marriage is a covenant consecrated by God, its profanation is in no wise tolerable; and conjugal faith should be held too sacred to be violated with impunity, whilst it is an act of horrible perfidiousness to snatch from a man's bosom the wife who is as his very life, or at any rate half of himself. Wherefore, also, the Prophet ignominiously compares adulterers to neighing horses, (Jer. v. 8;) for where such lasciviousness prevails, men degenerate, as it were, into beasts. Another reason is, however, here referred to ; for, if a man had broken faith with his wife by having connexion78               calvin's haemony of the four    deut. xxii. 22.with a harlot, it was not a capital offence; but if any man, though a bachelor, had committed adultery with the wife of another, (he was to die,1) because both the husband is grossly injured, and the dishonour descends to the offspring, and an adulterine race is substituted in place of the legitimate one, whilst the inheritance is transferred to strangers, and thus bastards unlawfully possess themselves of the family name. This cause impelled the Gentiles, even before the Law, to punish adultery with severity, as clearly appears from the history of Judah and Tamar. (Gen. xxxviii. 14.) Nay, by the universal law of the Gentiles, the punishment of death was always awarded to adultery ; wherefore it is all the baser and more shameful in Christians not to imitate at least the heathen. Adultery is punished no less severely by the Julian law8 than by that of God; whilst those who boast themselves of the Christian name are so tender and remiss, that they visit this execrable offence with a very light reproof. And lest they should abrogate God's law without a pretext, they allege the example of Christ, who dismissed the woman taken in adultery, whereas she ought to have been stoned ; just as He withdrew Himself into a mountain that He might not be made a king by the multitude. (John viii. 11, and vi. 15.) For if we consider what the office was which the Father delegated to His only-begotten Son, we shall not be surprised that He was content with the limits of His vocation, and did not discharge the duties of a Judge. But those who have been invested with the sword for the correction of crime, have absurdly imitated His example, and thus their relaxation of the penalty has flowed from gross ignorance.Although the disloyalty of husband and wife are not punished alike by human tribunals, still, since they are under mutual obligation to each other, God will take vengeance on them both ; and hence the declaration of Paul takes effect before the judgment-seat of God, Let not married persons defraud one another; for the wife hath not power of her own body, nor the husband of his. (1 Cor. vii. 4, 5.)Х Added from Ft:                   ' See Plin., Ep. vi. 1?.7TH COMMANDMENT.      1AST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.            7923. If a damsel that is a virgin be betrothed. The severity of the punishment is now extended further, and a betrothed woman is counted as a wife; and this for a very good reason, because she has plighted her troth, and it is a token of abandoned incontinency for the mind of a woman to be so alienated from the man to whom she is betrothed, as to prostitute her virginity to another's embraces. But since one who has been ravished is not criminal, a woman is absolved if she be forced in a field, because it is probable that she yielded unwillingly, inasmuch as she was far from assistance. Although, however, the terms are accommodated to the comprehension of a rude people, it was the intention of God to distinguish force from consent. Thus if a girl had been forced in a retired part of a building, from whence her cries could not be heard, God would undoubtedly have her acquitted, provided she could' prove her innocence by satisfactory testimony and conjecture.LEVITICUS, CHAPTER XIX.20.  And whosoever lieth carnally      20. Vir si coierit cum muliere with a woman that is a bond-maid,   coitu seminis quse fuerit ancilla de-betrothed to an husband, and not at   sponsata   viro, nee redimendo   re-all redeemed, nor freedom given her;    dempta  fuerit,  nee   fuerit   manu-she shall be scourged:  they shall   missa, vapulatio erit: non morientur, not be put to death, because she   quia non est libertate donata.was not free.21.  And he shall bring his tres-       21.  Adducet autem oblationeni, pass-offering unto the Lord, unto the   pro delicto suo Jehovse ad ostium door of the tabernacle of the con-   tabernaculi conventionis, arietem pro gregation, even a ram for a trespass-   delicto.offering.22.   And  the priest shall make       22. Et expiabit eum sacerdos per an atonement for him with the ram   arietem pro delicto coram Jehova, of the trespass-offering before the   propter peccatum suum quod pec-Lord, for his sin which he hath done;    cavit: et remittet ei peccatum suum and the sin which he hath done shaE   quod peccavit.be forgiven him.Albeit in God's sight there is no difference between bond and free, yet their condition is diverse as regards courts of justice ;x nor do the same evil consequences ensue from adultery with a bond-maid, (as with a free woman.2)' " Quant aux jugemens terreins, et humains."ЧFr. 3 Added from Fr.80                  calvin's harmony of the four,    deut. xxi. 7.Notwithstanding, therefore, that the crime is worthy of death, still, in consideration of the people's infirmity, the punishment is mitigated, so that, if a person shall have corrupted a betrothed bond-maid, both shall be scourged.1 From hence we infer that, if a concubine, who had already cohabited with a man, were seduced, it was accounted a capital adultery. Lest it should be falsely held, from the lenity or indulgence of the law, that the offence was a trifling one, this error is at once anticipated by the addition of the expiation : for, if one already beaten with stripes still required reconciliation, it follows that the measure of the offence is not to be estimated by its penalty.EXODUS, CHAPTER XXI.27.  And if a man sell his daughter       7. Quum vendiderit quispiam fili-to be a maid-servant, she shall not    am suam in ancillam, non egredietur go out as the men-servants do.           quemadmodum egredi solent servi.8.  If she please not her master,       8. Si displicuerit hero suo, nee who hath betrothed her to himself,   sibi despondent  earn, redimendam then shall he let her be redeemed :    curabit: populo alieno non habebit to sell her unto a strange nation he    potestatem   vendendi   earn,   quum shall have no power, seeing he hath    spreverit earn.dealt deceitfully with her.9.  And if he have betrothed her       9. Quod si filio suo despondent unto his son, he shall deal with her   earn, secundum morem filiarum fa-after the manner of daughters.           ciet ei.10.   If he   take   him another       10. Si aliam acceperit sibi, ali-xuife; her food, her raiment,  and   mentum illius, \>perimentum illius,her duty of marriage, shall he not   et constitutione'm illius  non dimi-diminish.                                          nuet.11. And if he do not these three       11. Quod si tria hsec non feceritunto her, then shall she go out free   illi,  egredietur  gratis  absque   ar-without money.                                 gento.From this passage, as well as other similar ones, it plainly appears how many vices were of necessity tolerated in this people. It was altogether an act of barbarism that fathers should sell their children for the relief of their poverty, still1  C.'s Latin version and Commentary agree here with the margin of A. V. rather than the text, " she shall be scourged;" margin, " there shall be a scourging."   Bathe's translation is " vapulabunt ambo," and his note, " sic Vulgatus recte, sequitur enim pluralis non moriantur.   Cf. Michaelis in J. M. P. V., p. 50."2  This passage also taken further on in Fr.7TH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.            81it could not be corrected as might have been hoped. Again, the sanctity of the marriage-vow should have been greater than that it should be allowable for a master to repudiate his bond-maid, after he had betrothed her to himself as his wife; or, when he had betrothed her to his son, to make void that covenant, which is inviolable: for that principle ought ever to hold goodЧ" Those whom God hath joined together, let not man put asunder." (Matt. xix. 6; Mark x. 9.) Yet liberty was accorded to the ancient people in all these particulars ; only provision is here made that the poor girls should not suffer infamy and injury from their repudiation. But, although God is gracious in remitting the punishment, still He shews that chastity is pleasing to Him, as far as the people's hardness of heart permitted. First of all, He does not allow a master to seduce his purchased maid-servant, but if he wishes to enjoy her embraces, a marriage must take place ; for although He does not set this out in express terms, still we may infer from what He condemns, that the contrary is what He approves. From whence, too, their notion is refuted who suppose that fornication was lawful under the Law. But the words must be more closely examined on account of their ambiguity. First, the sex is treated with consideration, that the condition of a female may be somewhat more favourable than that of a male ; since, otherwise, their weakness would render young women subject to injury and shame. An explanation then follows, respecting which, however, interpreters differ; for some read the particle H7,1 lo, which is properly negative, for V?, lo ; and hence arise two opposite meaningsЧIf he hath, or hath not, betrothed her to himself. If it be preferred to take it affirmatively, the meaning of the precept will be: If a master shall repudiate his bond-maid, whom he has loved and destined to be his wife, he must give her her liberty; for although literally it is, " he shall cause her to be redeemed,"   yet  the  context shews that the obligation  of1 The Hebrew text has SO, not, but with a mark of doubt as to the genuineness of the reading, and the Masoretic note directs the substitution of S?, to him. C. follows S. M. in adhering to the text, whilst our A. V. and the LXX. reject not, in accordance with the Masora.ЧW.82                 calvin's harmony or the four     exod.xxi. 7.setting her free is laid upon him ; nor is this contradicted by the fact that he is only deprived of the power of selling her to a strange people; since I do not understand this as applying to foreigners only, but to others of his own nation, since sometimes those of another tribe or family are called strangers. For, even though there were no marriage-compact, it was not otherwise lawful to sell slaves of the holy and elect people to foreigners. Besides, amongst the Israelites, slavery was only temporary. But, to pass by everything else, let it suffice to observe the absurdity that a master should hold his wife as a slave to be sold at pleasure, if their opinion is received who suppose that the words refer to repudiation after betrothal.1 I myself rather approve of the other opinion, that, although the master shall not have aspired to matrimony with her, if her appearance displeases him so that he would be unwilling to have her as his wife, at least he must provide for her redemption ; because her chastity would be in jeopardy if she remained with him unmarried; unless perhaps Moses may signify that, after she had been seduced, her master did not honour her with marriage. But the other view which I have just expressed is more simple; and a caution is given lest masters should seduce their maid-servants at their pleasure. Thus the word despise2 does not refer to repudiation, but is opposed to beauty, or conjugal love.The next case is, that if he should betroth her to his son, (he must give her a dowry,3) in which, also, her modesty and honour is consulted, lest she should be oppressed by the right of ownership, and become a harlot. In the third place, it is provided that, if she should be repudiated, her condition should not be disadvantageous. If, therefore, he would make her his daughter-in-law, and betroth her to his son,1 This sentence is omitted in Fr., and the following substituted: " Cemot doncques ou il est dit, Qu'il ne la pourra vendre a des estrangers, estentrelasse, pour monstrer, qu'il n'y eust eu nulle raison qu'il vendist cellequ'il a abusee de vaine esperance;" this sentence, then, in which it issaid that he may not sell her to strangers, is inserted to shew that therewas no reason why he should sell her whom he has abused with vain hopes.' A.V., " If she please not."  Margin," Heb., Be evil in the eyes of, &c."3 Added from Fr., in which there is much verbal difference here.7THCOMMANDMENT.     LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.             83he is commanded to deal liberally with her ; for " after the manner of daughters" is equivalent to giving her a dowry, or, at any rate, to treating her as if she were free. Finally, he adds that, if he should choose another wife for his son, he should not reject the former one, nor defraud her of her food and raiment, or of some third thing, concerning which translators are not well agreed. Some render it time, but I do not see what is the meaning of diminishing her time; others, duty of marriage, but this is too free a translation; others, more correctly, affliction, since the girl would be humiliated by her repudiation ; still, to diminish affliction, is too harsh an expression for to compensate an injury. Let my readers, then, consider whether the word i"!J"Uy, gnona-thah, is not used for compact or agreement; for thus the context will run very well: If his son have married another wife, that the girl who has suffered ignominious rejection should obtain her rights as to food, and raiment, and her appointed dowry ; otherwise, God commands that she should be set free gratuitously, in order that her liberty may compensate for the wrong she has received.EXODUS, CHAPTER XXII.16.  And if a man entice a maid       16.   Quum   seduxerit   quispiam that is not betrothed, and lie with   virginem qute non est desponsata, et her; he shall surely endow her to be   eoierit cum ea, dotando dotabit sibi his wife.                                          in uxorem.17.   If her father utterly refuse       17.  Si renuendo renuerit pater to give her unto him, he shall pay   ejus ei dare ipsam, pecuniam ap-money according to the dowry of   pendet secundum dotem virginum. virgins.Hence, also, it is manifest that, although God remits the judicial penalty, fornication is displeasing to Him. As to the spiritual judgment of the conscience, there were expiations to propitiate Him; He here only has consideration for young females, lest, being deceived, and having lost their virginity, they should become prostitutes; and thus the land should be defiled by whoredom. The remedy is, that he who has corrupted girl should be compelled to marry her, and also to give he a dowry from his own property, lest, if he should8i                  calvin's harmony of the four    deut.xxiv.5.afterwards cast her off, she should go away from her bed penniless. But, if the marriage should not please her father, the penalty imposed on her seducer is, that he should assign her a wedding portion.DEUTERONOMY, CHAPTER XXIV.5. When a man hatli taken a new       5. Quum quis acceperit uxoremwife, he shall not go out to war,   novam, non egredietur ad bellum,neither shall he be charged with any   neque injungetur  ei  munus :   im-business;  but he shall be free at   munis erit in domo sua anno uno,home one year, and shall cheer up   et  delectabit uxorem suam  quamhis wife which he hath taken.            accepit.The immunity here given has for its object the awakening of that mutual love which may preserve the conjugal fidelity of husband and wife ; for there is danger lest, if a husband departs from his wife immediately after marriage, the bride, before she has become thoroughly accustomed to him, should be too prone to fall in love with some one else. A similar danger affects the husband; for in war, and other expeditions, many things occur which tempt men to sin. God, therefore, would have the love of husband and wife fostered by their association for a whole year, that thus mutual confidence may be established between them, and they may afterwards continually beware of all incontinency.But that God should permit a bride to enjoy herself with her husband, affords no trifling proof of His indulgence. Assuredly, it cannot be but that the lust of the flesh must affect the connexion of husband and wife with some amount of sin ; yet God not only pardons it, but covers it with the veil of holy matrimony, lest that which is sinful in itself should be so imputed ; nay, He spontaneously allows them to enjoy themselves. With this injunction corresponds what Paul says, " Let the husband render unto his wife due benevolence : and likewise also the wife unto the husband. Defraud ye not one the other, except it be with consent for a time, that ye may give yourselves to fasting and prayer." (1 Cor. vii. 3, 5.)7THCOMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.85NUMBERS, CHAPTER V.11.   And  the  Lord spake unto Moses, saying,12.  Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, If any man's wife go aside, and commit a trespass against him,13.  And a man lie with her carnally, and it be hid from the eyes of her husband, and be kept close, and she be defiled, and there be no witness against her, neither she be taken with the manner;14.   And the spirit of jealousy come upon him, and he be jealous of his wife, and she be defiled; or if the spirit of jealousy come upon him, and he be jealous of bis wife, and she be not defiled :15.  Then shall the man bring his wife unto the priest, and he shall bring her offering for her, the tenth part of an ephah of barley meal; he shall pour no oil upon it, nor put frankincense thereon; for it is an offering of jealousy, an offering of memorial, bringing iniquity to remembrance.16.   And the priest shall bring her near, and set her before the Lord.17.  And the priest shall take holy water in an earthen vessel; and of the dust that is in the floor of the tabernacle the priest shall take, and put it into the water.18.  And the priest shall set the woman before the Lord, and uncover the woman's head, and put the offering of memorial in her hands, which is the jealousy-offering :  and  the priest shall have in his hand the bitter water that causeth the curse.IS). And the priest shall charge her by an oath, and say unto the woman, If no man have lain with thee, and if thou hast not gone aside to uncleanness with another instead of thy husband, be thou free from this bitter water that causeth the11.  Loquutus est Jehova ad Mo-sen, dicendo:12.  Alloquere filios Israel, et di-cas illis, Quum diverterit uxor cu-juspiam, et prsevaricata fuerit prse-varicatione:13.  Et coierit aliquis cum ea coitu seminis, absconditum autem fuerit ab oculis viri sui et delituerit, ipsa-que polluta fuerit: testis vero non fuerit contra earn, neque ipsa fuerit deprehensa:14.  Et transierit super eum spiri-tus zelotypise, zelatusque fuerit ux-orem suam, et ipsa polluta fuerit: vel transierit super eum spiritus zelotypise, zelatusque fuerit uxorem suam, et ipsa non fuerit polluta :15.   Tune   adducet   vir   uxorem suam ad sacerdotem, et afferet obla-tionem ejus cum ilia, nempe deci-m am partem   epha farinse horde-acese: non fundet super earn oleum, neque ponet super earn thus, quia oblatio   zelotypiarum   est,  oblatio memorise revocans in memoriam in-iquitatem.16.  Et appropinquare faciet earn sacerdos, statuetque earn coram Jehova.17.   Tolletque   sacerdos   aquam sanctam in vase testaceo, de pul-vere quoque qui fuerit in pavimento tabernaculi toilet sacerdos, et mittet in aquam illam.18.  Turn statuet sacerdos mulie-rem coram Jehova, et discooperiet caput illius mulieris, ponetque super manus ejus  oblationem   memoriae, quse oblatio zelotypiarum est:  et in manum sacerdotis erunt aquas amane maledictse.19.   Et adjurabit earn  sacerdos, dicetque illi, Si non coierit quispiam tecum, et si non declinaveris ad im-munditiam sub viro tuo, munda esto ab aquis istis amaris maledictis:86calvin's harmony or the four      numb. v. 11.20.  But if thou hast gone aside to another instead of thy husband, and if thou be defiled, and some man have lain with thee besides thine husband:21.  Then the priest shall charge the woman with an oath of cursing; and the priest shall  say unto the woman,'_The Lord make thee a curse and an oath among thy people, when the Lord doth make thy thigh to rot, and thy belly to swell:22.  And this water that causeth the curse shall go into thy bowels, to make thy belly to swell, and thy thigh to rot.    And the woman shall say, Amen, amen.23.   And the priest  shall write these curses in a book, and he shall blot them out with the bitter water:24.  And he shall cause the woman to drink the bitter water that causeth the curse: and the water that causeth the curse shall enter into her, and become bitter.25.  Then the priest  shall  take the jealousy-offering out of the woman's hand, and shall wave the offering before the Lord, and offer it upon the altar.26.  And the priest shall take an handful  of the offering, even the memorial thereof, and burn it upon the altar, and afterward shall cause the woman to drink the water.27.  And when he hath made her to  drink the water, then it shall come to pass, that if she be denied, and have done trespass against her husband, that the water that causeth the curse shall enter into her, and become bitter, and her belly shall swell, and her thigh shall rot: and the woman shall be a curse among her people.28.  And if the woman be not defiled, but be clean ; then she shall be free, and shall conceive seed.29.  This is the law of jealousies, when a wife goeth aside to another instead of her husband, and is defiled;30.   Or when the spirit of jealousy cometh upon him, and he be jealous20.  Si vero declinaveris sub viro tuo,  et  polluta  fueris,  dederitque aliquis in te semen  suum prseter virum tuum:21.  (Adjurabit, inquam, mulier-em illam sacerdos adjuratione male-dictionis, et dicet mulieri,) Det te Jehova in maledictionem et adjura-tionem in medio populi tui, quum dederit Jehova femur tuum cadens, et uterum tuum tumescentem:22.  Ingredianturque aquae male-dictae istse in interiora tua, ut tu-mescere faciant uterum, et cadere faciant femur.    Et dicet mulier ilia, Amen, amen.23.  Et scribet maledictiones istas sacerdos in libro, et delebit postea illas cum aquis amaris :24.  Turn ad potandum dabit mulieri aquas amaras maledictas, et ingredientur in earn aquae maledictae in amaras.25.  Postea capiet sacerdos e manu mulieris  oblationem  zelot37piarum, et elevabit illam coram Jehova, offe-retque earn super altare.26.  Toilet etiam sacerdos pugil-lum plenum de oblatione memoriam ejus, adolebitque illud super altare, et postea ad potandum dabit mulieri aquas:27.  Ad potandum, inquam, dabit ei aquas illas:   et  erit, si polluta fuerit, prsevaricataque  fuerit prse-varicatione in   virum  suum,   tune ingredientur in illam  aquse  male-dictse verses in amaritudinem, intu-mescetque uterus ejus, et cadet femur ejus: et erit mulier ilia in maledictionem in medio populi sui.28.   Quod  si non fuerit  polluta mulier, sed munda fuerit, munda erit, seminabiturque semine.29.   Hsec est lex zelotypiarum, quum diverterit mulier sub viro suo, et polluta fuerit.30.  Aut viri super quem transient spiritus zelotypise, et zelatus fuerit7lH COMMANDMENT.     LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.             87over his wife, and shall set the wo-   uxoremsuatn,statueritque mulieremman before the Lord, and the priest   coram Jehova, ac fecerit ei sacerdosshall execute upon her all this law.     secundum omnem legem hanc.31. Then shall the man be guilt-       31. Et innocens erit vir ille abless from iniquity, and this woman   iniquitate, mulier vero ilia portabitshall bear her iniquity.                      iniquitatem suam.11. And the Lord spake unto Moses. Although this ceremony appears to be part of the legal services, still I have thought fit to postpone it to this place, because it relates to the observance of the Seventh Commandment. The object of it is, lest women, trusting that they would escape punishment, should abandon themselves to unchastity, or lest jealousy should lead to dissension, and, by alienating the mind of the husband from the wife, should loosen the ties of pure affection, since thus the door would be open to many iniquities. By this rite, therefore, God proclaims Himself the guardian and avenger of conjugal fidelity; and hence it appears how acceptable a sacrifice in His sight is the chastity of married women, of which He condescends to profess Himself the guardian. It is, therefore, no trifling consolation to husbands, that God undertakes the cognizance of the secret wrong, if, perchance, their wives have dealt treacherously with them.But it will be better to examine the details in order. When at the outset He says,ЧIf a man's wife go aside, and her offence be concealed, an absurdity appears to be implied ; as if He would thus bring to judgment none but those who should be convicted, whereas, if the fact were established, there would be no use in the application of the test. But the condition, " if she commit a trespass against him/' does not signify that the woman's adultery should be discovered, but refers to the opinion of her husband ; and thus the words must be paraphrased in this way: If any one should think that his wife has had connexion with another man, and he cannot otherwise be relieved from the anxiety which oppresses him, let him appeal to God for that judgment, which is beyond the reach of man. . Still God11 " Toutefois il semble bien que Dieu ait poisee le cas, qu'une femme fust chargee de presomption vehemente;" still it fully appears that God88                   oalvin's harmony of the four    numb. v. 15.seems designedly to have expressed the crime, lest husbands should heedlessly involve their innocent wives in disgrace. We know that many are causelessly suspicious; and when jealousy has once taken possession of the mind, there is no room for moderation or equity.1 Wherefore it would be inhuman to permit morose and unreasonable husbands to drag their wives to this horrible judgment of God on account of certain trifling suspicions. For, if the husband were cruel and ungodly, it would be like putting a sword into the hands of a madman, to give him such a power without any distinction. God, therefore, implies that the priest should carefully consider, so as not too easily to receive every complaint; although He afterwards more clearly expresses Himself in another part of the conditions, "if a man be jealous of his wife, and she be not defiled."15. Then shall the man bring his wife to the priest. This offering is different from the rest, which have been heretofore mentioned, because it is a kind of adjuration, whereby the woman exposes herself to be accursed. Pure meal without frankincense or oil is therefore offered, since the rite2 of expiation would not be in accordance with the curse. That the woman may be more afraid of perjuring herself, she is presented before God, with her head uncovered too, as if the priest would drag her from her lurking-place ; for it seems incongruous that, as some suppose, the veil was removed from her head in token of her infamy, since thus she would have been condemned before her case was heard. She is, then, brought before God's face with her head bare, that she may be seriously alarmed; and then follows the mode of absolution or condemnation. The priest is commanded to take holy water in an earthen vessel, to throw in some dust from the floor, and then a book or scroll, on which were written the words of the curse, so that the blots shouldhas supposed the case, that the woman should be charged upon strong presumption.ЧFr.1 " Nous savons qu'il y a beaucoup de gens ombrageux, qui concoyvent des fantasies a la volee;" we know that there are many suspicious persons who hastily take fancies into their heads.ЧFr.' " Litandi ritus."ЧLat. " La fa<;on d'obtenir grace devant Dieu, et se reconcilier."ЧFr.7th commandment,    last books of the pehtateucii.         89remain in the water, and so to give the cup to the woman. Some interpret the holy water to be that which was kept in the brazen laver, to be always ready for the ablution of those engaged in duly offering sacrifices. Let my readers, however, consider whether he does not rather mean the water in which the ashes of the red heifer were sprinkled, and whereby solemn purifications were made, (Numb. xix. 1,) as we have already seen. For thus the woman was admonished that, if she perjured herself, no further means of expiation remained. The dust collected from the floor was also a sign of detestation : in short, the whole proceedings were calculated to humble her, so that she might not double her offence by perjury. Besides, the priest is commanded to repeat the words of the curse, lest she should seek to escape by some subterfuge or other. The question, however, arises, why she should be compelled to imprecate evil upon herself rather than others were who were suspected of murder orother atrocious crimes ? and I think it was for this reason, because no other offence can be so easily concealed. Lest, therefore, women should grow hardened from their cunning and evil arts, a remedy is provided against their various deceptions; and thus God shews that the marriage-bed is under His protection and safeguard. We must remember, too, that this was not a mere empty bugbear, inasmuch as God undoubtedly appeared as the open avenger of unfaithfulness, according to His declaration. Nor is the threat added in vain, that if the woman be a deceiver, she should be a curse among the people, because her belly should swell and her thigh dissolve ; whilst, on the other hand, He does not promise in vain, that if she be innocent, she should not only be free, but prolific also; so that God's blessing would be the seal of her absolution. For this is the meaning of the expression, " she shall be sown with seed j"1 as, on the contrary, it was said that her thigh2 should dissolve when she1  A. V., "and shall conceive seed."   "Heb., shall be sown with seed; which the Chaldee expoundeth, shall prove with child."ЧAinsworth.2  " Thy thigh to fall.    Heb., thy thigh falling; in Greek, thy thigh fallen; in Chaldee, thy thigh dissolved."ЧIbid.   " Something similar to thedisease called prolapsus uteri."ЧAdam Clarke.90calvin's harmony op the pour    deut. xxii. 13.wasted away with barrenness. We infer, from the opposite effects of the same water, that by the outward symbol God wrought with His secret power as the occasion demanded.DEUTERONOMY, CHAPTER XXII.13.  If any man take a wife, and go in unto her, and hate her,14.  And give occasions of speech against her, and bring up an evil name upon her, and say, I took this woman, and when I came to her I found her not a maid:15.  Then shall the father of the damsel, and her mother, take and bring forth the tokens of 'the damsel's virginity unto the elders of the city in the gate:16.  And the damsel's father shall say unto   the  elders,  I gave my daughter unto this man to wife, and he hateth her:17.  And, lo,  he hath  given occasions of speech against her, saying, I found not thy daughter a maid; and yet these are the tokens of ray daughter's virginity.   And they shall spread the cloth before the elders of the city.18.  And the elders of that city shall take that man  and chastise him:19.  And they shall amerce him in an hundred shekels of silver, and give them unto the father of the damsel, because he hath brought up an evil name upon a virgin of Israel; and she shall be his wife: he may not put her away all his days.20.  But if this thing be true, and the tokens of virginity be not found for the damsel:21.  Then they shall bring out the damsel to the door of her father's house, and the men of her city shall stone her with stones that she die; because she hath wrought folly in Israel, to play the whore in her father's house:   so shalt thou put evil away from among you.13.   Quum acceperit quis uxorem, et ingressus fuerit ad earn, et odio habuerit earn,14.  Et imposuerit ei oecasiones verborum,  et traduxerit  earn,  di-cendo: Uxorem hanc accepi, et ac-cessi ad earn, et non inveni in ea virginitatem:15.   Tune accipiet pater puellse et  mater ejus,   et proferent signa virginitatis puellse eorum senioribus urbis ad portam.16. Dicetque pater puellse senioribus, Filiam meam dedi viro huic in uxorem, et odio habet earn.17.  Et ecce, imposuit oecasiones verborum, dicendo: Non inveni in filia tua virginitatem: Ecce autem signa virginitatis  filise mese.     Et expandent vestimentum coram senioribus urbis:18.  Tune apprehendent seniores urbis virum, et castigabunt eum.19.  Et mulctabunt eum centum argenteis, quos dabunt patri puellse, quoniam traduxit virginem Israelis: habebitque earn uxorem, nee potent dimittere omnibus diebus suis.20.  Quod  si vera fuit accusatio ista, et non inventa fuerit virginitas in puella:21.  Tune educent puellam ad osti-um domus patris sui, et lapidabunt earn homines urbis ejus lapidibus, donee  moriatur:   quia  perpetravit nequitiam in Israele, fornicando in domo patris sui: et auferes malum e medio tui.7TII COMMANDMENT.     LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.           9113. If any man take a wife. This passage also tends to the exaltation of chastity. God provides against both cases, lest a husband should unjustly bring reproach upon a chaste and innocent young woman, and lest a young woman, having been defiled, should escape punishment, if she pretended to be a virgin. A third object is also to be remarked, viz., that parents were thus admonished to be more careful in watching over their children. This is, indeed, an act of gross brutality, that a husband, wittingly and willingly, should seek a false pretext for divorcing his wife by bringing reproach and infamy upon her; but, since it does not unfre-quently happen that the libidinous become disgusted with their vices, and then endeavour to rid themselves of them in every way, it was needful to correct this evil, and to prescribe a method whereby the integrity of the woman should be safe from the calumnies of an ungodly and cruel husband ; whilst it was also just to give relief to an honest man, lest he should be compelled to cherish in his bosom a harlot, by whom he had been deceived; for it is a very bitter thing to ingenuous minds silently to endure so great an ignominy. An admirable precaution is here laid down, i.e., that if a woman were accused by her husband, it was in the power of her parents to produce the tokens of chastity which should acquit her; but if they did not, that the husband should not be obliged against his will to keep her in his house, after she had been denied by another. It is plain from this passage, that the tokens of virginity were taken on a cloth, on the first night of marriage, as future proofs of chastity. It is also probable that the cloth was laid up before witnesses as a pledge, to be a sure defence for pure and modest young women; for it would have been giving too much scope to the parents if it had been believed simply on their evidence ; but Moses speaks briefly as of a well-known custom.18. And the elders of that city shall take that man. Calumny in this case received a threefold punishment; first, that he, who had invented the false accusation, should be beaten with stripes ; secondly, that he should pay an hundred pieces of silver to the father of the girl; thirdly,92               calvin's harmon? of the four   deut. xxii. 20.that he should never be allowed to put her away ; and the reason is given, " because he hath brought up an evil name upon a virgin of Israel." God here shews Himself to be the protector of virgins, that young women may be the more encouraged to cultivate chastity. If any should object that it was a bad provision for the unhappy woman that she should be subjected for ever to tyrannical rule, I reply, that this was done because there was no means for her release ; for although, as we shall presently see, men were permitted to obtain a divorce from their wives, still it was neither just nor right to overthrow God's earliest institution. Besides, it was necessary to obviate the trick of the husband who would have gloried in her divorce, as having gained what he desired.20. But if this thing be true. If the punishment should seem to anybody to be somewhat too severe, let him reflect that no kind of fraud is more intolerable. A false sale of a field or a house shall be accounted a crime, as also the utterance of false money; and, therefore, she who abuses the sacred name of marriage for deception, and offers an unchaste body instead of a chaste one, much less deserves to be pardoned. The cause of severity, however, which is expressly mentioned, is much more extensive, i.e., because she hath wrought wickedness, or filthiness in Israel. The translation which some. give, folly, is poor; for although the word is derived from 7^3, nabal, it still means something more atrocious than folly ; just as Simeon and Levi, in excuse for their slaughter.of the Shechemites, call the defilement of their sister1 i"!73.3, nebalah, that is, filthiness in Israel. (Gen. xxxiv. 7.) Whence it appears once more how greatly acceptable to God is chastity.1 " Folly, that which is contrary to sound reason, wickedness."ЧSimon's Heb. Lex.ЧW. Taylor, in his Concordance, says, " Folly, rather vice, villany, or what can be supposed in bad morals to be answerable to sapless, withered flowers, leaves, or fruit. Gen. xxxiv. 7; Josh. vii. 15; Judg. xix. 23, 24."7TH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.93DEUTERONOMY, CHAPTER XXIV.1. When a man hath taken a wife, and married her, and it come to pass that she find no favour in his eyes, because he hath found some unclean-ness in her; then let him write her a bill of divorcement, and give it in her hand, and send her out of his house.2.  And when she is departed out of his house, she may go and be another man's wife.3.  And if the latter husband hate her, and write her a bill of divorcement, and giveth it in her hand, and sendeth her out of his house; or if the latter husband die, which took her to be his wife;4.  Her former husband, which sent her away, may not take her again to be his wife, after that she is denied; for that is abomination before the Lord: and thou shalt not cause the land to sin, which the Lord thy God giveth thee for an inheritance.1.  Si acceperit quis uxorem, et coierit cum ea, non autem invenerit gratiam in oculis ejus, eo quod invenerit in ea maculam aliquam, et scripserit ei libellum repudii, ac tra-diderit in manum ejus, et emiserit e domo sua:2.  Ilia vero egressa e domo ejus, abierit, et nupserit alteri viro:3.  Vir deinde hie posterior oderit earn, et scripserit libellum divortii, tradideritque   in   manum  ejus, et emiserit e domo sua, aut si vir iste posterior mortuus fuerit qui sump-serit earn sibi uxorem:4.  Non poterit maritus ejus prior, quia earn a se demisit, reverti, et ducere earn sibi uxorem, posteaquam polluta est:   quia abominatio   est coram facie Jehovse: et non inquin-abis peccato terram quam Jehova Deus tuus tradet tibi in hseredita-tem.Although what relates to divorce was granted in indulgence to the Jews, yet Christ pronounces that it was never in accordance with the Law, because it is directly repugnant to the first institution of God, from whence a perpetual and inviolable rule is to be sought. It is proverbially said that the laws of nature are indissoluble; and God has declared once for all, that the bond of union between husband and wife is closer than that of parent and child; wherefore, if a son cannot shake oif the paternal yoke, no cause can permit the dissolution of the connexion which a man has with his wife. Hence it appears how great was the perverseness of that nation, which could not be restrained from dissolving a most sacred and inviolable tie. Meanwhile the Jews improperly concluded from their impunity that that was lawful, which God did not punish because of the hardness of their hearts ; whereas they ought rather to have considered, agreeably to the answer of Christ, that man is not at liberty to separate those whom God hath joined together. (Matt. xix. 6.)94                 calvin's harmony of the four    dbut. xxiv. 1.Still, God chose to make a provision for women who were cruelly oppressed, and for whom it was better that they should at once be set free, than that they should groan beneath a cruel tyranny during their whole lives. Thus, in Malachi, divorce is preferred to polygamy, since it would be a more tolerable condition to be divorced than to bear with a harlot and a rival. (Mai. ii. 14.) And undoubtedly the bill or scroll of divorce, whilst it cleared the woman from all disgrace, cast some reproach on the husband ; for he who confesses that he puts away his wife, because she does not please him, brings himself under the accusation both of moroseness and inconstancy. For what gross levity and disgraceful inconstancy it shews, that a husband should be so offended with some imperfection or disease in his wife, as to cast away from him half of himself! We see, then, that husbands were indirectly condemned by the writing of divorce, since they thus committed an injury against their wives who were chaste, and in other respects what they should be. On these grounds, God in Isaiah, in order that He might take away from the Jews all subject of complaint, bids them produce the bill of divorce, if He had given any to their mother, (Is. 1. 1;) as much as to say, that His cause for rejecting them was just, because they had treacherously revolted to ungodliness.Some interpreters do not read these three verses continuously, but suppose the sense to be complete at the end of the first, wherein the husband testifies that he divorces his wife for no oifence, but because her beauty does not satisfy his lust. If, however, we give more close attention, we shall see that it is only one provision of the Law, viz., that when a man has divorced his wife, it is not lawful for him to marry her again if she have married another. The reason of the law is, that, by prostituting his wife, he would be, as far as in him lay, acting like a procurer. In this view, it is said that she was defiled, because he had contaminated her body, for the liberty which he gave her could not abolish the first institution of God, but rather, as Christ teaches, gave cause for adultery. (Matt. v. 31, and xix. 9.) Thus, the Israelites were reminded that, although they divorced their wives with7th commandment,    last books of the pentateuuh.         95impunity, still this license was by no means excused before God.LEVITICUS, CHAPTER XVIII.19. Also thou shalt not approach       19. Ad mulierem in segregatione unto a woman to uncover her naked-   immunditise suse non accedes, revel-ness as long as she is put apart for   ando turpitudinem ejus. her uncleanness.Lev. xx. 18. And if a man shall       18.   Quicunque   dormierit   cum lie with a woman having her sick-   meretrice segra, et revelaverit tur-ness, and shall uncover her naked-   pitudinem ejus, fontem ejus disco-ness, he hath discovered her foun-    operuerit,   ipsa   etiam   revelaverit tain, and she hath uncovered the   fontem sanguinis sui:   succidentur fountain of her blood: and both of   ambo e medio populi sui. them shall be cut off from among their people.Lev. xx. 18. And if a man shall lie? The enormity of the crime is seen by the severity of the punishment; and surely, when a man and woman abandon themselves to so disgraceful an act, it is plain that there are no remains of modesty in them. God, therefore, does not only regard the offence itself, but the brutal impulse of lust, whereby men are so carried away as to degenerate from the very feelings of nature. For what wickedness would he abstain from who yields to such impurity, that he breaks through an obstacle in his fury which restrains the brutes themselves ? Let us not wonder, then, that God is a severe avenger of such obscenity.This precept2 has no other tendency than that believers should be kept far from all filthiness, and that chastity may flourish among them. It is indeed true that a woman, under these circumstances, is withheld from connexion with a man by the very foulness of the disease, whilst there is also danger of contagion; but God rather chooses here to be an instructor in decency to Hi3 people, than to perform the office of a physician. It must be remembered, therefore, that men are warned against all indelicacy, which is abhorrent to the natural sense; and, by synecdoche, married persons1  This passage considered further on in Fr., under the head of " Political Supplements."2  This commentary is, in Fr., appended to Lev. xviii. 19, and included previously under the General Supplements of the Commandment.CALVIN S HARMONY OF THE FOURLEV. XVIH.are exhorted to restrain themselves from all immodest lasci-viousness, and that the husband should enjoy his wife's embraces with delicacy and propriety.LEVITICUS, CHAPTER XVIII.1.  And the Lord spake unto Moses, saying,2.  Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, I am the Lord your God.3.  After the doings of the land of Egypt, wherein ye dwelt, shall ye not do; and after the doings of the land of Canaan, whither I bring you, shall ye not do; neither shall ye walk in their ordinances.4.  Ye shall do my judgments, and keep mine ordinances, to walk therein : I am the Lord your God.6.  None of you shall approach to any that is near of kin to him, to uncover their nakedness: I am the Lord.7.  The nakedness of thy father, or the nakedness of thy mother, shalt thou not uncover: she is thy mother; thou shalt not uncover her nakedness.8.   The nakedness of thy father's wife shalt thou not uncover: it is thy father's nakedness.9.  The nakedness of thy sister, the daughter of thy father, or daughter of thy mother, whether she be born at home, or born abroad, even their nakedness thou shalt not uncover.10.  The nakedness of thy son's daughter, or of thy daughter's daughter, even their nakedness thou shalt not uncover: for theirs is thine own nakedness.11.  The nakedness of thy father's wife's daughter, begotten of thy father, (she is thy sister,) thou shalt not uncover her nakedness.12.  Thou shalt not uncover the nakedness of thy father's sister: she is thy father's near kinswoman.13.  Thou shalt not uncover the nakedness of thy mother's sister: for she is thy mother's near kinswoman.1.  Loquutus est autem Jehova ad Mosen, dicendo:2.  Alloquere filios Israel et die eis, Ego Jehova Deus vester.3.   Secundum opus terrse Aegypti in qua habitastis, ne feceritis: neque secundum  opus terra) Chanaan in quam ego introduco vos, feceritis: et in statutis eorum ne ambuletis.4.  Judicia mea facite, et statuta mea observate, ut in ipsis ambuletis: ego Jehova Deus vester.C. Nemo ad propinquam carnis suae accedat ad revelandam turpitu-dinem: ego Jehova.7.  Turpitudinem patris tui ettur-pitudinem matris tuse non revelabis: mater tua est, non revelabis turpitudinem ejus:8.  Turpitudinem uxoris patris tui non revelabis: turpitudo patris tui est.9.  Turpitudinem sororis tuse, filise patris tui, aut filise matris tuse, quae genita est domi vel genita est foris, non revelabis turpitudinem earum.10.  Turpitudinem filise  filii tui, vel filise tuae non'revelabis, quia turpitudo tua sunt.11.    Turpitudinem   filise  uxoris patris tui, prolis patris tui, quae soror tua est, non revelabis.12.  Turpitudinem sororis patris tui non revelabis: nam consanguinea patris tui est.13.  Turpitudinem sororis matris tuse non revelabis, nam consanguinea matris tuse est./ TH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.9714.  Thou shalt not uncover the nakedness of thy father's brother, thou shalt not approach to his wife: she is thine aunt.15.  Thou shalt not uncover the nakedness of thy daughter-in-law: she is thy son's wife; thou shalt not uncover her nakedness.16.  Thou shalt not uncover the nakedness of thy brother's wife: it is thy brother's nakedness.17.  Thou shalt not uncover the nakedness of a woman and her daughter, neither shalt thou take her son's daughter, or her daughter's daughter, to uncover her nakedness; for they are her near kinswomen: it is wickedness.18.  Neither shalt thou take a wife to her sister, to vex her, to uncover her nakedness, besides the other in her life-time.Deut. xxii. 30. A man shall not take Ms father's wife, nor discover his father's skirt.14.   Turpitudinem  fratris patris tui non revelabis, ad uxorem ejus non accedes: nam uxor fratris patris tui est.15.  Turpitudinem nurus tuae ron revelabis : xixot filii tui est, non revelabis turpitudinem ejus.16.  Turpitudinem uxoris fratris tui non revelabis,  quia turpitudo fratris tui est.17.  Turpitudinem mulieris et filise ejus non revelabis: flliam filii ejus et filiam filial ejus non accipies ad reve-landam turpitudinem ejus: consan-guinese sunt, scelus est.18. Mulierem quoque cum sorore sua non accipies ad affligendutn et revelandum turpitudinem ejus contra earn (vel, super earn) in vita sua.30. Non accipiet quisquam uxorem patris sui, neque discooperiet oram patris sui.Lev. xviii. 1. And the Lord spake unto Moses. I have not introduced this declaration amongst other similar ones, which had for their object the preparation of their minds for the reverent reception of the Law, because, whatever conformity there may be in the words themselves, in their substance there is a great difference ; for they were general, whereas this is specially confined to a single point. For it was not God's intention here merely to exhort the people to the study of the Law, but the address respecting the keeping of His statutes is directed to the present cause, since He does not refer indifferently to all the statutes of Himself and of the Gentiles, but restricts Himself to the subject-matter, as it is called; and thus, by the statutes of the Gentiles, He means those corruptions whereby they had perverted His pure institution as to holy matrimony. First, however, He forbids them from following the customs of the Egyptians, and then includes all the Canaanitish nations. For, since all the Orientals are libidinous, they never had any scruple in polluting themselves by incestuous marriages; whilst it is abundantly proved by history, how great were the excesses$8                  calvin's harmony of the four     lev. xviii. 6.of the Egyptians1 in this respect. A brother had no abhorrence against marrying his uterine sister, nor a paternal or maternal uncle his niece; in a word, they were so dead to shame that they were carried away by their lusts to trample upon all the laws of nature. This is the reason why God here enumerates the kinds of incest of which the mention would else have been superfluous.4. Ye shall therefore keep my statutes and my judgments. Because it is no less difficult to correct vices, to which men have been long accustomed, than to cure diseases of long standing, especially because people in general so pertinaciously cleave to bad examples, God adduces His statutes, in order to recall the people from the errors of their evil habits into the right way. For nothing is more absurd than for us to fix our minds on the actions of men, and not on God's word, in which is to be found the rule of a holy life. It is, therefore, just as if God would overthrow whatever had been received from long custom, and abolish the universal consent of the world by the authority of His doctrine. With this object He commands His Law to be regarded not once only, as we have already seen, lest the Israelites should abandon themselves to filthy lusts ; but He diligently inculcates upon them, that they should turn away from all abuses, and keep themselves within the bounds and ordinances of His Law. And to this refers the expression, " I am the Lord your God ;" containing a comparison between Himself and the heathen nations, between whom and His people He had interposed, as it were, a wall of partition.6. None of you shall approach to any that is near. This name does not include all female relations; for cousin-ger-mans of the father's or mother's side are permitted to intermarry ; but it must be restricted to the degrees, which He1 " A very objectionable custom, which is not only noticed by Diodorus, but is fully authenticated by the sculptures both of Upper "and Lower Egypt, existed among them from the earliest times, the origin and policy of which it is not easy to explainЧthe marriage of brother and sister, which Diodorus supposes to have been owing to, and sanctioned by, that of Isis and Osiris; but as this was purely an allegorical fable, and these ideal personages never lived on earth, his conjecture is of little weight; nor does any ancient writer offer a satisfactory explanation of so strange a custom."ЧWilkinson's Popular Account of the Ancient Egyptians, ii. 224.7tH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.              99proceeds to enumerate, and is merely a brief preface, declaring that there are certain degrees of relationship which render marriages incestuous. We may, therefore, define these female relations of blood to be those which are spoken of immediately afterwards, viz., that a son should not marry his mother, nor a son-in-law his mother-in-law; nor a paternal or maternal uncle his niece, nor a grandfather his granddaughter, nor a brother his sister,nor a nephew his paternal or maternal aunt, or his uncle's wife, nor a father-in-law his daughter-in-law, nor a brother-in-law his brother's wife, nor a step-father his stepdaughter. The Roman laws accord with the rule prescribed by God, as if their authors had learnt from Moses what was decorous and agreeable to nature. The phrase which God uses frequently " to uncover the turpitude," is intended to awaken abhorrence, in order that the Israelites may beware moi-e diligently of all incest. The Hebrew word, indeed, PlTiS}, gnervah, signifies nakedness, therefore some translate it actively, "the nakedness of thy father," i.e., the womb which thy father hath uncovered ; but this meaning would not be suitable to the nakedness of thy daughter, or thy daughter-in-law, or thy sister. Consequently, there is no doubt but that Moses means to denote that it is a filthy and shameful thing.We must remember, what I have already hinted, that not only are incestuous connexions out of wedlock condemned, but that the degrees are pointed out, within which marriages are unlawful. It is true, indeed, that this was a part of the political constitution which God established for His ancient people; still, it must be borne in mind, that whatever is prescribed here is deduced from the source of rectitude itself, and from the natural feelings implanted in us by Him. Absurd is the cleverness which some persons but little versed in Scripture pretend to,1 who assert that the Law being ab-i Thus, the third Canon of the 24th Session of the Council of Trent declares ; " Si quis dixerit, eos tantum consanguinitatis et affinitatis gradus, qui Levitico exprimentur, posse impedire matrimonium, et dirimere con-tractum: nee posse Ecclesiam in nonnullis illorum dispensare, aut consti-tuere, ut plures impediant, et dirimant, anathema sit." " Atqui plane certum est, (says Lorinus, in loco,) prrecepta de gradibus in isto capite contenta, cum non sint omnia pure moralia, et naturalia, sed qusedam positiva, et judicialia, per se non.obligare Christianos, et idcirco posse per Ecclesiam in quibusdam dispensari."100                 calvin's harmony of the foue     lev.xviii. 6.rogated, the obligations under which Moses laid his countrymen are now dissolved; for it is to be inferred from the preface above expounded, that the instruction here given is not, nor ought to be accounted, merely political. For, since their lusts had led astray all the neighbouring nations into incest, God, in order to inculcate chastity amongst his people, says ; "lam the Lord your God, ye shall therefore keep my statutes ; walk not after the doings of the land of Egypt and of Canaan ;" and then He adds what are the degrees of consanguinity and affinity within which the marriage of men and women is forbidden. If any again object that what has been disobeyed in many countries is not to be accounted the law of the Gentiles, the reply is easy, viz., that the barbarism, which prevailed in the East, does not nullify that chastity which is opposed to the abominations of the Gentiles; since what is natural cannot be abrogated by any consent or custom. In short, the prohibition of incests here set forth, is by no means of the number of those laws which are commonly abrogated according to the circumstances of time and place, since it flows from the fountain of nature itself, and is founded on the general principle of all laws, which is perpetual and inviolable. Certainly God declares that the custom which had prevailed amongst the heathen was displeasing to Him; and why is this, but because nature itself repudiates and abhors filthiness, although approved of by the consent (suf-fragiis) of men ? Wherefore, when God would by this distinction separate His chosen people from heathen nations, we may assuredly conclude that the incests which He commands them to avoid are absolute pollutions. Paul, on a very trifling point, sets before our eyes the law of nature; for, when he teaches that it is shameful and indecorous for women to appear in public without veils, he desires them to consider, whether it would be decent for them to present themselves publicly with their heads shorn; and finally adds, that nature itself does not permit it. (1 Cor. xi. 14.) Wherefore, I do not see, that, under the pretext of its being a political Law,1 the purity of nature is to be abolished, from whence1 " Sous couverture que la Loy de Moyse a cesse."ЧFr.    Under the pretext that the Law of Moses has ceased.7TH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.            101arises the distinction between the statutes of God, and the abuses of the Gentiles. If this discipline were founded on the utility of a single people, or on the custom of a particular time, or on present necessity, or on any other circumstances, the laws deduced from it might be abrogated for new reasons, or their observance might be dispensed with in regard to particular persons, by special privilege; but since, in their enactment, the perpetual decency of nature was alone regarded, not even a dispensation of them would be permissible. It may indeed be decreed that it should be lawful and unpunished, since it is in the power of princes to remit penalties; yet no legislator can effect that a thing, which nature pronounces to be vicious, should not be vicious; and, if tyrannical arrogance dares to attempt it, the light of nature will presently shine forth and prevail. When, formerly, the Emperor Claudius had married his niece Agrip-pina,1 for the purpose of averting the shame, he procured a Senatusconsultum, which licensed such marriages; yet no one was found to imitate his example, except one freedman. Hence, just and reasonable men will acknowledge that, even amongst heathen nations, this Law was accounted indissoluble, as if implanted and engraved on the hearts of men. On this ground Paul, more severely to reprove the incest of a step-son with his father's wife, says, that such an occurrence " is not so much as named among the Gentiles." (1 Cor. v. 1.) If it be objected that such marriages are not prohibited to us in the New Testament, I reply, that the marriage of a father with his daughter is not forbidden ; nor is a mother prohibited from marrying her son ; and shall it therefore be lawful for those, who are near of kin, to form promiscuous connexions ?2 Although Paul expressly mentions only one kind of incest, yet he establishes it3 disgrace by adducing thei " Nee Claudius ultra expectato, obvium apud forum prsebet se gra-tantibus; senatumque ingressus ' decretum postulat, quo justse inter patruos, fratrumque filias nuptie etiam in posterum statuerentur.' Neque tamen repertus est, nisi unus talis matrimonii cupitor, T. Alladius Severus, eques ltomanus, quern plerique Agrippinse gratia impulsum ferebant."Ч Tacitus Ann., Lib. xii. 7.a " Leur sera il pourtant licite de se mesler confusement ensemble comme bestes ?" shall it therefore be lawful to them to mix together confusedly like beasts ?102                calvin's harmony of the rouu     lev. xvui. 6.example of the Gentiles, that at least we should be ashamed if more delicacy and chastity is seen amongst them. And, in fact, another admonition of the same Paul is enough for me, who thus writes to the Philippians: "' Whatsoever things are true, whatsoever things are honest, whatsoever things are just, whatsoever things are pure, whatsoever things are lovely, whatsoever things are of good report; if there be any virtue, and if there be any praise, think on these things."    (Phil. iv. 8.)As to those who ascend or descend in a direct line, it sufficiently appears that there is a monstrous indecency iu the connexion of father and daughter, or mother and son. A licentious poet,1 being about to relate the frantic incest of Myrrha, says:" Daughters and fathers, from my song retire, I sing of horror."In the collateral line, the uncles on both sides represent the father, and the aunts the mother; and, consequently, connexion with them is forbidden, inasmuch as it would be of somewhat similar improrjriety. The same rule affects affinity; for the step-mother, or mother-in-law, is held to stand in the relation of mother ; and the step-daughter, or daughter-in-law, in that of daughter ; as also the wife of the paternal or maternal uncle is to be regarded in the relation of mother. And, although express mention may not be made of it here, we must form our judgment by analogy as to what is prohibited ;Чthe uncle on the father's or mother's side is not here forbidden to marry his niece ; but, since the nephew is interdicted from marrying his paternal or maternal aunt, the mutual relation of the inferior to the superior degree must prevail. But if any should contend that there is a difference, the reason added by Moses refutes his objection, for it is said, " She is thy father's or thy mother's near kinswoman." Hence it follows, that a niece is guilty of incest if she marries her uncle on either side. As to brothers and sisters, God pronounces that marriage with a sister, although she be not uterine, is unlawful; for He forbids the uncover-1 Ovid. Metam., x. 300." Dira canam: prooul hinc natie, procul este pareules."7tH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.         lOoiug of the turpitude of a sister, who is either the daughter of thy father or thy mother.16. Thou shalt not uncover the nakedness of thy brother's wife. They are bad1 interpreters who raise a controversy on this passage, and expound it, that a brother's wife must not be taken from his bed, or, if she be divorced, that marriage with her would be unlawful whilst her husband was still alive ; for it is incongruous to twist into different senses declarations which are made in the same place, and in the same words. God forbids the uncovering of the turpitude of the wife of a father, an uncle, and a son; and when He lays down the same rule respecting a brother's wife in the very same words, it is absurd to invent a different meaning for them. If, therefore, it be not lawful to marry the wife of a father, a son, an uncle, or a nephew, we must hold precisely the same opinion with respect to a brother's wife, concerning whom an exactly similar law is enacted in the same passage and context. I am not, however, ignorant of the source from whence those, who think otherwise, have derived their mistake ; for, whereas God gives a command in another place, that if a man shall have died without issue, his surviving brother shall take his widow to wife, in order that he may raise up of her seed to the departed, (Deut. xxv. 5,) they have incorrectly and ignorantly restricted this to own-brothers, although God rather designates other degrees of relationship. It is a well-known Hebrew idiom, to embrace under the name of brother all near kinsmen in general; and the Latins also formerly so denominated cousins-german.2 The law, then, now before us, respecting marriage with a deceased brother's wife, is only addressed to those relations who are not otherwise prohibited from such a marriage, since it was not God's purpose to prevent the loss of a deceased person's name by permitting those incestuous marriages, which He had elsewhere condemned.    Wherefore1  In Willet this exposition is attributed to Radulph., Blesensis, and Borrhaus.2  Thus Augustine (De Civit. Dei. xv. 16. з 2,) says,Ч" quod fiebat cum consobrina, pene cum sorore fieri videbatur: quia et ipsi inter se propter tarn propinquam consanguinitatem fratres vocantur, et pene ger-mani sunt."104              calvin's harmony of the fouu   lev. xviii. 18.these two points agree perfectly well, that an own-brother was prohibited from marrying his brother's widow, whilst the next of kin were obliged to raise up seed for the dead, by the right of their relationship, wherever their marriage was otherwise permissible by the enactments of the law. On this ground Boaz married Ruth, who had previously been married to his near kinsman; and it is abundantly clear from the history, that the law applied to all the near kinsmen. But if any still contend that own-brothers were included in the number of these, on the same grounds the daughter-in-law must be married by her father-in-law, and the nephew's wife by the uncle, and even the mother-in-law by the son-in-law, which it is an abomination to speak of. If any object that Er, Onan, and Shelah, the sons of Judah, were own-brothers, and still that Tamar married two of them, the difficulty is easily solved, viz., that Judah, following the common and received practice of the Gentiles, acted improperly in permitting it. It is plain enough, from the histories of all ages, that there were disgusting and shameless mixtures in the marriages of Oriental nations. By evil communications, then, as is ever the case, Judah was led into giving the same wife to his second son as had before been married to the eldest. And, in fact, God expressly says that this offence was rife among the Gentiles, where He condemns incestuous connexions. This, therefore, I still hold to be unquestionable, that, by the law of Moses, marriage with the widow of an own-brother is forbidden.18. Neither shalt thou take a wife to her sister. By this passage certain froward persons pretend that it is permitted, if a man has lost his wife, to marry her own sister, because the restriction is added, not to take the one in the lifetime of the other. From whence they infer, that it is not forbidden that she should succeed in the place of the deceased. But they ought to have considered the intention of the legislator from his own express words, for mention is made not only of incest and filthiness, but of the jealousy and quarrels, which arise from hence. If it had merely been said, " Thou shalt not uncover her turpitude," there would have been some colour to their pretext, that the husband7TII COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.         105being a widower, he would be free to marry his wife's sister; but, when a different object for the law is expressly stated, i.e., lest she, who was legally married, should be troubled by quarrels and contentions, it is plain that the license for polygamy is restricted by this exception, in order that the Israelites should be contented with one evil, and, at least, should not expose two sisters to hostile contention with each other. The condition of the first wife was already painful enough, when she was compelled to put up with a rival and a concubine ; but it was more intolerable to be constantly quarrelling with her near relative. The name of sister is not, therefore, restricted, I think, to actual sisters, but other relations are included in it, whose marriages would not otherwise have been incestuous. In a word, it is not incest which is condemned, so much as the cruelty of a husband, if he chose to contract a further marriage with the near kinswoman of his wife. Nor can we come to any other conclusion from the words of Moses ; for if the turpitude of a brother is uncovered when his brother marries his widow, no less is the turpitude of a sister uncovered when her sister marries her husband after her decease. But hence we plainly see the diabolical arrogance of the Pope, who, by inventing new degrees of kindred, would be wiser than God; whilst he also betrays his cunning, because from this kind of sport he made himself a fat game-bag.Since from long custom it is established that cousins-german should not marry, we must beware of giving scandal lest too unbridled a liberty should expose the Gospel to much reproach ; and we must bear in mind Paul's admonition, to abstain even from things lawful when they are not expedient.    (1 Cor. x. 23.)Deut. xxii. SO. A man shall not take his father's wife. Since Moses does not here refer to any other kinds of incest, but speaks only of that with a step-mother, it is probable that, what he had more fully set forth before he here briefly recalled to the minds of the Israelites under a single head. At any rate, the prohibition of one offence does not open the gate to other abominations. The expression which he adds, " nor discover his father's skirt," is as much as to say,106calvin's harmony or the four     lev. xx. 11.that the father is exposed to shame when the step-son has no regard to decency, and goes in to his step-mother. Perhaps he alludes to the sin of Ham, who betrayed his ungodliness by exposing the shame of his father.    (Gren. ix. 22.) Supplements are JTuBtetal.1LEVITICUS, CHAPTER XX.11.  And the man that lieth with his father's wife hath uncovered his father's nakedness:   both  of them shall surely be put to death; their blood shall be upon them.12.  And if a man lie with his daughter-in-law, both of them shall surely be put to death : they have wrought confusion; their blood shall be upon them.14. And if a man take a wife and her mother, it is wickedness: they shall be burnt with fire, both he and they; that there be no wickedness among you.17. And if a man shall take his sister, his father's daughter, or his mother's daughter, and see her nakedness, and she see his nakedness; it is a wicked thing; and they shall be cut off in the sight of their people: he hath uncovered his sister's nakedness; he shall bear his iniquity.19.  And thou shalt not uncover the nakedness of thy mother's sister, nor of thy father's sister;  for he uncovereth his near kin: they shall bear their iniquity.20.  And if a man shall lie with his uncle's wife, he hath uncovered his uncle's  nakedness :   they shall bear their sin; they shall die childless.21.  And if a man shall take his brother's wife, it is an unclean thing; he hath uncovered his brother's nakedness : they shall be childless.22.  Ye shall therefore keep all11.   Quicunque concubuerit cum uxore patris sui, turpitudinem patris sui revelavit:  moriendo morientur ambo, sanguis eorum super eos.12.  Vir qui coierit cum nuru sua, moriendo morientur ambo: flagitium admiserunt,   sanguis  eorum   super eos.14. Qui acceperit mulierem et matrem ejus, scelus est: igni coni-burent ilium et illas, ne sit scelus in medio vestri.17. Quisquis acceperit sororem suam filiam patris sui, vel filiam matris suae, et viderit turpitudinem ejus, ipsaque viderit turpitudinem illius, foeditas est: propterea succin-dentur ambo coram oculis populi sui: turpitudinem sororis suse revelavit, iniquitatem suam feret.19.  Turpitudinem sororis matris tuse et sororis patris tui, non disco-operies: quia propinquam suam nu-davit, iniquitatem suam portabunt.20.  Quisquis dormierit cum uxore fratris patris sui, turpitudinem fra-tris patris sui revelavit, iniquitatem suam portabunt, orbati morientur.21.  Qui acceperit uxorem fratris sui,  opprobrium est, turpitudinem fratris sui revelavit, orbati erunt.22.  Custodite itaque omnia sta-1 Omitted in the French; and the ensuing verses considered under the " Political Supplements " of the Commandment.7TH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.          107my statutes, and all my judgments,    tuta mea, et omnia judicia, et faciteand do them; that the land, whither   ea, ut non evomat vos terra in quamI bring you to dwell therein, spue    ego introduco vos ut illic habitetis. you not out.23.  And ye shall not walk in the       23. Neque ambuletis in statutis manners of the nations which I cast   gentis quam ego ejiciam a facie ves-out before you: for they committed   tra: omnia enim ista fecerunt, et all these things, and therefore I ab-   detestatus sum eas.horred them.24.  But I have said unto you, Ye       24. Vobis autem dixi, Possidebitis shall inherit their land, and I will   terram  eorum, quam ego  daturus give it unto you to possess it, a land   sum vobis ut hsereditate earn possi-that floweth with milk and honey:    deatisterramfluentemlacteetmelle: I am the Lord your God, which have   ego Jehova Deus vester qui separavi separated you from other people.        vos a populis.Nothing new occurs here, for the object of Moses was, by the enactment of penalties, to sanction the instruction lately given. By previously condemning incestuous marriages, he would cite the Israelites before God, in order that their consciences might abhor the crime, although he gave them nothing to fear from earthly judges; whereas now he alarms them by the dread of punishment, in case any should indulge themselves with too great security. He does not chastise the incestuous with rods, as if they were only guilty of a light offence ; but he pronounces it to be a capital crime, if any had sinned against the law of nature ; and first he condemns the step-mother and step-son to death, if they should have had connexion with each other; he then makes the same decree with reference to the father-in-law and daughter-in-law ; and, thirdly, the step-father and step-daughter. But when, if a man cohabits at the same time with a mother and her daughter, he extends the punishment to the mother also, it must be understood, provided she also consents to the abominable medley ; for, if a man, against the mother's will, seduces her daughter, and the mother is unable to resist it if she would, she is free from guilt. The same punishment is awarded to brother and sister, and nephew and aunt, and it is extended also to affinity; if any should cohabit with the wife of his uncle or his brother. We have elsewhere explained the meaning of the expression, " their blood shall be upon them ;" i.e., that the cause of their death is to be imputed to none but the gross criminals themselves, lest their judges, under the cloak of humanity, should shrink from108               calvin's harmony op the four   deut. xxv. 11.being severe, since it often happens that those who do not sufficiently weigh the atrocity of the evil, are led away by an empty shew of clemency.1 Moreover, Moses indirectly hints that if the guilty be pardoned, vengeance will be thus provoked against the whole people, since iniquity is fostered by impunity, until it bursts out like a deluge. The penalty of childlessness corresponds with the crime, for it is just that those should be exterminated in barrenness from the world, who have endeavoured to corrupt the holy race of Abraham with their adulterous seed.22. Ye shall therefore keep all my statutes. He now warns the Israelites, for the third time, not to imitate the Gentiles, and exhorts them to keep themselves within the limits of the Law. I have already pointed out that this was not done without reason, since otherwise they might have easily fallen away into the approval of their evil habits. Moreover, lest they should shake off God's yoke, after He has said that the nations of Canaan were destroyed on account of similar abominations, He adds, that they were made the inheritors of the land on condition that they should separate themselves from heathen nations.% political Supplement. DEUTERONOMY, CHAPTER XXV.811.   When men  strive  together       11. Quumrixatifueruntvirisimul one with another, and the wife of   alter cum altero, et accesserit uxor the one draweth near for to deliver   unius ut eruat maritum suum e ma-her husband out of the hand of him   nu percutientis eum, et immiserit that smiteth him, and putteth forth   manum    suam,    apprehenderitque her hand, and taketh him by the   pudenda ejus:secrets;12.  Then thou shalt cut off her       12. Tune abscindes manum illius, hand, thine eye shall not pity her.       nee oculus tuus parcet.This Law is apparently harsh, but its severity shews how very pleasing to God is modesty, whilst, on the other hand, He abominates indecency; for, if in the heat of a quarrel, when the agitation of the mind is an excuse for excesses, it1 " Sont ployables, et faciles a pardoner;" are pliable and easily disposed to pardon.ЧFr." Considered in Fr., under the General Supplements. COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.          109was a crime thus heavily punished, for a woman to take hold of the private parts of a man who was not her husband, much less would God have her lasciviousness pardoned, if a woman were impelled by lust to do anything of the sort. Neither can we doubt but that the judges, in punishing obscenity, were bound to argue from the less to the greater. A threat is also added, lest the severity of the punishment should influence their minds to be tender and remiss in inflicting it. It was indeed inexcusable effrontery, wilfully to assail that part of the body, from the sight and touch of which all chaste women naturally recoil.DEUTERONOMY, CHAPTER XXII.12. Thou shalt make thee fringes upon 12. Fimbrias fades tibi in the four quarters of thy vesture, where- quatuor oris operimenti tui quo with thou coverest thyself.                        operies te.This also was a part of, or accessory to, chastity, to have regard to modesty in dress ; for since the thighs were then without covering, a door was thus opened to many improprieties, if the upper garments were not closed, and many, as if by accident, would have abused this, if it had been allowed, as an incentive to licentiousness; for we see that many rush into such excesses of lasciviousness, as to glory in their shame. God, therefore, would have the flaps of their gowns thus drawn together by ties or latchets, that not even by chance could those parts be uncovered, which cannot be decently or modestly looked upon. But if divine provisions were made even with respect to their garments, so that the elect people should cultivate decency, and diligently guard against everything immodest, it is abundantly clear that not only were adulteries condemned, but whatever is repugnant to purity and chastity. This passage is improperly referred to the fringes which were sewed to their garments to renew the recollection of the Law, since decency and delicacy are here alone regarded.5.  The woman shall not wear that       5.   Mulier non feret armawhich pertaineth unto a man, neither   viri, nee induet  vir muliebreshall a man put on a woman's garment:    vestimentum: quia abominatiofor all that do so are abomination unto   Jehovse Dei tui est quicunquethe Lord thy God.                                   hsec facit.110                calvin's harmony of the four   kxod. xx. 20.This decree also commends modesty in general, and in it God anticipates the danger, lest women should harden themselves into forgetfulness of modesty, or men should degenerate into effeminacy unworthy of their nature. Garments are not in themselves of so much importance; but as it is disgraceful for men to become effeminate, and also for women to affect manliness in their dress and gestures, propriety and modesty are prescribed, not only for decency's sake, but lest one kind of liberty should at length lead to something worse.    The words of the heathen poet are very true :T" What shame can she, who wears a helmet, shew, Her sex deserting ?"Wherefore, decency in the fashion of the clothes is an excellent preservative of modesty. Commandment.EXODUS, CHAPTER XX.15. Thou shalt not steal.                          15. Non furaberis.THE REPETITION OF THE SAME COMMANDMENT. Deut. v. 19. Neither shalt thou steal.         19. Non furaberis.Since charity is the end of the Law, we must seek the definition of theft from thence. This, then, is the rule of charity, that every one's rights should be safely preserved, and that none should do to another what he would not have done to himself. It follows, therefore, that not only are those thieves who secretly steal the property of others, but those also who seek for gain from the loss of others, accumulate wealth by unlawful practices, and are more de-1 The quotation is from Juvenal, Sat. vi. 252:" Quem prsestare potest mulier galeata pudorem,Quse fugit a sexu."The Fr.   translation is forcible :   " qu'une  femme, qui contrefait le gendarme, et fuit son sexe, ne gardera nulle honte."8TTI COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.           1 11voted to their private advantage than to equity. Thus, rapine is comprehended under the head of theft, since there is no difference between a man's robbing his neighbour by fraud or force. But, in order that God may the better withhold His people from all fraudulent injustice, He uses the word theft, which all naturally abhor as disgraceful. For we know under how many coverings men bury their misdeeds ; and not only so, but also how they convert them into praise by false pretexts. Craft and low cunning is called prudence ; and he is spoken of as provident and circumspect who cleverly overreaches others, who takes in the simple, and insidiously oppresses the poor. Since, therefore, the world boasts of vices as if they were virtues, and thvis all freely excuse themselves in sin, God wipes away all this gloss, when He pronounces all unjust means of gain to be so many thefts. Nor let us be surprised that this decision should be given by the divine tribunal, when the philosophers deliver nearly the same doctrine.We must bear in mind also, that an affirmative precept, as it is called, is connected with the prohibition ; because, even if we abstain from all wrong-doing, we do not therefore satisfy God, who has laid mankind under mutual obligation to each other, that they may seek to benefit, care for, and succour their neighbours. Wherefore He undoubtedly inculcates liberality and kindness, and the other duties, whereby human society is maintained; and hence, in order that we may not be condemned as thieves by God, we must endeavour, as far as possible, that every one should safely keep what he possesses, and that our neighbour's advantage should be promoted no less than our own.Wit IE*i>08tti0tt of tfic йommanBitmttLEVITICUS, CHAPTER XIX.11. Ye shall not steal, neither 11. Non furabimini et non ne-deal falsely, neither lie one to an- gabitis, neque mentiemini quisque other.                                              proximo suo.13. Thou shalt not defraud thy 13. Non opprimes proximum neighbour,  neither  rob him :  the   tuum, neque rapies:   nee morabi-112                    calvin's harmony of the four    lev. xix. 11.wages of Mm that is hired shall not   tur opus mercenarii apud te usqueabide with thee all night until the   mane.morning.God here explains somewhat more clearly His mind and design, for He enumerates as thefts cases in which either deceit or violence is employed. The two words, which we have translated to deny, and to lie, signify also to deceive ; as also to lie, or to frustrate hope?- There is no question, then, but that God would restrain His people from all craft, or deceit, that they may deal sincerely and honestly "with each other; even as Paul wisely explains the meaning of the Holy Spirit, when he exhorts believers to " put away lying, and (o speak every man truth with his neighbour; for we are members one of another."    (Eph. iv. 25.)In the second passage, God commands men to demean themselves meekly and temperately with their neighbours, so as to abstain from all unjust oppression. The meaning which Jerome,2 and others after him, have given to the word pJJ^JJ gnashak, to calumniate, is incorrect altogether ; for it is everywhere used for to oppress, despoil, rob, or lay hands on the goods of another. It is clear, therefore, that as Moses had previously provided against frauds, he now prohibits the iniquity of extorting from our neighbour what we have no right to. Still, violence, or open rapine, is better expressed by the other word 7U gezal; and these3 two words are, in my opinion, as it were, genus and species. After he had forbidden, therefore, that they should in any way oppress their br e t h r e n   a n d   p o s s e s s   t h e m s e l v e s   o f   t h e i r   g o o d s ,   h e   a t   t h e   s a m e   t i m e   a d d s ,   t h a t   t h e y   s h o u l d   n o t   u s e   v i o l e n c e   i n   d e s p o i l i n g   t h e m   u n j u s t l y .   F i n a l l y ,   h e   p o i n t s   o u t   o n e   m o d e   o f   u n j u s t   o p p r e s s i o n ,   w h e n   a   p e r s o n ,   w h o   h a s   h i r e d   h i m s e l f  а%  A .   V . ,   " d e a l   f a l s e l y ,   n e i t h er lie." Ainsworth, "neither falsely deny, nor deal falsely."2 A. V., " Non fades calumniam proximo tuo, nee vi opprimes eum." " The first of these terms signifies to oppress by fraud ; the second to oppress by violence. Against both these offences, John the Baptist warned the soldiers who came to him; Luke iii. 14."ЧBush from Ainsworth.* " Et a mon avis que le premier est comme genre, et le second comme espece;" and, in my opinion, that the first is, as it were, genus, and the second species.ЧFr.8lH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.          113as a labourer, is defrauded of his wages, and not only if he be sent away without payment, his wages being denied him, but if payment be deferred to the morrow. For we know that hirelings generally live from hand to mouth, and therefore, if there be ever so little delay, they must go without food. Consequently, if a rich man keeps a poor and wretched individual, whose labour he has abused, in suspense, he deprives him as it were of life, in depriving him of his daily food. The sum is, that humanity is so to be cultivated that none should be oppressed, or suifer loss from default of payment.DEUTERONOMY, CHAPTER XXIV.14.   Thou shalt not oppress  an       14. Non opprimes mercenarium hired servant that is poor and needy,    pauperem et egenum e fratribus tuis, whether he be of thy brethren, or of   et ex peregrinis tuis  qui sunt in thy strangers that are in thy land   terra tua, intra portas tuas. within thy gates:15.  At his day thou shalt give        15. Die suo reddes mercedem ejus, him his hire, neither shall the sun   neque   occumbet   super earn  sol: go down upon it; for he is poor, and   quia pauper est, et ea sustentat ani-setteth his heart upon it:  lest he   mam suam: ne clamet contra te ad cry against thee unto the Lord, and   Jehovam, et sit in te peccatum.it be sin unto thee.Deut. xxv.  4. Thou shalt not       4. Non obligabis os bovi tritur-muzzle the ox when he treadeth out   anti. the corn.Deut. xxiv. 14. Thou shalt not oppress an hired servant. This precept is akin to the foregoing. Moses pronounces that he who has hired a poor person for wages oppresses him unless he gives him immediate recompense for his labour ; since the two admonitions, " thou shalt not oppress," and " thou shalt give him his hire," are to be read in connection with each other. Hence it follows, that if a hireling suffers from want because we do not pay him what he has earned, we are by our very delay alone convicted of unrighteousness. The reason is now more clearly expressed, viz.,   because  he  sustains  his  life  by his daily labours.11 The expression on which C. founds this statement is translated by himself " ea (i.e., mercede) sustentat animam   suam ;"   in  our A. V.,114              calvin's harmony of the four   deut. xxiv. 14.Although, however, this provision only refers to the poor, lest they should suffer hunger from the negligence or pride of the rich, still humanity in general is enforced, lest, whilst the poor labour for our profit, we should arrogantly abuse them as if they were our slaves, or should be too illiberal and stingy towards them, since nothing can be more disgraceful than that, when they are in our service, they should not at least have enough to live upon frugally. Finally, Moses admonishes us that this tyranny on the part of the rich shall not be unpunished, if they do not supply their workmen with the means of subsistence, even although no account shall be rendered of it before the tribunals of men. Hence we infer that this law is not political, but altogether spiritual, and binding on our consciences before the judgment-seat of God ; for although the poor man may not sue us at law, Moses teaches us that it is sufficient for him to appeal to the faithfulness of God. "Wherefore, although the earthly judge may absolve us a hundred times over, let us not therefore think that we have escaped; since God will always require of us from heaven, whatever may have been unjustly excused us on earth. The question, however, here arises, whether, if he who has been oppressed should not cry out, the criminality will cease in consequence of his silence ; for the words of Moses seem to imply this, when he says, that the rich will be guilty, if the poor cry unto God and make complaint of their wrongs. The reply is easy, that Moses had no other intention than to overthrow the vain confidence of the despisers, whereby they are stimulated to greater audacity in sin, and are hardened in iniquity. He says, therefore, that although, as far as men are concerned, they may allow us to pillage and rob, still a more awful judgment is to be dreaded; for God hears the" setteth his heart upon it;" margin, " Heb., lifteth his soul unto it." Dathe has, " earn anhelat;" Ainsworth, "and unto it he lifteth up his soul," and his note is, " that is, hopeth for and desireth it for the maintenance of his life. So the Greek here translateth, he hath hope; and in Jer. xxii. 27, and xliv. 14, the lifting up of the soul signifieth a desire ; and the soul is often put for the life. Hereupon the Hebrews say, Whosoever with-holdeth the hireling's wage, is as if he took away his soul (or life) from him," &c.8TH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.         1 ] 5complaints of the poor, who find no protector or avenger on earth. And surely, the more patiently he who is despoiled shall bear his wrong, the more ready will God be to undertake his cause ; nor is there any louder cry to Him than patient endurance. If, however, any should object that the cry here spoken of is at variance with Christ's command, that we should pray for our enemies, we answer at once, that God does not always approve of the prayers which He nevertheless answers. The imprecation of Jotham, the son of Gideon, took effect upon the Shechemites, (Judges ix. 20,) although it was plainly the offspring of immoderate anger. Besides, it sometimes happens that the miserable, although they endure their injuries with pious meekness, still cease not to lay their sorrows and their groans in the bosom of God. Nor is this a slight consolation for the poor, that if no one on earth relieves them because their condition is low and abject, still God will hereafter take cognizance of their cause.Deut. xxv. 4. Thou shalt not muzzle the ox. This passage, indeed, properly belongs to the Supplements of the Commandment, but, since it is a confirmation of the foregoing decree, it seemed fit to connect them ; especially because its faithful expositor, Paul, declares, that God had no other design in delivering it than that the labourer should not be defrauded of his just hire, (1 Cor. ix. 10 ;) for, when he is speaking of the maintenance to be afforded to the ministers of the Gospel, he adduces it in proof of his case. And, lest any should object that there is a difference between oxen and men, he adds, that God does not care for oxen, but that it was said for the sake of those that labour. Meanwhile, we must bear in mind, that men are so instructed in equity, that they are bound to exercise it even towards the brute animals; for well does Solomon magnify the injustice, whereby our neighbour is injured, by the comparison ; " A righteous man regardeth the life of his beast." (Prov. xii. 10.) The sum is, that we should freely and voluntarily pay what is right, and that every one should be strict with himself as to the performance of his duty ; for, if we are bound to supply subsistence to brute animals, much less]16                CALVIN'S HARMONY OF THE FOUR        LEVIT. XIX. 33.must we wait for men to be importunate with us, in order that they may obtain their due.EXODUS, CHAPTER XXII.21.  Thou   shalt   neither vex  a       21.  Peregrinum  non  opprimes, stranger,  nor oppress him: for ye    neque    spoliabis:    quia    peregrini were strangers in the land of Egypt,    fuistis in terra jEgypti.22.  Ye shall not afflict any widow,       22. Nullam viduam nee pupillum or fatherless child.                            affligetis.23.  If thou afflict them in any       23. Si affligendo afflixeritis eum, wise, and they cry a t   a l l   u n t o   m e ,   I         c e r t e   s i   c l a m a n d o   c l a m a v e r i t   a d   m e ,   а%w i l l   s u r e l y   h e a r   t h e i r   c r y :                                   a u d i e n d o   a u d i a m   c l a m o r e m   e j u s   :  2 4 .     A n d   m y   w r a t h   s h a l l   w a x   h o t ,               2 4 .   I r a s c e t u r q u e   f u r o r   m e u s ,   e t   a n d   I   w i l l   k i l l   y o u   w i t h   t h e   s w o r d ;       o c c i d a m   v o s   g ladio, eruntque uxores and your wives shall   be   widows,   vestrse viduse, et fllii vestri pupilli. and your children fatherless.Levit. xix. 33. And if a stran-       33. Si peregrinatus tecum fueritger sojourn with thee in your land,    peregrinus in terra vestra, non op-ye shall not vex him.                         primetis ilium.34. But the stranger that dwell-        34. Tanquam indigena ex vobis,eth with you shall be unto you as   eritvobisperegrinusquiperegrinaturone born among you, and thou shalt   apud vos,  et diliges eum sicut te-love him as thyself;  for ye  were    ipsum:   quia   peregrini   fuistis  instrangers in the land of Egypt: I   terra : ego Jehova I)eus vester. am the Lord your God.Levit. xix. 33. And if a stranger sojourn with thee in your land. Before I pass on to the other iniquities, I have thought fit to introduce this precept, wherein the people are commanded to cultivate equity towards all without exception. For, if no mention had been made of strangers, the Israelites would have thought that, provided they had not injured any one of their own nation, they had fully discharged their duty ; but, when God recommends guests and so-journers to them, just as if they had been their own kindred, they thence understand that equity is to be cultivated constantly and towards all men. Nor is it without cause that God interposes Himself and His protection, lest injury should be done to strangers; for since they have no one who would submit to ill-will in their defence, they are more exposed to the violence and various oppressions of the ungodly, than as if they were under the shelter of domestic securities.   The8TH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PEifTATEUCH.         117same rule is to be observed towards widows and orphans; a woman, on account of the weakness of her sox, is exposed to many evils, unless she dwells under the shadow of a husband ; and many plot against orphans, as if they were their prey, because they have none to advise them. Since, then, they are thus destitute of human aid, God interposes to assist them ; and, if they are unjustly oppressed, He declares that He will be their avenger. In the first passage He includes widows and orphans together with strangers ; in the latter He enumerates strangers only ; yet the substance is the same, viz., that all those who are destitute and deprived of earthly succour, are under the guardianship and protection of God, and preserved by His hand; and thus the audacity of those is restrained, who trust that they may commit any wickedness with impunity, provided no earthly being resists them. No iniquity, indeed, will be left unavenged by God, but there is a special reason why He declares that strangers, widows, and orphans are taken under His care ; inasmuch as the more flagrant the evil is, the greater need there is of an effectual remedy. He recommends strangers to them on this ground, that the people, who had themselves been sojourners in Egypt, being mindful of their ancient condition, ought to deal more kindly to strangers ; for although they were at last oppressed by cruel tyranny, still they were bound to consider their entrance there, viz., that poverty and hunger had driven their forefathers thither, and that they had been received hospitably, when they were in need of aid from others. When He threatens, that if the afflicted widows and orphans cry unto Him, their cry shall be heard, He does not mean that He will not interfere, if they endure their wrongs in silence ; but He speaks in accordance with the ordinary practice, that those who find no consolation elsewhere, are wont to appeal to Him. Meanwhile, let us be sure that although those who are injured abstain from complaining, yet God does not by any means forget His office, so as to overlook their wrongs. Nay, there is nothing which incites Him more to inflict punishment on the ungodly, than the endurance of His servants. The nature of the punishment is also expressed; those118                       CALVIN'S HARMONY OF THE FOUR         DEITT.X. I?.who have afflicted widows and orphans shall perish by the sword, so that their own widows and orphans may be exposed to the audacity, violence, and knavery of the ungodly. Moreover, it must he observed that, in the second passage, they are commanded to love strangers and foreigners as themselves. Hence it appears that the name of neighbour is not confined to our kindred, or such other persons with whom we are nearly connected, but extends to the whole human race ; as Christ shews in the person of the Samaritan, who had compassion on an unknown man, and performed towards him the duties of humanity neglected by a Jew, and even a Levite.    (Luke x. SO.)DEUTERONOMY, CHAPTER X.17.    ...   God, .   .   . regard-       17. Deus non accipit personam, eth not persons, nor taketh reward,    neque recipit munus.18.  He doth execute the judg-        18. Faciens judicium pupillo et ment of the fatherless and widow,   viduso, diligens peregrinum, dando et and loveth the stranger, in giving   panem et vestimentum.him food and raiment.19.  Love ye therefore the stran-        19. Diligite   igitur peregrinum, ger;  for ye were strangers in the    quia   peregrini   fuistis   in    terra land of Egypt.                                  JEgypti.He confirms the foregoing decree by a reference to the nature of God Himself; for the vile and abject condition of those with whom we have to do, causes us to injure them the more wantonly, because they seem to be altogether deserted. But Grod declares that their unhappy lot is no1 obstacle to His administering succour to them ; inasmuch as He has no regard to persons. By the word person is meant either splendour, or obscurity, and outward appearance, as it is commonly called, as we gather from many passages. In short, God distinguishes Himself from men, who are carried away by outward appearance, to hold the rich  in1 The Fr. gives a different turn to this: " Or Dieu declare que leur pourete et misere n'empechera point de les secourir: d'autant qu'ils ne amusent point a la personne;" Now, God declares, that their poverty and misery shall not prevent their being succoured; so that they should not be interested by their person.Sill COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.          1]9honour, and the poor in contempt ; to favour the beautiful or the eloquent, and to despise the unseemly. Ilpocra-irdXrj^la is, therefore, an unjust judgment, which diverts us from the cause itself, when our minds are prejudiced by what ought not to be taken into account. Therefore Christ teaches us that a judgment is righteous, which is not founded upon the appearance, (John vii. 23 ;) since truth and justice never prevail, except when we attend to the case itself. It follows that the contemptible are not afflicted with impunity, for although they may be destitute of human aid, God, who sitteth on high, " hath respect unto the lowly." (Psalm cxxxviii. 6.) As regards strangers, God proves that he cares for them, because He is gracious in preserving them and cloth- . ing them ; and then a special reason is again adduced, that the Israelites, when they were formerly sojourners in Egypt, had need of the compassion of others.LEVITICUS, CHAPTER XIX.35.  Ye shall do no unrighteous-       35.  Non facietis iniquitatem in ness in judgment, in mete-yard, in   judicio, in dimensione, in pondere et weight, or in measure.                       mensura.36.   Just balances, just weights,       36. Statera justa, pondera justa, a just ephah, and a just hin, shall   epha justum, et hin justum erit vo-ye have: I am the Lord your God,    bis.which brought you out of the land of Egypt.Deut. xxv. 13. Thou shalt not       13. Non erit tibi in sacculo tuohave in thy bag divers weights, a   pondus et pondus, majus et minus : great and a small.14.  Thou shalt not have in thine       14. Non erit tibi in  domo  tua house divers measures, a great and   modius et modius, major et minor, a small.15.  But thou shalt have a perfect       15. Pondus perfectum et justum and just weight, a perfect and just   erit tibi, modius perfectus et Justus measure shalt thou have : that thy   erit tibi, ut proroges dies tuos super days may be lengthened in the land   terram quam Jehova Deus tuus dat which the Lord thy God giveth thee.   tibi.16.  For all that do such things,       16.   Quia    abominatio    Jehovse and all that do unrighteously, are   Dei tui  est quicunque facit hsec, an abomination unto the Lord thy   omnis faciens iniquitatem.God.Levit. xix. 35. Ye shall do no unrighteousness in judgment. If you take the word judgment in its strict sense, this will be a120                 calvin's harmony of the four    lev.xix.35.special precept, that judges should faithfully do justice to all, and not subvert just causes from favour or ill-will. But since the word ftfi^D, mishpat, often means rectitude, it will not be unsuitable to suppose that all iniquities contrary to integrity are generally condemned ; and that he afterwards proceeds to particular cases, which he adverts to elsewhere, where he enumerates the most injurious thefts of all, and such as involve the grossest violation of public justice. For the corruption which tends to the subversion of judgments, or, by undermining rectitude, vitiates all contracts, leaves nothing in security ; whilst deception in weights and measures destroys and sweeps away all legitimate modes of dealing. Now, if the laws of buying and selling are corrupted, human society is in a manner dissolved ; so that he who cheats by false weights and measures, differs little from him who utters false coin : and consequently one, who, whether as a buyer or seller, has falsified the standard measures of wine, or corn, or anything else, is accounted criminal.1 By the laws of Rome,2 he is condemned to a fine of double the amount; and by a decree of Adrian, he is to be banished to an island. It is not, therefore, without reason that Solomon reiterates this decree, that he may fix it the deeper in the hearts of all. (Prov. xx. 10, 23.) But although this pestilent sin is by no means to be endured, but to be severely punished, still God, even if legal punishments be not inflicted, summons men's consciences before His tribunal, and this He does both by promises and threats. A just weight (He says) and a just measure shall prolong a man's life ; but he who has been guilty of deception in them, is an abomination before me. Length of life, indeed, has only a figurative connection with just weights and measures : but, because the avaricious, in their pursuit of dishonest gain, are too devoted to this transitory life, God, in order to withhold His people from this' " Inter falsarios."ЧLat.    " Pour faussaire."ЧFr.2 Modest. 1. penult, ad legem Corn, de fals.ЧC. This law is to be ound in Digest, xlviii., tit. xi., De falsis, xxxii., " Si venditor mensuras publice probatas vini, frumenti, vel cujuslibet rei, aut emptor corruperit, dolove malo fraudem fecerit, quanti ea res est, ejus dupli condemnatur. Decretoque Divi Hadriani prseceptum est in insulam eos relegari, qui pon-dera, aut mensuras falsassent."STB COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.           121blind and impetuous covetousness, promises them long life, if they keep themselves from fraud and all knavish dealings. "We perceive from the conclusion, that, not in this respect only, but in all our affairs, those trickeries are condemned, by which our neighbours are defrauded. For, after God has said that He abominates " all that do such things," He adds immediately by way of explanation, " all that do unrighteously." We see, then, that He sets Himself against all evil and illicit arts of gain.DEUTERONOMY, CHAPTER XIX.14. Thou shalt not remove thy        14.   Non    transferes    terminumneighbour's land-mark, which they   proximi tui quem finierint majoresof old time have set in thine inherit-   in hsereditate tua, quam hsereditateance, which thou shalt inherit in the    accipies in terra quam Jehova Deusland that the Lord thy God giveth   tuus dat tibi ut possideas earn, thee to possess it.A kind of theft is here condemned which is severely punished by the laws of Rome j1 for that every one's property may be secure, it is necessary that the land-marks set up for the division of fields should remain untouched, as if they were sacred. He who fraudulently removes a landmark is already convicted by this very act, because he disturbs the lawful owner in his quiet possession of the land                                                                                                                                                                             а%?   w h i l s t   h e   w h o   a d v a n c e s   f u r t h e r   t h e   b o u n d a r i e s   o f   h i s   o w n   l a n d   t o   h i s   n e i g h b o u r ' s   l o s s ,   d o u b l e s   t h e   c r i m e   b y   t h e   d e  c e p t i v e   c o n c e a l m e n t   o f   h i s   t h e f t .   W h e n c e   a l s o   w e   g a t h e r   t h a t   n o t   o n l y   a r e   t h o s e   t h i e v e s ,   w h o   a c t u a l l y   c a r r y   a w a y   t h e i r   n e i g h b o u r ' s   p r o p e r t y, who take his money out of his chest, or who pillage his cellars and granaries, but also those who unjustly possess themselves of his land.1 " In the digests there is a vague law, de termino rnoto, Digeslor. Lib. xlvii. tit. 21, on which Calmet remarks, that, though the Bomans had no determined punishment for those who removed the ancient land-marks, yet, if slaves were found to have done it with an evil design, they were put to death; that persons of quality were sometimes exiled when found guilty; and that others were sentenced to primary fines, or corporal punishment." ЧAdam Clarke, in loco.* " Est desia assez convaincu par ce seul acte d'avoir voulu debouter le possesseur de son champ;" is already sufficiently convicted by this act alone of having wished to deprive the possessor of his land.__Fr.]-22oalvin's harmony or the four    deut. xxiv. 26.EXODUS, CHAPTER XXII.26.  Si in pignus acceperis vesti-mentum proximi tui, antequam oc-cubuerit sol restitues illud ei.27.   Quia ipsum solum est operi-mentum ejus, illud vestimentum ejus est cuti suгe in quo dormiat, et erit quum clamaverit ad me, tune exau-diam: sum enim misericors.6. Non accipiet quisquam pro pignore metam et catillum, quia animarn ipse acciperet pro pignore.10.  Quum mutuabis proximo tuo aliquid   mutuum,   non   ingredieris domum ejus ut capias pignus ejus.11.  Foris subsistes, et vir cui mutuabis afferet ad te pignus foras.20. If thou at all take thy neighbour's raiment to pledge, thou shalt deliver it unto him by that the sun goeth down:27. For that is his covering only; it is his raiment for his skin: wherein shall he sleep ? and it shall come to pass, when he crieth unto me, that I will hear; for I am gracious.Deut. xxiv. 6. No man shall take the nether or the upper millstone to pledge: for he taketh a man's life to pledge.10.   When  thou  dost   lend thy brother any thing, thou shalt not go into his house to fetch his pledge.11.  Thou shalt stand abroad, and the man to whom thou dost lend shall bring out the pledge abroad unto thee.12.  And if the man be poor, thou shalt not sleep with his pledge.13.  In any case thou shalt deliver him the pledge again when the sun goeth down, that he may sleep in his own raiment, and bless thee: and it shall be righteousness unto thee before the Lord thy God.17.  Thou shalt not pervert the judgment of the stranger, nor of the fatherless, nor take a widow's raiment to pledge :18.  But thou shalt remember that thou wast a bond-man in Egypt, and the Lord thy God redeemed thee thence: therefore I command thee to do this thing.Deut. xxiv. 6. No man shall take the nether. God now enforces another principle of equity in relation to loans, (not to be too strict1) in requiring pledges, whereby the poor are often exceedingly distressed. In the first place, He prohibits the taking of anything in pledge which is necessary to the poor for the support of existence ; for by the words which I have translated meta and catillus, i.e., the upper and nether millstone, He designates by synecdoche all other instruments, 1 Added from Fr.12.  Quod si vir pauper fuerit, non dormies cum pignore ejus.13.  Restituendo ei restitues pignus dum sol occumbit: ut dormiat in vestimento suo, et benedicat tibi: eritque tibi in justitiam coram Je-hova Deo tuo.17.  Non pervertesjudiciumpupilli et peregrini, non capies in pignus veslimentum viduse.18.  Recordare quod servus fueris in ./Egypto, et redemerit te Jehova Deus tuus inde: idcirco prsecipio tibi ut hoc facias.Sill COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.          ] 23which workmen cannot do without in earning their daily bread. As if any one should forcibly deprive a husbandman of his plough, or his spade, or harrow, or other tools, or should empty a shoemaker's, or potter's, or other person's shop, who could not exercise his trade when deprived of its implements; and this is sufficiently clear from the context, where it is said, " He taketh a man's life to pledge," together with his millstones. He, then, is as cruel, whosoever takes in pledge what supports a poor man's life, as if he should take away bread from a starving man, and thus his life itself, which, as it is sustained by labour, so, when its means of subsistence are cut off, is, as it were, itself destroyed.10. When thou dost lend thy brother anything. He \)vo-vides against another iniquity in reclaiming a pledge, viz., that the creditor should ransack the house and furniture of his brother, in order to pick out the pledge at his pleasure. For, if this option were given to the avaricious rich, they would be satisfied with no moderation, but would seize upon all that was best, as if making an assault on the very entrails of the poor: in a word, they would ransack men's houses, or at any rate, whilst they contemptuously refused this or that, they would fill the wretched with rebuke and shame. God, therefore, will have no pledge reclaimed, except what the debtor of his own accord, and at his own convenience, shall bring out of his house. He even proceeds further, that the creditor shall not take back any pledge which he knows to be necessary for the poor: for example, if he should pledge the bed on which he sleeps, or his counterpane, or cloak, or mantle. For it is not just that he should be stripped, so as to suffer from cold, or to be deprived of other aids, the use of which he could not forego without loss or inconvenience. A promise, therefore, is added, that this act of humanity will be pleasing to God, when the poor shall sleep in the garment which is restored to him. He speaks even more distinctly, and says : The poor will bless thee, and it shall be accounted to thee for righteousness. For God indicates that He hears the prayers of the poor and needy, lest the rich man should think the bounty thrown away which he confers upon a lowly individual.    We must, indeed,  be more than iron-124              calvin's hakmony of the four    deut.xxiv.10.hearted, unless we are disposed to such liberality as this, when we understand that, although the poor have not the means of repaying us in this world, still they have the power of recompensing us before God, i.e., by obtaining grace for us through their prayers. An implied threat is also conveyed, that if the poor man should sleep inconveniently, or catch cold through our fault, God will hear his groans, so that our cruelty will not be unpunished. But if the poor man, upon whom we have had compassion, should be ungrateful, yet, even though he is silent, our kindness will cry out to God ; whilst, on the other hand, our tyrannical harshness will suffice to provoke God's vengeance, although he who has been treated unkindly should patiently swallow his wrong. To be unto righteousness1 is equivalent to being approved by God, or being an acceptable act; for since the keeping of the Law is true righteousness, this praise is extended to particular acts of obedience. Although it must be observed that this righteousness fails and vanishes, unless we universally fulfil whatever God enjoins. It is, indeed, a part of righteousness to restore a poor man's pledge; but if a man be only beneficent in this respect, whilst in other matters he robs his brethren; or if, whilst free from avarice, he exercises violence, is given to lust or gluttony, the particular righteousness, although pleasing in itself to God, will not come into account. In fact, we must hold fast the axiom, that no work is accounted righteous before God, unless it proceeds from a man of purity and integrity ; whereas there is none such to be found. Consequently, no works are imputed unto righteousness, except because God deigns to bestow His gratuitous favour on believers. In itself, indeed, it would be true, that whatever act of obedience to God we perform, it is accounted for righteousness, i.e., if the whole course of our life corresponded to it, whereas no work proceeds from us which is not corrupted by some defect. Thus, we must fly to God's mercy, in order that, being reconciled to us, He may also accept our work.1 " It shall be righteousness unto thee," A. V., and rightly, as it would appear,for, as Piscator (inPoole's Syn.) remarks, "ante T\pTS deficit prse-positio."8TH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.         125What he had previously prescribed respecting the poor, He afterwards applies to widows alone, yet so as to recommend all poor persons to us under their name ; and this we gather both from the beginning of the verse (17,) in which He instructs them to deal fairly and justly with strangers and orphans, and also from the reason which is added, viz., that they should reflect that they were bondmen in the land of Egypt; for their condition there did not suffer them proudly to insult the miserable; and it is natural that he should be the more affected with the ills of others who has experienced the same. Since, then, this reason is a general one, it is evident also that the precept is general, that we should be humane towards all that are in want.EXODUS, CHAPTER XXII.25. If thou lend money to any of my people that is poor by thee, thou shalt not be to him as an usurer, neither shalt thou lay upon him usury.Lev. xxv. 35. And if thy brother be waxen poor, and fallen in decay with thee, then thou shalt relieve him; yea, though lie be a stranger, or a sojourner: that he may live with thee.36.  Take thou no usury of him, or increase: but fear thy God; that thy brother may live with thee.37.  Thou shalt not give him thy money upon usury, nor lend him thy victuals for increase.38.  I am the Lord your God, which brought you forth out of the land of Egypt, to give you the land of Canaan, and to be your God.Deut. xxiii. 19. Thou slialt not lend upon usury to thy brother; usury of money, usury of victuals, usury of any thing that is lent upon usury.20. Unto a stranger thou mayest lend upon usury, but unto thy brother thou shalt not lend upon usury; that the Lord thy God may bless thee in all that thou settest thine hand to in the land whither thou goest to possess it.25. Si pecuniam mutuam dederis populo meo pauperi qui est tecum, non eris ei sicut usurarius: non im-ponetis ei usuram.35.   Si  attenuatus fuerit frater tuus, et vacillaverit manus ejus apud te, fulcies ilium (vel, apprehendes ut sustineas): percgrinum et advenam: et vivet tecum.36.  Non accipies usuram ab eo et augmentum: sed timebisDeum tuum: vivetque frater apud te.37.  Pecuniam tuam non dabis ei ad usuram, nee cum augmento dabis escam tuam.38.  Ego Jehova Deus vester qui eduxi vos de terra iEgypti, ut darem vobis terram Chanaan, ac essem vobis in Deum.19.   Non   foenerabis   fratri  tuo foenus pecuniiB, foenus cibi, fcenus cujuscunque rei in qua foenus exer-cetur.20.  Extraneo foenerabis, ac fratri tuo non foenerabis: ut benedicat tibi Jehova Deus tuus in omni applica-tione manus tuse super terram ad quam ingrederis, ut possideas earn.126              oalvin's harmony oj the four    exod. xxii. 25.From these passages we learn that it is not enough to refrain from taking the goods of another, unless we also constantly exercise humanity and mercy in the relief of the poor. Heathen authors also saw this, although not with sufficient clearness, (when they declared1) that, since all men are born for the sake of each other, human society is not properly maintained, except by an interchange of good offices. Wherefore, that we may not defraud our neighbours, and so be accounted thieves in God's sight, let us learn, according to our several means, to be kind to those who need our help ; for liberality is a part of righteousness, so that he must be deservedly held to be unrighteous who does not relieve the necessities of his brethren when he can. This is the tendency of Solomon's exhortation, that " we should drink waters out of our own cistern,2 and that our fountains should be dispersed abroad amongst our neighbours," (Prov. v. 15, 16;) for, after he has enjoined us each to be contented with what is our own, without seeking to enrich ourselves by the loss of others, he adds that those who have abundance do not enjoy their possessions as they ought, unless they communicate them to the poor for the relief of their poverty. For this is the reason, as Solomon tells us elsewhere, why " the rich and the poor meet together ; and the Lord is the maker of them all."    (Prov. xxii. 2.)Exod. xxii. 25. If thou lend money to any of my people. Humanity ought to be very greatly regarded in the matter of loans, especially when a person, being reduced to extremities, implores a rich man's compassion; for this is, in point of fact, the genuine trial of our charity, when, in accordance with Christ's precept, we lend to those of whom we expect no return. (Luke vi. 35.) The question here is not as to usury, as some have falsely thought,3 as if He commanded us to lend gratuitously, and without any hope of1  Added from Fr.    " Atque ita placet Stoicis, quse in terris gignuntur ad usutn hominum omnia creari, homines autem hominum causa esse gene-ratos, ut ipsi inter se aliis alii prodesse possent."ЧCic. de Off. i. 7.2  It will be seen that these verses are abbreviated, and slightly paraphrased by C.    His exposition of them, which is not the ordinary one, agrees with that of Junius in Poole's Syn.8 See C. on Luke vi. 35. Harmony of the Evang., vol. i. p. 302.Ч (Calvin Soc. edit.,) together with the Editor's note.8th commandment,    last books of the pentateucih.       127gain; but, since in lending, private advantage is most generally sought, and therefore we neglect the poor, and only lend our money to the rich, from whom we expect some compensation, Christ reminds us that, if we seek to acquire the favour of the rich, we afford in this way no proof of our charity or mercy; and hence He proposes another sort of liberality, which is plainly gratuitous, in giving assistance to the poor, not only because our loan is a perilous one, but because they cannot make a return in kind.Before descending to speak of loans, God here adverts to poverty and distress, (Lev. xxv. So,) whereby men's minds may be disposed to compassion. If any one be afflicted with, poverty, He commands us to relieve liis necessity. He makes use, however, of a metaphor,1 that he who is tottering should be strengthened, as if by catching hold of his hand. What follows about the stranger and sojourner extends and amplifies, in my opinion, the previous sentence; as if it were said that, since humanity is not to be denied even to strangers, much more is assistance to be given to their brethren. For, when it pleased God that strangers should be permitted to inhabit the land, they were to be kindly treated2 according to the rights of hospitality ; for to allow them to live is to make their condition just and tolerable. And thus God indirectly implies, that such unhappy persons are expelled and driven away, so as not to live, if they are oppressed by unjust burdens. This, then, is the sum of the first sentence, that the rich, who has the ability, should uplift the poor man who is failing, by his assistance, or should strengthen the tottering.A precept is added as to lending without interest, which, although it is a political law, still depends on the rule of charity ; inasmuch as it can scarcely happen but that the poor should be entirely drained by the exaction of interest,1 Margin A. V., " If his hand faileth, then thou shalt strengthen him." " When a man is so impoverished that he hath no means, they are commanded to strengthen him, as taking him by the hand; so the Lord is said to strengthen the right hand of Cyrus, when he assisted him against his enemies, Is. xlv. 11, &c."ЧWillet, in loco.* " II a entendu qu'on les traittast humainement;" He implied that they should be treated with humanity.ЧFr.128              calvin's harmony of the four    exod.xxii. 25.and that their blood should be almost sucked away. Nor had God any other object in view, except that mutual and brotherly affection should prevail amongst the Israelites. It is plain that this was a part of the Jewish polity, because it was lawful to lend at interest to the Gentiles, which distinction the spiritual law does not admit. The judicial law, however, which God prescribed to His ancient people, is only so far abrogated as that what charity dictates should remain, i.e., that our brethren, who need our assistance, are not to be treated harshly. Х Moreover, since the wall of partition, which formerly separated Jew and Gentile, is now broken down, our condition is now different; and consequently we must spare all without exception, both as regards taking interest, and any other mode of extortion ; and equity is to be observed even towards strangers. " The household of faith," indeed, holds the first rank, since Paul commands us specially to do good to them, (Gal. vi. 10 ;) still the common society of the human race demands that we should not seek to grow rich by the loss of others.As touching the political law, no wonder that God should have permitted His people to receive interest from the Gentiles, since otherwise a just reciprocity would not have been preserved, without which one party must needs be injured. God commands His people not to practise visury, and still lays the Jews alone, and not foreign nations, under the obligation of this law. In order, therefore, that equality (ratio analogica) might be preserved, He accords1 the same liberty to His people which the Gentiles would assume for themselves ; for this is the only intercourse that can be endured, when the condition of both parties is similar and equal. For when Plato2 asserts that usurers are not to be tolerated in a well-ordered republic, he does not go further than to enjoin, that its citizens should abstain from that base and dishonest traffic between each other.1 " II permet aux Juifs pareille liberte envers les nations estranges, que les Payens se donnoyent envers les Juifs;" He permits the Jews to have equal liberty with respect to foreign nations, with that which the heathen gave themselves with respect to the Jews.ЧFr,a licXirtix r. in fin.SHI COMMANDMENT..     LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.         129The question now is, whether usury is evil in itself; and surely that which heathens even have detested appears to be by no means lawful to the children of God. We know that the name of usurer has everywhere and always been infamous and detested. Thus Cato,1 desiring to commend agriculture, says that thieves were formerly condemned to a fine of double, and usurers quadruple ; from which he infers, that the latter were deemed the worst. And when asked what he thought of usury, he replied, " What do I think of killing a man?" whereby he wished to shew, that it was as improper to make money by usury as to commit murder. This was the saying of one private individual, yet it is derived from the opinions of almost all nations and persons. And assuredly from this cause great tumults often arose at Rome, and fatal contentions were awakened between the common people and the rich; since it can hardly be but that usurers suck men's blood like leeches. But if we come to an accurate decision as to the thing itself, our determination must be derived from nowhere else than the universal rule of justice, and especially from the declaration of Christ, on which hang the law and the prophets,ЧDo not unto others what ye would not have done to thyself. (Matt. vii. 12.) For crafty men are for ever inventing some little subterfuge or other to deceive God. Thus, when all men detested the word/cerews, another was substituted, which might avoid unpopularity under an honest pretext; for they called it usury, as being a compensation for the loss a man had incurred by losing the use of his money.     But2 there is no description of fcenus to1  " Purem dupli condemnari, fceneratorem quadrupli."     Cato de R. Rust, in prooem.    " Ex quo genere comparationis illud est Oatonis senis ; a quo quum qusereretur, quid maxime in re familiari expediret, respondit, Bine, pascere.    Quid secundum ?    Satis  bene pascere.    Quid tertium ? Male pascere.    Quid quartum ? arare.    Et, cum ille, qui qusesierat, dix-isset, Quid fcenerari ?   Turn Cato, Quid hominem, inquit, occidere?"   Cic. de Off. ii. 24.2  la Fr. the following sentence is here inserted:Ч" Ce titre la doncques a este favorable: comme en nostre langage Francois le mot d'Usure sera assez en horreur, mais les interests ont la vogue sous nulle dimculte ni scrupule:" This title then was an euphemism, as in our French language, the word Usury will be sufficiently dreaded, whilst Interest is current without difficulty or scruple.    Say. Econ. Polit. B. ii. Ch. viii. з 1., tells us that, " V interet . . . s'appelait auparavant usure, et c'etait le mot propre,ISO              calvin's harmony of the four    exod.xxii.25.which this specious name may not be extended ; for whosoever has any ready money, and is about to lend it, he will allege that it would be profitable to himself if he were to purchase1 something with it, and that at every moment opportunities of gain are presenting themselves. Thus there will be always ground for his seeking compensation, since no creditor could ever lend money without loss to himself. Thus usury,2 since the word is equivalent to foenus, is but a covering for an odious practice, as if such glosses would deliver us in God's judgment, where nothing but absolute integrity can avail for our defence. There was almost a similar mode of subterfuge among the Israelites. The name "[SW, neschec, which is derived from biting, sounded badly ; since then no one chose to be likened to a hungry dog, who fed himself by biting others, some escape from the reproach was sought; and they called whatever gain they received beyond the capital, JVi*)fi, therbith, as being an increase. But God, in order to prevent such deception, unites the two words, (Lev. xxv. 36,) and condemns the increase as well as the biting. For, where He complains of their unjust modes of spoiling and thieving in Ezekiel,3 and uses both words as He does here by Moses, there is no doubt but that He designedly cuts off their empty excuses. (Ezek. xviii. 13.) Lest any, therefore, should reply, that although he derived advantage from his money, he was not on that account guilty of usury, God at once removes this pretence, and condemns in general any addition to the principal. Assuredly both passages clearly shew that those who invent new words in excuse of evil, do nothing but vainly trifle. I have, then, admonished men that the fact itself is simply to be con-puisque l'intere t est un prix, un loyer qu'on paie pour avoir la jouissance d'une valeur. Mais ce mot est devenu odieux; il ne reveille plus que l'idee d'un interet illegal, exorbitant, et onlui"en a substitue un autre plus honnete et moins expressif selon la coutume."1  a Xerre ou marchandise."ЧFr.2  " Ainsi, combien que ce nom d'Usure ait este favorable de soy du commencement, en la fin il a este diffame;"  Thus, although this word Usury was  of no ill meaning in  its origin,  in the end it  has been abused.ЧFr.* See C. on Ezek. xviii. 5-9, where the subject is more fully discussed. C. Soc. Edit. vol. ii. p. 225, et seq. See also Mr. Myers's Dissertation, ibid., p. 469.8TH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.         131sidered, that all unjust gains are ever displeasing to God, whatever colour we endeavour to give to it. But if we would form an equitable judgment, reason does not suffer us to admit that all usury is to be condemned without exception. If the debtor have protracted the time by false pretences to the loss and inconvenience of his creditor, will it be consistent that he should reap advantage from his bad faith and broken promises ? Certainly no one, I think, will deny that usury ought to be paid to the creditor in addition to the principal, to compensate his loss.1 If any rich and monied man, wishing to buy a piece of land, should borrow some part of the sum required of another, may not he who lends the money receive some part of the revenues of the farm until the principal shall be repaid ? Many such cases daily occur in which, as far as equity is concerned, usury is no worse than purchase. Nor will that subtle argument2 of Aristotle avail, that usury is unnatural, because money is barren and does not beget money ; for such a cheat as I have spoken of, might make much profit by trading with another man's money, and the purchaser of the farm might in the meantime reap and gather his vintage. But those who think differently, may object, that we must abide by God's judgment, when He generally prohibits all usury to His people. I reply, that the question is only as to the poor, and consequently, if we have to do with the rich, that usury is freely permitted; because the Lawgiver, in alluding to one thing, seems not to condemn another, concerning which He is silent.   If again they object that usurers are absolutely1 Addition in Fr., " Je say qu'on nomme cela Interest, mais ce m'est tout un;" 1 know that they call this Interest, but this is all the same to me.3 Polit., lib. i. cap. 10. " The enemies to interest in general, (says Blackstone,) make no distinction between that and usury, holding any increase of money to be indefensibly usurious. And this they ground, as well on the prohibition of it by the Law of Moses among the Jews, as also upon what is said to be laid down by Aristotle, that money is naturally barren, and to make it breed money is preposterous, and a perversion of the end of its institution, which was only to serve the purposes of exchange, and not of increase." The hypothetical form in which he attributes this dictum to Aristotle, he explains in a note to be, because " this passage hath been suspected to be spurious."ЧComment, on the Laws of England, b. ii. ch. xxx. sec. 454.132              calvin's harmony of the four    exod. xxii.IS.condemned by David and Ezekiel, (Ps. xv. 5 ; Ez. xviii. J 3,) I think that their declarations ought to be judged of by the rule of charity ; and therefore that only those unjust exactions are condemned whereby the creditor, losing sight of equity, burdens and oppresses his debtor. I should, indeed, be unwilling to take usury under my patronage, and I wish the name itself were banished from the world ; but I do not dare to pronounce upon so important a point more than God's words convey. It is abundantly clear that the ancient people were prohibited from usury, but we must needs confess that this was a part of their political constitution. Hence it follows, that usury is not now unlawful, except in so far as it contravenes equity and brotherly union. Let each one, then, place himself before God's judgment-seat, and not do to his neighbour what he would not have done to himself, from whence a sure and infallible decision may be come to. To exercise the trade of usury, since heathen writers accounted it amongst disgraceful and base modes of gain, is much less tolerable among the children of God ; but in what cases, and how far it may be lawful to receive usury upon loans, the law of equity will better prescribe than any lengthened discussions.Let us now examine the words. In the first place, where we have translated the words, " Thou shalt not be to him as a usurer,"1 there is some ambiguity in the Hebrew word "IK'J, nashac, for it is sometimes used generally for to lend, without any ill meaning; but here it is undoubtedly applied to a usurer, who bites the poor ; as also in Psalm cix. 11, "Let the usurer catch all that he hath."2 The sum is, that the poor are to be liberally aided, and not to be oppressed by harsh exactions: and therefore immediately afterwards it is added, " neither shalt thou lay upon him usury." When again He repeats, " And if thy brother be waxen poor," &c, we see that reference is everywhere made to the poor; because, although sometimes those who possess large properties are ruined by usury, (as Cicero says that certain luxurious1  C. here uses the word fosnerator; whereas his translation is, it will bo seen, usurarius.2  A.V., "The extortioner."8rii COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.          183and prodigal persons in his days contended against usury with the fruits of their farms, because their creditors swallowed up the whole produce ;*) still the poor alone, who had been compelled to borrow by want, and not by luxury, were worthy of compassion.The third passage, however, admirably explains the meaning of God, since it extends usury to corn and wine, and all other articles. For many contracts were invented by artful men, whereby they pillaged the needy without ignominy or disgrace: and now-a-days no rapacity is more cruel than that which imposes a payment upon debtors, without any mention of usury ; for instance, if a poor man should ask the loan of six measures of wheat, the creditor will require seven to be repaid; or if the same thing should happen as regards wine. This profit will not be called usury, because no money will pass; but God, indirectly casting ridicule upon their craftiness, shews that this plague of usury2 extends itself to various things, and to almost all sorts of traffic; whence it clearly appears that nothing else is pi'escribed to the Israelites, but that they should humanely assist each other. But, since cupidity blinds men, and carries them aside to dishonest dealings, God sets His blessing in opposition to all such iniquitous arts, whereby they hawk, as it were, for gain ; and commands them to look for riches rather to Him the author of all good things, than to hunt for them by rapine and fraud.DEUTERONOMY, CHAPTER XXII.1. Thou shalt not see thy bro- 1. Non videbis bovem fratris tui ther's ox or his sheep go astray, and   aut pecudem errantes, et abscondes1 "Neque id (quod stultissimum est) certare cum usuris fructibus pr<e-diorum." Cic. Or. in Cat. 2da. 8, i.e., says Facciolati in voce certo, " tot usuris se onerare, ut prsediorum fructus exaequent: qua ratione fructus cum usuris committuntur, et certant, et plerumque superantur, quia usurse quotannis certae sunt, fructus autem incerti." Fr.," Car combien que ceux qui possedent beaucoup soyent aucunefois epuisez, pource qu'ils ne sont que receveurs de ceux auxquels ils doyvent;" for, although those who possess much are often ruined, because they are only the receivers of their creditors, &c.a " Foenebre malum."ЧLat.    " Ceste vermine d'usure."ЧFr.134                calvin's harmony or the four    exod. xxiii. 4.hide thyself from them : thou shalt   te ab eis: reducendo reduces ad fra-in any case bring them again unto    trem tuum. thy brother.2.  And if thy brother be not nigh       2. Etiam si non fuerit frater tuus unto thee, or if thou know him not;    propinquus tibi, neque noveris eum, then thou shalt bring it unto thine   colliges tamen illos in domum tuam, own house, and it shall be with thee   et erunt tecum donee requirat frater until thy brother seek after it, and   tuus ut restituas ei.thou shalt restore it to him again.3.  In like manner shalt thou do       3.   Sic  facies de asino ejus, sic with his ass, and so shalt thou do   facies de vestimento ejus, sic facies with his raiment; and with all lost   de omni re amissa fratris tui quse thing of thy brother's, which he hath   perierit ab ipso : si inveneris earn, lost, and thou hast found, shalt thou   non occultabis te.do likewise: thou mayest not hide thyself.Exod. xxiii. 4. If thou meet thine       4. Si occurreris bovi inimici tui,enemy's ox or his ass going astray,    et  asino   ejus   erranti,   reducendothou shalt surely bring it back to   reduces ad ilium. him again.Exod. xxiii. 4. If thou meet thine enemy's ox. From these two passages it is very clear that lie who abstains from evil doing, is not therefore guiltless before God, unless he also studies to do good. For our brethren's advantage ought to be so far our care, that we should be disposed mutually to aid each other as far as our means and opportunities permit. This instruction is greatly needed; because, whilst everybody is more attentive to his own advantage than he ought to be, he is willing to hold back from the assistance of others. But God brings him in guilty of theft who has injured his neighbours by his negligence ; and justly, because it depended only upon him that the thing should be safe, which he knowingly and wilfully suffered to perish. This duty, too, is extended even to enemies; wherefore our inhumanity is the more inexcusable, if we have not helped our friends. The sum therefore is, that believers should be kind,1 that they may imitate their heavenly Father; and should not only bestow their labour upon the good, who are worthy of it, but should treat the unworthy also with kindness : and since many might invent means of subterfuge, God anticipates them, and commands that the beast of a person unknown1 " Soyent pitoyables, et humains pour faire plaisir a chacun;" should be pitiful and humane, to shew kindness to all.ЧFr.SHI COMMANDMENT.       LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.          135should be kept until reclaimed by its owner; and lays down the same rule as to all things that may be lost.NUMBERS, CHAPTER V.5.   And  the  Lord  spake  unto       5. Loquutusest Jehovaad Mosen, Moses, saying,                                  dicendo:6.   Speak unto the  children of      6. Alloquere filios Israel, Vir sive Israel, when a man or woman shall   mulier quum  fecerint ex omnibus commit any sin that men commit,   peccatis   hominum,   transgrediendo to do a trespass against the Lord,   transgressione in Jehovam, et deli-and that person be guilty;                 querit anima ilia:7.  Then they shall confess their       7.   Fatebuntur  peccatum   suum sin which they have done: and he   quod fecerunt: et restituet delictum shall recompense his trespass with   suum in solidum, et quintam ejus the principal thereof, and add unto   partem superaddet, dabitque ei in it the fifth part thereof, and give it   quern peccaverit.unto him against whom he hath trespassed.5. And the Lord spake unto Moses. Although at the outset He seems to include all trespasses, yet we gather from the context that the precept only refers to things stolen or fraudulently withheld, that he, who is conscious of his guilt, should make reparation. It must be observed, however, that the law relates to more secret thefts, which are not usually brought to justice: and on this account it is said, " If they have committed any sin after the manner of men, they must not seek for subterfuge from ordinary use and custom." Although, therefore, they may have many companions, God declares that this will not avail for their excuse ; and consequently commands them voluntarily to restore what they have fraudulently or wrongfully appropriated. He will treat hereafter of the punishment of theft; He now only prescribes that, although no one shall bring the guilty parties to justice, and their crime may not be discovered, still they should diligently examine their consciences, and themselves ingenuously declare the secret transgression ; and also make compensation for the loss conferred, since, without restitution, their confession would be but illusory. I now pass over what Moses adds, that, if no heir exists to whom the stolen goods may be restored, they should offer it to the136              calvin's harmony of the four    exob. xxiii. 8.priest, because I have already expounded it: except that we gather from thence, that a contamination is contracted by fraud and rapine, which is never purged unless the house is well cleared of the ill-gotten gain. But this offering was treated of amongst the laws of the priests Х} now, with respect to the restitution, we must consider that the fifth part was superadded, not so much in order that he, who had suffered the loss, should be enriched, as that all should diligently beware of every offence, which they hear not only to be useless to themselves, but also to be productive of loss. Besides, when a man has been robbed, it is often of more consequence than this additional fifth part, that he should have been deprived of the use of his property.EXODUS, CHAPTER XXIII.8. And thou shalt take no gift:       8. Ne accipias munus: quia mu-for the gift blindeth the wise, and   nus exesecat videntes, et pervertitperverteth the words of the right-    verba justorurn. eous.Lev. xix. 15. Ye shall do no un-       15. Non facies iniquitatem in righteousness in judgment; thou   judicio, non suscipies faciem pau-shalt not respect the person of the   peris, neque honorabis causam mag-poor, nor honour the person of the    ni: in justitia judicabis proximum mighty: but in righteousness shalt    tuum. thou judge thy neighbour.Deut. xvi. 19. Thou shalt not       19. Non inflectes judicium, non wrest judgment; thou shalt not re-    agnosces personam, neque capies spect persons, neither take a gift:    munus: quia munus exesecat oculos for a gift doth blind the eyes of the    sapientum, et pervertit verba jus-wise, and pervert the words of the    torum. righteous.20. That which is altogether just       20. Justitiam, justitiam sequeris,shalt thou follow, that thou mayest    ut vivas, et possideas terrain quamlive, and inherit the land which the   Jehova Deus tuus dat tibi. Lord thy God giveth thee.Exod. xxiii. 8. And thou shalt take no gift. This kind of theft is the worst of all, when judges are corrupted either by bribes, or by affection, and thus ruin the fortunes which they ought to protect: for, since their tribunal is as it were a sacred asylum, to which those who are unjustly oppressed1 See vol. ii. p. 273, on Numbers v. 8.8TUCOMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.          137may fly, nothing can be more unseemly than that they should there fall amongst robbers.1 Judges are appointed to repress all wrongs and offences; if therefore they shew favour to the wicked, they are harbourers of thieves; than which there is no more deadly pest. And besides, since their authority excludes every other remedy, they are themselves like robbers with arms in their hands. The greater, therefore, their power of injury is, and the greater the damage committed by their unjust sentences, the more diligently are they to be warned to beware of iniquity ; and thus it was necessary to keep them in the path of duty by special instructions, lest they should conceal and encourage thievery by their patronage. Now, as avarice is the root of all evils, when it thus lays hold of the minds of judges, no integrity can continue to exist. But, since all utterly condemn this vice, even though they may be entirely under its influence, God speaks of it the more plainly and popularly, enjoining that judges should withhold their hands from every gift: for there is no more fatal poison for the extinction of all uprightness, than when a judge suffers himself to be cajoled by gifts. Let those who accept gifts allege as much as they please that they still maintain their integrity, the fact itself clearly shews that they are venal, and seek their own pecuniary advantage when they are thus attracted by gain. Formerly it was enough to render judges infamous that they were called nummarii, (moneyers.)2 But it is superfluous to treat any further of this matter, since God cuts off all handles for subterfuge in a single sentence : " for gifts (He says) blind the eyes of him that seeth, and pervert the judgment of the righteous." If, then, we acquiesce in His decision, there is no light of intelligence so bright but that gifts extinguish it, nor any probity so great but that they undermine it; in fact, gifts infect a sound mind before they soil the hand;1  "II n'y a rien plus enorme, que d'en fkire une caverne de brigans;" there is nothing more enormous than to make a den of robbers of it.ЧFr.2  Fr. " Et de faict, ce titre la suffit entre les payens pour diffamer les juges, de les appeler argentiers;" and, in fact, this title sufficed among' the heathen to bring their judges into disrepute, to call them argentier?. See Cic. Ep. in Att. i. 16, "Inseetandis vero, exagitandisque nummariis judicibus."   Item, Verr. v. 57, et pro Cluent., 36.138              calvin's harmony of the four     exod. xxiii. 6.I mean those which a person receives in reference to the judgment of a cause; for there is no question here as to those gifts of mutual kindness which men reciprocate with each other. Thus, in the passage from Deut. xvi., before God speaks of gifts, He forbids that justice should be wrested, or men's persons respected: whence we gather, that only those snares are condemned which are set to curry favour. It must be observed on the passage from Leviticus, that to judge in righteousness is contrasted with respecting the person : and consequently, as soon as the judge turns away his eyes ever so little from the cause itself, he forgets equity. Moreover, to wrest judgment is equivalent to doing iniquity in judgment; but since injustice is not always openly manifested, but rather disguised by various artifices, after God in Leviticus has condemned corrupt and unjust judgments, He uses this word to wrest (inclinandi), in Deuteronomy, in order to dissipate all vain pretexts.Deut. xvi. 20. That which is altogether just.1 By an emphatic repetition God inculcates that judges should study equity with inflexible constancy ; nor is this done without cause, for nothing is more likely to happen than that men's minds should be clouded by favour or hatred. Besides there are so many quibbles whereby justice is perverted, that, unless judges are very cautious in watching against deception, they will often find themselves ensnared.EXODUS, CHAPTER XXIII.3. Neither shaltthoucountenance        3. Pauperem non honorabis ex a poor man in his cause.                    sua causa.6. Thou shalt not wrest the judg-        6. Non inflectes judicium pauperis ment of thy poor in his cause.            tui in lite ejus.6. Thou shalt not wrest the judgment of thy poor. Since laws are enacted to repress the vices which are of frequent occurrence, no wonder that God should put forward the case of the poor, to whom it often happens that they fail though their causes are good, both because they are without interest1 " Justitiam, justitiani."ЧLat.     See Margin  A.V., " Heb., Justice, justice."8TH COMMANDMENT.  LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.    139and are exposed to injury through the contempt in which they are held, and also because they cannot contend with the rich in incurring expense. Justly, then, is provision made for their inferiority, lest the iniquity of judges should rob them of the little they possess. But the other point here referred to might appear superfluous, viz., that judges should not favour the poor, which very rarely takes place. It would also be incongruous that what God elsewhere prescribes and praises should here be reprehended. I reply, that rectitude is so greatly pleasing to God, that the judge would in no wise be excusable, under whatever pretext he might decline from it ever so little, and that this is the intention of this precept. For, although the poor is for the most part tyrannically oppressed, still ambition will sometimes impel a judge to misplaced compassion, so that he is liberal at another's expense. And this temptation is all the more dangerous, because injustice is done under the cloak of virtue. For, if a judge only directs his attention to the poverty of the litigant, a foolish fear will at the same time insinuate itself lest his sentence should ruin the man whom he would wish to save; thus he will award to the one what belongs to the other. Sometimes the temerity, audacity, and obstinacy of the poor in commencing and prosecuting suits is greater than that of the rich; and when they despair of their cause, they are sure to have recourse to tears and lamentations, by which they deceive incautious judges, who, forgetful of the cause itself, only consider how their misery and want is to be relieved. Besides, too, whilst they think little of the rich man's loss, because he can easily bear it, they make no scruple of declining from equity in favour of the poor. But hence it better appears how greatly God is offended by the oppression of the poor, when He will not have even them befriended to the injury of the rich.140                   CALVIN'S HARMONY OF THE FOUR           EXOD. XXII.political Supplements to tfje йt'g^tfj Commandment,EXODUS, CHAPTER XXII.1.  If a man shall steal an ox, or       1. Qnum furatus fuerit quis bo-a sheep, and kill it, or sell it; he    vem aut pecudem, etjugulaverit, aut shall restore five oxen for an ox, and    vendiderit, quinque boves reddet pro four sheep for a sheep.                      illo bove, et quatuor pecudes propecude ilia:2.  If a thief be found breaking       2. (Si in effossione inventus fu-up, and be smitten that he die, there   erit fur, et percussus fuerit, et inde shallno blood be shed for him.            mortuus, non erit ei in sanguinem.3.  If the sun be risen upon him,       3. Si ortus fuerit sol super eum, there shall be blood shed for him;    erit ei in sanguinem:) reddendo red-jor he should make full restitution:    det: si non sit ei, vendetur propterif he have nothing, then he shall be   furtum suum. sold for his theft.4.  If the theft be certainly found       4. Si deprehendatur in manu ejus in his hand alive, whether it be ox,   furtum a bove usque  ad asinum, or  ass, or sheep, he shall restore    usque ad pecudem: viva duo red-double,                                            det.Thus far God has proclaimed Himself the avenger of iniquities, and, citing thieves before His tribunal, has threatened them with eternal death. Now follow the civil laws, the principle of which is not so exact and perfect ; since in their enactment God has relaxed His just severity in consideration of the people's hardness of heart.What God formerly delivered to His people the heathen legislators afterwards borrowed. Draco, indeed, was more severe, but his extreme rigour became obsolete by the silent consent of the people of Athens ; and the Decemvirs borrowed from Solon part of their law, which they published in the ten tables, although there were some variations in the distinction of the double or quadruple restitution, and in process of time other alterations were afterwards made. But if all things be duly considered, it will be found that both Solon and the Decemvirs have made a change for the worse, wherever they have varied from the law of God. First of all, no distinction1 is here made, such as the Roman laws decree, between manifest thieves and those that are not manifest; for by them the thief not manifest is condemned to a double amend, and the manifest to quadruple ; and he 1 The negative added from Fr.    See A. Gell. xi. 18.8TII COMMANDMENT.     LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.          141is called a manifest thief who is caught before he has carried what he has stolen to the place of its destination. I suppose that the awarders of the punishment had this point in view, that the wickedness of that person was the more egregious who was so greedily and anxiously set on his prey as not to be afraid of disgrace ; and undoubtedly he who has no fear of shame is more audacious in sin. But, on the contrary, God condemns to a double amend those upon whom the stolen goods were found ; and to quadruple, those who had killed or sold it; and deservedly so, because greater obstinacy in crime betrays itself where the theft is turned to profit, nor is there any hope of repentance ; and thus by this further process the crime of dishonesty is doubled. It might be that, immediately after the oifence, the thief should be alarmed; but he who had dared to kill the stolen animal or to sell it, is altogether hardened in his sin. Besides, the more difficult its investigation is, the greater is the punishment which a misdemeanour deserves. Meanwhile, it is to be remembered, that the pecuniary fine imposed upon thieves did not free them from guilt; for, as Marcellus says,1 not even the president of a province can bring it to pass, that infamy should not pursue a man condemned of theft; and there was no need of establishing by law that in which all by nature are agreed. Thus, when God punished thieves by a fine, He left them still marked by infamy. I know not whether they2 assign the true cause why he who had stolen an ox is fined to a larger amount than he who had stolen a goat, or sheep, or other cattle, who say that the loss of the owner is taken into account to whom the labour of the ox is especially useful in agriculture ; for what is said as to an ox I extend to cows and the whole herd.    Those seem1  " II est dit en la loy ;" it is said in the law.ЧFr.2  This first opinion is "that (says Corn, a Lapide) of S. Thomas, 1. 2. q. 105, art. 2. ad 9., after Strabo; God commands that a thief should restore five oxen for one, because the ox has five utilities; first, it is killed in sacrifice; secondly, its flesh is eaten; thirdly, it ploughs; fourthly, it gives milk; fifthly, it supplies leather;Чwhilst a sheep only has four advantages ; for, first, it is slain in sacrifice;  secondly, its flesh is eaten; thirdly, it gives milk; fourthly, it gives wool."    The second opinion is attributed to Junius by Willet, " oportet hunc furem audacem, et versutum142              calvin's harmony of the fotjk    exod. xxii. 3.to come nearer to the truth who say the audacity of the thief is punished who, when he stole the larger animal, did not fear being observed by witnesses ; yet it seems to me more likely that the different sentence depended on the price of the article ; for assuredly it is moi'e reasonable that he who has done the most harm should be exposed to the greater punishment.2.  If a thief be found breaking up.    This clause is to be taken separately, and is inserted by way of parenthesis ; for, after having decreed the  punishment, God adds in connexion, " he should make full restitution; if he have nothing, then he should be sold for his theft;" and this exception as to the thief in the night is introduced parenthetically. But although the details are not expressed with sufficient distinctness, still the intention of God is by no means ambiguous, viz., that if a thief should be killed in the dark, his slayer should be unpunished ; for he can then hardly be distinguished from a robber, especially when he proceeds with violence ; because he cannot enter another man's house by night without either digging through a wall or breaking down a door.    The Twelve Tables1 differ slightly from this ; for they permit the killing of a thief by night, and also by day if he should defend himself with a weapon.    But, since God had sufficiently repressed by other laws murders and violent assaults, He is silent here respecting robbers who use the sword in their attempts at plunder.    He therefore justly condemns to death those who have avenged by murder a theft in open day.3.  He should make full restitution.    These words, as I have said, are connected with the first verse, since here the execution of the punishment is only enjoined; as if God forbade thieves to be spared, but that they should pay either twofold or quadruple, or even quintuple, according to the measure of their crime.    But, if they were unable to pay,1 This provision of the Twelve Tables is thus given by A. Gell. xi. ult., " Si nox furtum faxit, sim (si eum) quis occisit, jure csesus esto: si luci furtum faxit, sim aliquis endo {in) ipso furto capsit, verberator, illique, cui furtum factum escit (erit) addicitor, sed non nisi is, qui interemturus erat, quiritaret," i.e., shall have called out for assistance.8TH COMMANDMENT.     LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.          143He commands them to be sold as slaves, which also was the custom at Rome. Whence the saying of Cato,1 " that private thieves lived in bonds and fetters, but public ones in gold and purple." And since this condition was a harsh one, a caution is expressly given, that they were not to be absolved on the score of their poverty. If any one should ask whether it was lawful for the owner of the thing stolen to recover double or quadruple its value, I answer, that what God awards, a man has the best of rights to ; meanwhile, in equity men were bound to take care that they did not grow rich at the expense of others, but rather were they to apply whatever they gained to pious and holy uses.EXODUS, CHAPTER XXII.9.  For all manner of trespass,       9.  Super omni causa prsevarica-whether it be for ox, for ass, for   tionis, super bove, super asino, supersheep, for raiment, or for any man-   pecude, super vestimento, super om-ner of  lost thing, which  another   ni re amissa: quum dixerit quispiamchallengeth to be his, the cause of   hocesse,usqueadjudicesvenietcausaboth parties shall come before the   utriusque :   et   quem  damnaverintjudges; and whom the judges shall   judices, is reddat duplum proximocondemn, he shall pay double unto   suo. his neighbour.9. For all manner of trespass. An action for theft is here permitted, but with a fine attached if any should rashly accuse his neighbour; for else it might be doubted when or for what reasons the restitution of double or quadruple was to be required. He therefore permits that if any one suspects another of theft, he should summon that person to plead his cause ; and if he should prove his case, that he should recover double the thing lost; but if the judges should pronounce that he had brought his action ground-lessly, that he, on the contrary, should pay the penalty of his false accusation. For such an action as this is not altogether a civil one, but carries with it the stain of infamy, and thus it would be unjust that a man should be injured by1 " Sed enim M. Cato in oratione quam de praeda militibus dividenda scripsit, vehementibus et illustribus verbis de impunitate peculatus atque licentia conqueritus. Ea verba, quoniam nobis impense placuerunt, ad-scripsimus : Fures (inquit) privatorum furtorum in nervo atque in com-pedibus setatem agunt: fures autem publici in auro atque in purpura."Ч A. Gell. xi. ult.144CALVIN S HARMONY OF THE FOURJSXOD. XXII.false suspicions whom the judges acquit of crime. The word used here for judges is OTDX, elohirn, which properly means gods, as being of the plural number; it is, however, often used for God.1 It is transferred to judges for the purpose of dignifying their office; because in it they represent the person of God, in whose hand alone is all dominion and power. Therefore Christ says they were called gods, because to them " the word of God came/' (John x. 84,) i.e., that they should preside in His name, and be set over others, on which subject we treated under the Fifth Commandment.5.  If a man shall cause a field or vineyard to be eaten, and shall put in his beast, and shall feed in another man's field; of the best of his own field, and of the best of his own vineyard, shall he make restitution.6.  If fire break out, and catch in thorns, so that the stacks of corn, or the standing corn, or the field, be consumed therewith; he that kindled the fire shall surely make restitution.7.  If a man shall deliver unto his neighbour money or stuff to keep, and it be stolen out of the man's house; if the thief be found, let him pay double.8.  If the thief be not found, then the master of the house shall be brought unto the judges, to see whether he have put his hand unto his neighbour's goods.10.  If a man deliver unto his neighbour an ass, or an ox, or a sheep, or any beast, to keep, and it die, or be hurt, or driven away, noman seeing it :11.  Then shall an oath of the Lord be between them both, that he hath not put his hand unto his neighbour's goods; and the owner of it shall accept thereof, and he shall not make it good.12.  And if it be stolen from him, he shall make restitution unto the owner thereof.5.    Si depasci   fecerit  quispiam agrum aut vitem, et immiserit ju-mentumsuum ut depasceretur agrum alterius: bonum agri ejus et bonum vinese ejus restituet.6.   Quum egressus fuerit ignis, et invenerit spinas: absumptusque fuerit acervus, vel seges, vel ager, red-dendo reddet qui ignem  accendit, rem combustam.7.  Quum dederit quispiam proximo suo argentum, vel vasa ad custo-diendum, et furto ablatum fuerit e domo viri illius: si inventus fuerit fur, reddet duplum.8.  Si non inventus fuerit fur, tune applicabitur dominus domus ad ju-dices, annon miserit manum suam in substantiam proximi sui.10.  Si dederit quispiam proximo suo asinum, vel bovem, vel pecudem, aut quodcunque animal adcustodien-dum, et mortuum fuerit, aut con-tractum,  aut  ab hostibus captum nemine vidente.11.  Juramentum Jehovse erit inter utrumque, annon miserit manum suam in substantiam proximi sui, et juramentum suscipiet dominus ejus, et non reddet.12.   Quod si furto ablatum fuerit ei, reddet domino ejus.1 " Le Dieu vivant."ЧFt:8TH COMMANDMENT.     LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.         14513. If it be torn in pieces, then let 13. Si vero rapiendo raptum fu-him bring it for witness, and he shall erit, adducet ei testem: raptum non not make good that which was torn,    reddet.5.  If a man shall cause a field or vineyard to be eaten. This kind of fraud is justly ranked among thefts; viz., if any man shall have put in his beast to feed in another's field or vineyard.    For if a person have made improper use of his servant to steal by him, he himself is deemed guilty of the offence, even although he may have touched nothing with his own hand; nor does he less do wrong who has given occasion of injury by means of a brute.    Still, God restricts the punishment to a compensation of double the amount, because it cannot be certainly established that the master of the animal desired to effect the damage fraudulently and designedly ; yet He requires the loss to be made up at the highest estimate of its value j1 for thus I interpret " the goodness of his field and his vineyard," that the place having been examined, a liberal restitution shall be awarded to its owner, according to the utmost it would have probably produced in its greatest state of fertility.6.  If fire break out and catch in thorns.    This injury is somewhat different from the foregoing, for he who kindles the fire is commanded to make good the damage done by him, although there may have been no wilful intention to do harm.   For the incendiary who had maliciously destroyed either a cornfield or a vineyard was to be far more severely punished;  here, however,  mere carelessness is punished. Although no mention is made either of house or barn, still the law includes all similar cases requiring compensation from him who had kindled a fire even in an open field.   But it seems that such a person would be blameless, because he could not foresee that the fire would ignite the thorns ; yet, in order that every one should take as much care of the property of another as of his own, God commands him to suffer the penalty of his heedless or stupid negligence.1 C.'s view of these words seems to be adopted by none of the commentators. They understand them more simply, that the restitution was to be made in kind, and of the best of the aggressor's produce. Whether we read with C. " bonum agri," or with others " de bono," or " de optimo," as Dathe and A. V., does not appear to affect this sense.146                  calvin's harmony of the rouit   exod. xxii. 7.7. If a man shall deliver unto his neighbour money. It is here determined under what circumstances an action for theft would lie in case of a deposit, viz., if an inanimate thing, as a garment or furniture, be given in charge, and the person with whom it is deposited should allege that it is stolen, God commands that, if the thief be discovered, he should pay double; but, if not, that an oath should be required of the man who declares that the thing has been stolen from him. But, if it be an animal that was given in charge, a somewhat different provision is made, viz., that if it have been violently carried away, or torn by beasts, the person with whom it was deposited should be free; but if it had been stolen, that he should make restitution. In order to understand the principle of this law, we must observe that depositaries are not to be compelled to do more than faithfully preserve the thing entrusted to them ; just as a prudent and careful father of a family is attentive to the preservation of his property. When they have acquitted themselves diligently in this respect, it would be unjust to require more of them; otherwise, when they undertake the burden of this gratuitous office, their generosity would be an injury to themselves. But, since it is not so easy to steal an animal from the stall, or from the hands of the shepherd, the negligence of the shepherd betrays itself in the loss of the beast,1 supposing no violence to have been used. Justice, then, is done in both cases, i.e., that the depositary shall not make good a vessel, or money, or a garment, because this would be in a manner to put him in the place of the thief; but that if the animal be stolen he shall pay its price, unless he can clear himself of carelessness. If any should think that too great indulgence is shewn to the depositary, when God would have the dispute terminated by his oath; the reply is easy, that we do not entrust anything to be kept by another, unless we are persuaded of his honesty. Whoever, then, has chosen a guardian for his property, has borne witness to his own prejudice that he is a good and trustworthy man; and consequently, it would be absurd that he should soon afterwards1 " Que la beste se soit esvanouye sans qu'il en  ait  rien sceu;"  in that the beast has vanished without his knowing anything about it.ЧFr.Sill COMMANDMENT.       LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.          147be involved in an accusation of theft without proof.   Wherefore it was reasonable that God would have the owner of the lost goods acquiesce in the oath of him whom he has considered to be his faithful friend.   Besides, a man is altogether acquitted who clears himself by calling God to witness his innocence, unless any sinister suspicion is alleged against him, and provided he excuses himself on probable evidence. 10. If a man deliver unto his neighbour an ass.    Since in the passage from whence I have taken these four verses, mention is made of a deposit, and Moses is professedly providing against frauds,   and robberies, and thefts,  I have thought it well to place them under this head.    It has indeed some relation to the Third Commandment, because it shews the lawful use of an oath, viz., that in matters of concealment men should have recourse to the witness of God, and that, by the interposition of His sacred name, an end should be put to their strife.    But, while the authority attributed to oaths depends on the reverence due to God, at the same time faith and piety are enforced in them,1 so that all things should correspond.    I have, however, considered the main point, i.e., how controversies as to things concealed should be brought to an end for the advancement of peace and equity.    He would therefore have the depositary acquitted, if he swears that the animal entrusted to him is lost (either by death or violence,2) although he should produce no witness of the matter, since it would be unjust that he should bear the blame, unless fraud, or some more palpable offence, have been committed by him.    At the conclusion, then, it is said, " the owner of it shall accept" the oath, which is equivalent to saying, that he shall be compelled to acquiesce, and shall give no more trouble about it. The expression, " an oath of the Lord shall be between them both," is a remarkable one, whereby the .obligation and sanctity of an oath are enforced, whilst Moses reminds us that God is the author of this sacred mode of attestation, and presides over it as its judge and avenger.1 For these latter words, which I hardly understand, the following are substituted vn.Fr., " Cela touche quant et quant a son service et religion." * Added from Fr.148                 calvin's harmony of the four   exod.xxii.14.14.  And if a man borrow ought of       14.  Si commodato acceperit quis-his neighbour, and it be hurt, or die,   piam a proximo suo, et confractum the owner thereof being not with it;   fuerit aut mortuum domino ejus ab-he shall surely make it good.             sente, reddendo reddet.15.  But if the owner thereof be       15. Si dominus ejus fuerit cum with it, he shall not make it good:    eo, non reddet: si conductum fuerit, if it be an hired thing, it came for   veniens pro mercede sua.his hire.Moses now lays down the law as to a borrowed animal, if it die, or be mutilated, or injured. There is, however, a wide distinction between a thing borrowed and a thing deposited, for he who lends confers a favour; and therefore, when a man borrows a thing, he binds himself to restore it in safety, as far as in him lies. A distinction, however, is made, if the owner himself of the animal be an eye-witness of the death or fracture, he shall bear the loss ; but if the animal should die or be injured in his absence, its value is awarded to him. His presence is tantamount to this, as if it were said, if he shall have seen with his own eyes that the injury did not occur by the fault of him to whom he lent it, then he shall give him no trouble about it. For instance, if you have lent me a horse, and take the journey with me, although anything untoward should happenЧsupposing you are assured that it did not occur by my temerity, or negligence, or bad management, I am free, and exempt from loss.What is here laid down as to a borrowed animal must be applied also to all other things borrowed.LEVITICUS, CHAPTER XXIV.18. And he that killeth a beast 18. Qui percusserit animam ani-shall make it good; beast for beast,    malis, restituet illud:  animam proanima.21. And he that killeth a beast,        21. Qui percusserit animal, red-he shall restore it; and he that kill-    det illud. eth a man, he shall be put to death.God here prescribes, that whosoever has inflicted a loss upon another shall make satisfaction for it, although he may not have turned it to his own profit; for in respect to a theft, its profit is not to be considered, but the intention to injure, or other cause of guilt; for it might happen that he who has killed another's ox should not deliberately desire to do8TII COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.           149him an injury, but in a fit of passion, or from unpremeditated impulse, should nevertheless have inflicted loss upon him. In whatever way, therefore, a man should have committed an offence, whereby another is made poorer, he is commanded to make good the loss. Whence it is clear, that whosoever do not so restrain themselves as to care for a neighbour's advantage as much as for their own, are accounted guilty of theft before God. The object, however, of the law is, that no one should suffer loss by us, which will be the case if we have regard to the good of our brethren.EXODUS, CHAPTER XXI.33.  And if a man shall open a pit,       33. Quum aperuerit quis cister-or if a man shall dig a pit, and not   nam, vel foderit quis cisternam, et cover it, and an ox or an ass fall   non cooperuerit earn:  cecideritque therein;                                          illuc bos vel asinus:34.  The owner of the pit shall       34. Dominus cisternо reddet pe-make it good, and give money unto    cuniam, et restituet domino ejus: et the owner of them; and the dead   quod mortuum est, erit illius. beast shall be his.35.  And if one man's ox hurt an-       35.   Si  percusserit bos  alicujus other's, that he die; then they shall   bovem proximi sui, mortuusque fu-selltheliveox, and divide the money   erit, tune vendet bovem vivum, et of it; and the dead ox also they   partientur pretium ejus: mortuum shall divide.                                     quoque partientur.36.  Or if it be known that the ox       36. Quod si notum fuerit bovem hath used to push in time past, and   esse cornupetam ab heri et nudius-his owner hath not kept him in; he   tertius, et non custodierit eum do-shall surely pay ox for ox; and the   minus ejus, reddendo reddet bovem dead shall be his own.                       pro bove, et mortuus erit illius.33. And if a man shall open a pit. He enumerates still more cases of damage inflicted, in which restitution is to be demanded of the person who gave occasion for the occurrence. First, it is said, If a man shall open a pit, or cistern, and not cover it, and an animal shall fall into it, he is bound to pay its value; and justly, since his carelessness approaches to actual guilt. Here, again, we see how God would have all men to be anxious for their neighbour's advantage ; yet, inasmuch as there was no fraud or malice in the case, he is permitted, after paying its price, to appropriate the carcase to himself. But, if one man's ox should be killed by another's, a most just appointment is made, viz., that, if it happened unexpectedly, and by sudden accident, they should] 50            calvin's harmony or the four    detjt. xxiii. 24.divide the dead ox between them, and, having sold the other, each should take half the price ; but if the ox was a savage one, that its owner should undergo a greater penalty by paying its full price; because he ought to have anticipated the mischief, and thus was scarcely so kind as he should have been, giving occasion to the injury.DEUTERONOMY, CHAPTER XXIII.24.  When thou comest into thy       24. Quum ingressus fueris vineam neighbour's   vineyard,    then   thou   proximi tui, comedes uvas pro desi-mayest eat grapes thy fill at thine    derio tuo ad satietatem tuam: at in own pleasure; but thou shalt not   vase tuo non pones.put any in thy vessel.25.   When thou comest into the       25. Quum ingressus fueris segetem standing corn of thy neighbour, then   proximi tui, decerpes spicas manu thou mayest pluck the ears with thine    tua: at falcem non attolles in sege-hand; but thou shalt not move a   tem proximi tui.sickle unto thy neighbour's standing corn.Since God here concedes a great indulgence to the poor, some restrict it to the labourers in the harvest and vintage,1 as if He permitted them to pluck the ears of corn and grapes with their hands for food alone, and not to carry away. I have no doubt, however, that it refers to all persons, and that no greater license is given than humanity demands. For we must not strain the words too precisely, but look to the intention of the Lawgiver. God forbids men to introduce a sickle into the harvest of another; now, if a man should pluck with his hands as many ears of corn as he could carry on his shoulders, or lay upon a horse, could he excuse himself by the puerile explanation that he had not used a sickle ? But, if common sense itself repudiates such gross impudence, it is plain that the Law has another object, viz., that no one should touch even an ear of another man's harvest, except for present use, which occurred to Christ's disciples, when they were compelled by hunger to rub the ears of corn in their hands, lest they should faint by the way. (Matt. xii. 1.) The same view must be taken as to grapes.    If any man de-1 " The Chaldee translateth, when thou art hired; and of such do the Hebrews understand this Law, that labourers hired to work in a vineyard are to eat of the fruit thereof."ЧAinsworth. So also Vatablus from the Chaldee and Arabic, in Poole's Synopsis.8TH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.151liberately breaks into another's vineyard and gorges himself there, whatever excuse he may make, he will be accounted a thief. Wherefore, there is no doubt but that this Law permits hungry travellers to refresh themselves by eating grapes, when they have not enough of other food. But although the liberty of eating to their fill is granted, still it was not allowable on this pretext to gorge themselves. Besides, vineyards were enclosed with hedges and guarded; whence it appears that the grapes were not exposed to every glutton. This, then, is the sum, that it is not accounted a theft, if a traveller, in order to relieve his hunger, should stretch forth his hand to the hanging fruit,1 until he should arrive at his resting-place where he may buy bread and wine.LEVITICUS, CHAPTER XIX.9.  And when ye reap the harvest of your land, thou shalt not wholly reap the corners of thy field, neither shalt thou gather the gleanings of thy harvest.10.  And thou shalt not glean thy vineyard, neither shalt thou gather every grape of thy vineyard; thou shalt leave them for the poor and stranger: I am the Lord your God.Lev. xxiii. 22. And when ye reap the harvest of your land, thou shalt not make clean riddance of the corners of thy field when thou reapest, neither shalt thou gather any gleaning of thy harvest; thou shalt leave them unto the poor, and to the stranger: I am the Lord your God.Deut. xxiv. 19. When thou cut-test down thine harvest in thy field, and hast forgot a sheaf in the field, thou shalt not go again to fetch it: it shall be for the stranger, for the fatherless, and for the widow; that the Lord thy God may bless thee in all the work of thine hands.20. When thou beatest thine olive-9.   Quum messueritis messem re-gionis  vestrse,   non   finies   metere angulum  agri   tui, et collectionem messis ture non colliges.10.   Et vineam  tuam non race-mabis, neque grana vinese tuae colliges :   pauperi  et  peregrino relin-ques ea: ego Jehova Deus vester.22. Quum metetis messem re-gionis vestrse, non absolves usque ad angulum agri tui: nee collectionem messis tuse colliges: pauperi et peregrino relinques earn : Ego Jehova Deus vester.19.   Quum messueris messem "in agro tuo, et oblitus fueris manipu-lum in agro, non reverteris ad eum tollendum':   peregrino,   pupillo,   et vidua; erit: ut benedicat tibi Jehova Deus tuus in omni opere mamium tuarum.20.  Quum excusseris olivam tuam,1 " Cueille des espis, ou des raisins pour sa necessite," should gather ears of corn or grapes for his necessary wants.ЧFr.152               calvin's harmony or the foue          lev. xix. 9.tree, thou shalt not  go over the   non   scrutaberis   ramos   post   te :boughs again :  it shall be for the   peregrino, pupillo, et viduse erit. stranger, for the fatherless, and for the widow.21.   When  thou   gatherest   the       21.    Quum vindemiabis   vineam grapes of thy vineyard, thou shalt   tuam,  non   colliges  racemos   post not glean it afterward: it shall be   te :   peregrino,   pupillo,   et   viduse for the stranger, for the fatherless,    erunt.and for the widow.22.   And  thou  shalt remember       22. Memento quod servus fueris that thou wast a bond-man in the   in terra ^Egypti:   idcirco prsecipio land of Egypt: therefore I command   tibi ut hoc facias.thee to do this thing.God here inculcates liberality upon the possessors of land, when their fruits are gathered : for, when His bounty is exercised before our eyes, it invites us to imitate Him ; and it is a sign of ingratitude, unkindly and maliciously, to withhold what we derive from His blessing. God does not indeed require that those who have abundance should so profusely give away their produce, as to despoil themselves by enriching others; and, in fact, Paul prescribes this as the measure of our alms, that their relief of the poor should not bring into distress the rich themselves, who kindly distribute. (2 Cor. viii. 13.) God, therefore, permits every one to reap his corn, to gather his vintage, and to enjoy his abundance; provided the rich, content with their own vintage and harvest, do not grudge the poor the gleaning of the grapes and corn. Not that He absolutely assigns to the poor whatever remains, so that they may seize it as their own; but that some small portion may flow gratuitously to them from the munificence of the rich. He mentions indeed by name the orphans, and widows, and strangers, yet undoubtedly He designates all the poor and needy, who have no fields of their own to sow or reap; for it will sometimes occur that orphans are by no means in want, but rather that they have the means of being liberal themselves; nor are widows and strangers always hungry; but I have explained elsewhere why these three classes are mentioned.8TH COMMANDMENT.     LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.153DEUTERONOMY, CHAPTER XV.1. At the end of every seven years thou shalt make a release.2.  And this is the manner of the release: Every creditor that lendeth ought unto his neighbour shall release it; he shall not exact it of his neighbour, or of his brother:  because it is  called the Lord's release.3.   Of a foreigner  thou mayest exact it again: but that which is thine with thy brother thine hand shall release;4.   Save when there shall be no poor among you; for the Lord shall greatly bless thee in the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee for an inheritance to possess it:5.  Only if thou carefully hearken unto the voice of the Lord thy God, to observe to do all these commandments which I command thee this day.6.  For the Lord thy God blesseth thee, as he promised thee: and thou shalt lend unto  many nations, but thou  shalt  not borrow;  and thou shalt reign over many nations, but they shall not reign over thee.7.  If there be among you a poor man of one of thy brethren within any of thy gates, in thy land which the Lord thy God giveth thee, thou shalt not harden thine heart, nor shut  thine   hand   from   thy poor brother;8. But thou shalt open thine hand wide unto him, and shalt surely lend him sufficient for his need, in that which he wanteth.9.  Beware   that   there be not a thought in thy wicked heart, saying, The seventh year, the year of release, is at hand;   and thine eye be evil against thy poor brother, and thou givest him nought, and he cry unto the Lord against thee, and it be sin unto thee.10.  Thou shalt surely give hini, and thine heart shall not be grieved when thou givest unto him: because1.  Septimo quoque  anno   facies remissionem.2.  Heec  autem est ratio   remis-sionis, ut remittat   omnis qui mu-tuum  dederit  manu  sua, id quod mutuum  dederit  amico  suo:  ,non reposcet ab amico suo, aut a fratre suo,   quia proclamata est remissio Jehovse.3.   Ab  alienigena  reposces,  aut quod fuerit tibi apud fratrem tuum, remittet manus tua:4.  Nisi quia non sit (yel, prorsus certe non erit) in te mendicus : quia benedicendo  benedicet tibi Jehova in terra quam ipse Deus tuus dat tibi in hsereditatem ut possideas earn.5.   Sed ita duntaxat, si obediendo obedieris voci Jehova? Dei tui, ita ut custodias faciendo omne prfecep-tum   istud quod ego prrecipio tibi hodie.6.  Nam Jehova Deus tuus bene-dixit tibi, quemadmodum dixit tibi: turn mutuo accepto  pignore  dabis gentibus multis, tu autem non aeci-pies mutuo : et dominaberis gentibus multis, at tibi non dominabuntur.7.   Si fuerit apud  te  mendicus quispiam e fratribus tuis, in una e portis tuis, in terra tua quam Jehova Deus tuus dat tibi: non indu-rabis cor tuum, neque claudes ma-num tuam a fratre tuo mendico.8.   Sed aperiendo aperies illi ma-num tuam, et mutuando mutuabis ei ad sufficientiam usque, id quo in-diguerit.9.   Cave tibi ne sit quidpiam in corde tuo impium, dicendo, Propin-quus est annus Septimus, annus re-missionis:   et  malignus   sit  oculus tuus in fratrem tuum mendicum, ita ut non des ei: clamet autem contra te ad Jehovam, et erit in te pecca-tum.10.  Dando dabis ei, neque malig-num erit cor tuum quum dederis ei: quia hujus rei gratia benedicet tibi].54                 calvin's harmony of the four         deut. xv. 1.tliat for this thing the Lord thy God   Jehova Dcus tuus in omnibus operi-shall bless thee in all thy works, and   bus  tuis,  et   in   omni   expensionein all that thou puttest thine hand   manuum tuarum. unto.11. For the poor shall never cease       11. Non enim deerit mendicus deout of the land: therefore I command   medio terrse:   idcirco prsecipio tibithee, saying, Thou shalt open thine   dicendo, Aperiendo aperies manumhand wide unto thy brother, to thy   tuam fratri tuo, id est pauperi tuopoor, and to thy needy, in thy land,     et mendico tuo in terra tua.1. At the end of every seven years. A special act of humanity towards each other is here prescribed to the Jews, that every seven years, brother should remit to brother whatever was owed him. But, although we are not bound by this law at present, and it would not be even expedient that it should be in use, still the object to which it tended ought still to be maintained, i.e., that we should not be too rigid in exacting our debts, especially if we have to do with the needy, who are bowed down by the burden of poverty. The condition of the ancient people, as I have said, was different. They derived their origin from a single race; the land of Canaan was their common inheritance; fraternal association was to be mutually sustained among them, just as if they were one family: and, inasmuch as God had once enfranchised them, the best plan for preserving their liberty for ever was to maintain a condition of mediocrity, lest a few persons of immense wealth should oppress the general body. Since, therefore, the rich, if they had been permitted constantly to increase in wealth, would have tyrannized over the rest, God put by this law a restraint on immoderate power. Moreover, when rest was given to the land, and men reposed from its cultivation, it was just that the whole people, for whose sake the Sabbath was instituted, should enjoy some relaxation. Still the remission here spoken of was, in my opinion, merely temporary. Some, indeed, suppose that all debts were then entirely cancelled ;* as if the Sabbatical year destroyed all debtor and creditor accounts; but this is1 " The Hebrews (says Ainsworth) for the most part hold the remission to be perpetual." He, however, argues from the word HDDK', an intermission, and its use in that sense in Exod. xxiii. 11, that C.'s interpretation is the correct one. So also Dathe, who quotes Jos. Meyer in his Treatise on the Festivals of the Jews, ch. xvii. sec. 20; and Michaelis, in his Laws of Moses, P. iii. sec. 157.8TH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.          155refuted by the context, for when the Sabbatical year is at hand, God commands them to lend freely, whereas the contract would have been ridiculous, unless it had been lawful to seek repayment in due time. Surely, if no payment had ever followed, it would have been required simply to give: for what would the empty form of lending have availed if the money advanced was never to bo returned to its owner ? But God required all suits to cease for that year, so that no one should trouble his debtor: and, because in that year of freedom and immunity there was no hope of receiving back the money, God provides against the objection, and forbids them to be niggardly, although the delay might produce some inconvenience. First of all, therefore, He commands them to make a remission in the seventh year, i.e., to abstain from exacting their debts, and to concede to the poor, as well as to the land, a truce, or vacation. On which ground Isaiah reproves the Jews for observing the Sabbath amiss, when they exact1 their debts, and "fast for strife and debate." (Is. lviii. 3, 4.) The form of remission is added, That no one should vex his neighbour in the year in which the release of God is proclaimed.3. Of a foreigner thou mayest exact it. An exception follows, that it should be lawful to sue foreigners, and to compel them to pay ; and this for a very good reason, because it was by no means just that despisers of the Law should enjoy the Sabbatical benefit, especially when God had conferred the privilege on His elect people alone. What follows in the next verse, " Unless because there shall be no beggar," interpreters twist into various senses. Some translate it, Nevertheless (veruntamen,) let there be no beggar among thee; as if it were a prohibition, that they should not suffer their poor brethren to be overwhelmed with poverty, without assisting them; and, lest they should object that, if they should be so liberal in giving, they would soon exhaust themselves, God anticipates them, and bids them rely upon His blessing.    Others, however, understand it as a promise, and1 A. V., " all your labours;" margin, " things wherewith ye grieve others; Heb., griefs;" C.'s own version, " omncs facilitates vestras exi-gitis."156                calvin's harmony of the four       deut.xv.S.connect it thus, That there should be no beggar among them, if only they keep the Law, since then God would bless them. Nor would this meaning be very unsuitable. What they mean who expound it, Insomuch that there should be no beggar with thee, I know not. Let my readers, however, consider whether1 *3 DSX, ephes ci, is not better rendered " unless because," (nisi quod;) and then this clause would be read parenthetically, as if it were said, Whenever there shall be any poor among your brethren, an opportunity of doing them good is presented to you. Therefore the poverty of your brethren is to be relieved by you, in order that God may bless you. But, that the sentence may be clearer, I take the two words, *3 D5X, ephes ci, exclusively, as if it were, On no account let there be a beggar: or, howsoever it may be, suffer not that by your fault there should be any beggar amongst you; for He would put an end to all vain excuses, and, as necessity arose, would have them disposed to give assistance, lest the poor should sink under the pressure of want and distress. He does not, therefore, mean generally all poor persons, but only those in extreme indigence ; such as the Prophet Amos complains are " sold for a pair of shoes/' (Amos ii. 6.) In order, then, that they may more cheerfully assist their distresses, He promises that His blessing shall be productive of greater abundance. And from hence Paul seems to have derived his exhortation to the Corinthians : " He which sowetli bountifully, shall reap also bountifully. God is able to make all grace abound toward you; that ye, always having all sufficiency in all things, may abound to every good work. Now he that minis-tereth seed to the sower, shall both minister bread for your1 S.M., However. A. V., Save when; or, in its margin, To the end that. S. M. refers to Jewish expositors as saying, " The meaning is, Thou shalt not fear that this law may do you an injury; for, if you be such zealous observers of my precepts, I will so bless you, and make all things needful for you to increase, that there shall be no poor man amongst you, to whom you need give what is lent. And if there be any person needing your assistance, and ye, for my sake, forgive his debt, as I have commanded, the man who doth thus shall not lose what was owed him, but shall receive from me a more abundant blessing." The learned reader may find this expression further discussed in Noldii Concord, partic. Art., 509 of Annot. and Vindic.ЧW.8TH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.         157food, and multiply your seed sown, and increase the fruits of your righteousness, that, being enriched in every thing, you may abound unto all bountifulness." (2 Cor. ix. 6-11.) In short, God would have them without carefulness, since He will abundantly recompense them with His blessing, if they have diminished their own stores by liberality to the poor.6. For the Lord thy God blesseih thee. He confirms the foregoing declaration, but ascends from the particular to the general; for, after having taught that they might expect from God's blessing much more than they have bestowed on the poor, he now recalls their attention to the Covenant itself, as much as to say, that whatever they have is derived from that original fountain of God's grace, when He made them inheritors of the land of Canaan. God reminds them also that He then promised them abundant produce; and thus indicates that, if they were mean and niggardly, they would cause the land to be barren. When He says that they should lend to all nations, He speaks by way of amplification; and also in the next clause, that they should reign over the Gentiles ; whence it follows, that if there were any in want among them, it would arise from the wickedness and depravity of the people themselves.7. If there be among you a poor man. The same word J, ebyon, is used, which we have seen just above, verse 4 ; nor is there any contradiction when He commands them to relieve beggars, whom He had before forbidden to exist among His people ; for the object of the prohibition was, that if any were reduced to beggary, they should not be cast out and forsaken. Now, however, He explains the mode of preventing this, viz., that the hands of the rich should be open to assist them. In order to incline them to compassion, He again reminds them of their common brotherhood, and sets before them, as its token and pledge, the land in which by God's goodness they dwell together. Again, that they may be willing and prompt in their humanity, He forbids them to harden their heart, thereby signifying that avarice is always cruel. Finally, He applies this instruction to the year of release, viz., that they should straightway relieve158                oalvin's harmony or the four    deut. xv. 11.their poor brethren towards the beginning of that year, just as if they would receive back in a few days the money which the poor man would retain to its end.11. For the poor shall never cease out of the land. The notion1 of those is far fetched who suppose that there would be always poor men among them, because they would not keep the law, and consequently the land would be barren on account of their unrighteousness. I admit that this is true ; but God does not here ascribe it to their sins that there would always be some beggars among them, but only reminds them that there would never be wanting matter for their generosity, because He would prove what was in their hearts by setting the poor before them. For, (as I have observed above,) this is why the rich and poor meet together, and the Lord is maker of them all; because otherwise the duties of charity would not be observed unless they put them into exercise by assisting each other. Wherefore God, to stir up the inactivity of the rich, declares that He prescribes nothing but what continual necessity will require.EXODUS, CHAPTER XXI.1.  Now these are the judgments       1. Itec sunt judicia quse propones which thou shalt set before them.       eis.2.  If thou buy an Hebrew servant,       2. Si emeris servum Hebraeum, six years he shall serve; and in the    sex annis serviet: septimo egredie-seventh he shall go out free for no-    tur gratis.thing.3.  If he came in by himself, he       3.  Si cum corpore suo ingressus shall go out by himself; if he were   fuerit, cvim corpore suo egredietur: married, then his wife shall go out    si maritus mulieris erat, egredietur with him.                                         et uxor ejus cum ipso.4.  If his master have given him       4. Si herus ejus dederit ei uxor-a wife, and she have born him sons   em, et pepererit ei filios, vel filias, or daughters ;   the wife and  her   uxor et filii ejus erunt heri sui: ipse children shall be her master's, and    vero egredietur cum corpore suo. he shall go out by himself.5.  And if the servant shall plainly       5.  Quod si dicendo dixerit servus, say, I love my master, my wife, and   Diligo   herum   menm,   et uxorem my children; I will not go out free:    meam, et filios meos, non egredieturliber:6. Then his master shall bring him        6. Tune adducet eum herus ejus unto the judges; he shall also bring   ad judices,  et applicabit eum  ad1 " I know that ye will not obey me with a perfect heart, and therefore my blessing shall be lessened towards you, and there shall be poor among you." Hebrew commentators quoted in Munster and Pagius.ЧPoole's Syn.8TH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.159him to the door, or unto the doorpost : and his master shall bore his ear through with an awl; and he shall serve him for ever.Deut. xv. 12. And if thy brother, an Hebrew man, or an Hebrew woman, be sold unto thee, and serve thee six years, then in the seventh year thou shalt let him go free from thee.13.  And when thou sendest him out free 'from thee, thou shalt not let him go away empty :14.  Thou shalt furnish him liberally out of thy flock, and out of thy floor, and out of thy wine-press: of that wherewith the Lord thy God hath blessed thee thou shalt give unto him.15.    And thou shalt remember that thou wast a bond-man in the land of Egypt, and the Lord thy God redeemed  thee :   therefore  I command thee this thing to-day.16.   And it shall be, if he say unto thee, I will not go away from thee; (because he loveth thee and thine house, because he is well with thee;)17.  Then thou shalt take an awl, and thrust it through his ear unto the door, and he shall be thy servant for ever: and also unto thy maidservant thou shalt do likewise.18.  It shall not seem hard unto thee when thou sendest him away free from thee; for he hath been worth a double hired servant to thee, in serving thee six years: and the Lord thy God shall bless thee in all that thou doest.ostium, vel ad postern, perforabitque herus ejus aurem ejus subula, et serviet ei in sseculum.12. Si venditus fuerit tibi frater tuus Hebraeus, vel Hebrsea, et servi-erit tibi sex annis: anno septimo dimittes eum liberum a te.13.  Et quum dimittes eum liberum a te, non dimittes eum vacuum.14.  Onerando onerabis eum, de pecudibus tuis, et de area tua, et de torculari tuo: in quibus benedixit tibi Jehova Deus tuus, dabis ei.15.  Et recordaberis quod servus fuisti in terra JEgypti, et redemerit te Jehova Deus tuus: idcirco ego prsecipio tibi hoc hodie.16.  Quod si dixerit tibi, Non egre-diar a te: propterea quod diligat te et domum tuam, et quod bene sit ei tecum:17.   Tune  accipies  subulam, et adiges in aurem ejus in porta : erit-que tibi servus in saeculum: sic eti-am ancilliB tuse facies.18.  Non sit durum in oculis tuis quum dimittes eum liberum a te, quia duplo secundum mercedem mer-cenarii servivit tibi sex annis: et benedicet tibi Jehova in  omnibus quae facies.Exod. xxi. 1. Now these are the judgments. Both passages contain the same appointment, viz., that as to the Hebrews slavery must end at the seventh year ; for God would have the children of Abraham, although obliged to sell themselves, to differ from heathen and ordinary slaves. Their enfranchisement is, therefore, enjoined, but with an exception, which Moses expresses in the first passage but omits in the latter, i.e., that if the slave had married a bond-woman, and had begotten children, they should remain with the master,160                      CALVIN'S HARMONY OF THE FOUR       EXOD.XXI. 1.and that he should alone be free. Whence it appears how hard was the condition of slaves, since it could not be mitigated without an unnatural exception (sine prodigio ;) for nothing could be more opposed to nature than that a husband, forsaking his wife and children, should remove himself elsewhere. But the tie of slavery could only be loosed by divorce, that is to say, by this impious violation of marriage. There was then gross barbarity in this severance, whereby a man was disunited from half of himself and his own bowels. Yet there was no remedy for it; for if the wife and children had been set free, it would have been a spoliation of their lawful master to take them with him, not only because the woman was his slave, but because he had incurred expense in the bringing up of the young children. The sanctity of marriage therefore gave way in this case to private right; and this defect is to be reckoned amongst the others which God tolerated on account of the people's hardness of heart, because it could hardly be remedied ; yet, if any one were withheld by chaste affection, and unwilling to abandon his wife and offspring, an alternative is presented, viz., that he should give himself up also to perpetual slavery. The form of this is more clearly pointed out in Exodus than in Deuteronomy ; for, in the latter, it is only said that the master, in order to assert his perpetual right to the slave, should bore his ear; whereas in Exodus the circumstance is added, that a public process should first take place; for, if each private individual had been his own judge in this matter, the rich men's houses would have been like slaughterhouses to put their wretched slaves to the torment in.1 We read in Jeremiah, (xxxiv. 11,) that this law fell into contempt, and that the Jews, contrary to all law and justice, retained perpetual dominion over their slaves; nay, that when they were severely reprimanded under King Zede-kiah, and liberty was anew proclaimed, the wretched men were immediately dragged back to their yoke of tyranny, as if they had been set free in mockery. Care was therefore to be taken lest, by secret tortures, they should compel the unwilling to continue as their slaves ; and the provision 1 " Pour tormenter, et gehenner les poures serfs."ЧFr.8TH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.          161against this evil was an open confession of their desire before the judges ; whilst the boring of the ear was a kind of stigma upon them. For the Orientals were accustomed to brand slaves, or fugitives, or criminals, or those who were in any wise suspected; and although God did not choose to have this mark of ignominy imprinted on the foreheads of His people, yet, if any one voluntarily consented to endure perpetual slavery, He willed that he should bear this token of his servitude upon his ear. Still we must remember that even this slavery, although it is said to endure for ever, was brought to a close at the jubilee, because then the condition of the land and people was altogether renewed.Deut. xv. 13. And when ihou sendest him out free from thee. Here not only is the enfranchisement of slaves enjoined, but an exhortation to liberality is also added, viz., that they should not send away their slaves without their hire ; for this is not a civil enactment for the purpose of extorting from the avaricious more than they were willing to give. The rule of Paul here applies : " Every man according as he purposeth in his heart, so let him give ; not grudgingly or of necessity : for God loveth a cheerful giver." (2 Cor. ix. 7.) But, since the Hebrew slaves were brethren, God would not allow them to be placed in a worse condition than hirelings. That He commands them to be furnished out of the wine-press, and floor, and flock, does not mean that they were to be enriched, or that a large provision should be assigned to them, but He justly lays a constraint on the rich, whose varied abundance supplied them with the means of liberality ; as if He would shew them from whence they received their gratuitous gifts, which were at the same time a just compensation for the labours of their slaves.18. It shall not seem hard unto thee. I have lately observed how difficult and inconvenient to the Jews was the observance of this law ; wherefore it is not without reason that God reproves their mean and niggardly pride, if they enfranchised their slaves grudgingly. And, indeed, He first urges them to obey on the score of justice, and then from the hope of remuneration. For He reminds them that for six years the slave had earned double the wages of a hire-162CALVIN S HARMONY OF THE FOURLEV. XXV.ling, either because his life was more laborious, inasmuch as heavier tasks are required from slaves than from free-men, who are paid for their work ; or because he had completed twice as long a period as hirelings were wont to be engaged for. For the Jewish (commentators)' infer from this passage, that three years was the term prescribed for hired servants; and thus they suppose the six years were counted. But since this is a mere conjecture, I know not whether my opinion is not more suitable, that for six years their labours had been twice as profitable as would have been those of a free-man who is not under the compulsion of a slave.LEVITICUS, CHAPTER XXV.39.   And   if  thy   brother   that dwelleth by thee  be waxen poor, and be sold unto thee; thou shalt not compel him to serve as a bondservant :40.  But as an hired servant, and as a sojourner,he shall be with thee, and shall serve thee unto the year of jubilee :41.  And then shall he depart from thee, both he and his children with him, and shall return unto his own family, and unto the possession of his fathers shall he return.42.   For they are my servants, which I brought forth out of the land of Egypt:   they shall not be sold as bond-men.43.  Thou shalt not rule over him with rigour, but shalt fear thy God.44.  Both thy bond-men and thy bond-maids, which thou shalt have, shall be of  the heathen that are round about you; of them shall ye buy bond-men and bond-maids.45.  Moreover, of the children of the strangers that do sojourn among you, of them shall ye buy, and of39.   Si  attenuatus  fuerit  frater tuus apud te, ita ut vendat se tibi, non uteris opera ejus tanquam servi opera.40.  Tanquam mercenarius, tanquam colonus erit tecum: usque ad annum Jubikei serviet tibi.41.  Egredietur autem a te ipse, et liberi ejus cum eo, ac revertetur ad familiam suam, et ad possession-em patrum suorum revertetur.42.  Sunt enim servi mei quos eduxi e terra ^Egypti: non venden-tur venditione servili.43.  Non dominaberis  illis dure sed timebis a Deo tuo.44.   Servus autem tuus et ancilla tua qui erunt tibi, de gentibus erupt quse sunt in circuitu vestro, ex iis emetis servum et ancillam.45.  Et etiam de filiis incolarum qui versantur apud vos, emetis : et de familia eorum qui apud vos sunt,1 " The Chaldee, Vatablus, and other more recent commentators translate it, Since he has served thee for six years for double the wages of a hireling ; which the Hebrews thus explain, that the wages of a slave of six years' standing are called double, because hirelings amongst the Hebrews only engaged themselves for three years, whereas the slave served for six years; therefore he served twice as long, and earned twice as much."Ч Corn, a Lapide in loco.8TH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OP THE PENTATEUCH.163their families that are with you, which they begat in your land; and they shall be your possession:46.  And ye shall take them as an inheritance for your children after you, to inherit them for a possession ; they shall be your bond-men for ever :   but over your brethren the children of Israel, ye shall not rule one over another with rigour.47.  And if a sojourner or stranger wax rich by thee, and thy brother that dwelleth by him wax poor, and sell himself unto the stranger or sojourner by thee, or to the stock of the stranger's family:48.  After that he is sold he may be redeemed  again;   one   of  his brethren may redeem him :49.  Either his uncle, or his uncle's son, may redeem him, or any that is nigh of kin unto him of his family may redeem him; or, if he be able, he may redeem himself.50.  And he shall reckon with him that bought him, from the year that he was sold to him, unto the year of jubilee:   and the price of his sale shall be according unto the number of years, according to the time of an hired servant shall it be with him.51.  If there be yet many years behind, according unto them he shall give again the price of his redemption out of the money that he was bought for.52.  And if there remain but few years unto the year of jubilee, then he shall count with him, and according unto his years shall he give him again the price of his redemption.53.  And as a yearly hired servant shall he be with him : and the other shall not rule with rigour over him in thy sight.54.  And if he be not redeemed in these years, then he shall go out in the year of jubilee, both he, and his children with him.55.  For unto me the children of Israel are servants;  they are my servants, whom I brought forth out of the land of Egypt: I am the Lord your God.quos procreaverunt in terra vestra: eruntque vobis in possessionem.46.  Et jure hoereditario posside-bitis eos pro filiis vestris post vos, ad possidendum possessionem : in per-petuum utemini opera eorum : fra-tribus autem vestris flliis Israel quis-que   fratri   suo   non   dominabitur dure.47.    Si    autem   apprehenderint manus peregrini et advense qui est apud te, et attenuatus fuerit frater tuus qui apud ilium versatur, seque vendiderit peregrino et advente qui est apud te, vel stirpi familise peregrini :48.  Postquam vendiderit se, re-demptio erit ei:   unus e fratribus ejus redimet eum:49.  Aut patruus ejus, aut filius patrui ejus redimet eum, aut pro-pinquus carnis ejus e familia ejus redimet eum : aut si apprehenderit manus ejus, tune redimet seipsum.50.   Et supputabit  cum   eo qui emit ipsum, ab anno quo se vendidit illi, usque ad annum Jubilsei, sesti-mabiturque pecunia venditionis ejus secundum numerum annorum:   et secundum dies mercenarii net cum eo.51.   Si adhuc multi fuerint anni, secundum eos restituet redemption-em suam de argento venditionis suse.52.  Quod si parum reliquum sit ex annis usque ad annum Jubilsei, tune supputabit cum eo : et secundum annos suos restituet redempti-onem suam.53.  Tanquam   mercenarius   an-nuus erit cum illo: non dominabitur ei dure in oculis tuis.54.   Si non se redemerit in illis, egredietur in anno Jubilsei ipse et filii ejus:55.   Quia mihi sunt filii   Israel servi, servi mei sunt quos eduxi e terra iEgypti:   ego Jehova Deus vester.164               calvin's harmony of the four     lev. xxv. 39.39. And if thy brother. He now proceeds further, i.e., that one who has bought his brother should treat him with humanity, and not otherwise than a hired servant. We have seen, indeed, just above, that the labour of a slave is estimated at twice as much, because the humanity of his master will never go so far as to indulge or spare his slave as if he were a hireling. It is not, therefore, without reason that God puts a restraint upon that rule, which experience shews to have been often tyrannical. Still He prescribes no more than heathen philosophers did,1 viz., that masters should treat their slaves like hired servants. And this principle of justice ought to prevail towards all without exception ; but since it was difficult to prescribe the same rule respecting strangers as respecting their brethren, a special law is enacted, that at least they should observe moderation towards their brethren, with whi m they had a common inheritance and condition. First, therefore, it is provided as to Hebrew slaves that they should not be treated harshly and contemptuously like captives {mancipia;) and then that their slavery should come to an end in the year of jubilee. But here the question arises, since their liberty was before accorded to them in the seventh year, why it is now postponed to the fiftieth ? Some get over the difficulty by supposing that,2 if the jubilee occurred during the six years, they must then be set free, although they had not completed the whole term; but this is too forced a conjecture. .The view that most approves itself to me is, that the word 72', yobel, is extended to mean every seventh year, or, at any rate, that moderation towards those slaves is specially prescribed who were most exposed to violence and other injurious treatment. For they would not have dared to oppress at pleasure their slaves, who were1  Seneca de Benef. iii. 22.    " Servus (ut placet Chrysippo) perpetuus mercenarius est."    See also Sen. Epp. vi.  47, in which the following beautiful sentiment occurs: " Hsec tamen mei prsecepti summa est, Sic cum inferiore vivas, quemadmodum tecum superiorem velis vivere."2  So the Hebrew doctors, and Ainsworth, Caietan, and Willet.   Mi-chaelis supposes that servants were regularly restored to freedom after six years' service, (not on the Sabbatical year, but on the seventh from the sale ;) but supposing them bought less than six years before the jubilee, they received their freedom on that year.    Laws of Moses, vol. ii. p. 176. ЧBrightwell.8THCOMMANDMENT.     LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.           165soon afterwards to be free ; but those who, by having their ears bored, had subjected themselves to the longer period of slavery, would have been more outrageously harassed, unless God had interposed. And this opinion I freely adopt, that although their slavery lasted to the jubilee, yet that their masters were to treat them with moderation and humanity. This too is confirmed by what immediately follows, where it is enjoined that the children should be set free with their fathers, which did not take place in the seventh year.42. For they are my servants. God here declares that His own right is invaded when those, whom He claims as His property, are taken into subjection by another ; for He says that He acquired the people as His own when He redeemed them from Egypt. Whence He infers that His right is violated if any should usurp perpetual dominion over a Hebrew. If any object that this is of equal force, when they only serve for a time, I reply, that though God might have justly asserted His sole ownership, yet He was satisfied with this symbol of it; and therefore that He suffered by indulgence that they should be enslaved for a fixed period, provided some trace of His deliverance of them should remain. In a word. He simply chose to apply this preventative lest slavery should altogether extinguish the recollection of His grace, although He allowed it to be thus smothered as it were. Lest, therefore, cruel masters should trust that their tyranny would be exercised with impunity, Moses reminds them that they had to do with God, who will at length appear as its avenger. Although the political laws of Moses are not now in operation, still the analogy is to be preserved, lest the condition of those who have been redeemed by Christ's blood should be worse amongst us, than that of old of His ancient people. To whom Paul's exhortation refers : " Ye masters, forbear threatening your slaves, knowing that both your and their Master is in heaven."1    (Eph. vi. 9.)44. Both thy bond-men, and thy bond-maids.    What Godhere permits as regards strangers was everywhere customaryamong the Gentiles, viz., that their power over their slavesshould exist not only until their death, but should continue1 See Margin of A. V.166              calvin's harmony or the four     lev. xxv. 47.in perpetual succession to their children ; for this is the force of the expression, " ye shall possess them for your children," that the right of ownership should pass to their heirs also ; nor is there a distinction made only as to perpetuity,1 but also as to the mode of their treatment. For we must observe the antithesis, "ye shall make use of their service, but over his brother no man shall rule with rigour ;"2 whence it appears that a restraint was imposed upon them lest they should imperiously rule the children of Abraham, and not leave them half their liberty in comparison with the Gentiles. Not that a tyrannical or cruel exercise of power o,ver strangers was allowed, but that God would have the race of Abraham, whose liberator He was, exempted by certain privileges from the common lot.47. And if a sojourner or a stranger. A caution is here introduced as to the Israelites who had enslaved themselves to strangers. But by strangers understand only those who inhabited the land of Canaan; for, if any one had been carried away into other countries, God would have enacted this law as to their redemption in vain. A power, therefore, of redeeming the slave is granted to his relatives, or, if he had himself obtained sufficient to pay his price, the same permission is accorded to himself. The mode and the form of this are then expressed: that a calculation of the time which remained before the jubilee should be made, and the period which had already elapsed should be subtracted from the sum, viz., if he had been sold for fifty shekels he should only pay ten shekels in the fortieth year, because only a fifth part of the time remained. But if none of his family aided him, and the unhappy man's hope of redemption was frustrated, He commands that he should be set free in the jubilee year, in which a general enfranchisement took place as regarded the children of Abraham. The object of the law was, that none of those whom God had adopted, should be1  " Or la diversite d'entre les estrangers, et les enfans d'Israel n'est pas settlement mis,  &c.;"   now  the diversity between strangers  and   the children of Israel is not only placed, &c.ЧFr.2  See Margin of A. V. on ver. 46.    " His in perpetuum tanquam servis utamini, popularibus  vero vestris  Israelitis  ne severius   imperetis."Ч Dathe.8tII COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.           167alienated from their race, and thus should depart from the true worship of God Himself. The whole of this is comprehended in the last verse, where God declares that the children of Abraham were His property, inasmuch as He had led them forth from the land of Egypt, and, on the other hand, that He is their peculiar God. For, whilst it was just that they should enjoy His blessing, so also it behoved that they should be kept sound in His pure and undivided worship ; whereas, if they had been the slaves of Gentiles, not only would the elect people have been diminished in numbers, but circumcision would have been corrupted and a door opened to impious perversions. Yet God so mitigates His law as to lay no unjust burden upon sojourners, since He concedes more to them, with respect to Hebrew slaves, than to the natives of the land ; for if they had sold themselves to their brethren, they went forth free in the seventh year, whilst their slavery under sojourners was extended to the fiftieth year. This exception only was introduced that the stranger who had bought slaves should enfranchise them on the payment of their value. Since God had previously promised to His people a large and manifold abundance of all good things, the poverty here adverted to could only occur from the curse of God ;x we see, therefore, that of His incomparable loving-kindness He stretches forth His hand to the transgressors of His law ; and, whilst He chastises them with poverty, still looks upon them, unworthy as they are, and provides a remedy for the ills which their own guilt had brought upon them.LEVITICUS, CHAPTER XXV.23.  The land shall not be sold       23. Terra autem non vendetur for ever : for the land is mine; for   absolute, quia mea est terra:  vos ye are strangers and sojourners with   enim   peregrini,   et   advense   estis me.                                                apud me.24.  And in all the land of your       24. In universa autem terra pos-possession ye shall grant a redemp-   sessionis vestrse redemptionem  da-tion for the land.                              bitis terrse.25.  If thy brother be waxen poor,       25.  Quum attenuatus fuerit fra-and hath sold away some of his pos-   ter tuus, et vendiderit de possessione1 Addition in Fr., " Et d'un juste chastiment de leurs pechez;" and as a just chastisement of their sins.168calvin's harmony of the four    lev. xxv. 23.session, and if any of his kin come to redeem it, then shall he redeem that which his brother sold.26.  And if the man have none to redeem it, and himself be able to redeem it;27.   Then let him count the years of the sale thereof, and restore the overplus unto the man to whom he sold it, that he may return unto his possession.28.  But if he be not able to restore it to him, then that which is sold shall remain in the hand of him that hath bought it until the year of jubilee: and in the jubilee it shall go out, and he shall return unto his possession.29.  And if a man sell a dwelling-house in a walled city, then he may redeem it within a whole year after it is sold: within a full year may he redeem it.30.  And if it be not redeemed within the space of a full year, then the house that is in the walled city shall be established for ever to him that bought it, throughout his generations: it shall not go out in the jubilee.31.  But the houses of the villages, which have no walls round  about them, shall be counted as the fields of the country;   they may be redeemed, and they shall go out in the jubilee.32.  Notwithstanding the cities of the Levites, and the houses of the cities of their possession, may the Levites redeem at any time.33.  And if a man purchase of the Levites, then the  house that was sold, and the city of his possession, shall go out in the year of jubilee : for the houses of the cities of the Levites are their possession among the children of Israel.34.  But the field of the suburbs of their cities may not be sold; for it is their perpetual possession.sua: tune veniet redemptor ejus propinquus ipsi: et redimet venditi-onem fratris sui.26.  Et, si non fueritviro redemptor, sed apprehenderit manus ejus, et invenerit  quod  sufficit ad ejus redemptionem;27.   Tune supputabit annos ven-ditionis sure, et restituet quod su-perest viro cui vendidit, et revertetur ad possessionem suam.28.  Si vero non invenerit manus ejus quod sufficiat ad reddendum illi, turn erit venditio ejus in manu ejus, qui emit ilium, usque ad annum Jubilsei: at egredietur in Jubilseo, reverteturque ad possessionem suam.29.  Vir autem quum vendiderit domum habitationis  in  urbe  mu-rata, erit redemptio ejus donee com-pleatur annus venditionis ejus : anno uno erit redemptio ejus.30.   Quod si non redimatur donee impleatur illi annus   integer,   re-manebit domus quse fuerit in civi-tate cui est murus, absolute ementi jllam in generationibus ejus:   non egredietur in Jubilseo.31.  Domus autem villarum qui-bus non est murus in circuitu, se-cundum agrum terra? sestimabitur, redemptio  erit ei,  et   in   Jubilseo egredietur.32.  Urbium   autem   Levitarum, et   domorum   urbium   possessions eorum,   redemptio   perpetua    erit Levitis.33.   Qui autem emerit a Levitis, egredietur venditio domus, et urbis possessionis ejus in Jubilseo, quia domus urbium Levitarum est posses-sio eorum in medio flliorum Israel.34. Ager autem suburbii urbium eorum non vendetur, quia possessio perpetua est illis.23. The land shall not be sold for ever.     Since the reason for this law was peculiar to the children of Abraham, its8lH COMMANDMENT.     LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.          169provisions can hardly be applied to other nations; for so equal a partition of the land was made under Joshua, that the inheritance was distributed amongst the several tribes and families ; nay, in order that each man's possession should be more sacred, the land had been divided by lot, as if God by His own hand located them in their separate stations. In fact, that allotment was, as it were, an inviolable decree of God Himself, whereby the memory of the covenant should be maintained, by which the inheritance of the land had been promised to Abraham and his posterity ; and thus the land of Canaan was an earnest, or symbol, or mirror, of the adoption on which their salvation was founded. Wherefore it is not to be wondered at that God was unwilling that this inestimable benefit should ever be lost; and, lest this should be the case, like a provident father of a family, He laid a restraint on His children, to prevent them from being too prodigal; for, when a man has any suspicions of his heir, he forbids him to alienate the patrimony he leaves him. Such, therefore, was the condition of the ancient people ; yet it cannot be indiscriminately transferred to other nations who have had no common inheritance given them. Some vestige of it appears in the right of redemption j1 but, because that depends on the consent of the parties, and is also a special mode of contract, it has nothing to do with the law of Moses, which entirely restored both men and lands, (in the year of jubilee.2) That God should call the land of Canaan His, is, as it were, to assert His direct Lordship3 (dominium,) as they call it, over it; as He immediately afterwards more clearly expresses His meaning, where He says that the children of Israel sojourn in it as His guests.* For although their condition was the best in which just and perpetual1 " JRedemptio in Law, a faculty or right of re-entering upon lands, &c, that have been sold and assigned, upon re-imbursing the purchase-money with legal costs. Bargains wherein the faculty, or, as some call it, the equity of redemption is reserved, are only a kind of pignorative contracts. A certain time is limited, within which the faculty of redemption shall be exercised; and beyond which it shall not extend. ЧChambers's Encyclopaedia.8 Added from Fr.' " La seigneurie directe (qu'on appelle,) ou fonsiere."ЧFr.* Addition in Fr., " Ou fermiers, ou grangiers."170               caltxn's harmony of the four      lev. xxv. 29.owners can be placed, still, as respected God, they were but His tenants (coloni,) only living there at His will. In fine, God claims the freehold (fundum) for Himself, lest the recollection of His having granted it to them should ever escape them.24. And in all the land of your possession. Before the jubilee came, He permits not only the relations to redeem land sold by a poor man, but the seller also, if no other redeemer interposed. The same power was also given to relations amongst other nations, though with a different object, viz., the preservation of the family name; still, the seller was never allowed to redeem, unless a special clause to that effect was contained in the contract. But God desired that the lands should be retained by their legal possessor, in order that the people might deviate as little as possible from the division made by Joshua. Meanwhile, He had in view the private advantage of individuals; but in the perpetual succession to the land He considered Himself rather than men, in order that the recollection of His kindness should never be lost. Finally, He orders all lands to return in the year of jubilee to their original owners; and all sales to be cancelled, as if, in the fiftieth year, He renewed the lot for the division of the land.29. And if a man sell a dwelling-house. He here distinguishes houses from lands, providing that the power of redemption should not extend beyond a year; and also, that the purchase should hold good even in the jubilee. A second distinction, however, is also added between different kinds of houses, viz., that houses in towns might be altogether alienated, whilst the condition of those in the country should be the same as that of the lands themselves, as being annexed so as to form part of them. As regarded houses in towns, because they were sometimes burdensome to their owners, it was an advantage that they might pass into the hands of the rich who were competent to bear the expenses of building. Besides, a house does not supply daily food like a field, and it is more tolerable to be without a house than a field, in which you may work, and from the cultivation of which you may support yourself and family.    But it8TH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.          171was necessary to except houses in the country, because they were appendages to the land ; for what use would there be in harvesting the fruits, if you had no place to store them in ? Nay, what would it profit to possess a farm which you could not cultivate ? for how could oxen plough without any stalls in its vicinity ? Since, then, lands without farm-buildings or cottages are almost useless, and they cannot be conveniently separated, justly did God appoint that, in the year of Jubilee, every rural possession should revert to its former owner.32. Notwithstanding the cities of the Levites. Another exception, that the Levites should recover the houses they had sold, either by the right of redemption, or gratuitously in the year of jubilee. And this is not only appointed out of favour to them, but because it concerned the whole people, that they should be posted like sentries in the place which God had assigned to them. As to the suburbs, or the lands destined for the support of their cattle, God forbids their alienation, because thus they would have forsaken their proper station and removed elsewhere; whereas it was of importance to the whole people that such a dispersion should not occur.DEUTERONOMY, CHAPTER XX.19.  When thou shalt besiege a city       19. Si obsederis urbem,  diebus a long time, in making war against   multis pugnando adversus earn, ut it to take it, thou shalt not destroy    capias earn, non disperdes arbores the trees thereof by forcing an axe   ejus, impellendoineassecurim: quia against them: for thou mayest eat   ex illarum fructibus veseeris, prop-of them, and thou shalt not cut them   terea ipsas non succides: (quia an down, (for the tree of the field is   homo arbor agri ut ingrediatur a man's life,) to employ them in the   facie tua in munitionem ?)siege:20.  Only the  trees which  thou       20.   Veruntamen   arbores   quas knowest that they be not trees for   noveris  non  esse   fructiferas,   dis-meat, thou shalt destroy and cut   perdes,  et  succides:   et sediflcabis them down; and thou shalt build   munitionem adversus urbem illam bulwarks against the city that mak-   quse tecum dimicat, donee descendat eth war with thee, until it be sub-   ipsa.dued.19. When thou shalt besiege a city a long time. I have not hesitated to annex this precept to the Eighth Commandment, for when God lays a restraint on the liberty of inflicting172                calvin's harmony of the four   deut. xx. 19.injuries in the very heat of war, with respect to felling trees, much more did He desire His people to abstain from all mischievous acts in time of peace. The sum is, that although the laws of war opened the gate to plunder and rapine, still they were to beware, as much as possible, lest the land being desolated, it should be barren for the future; in short, that the booty was so to be taken from the enemy, as that the advantage of the human race should still be considered, and that posterity might still be nourished by the trees which do not quickly arrive at the age of fruit-bearing. He commands them to spare fruit-trees, first of all, for this reason, because they supply food to all men ; and thus the blessing of God is manifested in them. He then adds, as a second reason, that trees are exposed to everybody, whereby He signifies that war should not be waged with them as with men. This passage is indeed variously explained, but the sense which I have chosen accords very well and appears to be the right one. For,1 although the letter PI is demonstrative, according to the rules of grammar, and thus points out the enemy; yet, in my opinion, the sentence is to be taken interrogatively. But *Yl2fiD, matzor, signifies rather a bulwark than a siege. God, therefore, indirectly reproves the stupidity and madness of men, who, when in arms, exert their strength against a tree which does not move from its place, but waits to meet them. Thus the open field is contrasted with the bulwark. Meanwhile, God permits ramparts and palisadoes, and other machines used in sieges, to be made of trees which do not bear fruit, and only provides that the tempest of war, which ought to be momentary, should not strip the land of its ornaments for many years. Still, there is no such strict rule laid down as that a fruit-tree may not be cut down if necessity demands it; but God1 г. M. and the LXX. agree in regarding n as interrogative here, hence S. M. renders the clause, " Thinkest thou that the tree of the field is a. man that he must depart from thy face in the siege ?" and he quotes Rabbi Solomon as giving a similar exposition. But he also quotes Aben-Bzra as rendering the clause in the same manner as our A. V. The word "11XD admits of either of the two interpretations quoted by C.ЧW.Dathe's version is, "for they (i.e. the trees) are appointed by God for the use of men," and he thinks that Moses undoubtedly had in view the precept in Gen. i. 29.8lH COMMANDMENT.     LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.           173restrains the Israelites from giving way to destruction and devastation under the impulse of anger and hatred, and in forgetfulness of the calls of humanity.DEUTERONOMY, CHAPTER XXI.14.  And it shall be, if thou have       14.   Si non placuerit tibi uxor no delight in her, then thou shalt let   captiva, dimittes earn pro desiderio her go whither she will; but thou   suo: nee vendendo vendes earn pe-shalt not sell her at all for money,   cunia, neque negotiaberis de ea, quod thou shalt not make merchandise of   amixeris earn.her, because thou hast humbled her.15.  If a man have two wives, one       15. Quumfuerintviroduseuxores, beloved, and another hated, and they   una dilecta et altera exosa, et pepe-have borne him children, both the   rerit ei filios dilecta et exosa, fuerit beloved and the hated; and if the   autem filius primogenitus exosae: first-born son be her's that was hated:16.  Then it shall be, when he       16.   Die quo hseredes instituet maketh his sons to inherit that which   filios suos eorum quse habuerit, non he hath, that he may not make the   poterit dare jus primogeniture filio son of the beloved first-born before   dilectse ante filium exosse primoge-the son of the hated, which is indeed   nitum.the first-born:17.  But he shall acknowledge the       17. Sed primogenitum filium ex-son of the hated for the first-born,    osse agnoscet, ut det ei mensuram by giving him a double portion of   duorum ex omnibus quse habuerit: all that he hath: for he is the be-   ipse   enim   principium fortitudinis ginning of his strength; the right of   ejus, ipsius est jus primogenitures, the first-born is his.14. And it shall be, if thou have no delight in her. I have been compelled to separate this sentence from the foregoing context which I have explained elsewhere j1 for Moses there gave instructions how a captive woman was to be taken to wife if her beauty attracted a Jewish husband. That law then had reference to chastity and conjugal fidelity, and especially to the purity of God's worship; but now Moses prescribes that, if a man have dishonoured a captive woman, he should not sell her, but let her go free, and by this satisfaction wipe out, or at any rate diminish, the injury. Hence we infer that this rule of justice depends on the Eighth Commandment, Let none defraud another. This condition was at least tolerable for the captive ; for, although chastity is a special treasure, yet liberty, which is justly called an inestimable blessing, was no trifling consolation to her. The 1 Vide vol. ii. p. 70.174                     CALVIN'S HARMONY OF THE FOUR      DEUT. XXI. 15.penalty, then, of lust, was that the conqueror should lose his booty.15. If a man have two wives. Inasmuch as it is here provided that a father should not unjustly transfer what belongs to one son to another, it is a part and supplement of the Eighth Commandment, the substance of which is, that every one's rights should be preserved to him. For, if the father substituted another son in the place of his first-born, it was unquestionably a kind of theft. But, since it rarely happens that a father unnaturally degrades his first-born from his precedence, if all are born of the same mother, God reminds us that He did not enact this law without cause ; for, where polygamy was allowed, the mind of the husband was generally most inclined to the second wife; because, if he had loved the first with true affection, he would have been contented with her as the companion of his life and bed, and would not have thought of a second. When, therefore, the husband grew tired of his first wife, and desired a second, he might be coaxed by her blandishments to leave away from the children of his first marriage what naturally belonged to them. Hence, therefore, the necessity of the remedy whereby the father's power of altering the right of primogeniture is barred; for, although they might allege that they only gave what was their own, yet it was an act of ungodly arrogance to reject him whom God had deigned to honour. For he who arrogates such power to himself, or who assigns the birth-right to whom he will, almost arrogates to himself the ability to create. This right, as is stated in verse 17, was a double portion of the paternal inheritance. The reason which is added, is equivalent to saying, that the first-born is the principal honour and ornament of the father. Still, if there was a just cause for disinheriting the first-born, another successor might be substituted in his stead, as Jacob shewed in his case when he disinherited Reuben. (Gen. xlix. 4.) When it is said, " before the son of the hated," some expound it to mean " during his lifetime;" others retain the Hebrew phrase, " before his face." Their opinion, however, is probable, who take this particle comparatively, for " instead of her son."    The wife is called hated, not that8lH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.          175her husband is positively her enemy, but because he loves her least; for contempt is considered as hatred, and he is called an enemy who does not render conjugal benevolence.DEUTERONOMY, CHAPTER XX.5.  And the officers shall speak       5.   Quum  bellandum  erit,  allo-unto the people, saying, What man   quentur preefecti populum, dicendo, is there that hath built a new house,    Quis est vir qui sedificavit domum and hath not dedicated it ? let him   novam, et non dedicavit earn ? abeat, go and return to his house, lest he   et revertatur ad domum suam, ne die in the battle, and another man   forte moriatur in prselio,  et alius dedicate it.                                      dedicet earn.6.  And what man is he that hath       6. Et quis est vir qui plantavit planted a vineyard, and hath not yet   vineam, et non fecit earn commu-eaten of it ? let him also go and re-   nem ? abeat et revertatur ad domum turn unto his house, lest he die in the    suam: ne forte moriatur in prselio, battle, and another man eat of it.       et alius communem earn faciat.7.  And what man is there  that       7. Et quis est vir qui despondit hath betrothed a wife, and hath not   mulierem, etnon accepit earn? abeat taken her ? let him go and return   et revertatur domum suam ne forte unto his house, lest he die in the   moriatur in prselio, et alius earn ac-battle, and another man take her.      cipiat.8.  And the  officers shall speak       8. Addent prsefecti alloqui popu-further unto the people, and they   lum, dicendo, Quis est vir timidus et shall say, What man is there that is   mollis corde?  abeat, et revertatur fearful and faint-hearted ? let him   domum  suam,   ne  dissolvatur cor go and return unto his house, lest    fratrum ejus, sicut cor illius.his brethren's heart faint as well as his heart.5. And the officers shall speak unto the people. I have added the commencement, " quum bellandum erit," (when there shall be war,) that my readers may know what is the subject here discussed; for although the instruction given may seem somewhat remote from the prohibition of theft, still it accords well, and is closely connected with it. For by this indulgence God shews how just it is, that every one should enjoy peaceably what he possesses; because, if it be hard that men on account of war should be deprived of the use of their new house, or of the produce of their vineyard, how much more harsh and intolerable it will be to deprive men of their fortunes, or to drive them from the lands which they justly call their own! Since, therefore, it is expedient for the state that vineyards should be sown or planted, and that houses should be built, whilst men would not address176                calvin's harmony of the four      deut.xx. 5.themselves to these duties with sufficient alacrity, unless encouraged by the hope of enjoying them, God gives them the privilege of exemption from fighting, if they be owners of new houses which they have not yet inhabited. He makes also the same appointment as to possessors of vineyards, if they have not yet tasted of the fruit of their labour, and will not have men torn from their affianced wives until they have enjoyed their embraces. A different principle applies to a fourth class,because the faint-hearted and lazy are not deserving that God should have consideration for their cowardice, when they shun dangers to be incurred for the public welfare; but because it concerns the whole people that soldiers should go forth readily to war, God will not have more required from any one than he is disposed to bear. We now understand the substance of this passage, viz., that, when every man's right is asserted to enjoy what he possesses, it extends so far as that a man who has built a house should not be dragged unwillingly to war, until by dwelling in it he shall have received some advantage from the expenses incurred. To make a vineyard common,1 or to profane it, is equivalent to applying the vintage to the common uses of life; for it was not lawful, as we saw under the First Commandment,2 to gather its first-fruits, as if it were as yet uncircumcised ; therefore the recompence for their industry and diligence is made when those who have planted vines are thus set free, until they have enjoyed some of their produce. As regards the betrothed, although it seems to have been an indulgence granted in honour of marriage, that they should return to the wives whom they had not yet enjoyed, yet it is probable that they were not torn away from the dearest of all possessions, in order that every man's property should be maintained. Besides, if the hope of progeny were taken away, the inheritance would be thus transferred to others, which would have been tantamount to diverting it from its rightful owner. We have said that the lazy and timid were sent home, that the Israelites might learn that none were to be pressed beyond their ability; and this also depends upon1 See margin of A. V., ver. 6.* See on Lev. xix. 23, vol. ii. p. 49.8TH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.177that rule of equity1 which dictates that we should abstain from all unjust oppression.DEUTERONOMY, CHAPTER XXV.5. If brethren dwell together, and one of them die, and have no child, the wife of the dead shall not marry without unto a stranger: her husband's brother shall go in unto her, and take her to him to wife, and perform the duty of an husband's brother unto her.6.  And it shall be, that the firstborn which she beareth shall succeed in the name of his brother which is dead, that his name be not put out of Israel.7.  And if the man like not to take his brother's wife, then let his brother's wife go up to the gate unto the elders, and say, My husband's brother refuseth to raise up unto his brother a name in Israel, he will not perform the duty of my husband's brother.8.  Then the elders of his city shall call him, and speak unto him: and if he stand to it, and say, I like not to take her;9.  Then shall his brother's wife come unto him in the presence of the elders, and loose his shoe from off his foot, and spit in his face, and shall answer and say, So shall it be done unto that man that will not build up his brother's house.10.  And his name shall be called in Israel, The house of him that hath his shoe loosed.5.  Quum liabitaverint fratres pa-riter, et mortuus   fuerit unus ex ipsis, nee fuerit ei filius, non abnubet uxor mortui viro extraneo: cogna-tus ejus ingredietur ad earn, et capiet earn sibi in uxorem, et affinitatera contrahet cum ea.6.  Atque ita primogenitus quern peperit, surget nomine fratris ejus defuncti: ne deleat nomen ejus ex Israele.7.   Quod si noluerit vir ille acci-pere affinem suam,   tune ascendet ipsa ad portam ad seniores, et dicet, Renuit affinis meus suscitare fratri suo nomen in Israele, nee vult affi-nitatem contrahere mecum.8.  Tune accersent ilium seniores urbis illius, et loquentur cum eo: et ubi steterit, ac dixerit, Non placet accipere earn:9.  Accedet postea cognata ejus ad ipsum in oculis senioruin, et solvet calceamentum ejus a pede ipsius, et spuet in faciem ejus: loqueturque, ac dicet, Sic fiet viro qui non redifi-caverit domum fratris sui.10.  Et vocabitur nomen ejus in Israel, Domus discalceati.5. If brethren dwell together, and one of them die. This law lias some similarity with that which permits a betrothed person to return to the wife, whom he has not yet taken; since the object of both is to preserve to every man what he possesses, so that he may not be obliged to leave it to1 " Et cela est de l'equite commune, a laquelle se rapporte le Huitieme Commandement;" and this is a part of that common equity to which the Eighth Commandment has reference.ЧFr.178                calvin's harmony of the four    beut. xxv. 5.strangers, but that he may have heirs begotten of his own body: for, when a son succeeds to the father, whom he represents, there seems to be hardly any change made. Hence, too, it is manifest how greatly pleasing to God it is that no one should be deprived of his property, since He makes a provision even for the dying, that what they could not resign to others without regret and annoyance, should be preserved to their offspring. Unless, therefore, his kinsman should obviate the dead man's childlessness, this inhumanity is accounted a kind of theft. For, since to be childless was a curse of God, it was a consolation in this condition to hope for a borrowed offspring, that the name might not be altogether extinct.Since we now understand the intention of the law, we must also observe that the word brethren does not mean actual brothers, but cousins, and other kinsmen, whose marriage with the widows of their relative would not have been incestuous; otherwise God would contradict Himself. But these two things are quite compatible, that no one should uncover the nakedness of his brother, and yet that a widow should not marry out of her husband's family, until she had raised up seed to him from some relation. In fact, Boaz did not marry Ruth because he was the brother of her deceased husband, but only his near kinsman. If any should object that it is not probable that other kinsmen should dwell together, I reply that this passage is improperly supposed to refer to actual living together, as if they dwelt in the same house, but that the precept is merely addressed to relations, whose near residence rendered it convenient to take the widows to their own homes ; for, if any lived far away, liberty was accorded to both to seek the fulfilment of the provision elsewhere. Surely it is not probable that God would have authorized an incestuous marriage, which He had before expressed His abomination of. Nor can it be doubted, as I have above stated, but that the like necessity was imposed upon the woman of offering herself to the kinsman of her former husband ; and although there was harshness in this, still she seemed to owe this much to his memory, that she should willingly raise up seed to the deceased ; yet, if any9TH COMMANDMENT.      1AST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.         179one think differently, I will not contend the point with him. If, however, she were not obliged to do so, it was absurd that she should voluntarily obtrude herself: nor was there any other reason why she should bring to trial the kinsman, from whom she had suffered a repulse, except that she might acquire the liberty of marrying into another family. Yet it is not probable that he was to be condemned to an ignominious punishment, without being admitted to make his defence, because sometimes just reasons for refusal might be alleged. This disgrace, therefore, was only a penalty for inhumanity or avarice. By giving up his shoe, he renounced his right of relationship, and gave it up to another: for, by behaving so unkindly towards the dead, he became unworthy of reaping any of the advantages of his relationship.Cj)e Jttnti) CommandmentEXODUS, CHAPTER XX.16. Thou shalt not bear false wit- 16. Non dices adversus proximum ness against thy neighbour.                tuum falsum testinionium (vel, nonloqueris contra proximum tuum ut testis mendacii.)Deut. v. 20. Neither shalt thou       20. Non dices in proximum tuum bear false witness against thy neigh-   falsum testimonium. bow.God here makes a provision for every man's character and good name, lest any should be undeservedly weighed down by calumnies and false accusations. The same synecdoche exists here, which I have pointed out in the previous Commandments, for God comprises many things under a single head. With reference to the words, inasmuch as "1S7, gned, properly means a witness, it may be literally translated, " Thou shalt not answer a false witness against thy neighbour/' but then the particle as must be supplied. The Hebrews poorly translate it in the vocative case, Thou shalt not speak, 0 false witness, &c.'Although God seems only to prescribe that no one, for 1 Addition in Fr., 'Х Or revenous a la substance."180                calvin's harmony of the four     exod.xx. 16.the purpose of injuring the innocent, should go into court, and publicly testify against him, yet it is plain that the faithful are prohibited from all false accusations, and not only such as are circulated in the streets, but those which are stirred in private houses and secret corners. For it would be absurd, when God has already shewn that men's fortunes are cared for by Him, that He should neglect their reputation, which is much more precious. In whatever way, therefore, we injure our neighbours by unjustly defaming them, we are accounted false witnesses before God.We must now pass on from the prohibitive to the affirmative precept: for it will not be enough for us to restrain our tongues from speaking evil, unless we are also kind and equitable towards our neighbours, and candid interpreters of their acts and words, and do not suffer them, as far as in us lies, to be burdened with false reproaches. Besides, God does not only forbid us to invent accusations against the innocent, but also to give currency to reproaches and sinister reports in malevolence or hatred. Such a person may perhaps deserve his ill-name, and we may truly lay such or such an accusation to his charge; but if the reproach be the ebullition of our anger, or the accusation proceed from ill-will, it will be vain for us to allege in excuse that we have advanced nothing but what is true. For when Solomon says that " love covercth many sins;" whereas " hatred brings reproaches to light,"1 (Prov. x. 12;) he signifies, as a faithful expositor of this precept, that we are only free from falsehood when the reputation of our neighbours suffers no damage from us ; for, if the indulgence of evil-speaking violates charity, it is opposed to the Law of God. In short, we must conclude that by these words a restraint is laid on all virulence of language which tends to bring disgrace on our brethren; and on all petulance also, whereby their good name suffers injury; and on all detractions, which flow from malice, or envy, and rivalry, or any other improper feeling.1 " Hatred stirreth up strifes ; but love covereth all sins."ЧA. V. The latter clause, in C.'s quotation, is probably rather intended to be the necessary converse of the latter part of the proverb than a paraphrastic rendering of the first, which it does not appear that the words will bear.9TH COMMANDMENT.     LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.           181We must also go further, and not be suspicious or too curious in observing the defects of others; for such eager inquisi-tiveness betrays malevolence, or at any rate an evil disposition. For, if love is not suspicious, he who condemns his neighbour either falsely, or upon trifling surmises, or who holds him in light esteem, is undoubtedly a transgressor of this Commandment. Consequently, we must close our ears against false and evil speaking; since he is just as injurious to his brother who eagerly listens to sinister reports respecting him, as he who exercises his tongue in maligning him. The necessity of this instruction let each man estimate by his own disposition; for scarcely one in a hundred will be found who will be as kind in sparing the character of others, as he himself desires to be pardoned for manifest vices ; nay, slander is often praised under the pretext of zeal and conscientiousness. Hence it happens that this vice insinuates itself even among the saints, creeping in under the name of virtue. Moreover, the volubility of the tongue causes us to think it a light transgression to inflict a deadly and disgraceful wound on our brother, to whom, nevertheless, his good name is of more importance than his life. The sum is, that we should manifest our charity no less by candour, and by abstaining from slander, than by the performance of other duties. of tljc Commandment.EXODUS, CHAPTER XXIII.1.  Thou shalt not raise a false       1. Non suscipies vocem mendacii, report: put not thine hand with the   neque adjicias manum tuam impio wicked to be an unrighteous wit-   ut sis testis mendax.ness.2.  Thou shalt not follow a multi-       2. Non eris post multos ad mala, tude to do evil; neither shalt thou   neque respondebis in causa, ut de-speak in a cause to decline after   clines post multos ad pervertendum. many to wrest judgment.7.   Keep thee far from  a  false       7.   A   sermone   mendacii   longematter; and the innocent and right-    aberis :   nee occides innocentem eteous slay thou not: for I will not   justum:   quia  non justificabo  im-justify the wicked.                             pium.182                calvin's harmony of the four   exod. xxiii. 1.Lev. xix. 16. Thou shall not go       16.   Non incedes obtrectator inup and down as a tale-bearer among    populis tuis, nee stabis contra san-thy people; neither shalt thou stand   guinem proximi tui: ego Jehova. against the blood of thy neighbour: I am the Lord.17. Thou shalt in any wise rebuke       17.   Corripiendo corripies proxi-thy neighbour, and not suffer sin   mum tuum, neque excitabis superupon him.                                        eum crimen.Exod. xxiii. ]. Thou shalt not receive (margin) a false report. It might also be translated, Thou shalt not raise, or stir up: and, if this be preferred, God forbids us to invent calumnies; but, if we read, Thou shalt not receive, He will go further, i.e., that none should cherish, or confirm the lie of another by his siij>port of it. For it has been stated that sin may thus be committed in two ways: either when the wicked invent false accusations, or when other over-credulous persons eagerly associate themselves with them ; and thus either sense would be very applicable, that the original authors are condemned, who raise a false report, or those who help on their wickedness, and give it, as it were, their endorsement. But, since it immediately follows, "put not thine hand with" them, I willingly embrace the version, " Thou shalt not receive," in order that the two clauses may combine the better. Indeed Moses uses this word with great propriety, for a lie would soon come to nothing from its own emptiness, and fall to the ground, if it were not taken up and supported by the unrighteous consent of others. God, therefore, recalls His people from this wicked conspiracy,1 lest by their assistance they should spread abroad false accusations ; and calls those false witnesses who traduce their neighbours by lending their hand to the ungodly : because there is but little difference between raising a calumny and keeping it up.If it be thought preferable to restrict the second verse to judges, it would be a Supplement to the Sixth Commandment as well as the Eighth, viz., that none should willingly give way to the unjust opinions of others, which might affect either the means or the life of an innocent person.    But,1 " De s'accoupler avecques les malms et les menteurs pour diffamer le prochain;" of associating themselves with the malicious and wilh liars to defame their neighbour.ЧFr.9TH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.          183inasmuch as the error of those who are too credulous is reproved by it, whence it arises that falsehood prevails, and calumniators throw what is clear into obscuiity, it finds a fit place here.17. Keep thee far from a false matter. Since he seems to speak of perjury, which brings about the death of the innocent, some might perhaps prefer that this passage should be annexed to the Sixth Commandment; but this is easily solved ; for Moses is expressly condemning false-witness, and at the same time instances one case of it, whereby it may appear how detestable a crime it is, viz., the slaying of a brother by calumny, because the false witness rather kills him with his tongue than the executioner with his sword. Although, therefore, it is a gross act of inhumanity to lie in general against one's brother, yet is its atrocity increased if he be put to death by perjury; because murder is thus combined with perfidy. A threat follows, whereby God summons false-witnesses before His tribunal, where they who have brought the good into peril by their falsehoods shall not escape with impunity.Lev. xix. 16. Thou shalt not go up and down. The principle of the second clause is the same as that of the foregoing verse, for it is added to a general precept, whereby detraction is condemned: and much more ought we to be deterred from it, whilst we acknowledge that our tongue is thus armed cruelly to shed innocent blood. Some suppose that theword 7^1, racil, is metaphorically taken from merchants, because the tale-bearer or whisperer2 is no less busy in hunt-1 " Ceste sentence doit estre comprinse aussi bien sous les faux tes-moignages;" this declaration ought to be comprised under the head of false testimony.ЧFr.1 "Delator aut susurro."ЧLett. "The original properly signifies a trader, a pedlar, and is here applied to one who. travels up and down dealing in slanders and detractions, as a merchant does in wares, possessing himself of the secrets of individuals and families, and then blazing them abroad, usually with a false colouring as to motives and a distortion of facts."ЧBush. " Some explain ^31 as if ^J"l, (the J being changed into D,) from ?21, to run about, to explore."ЧFagius, from the Hebrew Commentators, in Poole's Synopsis. " Non reperimus in S. Scriptura dic-tionem TW'O"!, qute non sit scripta lingua ro^n, i.e., ambulationis."Ч Sal. Jarchi in loco.    See C. on Jerem ix. 4, Cal. Soc. edit., vol. i. p. 464.184                calvin's harmony of the four     lev.xix. 17.ing for false reports, which he may afterwards circulate, than the merchant is diligently bent on buying and selling. Others think that there is a change of the letter J into 2; and that thus the word is derived from the feet; because calumniators are always wandering about to hunt for grounds of detraction; and therefore is always joined with a verb which signifies to walk. I do not think, however, that it is always used in the same sense; for when Ezekiel .reproves the Israelites, because there were always men called /OI, racil, among them, to shed blood,1 I understand men of fraud, or fraudulent persons, who plot against the good to procure their destruction. (Ezek. xxii. 9.) Some also translate it spies. Meanwhile, I doubt not, but that Moses, in this passage, designates those vagabonds, who too eagerly run about hither and thither, and in their malignant inquisitiveness penetrate into everybody's secrets, to bring quiet people into trouble. In short, we are taught that they are accounted false witnesses before God, whosoever by the virulence of their tongue bring their brethren into danger and inconvenience.17. Thou shalt in any wise rebuke thy neighbour. Because many, under the pretext of conscientiousness, are not only rigid censors of others, but also burst out in the open proclamation of their defects, Moses seeks to prevent this preposterous zeal, shewing how they may best restrain it, not by encouraging sin through their connivance or silence, whilst they are still far from evil-speaking. For those who labour under this disease of carping and vituperating, are wont to object that sins are nourished by silence, unless all are eager in reproving them; and hence their ardour in exclaiming against them and deriding them. But Moses points out a more useful remedy, that they should bring back wanderers into the way by private rebukes, and not by publishing their offences. For whosoever triumphs in the infamy of his brother, precipitates his ruin as far as in him lies ; whereas a well-regulated zeal consults the welfare of one who is ruining himself.    Therefore we are commanded to rebuke the1 " In thee are men that carry tales (margin, men of slanders) to shed blood."ЧA. V.9lHCOMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.          185wandering, and not to regard our brethren as enemies. A similar course is prescribed by Christ, " If thy brother shall trespass against thee, go and tell him his fault between thee and him alone." (Matt, xviii. 15.) In fine, an immoderate love of fault-finding will always be found to be arrogant and cruel. The word N&JO, nasa, undoubtedly means to publish what was concealed, and thus by exposure to drive to despair those who would else have been corrigible.Supplement to tfje jltnti) йommanBment.DEUTERONOMY, CHAPTER XIX.16.   If a false witness  rise  up        16. Quum steterit testis mendax against any man, to testify against   contra aliquetn, ut testificetur con-him that which is wrong;                  tra eum verbum perversum:17.  Then both the men, between       17. Tune stabunt duo illi homines whom the controversy is, shall stand   quibus est lis, coram Jehova, id est before the Lord, before the priests    coram sacerdotibus et judicibus qui and the judges which  shall be in   fuerint in diebus illis.those days:18.   And the judges shall make       18. Et inquirent judices diligen-diligent inquisition: and, behold, if   ter, et si testis illeest testis mendax, the witness be a false witness, arid   mendacium  testificatus   est   contra hath testified falsely against his bro-   fratrem suum:ther;19.  Then shall ye do unto him as       19.   Facietis  ei,  quemadmodum he had thought to have done unto    cogitavit facere fratri suo, et auferes his brother: so shalt thou put the   malum e medio tui.evil away from among you.20.  And those which remain shall       20. Et qui remanserint, audient hear, and fear, and shall henceforth   ac timebunt, nee addent facere ultra commit no more any such evil among    malum simile huic in medio tui. you.21.  And thine eye shall not pity;       21.   Neque parcet oculus tuus: but life shall go for life, eye for eye,    animam pro anima,oculum pro oculo, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot   dentem pro dente, manum pro manu, for foot.                                           pedem pro pede.16. If a false witness rise up against any man. Because the fear of God does not so prevail in all men, as that they should voluntarily abstain from the love of slander, God here appoints the punishment to be inflicted for perjury: for political laws are enacted against the ungodly and disobedient, in order that those who despise God's judgment should be brought before the tribunal of men.    Although] 86                calvin's harmony of the four   exod. xx. 17.perjury is not here ordained to be tried before the judges, unless there should be an accuser, who should complain that he had been unjustly injured by false-witness, still reason dictates, that if any man have been condemned to death by false-witnesses, the judges should not hesitate to make an official inquiry into the matter. Yet, inasmuch as men are generally disposed to assert their own innocence, God has deemed it sufficient to put the case, that if any complaint should be lodged, the judges should diligently investigate it, and if-the crime be proved, should inflict the punishment of retaliation (talionis.) Whence it appears that false-witnesses and murderers stand in the same light before God. By commanding that the inquiry should be made not only by the judges, but also by the priests, as if God Himself were present, He shews that He requires unusual diligence to be used ; because a secret crime is not easily detected without the most anxious care.CJje Commandment*EXODUS, CHAPTER XX.17.   Thou shalt   not  covet  thy       17. Non concupisces domum prox-neighbour's house,  thou shalt not   imi tui,   non   concupisces uxoremcovet thy neighbour's wife, nor bis    proximi   tui,   neque   servuni  ejus,man-servant, nor his maid-servant,   neque ancillam ejus, neque bovemnor his ox, nor his ass, nor any thing   ejus, neque asinum ejus, neque quic-that is thy neighbour's.                     quam eorum quse sunt proximi tui. ITS REPETITION.Deut. v. 21. Neither shalt thou       21. Neque concupisces uxorem desire thy neighbour's wife, neither   proximi tui, neque concupisces do-shalt thou covet thy neighbour's   mum proximi tui, agrum ejus, aut house, his field, or his man-servant,   servum ejus, aut ancillam ejus, boor his maid-servant, his ox, or his   vem ejus, aut asinum ejus: neque ass, or any thing that is thy neigh-    quicquam eorum quae sunt proximo hour's.                                             tuo.Exod. xx. 17. Thou shalt not covet thy neighbour's wife. There is no question but that this Commandment extends also to those that have preceded it. God had already sufficiently forbidden us to set our hearts on the property of others, to attempt the seduction of their wives, or to seek10TH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.        187for gain at another's loss and inconvenience.    Now, whilst He enumerates oxen and asses, and all other things as well as their wives and servants, it is very clear that His precept is directed to the same things, but in a different way, viz., in order to restrain all ungodly desires either of fornication or theft.    The question, however, occurs,Чsince it has been said before that, agreeably to the nature of the Lawgiver, the inward purity of the heart is everywhere required, and therefore, that under the head of adultery, not only are all filthy acts prohibited, but secret unchastity also ; and under the head of theft, all unlawful appetite for gain,Чwhy does God now forbid in His people the lust for theft and fornication ?    For it seems to be a  superfluous repetition which would be very absurd in ten short precepts, wherein God has embraced the whole rule of life, so that their very brevity might render it easy, and the better attract their readers to learn them.    Still, on the other hand, it must be remembered that, although it was God's design, by the whole Law, to arouse men's feelings to sincere obedience of it, yet such is their hypocrisy and indifference, that it was necessary to stimulate them more sharply, and to press them more closely, lest they should seek for subterfuges under pretence of the obscurity of the doctrine.   For if they had only heard, Thou shalt not kill, nor commit fornication, nor steal, they might have supposed that their duty would have been fully performed by mere outward observance.    It was not then in vain that God, after having treated of piety and justice, should give a separate admonition, that they were not only to abstain from evil doing, but also, that what He had previously commanded should be performed with the sincere affection of the heart.    Hence Paul gathers from this Commandment, that the whole " Law is spiritual," (Rom. vii. 7 and 14,) because God, by His condemnation of lust, sufficiently shewed that He not only imposed obedience on our hands and feet, but also put restraint upon our minds, lest they should desire to do what is unlawful.    Paul confesses, too, that whereas he before slept in easy self-deceit, he was awakened by this single word; for since he was blameless in the eyes of men, he was persuaded that he was righteous188                 calvin's harmony of the four   exod. xx. 17.before God: He says that he was once alive, as if the Law were absent or dead, because, being puffed up with confidence in his righteousness, he expected salvation by his works; but, when he perceived what the Commandment, Thou shalt not covet, meant, the dead Law was raised as it were to life, and he died, i.e., he was convinced he was a transgressor, and saw the sure curse overhanging him. Nor did he perceive himself to be guilty of one or two sins, but then, at length, he was shaken out of his torpor, when he recognised that all the evil desires, of which he was conscious, must be accounted for before God, whereas he had before been satisfied with the mere outward appearance of virtue. We now perceive, therefore, that there is nothing inappropriate in the general condemnation of concupiscence by a distinct commandment; for after God has broadly and popularly laid down rules for moral integrity, at length He ascends to the fountain itself, and at the same time points out with His finger, as it were, the root from which all evil and corrupt fruits spring forth. It must here be added that something more is expressed by the words coveting and wishing for, or desiring, than a de-siderium formatum, as it is commonly called ; for the flesh often tempts us to wish for this or that, so that the evil concupiscence betrays itself, although consent may not yet be added. Since, therefore, the sin1 of the will had been already condemned, God now proceeds further, and puts a restraint upon evil desires before they prevail.2 James points out these progressive steps, where he says that lust conceives before it begets sin ; and then " sin, when it is finished, bringeth forth death," (James i. 15,) for the begetting of which he speaks, is not only in the external act but in the will itself, before it has assented to the temptation. I admit, indeed, that the corrupt thoughts which arise spontaneously, and so also vanish before they affect the mind, do not come into account before God ; yet, although we do not actually acquiesce in the evil desire, still, if it affects us pleasantly, it is sufficient to render us guilty.    In order that1 " Mala voluntas."ЧLett.    " Toutes mauvaises affections."ЧFr. * " Devant qu'ils ayent gagne pour venir en propos delibere;" before they have gone so far as to arrive at a deliberate purpose.ЧFr.10TH COMMANDMENT.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.        189this may be understood better, all temptations are, as it were, so many fans; if they hurry us on into consent, the fire is lighted ; but, if they only awaken the heart to corrupt desires, concupiscence betrays itself in these sparks, although it neither acquires its full warmth nor breaks forth into a flame. Concupiscence, therefore, is never without desire (affectu,) although the will may not altogether yield. Hence it appears what entire perfection of righteousness we must bring in order to satisfy the Law, since not only are we commanded not to will anything, except what is right and pleasing to God, but also that no impure desire sliould affect our hearts. Nor would Paul have laid such great stress upon this precept if the Law condemned no concupiscence except that which takes such hold on the mind of man as to exercise dominion over it; for the sin of the will must ever be condemned even by heathen philosophers, nay, and by earthly legislators also; but he says that the Law, by resisting concupiscence, makes sin to " become exceeding sinful/' (Rom. vii. 13.) Now, it is not credible that, at the time in which he confesses that he knew not what concupiscence was, he was so senseless and stupid as to think no harm of wishing to kill a man, or of being inclined through lust to commit adultery with his brother's wife; but, if he was not unaware that the will to sin was vicious, it follows that the concupiscence in which he saw no harm was some more hidden disease. Hence, too, it is manifest under what delusion Satan must have held all the Popish schools1 through which echoes this axiom, that concupiscence is no sin in the baptized, because it is a stimulus to the exercise of virtue; as if Paul did not openly condemn concupiscence, which entraps us in its snares, although we do not altogether assent to it.1 See the first decree of the Fifth Session of the Council of Trent, together with C's remarks amongst his Tracts.ЧCalvin Society edition, vol. iii. pp. 78-88.190                   calvin's harmony of the four       deut. x. 12. з>ttm of tfjeDEUTERONOMY, CHAPTER X.12.  And now, Israel, what doth        12. Nunc ergo Israel, quid Jehova the Lord thy God require of thee,    Deus tuus petit a te, nisi ut timeas but to fear the Lord thy God, to   Jehovam Deum tuum, ut ambules walk in all his ways, and to love   in omnibus viis ejus, ut diligas eum, him, and to serve the Lord thy God    colasque Jehovam Deum tuum in with all thy heart, and with all thy    toto corde tuo, et tota anima tua ? soul,13.  To keep the commandments        13. CustodiendoprEeceptaJehovse, of the Lord, and his statutes, which   et statuta ejus, quse ego prsecipio tibi I command thee this day for thy    hodie, ut bene sit tibi.good?Deut. vi. 5. And thou shalt love       5. Diliges Jehovam Deum tuumthe Lord thy God with all thine    toto corde tuo, tota anima tua, etheart, and with all thy soul, and with   tota fortitudine tua. all thy might.Levit. xix. 18.   . . . Thou shalt        18. Diliges proximum tuum sicut love thy neighbour as thyself.            te ipsum.Deut. x. 12. And now, Israel, what doth the Lord thy God require 1 After having expounded each Commandment in its order, it now remains for us to see what is the sum of the contents of the Law, and what the aim and object of its instructions. For Paul elicits its true use, when he declares that its end is " charity, out of a pure heart and of a good conscience, and of faith unfeigned," (1 Tim. i. 5,) since even then it had its false interpreters, who, he says, had " turned aside unto vain jangling/' when they swerved from that object. Now, as it is contained in two Tables, so also Moses reduces it to two heads, that we should love God with all our heart, and our neighbour as ourselves ; for, although he does not unite the two in one passage, yet Christ, by whose Spirit he spoke, ought to suffice to explain to us his intention/ Matt. xxii. 37 ;) for, when He was asked what was the great Commandment of the Law, He replied that the first indeed was, that God should be loved, and the second like unto it, regarding the love of our neighbour; as if He had said, that the whole perfection of righteousness, which is setSUil OF THE LAW.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.               191before us in the Law, consists of two parts, that we should serve God with true piety, and conduct ourselves innocently towards men according to the rule of charity. The same 13 the sense of Paul's words, for the faith, which is there called the source and origin of charity, comprehends in it the love of God. At any rate, the declaration of Christ stands sure, that nothing is required of us by the Law, but that we should love God, together with our neighbours. From hence a short and clear definition may be laid down, that nothing is required unto a good life except piety and justice.1Paul, indeed, seems to. add a third clause, when he says, that " the grace of God hath appeared, teaching us that, denying ungodliness and worldly lusts, we should live soberly, righteously, and godly, in this present world," (Tit. ii. 11, 12 ;) but this crco^poavvrj, (soberness,) is there added as the seasoning, so to speak, of a just and pious life; and assuredly no one will prove that he aims at holiness and integrity, unless by living chastely, honestly, and temperately. Tims, where the service of God is omitted,2 and the doctrine of the Law confined to the love of our neighbour alone, it is not so much that religion is put out of sight3 {sepelitur,) as that the proof of it is made to rest on serious self-examination ; for since it is the way with hypocrites to cover themselves with ceremonies as with a mask of sanctity, whilst they are puffed up with pride, burn with avarice and rapacity, are full of envy and malice, breathe out threatenings and cruelty, and are abandoned to filthy lusts, Christ, in order to disperse these clouds of pretence, declares that the three chief points in the Law are "judgment, mercy," and fidelity,41 " Que la somme de Men vivre est d'honorer Dieu, et converser juste-ment avec les homines;" that the sum of a good life is to honour God, and to demean ourselves justly towards men.ЧFr.1 " En d'aucuns passages;" in some passages.Ч Fr.3 " Ce n'est pas tant pour ensevelir la religion, et ce qui concerne la premiere table, que gour en rendre tesmoignage par fruits;" it is not so much to bury religion, and what concerns the first table, as to give testimony of it by its fruits.ЧFr.* Faith.ЧA. V. " Faith (says C. Harm, of Evang., vol. iii. 90,) is nothing else thaji strict integrity; not to attempt anything by cunning, or malice, or deceit, but to cultivate towards all that mutual sincerity which every man wishes to be pursued towards himself." See also Inst., book ii. ch. viii. sect. 52.192                calvin's harmony of the four      deut. x. ] 2.(Matt, xxiii. 23;) and elsewhere, discoursing of the righteousness of the Law, He makes no mention of the First Table.    (Matt. xix. 18.)For the same reason, Paul calls charity the fulfilment of the Law, (Rom. xiii. 8,) and elsewhere, " the bond of perfect-ness." (Col. iii. 14.) Still, nothing was further from their intention than to draw us away from the fear of God, that we might devote ourselves to our duties towards men, as I have already shewn from another passage, where Christ, in summing up the Law, begins with the love of God. And Paul, where he teaches that we should be altogether perfect, if faith works in us by love, (Gal. v. 6,) does not omit the cause and principle of a good life. And thus are reconciled the passages which else might appear contradictory, viz., that holiness is perfected in the fear of the Lord, when " we cleanse ourselves from all filthiness of the flesh and spirit," (2 Cor. vii. 1;) and " all the law is fulfilled in one word, even in this, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself," (Gal. v. 14;) that is to say, because our piety cannot otherwise make itself clear by certain proof, unless we behave justly and harmlessly towards men.1 Again, since " our goodness extendeth not to" God, so it is perceived what our mind is by our performance of the duties of the Second Table, as it is said in the Psalm, "my goodness extendeth not to thee, but to the saints that are in the earth, in whom is all my delight,"2 (Ps. xvi. 2, 3 ;) for how will any one boast, (as John says,) that he loves God, whom he does not see, if he loveth not his brother with whom he is familiarly united ? (1 John iv. 20.) Since, therefore, falsehood is thus detected, God exercises us in piety by mutual charity; and hence John concludes, that "this Commandment have we from him, That he who loveth God love his brother also." (J John iv. 21.)Before, however, I say any more of these two precepts, we must observe the end of the Law as it is described by Moses; " Now, Israel, what doth the Lord thy God require of thee, but to fear the Lord thy God, to walk in all his1 " Innoxie."ЧLat.    " En bonne simplicite."ЧFr. ' " Voluntas mea."ЧLat.SUM OF THE LAW.  LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.       193ways, and to love him, and to serve the Lord thy God with all thy heart and all thy soul 1" For, although be further eulogizes the Law, because it prescribes notbing which nature does not itself dictate to be most certain and most just, and which experience itself does not shew us to be more profitable, or more desirable than anything else, still, at the same time, he reminds us what is the means by which it is to be kept.1 Therefore he sets before us at the same time the fear and the love of God ; for, inasmuch as God is the Lord, He justly desires to be feared in right of His dominion; and, inasmuch as He is our Father, He requires to be loved, as it is said in Malachi (i. 6.) Let us learn, therefore, if we would set ourselves about keeping the Law, that we must begin with the fear of God, which is hence called the " beginning of wisdom." (Ps. cxi. 10; Prov. i. 7, and ix. 10.) But, since God has no pleasure in extorted and forced obedience, love is immediately added. And this deserves to be well weighed, that whereas there is nothing pleasanter than to love God, still it always occupies the first place in all His service. Surely he must be more than iron-hearted who is not attracted by such kindness; since, for no other cause, does He invite and exhort us to love Him, than because He loveth us; nay, He has already prevented us with His love, as is said in 1 John iv. 10. Meanwhile, we may at the same time gather, that nothing is pleasing to God which is oiFered " grudgingly or of necessity; for God loveth a cheerful giver." (2 Cor. ix. 7.) It is true that Paul is there speaking of alms-giving; but this voluntary and hearty inclination to obey, such as we see in good and ingenuous children, who take delight in subjection to their parents, ought to be extended to all the actions of our lives. And assuredly the reverence which is paid to God flows from no other source than the tasting of His paternal love towards us, whereby we are drawn to love Him in return ; as it is said in Psalm ex xx. 4, " There is forgiveness with thee, that thou mayest be feared."    Whenever, then, we hear what Scripture con-1 " Quel est le moyen de bien gardor la Loi, quand on saura ou elle nous mene;" what is the means of properly keeping the Law, when we know whither it leads us.ЧFr.194)                  calvin's harmony of the four      deut. x. 12.stantly inculcates; " 0 love ye Jehovah,1 all ye his meek ones I" (Ps. xxxi. 23.) let us remember that God shews Himself loving towards us, in order that we may willingly and with becoming cheerfulness acquiesce in what He commands.The perfection which is here required shews with sufficient clearness how far we are from a thorough obedience to the Law. We are commanded to love God with all our heart, and soul, and strength. However much we strive, our efforts are weak and imperfect, unless the love of God has possession of all our senses, and all our desires and thoughts are altogether devoted to Him, whilst all our endeavours are also directed to Him alone. But every one is abundantly convinced by his own experience, in how many ways our minds are carried away to vanity; how many corrupt affections creep over us ; how difficult it is for us to restrain and overcome the evil motions of our flesh. Surely the very best wrestler, with all his strivings, is hardly able to make advances in this spiritual warfare ; and if it be a great attainment not to faint altogether, certainly none will dare to boast that he comes near the mark which is set before us in the Law. In short, whenever worldly snares and foolish appetites insinuate themselves upon us, we must so often feel that some part of our soul is empty of the love of God, since otherwise nothing repugnant to it would penetrate there. The word heart here,2 as elsewhere, is not used for the seat of the affections, but for the intellect; and, therefore, it would have been superfluous to add Sidvoiav, as the Evangelists have done, unless for the purpose of removing all ambiguity; but because this signification was not commonly in use among the Greeks, they have not hesitated to add a word of their1  " 0 love the Lord, all ye his saints."ЧA. V.    See C.'s version, Calvin Society's edition.    " Misericordes ejus, i.e., quotquot sensistis bonitatem ejus."ЧVatablus^n Poole's Synopsis.2  The word 33?, lebab, the heart, is " extensively applied to the mind, and includeth the mind and every faculty, action, passion, disposition, and affection thereof, as thoughts, understanding, reasoning, memory, will, judgment, wisdom, counsel; desire, love, hatred, courage, fear, joy, sorrow, anger."ЧTaylor's Concordance.    See O. on Matt. xxii. 37, Mark xii. 33, and Luke x. 27, in Harmony of Evangelists: (Calvin Society's translation,) vol. iii. p. 58.SUM OF THE LAW.  LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.      195own in explanation. Those, however, who are well acquainted with the teaching of Moses, are not ignorant that the word heart is equivalent to mind; for he elsewhere says, "The Lord hath not given you an heart to understand,1 and eyes to see, unto this day," (Deut. xxix. 4;) but the expression would have been obscure to the Greeks, as being unusual in their language.2Lev. xix. 18. Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. What every man's mind ought to be towards his neighbour, could not be better expressed in many pages that in this one sentence. We are all of us not only inclined to love ourselves more than we should, but all our powers hurry us away in this direction; nay, (piXavTia (self-love) blinds us so much as to be the parent of all iniquities. Since, therefore, whilst we are too much given to love ourselves, we forget and neglect our brethren, God could only bring us back to charity by plucking from our hearts that vicious passion which is born with us and dwells deeply in us ; nor, again, could this be done except by transferring elsewhere the love which exists within us. On this point no less has the dishonesty betrayed itself than the ignorance and folly of those3 who would have the love of ourselves come first: " The rule (say they) is superior to the thing regulated by it; and according to God's commandment, the charity which we should exercise towards others is formed upon the love of ourselves as its rule." As if it were God's purpose to stir up the fire which already burns too fiercely. Naturally, as I have said, we are blinded by our immoderate self-love; and God, in order to turn us away from this, has substituted our neighbours, whom we are to love no less than ourselves ; nor will any one ever perform what Paul teaches us to be a part of charity, viz., that she " seeketh not her own," (1 Cor. xiii. 5,) until he shall have renounced himself.Not only those with whom we have some connection are called our neighbours, but all without exception ; for the whole human race forms one body, of which all are mem-1  " An heart to perceive."ЧA. V.2  The last sentence omitted in Fr.3  " Les docteurS Papistes."ЧFr.    See ante on Lev. xix. 18, p. 23.196            calvin's harmony of the four    use of the law.bers, and consequently should be bound together by mutual ties ; for we must bear in mind that even those who are most alienated from us, should be cherished and aided even as our own flesh ; since we have1 seen elsewhere that sojourn-ers and strangers are placed in the same category (with our relations ;2) and Christ sufficiently confirms this in the case of the Samaritan.    (Luke x. 30.) ofInasmuch as in the Law the difference between good and evil is set forth, it is given for the regulation of the life of men, so that it may be justly called the rule of living well and righteously. This object of the Law is known to almost all men, because all confess without controversy that God here prescribes what is right, lest we should wander all our lifetime in uncertainty ; for since His will is the perfect law of righteousness, it can alone direct us to the mark. The knowledge of good and evil is indeed imprinted by nature on men, whereby they are rendered inexcusable ; nor has any amount of barbarism ever so extinguished this light as that no form of law should exist. But, since the main principle of righteousness is to obey God, it was by special privilege that He deposited with His elect people the rule of living aright as a pledge of His adoption. Hence the declarations which so often occur in the writings of Moses : I command thee to keep and to do, &c. But, since we are " carnal, sold under sin/' (Rom. vii. 14;) we are so far from being able to fulfil the Law, which is spiritual, that all our imaginations are at enmity with its righteousness, as Paul teaches elsewhere. (Rom. viii. 7.) Those, therefore, who3 content themselves with using it for instruction, do wrong in confining themselves to this one point, since no advantage' On Lev. xix. 33, ante p. 118.* Added from Fr.8 " Ceux doncques qui ne cherchent en la Loy, sinon de savoir, comment on doit servir a Dieu, s'abusent, &c. ;" those, therefore, who only search in the law to know how we ought to serve God, deceive themselves, &c.ЧFr.USE OF THE LAW.  LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.       197can hence be derived from it, as long as we shall remain in our corrupt nature. Nay, as soon as the Law presents itself before us, the curse of God falls upon our heads, as if He smote us with a thunder-bolt from heaven. I will not heap together all the testimonies to this effect; let one peculiarly striking passage suffice: " The law (says Paul) is holy, and the commandment holy and just and good: but sin, that it might appear sin, worketh death in me by that which is good." (Rom. vii. 12, 13.) What he elsewhere says, that " the law worketh wrath," (Rom. iv. 15,) and that " it was added because of transgressions," (Gal. iii. 19,) seems harsh indeed to profane persons, who only judge as philosophers ; yet this is the theological use of the Law, for, by discovering our unrighteousness, it can bring nothing but death. Here, however,1 rebellious questions arise, what use there could be in. prescribing what we are unable to perform: why God should mock miserable men by imposing a burden whereby they are totally overwhelmed : how it is consistent that a law should be given for us to keep, and yet that we should be devoid of strength to do so : if we have not liberty to choose good or evil, why it should be brought in accusation against us that we yield to the sin to which we are naturally addicted % The enemies of God are very ingenious in amassing such calumnies, and eloquent in exaggerating them; but when they have disgorged all that their rabid dishonesty has dictated, their own conscience will always abundantly refute them ; for they will be compelled to acknowledge that the Law is just, and that, when they transgress it by voluntary impulse, they are deservedly condemned. Let them, then, rave against God as they like, that He unjustly imposes upon them a heavier burden than they are able to bear, their natural reason will retain them under the conviction, that whatever God commands to be done for Him is His due. We must now see where the blame lies, that they are unable to satisfy Him. Surely their efforts to relieve themselves from it will be vain, because conscience will again make itself felt on the opposite1 " Or ici les esprits fantastiques s'escarmouchent en demandant."Ч Fr.198           calvin's harmony of the four    use of the law.side, and will hold them fast in the bond of condemnation, from which there is no escape. But the whole of Scripture teaches that it arises from the corruption of our nature that all our affections are repugnant to the Law, and also that, on the other hand, the Law is against us; for Adam, being alienated from God the fountain of all righteousness, ruined himself and us; and hence it comes that not only our strength is insufficient to perform the service we owe to God, but that we are impelled by a blind and headlong impetus to shake off His yoke. From this Paul infers that we are " under the curse," because the Law pronounces all transgressors to be accursed. (Gal. iii. 10.) For ridiculous will be the objection that it is in the power of every one's freewill not to transgress, because there is nothing to be found in us which is not corrupt ; and, in fact, the stupidity of those is most shameless who sujtpose that nothing impossible is commanded, whereas in every trifle, not merely our weakness, but our dBwafiia (powerlessness) betrays itself. But, although Paul says that the Law1 is deadly to us, (2 Cor. iii. 6,) yet he vindicates it from all objection, when he shews that this evil is accidental, and therefore must be imputed to ourselves. Let it therefore be established, that the Law was given not only for instruction, so that men might follow what they had learnt from it to be right, but also to convict them of their iniquity, that they might acknowledge themselves to be lost; as if they saw in a mirror their destruction through the just vengeance of God. Now this knowledge would by itself overwhelm all with horrible despair if they did not emerge from the deep abyss ; for, since they are puffed up with vain confidence, and arrogate to themselves the merit of living righteously, it is necessary that they should be humbled ; first of all, that, being condemned, they may learn to fly for refuge to God's mercy; and secondly, that being convinced of their infirmity, they may implore the aid of the Holy Spirit, which in their security they had before neglected. Hence it appears that it is expedient for them to be slain by the Law, and that the death which it inflicts is life-giving. And this occurs in two ways ; for, first, 1 " The letter killeth."ЧA V.USE OF THE LAW.  LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.       199being stripped of the false opinion of their righteousness, wherein they prided themselves, they begin to seek in Christ what they mistakenly supposed might be found in themselves, so as to please God by gratuitous reconciliation, whereas they had previously sought to propitiate Him by the merit of their works ; secondly, they learn that they are not sufficient to perform a single tittle of the Law, unless, being regenerated by God's Spirit, they who were the slaves of sin live unto righteousness. And hence, in fine, the utility and fruit of the teaching of the Law proceeds ; for, until we are renewed and God has given us hearts of flesh instead of hearts of stone, in vain are precepts dinned in our ears, since in our natural depravity we cordially reject them ; but when He has engraved His law within our hearts, its outward instruction also profits us ; for He so governs His children by the Spirit of reconciliation, as at the same time to will that they should be attentive and obedient to His voice. Still, because they are always far from attaining to perfect observance of it, they not only learn from it what is right, but also that they have need of His gratuitous mercy, that they may please Him through indulgence and grace, although they are still conscious of much infirmity.Further, because Paul seems to abrogate the Law, as if now-a-days it did not concern believers, we must now see how far this is the case. And, first, indeed, it is easy to perceive that he does not treat of the Law in the abstract, but sets it forth invested with those of its qualities, wherein it is opposed to the Gospel; for, inasmucli as his controversy was with those who interpreted it amiss, he could not help contrasting the Law with the Gospel, as if they were in opposition to each other: not that they were really so, if their respective doctrine be dexterously applied to its proper object, but because such a conflict arose from the absurd mixture, which the false apostles introduced. They asserted that men are justified by the works of the Law, and, if this were admitted, the righteousness of faith was destroyed, and the Gospel fell to the ground. They, moreover, restored the yoke imposed on the ancient people, as if no liberty had been obtained by the blood of Christ.    In this discussion it200            calvin's harmony of the four    use of the law.was necessary for Paul to advert only to that which is peculiar to Moses, and distinct from Christ; for although Christ and Moses perfectly accord in the substance of their doctrine, still, when they are compared with each other, it is fitting to distinguish what is peculiar to each. In this respect Paul calls the Law "the letter,"1 because Moses had no other charge than to speak in the name of God, (2 Cor. iii. 6 ;) and this in itself is not only useless, but also deadly; for when the word resounds in the ears only, it produces nothing but condemnation. Besides, he considers the Law as connected with promises and threatenings. Whence it follows, that salvation can only be procured by it if its precepts be exactly fulfilled. Life is indeed promised in it, but only if whatever it commands be complied with; whilst, on the other hand, it denounces death against its transgressors, so that to have offended in the slightest point is enough to condemn and destroy a person; and thus it overwhelms all men with despair. Lastly, because the ceremonies by which God prepared His ancient people as by puerile and elementary instruction for the faith of the Gospel,2 were annexed to the Law, Paul embraces those also in his comparison between the Law and the Gospel. Hence it follows that, in so far as Moses is distinguished from Christ, his ministration has ceased, although his embassy was identical with that which Christ afterwards discharged. As regards the ceremonies, we must consider that an end was put upon them by Christ's coming, in such a way as to establish their truth more firmly than as if they still remained in use: for we acknowledge that in them, as in a mirror, was formerly shewn to the Fathers, what is now displayed to us in its reality.   Whence it appears that they are1 " By the term letter he means outward preaching, of such a kind as does not reach the heart; and, on the other hand, by spirit he means living doctrine, of such a nature as worketh effectually (1 Thess. ii. 13) on the minds of men, through the grace of the Spirit. By the term letter, therefore, is meant literal preaching, that is, dead and ineffectual, perceived only by the ear. By the term spirit, on the other hand, is meant spiritual doctrine, that is, whatever is not merely uttered with the mouth, but effectually makes its way to the souls of men with a lively feeling."ЧC. on 1 Cor. iii. 6, Cal. Soc. edit., vol. ii. p. 172.' " Comme par un a, b, c, de petits enfans."ЧFr.PROMISES, ETC.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.201greatly mistaken who altogether reject as useless that instruction which we read in the writings of Moses ; and that the squeamishness of those who despise it is also intolerable.1 Let my readers seek in the Second Book of my Institutes, Chapter vii., what further tends to the explanation of this subject. Sanctions of fyt llatocont.tuifB tn tfjc anfcr greats.LEVITICUS, CHAPTER XVIII.5. Ye shall therefore keep my statutes and my judgments; which if a man do, he shall live in them: I am the Lord.Deut. xxvii. 11. And Moses charged the people the same day, saying,12.  These shall stand upon mount Gerizim to bless the people, when ye are come over Jordan ; Simeon, and Levi, and Judah, and Issachar, and Joseph, and Benjamin.13.  And these shall stand upon mount Ebal to curse; Keuben, Gad, and Ashur, and Zebulun, Dan, and Naphtali.14.  And the Levites shall speak, and say unto all the men of Israel with a loud voice,15.   Cursed be the man that mak-eth any graven or molten image, an abomination unto the Lord, the work of the hands of the craftsman, and putteth it in a secret place; and all the people  shall  answer  and say, Amen.5. Custodite statuta mea, et judi-cia mea, quse homo si faciat, vivet in ipsis.11.  Prascepitque Moses populo eo die, dicendo:12.  Hi stabunt ad benedicendum populo    super    montem    Garizim, quando transieris Jordanem, Simon, et Levi, et Juda,   et  Issachar, et Joseph, et Benjamin :13.  Isti vero stabunt ad maledic-tionem in monte Ebal, Ruben, Gad, et Aser, et Zebulon, Dan et Neph-thali.14.  Loquentur autem Levitie, ac dicent ad omnem virum Israel voce excelsa:15.  Maledictus vir ille qui fecerit sculptile, et conflatile, abominatio-nem Jehovse, opus manuum artificis, et posuerit in abscondito: et respon-debunt universus populus, ac dicent, Amen.1 " Et que ceux, qui le meprisent comme superflu, sont aussi a condam-ner comme trop delicats;" and that those who despise it as superfluous are to be condemned as too fastidious.ЧFr.202calvin's harmony of the four    lev. xviii. 5.16.  Cursed be he that setteth light by his father or his mother: and all the people shall say, Amen.17.  Cursed be he that removeth his neighbour's land-mark: and all the people shall say, Amen.18.   Cursed be he that maketh the blind to wander out of the way: and all the people shall say, Amen.19.   Cursed be he that perverteth the judgment of the stranger, fatherless, and widow: and all the people shall say, Amen.20.  Cursed be he that lieth with his father's wife;   because  he un-covereth his father's skirt: and all the people shall say, Amen.21.  Cursed be he that lieth with any manner of beast: and all the people shall say, Amen.22.   Cursed be he that lieth with his sister, the daughter of his father, or the daughter of his mother: and all the people shall say, Amen.23.   Cursed be he that lieth with his mother-in-law: and all the people shall say, Amen.24.  Cursed be he that smiteth his neighbour   secretly:   and   all   the people shall say, Amen.25.  Cursed be he that taketh reward to slay an innocent person: and all the people shall say, Amen.26.   Cursed be he that confirmeth not all the words of this law to do them: and all the people shall say, Amen.16.   Maledictus  qui  vilipenderit patrem suum, aut matrem suam: et dicet universus populus, Amen.17.  Maledictus qui transfert ter-minum proximi sui, et dicet universus populus, Amen.18.  Maledictus qui aberrare facit csecum in via:   et dicet  universus populus, Amen.19.  Maledictus qui pervertit judi-cium peregrini, pupilli, et viduse: et dicet universus populus, Amen.20.   Maledictus qui coierit  cum uxore patris sui, quia discooperuit oram patris sui, et dicet universus populus, Amen.21.   Maledictus qui coierit  cum quovis animali,  et dicet universus populus, Amen.22.   Maledictus qui  coierit cum sorore sua, tilia patris sui, vel filia matris suse, et dicet universus populus, Amen.23.   Maledictus qui  coierit cum socru sua: et dicet universus populus, Amen.24.   Maledictus   qui   percusserit proximum suum abscondite: et dicet universus populus, Amen.25.  Maledictus qui acceperit mu-nus, ut percutiat plaga animse san-guinem innocentem:   et dicet universus populus, Amen.26.  Maledictus qui non stabilierit verba Legis istius faciendo ilia: et dicet universus populus, Amen.We now come to the conclusion of the Exposition of the Law, wherein we are to treat of the sanctions of it contained both in the promises and threats. For, although God might in His own right simply require what He pleased, jret such is His kindness to men, that He chose to entice them by promises to obey Him freely. Since, therefore, we are naturally attracted by the hope of reward, we are slow and lazy, until some fruit appears. Consequently God voluntarily promises, in order to arouse them from their sloth, that if men obey His Law, He will repay them. Nor is this an ordinary act of liberality that He prefers to agree with usPROMISES, ETC.  LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.         203for the payment of a recompense, rather than simply to command by His sovereignty. For we must bear in mind the declaration of Christ, that when we have fulfilled the whole Law, we still deserve nothing; since God claims for Himself our entire services. (Luke xvii. ]0.) However we may strive, therefore, even beyond our strength, and devote'ourselves entirely to keep the Law, still God lies under no obligation to us, except in so far as He has Himself voluntarily agreed, and made Himself our spontaneous debtor. And this has been pointed out even by the common theologians, that the reward of good works does not depend upon their dignity or merit, but upon His covenant.1 Still, as we shall soon see, such promises would not avail us the least if God rewarded every one according to his works; but, because this defect is adventitious, God's great mercy nevertheless shines forth in the fact that He has deigned to encourage us to obedience by setting before us the hope of eternal life. And hence He reproves the ingratitude of the Israelites by Ezetiel, (xx. 21;) because they had despised His good commandments, of which it was said that " if a man do them, he should live in them."We now perceive how the authority of the Law was confirmed by the promises ; but because we are not only indolent but also refractory, He added on the other side threats which might inspire terror, both to subdue the obstinacy of the flesh and to correct the security in which we are too apt to indulge.    It will be expedient now to treat of both.Lev. xviii. 5. Ye shall therefore keep my statutes. Although Moses introduces this passage, where he exhorts the Israelites to cultivate chastity in respect to marriage, and not to fall into the incestuous pollutions of the Gentiles,1 " Sur ceste paction, que Dieu en a faite;" hut upon that agreement which God has made to give it.ЧFr. Bishop Davenant, after quoting William Archbishop of Paris, Aquinas, and Durandus, to the same effect, says, " To these may be added Scotus, Gregory, Occam, Gabriel, (Biel,) Alfonsus, and very many others of the better class of writers among the Komanists, who avowedly maintain that the works of the righteous, wrought by the assistance of grace, do not on that account acquire any intrinsic worthiness for life eternal; but that, as regards this reward, it depends entirely upon the gracious acceptance and promise of God."ЧDisputatio de Justitia.    Allport's Trans]., vol. ii. p. 70.204                calvin's hahmony of thk four    lev. xviii. 5.yet, as it is a remarkable one, and contains general instruction, from whence Paul derives his definition of the righteousness of the Law, (Rom. x. 5,) it seems to me to come in very appropriately here, inasmuch as it sanctions and confirms the Law by the promise of reward. The hope of eternal life is, therefore, given to all who keep the Law; for those who expound the passage as referring to this earthly and transitory life are mistaken.1 The cause of this error was, because they feared that thus the righteousness of faith might be subverted, and salvation grounded on the merit of works. But Scripture does not therefore deny that men are justified by works, because the Law itself is imperfect, or does not give instructions for perfect righteousness; but because the promise is made of none effect by our corruption and sin. Paul, therefore, as I have just said, when he teaches that righteousness is to be sought for in the grace of Christ by faith, (Rom. x. 4,) proves his statement by this argument, that none is justified who has not fulfilled what the Law commands. Elsewhere also he reasons by contrast, where he contends that the Law does not accord with faith as regards the cause of justification, because the Law requires works for the attainment of salvation, whilst faith directs us to Christ, that we may be delivered from the curse of the Law. Foolishly, then, do some reject as an absurdity the statement, that if a man fulfils the Law he attains to righteousness ; for the defect does not arise from the doctrine of the Law, but from the infirmity of men, as is plain from1 " This some understand only of temporal life and prosperity in this world, Origin, Tostat. Oleaster, Vatablus,- and make this to be the meaning,Чthat, as the transgressors of the Law were to die, so they which kept it should preserve their life, Thorn. Aquin. i. 2. q. 100, a. 12; but I prefer rather Hesychius' judgment,ЧPer quas cutema vita hominibus datur," &c.ЧWillet Hexapla, in loco. There appears to be unusual discrepancy on this point between the commentators, whether Romanist or Protestant. Bush and Holden apply it to temporal life. Bonar says, " If, as most think, we are to take, in this place, the words ' live in them,' as meaning ' eternal life to be got by them,' the scope of the passage is, that so excellent are God's laws, and every special minute detail of these laws, that if a man were to keep these always and perfectly, the very keeping would be eternal life to him. And the quotations in Rom. x. 5, and Gal. iii. 12, would seem to determine this to be the true and only sense here." C.'s view appears to be confirmed by our Lord's reply in Matt. xix. 17, referred to in Poole's Synopsis.PROMISES, ETC.  LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.         205another testimony given by Paul. (Rom. viii. 3.) We must observe, however, that salvation is not to be expected from the Law unless its precepts be in every respect complied with; for life is not promised to one who shall have done this thing, or that thing, but, by the plural word, full obedience is required of us. The pratings of the Popish theologians about partial righteousness are frivolous and silly, since God embraces at once all the commandments; and who is there that can boast of having thoroughly fulfilled them ? If, then, none was ever clear of transgression, or ever will be, although God by no means deceives us, yet the promise becomes ineffectual, because we do not perform our part of the agreement.Deut. xxvii. 11. And Moses charged the people the same day. In order that both the promises and threats might have more efficacy in affecting the minds of all, God enjoined not only that they should be proclaimed in a solemn rite, but also that they should be approved by the people in a loud voice, and sealed, as it were, by their consent. It is elsewhere recorded that this was faithfully performed by Joshua. (Josh. viii. 33.) Let it suffice to say at present that they were all summoned, and conducted before God to subscribe to them, so that henceforth all subterfuge might be put an end to. The tribes of Israel were divided into two parties, that they might stand opposite to each other, and that the blessings might sound forth from one side, and the curses from the other,1 like dvTiaTpo<f>oi. I confess I do not know why the descendants of Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Joseph, and Benjamin, were chosen by God to proclaim the blessings, rather than the others ;2 for there is no force in the1  " Comme correspondantes."ЧFr.    " It was also customary on some occasions to dance round the altars whilst they sung the sacred hymns, which consisted of three stanzas or parts; the first of which, called strophe, was sung in turning from east to west; the other, named antistrophe, in returning from west to east: then they stood before the altar and sung the epode, which was the last part of the song."ЧPotter's Antiq. of Greece, Book II. chap. iv.2  " The six nobler tribes answered amen to the blessings; the six more ignoble to the curses, viz., four who descended from the children of the hand-maids, i.e., Gad, Asher, Dan, and Naphtali, to whom Reuben is added, because he had denied his father's bed incestuously; and Zebulun,206            calvin's harmony of the four    deut. xxvii. 15.opinion of the Hebrew writers that those who descended from free mothers were placed in the post of highest dignity: since the tribe of the first-born, Reuben, was united with some who sprang from the bond-maids; unless, perhaps, we may say that the descendants of Reuben were degraded into the second class as a mark of ignominy ; but, since both the blessings and curses were offered in the name of the whole people, it is not a point of much importance. For, if this division1 was made to bear witness to their common consent, it was equivalent to their all alike confessing that the transgressors of the Law were accursed, and those who kept it blessed; and consequently I am not very curious to know why, in their common office, God preferred some to the others. Moses will elsewhere relate that the tribes, which are here separated, were then united together. It would perhaps be a probable conjecture that God, who well knew what would hereafter be the inheritance of every tribe, placed them severally in that station which would correspond to their future allotment.In order that the sanction might have more solemnity, God chose that the Levites should dictate the words as if He Himself spoke from heaven; for, since they were appointed to be the expounders of the Law, as it behoved them faithfully to repeat what God had dictated out of His own mouth, so they were heard with greater attention and reverence.15. Cursed be the man that maketh any graven. Hence it appears that Moses is silent as to the half (of what he had spoken of before ;2) for no mention is made of the blessings3 which occupied before the first place. Perhaps the Spirit would indirectly rebuke the wickedness of the people, frombecause he was the youngest son of Leah. So Raban and Theod., q. 34." ЧCorn, a Lapide, in loco.1  " De six a six."ЧFr.2  Added from Fr.3  " Howbeit, though Moses appointed these to bless, yet he expresseth not the blessings; by such silence leading his prudent reader to look for them by another, which is Christ.    John i. 17, Acts iii. 26.    For silence in the  holy story often  implieth  great mysteries,  as the Apostle  (in Heb. vii.) teacheth from the narration of Melchisedek, in Gen. xiv."Ч Ainsworth.PROMISES, ETC.     LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.                    207whence it arose that He was not at liberty to proclaim the praises conveyed in the blessings; for, when they ought to have embraced cheerfully the reward promised to them, their ungodliness deprived them of this honour; and nothing remained but that they should submit themselves to the just punishment of their iniquities. Meanwhile, it cannot be doubted but that they were taught by the forms of cursing which we here read what course was to be observed in blessing. For, when God pronounces His condemnation of transgressors, we may hence infer that the hope of blessedness is laid up for His true servants, if any fulfil His law. Besides, in the list of curses here recorded, a synecdoche is to be observed, since no special curse is separately denounced against blasphemers, perjurers, Sabbath-breakers, slanderers, and adulterers. It is plain, therefore, that some kinds of crime which were worthy of the greatest abomination, were selected, in order that the people might learn from hence that transgression against any particular of the Law would not be unpunished; for, by speaking of graven images, God undoubtedly defends His worship from all pollutions ; and thus this curse extends to every breach of the First Table. Moreover, when He threatens to punish secret sins, we may readily infer that, although offenders might be hidden from earthly judges, and escape from their hands a hundred times, still God would be the avenger of His polluted worship. If any had put an idol in a secret place, or had smitten his neighbour secretly, he will not suffer the punishment which cannot be inflicted unless his crime be detected, and he is convicted of the offence ; but, lest impunity should encourage any one to become obdurate in sin, the people are summoned before the heavenly tribunal of God, that they may be retained in the path of duty, not only by the fear of punishment, but for conscience-sake. Whence, again, it is clear that God did not only deliver a political Law, which should merely direct their outward morals, but one which would require true sincerity of heart.16. Cursed be he that setteth light by his father. What follows refers to the Second Table of the Law ; and, first, He pronounces those cursed who should be undutiful (inipii) to208             calvin's harmony op the four   deut. xxvii. 26.their parents; for the word 77J5, kalal,1 which means to despise, as well as to curse, is put in opposition to the honour which, by the Fifth Commandment, is due to our father and mother. Then He mentions such thefts as generally escape the knowledge of men; as also, He only adverts to those acts of fornication which are anxiously concealed on account of their filthiness. To have connexion with a beast, with one's mother-in-law, or step-mother, or sister, is so unnatural and detestable a crime, that it is generally concealed more carefully. But God admonishes us that, whatever modes of concealment the sinner shall adopt, they will profit him nothing, but that, when He shall at length ascend His judgment-seat, their shame shall be discovered. For the same reason he does not curse all murderers, but only such as have shed innocent blood for hire, which nefarious compact cannot easily be discovered so as to be punished by laws.226. Cursed is he that confirmeth not. Although it was God's purpose to summon the consciences of all men before Him, and, in order that they might not only fear human judgments, He designedly threatened them with the punishment of secret sins, yet the conclusion, which is now added, extends the same judgment to all iniquities of whatever kind. Nay, He briefly declares, that whosoever shall not perform what the Law requires, are accursed. From whence Paul rightly infers, that " as many as are of the works of the Law are under the curse." (Gal. iii. 10.) For let the most perfect man come forward, and, although he may have striven ever so diligently to keep the Law, he will have at least offended in some point or other; since the declaration of James must be borne in mind, " Whosoever shall keep the whole law, and yet offend in one point, he is guilty of all;" for he that forbade murder and adultery, forbade theft also. (James ii. 10, 11.) Paul indeed does not quote the very words of Moses, for he thus cites his testimony; " Cursed is every one that continueth not in all things which are written in the book of the law to do them," (Gal. iii. 10;) but1 He assumes, what  is  scarcely tenable, that !"l?pD is derived from 9?p rather than from rbp.Ч W. ' " I)es homines."ЧFr.PROMISES, ETC.LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.209there is no difference in the sense, since all are here condemned without exception, who have not confirmed the Law of God, so as to fulfil to the uttermost whatever it contains. Whence it is clear that, in whatever respect the deficiency betrays itself, it brings men under the curse; and to this the Israelites are commanded to assent, so as to acknowledge that they were all without exception lost, since they were involved in the curse. And now-a-days, also, it is necessary that we should all to a man be struck with the same despair, in order that, embracing the grace of Christ, we should be delivered from this melancholy state of guilt; since He was made accursed for us, that He might redeem us from the curse of the Law.    (Gal. iii. 13.)DEUTERONOMY, CHAPTER XL26.  Behold, I set before you this day a blessing and a curse;27.  A blessing, if ye obey the commandments of the Lord your God, which I command you this day:28.  And a curse, if ye will not obey the commandments of the Lord your God, but turn aside out of the way which I command you this day, to go after other gods, which ye have not known.29.   And it shall come to pass, when the Lord thy God hath brought thee in unto the land whither thou goest to possess it, that thou shalt put the blessing upon mount Gerizim, and the curse upon mount Ebal.30.  Are they not on the other side Jordan, by the way where the sun goeth down, in the land of the Ca-naanites, which dwell in the champaign over against Gilgal, beside the plains of Moreh ?31.  For ye shall pass over Jordan, to go in to possess the land which the Lord your God giveth you, and ye shall possess it, and dwell therein.32.  And ye shall observe to do all the statutes and judgments which I set before you this day.26.  Vide, ego pono coram vobis hodie   benedictionem   et   maledic-tionem:27.  Benedictionem, si obedieritis prsBceptis Jehovs Dei vestri, quse ego prsecipio vobis hodie:28.  Maledictionem  vero,  si  non obedieritis   prseceptis Jehovse Dei vestri, sed recesseritis e via quam ego prsccipio vobis hodie, ut ambu-letis post deos alienos quos non no-vistis.29.  Quumque introduxerit te Je-hova Deus tuus in terrain quam tu ingrederis ut  possideas  earn,  tune dabis benedictionem super montem Garizim,   et   maledictionem  super montem Ebal.30.  Annon sunt trans Jordanem postviam ad occasum solis vergentem in terra Chananaei, qui habitant in planitie e regione Gilgal, juxta cam-pestria Moreh ?31.  Vos enim transituri estis Jordanem, ut pergatis ad possidendam terrain quam Jehova Deus vester dat vobis, et hsereditabitis earn, et habitabitis in ea.32.  Custodite ergo ad faciendum omnia statuta, et judicia, quse ego pono ante faciem vestram hodie.210                 calvin's hakmoky of the foxtr     deut.xi. 29.26. Behold, I set before you this day. He now embraces the two points at once, viz., that they would be blessed if they earnestly apply themselves to the keeping of the Law, and cursed, if they shake off its yoke and revel in their lusts. But, when he says that he here sets before them a blessing and a curse, it is as much as to declare, that he does not merely tell them what is right, but that the reward is prepared if they obey; and if not, that the punishment is also at hand. Thus we see, that the doctrine which he had hitherto delivered is sealed by hope and fear, since they would not lose their labour if they obeyed it, nor be unpunished if they rejected it. But, that they may learn surely to embrace the promises and to fear the threatenings, he repeats what we have met with before,1 that God, who is both a faithful rewarder, and a severe judge, is the Author of the Law; yet at the same time he magnifies his own ministry,2 since it behoved them to depend upon God, and to acquiesce in His commandments, in such a manner as still to submit themselves to His Prophet. For such is men's pride, that they desire to fly above the clouds to listen to God; whilst He would be heard in His servants, by whose mouth He speaks. Moses, therefore, would again enforce upon them this humility, when he states that he enjoins what God has commanded, as if to call himself the organ of the Holy Spirit.29. And it shall come to pass, when the Lord. I'have lately expounded a similar passage, which, although it is subsequent in the order observed by Moses, yet, inasmuch as it sets out the matter more clearly, I have not hesitated for perspicuity's sake to put first. I said that God's intention was, whilst appointing the Israelites to proclaim their own condemnation, to lay them under more solemn obligation to keep the Law. If He had Himself declared His will through the Levites only, they ought indeed to have been seriously affected, and to have listened with reverence both to the blessings and the curses ; but when each of them testifies1 Added in Fr., " Plusieurs fois."1 Added in Fr., " Disant que c'est luj qui commande apres Dieu;" saying that it is he who commands after God.PROMISES, ETC.  LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.                   211with his own mouth what the Levites dictated by God's command, the introduction of this assent, as a solemn ratification,1 was more efficacious in awakening their zeal and attention. A more fitting season, however, for this protest was after they had entered the promised land than as if it had been made in the plain of Moab; for the sight of the land tended to its confirmation, as if they had been brought into court to make a covenant with God.These2 two mountains are situated opposite to each other, in such a manner that the two divisions of the people might easily stand to bless and to curse, so that they might in concert approve of the promises and threats of God.30. Are they not on the other side of Jordan. Although the form of interrogation is common in Hebrew, yet in this place Moses affirms more vehemently than as if he had only stated directly that these mountains were in the land of Canaan; for he wishes to encourage them in the confidence of entering the promised inheritance ; just as he adds immediately afterwards, " Ye shall pass over Jordan/' For, although they had already experienced the miraculous power of God in the conquest of the Amorites, and in +heir occupation of the land of Bashan, yet such was their incredulity, that it was necessary constantly to dissipate their fears, so that they might lay aside all hesitation, and boldly prepare to advance. Finally, he founds an exhortation upon this great goodness of God ; for the actual enjoyment of the land ought to have stimulated them the more in the service of God, because they were made to inherit it for the purpose of keeping the Law.1 The Latin word used by C. is a legal one, ratihabitio, explained by Du Cange by " conjirmatio, occurring more than once in the Digest, and in more modern writers."ЧAdelung's Gloss. Man., in voce.a " Ebal and Gerizim are two closely adjoining- mountains, separated by a narrow valley, about a furlong in breadth, in which stands the town of Naplous, the ancient Shechem. This beautiful valley, covered with olive woods and corn fields, has Mount Gerizim on the south, and Mount Ebal on the north. The two mountains are, according to Buckingham, nearly equal in altitude, neither of them exceeding seven or eight hundred feet above the level of the valley, but much more above the level of the sea, as the whole country here is considerably elevated."ЧIllustrated Comment on Deut. xxvii. 4.212CALVIN S HARMONY OF TUB FOURLEV. XXVI.LEVITICUS, CHAPTER XXVI.3.  If ye walk in my statutes, and keep  my commandments,   and  do them;4.  Then I will give you rain in due season, and the land shall yield her increase, and the trees of the field shall yield their fruit.5.  And your thrashing shall reach unto the vintage, and the vintage shall reach unto the sowing-time; and ye shall eat your bread to the full, and dwell in your land safely.6.  And I will give peace in the land, and ye shall lie down, and none shall make you afraid ; and I will rid evil beasts out of the land, neither shall the  sword go through your land.7.    And   ye   shall   chase   your enemies, and they shall fall before you by the sword.8.  And five of you shall chase an hundred, and an hundred of you shall put ten thousand to flight: and your enemies shall fall before you by the sword.9.  For I will have respect unto you, and make you fruitful, and multiply   you,   and   establish   my covenant with you.10.  And ye shall eat old store, and bring forth the old because of the new.11.  And I will set my tabernacle among you, and my soul shall not abhor you.] 2. And I will walk among you, and will be your God, and ye shall be my people.13. I am the Lord your God, which brought you forth out of the land of Egypt, that ye should not be their bond-men ; and I have broken the bands of your yoke, and made you go upright.3.  Si in decretis meis ambulaveri-tis, et praecepta mea servaveritis, et feceritis ea:4.  Dabo pluvias vestras tempore suo, dabitque terra fructum suum, et arbores agrorum dabunt fructum suum.5.  Apprehendetque vobis tritura vindemiam, et vindemia apprehendet sementem :    comedetisque   panem vestrum ad saturitatem, et habita-bitis confidenter in terra vestra.6.  Dabo namque pacem in terra, et dormietis, neque erit exterrens; auferamque bestias malas e terra, et gladius non transibit per terram vestram.7.  Et persequemini inimicos ves-tros, cadentque coram vobis gladio.8.  Persequentur quinque ex vobis centum, et centum ex vobis decerri millia persequentur: et corruent ini-mici vestri coram vobis gladio.9.  Vertam enim me ad vos, et crescere faciam vos, atque multipli-cabo vos, stabiliamque pactum me-um vobiscum.10.  Et comedetis vetus inveter-atum, et vetus propter novum edu-cetis.11.  Et ponam tabernaculum in medio vestri, neque abominabitur vos anima mea.12.  Ambulabo autem  in medio vestri, eroque vobis in Deum, et vos eritis mihi in populum.13.  Ego Jehova Deus vester qni eduxi vos de terra iEgypti, ne epsetis illis servi: et confregi lora jugi vestri, et incedere feci vos erecta facie.ITS REPETITION.Deut. xxviii. 1. And it shall come 1. Et erit, si audiendo audieris to pass, if thou shalt hearken dili- vocem Jehovse Dei tui, ut custodias gently unto the voice of the Lord   ad faciendum omnia prsecepta ejusPROMISES, ETC.      LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.213thy God, to observe and to do all his commandments which I command thee this day, that the Lord thy God will set thee on high above all nations of the earth:2.  And all these blessings shall come on thee, and overtake thee, if thou shalt hearken unto the voice of the Lord thy God.3.  Blessed shalt thou be in the city, and blessed shalt thou be in the field.4.  Blessed shall be the fruit of thy body, and the fruit of thy ground, and the fruit of thy cattle, the increase of thy kine, and the flocks of thy sheep.5.  Blessed shall be thy basket and thy store.6.    Blessed  shalt thou be when thou comest in, and blessed shalt thou be when thou goest out.7.  The Lord shall cause thine enemies that rise up against thee to be smitten before thy face:   they shall come out against thee one way, and flee before thee seven ways.8.  The Lord shall command the blessing upon   thee in thy storehouses, and in all that thou settest thine hand unto; and he shall bless thee in the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee.9.  The Lord shall establish thee an holy people unto himself, as he hath sworn unto thee, if thou shalt keep the commandments of the Lord thy God, and walk in his ways.10.  And all people of the earth shall see that thou art called by the name of the Lord, and they shall be afraid of thee.11.   And the Lord shall make thee plenteous in goods, in the fruit of thy body, and in the fruit of thy cattle, and in the fruit of thy ground, in the land which the Lord sware unto thy fathers to give thee.12.   The Lord shall open unto thee his good treasure, the heaven to give the rain unto thy land in his season, and to bless all the work of thine hand :   and thou shalt lend unto many nations, and thou shalt not borrow.quse ego prsecipio tibi hodie: tune constituet te Jehova Deus tuus su-periorem omnibus gentibus terrse.2.   Et venient super te omnes benedictiones istse, apprehendentque te, si modo obedieris voci Jehovse Dei tui.3.  Benedictus eris in urbe ipsa, et benedictus eris in agro.4.  Benedictus fructus ventris tui, et fructus   terrse   tuse,  et fructus jumenti tui, feetus bourn tuorum et greges ovium tuarura.5.  Benedictum canistrum tuum, et conspersio tua.6.  Benedictus eris in tuo ingressu, et benedictus eris in egressu tuo.7.  Dabit Jehova hostes tuos qui insurrexerint in te, percussos coram te, per viam unam egredientur ad te, et per septem vias fugient coram te.8.  Mandabit Jehova tecum bene-dictionem in horreis tuis, et in omni ad quod miseris manum tuam:   et benedicet tibi in terra quam Jehova Deus tuus dat tibi.9.    Statuet   te   Jehova   sibi   in populum  sanctum,   quemadmoelum juravit tibi, quum custodieris prл-cepta Jehovse l)ei tui, et ambulaveris in viis ejus.10.  Tune intelligent onmes populi quod nomen Jehovse invocatum sit super te, et timebunt sibi a te.11.  Et abundare faciet te Jehova in bonum fructu ventris tui, et fruc-tu jumenti tui, et fructu terrse tuse, super terram quam juravit Jehova patribus tuis se daturum tibi.12.  Aperiet Jehova tibi thesaur-um suum optimum, coelum, ut det pluviam terrre tuse in tempore suo, et benedicat omni operi manus tuse, et mutuabis gentibus multis, tu vero non accipies mutuum.214                  calvin's haemony of the four     lev. xxvi. 3.13.   And the Lord shall make        13. Ponetque te Jehova in caput, thee the head, and not the tail;    et non in caudam, erisque duntaxat and thou shalt be above only, and    sursum, et non deorsum :  quando thou shalt not be beneath ; if that   obedieris prseceptis Jehovae Dei tui, thou hearken unto the command-   quse ego prsacipio tibi hodie ut cus-ments of the Lord thy God, which I   todias et facias.command thee this day, to observe and to do them :14.  And thou shalt not go aside        14. Neque recesseris ab omnibus from any of the words which 1 com-    verbis quse ego prsecipio vobis hodie, mand thee this  day,  to the right    ad dextram aut ad sinistram, eundo hand or to the left, to go after other   post deos alienos ut colatis eos. gods to serve them.Lev. xxvi. 3. If ye walk in my statutes. We have now to deal with two remarkable passages, in which he professedly treats of the rewards which the servants of God may expect, and of the punishments which await the transgressors. I have indeed already observed, that whatever God promises us on the condition of our walking in His commandments would be ineffectual if He should be extreme in examining our works. Hence it arises that we must renounce all the compacts of the Law, if we desire to obtain favour with God. But since, however defective the works of believers may be, they are nevertheless pleasing to God through the intervention of pardon, hence also the efficacy of the promises depends, viz., when the strict condition of the law is moderated. Whilst, therefore, they reach forward and strive, reward is given to their efforts although imperfect, exactly as if they had fully discharged their duty; for, since their deficiencies are put out of sight by faith, God honours with the title of reward what He gratuitously bestows upon them. Consequently, "to walk in the commandments of God," is not precisely equivalent to performing whatever the Law demands ; but in this expression is included the indulgence with which God regards His children and pardons their faults. The promise, therefore, is not without fruit as respects believers, whilst they endeavour to consecrate themselves to God, although they are still far from perfection ; according to the teaching of the Prophet, " I will spare them as a man spareth his own son that serveth him," (Mai. iii. 17;) as much as to say, that their obedience would not be acceptable to Him because it was deserving, but because HePROMISES, ETC.  LAST BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH.        215visits it with His paternal favour. Whence it appears how foolish is the pride of those who imagine that they make God their debtor, as if according to His agreement.The restriction of the recompense, which is here mentioned, to this earthly and transitory life, is a part of the elementary instruction of the Law ; for, just as the spiritual grace of God was represented to the ancient people by shadows and images, so also the same principle applied also both to rewards and punishments. Reconciliation with God was represented to them by the blood of cattle; there were various forms of expiation, but all outward and visible, because their substance had not yet appeared in Christ. For the same reason, therefore, because so clear and familiar an acquaintance with eternal life, and the final resurrection, had not yet been attained by the Fathers, as now shines forth in the Gospel, God for the most part shewed forth by external proofs that He was favourably disposed to His people or offended with them. Because now-a-days God does not openly take vengeance on sins as of ol